A comparative grammar of Sanskrit, Greek and Latin

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A COMPABATIVE GRAMMAR

OP

SANSKRIT. GREEK, AND LATIN.

BY

WILLIAM HUGH FERRAE, M.A.,

FELLOW AND TTJXOE OF TEINITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN,

IN TWO VOLUMES,

VOL. I.

LONDON:
LONGMANS, GEEEN, EEADER, AND DYER.

DUBLIN : WILLIAM M^GEE, 18, NASSAU-STREET.
1869.

4

DUBLIN :
BY M. H. GILL.

PREFACE.

Most of those writers on Philology to whose works I
am indebted are mentioned either in the text or notes
of this book, and I have here only to express my
especial obligations to the writings of Bopp, Schleicher,
Corssen, Curtius, and Bucheler, and to several valu-
able essays in Kuhn's Zeitschrift by Ebel, Grassmann,
Dietrich, Walter, and others.

I have also to thank Dr. C. Lottner, Professor of
Sanskrit in the University of Dublin, for helping me
in the revision of the proof-sheets, and for many
valuable suggestions supplied during the progress of
the work.

The abbreviations occurring in the text do not
require much explanation, and the following only re-
quire to be noticed : —

A. S., . . Anglo-Saxon.

Ch. SI., . . Church-Slavonic.

E,, .... English.

Fr., .... French.

G., .... German.

0. H. G., . Old High German.

Goth., . . . Gothic.

Gr., .
Ir., .
It., .
I.E.,
Kel.,
L.,. .
0. L.,

Greek.

Irish.

Italian.

Indo-European.

Keltic.

Latin.

Old Latin.

THK PREFACE.

lith., .
0. N., . .
0., . . .

0. 0., .
0. P., .
0. S., .
Skr., . .

Lithuanian.
Old Norse.
Oscan.
Old Oscan.
Old Prussian.
Old Saxon.
Sanskrit.

Sp., .

u., . .

O.TJ.,
Wall.,
W., .
Z., . .

Spanish.

Umbrian.

Old Umbrian.

Wallachian.

Welsh.

Zend.

Sanskrit and Zend nouns are generally given in
their crude forms, except when the case-ending is
separated by a hyphen from the stem, or when the
sign of equality is added, as in Skr. as'vas = L. equus.
Curtius Essay " Zur Chronologic der Indo-German-
ischen Sprachforschung," appears in the fifth volume,
" der Abhandlungen der Pliilologisch-historischen
Classe der Konigl. Sachsischen Gesellschaft der Wis-
senchaften."

I refer to the second series of Max Miiller's Lec-
tures on the Science of Language, as Max Miiller,
Vol. II. K. Z. stands for Kuhn's " Zeitschrift fiir ver-
gleichende Sprachforschung aufdem Gebiete desDeut-
schen, Griechischen und Lateinischen."

I have been delayed in the publication of this
book for more than a year through a severe attack of
illness.

The Second Volume of this Work will, I hope, be
ready for publication in January, 1872.

WILLIAM HUGH FERRAR.

33, Trinitt Collkoe, Dublin,
September 1, 1869.

CONTENTS

Page.

Chapter I. The General Alphabet, 1

Chapter II. The Indo-European Language, 19

Chapter III. Grimm's Law, 26

Chapter IV. The Sanskrit Alphabet, 39

Chapter V. The Greek Alphabet, 65

Chapter VI. The Latin Alphabet, 102

Chapter VII. Eoots and Stems, 178

Chapter VIII. Substantives, 199

Chapter IX. Adjectives, 299

Chaptkr X. Numerals, 306

Chapter XI. Pronouns, , 315

Appendix. The Cerebrals, 335

Addenda et Corrigenda.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

CHAPTER I.

The General Alphabet.*

§. 1. The physiology of the human voice is the true basis upon
which all inquiries into the origin of language and the mu-
tual connexion of lano:uao:es should be built.

§. 2. All that the human ear is sensible of may be divided
into noises and sounds. Examples of the former are the howl-
ing of the wind, and the splashing of water. Sounds, on the
other hand, are produced by musical instruments or the human
voice. Noises are caused by rapidly changing and irregular
impulses communicated to the air ; sounds, by its periodic vi-
brations. The human voice, which is only a stream of air,
emitted from the lungs, becomes sound by the vibration of
the vocal chords, which thus put the air passing through them
into a state of vibration.

§. 3. An exact description of the vocal organs is not part
of my present plan. For such a description I refer the reader

* For further information on this subject the following works may be
consulted : — " Essentials of Phonetics," by Ellis ; Max Miiller's " Survey of
Languages," also his "Lectures on the Science of Language," Second
Series ; Lepsius' " Standard Alphabet ;" " Grundzlige der Physiologic
und Systematik der Sprachlaute," by Briicke ; "die Lehre von den To-
nempfindungen," by Helniholtz ; also various articles, by Ebel and others,

ill Kuhn's Zeitschrift.

B

2 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

to any good book on anatomy ; merely adding here, that the
vocal organs may be said to consist of the lungs, which by
being dilated or compressed act like a pair of bellows, the
icindpipe, the lai^nx, and the upper cavities of the pharynx,
mouth, and nose. The larynx, the true organ of voice, is
placed at the upper part of the windpipe. It is narrow and
cylindrical below, but broad above, where it presents the form
of a triangular box. Its cavity is traversed by an elastic
membrane, which is divided into two parts, called the vocal
chords, by a narrow fissure called the rima glottidis. WTien
sound is produced, the vocal chords almost touch, and their
edges at the same time vibrate, rapidly for high, and slowly
for low notes. We see, then, that the vocal organs form a
wind instrument, in which the vibrating apparatus consists of
the vocal chords.

§. 4. In the impression made by a sound on the ear three
things can be distinguished — loudness, pitch, and quality. The
loudness depends on the amplitude of the oscillations of the
vibrating body. The pitch depends on the duration of these
oscillations. Now, notes of the same loudness and the same
pitch can be produced by different musical instruments, and
also by the human voice. The same note, however, of the
violin differs from that of the trumpet, and that from the same
note of the voice, and so on. This difference had already
been supposed to depend solely on the form of the vibrations
of the air, as it could not depend on either their amplitude or
duration. This has now been proved directly by Helmholtz.
The quality, therefore, is due solely to the form of the vibra-
tions of the air.

§. 5. Thk Elements of Language.

The phonetic elements (orotxsi'a) are threefold — vowels
(0(i>v^£vra), breathings, and consonants (avfxtpwva). The con-
sonants are divided, according to their duration, into mutes and

COMPARATIVE GRAJIMAR. 3

semivowels, these latter including liquids (vypa), nasals, and
sibilants (flatus) ; according to their hardness, into surds (sharp,
stosslaute, tenues, xpiXa, Skr. aghosha, vivaras'vasaghosha), and
sonants (blunt, drucklaute, mediae, niaa, Skr. goshavant, sam-
vS.ranadaghosha) ; and according to their aspiration into aspi-
rated (Bacrea, Skr. mahaprana) and unaspirated (Skr. alpapra-
na). In Sanskrit the term ushman is also applied to the sibi-
lants and h, spars'a to the mutes and nasals, and antahsthd to
y, r, I, V, as intermediate between the former and the latter.

The mediae differ from the tenues in this, that in the former
the glottis is somewhat narrowed to enable it to sound.

The mediae were so called because they were pronounced
by the Alexandrian grammarians with more aspiration than
the tenues, and with less than the aspirates. To us, however,
and most probably to the Greeks of the classical period, g is as
little aspirated as k.

The term consonant means " sounding along with," and, as
Ellis writes, " is said to be given to these letters because they
have no sound of their own, but sound* with vowels." If,
however, we consider s, f, r, &c., to be consonants, all conso-
nants do not require the aid of a vowel to enable us to pro-
nounce them ; for we can pronounce the nasals, liquids, and
sibilants without the help of any vowel. The Sanskrit name
for a consonant is vyang'ana (Sav. 5 : 25), from vyang\ to make
clear.

The Arabic grammarians call a vowel, motion, and a con-
sonant, a harrier, because in forming vowels the voice fs not
interrupted, but only modified by the position of the tongue
and lips, whereas in forming consonants the voice is stopped
at certain fixed positions. Briicke, on the other hand, con-
siders the vowel-signs to be properly marks of rest, and
the consonantal signs to be marks of motion, because the

* Ellis remarks (p. 57), that this definition reads very like a bull.

B 2

4 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

latter signifies both the closing of the barrier and the opening
of it.

The consonantal signs were originally marks for syllables,
as the Devan§,gari and Semitic alphabets prove.

§. 6. The Vowels.

Vowels are composed of vocalized breath. The difference
between the various vowels is due to the form of the vibra-
tions of the air emitted from the lungs, which vibrations de-
pend upon the form of the buccal tubes.*

The three primary vowels are A, 7, and U, pronounced as
in German or Italian.

In forming A the mouth assumes a position gradually wi-
dening itself from the guttural point, like a funnel. The lips
are in this position wide, and the tongue lies flat in the
mouth.

U is formed by rounding the lips, so as to leave the open-
ing between them as narrow as possible, and by drawing down
the tongue, so that the cavity of the mouth is enlarged as
much as possible. The mouth in this position is like a bottle
without a neck.

/ is formed by narrowing the lips and raising the tongue
towards the hard palate. Thus a bottle with a narrow neck
is formed, the body of which is in the throat, while the neck
lies between the hard palate and the upper surface of the
tongue. The length of this neck, according to Helmholtz, is
six centimetres.

All the other vowels are formed between these three pri-

• " In der That sind die Vocale der menschlichcn Stimme Tone mem-
branoser Zungen, namllch der Stimmebander, deren Ansatzrohr, namlich
die ilundbohle, verschiedene Weite, Lange, und Stimmung erhaltcn kann,
so dass dadurch bald dieser, bald jener Theilton des Klangcs verstarkt
wird." Helmholtz, p. 16.S.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 5

mary ones. The following tabular view of them is that given
by Briicke : —

a
a« a"

e ^ o^ 0

i i" v} u

In forming o we open the lips wider and elevate the
tongue more than in forming u In proceeding from a to i we
gradually change the buccal tubes from the a to the i posi-
tion ; and similarly in proceeding from a to u. In forming v>
we give the lips the w, and the tongue the i position ; while
in forming i" the lips take the i, and the tongue the u position.
In w' the length of the canal, which was six centimetres in i,
is now eight (Helmholtz, p. 170).

a is long in E./arm, calm, and short in E. Sam.

i is long in E. wheel, ravine, and short in E. knit.

u is long in Y,. flute, fool, and short in E. full.

a* is the German a, the French &. It is short in the
Cockney pronunciation of man, fat.

a" is long in E. nought, water, and short in E. hot, not.

e* is the German e in echt, the French h.

a*^ occurs in Fr. veuve, sceur, peur.

o" is heard in the Fr. encore.

e is long in G. ewig, E. hay, and short in G. werden.

e° is a common sound in the "VVallachian language. Briicke
says that it is heard in G. zwolf.

0^ is the G. 6 in Konig, Fr. peu.

0 is long in E. ago, and short in G. sonne.

i" is heard in G. Myrte and Fhysik. It is the Slavonic
hard i. This sound is of Tataric origin, and traces of it are
still found in the Dravidic languages of Southern India.

w* is the G. ii, long in Thilr, and short in diirr. It is

li COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

the Fr. u in sur and sw\ It is also the Dutch mm and the
Scotch ui.

Lepsius inserts another vowel sound between a*" and a",
which, he says, is heard in the E. but, son.

§. 7. The Original Vowel.

In addition to the vowels noticed in the last section, we
have another vowel, called variously, the indejimte, or neutral,
or original vowel, Urlaut, Urvocal. This is a sound that exists
in all languages, and from it, according to Ellis, all the other
vowels are derived. Willis says that it ' seems to be the na-
tural vowel of the reed.' All unaccented vowels in our Euro-
pean languages have a tendency to return to this sound ; e. g.
E. beggar, nation, Paddington (for -town), G.lieben, Fr. tenir.
This vowel sound is formed by leaving the tongue in its most
natural position, opening the mouth easily, and emitting vocal
breath. Lepsius says that this sound comes among the clear
sounding vowels next to a"^, but that it is capable of various
shades, sometimes approaching a, sometimes e, i, o, u, being
distinguished from all these by the absence of that clear reso-
nance, which is lost by either partially closing or shutting the
mouth. The French e muet and the Welsh y approach this
soimd very nearly. Briicke considers that Lepsius is wrong
in stating, that this vowel is inherent in all soft fricatives and
nasal explosives,* for the indistinct vowel sound here is
merely the tone of the voice. Moreover, the only actual ex-
amples of the amalgamation of a vowel and consonant are uw
and iy.

Max Miiller is wrong in supposing that we hear this sound
in E. el-m, marsh ; for, in proceeding from / to m, or r to sh,
we do not require to interpose any vowel.

* These terms will be explained farther on.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 7

This indistinct vowel, when combined with r and l^ forms
the two Sanskrit vowels r and I. This Sanskrit vowel r differs
from E. r, as heard in lier, steward, in this, that it is pronounced
at the cerebral,* whereas the E. y is pronounced at the gut-
tural point of the mouth.

§. 8. The Nasal Vowels.

The nasalization of the vowels is produced by allowing the
air to vibrate in the nasal cavities as well as in the mouth.
The air need not pass through the nose, for by closing the
nose we may increase the nasal twang.

Nasalization is an alteration solely within the vowel itself,
no consonantal element being brought into play. This, as
Lepsius points out (" Standard Alphabet," p. 9), was rightly
understood by the Indian grammarians, who express the nasal-
ization by a vowel-like sign, viz., a dot over the letter. It is
theoretically possible to give all the vowels the nasal twang,
but few receive it. Miklosich remarks that in all the languages
known to him, only a, a^, o^ and o were nasalized. Ellis says
that the Portuguese have both a nasal i and a nasal urvocal.

§. 9. Diphthongs.

When two vowels follow each other so rapidly as to melt
into one sound, we obtain a diphthong. Now, we know that
a is formed at a point in the mouth before i and w, and there-
fore it alone of the three primary vowels can form a true
diphthongal base. Moreover, as e and o are also formed in
the mouth farther back than i and m, they may serve as bases.
We can make a both long and short. We have, therefore,
eight proper diphthongs, which are moreover capable of re-
ceiving different shades of pronunciation.

* These terms will be explained further ou.

» COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

We see at once that we cannot form any proper diph-
thongs with i and u as bases ; for if we try to pronounce ia and
ua very rapidly we do not form diphthongs, but merely the
syllables ya and tea. In Welsh we find the improper diph-
thongs ia and ua, and in French we find improper u diph-
thongs fiequently as in ouiy which is not pronounced as we in
Eno^Hsh.

§. 10. The Breathings.

These are classed by some writers among the consonants,
as by Lepslus, who gives them the name Faucal,* and classifies
them thus : —

Explosive fortis, Arahic t, ain.

Explosive lenis, Arabic Ilamzeh, Greek Spiritus Lenis.

Fricative fortes, Arabic ^, Ma, and English h, as in hand^
which is not as strong an aspiration as hh.

There can be no nasal breathing, for the canal of the nose
is closed during the formation of a Faucal sound.

Ellis and others separate the breathings from the conso-
nants, and form them into a distinct class.

The pure aspirate, however, as I believe, does not belong
to any special organ, though it appears to have some con-
nexion with the gutturals. Accordingly, while we find h re-
presenting frequently an original gh, we sometimes find it de-
veloped from an original dh and hh.

§. 11. The CossoNANTS.f

These are produced under the following conditions : —
A. No air is allowed to pass into the nasal cavities, and
the canal of the mouth is closed at some definite point. Thus
arc formed the Explosive sounds, both tenues and medicB.

' See Hiiicke in K. Z. vol. xi., p. 2Go.

t In this section I have foUowcd Briickc very closely.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 9

B. The air is still prevented entering the nasal cavities ;
but, in place of closing the canal of the mouth at any point, a
narrow passage is left, so that the air comes forth with a sound
of friction. Thus are formed the Fricatives^ including h, y, tj
and the Sibilants. The i^sounds are fricatives ; but they
differ from the other letters of this class in this, that the
passage for the emission of the air does not lie in the centre
of the canal of the mouth, but on each side, between the edges
of the tongue and the grinders.

C. The nasal cavities are still closed, but some portion of
the canal of the mouth is made to vibrate, thus causing the
vibration of the air passing out. Thus arise the jR-sounds.

D. The mouth is closed, and the nasal cavities are open.
Thus we have the Resonants, or Nasals. The nasals and
vowels are the sounds easiest to be heard from a distance.
Thus words such as Mamma, mine, no, can be heard very far
away.

§. 12. The four classes are divided again under three
heads, according to those parts of the canal of the mouth'that
approach each other.

I. The under lip may approach the upper lip or the upper
teeth. These sounds are the Labials. They are the most
constant sounds in all languages.

II. The fore part of the tongue may approach the teeth
or the palate. These sounds are the Dentals and Cerebrals.
Biihler has demonstrated that the existence of the cerebrals in
Sanskrit is not due to Dravidian influences, but that they
were independently developed in that language. The Arabic
Unguals differ from the Sanskrit cerebrals solely in this, that
in the latter the tongue is more contracted than in the former.
The name cerebral is not quite correct, but its use has become
so general that it is better to retain it. The Sanskrit name
for these letters is murddhanya, from murddhan, which means
the highest point in the roof of the palate, and not the brain.

10 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

It is absurd to say that any letter is pronounced in the brain
(cerebrum).

Ill, The middle or hinder part of the tongue may ap-
proach the palate. Thus we have the Palatals and Gvtturals
(Skr. g'ihvamtlliya). The term guttural* is not exactly cor-
rect, for these letters are not produced in the guttur, but by
contact between the tongue and the soft palate. By pushing
this point of contact forwards to the hard palate, we get the
palatals. These palatal sounds have a tendency to assume a
shade of y, which frequently becomes independent, and deve-
lopes itself into a full y. This is easily accounted for by the
fact that in the palatals the tongue is raised very nearly into
the y-position. Thus we can explain the fact that original
gutturals often become sibilants ; for the guttural k became
the palatal ; this again became ky, this ty, this ts, and some-
times s. For example, the L. cantus became E. chant (pala-
tal tenuis), and Fr. chant (palatal sibilant) ; L. cawi's, Fr.
chien; L. quattwr, Skr. kfatvdr ; L. que, Skr. k'a; Gr. koTXov,
L. ccelunif It. cielo ; L. caseus, E. cheese; L. causa, Fr.
chose.

This tendency of the palatals to develope y after them-
selves also explains how an original guttural sometimes
becomes a dental; thus rig has been developed from kiq
the groundform of which was kvas, whence Skr. /»-s, Goth.
hvas, L. quis; similarly rlaaaptg is derived from an original
kvatvdras, whence come L. quatuor, Skr. k'atvdr, Lith. ketur\
&c.

" Such transitions," writes Lepsius ("Stand.Alph.,"p. 72),
" in the history of languages never take place suddenly, but
always gradually. It is a very common phenomenon that the
explosive letters first produce the corresponding fricative
sounds behind them, and afterwards pass entirely into them,

* Consult a paper by Lepsius in K. Z. vol. xi., p. 442.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 11

and that at the same time the gutturals advance constantly
towards the anterior part of the mouth."

§. 13. The Labials.

A. The Explosives.

The tenuis p (p^) is formed by simple contact of the lips :
it is a surd consonant, for the glottis is wide open. The me-
dia b (6*) is formed similarly, except that now the glottis is
narrowed. In modem Greek, where j3 is pronounced as v,
the sound b is expressed by fxir, where /x merely tells us that
the glottis is now contracted ; similarly vt is used to express
the sound d. Thus, barber would be written /xirapfiTrtpi and
dreadful vrpiircpovX, for vTptvT<pov\.

We can form a second p (p^) by bringing the upper lip
and lower teeth together.

B. The Fricatives.

F is formed by bringing the under lip towards the upper
teeth (/-) ; or by bringing the lips towards each other (f).
V"is related to /, exactly as b is to p. F^ is the /in life; u*
is the V in live. Briicke says that we find v^ in G. quelle, and
v^ in G. wie ; but Ellis separates the sounds of the G. w and
E. vfrom each other. The former he writes, 'v, and thus de-
scribes its formation — " the lips are brought into the position
for w, and the contact at the edge is slackened, while the
inner surfaces «re brought close together and flattened." The
E. w, he says, arose from a cross between this 'v and the
Fr. u. No other European language possesses the E. w, and
hence it has been supposed by sojne that this w is properly
the vowel u. But this is wrong ; for we can make this sound
surd in icheel, which ; and the fact that the words looo and wood
are monosyllabic proves that lo is a true consonant.

12 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

C. The R-sound.

If we place the lips in the p^ position and then let them
vibrate, we form two soimds, the one surd, and the other so-
nant, which are related to each other as j) to 6. We find this
labial r in the Kretan rpi for tFe = Skr. tvdm, in dtBpoiKivg for
BedfoiKwg, unless Bi^poKtvg, i. e. SeSo/okwc? be the correct read-
ing, in Kr. piya (o-twTra) for apiya from aFiya, and perhaps in
oTptyicTog (a/3poxoc) from riyyto, if Goth, thvaha be from same
root. This r only appears in Greek in the Kretan dialect. In
the following Latin words r has perhaps been developed out
of an original v : — L. eras = Skr. s'vas, L. creta beside Skr. s'veta
(white), L. cresco beside Skr. s'vi (to increase). This inter-
change of r and v occurs also in some German dialects (see K.
Z., vol. XV., p. 320).

D. T7ie Resonants.

If we close the lips as in i', and allow the air to vibrate in
the nasal cavities, we form m^. ]\P is not used; The nasals
are closely connected with the mediae — m with b, n with d, and
n with g. Hence we find L. fiamma for jidnma from Jiagma ;
Sp. Inez for Agnes, L. hibernus beside \Hpepiv6g ; L. puber
beside Skr. ptimdns. In northern climates the nasals are fre-
quently omitted ; as in Ir. coic (quinque), cet (centum), O. N.
geek for g&nck.

§. 14. The Dentals and Cerebrals.
A. The Explosives.

By pressing the fore part of the tongue against the palate
and teeth we form a <-sound, of which there are four kinds.

T'. Alveolar. The sides of tongue touch the upper grinders,
and the point of tongue lies on upper internal gums, thus
forming an air-tight receptacle.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 13

T''. Cerebral. The tongue is now convex, and its lower side
touches the palate. This t has been called lingual ; but I pre-
fer the term cerebral, because the other term is applied in
Arabic to a different class of letters, and moreover it does not
suffice" to distinguish this sound, as all <s are pronounced by-
means of the tongue.

T^. Dorsal. The tongue is still convex, but its upper side
now touches the palate, and its tip rests on lower teeth.

T^. Dental. The tongue now merely touches the teeth.

We have four ds related to these four <s as b is to p.

B. The Fricatives.

We have four 5S related to the four <s, as / is to p, and
four ^^s related to the four ss as v is to /.

aS' is the Arabic Sad^ and is nearly the same as the s in E.
sin, seal.

S'^ is a more rushing sound than s^.

S^ is the sharp hissing 5 in E. sharp, Fr. chose.

S^ is the E. th in thin, the Mod. Gr. 0. This Ohas become
/ in Russian : this change is easily explained, for the edge of
the upper teeth, which in d lies between point of tongue and
under lip, now merely has to approach the latter.*

Z^ is the Arabic za, and is nearly the same as z in E.
breeze.

Z^ is found in E, pleasure, giraffe, Fr. jeune, according to
Lepsius.

Z^'is E. th in other. Mod. Gr. ^. In English, when z^ is
initial, we generally say d*z* ; and when it is final, z'^s* instead
of it ; thus, for breathe we say breaz*s*y and not breaz*. In this
respect the Spanish pronunciation of ^^ differs from ours ; for
final z^ in Spanish is always pronounced purely. Neither 5'' nor
z* exists in Sanskrit.

* Consult a paper by G. Michaelis, in K. Z., vol xiii., p. 223.

14 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

If in the four ^positions we allow an opening to be left at
each side of the tongue between its edges and the grinders,
we form from the four ts four Xs, and from the four ds four ^s.

L' is the common I'm K. leave.

L' is the Vedic I

IJ occurs in I mouille.

\J is used by those who lisp.

L* often becomes vocal in English, as in apple, double,
which Ellis writes ap'l, &c. The surd X' is unknown in Eng-
lish, but is very common in Welsh, where it is written II,
as in Llangollen. This surd X^ takes the place of le in con-
versational French, in such words as able, possible, which Eng-
lishmen pronounce as ab'l, &c. This II is Ellis' whispered I.
In his terminology, surd consonants are xoldspered, and sonant,
spoken or voiced. Whisper differs from voice solely in this,
that in whispering there is no vibration of the vocal chords,
whereas in voice there is.

C. The R'sound.

The alveolar r, when sonant, is our common r. When
surd, it occurs in Welsh, and in French as in tendre. This
surd r is scarcely to be distinguished from s, the only diffe-
rence being a small ripple of the whisper. This accounts for
the fact that s and r frequently interchange (Ellis, p. 50).

The Sanskrit grammarians treat r as a cerebral, and there-
fore deduce it from d^ ; but they are wrong, for it is impos-
sible to make the tongue vibrate from the cerebral position.

As they did not distinguish the alveolar position, they had
to treat r as either a dental or a cerebral ; and they chose the
latter, probably on account of the point of the tongue being
directed upwards (Briicke, p. 42).

D. The Resonants.
We have four ns, corresponding to the four </s, exactly as
in to b. N^ is contained in n mouille.

comparative grammar. 15

§. 15. The Gutturals and Palatals.
A. The Explosives.

In forming k the middle or hinder part of the tongue
touches the middle or hinder part of the palate, while in form-
ing t the fore part of the tongue touches the fore part of the
palate. Hence the articulation of t begins where that of ^
ends ; yet in the cerebral t we may go backwards across the
k limit, and still pronounce a t. This, however, cannot be
done in the case of the dorsal t. Two ks may be formed — one
on the hard palate {k^ palatals), and one on the soft palate
(A^ velare).

The It. ch, in chiesa, chiaro, is formed at the front limit of
the hard palate ; the Arabic Caf at the hinder limit, and the
G. k, in wickeln between these two. The k'^ in G. stock is
formed at front limit of soft palate. The Arabic Kaf is formed
farther back than any other k sound.

G^ and g"^ are related to k^ and k'^, as b is to p. G^ is the
It. gh before i ; the G. g in geben is formed a little farther back
than It. g, but it is still palatal.

B. The Fricatives.

In these the stream of air strikes the palate, as in the s
sounds it struck the teeth. They are related to the k sounds
as / is to p.

The palatal flatus, ;^\ is the G. ch after e and ^, as in Recht,
ich, and the Mod. Gr. ^ before i as in x^'^P- The initial sound
of the E. hew, human very nearly approaches this ^^ This
is the whispered form of the ?/ in E. yea, year.

The guttural flatus is the G. ch, after a, o, u, the Mod. Gr.
X before a, o, v, w.

Another x sound, x^ can be formed so far back that no k
sound corresponds to it. This, is the Swiss ch in ach, and is
common in Arabic.

16 ' COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

There are three ys, related to the three \s exactly as w is
to/.

y occurs in E. yea; and?/^ is the G. g in Tage, Luge, and
the Mod. Gr. y before a, o, to.

C. The R-sound.

If we make the uvula vibrate, we form the uvular r. This
is distinguished from the dental r by the fact, that in the latter
it is the tip of the tongue that vibrates. The I and r sounds
are commonly called Trills. They differ in this, that in the
rs the stream of air is periodically intei'rupted, but in the Is
there are no interruptions, but merely oscillations produced
in the emitted air.

D. The Resonants.

We form two ns (v', v^), related to g^ and g^ as m is to h.
V* occurs in G. Bengel; v-in G.Wange.

The French n in un, en, is now merely a sign of the na-
salization of the preceding vowel, and is therefore no conso-
nant at all. From a comparison, however, with Latin and
Italian, we see that it has been developed out of an n sound
which was neither v' nor v^, but v'.

§ 16. The Aspirates.

These are classed by some writers among the fricatives, by
others among the explosives. They are, according to Lep-
sius, " those explosive sounds which are pronounced with a
simple but audible breath." Three different methods of pro-
nouncing the tenues aspirates have been proposed: — (1), the
tenuis and spiritus asper may be pronounced separately ;
(2), the spiritus asper may be phanged into the corresponding
flatus, and then ph, th, kh, become />/, ts and kch, respectively ;

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 17

(3), the tenuis and the spiritus asper may melt into one sound.
The first of these methods is said to prevail at present among
the Brahmans ; it is compared to the pronunciation oi ph, th,
and kh, in the English words haphazard, anthill, inkhom ; but
this is incorrect — for in these words the tenuis and the spiritus
asper belong to different syllables, whereas in Sanskrit they
belong always to the same syllable.

The medice are aspirated by allowing the spiritus lenis to
be heard immediately after the explosion. In Sanskrit the
mediae aspiratse were always pronounced as one sound ; for
we find words beginning with the following combinations,
ghn, dhm, ghr, &c.

We must carefully remember that the Sanskrit h does not
form part of the aspirated tenuis ; for it is a sonant letter, and
therefore cannot form part of the aspirated tenuis, which is
surd.

The original aspirates in process of time lost their true
character, and gradually changed into other sounds. Thus, in
Greek, they became the corresponding fricatives ; e. g. ■^,
which was originally a tenuis aspirata, became the fricatives,
y^ and ^.

§. 17. Concrete Consonants.

These are those sounds which are formed by the vocal
organs being placed at the same time in two different conso-
nantal positions. The G. sch and the Fr. j are concrete con-
sonants. These concrete sounds are perfectly distinct from
groups of consonants, such as x, xp, which Briicke calls com-
positce. The G. sch is equivalent to [s'x^] • ^^ ^"^^^ place the
vocal organs in the ;;^2-position, and then bend the tongue up-
wards into the s^-position. The It. c in ciceri is equivalent to
V^ [s}yf\, while the E. ch in church is more nearly t^ [s^ ^^J.
The Fr. j in jamais is related to the G. sch as his to p. It is
therefore [^^y]- The E.^in joy is similarly related to the

C

18 COJIPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

It. c in ciceri. It is therefore c?' [s' 3/^]. Max Miiller differs
from these views of Briicke ; he says that ch in church does
not consist of two consonants, butmerely ofhalf < and half sA,
and therefore that it is merely equivalent to one whole con-
sonant.

( 19 )

CHAPTER II.

The Indo-European Language.

§. 18. This is the name given to that language from which the
whole family of the Indo-European languages are derived, and
which therefore stand to it in the same relation as the Romance
languages do to the Latin. As we could approximate to
the roots and grammatical forms of the Latin language, even
if we had no monuments of it, from a comparison of the roots
and grammatical forms at present existing in the Romance
languages, so analogously we may approximate to the roots
and forms of the language of the Indo-Europeans from a com-
parison of the languages spoken by their descendants. For
example, if we take the case of the numerals, we see at once
that the names for the first ten numbers in any Romance lan-
guage are not derived from those in any other, but from the
Latin. The Sp. ocho. Port, oito, It. oi^o, Wall, optu^ Fr. huit^ are
all formed independently of each other from the L. octo ; and
if the L. octo did not exist, we could infer its existence from
a comparison of these forms with each other. Similarly the
Skr. k'atvdras, Gr. riaaapeg, JEoX. iriaavpfg, L. quatuor, Umb.
petur, It. ceathair (m.), ceteora (/.), Welsh pedwar (m.), pedair
{/.), Goth. Jldmr, Lith. keturi, &c., are all independent of
each other, but they all presuppose an Indo-European form
kvatvdras, which is nearly the same as the L. quatuor.

§. 19. The sounds that in all probability existed in this
language, immediately before the separation of the Asiatic
branch from the European, are given in the following table : —

c2

20

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

MOTES.

SEMIVOWELS.

VOWELS.

unasp.

asp.

Spirants.

Nasals.

JR-sound.

snrd. son.

son.

surd. son.

son.

son.

Gutt.

k g

9h

n

a, a

Pal.

y

«, *

Cer.

(rO?

Dent.

i d

dh

S

n

rl

Lab.

P b

bh

V

m

u,u.

At an older period the I. E. possessed probably no aspi-
rates, and only the single vowel a, i and u being subsequently
developed out of this a on the one side, and from the vocali-
zation of y and v on the other.

The representation of an original a by a, e, and o distin-
guishes the European branch of the Indo-European from the
Asiatic ; thus we have, in the following cases, a in Sanskrit
and Zend, and e or i in Greek, Latin, &c. ; Skr. and Z. das'arif
Gr. ScKo, L. decern, 0. H. G. zehan ; Skr. sad, Z. had, Gr. ?Soe>
L. sedeo, Goth, sita; Skr. madhya, Z. maidhya, Gr. fiiaog,
L. mediiLS, Goth, midjis. This change of a into e and then into i
occurred in very early times, while the change into o and then
into u is much later. This change is beheved by Curtius* to
have arisen at a time when the North-European branches had
separated from the Southern ones ; for the Greek and Latin
frequently agree in representing an original a by o, in cases
where the Gothic, Lithuanian, &c., preserve the a, or change
it to i ; as in

L. gnosco, O. H. G. kndu.
L. oris, Goth, avistr.

L. octo, Goth, ahtau.

L. domus, A. S. timber, O. H. G. zimhar.

In this respect the Keltic languages are more akin to the
Greek and Latin than to the languages of Northern Europe.
When e and o had been developed out of a, the greater num-

• Curtius, "Grundziige," p. 85.

Gr. •ytyvtiaKW,
Gr. otq,

Gr. OKTW,

Gr. ^ofxoq.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 21

ber of the Greek dialects made no further change ; but the
uEolic dialect and the Italic languages frequently change this
e and o into i and u.

§. 20. The Guttural n is an uncommon sound, and only
occurs before gutturals. M is an older sound than n : thus,
Skr. damam (ace. sing.) andL. domum are older than Gr. ^ofxov,
and L. decern than Skr. das'an. The change of m into n is
very common: thus G. boden comes from 0. H. G. bodam,
Ft. rien from L, re7n, It. con from L. cum, Fr. nappe from
L. mappa, Wall, furnice from L. formica.

The converse of this change seldom occurs ; but, as it is
sometimes found in modern languages, as in E. ransom from
Fr. rangon, we may from analogy infer that a similar inter-
change between m and n existed in the Indo-European.

§. 21. From the number of cases in which Hn Sanskrit
corresponds to I in the European languages, we infer that I, as
well as r, existed, in the Indo-European, although the r-sound
vastly predominated. Thus we have,

Skr. kalya, Gr. koXoq, Goth, hails, E. whole.
Skr. spAa^, Gr. (T<^a\\<i), L. fallo, O.H.G.fallan.
Skr. mala, Gr. fXiXag, L. malus, Goth. mail.
Skr. lis', Gr. okiyoq, Goth, leihts.
Skr. lu, Gr. Xuw, L. reluo, Goth, laus (loose).
Skr. lubh, Gr. XiirTOfiat, L. lubet, Goth. Hubs.
Skr. lota (loot), Gr, Xeia, L. lucrum, Goth. laun.
Skr. fes/i, Gr. Xaw, L. lascivus, Goth, lustus (lust).
On the other hand, there are many roots in which the
European languages present I where the Sanskrit has r ; thus,

Skr. urmi (a wave), Gr. iXuw, L. volvo, Goth, valvjan.
Skr. par, Gr. nXyjprig, L. plenus, Goth, fulls.
Skr. ruk', Gr. XevKog, L. Zwceo, Goth, liuhath.
Skr. ri^', Gr. XfiTrw, L. linquo, Goth, laiba.
This is one of the facts from which Lottner (K. Z., vol. vii.,
p. 19), infers that, after the Europeans separated from the

22 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

parent stock, they remained for some time united together as
one people.

jR always has had a tendency tp become l, as we see from
the Romance languages: thus, It. albero comes from h. arbor,
It. cHehro from L. cerebrum, Fr. autel from L. altare, It. pelle-
grino from h. pereprinus. The reverse change also occurs, but
much less frequently : we find it in Fr. rossignol from L. lus-
ciniolus, Fr. apotre from L. apostolus, Fr. chapitre from
L. capitulum, Fr. esclandre from (TKav^aXov, Wall, poporu from
L. populus, Wall. Jiru from L. filuni. In some of these cases
dissimilation has favoured this change.

§. 22. The Indo-European B.

The chief proof that b existed in the Indo-European is the
fact that it forms the chief element in the original sound bh.
That it must have had a very limited sphere, is proved by the
few cases in which it seems to be original. These cases are
thefoUowing: — Gr.)3/>axwej ^poyxog, Goth. praggan {to press),
the fundamental idea being "narrowness;" Skr. lamb (to fall),
L. labi, E. slip (Benfey compares E. limp), Goth, slepan and
E. sleep come perhaps from this root, the fundamental idea
being that of "sinking down to rest;" Gr. Kavvafiig, O. H. G.
hanf, E. hemp; Skr. Am J^'a (crooked), Gr. icv/3oc, Goth, hups,
O. H. G. huf, L. cubare, E. hip and hump; Gr. pofx^og, pin^w,
Goth, vairpan, G. werfen* B is original in some imitative
words ; but, as Grimm's law does not apply to such words, it
remains unchanged : thus we have Gr. jSXrj^r^ L. balare,
0. H. G. bldzan, E. bleat ; Skr. barbara, Gr. jBdp(5apoQ,
L. balbus, E. babble ; Gr. fiofi^vXig, L. bullire, E. bubble.

Initial b, as Grassmann has pointed out, has generally in
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, been developed from other sounds :
in Sanskrit from p, bh, m, and v, as banig (a merchant) from

• Consult Bickell in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. d25 ; and Gra.ssmann in TC 7
vol. xii., p. 122.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 23

pan (to buy), bal from bhal, bru from mrti, and bat from vat;
in Greek and Latin from gv, as in Gr. (Bapvg, (iaivw = L. wnio
for gvenio ; from (iu, as in L. bis, bellum, bonus ; from v, as in
Gr. (BovXofxai (Skr. rr, L. volo), ^piZ,a ; from w, as in Gr.
ftpoTog, jSXaJtTKtu, /SpaSiic = Skr. mrdus (mild and slow) = L.
blandus for mlandus (E. mild)-, bucca (Skr. miikhd) ; from J/i, as
in Gr. ^pifib), h. fremo, ^aaKatviv, L. fascino ; and from p, as
in Gr. jSoo-KOi (?), L. &i6o, buxus.

§. 23. Wherever we find fricative sounds corresponding
etymologically to explosive, we believe that the latter are ori-
ginal, as they require a stronger articulation than the former.
We find examples of this in the following changes: — t be-
comes s, in Gr. av, Dor. tv, L. tu; <? becomes I* in L. la-
cruma = Gr. Sok/ou; L. levir = Gr. ^a{]p, Skr. devr (a hus-
band's brother) ; L. calamitas, from an older cadamitas ; d be-
comes r in L. arvorsum = advorsum, L. meridies for medidies,
Sp. lampara from ace. sing, of L. lampas ; b becomes t; in Fr.
auoeV = L. habere ; k becomes a sibilant in Fr. cg7i< from L. cgn-
iw/w, Skr. das' an from I. E. dakam, Skr. smn from I. E. kvan,
Fr. cheval from L. caballus. The modern Greek spirants have
been developed from the old aspirates, and the Latin spirants
h and / from the old gh and bh.

There are some exceptions to this law : thus gv has been
developed from v ^ va. It. golpe from L. vulpes, Fr. gdter and
It. guastare from L. vastare, Fr. ^u^pe from L. vespa. Fhas
become p on account of the s' in Z. s'pa = Skr. s'vd. In the
Lesbian dialect we find /3 for F before p ; here either F became
)3, or else )3 was pronounced as F. The Komans disliked the
group vu, and frequently used bu, as in ferbui homferveo ; simi-
larly the Greeks said ^oyXofiai for FovXofiai. D represents

* In the " Rigveda" the symbol ^ is employed to represent the /-sound,
into which an older d is sometimes changed. This sound must have been
either dl or Id.

f See Max Miiller, vol. ii., p. 266,5^5'.; and Curtius, " Grundziige,"
pp. 386, 527.

24 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

an older I and r in some Norwegian dialects ; thus in Sogndal
II becomes dl, as in kadla for kalla, gudl for gull, &c. In
Danish we have Id for //, as in fuld = E. full; &ndfald = E.
fall.

§. 24. That the iceak aspirates existed in the Indo-Euro-
pean, is proved by the fact that the Sanskrit weak aspirates
are represented in Zend by the mediae and mediae aspiratse ;
in Slavic, Lettic, Gothic, and Irish, by the mediae ; and in
Latin sometimes by the mediae. Thus, we have Skr. dhd (to
place), Z. da, L. do (in condo), Lith. dedu, E. do, doom; Skr.
bjiar (to bear), Z. bar, L. fero, Goth, haira, Lith. bdmas (a
child), E. burden; Skr. bhu (to be), Z. bu, L. fui, Lith. buti
(to be), E. be; Skr. bhrdtar, Z. brdtar, Li. f rater, Goth, bro-
thar, Jr. brdihir; Skr. madhya, Z. maidhyay L. medius, Osk. r/ie-
^i (= meduB), Ir. meddn, Goth, midjis ; I. E. dnambhas,* Skr.
nabhas, L. niibes, SI. ne&o, Ir. neamh, Lith. debesis. These ex-
amples are sufficient to prove the original existence of the
mediae aspiratae ; for, if they had been developed from the
mediae in Sanskrit, after it had become a distinct language,
we should find them represented in Gothic, for example, by
k, t, and p, and not by g, d, and b; and if they had been de-
veloped from the tenues aspiratae, we should not find them re-
presented in the cognate languages by the mediae.

§. 25. Whether the Indo-European possessed the hard, as
well as the soft, aspirates is still a disputed question.f The
main argument brought forward in support of the opinion that
it did, is the fact that the Greek aspirates, which are hard,
correspond in many cases to the hard aspirates in Sanskrit.
Now, in all these cases I beheve that the tenuis was the ori-
ginal sound, and that the aspiration is generally due to the in-
fluence of neighbouring sounds, which have sometimes fallen

• According to Lottncr, wlio compares Gr. fvo^oc.
\ Consult Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 375; and Grassmann in K. Z.,
Tol. xii., p. 109.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 25

out. Moreover, in many of these examples we find in Greek
side-forms with the simple tenuis, which evidently contain
older forms of the roots. Thus, a sibilant has aspirated the
tenuis in the following cases : — sphar (cans, to throw), o-^aT(>a,
also ffTrat'pw, aaTtaiQU) ; sphur (= sphar), cr^vpa, (T<pvp6v ', sphal
(caus. with a, to strike), (r<paXXio, A. S. feallan, lAih.pulti (to
fall), sphurg (to thunder), a^apayog, sphant (to split), a^ijv ;
phalaka (a bench), <T<piXag ; k'hid (to cut), tr^t^w, L. scindo. In
Kojxog = s'ahkhas the aspiration is due to the nasal. Khalmas
(nom. sing.) is borrowed from ^aXivoc- The aspirate in the
ending of the 2 sing, perf -tha = -da (olada = vetthd) is due
to the falling out of v from the pronominal stem tva. Grass-
mann compares /ua^^rj with makha (a warrior), adrip with
aihari (the point of a lance), /modog with math (to agitate), and
asserts that the aspirated tenuis in all these cases is original ;
but makha comes from magh, aO))p is connected with andhas
(plant). We find the asp. tenuis developed from the asp. me-
dia in ndth (to ask aid) from nddh, E. need., 0. H. G. not; in
atha (then) from adha ; in Mia (aer, coelum), Gr. xaog, L. halare ;
in phal (to bear fruit), L. Jlos, Goth, hloma ; in nakha, 6vv\-,
L. unguis, ungula, Ir. ionga, O.H. G. nagal, Lith. n'agas. It
is much more probable that the Sanskrit hard aspirates and
the Greek aspirates arose either from the soft aspirates or the
tenues, than that both rows of aspirates existed in the Indo-
European, and afterwards coalesced in Greek.

( ^^ )

CHAPTER III.

Geimm's Law.*

§. 26. The roots of the Indo-European languages are subject
to two distinct classes of changes — irregular or sporadic, and
regular. The regular changes permeate all the dialects of a
language, while the irregular show themselves chiefly in some
one dialect. Thus, in Greek, ^, 0, ^, in all the dialects re-
present the original gh, dh, bh ; but Ikkoq^ kwc> Troica, oica, Sa,
oBeXog, are sporadic varieties of tTTTrocj 7!"wc» irore, orSf y^,
ojSeXoc- The regular changes are threefold : — (1), we have the
splitting up of an original sound into several others, as when
an I. E. a is represented in Greek and Latin by a, e, o ; (2), we
have the loss of an original sound running through an entire
language, as in the case of the disappearance of the aspirates
in Latin ; (3), we have the remarkable law of the dislocation of
the consonants, discovered by Grimm, and called by him
Lautven^chiehung, which we now proceed to enunciate and
illustrate.

§. 27. This law, stated generally, is as follows : — If the same
root exist in Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Old High
German, when Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin present the aspi-
rate, Gothic presents the corresponding media, and Old High
German the corresponding tenuis ; when the first three lan-
guages present the media, Gothic has the tenuis, and Old
High German the aspirate ; when the first three languages

• "Deutsche Grammatik von Dr. Jakob Grimm," vol. i., p. 584.
Consult also " Gesamraelte sprachwisscnschaftliche Schriften" von Rudolph
von Raumer, and Max Muller, vol. ii., p. 198.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

27

present the tenuis, Gothic has the aspirate, and Old High
German the media. This law may be tabularly exhibited
thus : —

Skr. Gr. L. GH DH BH
Goth. G D B
O. H. G. K T P

G D B

K T P

GH DH BH

K T P

GH DH BH

G D B

These letters, of course, are only symbols ; for in Latin we
have no real aspirates, but merely the corresponding breath-
ings, and moreover the dental breathjng is wanting in Latin ;
in Greek we have only the hard aspirates ; in Sanskrit H
frequently takes the place of an older GH, DH, or BH ; in
Gothic the guttural and labial aspirates are replaced by H and
F ; and in Old High German for the expected guttural and
labial mediae we find H and F. Extending this law to Keltic,
Slavic, and Lettic, we may add that these languages, though
for the most part they stand on the same line as the Sanskrit,
represent the soft aspirates always by the corresponding me-
diae. Translating these symbols, then, into the actual conso-
nants that represent them in each language, we have the
folio wins: tables : —

(!)•

(2).

(3).

LE.

gh

dh

bh

Skr.

gh, h

dh, h

bk,h

Z.

9, 9^' 9^ ^' ^^^

d,dk

b

Gr.

X

e

<t>

L.

h / 9^

/, d, b,

f.b

Kel

9

d

b

SI.

9i ^» *

d

b

Lith.

9^ ^'

d

b

Goth.

9

d

b

0. H. G.

k

t

P

28 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

II.

(1).

(2).

(3).

I.E.

9

d

b

Skr.

9^^

d

b

Z.

9^ 9^^ 9^ ^' ^^^

d,dh

b

Gr.

y

B

^

L.

9

d

b

Kel.

9

d

b

SI.

9^ ^ » ^j

d

b

Lith.

S'» ^ .

d

b

Goth.

•

k

t

P

0. H.

G.

ch

z, sz

f^Pf

III.

(1).

(2).

(3).

I.E.

k

t

P

Skr.

A'k Rjft^ ft • S

t, ill

p,ph

Z.

rtj rtttj ft ^ 8

t, th

vJ

Gr.

K

T

IT

L.

c, q,

t

P

Kel.

c, ch,

t, th

P

SI.

k, C,C y 3

t

P

Lith.

k, SZ,

t

P

Goth.

h9

th, d

Ab

0. H.

G.

K9

d

/, V, b.

§. 28. Examples of Grimm's Law.*

I. (1). Skr. dirglia (long), Z.darSgha (long), Gr. ^oXiyoq,
L. longus, Goth, laggs. Skr. Uighu (light), Gr. tXa^vg, L. le-
vis for legvis, 0. H. G. liht, Kel. lugu in Lugudunum, another
form of Lugdu7iiim. Skr. gharsh (to rub), Gr. x/>''<»*> L* f^o,
frico. Skf. ghas (to eat), L. hostis, 0. L. fostis, hospes (qui ci-

* In these examples I have nearly always omitted the corresponding
roots in Slavic, Lithuanian, and Keltic.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 29

bum petit), Goth, gasts, E. guest, Lith. gaspada (hospitium),
and, according to Bopp, Gr. jaaTrip. Skr. harydmi (I love),
Gr. xaiptv, L. grains, Goth, faihu-gairns (greedy of money),
E. yearn, 0. H. G. kiri (desire). Skr. hyas (yesterday),
Gr. x^^?' ^- ^^*^' hesfernus, Goth, gistra, E. yesterday,
O. H. G. kestar. Skr. /lansa (a goose), Gr. x^v, L. anser,
Goth, grans, E. gfoosg, 0. H. G. kans. Skr. vah (to carry),
Gr. oxoc, L. veho, Goth, vt^s (via). 0. H. G. waggan (currus),
Gr. xop^'oC) L. Jiortus, cohors, E. garden, gird, 0. H. G. karto,
Goth, gards (a house).

I. (2). Skr. indh (to burn), Gr. aW(o, L. CBstus, cedes,
A. S. at?, O. H. G. eit (fire). Skr. rudhira (blood), Gr. ipvOpog,
L. ruber, rufus, E. re(i, 0. H. G. rot. Skr. £?A^ (to drink),
Gr. OifiaOai, OriXrj, L. jilius, femina, Goth, daddja (lacto),
O. H. G. tdu (lacto). Skr. dharsh (to dare), Z. daresh (to
dare), Gr. Bap(Tog, h.fortis, Goth, gadaursan (to dare), O.H. G.
^lYay. Skr. cZ7l^t (to shake, blow), Z. dunman (vapour), Gr,
Bvw, QvtSXa, Ovfiog, L. fumus, sujfflo, Goth, dauns (odor), E.
dust, O. H. G. tunst (storm).

I. (3). Skr. hhu (to be), Z. hu (to be), Gr. ^uw, h. fui,
E. 6e, O. H. G. pim (I am). Skr. bhrdtar, Z. brdtar, Gr.
^parpia, h. frater, Goth, brothar, O. H. G. pruodar. Z. Sa/*
(to bore), Gr. (papog, (jtapay^, h. forare, E. 6or^, O.H. G.po-
ran. Skr. bhadra (best), E. better, best. Skr. bhang' (to break),
Gr. (orjyvwjut, L. frango, Goth, brikan, 0. H. G. prechan.

II. (1). Skr. g'an (to beget), Z. ^raw (to beget), Gr. yivog,
L. genus, Goth, kuni (race), E. kind, child, O. H. G. chind
(ofi^spring). Skr. gar (to sound), Z. gar (to sing), Gr. y^pvg,
L. garrio, gallus, E. caZ^. Skr. ^wrw (heavy), Goth, kaurs
(heavy), E. care. Skr. bhug' (to enjoy, endure), L. fruor,fun-
gor, Goth, brukjan, E. brook. Skr. ganda and Aanw (gena),
Gr. yivvg, L. ^ena, Goth, kinnus (chin), 0. H. G. chinni.

II. (2). Skr. drama (wood), Z. cZrM (wood), Gr. dpvg, Sopu»
SevS/oov, Goth, triu (tree). Skr. dam (to tame), Gr. Bapao),
L. domare, dominus, Goth, gatamjan (to tame), 0. H. G. ^rarnt

30 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(tame). Skr. dis (to show), Gr. StiKWfxi, L. dico, Goth, teiha
(nuntio), O. H. G. zeigom. Skr. and Z. das'an, Gr. BUa,
L. decern, Goth, taihun, 0. H. G. zehan. Skr. and Z. c?ra,
Gr. Suw, L. duo, Goth. <uai, G. ^wei. Skr. vid (to perceive),
oi§o = Goth. raz^= Skr. v^da, L. video, 0. H. G. wizan. Skr. rfa/j^
(tooth), Z. rfan^, Gr. b^ovq, L. rfens, Goth, tunthu.9, 0. H. G.
^anc?. Gr. pit^a for Fp/Sm, Lesb. (ipicrda, L. radix, Goth, vaurts
(root), 0. H. G. wurza.

II. (3). Consult § 22.

III. (1). Skr. s'vas'ura (socer), Z. qaa'ura, Gr. Iicu/ooc,
Gr. socer, Goth, svaihra, G. schwager. Skr. rfars' (to see),
Gr. SipKU), O. S. <or/if (bright), E. ^orcA, 0. H. G. zoraht. Skr.
as'ru (a tear), Gr. ^aKgy^ 0. L. dacruma, Goth, ta^?*, O. H. G.
zaliar. Skr. s'a/a (house), Gr. KoKla, L. ce//a, domi-cilium^ ce-
lare, E. Aa/Z, /te//, AoZe. Skr. kalya (healthy), Gr. icaXoe> Goth.
/ta^7s, E. whole, heal, G. AeiZ. Skr. s'l (to lie), Gr. Ktifiai, L.
qiiies, civis = 0&k. kevs, Goth, hainis (village), E. home, hamlet.
Gr. fcXeTTTcu, L. clepo, Goth, hliftus = kAIttttjc- Skr. s'rw (to
hear), Gr. kXvcu, kXeoc = Skr. s'ravas, L. c/mo, cZiews, Goth.
hliuma (oko/j), 0. H. G. hlut (loud), SI. slava (glory). Skr.
karsh (to draw), L. accerso, E. hearse, harrow. Skr. has (to
cough), E. husky, 0. H. G. huosto.

III. (2). Skr. tri, Z. <AW, Gr. rpfTc? L. ires, Goth, threis,
0. H. G. dri. Skr. torsA (to thirst), Z. tarshna (thirst), Gr.
Ttpao/iai, L. torreo, terra (?), Goth, thaurstei (thirst), G. (^ur«<.
Skr. tar (to cross), Z. toro (across), Gr. ripfia, L. terminus,
<ran5 = Umb. <ra/, 0. N. ^Arom (margo), E. through, 0. H. G.
drum (finis). Skr. pat* (to fly), pafra (a wing), Gr. iriTOfxaiy
irrepov, L. joe^o, penna (0. L. pesna), accipiter, prcepes, O.H.G.
fedara (a wing), E. feather. Skr. and Z. ton (to stretch), Gr.
Tiivu), L. tendoy tenuis, Goth, thanja (extendo), 0. H. G. dunui

* Benfey deduces Skr. patrin (a mouDtain) and Gr. irirpoe from this
root, remarking that in the old poetical language clouds and rocks are
identified, and the clouds considered as wings of the mountains !

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 31

•

(thin). Skr. tu (to be powerful, to increase), Z. tu (to be
able)j Gr. twAoc, touq fiiyag (Hesych.), L. tumeo, iuber, tueor,
totus, Umb. taufa (a city), 0. Pr. tauia (land), Ir. iuath (people),
Goth, thiuda (people), E.^Awm^, O. H. G. dumo (thumb).

III. (3). Skr. apa (away), Z. apa^ Gr. otto, L. a6, Goth.
afj 0. H. G. aha. Skr. saptan, 7i. haptan, Gi. iTrra, \j.septem,
Goth. dhun. Skr. para (away), Z. para (from), Gr. Trapa,
L. joe/", Goth, /ra-, E./row, O. H. G.far-, N. H.G. w?'. Skr.
and Z.par (to bring over), Gr. tte/oow, L. porta, Goth, faraii
(to go), E. /ar^, G. erfahren. Skr. and Z. par (to fill), Gr.
TrifiTrXrifii, L. plenus, populus, Y^. folk, full. Skr. ^ri (to please),
Z. /n (to love), Gr. wpavgi E. friend. Gr. ttu^, L. pugnus,
F..fist. Gr. rrXtV^oC) ^- flint (?). Gr. Traupoe, L. paucus, E.few.
Skr. prat/i (to extend), Gr. TrXan't,-, L. Laiium, E.flat,

§. 29. No satisfactory explanation of the origin of the
changes expressed by this law has ever been given. It has
been suggested* that "this phonetic diversity is due to a pre-
vious state of language in which the two or three principal
points of consonantal contact were not yet felt as definitely
separated from each other." Each of the branches of the Indo-
European family, it is maintained, modified this sound in
its own way ; hence we have different forms of the ori-
ginal vague sound. But, it is extremely unlikelyf that such
vague sounds existed in the original Indo-European language
contemporaneously with the strong articulation which is pe-
culiar to all old languages. If we thus account for the origin
of Skr. ap and L. aqua, ^ol. iriavpeg, and L. quatuor, &c.,
we will be forced from analogy to account for the origin of
the Wallachian apa, epa, patruX from aqua, equa, quatuor, in

* By MaxMiiller, vol. ii., pp. 180, 181.

t Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 366.

X Max Miiller suggests, as an explanation of these forms, that the Le-
gions which colonized Dacia were raised in the Oscan and Umbrian dis-
tricts of Italy, where J) represented the Latin qu. But, in addition to the
obvious improbability of this account, it may be added that it does not

32 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

the same way, and to assert that these Latin words were pro-
nounced with a vague and indistinct consonantal sound ; this,
however, is too absurd to be maintained for a moment.

The very example (Skr. gharmay Gr. Oepfxog, L. formus)
given by Max Miiller should have been sufficient to demon-
strate the incorrectness of this theory ; for what pronounceable
sound can be imagined which could approximate to each of
these guttural {gh), dental (0), and labial (/) sounds, without
being exactly any of them ? Such divergencies arose, not
from any vague articulation on the part of the Indo-Europeans,
but from other causes. These were (1), the influence of
neighbouring sounds ; (2), the springing up of adventitious or
parasitic sounds; (3), a psychological principle of differen-
tiation, i. e., a desire to keep up within the limits of the same
language a difference between words or sounds that threaten
to become identical, or to develope such a difference be-
tween words or sounds that are at a given moment identical.
We find examples of (1) in the derivation of the Wall, epa,
apa from equa, agua ; for the u (y) became p through the in-
fluence of the tenuis q (k). We find (2) exemplified in such
forms as xBig, Skr. hyas^ I. E. ghyas, where the y developed c?
before itself, as it frequently does, and then fell out, this 8
afterwards becoming B on account of the preceding )^.

We find numerous examples of psychological processes in
all languages. Thus in Greek we have afidviDv, neititDv, raivb),
for afitvytov, Xtyytov, revjo), where the i arises from the
throwing back of the original y that once existed in the last
syllable, and where this y must have been present to the mind
before it was pronounced. This effect — called variously Hy-
perthesis. Infection, or Umlaut — appears in its complete form
in Zend. We find it also in English, as in the verb to f ell, the

seem to be borne out by the forms of the Wallachian language. The ex-
ample (Osc. pomtis = Ij. quinque) adduced by himself overthrows this
theory ; for the Wallachian for five is quinqui, a word evidently of pure
Latin origin.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 33

causative of to folly where the e (ai) arises from a by hyper-
thesis. In Latin forms such as scripsi we also see the effect
of Psychological influence, for as in the hyperthesis of i we
think of the following r/, so we think of the following s,
and change the b o£ scribo into/?, as s is a hard sound. We
see a similar cause at work in the origin of the It. buonOf
nuovo, fuoraf fuoco, from L. bonus, novus, /oris, focus. The
Italians had lost the distinction between the short and the long
o, but they still felt that a distinction should be made between
the o o£ ndvus and the a oinonus ; so, while they kept o where-
ver it was long, they employed uo to represent o when it was
short.

In the old Norse imperfect indicative we find the a of the
singular changed into 6 in the plural, on account of the u of
the final syllable, which therefore must have been present to
the mind during the pronunciation of the first syllable ; thus,
sing. 1. kalladha, 2. kalladhir, 3. kalladhi; pi. 1. kolludhum,
2. kolludhut, 3. kolludhu*

§. 30. The changes of sounds, noticed in the last section,
arise from what has been called by Max Miiller Uiakctic
Growth ; but there are other changes that manifest themselves
not only in some ancient languages, but also much more fre-
quently in their modern representatives. These latter arise
from what he calls Phonetic Decay ;t and the cause of this de-
cay he rightly traces to laziness, or want of muscular energy
on the part of the speaker. Thus, as he remarks, nearly all
the changes that have taken place in the transition from
Anglo-Saxon to modern English belong to this class. "We
have silly from scelig, woman from wifman, lord from hldford,
king from cyning, &c. Similarly we have squire from Fr. escuier,

* Aasen's " Norsk Grammatik," p. 224.

t Max Miiller, vol. ii., pp. 176-178, Curtius calls this phenomenon
Verwitterutiff, thus comparing it to the decay caused by the operation of
the atmosphere.

D

34 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

L. scutarius; stranger {lom Fr. estrangier, L. extraneus; sexton
iiomFi. sacristain ; chapter ij:oTnFT.chapitre,h.capitiUum; dam-
sel from Fr. demoisellei L. dominicella; Sir from Fr. sieur, L. se-
nior. In Greek the insertion of the mediae between fx and p, or v
and p, is due to the same cause, av^peg and yajujSpoc being more
easily pronounced than avptg and yanpog. We find similar in-
sertions in English, as to slumber from A. S. slumerian^ cinders
from L. cineresy &c. In Goth, hunds, E. hound (L. canis), d has
been added to facilitate the pronunciation. The ds in gold
and mind have been explained in the same way, but wrongly
soi for gold is the Gothic gulth = I. E. ghar-ta from I. E. and
Skr. ghar (to shine), whence Skr. hirana, hiranya (gold),
Z. zaranu, zaranya (gold), Gr. -^pvaog = \QVTyog = I. E. ghar-
tyas, ^(Xovvog = xpvaog (Hesych.), Phryg. yXovpog XP^^^^
(Hesych.) ; &nd mind =lj.ment in mentis. From this root ^Aar
come also Skr. hrikuy hliku (tin), Gr. ^^oXkoc? and L. glisco.

§. 31. Apparent Exceptions to Grdim's Law.*

The first class of these exceptions consists of natural
sounds (naturlaute), onomatopoeic, and imitative words ; thus
we have as natural sounds, Skr. oUd (mother), Gr. arra,
L. atta^ Goth, atta (father) ; ma and pa, the words used
by infants for their food and their parents, whence arise
Gr. fiafifirii oTTTra, L. mamma, mamUla, papilla, G. amme,
E. mamma, papa, paps, pap ; Skr. tdta (dear, used chiefly by
parents addressing their children, and children their parents),
Gr. TtTTa, TaTtti titOi), TiBi]vr], L. tata, E. tit^ teat, 0. H. G. tuUo
(breast), toto (godfather), Lith. teta (aimt) : as onomatopoeic
and imitative words, we have Skr. hresh (to neigh), 0. H. G.
hross, E. horse ; Skr. hikkd, E. hiccough ; Gr. vXaKTU), E. howl,
G. heulen ; Gr. Kkayyii, L. clango, E. clanky clatter, clap,

* For the materials of sections 31 and 32 I am almost entirely indebted
to the instructive articles of Lottner and Grassmann, in K. Z., toL xi.,
p. 161; and vol. xii., p. 131.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 85

O. N. klaka ; L. grunnio, E. grunt ; Gr. nvKaaBai^ fxriKaaOai,
G. meckern ; Gr. Xanroj, L. lamho, labrum, E. /a/>, lip.

A second class consists of borrowed words. L. ^t« is bor-
rowed from Gr. Bvog ; if it were genuine Latin, it would begin
with /, as the root is Skr. dhu. L. scalpo and sculpo, along
with the art of sculpture, were borrowed from the Greeks; for
these words correspond to Gr. -yXa^w andyXv^w, the p repre-
senting the hard ^ ; the words glaher and glubo are genuine
Latin words, b being the exact equivalent of the Gr. ^.
Scribo also exactly corresponds to ypa(f)w, with the exception
of the prefixed s, which proves either that writing was
known to the Greeks and Italians while they still formed one
people, or that scribo was borrowed from the Greeks in very
early times, when (ft was still soft. When a word belonging to
any one of the three classes of languages, whose consonants are
regulated according to Grimm's law, is similar in meaning and
consonants to a word belonging to either of the other classes,
we may lay down, as a general rule, either that one of these
words was borrowed from the other, or else that there is no
connexion between them. E. husky has nothing to do with
Z. huska (dry) ; for husky is connected with Skr. kds (to
cough), and huska = Skr. s'ushka (dry, emaciated), Gr. aavKog
(dry), L. siccus. E. go is not from same root as Skr. gd^ but we
find it in Skr. hd (to go), I. E. ghd. E. look is not the Skr. lok
(to see), but rather laksh (to see) = lag + s. E. whole is not the
same as Gr. oXog ; for E. h represents an I. E. k, while the
Greek aspirate represents an I. E. 5. E. call is not connected
with Gr. KaXetv, nor E. care with L. cura ; for E. c requires g
in the corresponding Greek and Latin roots ; E. call corre-
sponds to Skr. gar (to praise), gir (a voice), Gr. ynpvg, L. gar-
rio, g alius, and E. care to Skr. guru (heavy), L. gravis.

A third class of exceptions arises from sounds having
been irregularly changed within the same language : thus h in
E. heart appears to represent A in Skr. hrd, but here the Skr. h
has been developed from an L E. A, as we see from the cog-

d2

30 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

nate forms, Gr. KapBia, L. cor, Ir. cride. The following cases
are easily explained by supposing that the corresponding
Indo-European roots began and ended with aspirates. Thus
we have, I. E. bhudhna, Skr. bvdkna (depth), Gr. vvOfiijv,
h. fundus, 0. H. G. bodam, E, bottom; I. E. bhudh, Skr. budh
(to know), Gr. irwOavonai, Goth, biuda (I know); I.E. bhandh,
Skr. bandh (to bind), Gr. irtvOepog, Trtlafiai, L. fascis, funis,
E. bind; I. E. bhidh, Gr. tthBuj, L. fido, Goth, bidja; I. E.
hhddh, Skr. 6ac?A (to repel), Gr. iraaxw (for TraO-aicd)), L./gn-
do, O. N. ^d (a fight), A. S. beadu; I. E. bhdghu, Skr. iaAw
(arm), Gr. tt^x"^' ^' -^^ ^^S""' ^- H- ^- ^^'^'Z !• E. bhaghu,
Skr. iaAw (large), Gr. Traxwe ; I. E. bhugh, Skr. Jan/i (to grow),
Goth, bagms (tree), E. beam; I. E. bhugh, Skr. JA?/^' (to
bend), Gr. tpivyw, h.fugio, Goth, izw^jra (I bend) ; I. E. bhargh,
Gr. tppaaau) (for <j)payj(o}, Goth, bairga (I guard), baurgs
(a town) ; I. E. bhargh, L. flagellum, Goth, bliggvan (to
scourge) ; I. E. dhubh, Skr. cfAiip (to fumigate), Gr. tu^oc
(smoke), ru^Xoc? Goth. ffowJs (deaf), dumbs (dumb), G. taub ;
I. E. dhigh, Skr. f?iA (to smear), Gr, diyyavw, L. fingo,
Goth. c?^^a (I form), daigs (dough), G. teig ; I. E. dhagh,
Skr. cfoA (to bum), Goth, dags (day), 0. H. G. tdht, (a lamp-
wick), G. tag, docht ; I. E. dhughatar, Skr. duhitar, Goth, dauh-
tar, 0. H. G. tohtar : this word comes perhaps from the next
root, and means the " milker ;" I. E. dhugh, Skr. duh (to
milk, to enjoy), Goth, dugan (to be useful), E. dug, Ir. diu-
gaim (I drink off), Scot, deoghail (mammas sugere) ; I. E.
dhrugh, Skr. druk (to hurt), Gr. OiXyto (?) L. fiiistra,
Goth, driugan, O. N. draugr (a ghost), Z. drug' (an evil
spirit), O. H. G. triugan (to deceive), Ir. droch (bad) ; I. E.
ghabh, Skr. g'abh, (to gape), l^.gape; I. F,.ghardh, Skr. gardk
(to desire), Goth. grHays (hungry), E. greedy, 0. H. G. Air
(desire), G. gier, Ir. ^rracZ/i (love). D in Skr. (/rara (a door),
represents an I. E. dh; for we have Gr. Bvpa, h. fores, Goth.
daur, O. II. G. tor., Ir. (ior (a door). Gr. 7c (Skr. Aa, Ved.
gha), may have arisen on European soil from an older ^£1

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 37

from same root as xi in y y*» Skr. hi. Bopp, however, connects
with ye the k in Goth, mik, thuk, and the A in 0. H. G. unsih,
iwih, which can only be explained on the supposition of an ori-
ginal g. In Skr. aham, Gr. lyu), L. ego, Goth, ik, Skr. mahat,
Gr. jiityag, L. magnus, Goth. mikils = fisyaXog, Skr. hanu (jaw),
Gr. yivvg, L. gena, Goth, kinnus, Skr. laiigh (to jump), Gr.
Xa7wc> Goth, laikan, the Gothic and Greek forms point back to
an I. E. g, while the Skr. h represents an I. E. gh. Hence
we may infer either that the Indo-European possessed these
roots in a double form before the separation of the Sanskrit
from the other languages, or that the Sanskrit subsequently
aspirated the original g, and then reduced it to h.

§. 32. Actual Exceptions to Grimm's Law.

These exceptions occur in the consonantal groups sk, st,
sp. Thus we have Skr. k'had (to conceal), from I. E. skad,
Gr. (TKOTog, Goth, skadus (shadow), Ir. scath (shade); \j. pis-
cis, Goth. Jisks ; Skr. k'hid (to cut), from I. E. skid, Gr. <TxiK<^i
L. scindo, Goth, skaida (separo), Ir. scaithim (I cut off) ;
L. hostis, Goth, gasts ; Skr. tdra (star), Gr. aoTTjp, L. stella,
Goth, staimo ; Skr. tud (to strike), from I. ^.stud (?), Gr. Tu-
Stwe (the striker — compare Charles Martel and Judas Macca-
bcBtis), L. tundo, tvdes (hammer) ; Goth, stauta (I strike) ; Gr,
<TT£tx<«>, Goth, steiga (I ascend) ; Gr. tttuw, L. spuo, pituita,
Goth, speiva (spuo).

An original tenuis sometimes appears as a media. Thus
we have Gr. BaKpv, Goth, tagr ; L. septem, Goth, sibun ;
L, quatuor, Goth. Jldvor ; Gr. Kparvg, Goth. Jiardus ; L. cen-
tum, Goth, hund; L. pater, Goth, fadar; L. mater, A. S. mo-
dor (Goth, hrothar and ^.father, &c. are regular) ; Gr. Kvrog,
A. S. hyd (hide).

In the present participle we have Goth, -anrf for Skr. -ant,
Gr. -ovT, as Goth, bairands (nom. sing, masc.) = Gr. (piputv,
E. friend, fiend. In the past participle we have Goth, -d for

38 COMPARATIVE GRAMJIAR.

Skr. -ta. This Goth, d must have arisen from an older th, of
which traces are still found, as in fads and faths = Skr. patis,
kunths (known) = Skr. g'ndtas = Gr. yviorog (whence E. un-
couth), bairith and bairid = Skr. bharati.

We find the mediae unchanged in the following cases : —
Skr. gar (sonare), E. nightin-gale ; Skr. g'arbli (aperire), Gr.
ypatjib), Goth, graba (fodio), E. grave, grub, Ir. grabhaim (I
carve), grafaim (I write), grafan (a grubbing axe) ; Skr. gras
(vorare), L. gramen, E. grass (unless grass be from I. E. and
Skr. ghar (to shine) whence harit (green) Gr. ')(k6r\, L. holris,
E. green) ; Skr. hldd (to be glad), Gr. KiyXa^a, E. glad. In
many of the cases where a media Is retained, this effect is due
to the influence of a neighbouring I, m, n, or r.

The original tenuis is also unchanged in the following
cases : Gr. Tiraywv, L. tango, Goth, tekan (to touch), E. take;
Skr. pathas = Gr. irarog, A. S. pad, E. path.

In the three following cases a Gothic tenuis corresponds to
an I. E. aspirate : I. E. magh, Skr. mah (to be great), mdmahy6
(macto), niakha (a warrior), Gr. /ua^ojuat, L. macto, macellum,
Goth, meki (a sword) ; I. E. ghrabh, Skr. grah, Ved. grabh
(to seize), Gr. ypl^og, Goth, greipan (to seize), E. grip, grab,
Ir. grabaim (I devour) : Gr. oKatpog, oncaTrrw for aica^rb),
Goth, skip (ship).

( 39 )

CHAPTER IV.

The Sanskrit Alphabet.*
§. 33. Tabular View of the Sounds.

MUTES.

tcuasp.
surd. son.

Gutt. k g

Pal. k' g'

Cer. t d

Dent, t d

Lab. p h

asp.
surd. son.
kh gh
Teh g'h
th dh
th dh
ph bh

SEMIVOWELS.

Spirants.
surd. son.
h h

s
sh

y

Nasals.

n
h
n
n
m

r & Lsounds

(r, Z) ?
r,l

V0WEU3.

t\

e,di 1

1

{r

. r

/)? >6

du

r

u

' J

Sanskrit writing is called by the native grammarians Di-
vandgart, which means the ndgari of the gods or brahmans.
Ndgari is the name applied to the current style of writing
used by the Hindus, and is supposed to be derived from na-
gara (a city), thus meaning "the art of writing as practised
in cities" (M. Mliller's " Skr. Gr." p. 1). The names of the let-
ters are formed by adding kdra (making) to each sound ; thus
a is called akdra, k, kakdra^ as each consonant is supposed
to have a short a inherent in it. M forms an exception, and
is called repha (burring), from rebh (to sound), Gr. polfiSog.

* Sariskrta means properly " what is made fit ;" hence it came to
mean purified, as being made fit for sacred purposes. This is why this
name is applied to the ancient sacred language of the Vedas. The local
dialects of India are called Prdkrta, i. e. " what has a type, or original"
(Benfey's " Skr. Lex."), this type (prakrti) being Sanskrit. Sanskria is
from sam (^avv) and skar (to cut), according to Lottner, who thinks that
in this compound skar is mixed up with kar (to make).

40 comparative grammar.

§. 34. Anusvara, Anunasika and Visarga.

Anusvara, il (from anu, after, and svarUy sound), is a nasal
after-sound, and is compared by Bopp to the Fr. n at the end
of a syllable. It is, however, properly speaking, not an after-
sound, but merely a modification of the preceding vowel
(§. 10). Its pronunciation is very weak, for it does not pre-
vent the euphonic influence of an i or u upon a following s ;
in prosody, however, it and Visarga make a preceding short
vowel long, when the next syllable begins with a consonant.
It occurs in the middle of words before the sibilants and h,
as dans' (to bite), hama (goose), sinha (lion). Before y, »■,
and V, in the middle of words it is only found in reduplicated
syllables, as yanyamyate. Another anusvS,ra is used for the
nasals, merely " for the sake of neatness in writing," as Cole-
brook says. This must always receive the same pronunciation
as the nasal in the place of which it stands. In Prakrit a final
m sdways, and, as is never the case in Sanskrit, the dental n
become the anusvara (Bopp's " Skr. Gr.," p. 17).

Anunasika (from anu, after, and ndsikd, the nose), is a
still weaker nasal sound than Anusvara ; its weakness is
shown from the fact that it can be followed by I and r. It is
very nearly equivalent to the Fr. n in genre. Such a combi-
nation is generally avoided in French by inserting d, as in
viendrai : compare av^oog for avpoc-

Visarga, h, is an euphonic change of final s and r. It may
also take the place of s before the loc. pi. ending su. The
Visarga that occurs before k and kh is formed by the root of
the tongue and is called G'ihvdmuliya ; that occurring before
p, ph, and a pause, by the palate, and is called Upadhmdmya;
s therefore before labials, is equivalent to the blowing sound/.
We see the same change in other languages : thus the Irish
•J sometimes corresponds to the Welsh/; we have in Greek
the two forms 0///> and 0J7{>, and L. rw/iw, beside ipvBpoQ. We
may explain on this ground the change of final as into 6 in
Sanskrit, through the steps a«, af, av, au, 6.

comparative grammar. 41

§.35. The Vowels.

Sanskrit had no short e or o, though the short a had both
a clear and an obscure sound {Pan. VIII. 4, 68). Short e and
o are similarly wanting in Gothic. Skr. G, is represented in
Greek by a., ^^ o\ and Skr. a by a, tj, tu ; in some cases Skr.
d corresponds to Gr. a^ z, o^ as in cigas = ayog, vdstu = Faaru,
the participial suffix -mdnas = -fisvog (L. -minus) and -fivog
(L. -mnus) in niSifivog, fxipifiva (L. alumnus, colu7nna), dhd-
man = Oifxa., ddru = dopv, g'dnu = yovv (L. geriu), g'ag'dna
= yiy ova, bhdras = <f>6pog, data = Sor jjp, o in t^^o/zEv, &c. = a in
vahdmas, &c. In Bengali a has either become o, or been
lost, as in B. opotyo = Skr. apatya ; B. ontor = Skr. antara. R
is pronounced as W in merrily. It is never original, but has
always been developed from r, preceded or followed by
any vowel ; thus we have trtiya (tertius) from tri, stmomi
= (TTOpwiii, s'rinomi (1 hear) from s'ru, bhrkuti (a frown) from
bhru (an eyebrow), prk'h horn prak'h (to ask), pitr {lom. pitar,
ddtr from ddtdr, pitar and ddtdr being the original forms, as
the accusatives pitoram = iraripa., and ddtdram = EoTtjpa prove.
The vowel r is pronounced exactly as ri; it only occurs in
nouns whose stems end in r, and which lengthen this vowel
after the analogy of other nouns, whose stems end in other
vowels ; thus, pitrn = waTipag, duhitis = Ovyaripag, da-
tmdm = datorum. The vowel I is pronounced as li. It has
been developed from an older r^ and occurs only in the root
kljp (to create), which is derived from hr and the causal p,
which is connected, perhaps, with the root of iroiiu). Bopp
connects E. help, and Benfey L. corpus, with this root. The
long I vowel never occurs, and is merely an invention of the
grammarians.

§. 36. Weight of the Vowels.
A is heavier than «, and u heavier than i; that is, a occurs
in the lightest forms, i in the heaviest, and u in the interme-

42 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

diate. For instance, the terminations -vas, -thas, —tas are
heavier than -»?ii, —si, -ti ; hence we have yundmi (I bind),
yundsi, yundti, but yunwas (we two bind), yunithas, yunitas ;
similarly we have a weakened to u in kurmas (we make),
beside haromi (I make), and in —thus, -tus, the terminations
of the 2nd and 3rd dual of the reduplicated perfect, beside
-4has and -tas of the present. As e is equal to ai, it is lighter
than a, and heavier than i; hence we have S'mi = tlfii, and
imds = t/uEv ; similarly we have in Latin, amicus, inimicus ;
cano, cecini ; jacio, abjicio ; tango, tetigi ; lego, colligo. In open
syllables a becomes i, while in closed ones it either becomes
e or remains a, as in abjectus, inermis, expers, tubicen beside
tubicinis, and contactus, exactus. As u is lighter than a, and
heavier than i, we have calco, conculco ; salsus, insulsus ;
fructifer beside an older fructufer. As labials prefer u, we
find occupo, aucupo, nuncupo, contubemium, &c. The vowel u
in Latin frequently maintains its ground, and does not give
way, as in tutudi, pupiigi. As ae is heavier than i (= ii), and
au than u (= uu) and d, we have queero, acquire; claudo, con-
cludo ; faux, suffoco. Short o in Latin is lighter than u, as we
see from corpus, corporis; jecur, jecoris. The oldest forms of
words are therefore generally distinguished by the retention
of the vowel a ; for example, Skr. k'atvdras and L. quatuor
are older than Gr. riaaaptq, rriavpeg, and Goth. Jidvor ; Skr.
daddmi than ^iSwfii ; Skr. dadhdmi than ridijfii ; Skr. naktam
(by night) than vvicra. Within the limits of the Sanskrit itself
a is frequently reduced to i and t, u and u ; thus giri (mons)
and guru (heavy) from gar ; sthitas = L. status, Gr. araTog ;
sthitis = Gr. aramg ; hirana (gold), Z. zarand ; pita = Gr.
rrarrip ; puras = Gr. irapog ; sfirna from star (stemere) ; pita
(part., praet. pars.) from pd (to drink) ; dirghas = Z. daregkas
= Gr. SoXixoc ; purnas = L. plenum, from par (to fill). A often
vanishes completely, as in santi = L. sunt, from as (to be) ;
g'agmus (3 pi. perf.) from gam (to go). After v and y this
frequently occurs, and then these spirants are vocalized into

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

43

u and I, respectively, as ukta (part, prset. pass.) from vak' (to
speak) and ishta (part, praet. pass.) from ya^ (to sacrifice).

§. 37. GUNA AND VrDDHI.

Guna (quality) consists in prefixing a short a to any
vowel, and Vrddhi (increase) in prefixing a long a. We have
therefore,

Primitive Vowels,
Guna,
Vrddhi,

a d

i

t

u

u

& . .

e

e

6

6

a . .

At

ui

du

du

di

I
al

. .\ &r \ ar \dl

r I r
ar ar

It is only from a comparison of grammatical forms that we
can distinguish the guna of a from its vrddhi ; e. g. by com-
paring papdta (he fell) from pat with vives'a (he entered) from
vis' J we see that a in the former is the guna of a, as S in the
latter is the guna of i.

The guna of i is S, as in emi = eifii ; veda = olSa ; vSsas =
FoIkoq ; s'ete = kutui from si, whence L. eivis. The vrddhi of
i is di, as in vdis'ya (a man of the third class), from vis (to
enter) ; s'diva (a worshipper of Siva) from 's'iva, &c.

The guna of u is o, as in huhodha (he knew) from hudh ;
sunos (gen. sing.) oi sunu (a son), &c. The vrddhi of m is
du, as in hduddha (a follower of the Bauddha religion) from
hudh ; Bdudha, a son of Budha, &c.

These examples are sufficient to show what we mean,
when we speak of the guna or vrddhi of any vowel.

§. 38. The Gutturals.

Skr. ^ is = I. E. A : has = L. quis = Goth, hvas, Gr. kwcj ko-
Tfoov, Ir. cia ; kdla (time), Gr. Kaipogt Goth, hveila ; hdla
(death), Gr. ktj/o, Ir. ceal; kdrd (a prison), L. career; kan
(to shine), L. candela, Goth, skeina (I shine), Ir. cann (the

44 COMPAIL\TIVE GRAMMAR.

full moon). Bopp, Schleicher, and others have asserted
that J9 frequently represents an I. E. k, and that consequently
we find these sounds interchanged in Sanskrit and the cognate
languages : thus we have, Skr. kanth (to mourn), Gr. TrivOog,
TTiTTovOa ; Skr. kars' (attenuare), L. 2^(^^<^o, parens, parvus ;
Skr. ka (who), Gr. Tro-rfpoi/ ; Skr. papa (bad), Gr. kokocj
L. pejor for pepjor ; Skr. pank'an = L. quinqne ; Skr. pak! (to
cook), Gr. ttItttw, L. coquo. Now, I am fully convinced that
p has never been thus developed from an original k ; but that,
wherever these sounds appear to be interchanged, either the
original sound was kv, or else the change is due to assimilation,
and perhaps in one or two cases to a false analogy. Thus
Skr. ka must be derived from an I. E. kva ; for we find
Skr. kva (where), kutra (where), L. quis and Goth, hvas, all
of which point back to an I. E. hoa; Skr. k'atvdras, Gr. irlav-
peg. Lith. keturi, point back to an I. E. kvatvdras, which we
find in L. quatuor; Skr. pank'an, may have been a reduplica-
tion of koan, as L. quinque. In some cases an initial jt> may
have been changed into k or kv by the assimilative power of
a succeeding k or kv, as some assert to have been the case
with L. coquo and quinque : from a comparison, however, of
coquo with Lith. kepejas (a baker), and Gr. aproKOTroc (a
baker), it seems possible that the initial k or kv may be original :
compare L. coquina =popina, culina for cuclina*

Ksh (= ks) corresponds frequently to kt in Greek ; here
either kt was original, and from it ks arose by weakening the
explosive sound to a sibilant, or else ks was original, and s
became t through the assimilating power of the preceding ex-
plosive sound. We have rkshas = apKTog ; takshd = tIktwv ;
kshan (to hurt), Kreivti), KTa-fxevai ; kshi (to rule), Kraopiai ; kshi

* From the fact that this same root, meaning to bake, is found in Skr.,
Gr., and L., Momrasen appears to be mistaken in asserting that the Greeks
and Latins did not practise baking till after they separated from the
parent stock and from each other.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 45

(to dwell), KTiZb) ; aksha (the eye), oKraXXor. Sometimes also
ksh corresponds in Greek to ^, and sometimes ^o (t^, as kshura
(a razor), ^u/uoi/ ; kshud (conterere), ^yw, ^varog, for ^v^toq ;
ksliad (to slaughter), axaZ,it) ; similarly Ave have kshal (to wash)
beside Lith. skalau (I wash), and kshubh (to agitate) beside
A. S. he-scufan (contrudere), G. schiehen. Sh sometimes
disappears, and leaves k or kh, as in kshud (conterere), L.
cudo, incus ; ksham (to endure), KOfiitiu) ; kshudra (small),
Lith. kudikis (infans), Pers. kudek (small) ; khura (a razor),
another form of kshura ; kshetra (campus), Goth, haitlii (ager),
(x. heide; kshaya (a house), Ir. cai (a house). K also sometimes
disappears, and leaves s, as in kshubh (to agitate), W. hwhiau (to
make a sudden push), SI. subati (to agitate) ; and perhaps in
kshvel (se movere), 0. H. G. suillu (turgeo). Ksh, when not
initial, appears often as g in Gothic and English : we have
kdhksh (optare), E, hunger ; pakshin (a bird), Goth, fugls,
Y,. fowl, aksha (the eye), Goth, aw^o, E. eye. Ksh, according
to Bopp, also appears as kr in Latin and Greek : we have
kshapas (night), L. crepus-culum ; kshi (to rule), urukshayas
= tvpvKpdii)v ; kship (to throw), piwroj for Kpnrru) ; kshipra
(celer), Kganrvoq.

Kh has generally been developed from an older k^ some-
times through the aspirating influence of a preceding s, which
has afterwards disappeared : thus we have khang (to limp),
Gr. (TKo^w, O.H.G. hinkan ; L.caligo ; khan (to dig), Gr. y^aivtv,
L. canalis, cuniculus, O.H.G. ginSm (hio) ; khad (to slay), L.c/a-
des, with Z inserted, as in Goth, hlaha (I laugh), G. lachen, E.
laugh, beside Skr. khakkh (to laugh),* khdd (to eat), Ir. caithim
(I eat). Kh also represents an I. E. gh in kha (air), Gr. xaog,
L. halare, and nakha (a nail), Gr. 6vv^, Goth, nagls.

G ^I.E.g: gar (to sound), Gr. yripvw, yXwaaa, L. gal-
lus, garrire. Wherever Skr. g corresponds to b in Greek or

* i is perhaps inserted in L. claudus, Skr. khod (to be lame) ; Ir.
glun, Skr. g'&nu ; Ir. dluimh (smoke), Skr. dhuma.

46 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Latin, the original sound must have hcengv: thus we have
I. E. gvand, Skr. g'ani (a woman), Gr. yvvi) for yFava, Boeot.
(Bavd, Ir. bean (a woman), E. queans queen; I. E. gvam, Skr.
gam (to go), Goth, qvima (I come), L. vetdo for gvenio ; I. E.
gvar, Skr. ^ar (to devour), Gr. (iptoaKU), L. cjru/a, gurges, glutio,
voro for gvoro ; I. E. gvaim, Skr. ^wrw (heavy), Gr. (iapvg,
L. gravis; I. E. ^m, Skr. ^d (a cow), Gr. /3oucj 7a i^ ya-Aa (for
ya-XuKT* which, according to Bopp, meant lac vacdnum, \aKr
being the same word as Skr. d\tgdha,vsy^), L. hos, ceva; I. E.
gvd, Skr. go (the earth), Gr. yva for -yFaa, yaXa for yaFm, 7^
for yaa.

Gh = I. E. gh : stigh (to mount up), Gr. (rrft'xw, A. S. staeger
(a stair) ; Skr. gharma (warm), SI. goreti (ardere).

-fir is a sonant, and therefore cannot have the hard sound
generally given to it by English grammarians, perhaps on
account of its having a hard sound in Bengali. It never
ends a word, and in any other position only stands before
vowels, and semivowels, as in hresh (to neigh), linu (to
hide), Mad (to be glad). When it comes before t or th^ it
changes them into dh or dh^ as in dugdha from duh (to milk),
L. duco, and lidha from lih (to lick), Gr. Xctx^. ^represents
an I. E. gh in hima (snow), Gr. x'<^»' > ^*^^ (g^^^en), Gr. x^o*?*
hyas, Gr. xQig', an I. E. dh in hitas = QiTog; an I. E. bh in
^raA, Vcd. grabh and mahyam (mihi), beside tubhyam (tibi) ;
and an I. E. k in the single case of hrd (the heart).

§. 39. The Palatals.

The palatal mutes and nasals have all arisen from the cor-
responding gutturals ; and the palatal sibilant generally stands
for an original k. It is not known how these letters were

• Max Miiller assents to the first part of this derivation, and compares
with it Gr. (iovrvpov, and Ir. bleachd (milk) for bo-leachdy but he con-
nects XuKT with Skr. raff'as (a clear fluid). The Homeric yXayoc would
then be exactly equivalent to a Skr. goragas.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 47

pronounced in ancient Sanskrit ; k' may have been sounded
either as ty or as ky^ like the cin E. card^ which is frequently-
pronounced as if it were written cyard.

K = I. E. A, kd = L. que^ pe, in quippe, Goth, uh, h in
hvasuh (quisque), tiih (neque) ; k'akshus (the eye), Ir. cais
(the eye) ; k'ank' (vacillare), L. cunctari, Ir. ceangtha (they
go) ; k'durya (furtum), Ir. coire (trespass) ; k'and (to shine),
L. candeo, accendo, scintilla^ Goth, skeina (I shine) ; kfal (to
move), Gr. KiXofiai, kIXtjc* L- celer, procella, Ir. caill (a path) ;
/;'a/ (nugari), Ir. cal (a joke); k'arman (corium), Gr. -^opiov,
L. corium, calceus (?) Ir. croicionn (a skin). In reduplicated
syllables k' takes the place of k, as in k'akdra (feci), from kr.

K'h = l,^. sk, k'hid (to cut), Gr. aKiBvrtfxi, L. scindo, Goth.
skaida (I separate), Ir. scaithim (I cut off) ; gaklihdtni (I go)
for ga-skdmi ; praJch (to ask) from L. precor, I. E. prask.

G' = 1. E. g ; g'dnu = Gr. ^oVw ; g'val (to burn), Ir. ^ea/
(bright), gual (coal), E. coal; g'var (to be sick), L. a-ger^
Ir. ^wri (pai^) > 9^^ (to know), Gr. lyvoiv {y)vovg, L.
(^) nosco, gnarus, i-ynoro, E. know, can, Ir. ^nia (knowledge) ;
^W/i (to desire), L. gustos, Goth, kiusu, E. choose, Ir. ^W5 (de-
sire) ; gash (to kill), Ir. gus (death), and perhaps L. vasto for
gvasto, as vivoi'ov gvivo ; &c. ; g'an (to produce), Gr. ytyvofxai,
L. gigno, genus, E. Hw, Ir. genim (I beget) ; g'anaka (father),
from last root, G. konig, E. Hn^. In reduplicated syllables g'
takes the place of ^, as mg'igdmi= Gr. (5i(5r)fii.

S' nearly always represents an I. E. k, and consequently
we find corresponding to it ^ in Greek and Latin, and h in
Gothic. The Lettic and Slavic languages, on the other hand,
nearly always present the sibilant, although the guttural is
sometimes found, as in Lith. akmen, SI. kamen, Skr. as'man.
We have was' (to perish), Gr. vIkvq, L. nex, nox (the dying
away of day) ; S'ri (the deity of plenty), L. Ceres ; s'ravas

* See Ellis' "Phonetics," p. 56; and Max Miiller, vol. ii., p. 142.

48 COilPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

= KXiog ; s'vas (to sigh), L. ques-tus, E. wheeze ; s'veta
(white), Goth, hveits, E. white, wheat, " the white plant" ;
s'ata (a hundred), Gr. iKarov for iv-Karov, L. centum,
Goth. hu7idf W. Jcant; s'iras and s'lrsha (the head), Gr. Koptrrj,
Kapa, L. cerebrum; s'roni (the hip), L. clunis : mrs' (to
touch), L. mulcere ; sad (to fall), L. cadere ; as'man (a stone),
as'mara (stony), Gr. aKfuov, O. N. hamar (saxum, mal-
leus), E. hammer ; as'vas = Gr. "ikkoq, lirirog, L. eguus, Goth.
aihvs, 0. S. e/iu, Ir. ech ; ds'u (quickly), Gr. wkvq, L. ocius, ac-
cipiter, aquila ; vis (a man), E. wight ; s'ai'ik (to doubt),
L. cunctari ; bhrs'am (quickly), L. frequens ; s'ana (hemp),
O. H. G. hanaf ; sans (to say, praise), L. censeo ; s'apha (a
hoof), E. hoof ; s'van (a dog), Gr. kvwv, Lydian KavSauXrjc
(o-icwX/\o7ri/tKr»)e), Median (TTraKo, Z. s'pdnem (ace. sing.),L. canis,
Goth, hunds, F,. hound. In some Sanskrit forms we see the ori-
ginal k kept as in adikshat = tdu^t from dis' (to point out) ; dik-
shu, loc. pi. of dis' (a region of the sky). S' sometimes takes the
place of an original s. This is a change not easily explained, but
in all cases 1 believe that it arises either from assimilation, or
from the presence of a neighbouring guttural. The second s' in
s'as'a (a hare), from s'as (to leap), represents an original s, and
has arisen from the assimilative power of the first s' ; the I. E.
form was kasa, whence G. hase^ E. hare; yet we have the follow-
ing gloss from Hesychius, ksk^voc Xaywovg KpriTig, where the
second k seems to point back to an I. E. A. In s'vas'uras = Gr.
tKvpog, h.socer, the first 8 is due to the assimilative power of the
second s'. In the following cases s' has sprung from s, through
the influence of the neighbouring guttural, s'akrt (dung),
Gr. (TKwp, (TKarog, L. stercus ; s'ushka (dry)*, Z. huska, L. sic-
cus ; s'amhuka, borrowed from Gr. aa/ifivKT} ; kes'a (hair),

* Bcnfey explains the s' here by the assimilating influence of the fol-
lowing sh ; but then how would he explain s'akrt, &c. ?

COMPARATIVE GRAJIMAR. 49

E. hair ; kSs'ara (juba leonis),* L. ccesaries. On this prin-
ciple L. sacer has been connected with s'ak (to be able), but
wrongly, if the 0. N. hagna (prodesse) be from the latter root.
The L. saccharum and E. sugar have been borrowed from
Skr. s'arkard (gravel, clayed or candied sugar), in which s'
= I. E. k, if L. calculus, calx, Gr. KpoKt}, KpoKoXij be connected
with it. S' was pronounced either as ch in G. mich, or as ssi
in E. session. "No simple s can be pronounced at the pala-
tal point. The letter s is formed by the simple friction of the
breath between the upper and lower teeth, and is in conse-
quence always dental. The rushing sound of the English sh
or the German sch is formed in the hollow space left between
the teeth and the palatal point, and may thus be regarded
both as a dental and as a palatal sound" (Lepsius' " Standard
Alphabet," p. 70).

The palatal nasal was pronounced as gn in Fr. campagne,
or as n in E. new.

§. 40. The Cerebrals.

The. presence of the mutes and nasal of this class in San-
skrit has been generally ascribed to the influence of the Non-
Aryan races of India, from whom these letters are supposed
to have been borrowed. Buhler-j- has, however, completely
overthrown this theory, and has pointed out that by far th«
greater number of these cerebrals is produced either by the
direct change ofr, sh, into them, or by the change of dentals
into the corresponding cerebrals through the influence of r,
r, r, sh, and consequently that cerebralization is entirely an
Aryan proceeding, rooted in the ancient phonetic system of

• Bopp derives hair for kes'ara by throwing out the s. He deduces
kes'a from ke, loc. of ^a (the head), which is found in Gr. Ko-fxtj, L. co-ma.,
ca-pillus, and s'a for s'aya from si (to lie) ; kes'a would then be " quod ia
capite jacet." If this derivation be correct, s' is original here.

t Consult Appendix A.

E

50 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

the language. In Prakrit these cerebral sounds have fre-
quently supplanted the corresponding dentals, as in hadi
= Skr. prati (irpoTl, ttoW); padhama (first) = Skr. prathama.
In transcribing English words the Hindus at present substi-
tute cerebrals for dentals, as in DireJctar, Gavamtnent, &c.
Tliis shows us that the ordinary English pronunciation of
these words is more cerebral than dental.

J) has sprung from sd in mda (a nest) from ni (under) and
sad (to lie), and therefore means " what lies under ;" L. nidus,
E. nest, Ir. nead, W. nyih; pid (to press) = pisd = api-sad,
compare Trtc^w = eTrt-o-eSyw ; bad and vdd (to bathe) = vosd
*=ava-sad, from ava (down), and sad.

aSA = I. E. 5 ; rish (to burn), L. nro for iiso, us-si; tarsh (to
be thirsty), Gr. repao/jLai, L. torreo for torseo, E. thirst. /SA be-
fore 5 becomes k, as in dv&kshi (thou hatest).

§.41. The Dentals.

T= I. E. < ; ta, Gr. to, L. is-te ; tvam, L. tn; pat (to fly),
Gr. TTSTOfiai ; bharanti = Gr. (pipovri, ^povai, L. ferunt.

Tk = 1. ^. t; stJiag (to cover), Gr. ortyw, L. tego ; silid (to
stand), L. sto ; prath (to extend), Gr. TrXan'c ; asthi (a bone),
Gr. bariov ; ratha (a car), L. rota, E. rather.

Z>= I. E. cZ; jjarf (a foot), Gr. ttouc* ttoSoc; f?«« (to lift),
E. toss; dar (to tear), Gr. Hqu), E. fgar ; dam (to tame), Gr.
dafxau), L. dome, E. tame.

Dh = I. E. rf/i; dhuma (smoke), Gr. Bvfiog, L. fumvs;
dhar (to support), Gr. Opavocj L. firmus, fortis ; dhrdkh (ares-
cere), \t. f races (lees of oil), j'Zoces (lees of wine), Y.. dregs,
dry ; dhd (to place*), Gr. TiBr\m, L. con-do, E. rfo, Joowi ;
radhu (a wife), from a root which appears in Zend as vad

• The late Professor Siegfried derived from this root the Keltic datl
(judicium), whence were borrowed, according to Lottner, E. tuttle,
G. tadel, the termination -// being = Gr. -rpov, L. -trum.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 51

(to lead), and which has in Lithuanian the sense of to marry
(uxorem ducere), L. vas, vad-is (a contract, as marriage was
perhaps the earliest kind of contract known), E. wedding.
Dh'ia sometimes reduced to A, as in hitaa (part. pret. pass, of
dhd) = OtTOQ ; -hi (termination of 2 pers. sing, imper. act.) for
-dhi after vowels,* as pdhi (tuere), -dhi is still kept after
consonants, as addJii (eat), and in Vedic as s'rudhi = KXvdi.

S = I. E. s ; saptan, L. septem; svid (to sweat), Gr. Idpwg,
L. sudo, E. sweat; as (to be), L. esse. S is subject to many-
changes in Sanskrit ; thus after k, r, and all the vowels, ex-
cept a and a, it becomes sh. In certain other cases it is re-
presented by h, r, and s; but these need not be noticed here,
as they properly belong to the special Sanskrit Grammar. The
change of s into r occurs also in other languages. In the La-
conian dialect, final or became p, as rip, iriaop, for rig, irWog ;
and in Latin 5 between two vowels became r, as eram for
esam, quorum = Skr. keshdm (sh for s, on account of preceding
«), quarum, = Skr. kdsdm. S has frequently an aspirating in-
fluence on a following consonant, as in sthag, Gr. oreyw ; sthd,
L. sto ; sphdy (to increase),^ Gr. (nrdio, L. spatium ; asthi,
Gr. 6(TT£ov.

Bf = I. E. r : mar (to die), L. mori. It is sometimes omit-
ted in Sanskrit after an initial consonant, as in bhang' (to
break), L. frango; bhiig' (to enjoy and endure), L. fruor,
E. brook; g'hilli (a cricket), L. gryllm, G. grille. We find a
similar omission in other languages, as in Pkr. padhama
= Ski. prathama ; E. speak - G. sprechen.

£1= I. E. r, lup (to break), L. rumpo ; lok' (to see) from

• The exceptions are edhi (be), s'udhi (rule) g'uhudhi (offer). Lidhi
(lick) is for liddhi.

f Schleicher and others place r and I among the cerebrals ; but, as
they appear to be closely connected with the dentals, it is perhaps better
to place them among the latter. This question, however, requires a much
more complete investigation than it has yet received.

£2

52 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

ruch (to shine) ; halp (to prosper), from karp. Z, = I. E. Z ;
see §. 21.*

iV= I. E. n ; nas (to die), viKvg, L. noceo ; nara (a man),
avr]p, L. iVero. iV is frequently changed into another nasal
for phonetic reasons ; thus we have puma (full), where n
takes the place of n, on account of the preceding r, and in ge-
neral the nasal belongs to the same class as the following con-
sonant, as yung'anti = L. jungunt, lumpaii = L. rumpit.

§.42. The Labials.

P = I. E. p ; pati (a master), Gr. Sco-TrdrT/e (lit. ' a master
of slaves,' Skr. ddsa, a slave) ; pitar, Gr. Trar/jp ; pa (to drink),*
Gr. TTi'vw, L. potus ; pyai (to increase), pivan (fat), Gr. Trttov,
TTtap, L. pinguis, 'E.fat; pis' (to adorn), p^salas (beautiful)
= Gr. TTotictXocj p% (to putrefy), Gr. irvoq, irvdw, L. pus,
putris, E. /ou/; joH (to love), Gr. irpaog, E. friend; pas'u
(cattle), Gr. itCjv (?), L. pecus, Goth, faihu, A. S. /<?oA, E. /<?«.
P/t has generally arisen from an I. E. p, perhaps through
the influence of a preceding s, as in sphatika (crystal), G. spath;
spMit (to burst), E. split; sphuv (to tremble, to strike), Gr.
ntTTratpoj ; Skr. phena (foam), L. spuma, E. foam ; phaJa
(fruit) for «pa?a, lit. 'what may be split,' or from hhala^ h.flos,
E. bloom.

B= I. E. b (§. 22), or = I. E. bh (§. 22).

BA = I. E. bh ; bhar (to bear), Gr. (ftipu), h.fero ; bhid (to
cleave), L. fndo, E. bite; abki (towards), Gr. afxtpl, E. by.
Bh is in some cases reduced to h, as in grah (to seize), from
Yed. grabh, mahyam (to me) = L. mihi, beside tiibhyan = L. tibi.

* L does not exist in Zend. The Chinese, on the other hand, always
use I for r, as Eulopa for Europe, KiUissetu for Christ, Tanielika for
America. The New Zealanders have no I. They say Hota for Zo/, ^o-
romona for Solomon.

t P here may represent an I. E. bh, if L.^bibo, E. i»eer, be from this
root. We have a trace of the b in Skr. pibami (I drink;.

COMPAKATIVE GRAMMAR. 53

Fallows consonants to stand after it, which is hardly ever
the case with y. It is frequently interchanged with h. In drapsa
(a drop), from drav ( dru gunated), the v is changed into p
on account of the following hard s, as in Mod. Gr. aKXa^a from
t(cXau(Ta. The interchange of 6 and v is ot common occurrence,
as L. habere, Fr. avoir, h.cantaham, It.cantava; berber (in Sa-
lian Hymn) = fervere ; Vesuvius = Bta(5iog ; -ber in Septem-
ber, Skr. vara (time) ; Vesontio = Besangon. Bopp considers
that V has been hardened into a guttural in the following cases :
Skr. g'lv (to live), L. vivo, vixi, E. quick, Skr. bhdyavdmi (I
make to be) = L. facio ; Skr. dSvaras = L. levir, A. S. tdcor,
O. H. G. zeihur ; Skr. naus = Gr. vavg, L. navis, A. S. naca,
O. H. G. naclio. In this opinion he appears to be mistaken ;
and it is far more likely that an original guttural has fallen
out in levir and vivo, than that v should have been hardened
into one ; as to facio, it is not from bhdvaydmi ; and in the
case of A. S. naca, we have a different termination from the
va in ndu, which is for snd-va. V, according to Bopp, is some-
times changed into I, as in L. -lent = Gr. -Fevr = Skr. -vant ;
Skr. svadus (sweet) = Lith. saldus (sweet) ; Skr. srapnas (sleep)
= Gr. vTTvog = E. sleep* Similarly v becomes r, as in L. eras
= Skr. s'vas ; L. ploro = Skr. pldvaydmi ; Kr. rpi = Skr. tvdm ;
Goth, driusan (to fall)= Skr. dhvans; 0. H. G. pirumes = Skr,
bhavdmas ; 0. H. G. scrirumes = Skr. s'rdvaydmas ; Ir. raidim
(I say), Goth, rasda (speech), Skr. vad (to speak).

Jtf = I. E. m : manas = Gr. fikvog, L. mens ; smar (to re-
member, L. memor ; as'vam = L. equum, ; sydm = L. szVw.

§. 43. When one consonant follows another, the law that

* Notwithstanding the parallel case of Lith. saldus = Skr. svadus, the
'connexion of E. sleep with Skr. svapna is very unlikely, on account both
of the long vowel (Goth, slepan O. H. G. sldfan) and the p, which should
be /, according to Grimm's law. Moreover, the root svap appears iu
O. N. soefn (somnus), 0. H. G. swehjan (sopire), A. S. sicejian. Lottner
connects E. sleep with O. H. G. slaph (languidus).

54 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

governs them is this, ' sonants follow sonants only, and surds
surds only :' thus vdk' (speech), inst. pi. vdgbhis, yunag'mi (I
join), yunakti (he joins) ; admi (I eat), atsi (thou eatest).
Only one consonant is permitted to end a word ; when seve-
ral consonants occur together, all but the first are thrown off:
thus, vdk', nom. sing, vdk for vdksh, and this for vdk-s. Tenues
alone are allowed as final consonants, the mediae and aspirates
being changed into the corresponding tenuis ; but when this
final tenuis comes before a word beginning with a sonant or
a vowel, it becomes the corresponding sonant, the tenues being
therefore retained only before a pause and a following tenuis ;
thus harit (green), mud (joy), yudh (a fight), become hunt,
mut, and yut before a pause ; but we have harid hhavati (viri-
dus est), mud bhavati (gaudium est), yud asti (pugna est). For
further information on this subject, the reader is referred to
the special Sanskrit Grammar.

( 55 )

CHAPTER V.

The Greek Alphabet.*
§. 44. Tabular View of the Sounds.

unasp.

asp.

sard.

son.

surd.

Gutt. K

y

X

Pal.

Cer.

Dent, r

8

9

Lab. IT

13

1>

SEMIVOWELS.

VOWELS.

Spirants.

Nasals.

r & l-sounds.

surd. son.

son.

son.

y

a dl \
« t J • 1

> out

vv y

{ov) J

F

V

(P.X)?

Z, ^, and i// were called aw/i^wva StTrXa ; but Z, differs from ^
and ;// in this, that it is a consonantal diphthong, being equiva-
lent properly to dy, while ^and \p are merely signs for ice andTr^.
It is a mistake to suppose that Z, is equivalent to So- ; for such
a combination is impossible, as 8 is a sonant, and a a surd.
Before the introduction of the symbols ^ and \p, the Greeks
frequently used ^a and <^a instead of them. The Romans also
must have aspirated the k and tt in their pronunciation of ^
and \p ; for Priscian* writes, " multo moUiorem et volubiliorem
sonitum habet ip quamps vel bs ;" and again, " sicut ergo ^ me-
lius (mollius ?) sonat quamps vel hs, sic x etiamquam gs vel cs."
In Zend a similar phenomenon occurs ; thus the nom. sing, of
ap (aqua) is a/s, and of vale (vox), vdkhs. S seems in some
cases to have been soft, as in a^ivvvpn, aa^oXog, fiiayw, vayt],
and the ^olic SSeuc for Zevg, advyog for l^vyog, (iph^a for
pi<:ia. Plato placed o- among the acpwva. He says, to &iyfxa

* Bohtlingk (K. Z., vol. xv., p. 148), however, considers that Pris-
cian means that t|/ sounded as bz, and x as g-z, as in Fr, examen.

56 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Twv CKfttJvivv lari, \p6(pog rig /lovov, cilov avpiTTOixrijg t^c
■y\(i)TTtiQ. "Atfxova, however, in Plato's language, included both
the semivowels (^wv/jevto /utv ou, 6v fxivroi ye a<f)doyja), and
the mutes (at^Boyya) : consult Plato, Kratyl. 424, C.

§. 45. Pronunciation of the Vowels.

Y was originally a pure u, but in early times it became u.
This was the first beginning of that tendency in Greek to-
wards allowing the i-sound to predominate over the other
vowels, which so strongly characterizes Modern Greek. When
V became u, the pure w-sound was expressed by ov. This
pure sound was retained by the Boeotians ; they wrote tov, or
Tovv for av, KOVfAa for Kv/ma, y\ovKOv for -yXuKV, &c. In the
Laconian dialect we also find roCvri for au, Kopova for Kapva,
fioviai for /xvlai, &c. In Mod. Gr. uhas the sound of i; but it
could not have had this sound in classical Greek, for it was pro-
nounced with contracted lips {/xvovTeg to. x«tXi}), and it is im-
possible to pronounce a pure i in that position. The old pure
sound of u was kept* in the diphthongs av, iv, and ov, for
these must have arisen in early times, before v had become u ;
and in the cases where v represents F, it must have had the
sound of the pure u. Moreover, if v in these diphthongs had
been pronounced u, the Mod. Gr. pronunciation av, ev, ov,
would be inexplicable. We find also on inscriptions (jxoyetv,
Eof/oycTijCj aoTOvg, &C., for (ptvyetv, Evfpyirrjg, avrovg, &C.,
which forms teach us the same fact. Ow in a later period lost
its diphthongal pronunciation, and became a pure u; this
could not have happened, had u in ov been pronounced as u.
This is corroborated by the fact that the junction of o and v
never forms the diphthong ou, but that they are pronounced
separately, as in oXiyoiJTrvog. The old name of 6 fiixpov was
o';, and at Athens, before 01. 100, o was always written in place

• Dietrich, in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. 48.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 57

of the later ov, where this ov arose either from contraction, or
from mere lengthening, whether arising from the falling out
of a consonant, or from any other cause, wherever, therefore,
the Doric had w : on the other hand, ov was written wherever
V was original, whether as representing F or for some other
reason ; thus we have rog for towcj from rovg, ek to koivo for
Ik tov Koivov, &c., but always ouk and ovrog, in both of which
words the Doric has also ov* In early times o was used to
express both the long and short clear o and the long and
short obscure o. The latter sound became u {ov), the former
0* (= oo) . The clear sound prevailed in early times, and hence
we have Xtwv, Xiywv, &c. for Aeovrc, Xeyovrg, &c. ; for o was
lengthened to compensate for the throwing out of the conso-
nants at a time when it still had the clear sound. The augment
£ before o coalesced with this o into to, for this change like-
wise occurred at an early period. On the other hand, in
Tovg for Tovg, Xiyovai for Xiyovri, the v remained in long ; and
when it was thrown out o had become obscure, and therefore
the M-sound (ov) took its place. Similarly in Old Latin, o had
both a clear and an obscure sound : the obscure o became u,
as in legunt, vulgus, from O. L. legont, valgus, while the clear o
remained unchanged, as in colo, honestus. When o was suc-
ceeded by a vowel, it in some cases seems to have had the
sound of w ; thus we have, oa for the Persian wah, "Oa^og
for Fa^oc, oaaig from Ar. wadi, Soav for SFrjv, Ko'ivTiog for
Quinctivs, and perhaps in olarpog, the gadfly, so called from
its whizzing noise.

As o was written ov before the Archonship of Eukleides,
so £ was written for ft. Et was however written in full where-
ever the t was original, as in txH, \iiog, ttoXh (dat. sing.) ;
but where a arose either from contraction or any other cause,
£ is found, as in ttoAec for iroXug, epyaarai for tlpyaarai, kAe-
yeveg for KXeiyivi]g, evdevai for evdeivai. In this latter case
the -iEolians wrote rj for n, as in avfKpiprjv, \iip, rpf/c- We

* Dietrich, in K. Z., vol. xiv., p. 53.

58 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

find one exception to this rule ; for on inscriptions we find
£t7r£v for tlirev and eiTrelv, though the root Fett contains no i
originally ; the ^Eolians also wrote aiirriv for elTreiv. E had two
sounds in early Greek, the one approaching a (e"), the other
approaching i (e') ; e", when lengthened, became 7/, and e*, ei.
The former sound was older than the latter ; and hence, when
phonetic changes requiring e to be lengthened occurred in
early times, it became ij, whereas in changes of later origin
e» became ei. Thus we have ^p-)(£To, riOeXov, beside eT^^ov
(= eatxov), eiTTOfj.riv (= eFettojutjv), elpyaafiai (= FefepyacTfiai),
for the consonants in these cases were not thrown out till late ;
-npi -nv, -VQ (ill alOfip, rdpriv, iiiyevfig), for -£pc> -£«^C> -«»?>
beside -eig (in gaping, rldaig), for -evtcj as in the former
cases the nom. sing, o- was early lost, while in the latter v re-
mained in till a later period.

The Boeotlc is a stage in advance of the Attic, for in it we
find £t for 1/, as in EjSSo^EiKovra, where -juEt- for -/ua- must
have passed through the stage -fxr}-t Trivtig for Trlvrjc, tiQuixl
for Tidrifxi ; rj for at, as in Krj for Km, Tvirofxri for Tvirrofiai ;
and t for ei, as in Xiyig for XlyEtc* 174 for aUi. While ei in
Greek, and ei in Latin gradually approached t in pronuncia-
tion, the English t conversely is pronounced as ei ; similarly,
while ov in Greek and ou in Latin approached u, the N. H. G.
au has been developed from the M. H. G. u, as in Iiaus from
hus. H in classical Greek never could have had the sound
of z, for the bleating of sheep is represented by /3^. The
diphthongs av and 01 were probably pronounced as E. ou and
ee ; for in Aristophanes (Vesp. 903), a dog's bark is au, av, and
a bird's note is ttoT (Aves, 227), compare Y.. peioit.

§. 46 Pronunciation of the Aspirates.'

The aspirates were originally hard sounds ; for before the
introduction of the signs, B, X' 0> ^^J were written, TH,

• Consult Raumcr, " Grcsammelte sprachwisscnschaftlichc schriflcn,"
p. 96 ; and Curtius, " Grundziigc," p. 370.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 59

KH, nn, as in EnEYKHOMENOS, EKOHANTOl, on the

Columna Naniana ; moreover, we find them reduplicated by
the tenues, as in Tidrjjut, KexvKa ; and in addition, when the
Ionic dialect separated from the parent stock, they must have
been hard, for we frequently find them represented in it by
the tenues. These hard aspirates were originally soft, and
traces of this fact still manifest themselves, as in ^i^aKvij
= JJiddKvri, TeXxtvEc = QeXyXvec, ^t'jSo/itat for ^efiiofiat, an irre-
gularly reduplicated form of the same root as the Skr. bhi
(timere). Curtius attempts to account for the origin of these
hard aspirates from the I. E. gh, dh, and bh, by supposing
that the h in these latter was hard, and that it assimilated to
itself the preceding medise, just as /3 in R. j3Aa/3 becomes tt
before r in ^Xa-n-rog. This explanation is, however, perfectly
\intenable. The aspirates were also in classical Greek actu-
ally double sounds, as we see (1) from the moveableness of
the aspiration in reduplicated syllables, in 6pi\p(o from rpl^w,
in Ion. ivOavra = IvTavda, Ion. kiSmv = ■)(Jltu)v, in a^' ov from
air ov, &c. ; (2) from the way in which Barbarians pronounced
Greek, as alrQiav, irvXa^i (Thesmoph. 1001, seq.), oqvito
(Aves, 1678) ; (3) from the way in which they were transli-
terated in the older Latin, where t = 0, c = \, p ox h = <^, q&
in tesaums, Corintus, tiasus^ calx (= ^aXt^), Niconuicus,
Aciles, Poinos (= $oTvi^), Pilemo (= ^iXi'imov), Nicepor (= Nt-
Kij^opoe), purpura (= Trop^upa), Burrus (= Ilvppog), Bruges
(= ^puyEc) ; (4) Dionysius of Halikarnassus states that in the
case of the aspirates there was a irpoaOfiKri tov Trvivfiarog ;
(5) in Modern Greek in some cases the tenuis represents the
old aspirate, which could not be accounted for if 0, -^^ 0 had
been spirants, as ekw, aTOKaX,op.ai, teki/itijc in Rhodian dialect,
Tikto = BiXu) among Asiatic Greeks, and XtuTEpovw = fXtv^e-
pow, in the Peloponnesus. Those who disagree with the
preceding view of the aspirates bring forward in support of
their opinion, that they were not true aspirates, the fact that
we find such combinations as ^X, x^» 0^) X^ ( "^ ^ anciently),

60 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

and ask how could these be pronounced if B, ^, and 0 were
true aspirates. But this is a very unsafe foundation on which
to build ; for we are not likely to be good judges of what the
ancient Greeks could pronounce, and the mere fact that we
are unable to pronounce a certain combination of letters does
not prove that others could not pronounce it. The statement
of Priscian, that the only difference between / and 0 was that
<p was pronounced j^ts lahris, only proves that in his time 0
had become a spirant —not, however, a labiodental like / and
Mod. Gr. ^, but rather an interlabial.

§.47. The Vowels.

An original a often vanishes, as in ylyvofiai for yiyevofiai,
from K, ysi'i Skr. g'an ; ir'nrTU) for TrnreTu) from E. irtT, Skr.
pat (to fall) ; Trarpoc = Hom. iraripog. It is generally retained,
when it is initial, as in tafnv = Skr. sinas (we are), L. sumus ;
iiijv = Skr. sydm, L. stem.

a = 1. E. d: airo = L. ab = Skr. apa (away) ; aKU)v, L. acus,
odes ; BoKpVf Skr. as'ru(sL tear) ; ayo), L. ago, Skr. ag' (to go).

o = I. E. am and an : Inra = Skr. saptan ; ivvia - Skr. na-
van; BtKa = Skr. das'an; iSti^a = Skr. adihsham; iroBa = Skr.
padam, iraripa = Skr. pitaram.

t = I. E. c?: t<TTi = Skr. asti; <pip(o = Skr bhardmi; rir-
rapeg = Skr. k'atvdras ; <p\iyu}, L. Jlagro ; iraripa = Skr. pi-
taram; t\iQ, L. anguis. We find t and a standing beside
each other in many grammatical forms : Ttfivu), trafiov ; TptTrw,
trpaTTOV ; (TTpi<p<jj, laTpa<pr]v ; oipKW, topaKOv ; 7ra<T\(i), iriiao-
pai. In the dialects e and a are frequently interchanged ;
(TTpt<j><i), Dor. arpacjxjj ', rtjuvtu, Dor. rapvitt ; Trts^oi, Dor. Tria^u) ;
"Aprtpig, Dor. "Aprapig ; lepog, Dor, lapog ; 5rc, JEo\. ora ;
KpuTog, ^ol. KptTog ; Oapaog, -iEol. Oipaog ; XtyoptOa, -<Eol.
Aeyo/isOfv; jSapaflpov, Arkad. t^ipiOpuv, lon.lSiptOpov; (5a\\io,
Arkad ^iXXw ; apaijv, lon.tpcrijv ', bpau), Ion, o/oto;. As Dor.
a = Alt. £, so Doric a = Ion. and Alt. jj, wherever this »j re-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 61

presents an original a. So also tj = Skr, a, as T(0»j/ii = Skr.
dadhdmi.

o = I. E. d,: vt'Foc = Skr. navas (new) ; ttotoc = Skr, pa-
thas (a path) ; irotrtc = Skr. patis (a master) ; fiivog = Skr. 7n<2-
nas (mind). In the dialects we find o and a frequently inter-
changed : ftKofft, Dor. FiKari ; rprnKoatot, Dor. rpiaKOTioi ;
ovetpov, Kret. avatpoy ; riaaapec, Dor. Ttropccj where o per-
haps represents the original Fa ; viro, -lEol. uTra ; avd, -^ol. 6v ;
|3paT^£wc> -^ol. j3po;(£ft>c ; EKOTov, Arkad. Ikotov ; KapSta,
Kypr. KopKa ; o/o'pwScTi;, Ion. a/o'pwScti'. Similarly we find
XiaLva (= Xtavya) beside Xicjv, St. Xeovr ; reKratva (=T£icravya)
beside r^icrov ; a/xa beside ofiog, &c. As Dor. a= Att. o, so Doric
a= Att. w, as in Dor. Trparoc for Trpwroc, Dor. Oeapog for Oewpog.
So also (u = Skr. a, as in StSw/zt = Skr. daddmi. In some cases
£ and o are interchanged oSovrfc, -^ol. £Sovr£c ; oBvvih ^Eol.
fSuva ; K£/oKupa, Dor. KopKvpa ; 'AttoXXwv, Dor. 'AtteXXcuv ;
6/3oXoc> Dor. oSeXoc ; 'Op;^o/i£voc» Boeot. 'Ep;^OjU£vdc-

t = I. E. i: t-fjiev, R. t, Skr. imasi (we go) ; Xeittw, R. XtTr,
Skr. n^' (to leave), L. linguo; bfiixjuv, R-jt/iXs Skr. mih (min-
gere).

t = 1. E. a : a then passed through the intermediate stage f,
and in many cases we find side-forms containing both f and t :
thus we have tXXa) beside eXww, Kipvrifxi beside Kepdvvvfii,
KTivvujut beside Kriivb), KTa/xevai, TriXvojuat beside tteXoc, KLTvr]fiL
beside TriTavvvfii, ttitvu) beside TrecFilv, tadi beside aari, viaao-
fxaL beside Ne'trrw/o, t^w beside f^og. In the following cases
these side-forms in £ do not exist : "ttttoc = Skr. as'vas, L.
equus ; Kpivu) beside L. cer7io ; pit^a beside L. radix. I = a in
reduplicated present tenses, as riBrifxi = Skr. dadhdmi, ir'nTTb)
from R. TTET, tIktm from R. tek for renew. E and t are frequently
interchanged in the dialects : BcBOt. twv = hov, R. tg ; Lak. aia
= 0fa ; Kret. Bi6g = Oeog ; Dor. laria, Ion. tartrj = farta ; Arkad.
Iv = tv ; xP'^'^^oc and similar adjectives in -£oe end in -log in
^olic. In jEol.T£proc = rptTOC5 and^ol. UeppafiogioT Tlpiafiog,
Ahrens considers that i is changed into £ on account of the fol-

62 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

lowing p, as in L. tertius, and pronunciation of E. third.
Although an I. E. a can thus be weakened to i, the converse
never occurs ; this rule has long been known ; for in the
" Etymologicum Magnum" we are told that ovBiirore to i eiQ a
TpeuBTai.

u=I. E. It : <pv(t)j Skr. bhu (to be) ; ojkvq = Skr. ds'us (quick) ;
Kvyov = Skr. yugam (a yoke) ; kAvcu, Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; suffix
- TV in l^orjTvg, &c., = Skr. Lith. and L. -tu.

u = I. E. a : a then passed through the intermediate stage
o, and in numerous examples o and v stand beside each other,
while the Latin corresponding forms have sometimes not ad-
vanced beyond the o-stage, though, as we have already re-
marked, the Latin has generally advanced to the w-stage, even
in cases where the Greek still keeps o ; Xvkoq, L. lupus, from
an I. E. varkas, as may be inferred from Skr. vrka (wolf) ;
fiopfivp(jj,Tj. mnrmur, Skr. mai^mara (murmur) ; fivKx], L. molo,
Lith. malunas (a mill), which are all derived by Max Miiller
from an L E. mar (to rub down), with which he also connects
fiapvafiai, /MwXoc "Aprjoc (the toil and moil of Ares), /uwAb);//
(a weal), L. mors, &c. ; vv^, L. nox, Skr. naktam (by night) ;
avv, KvVi L. con, cum, Skr. sam (with) ; 6vv^, Skr. nakha (a
nail) ; iravriyvpiq beside ayopa ; kukXoc = Skr. k'akras (a
wheel) ; avwvvpoQ beside ovopa, Skr. ndman (a name) ; the
suffix -rup in papTvp beside -Top, nom. -ra>p, as in L. daturus
beside dator ; irpvTaviq from tt/oo (TrpoVavtoc is found on a
Lesbian inscription), the termination being found in £7r»j6 -
ravdc, and L. diutinus. In ywr] v represents an older Fa, as
we see from Boeot. /3ara. In yEolic v frequently takes the
place of o : ovvpa = ovofxa ; vpoioQ = opoiog ; awv = airb ;
'YSuffdEUf ==" 'OSutrcrcwc > "YXvpirog = "OXvpirog ; vptftaXog =
ofKpaXog; v(T^og=6tioQ ', vpvig= opvtg; pi)'yig = poytg ; nvTapog
= iroTOfiog ; Stvpv = Btvpo. In ^olic we also find v for
o) : TtKTvv = TtKTwv', xiXvvi] = x^^^*"* (comparc 0a»|O = L.
fur) : and oi for v in the single case of j^potao'c = xpvaog.
We find V for a in JEol. avp^ = (rapt, and Lak. eyKVTit =tyKa-

COMPAKATIVE GRAMMAR. 63

TO (entrails) ; and v for o in Ion. pvtpiw = po^cw. The Boeotic
dialect often substitutes v for ot^ and (^, as in Fvkoc = PoiKog,
Ba/iv = Srifii^ : in these cases the o-sound became u, and then
ui became u. The old Latin oitier must similarly have passed
through uitier in becoming uti : the only difference being that
the Latin u is a true u, while the Greek u is ii. It is remark-
able that the Bceotic also agrees with the Latin in sometimes
representing oi by oe, as in ^lovvaoi. = ^lovva^s^. We find v for
o in the Arkadian genitive in ~av (t^afiiav) from -ao, -dog
= Skr. -ay as*

The old u having become v (m), in some cases advanced a
step farther and became i : (pXrvg (a father), ^truw from R. (j)v ;
(TiaXog (a fat pig)? from (rvg ; virep(f)ia.\og beside virep^vrig ;
KipKog (a ring), beside kukXoc> R- Kup, from which root come
also KipKvpa and KipKog (a tail), e arising from i through the
influence of the following p ; \piOvp6g (slanderous), from
^'vOog (a lie) ; pirvXoc and pvriXog (curtailed), L. mutilus ;
Bpiog (copsewood), from dpvg ; Biaaog (a band), from R. 0u,
with same sufl&x as in TreVao-oc ; ^i^Xog from ^v^Xog (papy-
rus) ; oXtjSjodc (slippery), beside L. lubncus ; fioXijiSog beside
poXvj^dog ; Xiirropat (I am eager), R. Xt^, Skr. luhhydmi (I
desire), L. ?M6ei and lihet. We also find ^ol. l\pog., t^rtp,
tTTo/o for vxpog, viripi vTrap.

§. 48. GUNA AND VrdDHI.

The guna of i is ft, and in a few isolated cases ai ; its
vrddhi is ot, o here representing a Skr. d. The guna of v is
cu and au ; its vrddhi is ov and av. The I. E. a is represented in
Greek by a, i, o; its guna is o, a, and rj ; its vrddhi is w.

Primitive vowels t o a i v

Guna o d t] H {ai) tv (au)

Vrddhi to oi ov (av)

• Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 646.

64 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

The guna off of the root is o : R. 761', yivog, yovoc; li. (psp,
0E/O(i>, <j)6pog = Skr. bhdras (a weight) ; R. t£k, TtKiaOai, roicog ;
R. T/060, Tpi(j>(i}, rpo^i) ; R. SipK, ^ipKO/aai, BtSopKa = Skr.
dadars'a. In fiiftrtXa beside /xAet, R. /ueX, »j appears to be the
guna of 6 of the root.

The guna of a of the root is a or 1/ ; R. XaO, tXaOov,
XiXrjOa ; R. Xa/3, tXa^ov, etX-q(fta ; R. Aqk, (Aqkov, XeXana,
XfXrjica ; R. icXay, ttcXa-yov, icficXijya ; R. Sqk, tBoKOV, SlSrj^^a.

The guna of o is a or ?j : viog = Skr. navas (new), vea, Ion.
vtij = Skr. 7iavd, and similar cases.

The vrddhi of a, f, o is w : R. Fpay> priywui, tppwya ;
R. Trraic, fTTTaicov, TrTi](T(Tti) = Trrijicyw (beside Trra in Kara-TTTri-
Tr)v), TTToJl (cowering for fear) ; apiiyw, apwyog ; R. ay,
ayo), aytoyj) ; R. So, SiSo/UEv, StSwjUt ; R. 08, oBjiff], oBtoda ;
L. IS (to eat), iSwS/?.

The guna and vrddhi of i are et and ot ; R. I, ^/jtev = Skr.
imas, iini = Skr. ^mi, oipog (a way) ; L. Ftic, £-Vk--oi', cticali',

£0(Ka ; R. XtTT, cXtTTOV, XftTTW, XoiTTOg ', K. FtS, F/S)UfV, FtZSoC,

FotSa ; R. X<j3, Xi(5ag (a drop), Xei/Sw, Xo//3»'; ; K. <TTtx» tort-
^ov, ariixu), aToX\og ; R. ki, Kilrai = Skr. s'^ite, KOtrtj ; R. Su,
diitrOai (to flee, to be afraid), Stt'Sw, SftSotica ; R. ot<)3, fort-
/3or, (TTai(5(i), oTOtjS/j ; R- Xitt, Xiira, aXd<p(i), aXoi(j>ii ; R. Xi^,
XtXAtatu (I lick), Xdxif- In aiBtaBai (to burn), at is the guna
of I ; for it is connected with Skr. indh (to burn), L. cestus,
0. H. G. eit (fire). The vrddhi of this root may be found in
olarpog (the gadfly), as G. bremse (the horsefly), comes from
brennen (to burn), and L. tabanus is connected with Skr. tap
(to burn).

The guna and vrddhi of u are tu and ou, but £u nearly always
takes the place of ov : R. eXuO, r)XvOov, iXivaofiai, ilX-liXovBa ;
KiXtvOogt (iKoXovBog \ R. pi;0, cpuOpof, tptvOto (I make red),
povaiog (reddish) ; R. Xvk, a/x(piXvKrj (the dawn), XtuKoc
XouffcTov (the white pith of the fir tree) ; R. irvv, irviFto,
TTvoFt'i ; R. (pvy, i<l>vyov, <f>ivyb}, vi<ptvya.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 65

Schleicher considers av to be the guna of u in avw (I kindle),
for avail), beside evcj (1 singe), Skr. ush (to burn), oshami (I
burn), L. uro for uso ; in auyrj (splendour) beside Skr. og'as
(strength and splendour) ; and in av^avoj from K. vy, beside
Skr. ug-ra (strong). In the first two of these examples, how-
ever, he is probably wrong, and in the last certainly so ; for
Skr. ush is from an older vas, which is found in vdsara (a day),
o^as is from vag' (to strengthen), L. vigere, vegere, and av^avio
from R. Fa^, Skr. vakshdmi (I grow), Goth, vahsja (I grow).
In the first two cases the old Fa probably became aF by trans-
position, and then av, and in the last case we find Hom. aiKot
= av^u), which points back to a form aPt^u), where e is merely
a help-vowel, and where we find a and F already transposed.
If vavg, Ion. vrivg, comes from R. aw, Skr. snu (to flow), av
is here the vrdhhi of u : on the other hand, if it comes from
R. trvd, Skr. snd (to bathe), it is formed like ypavg, and dv is
therefore not the vrddhi of v.* In the following cases w ap-
pears to be the vrddhi of v ; ^tofiog (broth) beside ^u/uij
(leaven), L. jus ; t^wvvvfxi (I gird), from R. Z,v ; xdjvwui (I
heap up) from R. \v. Curtius considers that b) arose from v
through the intermediate step oF. Schleicher's view is that,
as we have Ion. ttXww for TrXoiFw beside TrX^Foj, and Dor. j3wc
= ^ovg = Skr. gdus, and Ionic diphthong wv for av, so there
once, as vrddhi of v, existed wu = Skr. du, the first element of
which gradually assimilated to itself the second, so that finally
only the o-sound was heard.

We must carefully distinguish from the diphthongs aris-
ing from guna and vrddhi, those which arise from contraction
or from compensation for the loss of consonants or from the
vocalization and hyperthesis of the original spirants y and v.

§. 49. When a consonant or consonants are thrown out
of a word, the preceding vowel is generally lengthened, to
compensate for the loss of the consonants. Thus a becomes

• Curtius, " Grundziige," pp. 161, 281.
F

66 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

a in irvXag (ace. pi.) = TrvXavg, &c., torac = iaravTg, &c. ; a be-
comes at in the Lesbian iEolic ace. pi. term, -aig = Kret. -avg,
as raj'c = Kret. rar?, also in Lesb. uEol. raXaig =TaXavg, irdig
= iravg for iravrgy aKOvaaig = oKOUffave ; v becomes v in SetKvvc
= ^eiKVVvTg ; £ becomes ?j in Tran'/p = Trarepg, iroifxriv = Troi/xevg,
Bvfffievi'ig = Bvcrfievetrg ', e becomes 6t in nOdg = Kret. riBivg for
Tidtvrg, elg = Kret. hg, xtip = xepg, which is still found in a
fragment of Timocreon, dfii (I am) = t (r/it, -^ol. tfi/ii, opeivog
= opeavog, ^o\. opevvog, ivei/^ia = Ivipaa, -iEol. ivififiaro ; o
becomes w in tvwtwv = t-utttovtc, r]y>iTLop (a leader) = -qy-qropg ;
o becomes ou in tTTTrouc = Kret. "ntTrovg, &c., u7rapxowo'ac=Kret.
uTrap^^ovaae, ayovai = Dor. ayovrt ; o becomes ot in the Lesb.
^ol. ace. pi. term, -oig = Kret. -ovg, as rolg = Kret. touc> also
in t^piaa = i)(ovTi/a, &c., KpvirToiaiv = KpvnTovTi, &c. We
have already pointed out that, when a consonant was lost in
early times, and compensation was made for it, £ became »j,
and o became a> ; but that, on the other hand, when the loss
did not occur till a later period, f became ei, and o became ov.
The examples from the dialects above quoted confirm this
account of the matter ; for we find that the consonants are fre-
quently kept by them in the latter case, but never in the
former.

§. 50. The vowels t and w, when coming after a semi-
vowel, are frequently thrown back by hyperthesis. Thus,
fptpng = (ftspeai = L E. bharasi ; vireip = uVt/ot =» Skr. vpari
(above), Z. upairi (above) ; iXavvu) = IXavvu). In the first
stage of hyperthesis, the vowel is not only reflected, but
also kept in its original place, as in Zend, where we find
upairi (above), bavaiti = Skr. bhavati (he is), &c. In Ion.
irovXvg = iroXvg, and Ep. c(vi = £v/, TrXaiaiov (a square) = TrXa-
diov (from R. TrXar, whence comes TrXaTvg)^ al<l>viSiog = atjivi-
Eiog (compare a^voi), we have this stage of hyperthesis. When
the original spirants y and v come after v and p, they are ge-
nerally vocalized and thrown back. Thus piXaiva = fieXavja ;
Kiipu) = Kipyu) ; <f}Oi(pu) = <pO(pjw ; apdvwv = afxivyovg ; yov-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 67

voTOc = yovFaTOC » afxavpog = afxaplFog ; ravpog = rapJ-og^ Gallic
tarvos ; vevpov = vspFov, L. nervus ; yavpog (proud) = yapFoc,
Skr. garva (pride) ; Ion. ovXog (for oXog) = 6\Fog = Skr. sar-
vas (all), L. salvus, sollus ; iravpog = irapFog, L. parvus ;
Kpivb) (7) = Kpivjb), JEiol. Kpivvw ', TrXurto (u) = TrAuvyo) ; 1 4- 1 be-
coming 7, and vi, v. In one case y after X is vocalized and
thrown back, ocpaXb) = o^sXjto, Horn. otpiXXw. We have
traces of the older hyperthesis in Kpeiacrcov = Kpsirjojv for
icperyove, New Ion. Kpiaatsiv ; fxti^oiv = fieiyjiov for pty-jovg,
New Ion. fxt^wv ; juaAXov = fiaiXjov, Saacrov = Saixjov, where
o becomes a, on account of the loss of /. In Kpeicrawv) juet^wv,
and Oaaaovi we find hyperthesis of y over mutes. We
find L thrown back also in the following cases when a mute
precedes : yvvaiK- = ywaKi- = I. E. ganahi ; ai^ (a goat),
stem aly- = 074-, Skr. ag'd (a goat) ; l^ai^vng = t^aTrivjjc ;
KpaiTTvog = Kpavivog, R. Kapir, compare KapiraXiimog ; Shttvov
= Beirivov or Sairtvov L. dapinare ; po7(5^og = /oojSSyo? (Hesy-
chius has the form pofiSei) ; alx^ri = ok/^ij, R. aic, compare
aKi'e (a point) ; alyXt} (light) = 074X1?, R. 07, compare Skr.
agnis (fire) = L. e^nis, the termination being the same as that
of (Tr/oo/3tXoc ; oikXoi (Hesych. al yioviat tov (SiXovg) = ukiXoi,
R. OK, as in uKig ; KpanraXri = KpairiaXt], R. Kpair as in Kpaiw-
vog ; Ep. TTtiKd) (I comb) from Treicyit) beside ttcko).

§. 51. We frequently find a vowel prefixed to many Greek
words, which is absent in the corresponding words in the
cognate languages. This phenomenon was called by the
old grammarians irpoaBtaig. Curtius points out that this
prosthetic vowel is generally found before double conso-
nants, nasals, X, p, and F, seldom before explosives, and never
before single tt, t, and ^. Thus we have aaKaipw (I skip)
= GKaipu) ; atrra^ig (a raisin) = (na(pig ; atrraxvg (an ear of
corn) = ara;(uc ■> aari^p beside oTEpoTrj), and'L. 5^^//^ ; Lesb.
^ol. a(T(pe, aa(pi = (T(j)i, (T(pi; acnraipcj (I pant) = (nraipio ', ua-
TToXo^ (a mole) = (nraXa^ ; aa^dpayog (the throat), beside
a<papayog (noise) ; s^arpaTTT/c (vomPersisLn kshatrapdvan (ruling

f2

68 COilPARATTVE GRAMMAR.

the kingdom) beside the form ZarpairnQ given by Hesychius ;
ixpia (play)=;^/a ; £;)(0fc=x^*'^ ' ticrt c (a weasel) =icr/e '> OKpvoeig,
Deside Kpvog ; aicpodojuai beside Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; 60pvc=Skr.
bhriis (eyebrow). In some cases one of the two consonants falls
out after the prosthetic vowel, as in ovofia, Ion. ovvofia for 6y-
vofia, L. nomen for gnomen ; oXiadavw for oyXiaBavb), R. yXir ;
riiravia (want), beside cnravig ; Ipwtw (I flow), beside Skr. sru
(to flow) ; oSvaaa/jievog (hating), E. o^vg for oBfig, beside Skr.
dvish (to hate), We have evvia beside L. novem; avrjp be-
side L. N^ero ; IvtyKuv beside SI. nesti (to bear) ; ef^i = fxe ;
ufiixitii beside L. mmgo ; apLtXyw beside L. mulgeo : afxain be-
side E. mow ; IXaxvg beside Skr. lagku ; "OAu/uttoc from R.
XafxTT ; iXavvb) from R. Xa ; epefdog beside Skr. rag'as (dark-
ness) ; ioiTfxog beside L. remus ; IpvOpog beside L. 'ruber;
ifeiKOcTi = PeiKOai ; tFipyeiv = Pipyuv ; tFtSva = FtSva ; tFtpo-?}
= Fiparf (dew). We have in the case of the explosives, oSovq
beside L. dens ; o^a% (mordicus) beside ^aicvw ; lOiXw = BiXd) ;
ojSfXoc beside (iiXog ; ayavog (noble) beside yavpog (proud).
The opinion that these prosthetic vowels are fragments of pre-
positions does not appear to rest on any sufficient ground,
for the apokope of dissyllabic prepositions is limited to the
^olic and Epic dialect, and the preposition Iv never loses its
final consonant.* Another explanation has been suggested to
account for the vowels prefixed to X, /u, v, p, c- It is this,
that, as we pronounce Z, el^ m, em, &c., so these letters were
predisposed to the adoption of prosthetic vowels. In a simi-
lar way it is possible to account for the origin of rjvifioeig,
IliipiOoog, ouXo/i£voc from avBfjLOiig, UipiOoog, oXofievog, by
supposing them to have passed through the stages a'vepong,
rii'piOoog, 6'Xofisvog ; unless the lengthening is due to the exi-
gencies of the metre. We find in ^olic the form tBovreg for
oSdi/rtcit and consequently some writers derive oBovg from the

• Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 655.

t Schleicher considers iSwrts to be the participle of icu, poetically
used for dloync.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.^ 69

R. lS(to eat) ; but this is extremely unlikely, as the initial vowel
does not appear in any of the sister languages. It is much more
probable that o is a prosthetic vowel, as we find aBay/nog (a
sting), aSa^efa) and 68a^a> (I bite, sting), beside SaKvo). ^0(ppvQ
has been treated by some as equivalent to 6^ + 0/t>ue=eye+brow,
6(p appearing in 6(p-daXfx6g. The initial vowels in ofi^aXog and
ovv^ are not prosthetic, for the corresponding Latin terms are
umbilicus and unguis, and the Latin language is not inclined to
prosthesis. From a comparison of the Skr. ndhhi (navel) and
nakha (a nail), it is likely that the original forms of the cor-
responding roots were ndbh and nagh, from which in Grseco-
Italic times were developed the roots dnhh and angh. Pros-
thetic vowels are of common occurrence in the Romance lan-
guages. Thus we have in French, epee for esph, from L. spada,
echelle for esckelle, from L. scala, etablir for establir, from L.
stabilire, esp4rer from L. sperare, escabeau from L. scabellum
estame from L. stamen ; in Spanish, estar = L. stare ; in Italian,
aringa j&om G. ring, whence E. harangue. This tendency of the
Romance languages to prefix initial vowels appears to have
already begun in the fourth century, for on inscriptions of that
date we find such forms as istatuam, ispirito, Isticho = Sticho.
In Welsh, y is prefixed to words borrowed from the Latin
which begin with s followed by another consonant, as in ysgol,
yspryd, ysgwyd from L. schola, spiritus, scutum.

§. 52. The insertion* of a vowel is of frequent occurrence
in Greek, and is called avdirrv^ig. This insertion occurs be-
fore or after X, p, and the nasals, and, according to Curtius,
arises from the tone, perceptibly heard in these sonants, upon
which fact also rest the frequent metathesis of these sounds,
and the possibility oi r and I being treated as vowels in some
languages. The vowels that are inserted are generally a and

• Consult Curtius, " Grundzuge," p. 656; and Walter, in "K. Z,"
vol. X., p. 428, seq.y vol. xii. p. 375, seq., p. 401, seq., on Vocaleinscbie-
bung in Griechischen.

70 COMPARATIVE GRA31MAR.

£, less frequently o and i, and very seldom u. We find a
vowel inserted before or after X, in the following cases : tJjXivti,
L. ulna ; ;^aAa^a, L. grando ; KaXvirro} = KpvTTTti) ; aXwTrrj^,
St. faXwirsKi L. vulpes (?) ; aXeyeivog beside aXyog ; aX£^a> and
apvyit) beside apKtu), aXicTj, L. arceo, Skr. raksh (to protect) ;
aXiKivog {BvvaTQQ, Hesych.) = aXKifiog ', SoXt^oC = Skr. dirghas
(long) ; ?;XaKart} (spindle) beside apKvg (a net) ; ijXvOov =
jjX^ov (?) ; OaXaaaa for rapaxya from R. rpax (according to
Walter, however, for OXar-ya, connected with L. fret-urn) ;
KoXiKavog (long and thin), KoXoaaog (a great statue), O. L.
cracentes (graciles), L. gracilis ; /xoXu/3Soc, h. plumbum; fiaXa-
Kog beside j3Xa^ (weak) ; iriXayog beside ttXijo-o-w, R. irXay
(to strike), not connected ^vith vXaX (a plain), as TrtXayog de-
notes the sea in its dangerous aspect ; iriXtdpov = irXeOpov.
In the case of p we have the following examples : rapaaao =
TapaxY*^i ^' '■p«X' "^Jicnce the perfect Ttrpi/x" » opiyu), 6p6-
yvia = opyvia opiyvaofxaL (I stretch), R. 6/oy, Skr. ar^ (to ac-
quire), L. rego ; yEol. tpiptva = ^epvi) ; fpwStoe (a heron)
L. ardea; x^pag (gravel), St.' x^P"^' ^- 5'^^» ^opwjSoe beside
OpuXoe (noise) ; opo^og (vetches) and lpi(5ivBog (pulse), L.
ervum ; apdxvr] (the * spinner ') beside apKvg ; Makedon. Sa-
pvXXog for Spue ; apa^vXai (Hesych.) = ap^vXai (a kind of
shoes) ; rapix^vu) (I embalm), rapixog (a mummy, dried or
salted fish), beside rapxvi^ (I bury solemnly), perhaps con-
nected with R. T£pg (to dry), Skr. tarsh (to thirst), L. torreo
for tors-eo. In the case of the nasals we have as examples,
KOvte» pi- KoviBeg (eggs of lice, nits), from R. knid, as appears
from A. S. hiiit, Lith. gVindas, L. lendes ; ow^, SI. ovux from
^.angh ; 7rii'uroe(wise) fromR.Trvu, whence irviw, ireTrvvfiivog;
aKiji/tTTToi = (TKviiTTU) (I piuch) ; arpevog beside at^vtiog ; ripaxog
(a slice), beside r/uTjyw (I cut), from R.rjt/a7(?) ; Tofiapog^Tpa-
pog (a mountain in Thesprotia) ; TvfitoXog = TpioXog (a moun-
tain in Lydia). In other languages also we find vowels similarly
inserted. Thus, in Zend g is in certain cases inserted between
two consonants ; and r when followed by a consonant, or when

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAK. 71

final, becomes re, as dademahi (we give) = Skr. dadmasi, da-
dares'a (1 sing, perf.) = Skr. dadars'a = BidopKa, ddtare (voc.
sing.) from St. ddtar. In 0. H. G. we have puruc = Goth.
baurgs, farah = L. porcus, araweiz = L. ervum. In Latin, we
have ^sculaphia = 'AtncXjiTrtoe, Procina = HpoKPt}, Alcumena
= 'AAicjUT/vrj, sumus from esumus = I. E. asmas. In Oscan a
vowel is frequently inserted, as Alafatemom = L. Alfateimo-
rum, aragetud = L. argento, sakarater = L. sacratur.

§. 53. The Gutturals.

K = I. E. A; : icaXoc> KoXXuvtu (I make clean), Skr. kalya
(healthy), E. heal, hale ; Kapvov (a nut), Skr. karaka (cocoa
nut), L. canna (a shell, keel) ; KapKtvog (a crab), Skr. karka
(a crab), L. cancer; Kdu), Kla^w, R. (tke or o-ko, Skr. k'hd (to
divide), L. descisco, scio ; \vkoq = Skr. vrkas (a wolf) ; St/ic-
vu/ut, R. StK, Skr. dis (to show), L. «/ico ; Sc'ica = Skr. and Z.
das'an (ten), L. decern ; tKarov for Iiz-kotoi;, Skr. s'atam (an
hundred), L. centum.

r = I. E. ^ : yr\pvQ, Skr. ^ar (to call), L. garrio; eytipio,
Skr. ^ar (to awake) ; (rrtyw, Skr. siAa^ (to cover), L. tego ;
aypog = Skr. ag'ras (a level plain), L. ager ; apyng (bright),
apyvpog, apy'iXog (white clay), Skr. arg'una (bright), rag'ata
(silver), L. arguo (I make clear), argentum. F is found for
an I. E. k in apnyii) from R. apK ; rriyavov (a frying pan) from
rr/Kw ; fxiayio, R. /uty, beside Skr. mis'ra (mixed), L. misceo ;
Xvyr\ (gloom) beside R. Xuk (XivKog, &c.) ; nriyog (firm),
iriiyvvfxi, beside L. pac-iscor, Skr. pas (to bind) ; apTra^, St.
aprray = L. rapax, St. rapac ; Kpavyri, beside Skr. kros'a (a
cry) ; Itppayrtv beside tppaaaw = ^paK-yu) = L. farcio ; fiayevg
(one who kneads) beside fiaaaw = juaKyw, L. macerare ; TrXrjy/j
beside irXnaab) = TrXr/icyw, Lith. plakti (to beat). We find a
tenuis weakened to a media in It. luogo, from L. locum, It.
p«<?7*e from L. patrem, Fr. abeille from L. apiculam, &c. F is
lost in ata = yala, opog = Skr. ^m (a mountain), Boeot. Iwv

72 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

= l-ywv, Tarentine oXtog = oXlyog, <t}iaXia = <PiyaXia (an Ar-
cadian city). In the following cases, in which -y corresponds
to a Sanskrit h or gh, either each root existed in two forms, one
■with g, and another with gh, in the Indo-European, or else
the I. E. form had g only, from which by aspiration gh was
developed in Sanskrit, and this gh became h : yivvg = Skr.
hanus (the chin), L. gena^ Goth, kinnus ; yc, Skr. Aa, Ved.
gha, Goth, k in mi-k, 0. H. G. h in unsi-h ; fxiyag, fieyaXog
«= Goth, mikils, Skr. mahat (great), L. magnus ; lywv = Skr.
aham, Goth. ik. In these cases the Gothic k points back to
an I. E. ^. In the following examples 7 = I. E. ^/t ; lyyvgt
Skr. ahhu (narrow), Goth, aggvus (narrow), the original gh
being still retained in ayx^ » Ovyarrip = Skr. duhitd ; and per-
haps in Xayojg (a hare) beside Skr. langh (to jump).

X = I. E. gh: BoXixog = Skr. dirghas (long) ; IXaxvg
= Skr. laghus (light) ; ardxf^i Skr. stigh (to ascend), Goth.
steiga (I go up) ; XP'*^> XP*<''i""» Skr. ghar (to sprinkle), gharsh
(to rub), ghrta (clarified butter); ^oTpoc. Skr. ghrshti (a
pig), 0. N. gns (a little pig). X, 0, and 0, frequently re-
present an I. E. ^, <, and p, as we shall see in §• 63, on Aspi-
ration.

The spiritus asper represents a Graeco-Italic initial y, u,
and 5. It is = y in i57rap, Skr. yakrt^ L. jecur ; a»pa, Z. yare
(a year), E. year ; 6g = Skr. yas (who). It is = v* in eantpog,
L. vesper ; tvvvfii = Fca-vv/it, Skr. vas(to clothe). It is = sin
6, 17, = Skr. sa (he), sd (she), 0. L. ace. sum, sum ; a in a-Tra^
rB sain. Skr. sa-krt (once), L. simplex ; I = L. se ; pew, R. /ou for
«r/ou, Skr. «ru (to flow) ; potpiw, L. sorbeo. In ctTro/irjv (for to-c-
TTOjuijv, R. cctt), ttoTT/KEtv (for £o-£<Tri}ic£(v, R. ffTflt), thc initial
aspirate perhaps arose from the a lost in the second syllable.
Sometimes the original initial o- is retained beside the younger
aspirate, as in avg = vg, 'EAXof = StXXoc. The spiritus asper

• Similarly in Spanish we have hijo = L. filius, heno = L. fenum^ herir
o L. fn-ire, hacer » L. facere.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 73

is preserved between two vowels in raHjg = L. pavo, and in
Laconian £7ro(£E for liroiriae. In piv beside Skr. ghrana (the
nose), the sp. asp. represents gh. In Attic an initial sp. asp.
is frequently added where it does not exist in the other
dialects. Hence the Athenians were called ^aawTiKoi in op-
position to the ^olians, who were called xpiXwriKoi, from their
aversion to this sound. Thus we have linrog beside Lesb.
tinriog, Tarent. Ikkoq, Sikil. lirvi) (itjinnrig), and the common
forms AevKiTTirog, rXavKinirog, L. equus = Skr. as'vas : ^Xiog
= Ep. riiXiog ; i7/u£tc = -<Eol. a/xjuect Skr. asmdn ; riyaXaOai be-
side ayu) ; itjg = Ep. rjiAjg, JEol. avwg. We also find the He-
raklean 6kt(u, hvia, perhaps from the analogy of 1^, ivTa.
Initial v in Attic always is aspirated, as in viro, Skr. upa (near) ;
vttI/o, Skr. upari (above) ; uSwp, Skr. vdan (water) ; vcrrepog
= Skr. uttaras (later). Similarly we find h prefixed in L. hu-
merus for umerus, humor for umor, Span, hedrar = L. iterare,
Fr. haut = L. alius.

The spiritus asper was frequently changed into the lenis,
as in Ep. i^dog beside -q^vg ; Ep. ouAoc beside 6\og ; tda<pog
and ovBag beside odog, R. IB = Skr. sad (to go) ; aw (I sa-
tiate) only found in inf. pres. afievai and aSSrjv beside aSrjv,
and L. satis, satur ; 'Epivvvg = Skr. Saranyus ; iiqid (I join),
beside o-etpa, opfxog, and L. sero ; Irtog = Skr. satyas (true) ;
oTTog beside L. sv/ius ; bpog beside L. serum ; a (in aXoxog
&c.), for a = Skr. sa ; i^Oio = ar]Q(t) (I sift) ; iBita (I sweat) ;
beside Idptvg ; tdiog beside I = aFe ; o^/oa from pronominal
stem 6 = Skr. ya. In Ionic we also see a tendency to weaken
the spiritus asper in the fact that after elision a preceding te-
nuis was not aspirated by a following aspirate, as in ott' o5,
KUTodog. In ^olic the initial aspirate was kept, according to
Ahrens, whenever it represented an original s or y, except in
vixfieg beside Skr. yushman, and KaTiBpvaei beside L. sedeo,
Goth, sita (I sit), but it was lost whenever it had arisen from
any other cause. Thus we find the aspirate kept in ay roc
beside Skr. yag' (venerari), bdog in i<podog beside Skr. sad (to

74 COMPARATIVE GRAMilAR.

go), &c. ; and it is absent in afi^eg beside vfitig and Skr.
asmdn, Ipog = lepog, lirip = uttI/o, 1.-\pog = vipog^ &c. This view
of the case does not appear to be exactly correct ; for we find
in Alkaeus KaOvnspOev, irpwriaff' vtto, where the aspiration be-
fore V is retained, though it is not original, as we see from the
Skr. forms tipari and upa ; and moreover in advg = Skr. sva-
diis, and 'Yppadi'ii^ (Alk. 73), beside L. spurius, the aspiration
is lost, though the words originally began with sv. This ten-
dency of the -^olic to \piXbXTig refutes the old-fashioned idea
that Latin was closely connected with it, for the sibilant is re-
tained in Latin, from which the aspiration in Greek was de-
veloped. The spiritus asper is entirely lost in Modern Greek.

§. 54. The Dentals.

T = I. E. t: avTi, Skr. anti (before) ; irironai, R. ttst,
Skr. pat (to fly) ; arivto, R. arev, Skr. stan (to groan) ; crrop-
vvfii. Skr. star (to strew) ; reivbt, R. rtv or rav, Skr. tan (to
stretch) ; &c.

T = I. E. Au : Tig = L. quis = Osc. pisy Skr. kim (quid), Z.
k'isk'a (quisquis), Osc. pitpit = L. quidquid; ri = L. que^ Skr.
k'a, Goth, h in nih = L. neque ; irivn = L. quinque, JE.o\. irifi-
ire ; aAXorc = Dor. aXXoKa ; rawc = L. pavo. T appears to
correspond to k in ti(o (I honour), riviu (I punish), Skr. k'i
(to distribute), Z. k'i (to punish), and in aKtvayfxog = rivay-
fiog (ictvrjatc)' Here k became t, through the stages % and
t7/. In Latin, c and t are frequently interchanged before i as
in patricius = patritius, Mucius = Mutius.

A = L E. c?: dafiau), R. Safi, Skr. dam (to tame), L. do-
mare, Goth, ga-tamjan (Sa/zav), O. H. G. zamon (to tame) ;
8/ouc = Skr. £?rM5, Goth, triu (tree) ; tSw, R. cS, Skr. ati (to
eat), L. edo, Goth, t^a (I eat) ; IZ^ofxai, R. IS, Skr. sad (to sit),
L. sedeOy Goth. siVa (I sit) ; &c.

A = L E. < : SoTTtc (a carpet), beside rd7r»je and roTrt'c ;
"ApTt/nte, ^Aprifiid'og, beside Dor. 'A/nra/iiToc? whence 'Apra-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 75

fitriog (name of a Spartan month), and 'Aprajuirtov ; dtfiig, Bi-
fiid-og beside Bifiirog, in Pindar ; tfBdofiog from errra ; oydoog
from OKTO) ; vitrodtg (= airoyovoi in Alexandrian Poets), be-
side L. nepotes.

A = I. E. dh in vrvvda^ (the bottom) beside ttw^ju/jv, Skr.
budhna (the bottom), I. E. hhudh being the root ; and per-
haps in aX^aivb) (1 increase) beside aXQalva) (I heal) and Skr.
ardh (to increase).

A = I. E. g: dcX^vg (the womb) = Skr. garhhas (the
womb) ; Lakon. Bi<povpa = yicpvpa ; ATifjiiiTrjp = Vr]-fir}Tr}p.
Conversely we find yXvKvg for 8Auicuc> L. dulcis, and yvo^og
for and beside Svo^o?. We also find 8 for /3 in Dor. oSeAoe
= ojSeXoC) and Kret. oSoXKat = o^oXoi.

9 = I. E. <ZA: avOog, Skr. andhas (plant), L. ac?or; OrjaOai
(Hom. to milk), OifiXvg, R. 0a, 0t}, Skr. dkd (to drink), dhenu
(a cow), h.Jilius,femina,felare (to suck) ; OpacrOg, Skv.dharsh
(to dare), Goth, ga-daursan (dappeXv) ; ©yyarijp, I. E. dhugh-
atar, Skr. duhitar, Goth, dauhtar ; Svpa, Skr. dhvdra (door)
h. fores, Goth, cZawr (door); &c.

0 = I. E. ^7i in Oepjuogy R. ficp, Skr. gharma (heat), L./o**-
WMS (hot), fomaa, forceps, Goth, varmjan (OaXireiv). We
find 0 and ;^ interchanged in opvtOoc = Boeot. bpvixoQ, Mod.
Gr. Ai9aS6-vr]<ra = AtxaSte, and ^pxa beside ?iXdov, unless it
be derived from tpj^ofxaL. This change is not easily accounted
for : it has been suggested that B developed a hard aspirate
after it, before which it afterwards fell out, and that this as-
pirate afterwards developed x before it, and then fell out.
This explanation is, however, very improbable. We also find
B interchanged with 0 in Kret. oBpvg (a mountain) = 6(ppvg
(brow of a hill), oBpvoev (Kpnfivojdeg), ^OBpvaSag (supercilio-
sus) ; BvXXa (icXaSouc V <j>vXXa ri koprrj 'A^po^tVrje, Hesych.)
~ ^vXXa ; and perhaps in BvXXig, BaXXig, BvXuKog, all mean-
ing a bag, if these words are connected with Goth, balgs (a
bag).

P = I. E. r ; avpvg = Skr. urus (wide), from I. E. varus ;

71) COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

oupavoQ = Skr. Varunas (the god of the water) ; opog, Skr.
gin (a mountain), Ch. SI. gora (a mountain) ; opw/ni, R. 6/>,
Skr. a?' (to move), L. orior ; peu), R. pv, apv, Skr. 5;vf (to flow) ;
avpiy^f Skr. svar (to sound), &c.

P is lost in TTOTi = Trport, Trpoe- n()ori became Tropri, which
is found in the Kretan dialect, and then ttoti : similarly we
have (ppiarog, udarog, OKoroq for (pptaprog, woa/oroc, o-fcaproc,
L. joecfo = TTcpSw, &c. Leo Meyer asserts that p is lost iji
TTETapvu/ut beside SkT.prath(to extend), and ^f^yoe beside Skr.
bhrdg' (to shine) : but TreTavvv/xi is connected with L. pateo,
pando, 0. H. G. fadam (Slum), F>. fathom, and prath is found
in TrXarvg ; bhrdg' is connected with (ftkiyu), L. fulgeo, j^agro,
Goth, bairhts (S^Xoc), and, according to Curtius, <piyyoQ (for
(peyyFog) is related to (j)aFog (Mo\. (pavog, Pamphyl. ^aj3oe),
exactly as (5iv0og is to j^aOog.

The Laconians frequently changed <t, especially when final,
into /o : thus they used okkojo, nicFop, mop, a(5tjp, irop, /3(ct>(>,
fxipya^uyp, &c. for atxicoc, iriOog, Oeog, ijwc* ttovcj "icrwg, p.ia-
yitwg, &c. The only other example of the same change in
any other Doric dialect is the Kret. reop (aov) for riog.
This change is also found in a few cases in the jEolic dialects
of Elis and Eretria. In no case does o- appear to have been
changed into p, when it comes between two vowels ; thus we
find in the Elean treaty roXp FaXtfiotg, but roig 'Hp Pai^oig.

Initial p is always aspirated, except in ^Papiov ireBiov and
papog (a child untimely born).

A = I. E. r : aAXo/xai, R. a\, Skr. sar (to go) ; a Ac, Skr.
sara (salt); ^ovXopai, Skr. and Z.var (to choose); clXoc
= Skr. sarvas (all), O. L. sollus (all), &c.
A ^ I.E. I: see §.21.

A represents an older v in Xlrpov beside virpov, from Heb.
neter ; irXtvpwv beside irvtvpuyv ; aKoXoTra^ (a large bird, of
snipe kind), beside G. schnepfe, E. snipe ; and perhaps in aXXog
= Skr. anyas (alius). Conversely the Dorians often changed
A before r and 0 into v, as in ftivTKTrog, <pivraTog, iJrOcv, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 77

We find n and I interchanged in other languages, as in Skr.
skandha (shoulder), Med. L. spalda, E. shoulder ; Skr. kanyd
(a girl), Ir. caile (a woman) ; Kovlhg (eggs of lice, nits),
L. lendes, Lith. glindas ; It. Bologna = Bononia, veleno = L. ve-
neniim ; Prov. namela (a blade) = L. lamella.

A is vocalized in Kret. avKav, avfia, avyeiv, &c., for aXKovy
aA/urj, aXyctv, &c., as in E. talk, calm, and Umbr. muta, vutu
for multa, viUtum.

S = I. E. « : R. eg, tlfii {Mo\. ifxfu) = eafii = Skr. asmi (I
am), £OTi = Skr. asti (he is), L. sum, est, Lith. esTni, esti, Goth.
im, ist ; R. kg from Fee? I'vvujut for kg-wfxi, IrrOrig, Skr. was (to
clothe), L. vesfz's ; E,. rig, fjcTTat = Skr. asie ; laog, Skr. tn'sAu
(aeque) ; R. av, Kaaavui (from Kara and crvw), Skr. siv (to
sow), L. suo, Goth, siu-ja (lirippairTio).

S is generally omitted between two vowels, as in fxivovg
for fiBvecTog = Skr. manasas (gen. sing.) ; ^ipy for ^epsaai ;
Fiog (poison), = Skr. and Z. vishas (poison), L. virus ; &c. S
in these cases probably first became the spiritus asper, and
then fell out. 2 is, however, frequently retained, especially
when it represents an original t, as in <^r\ai., Dor. (^ari ; iviav-
(Tiog. Dor. IviavTiog, from Iviaitrog ; irXoixriog, Dor. irXovTibgf
from irXovTog ; TrXrjo-toc beside aTrXTjrocj Dor. TrXariog ; Staico-
(T/ot, Dor. diaKUTioi ; ttKoat, Dor. FttKon ; Tripvcri, Dor. Trlpu-
rt, Skr. parut ; ettectov, Dor. sttetov, from ttitttw = Trt-TrcTOj ;
rioCTEtSwv, Dor. rioTttSav.

The Laconians generally changed 6 into <t : in the Lysis-
trata of Aristophanes we find such forms as aeAet, airu), aya-
Gog, (Tiog {Oeog), 'Aadva, &c., and yet in other cases, with-
out any apparent reason, d is retained, as in OiiKiXoi, &c. ; in
Thucydides, in the Lakonian decree (v. 77), we find rw mio
avfxaTog for row Qtov Ovfxarog, &c. In every case they used
CT for B, except where the law of euphony would be violated
by the change ; as in Oiaaog, on account of the following a ;
tadog, not incTog ; aOpoog not aapoog, as no Greek used the
conjunction of ap, &c. This change did not set in till late ;

78 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

for we find that it was unknown to the Spartan Colonists who
founded Tarentum and Heraklea. The Dorians once possessed
another sibilant, which they called San, and of which traces
are found in the double o- in such Dorian forms as 'Aptaoro-
Safiog.

N = I. E. n: R. av, avs/nog, Skr. an (to breathe), anila
(wind), L. animus, anus ; avrjp, Skr. nara (a man), Sabin. nero
(brave) ; evria, Skr. and Z. navan (nine) ; R. fxev, ixav, fxivog,
fiiivtg, MsvTwp, fivi]fxr\i Skr. and Z. man (to think), L. maneo,
memini, moneo, Goth, muns (vor^fxa), O. H. G. minna (love) ;
vavg = Skr. ndus (a ship) ; L. navis, &c.

N = I. E. 7?i : t<f)epov = Skr. ahharam ; TroSwr = Skr. pa-
ddmy L. pedum ; e<l)ipeTov = abTiaratam ; tov = Skr. tarn, L. is-
tum ; Tciwv (twv) = Skr. tdsam, L. istarum ; and similar ter-
minations. Curtius also compares -qvia (the reins), with Skr.
yam (to bind) ; R. Oav, tOavov, with Skr. dham (to blow) ;
fiaivb) = (5av-xu), with Skr. gam ; Kvavog (dark blue steel),
with Skr. s'ydma (dark) ; -^^Odyv with x«i"°'' L. humus ; ^(iiov
with Skr. him (frost), hima (snow), L. hiems. These are,
however, doubtful cases ; and it is quite possible that v may
have originally been part of the pronominal suffix wa, as is
certainly the case with (3aiv(v, the root of which is /3a = Skr.
gd (to go).

§. 55. The Labials.

n = I. E.p: OTTO, Skr. opa (away) Z. apa (from) L. ab;
fTTi, Skr. api (to), Z. aipi (after) ; tTrra = Skr. saptan, Z. hap-
tan ; R. Xtir, AtVa (oil), Skr. lip (to anoint), &c.

Whenever tt corresponds to a Skr. h, k', s\ either the ori-
ginal sound must have been kv, or, if k was the original sound,
it must have passed through the stage kv in becoming tt. Thus
we have Tttttoc = Skr. asvas, L. equus, 0. S. ehu; R. ev, Itto-
fiai, Skr. saltf (to follow), L. sequor ; R. XtTr, Xiiirw, Skr. riJc
(to leave), L. linquo ; iravre, Skr. pank'an, L. quinque ; R. ire-rr,
TriiTTti), Skr. pak' (to cook), L. coquo ; ttou, ttwc, Ion. kov, ic(I>c»

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 79

Skr. ha (who), kva (where), L. quis, Goth, hvas (who) ; in all
which cases the I. E. forms had kv, where the Greek has tt.
Stt and ok are interchanged in some cases ; thus we have
o-TToXa^ (a mole) = aKoXoxp, (nraXaOpov (a poker) = aKoXevOpov ;
similarly we have airivOrip beside L. scintilla, Goth, skeinan ;
(TKvXovi L. spolia ; R. o-kctt, aKiirTOfxai, L. speeio ; R. <T(paX,
<T<paXX(o ; Skr. sphal and skhal (to totter). Stt and ar are also
interchanged : aTaStov, ^ol. cnraSiov, L. spatium ; JEo\. airoXa
for oTokii ; similarly we have airtvS(o beside L. studeo and
(TTpovQog beside Goth, sparva, E. sparrow.

n appears to represent an I. E. bh in the two following
cases : R. ttj, vcj, irivit), -lEol. ttwvw, Skr. pi, pd, pibdmi (I
drink), where we find a trace of the I. E. 6A in b, L. potus, bibo,
E. 6eer; TTuoc (beestings), Skr. piyusha (beestings), 0. H. G.
biost, N. H. G. biest, E. beestings.

B = I. E. 6 : see §. 22.

B = I. E. J7i : ^pifi^og (ifi(5pvov, Hesych.) beside /Bpt^oc;
Oafi^og which is related to Hom. Ta<pog as (BivOog to (idOog ;
(pifiofxai for (pafiiofiai, a reduplication of R. ^t = Skr. bhi, bi-
bMmi (I fear) ; (Spsxj^og (the top of the head), A. S. bregen
(the brain), which Grassman connects with ^pacTcrw (R. <}>pay)
= Goth, bairga (R. barg), just as Goth, hvairnei (the skull), is
derived from a root signifying ^o cover; (ipifiw, Skr. bhram (to
whirl),* L. fremo, O. N. Wm (the surge), (popfiij^ may be
derived from this root, as (Bpi/uieaOai is used of the lyre in
Pindar (Nem. xi. 7) ; Opon^og (a clot of blood), beside rpt^io
(to curdle), rpotpaXig (fresh cheese) ; KopvpfBog (the top), be-
side Kopvtjiii ; Kpap(5og (dry) beside Kap^io (to dry) ; Kvpjiog
(a cup) = Skr. kumbhas (a jug) ; opj^pog beside Skr. ambhas
(water) ; aTip^to^ an^apog beside acrrsp^rig (unmoved), arX-
(pog, Skr. stambh (to prop) ; orpdjujSoc (a whirlwind, a top),
beside ot/oI^w ; (i\vu> = <j)\v(o (to bubble) ; XapfSdvw, R. Aa/3,

* Max Muller (ii. p. 217), opposes this view, and connects Skr. bhram
with Gr. fpifiaaanv.

80 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

beside £t-X>/0-a, Skr. lahh (to seize). In addition to these
examples, Grassman (" K. Z.," vol. xii., pp. 91, 93), adduces
ojSptjuoc beside Skr. amhhrna (powerful), ^aoKaivu) beside L.
fascino, and (5dKw (I speak), beside ^j),uij, E,. ^jj, Skr. bhd, but
vfipifioc is rather connected with R. /3/ot, (Bpidu), and the other
two cases are extremely doubtful.

B = I. E. v: (5ov\ofiai, Skr. var (to choose), L. voZo;
(SXdarri (a shoot), Skr. varc?/t (to grow). Similarly we find
Lakon. ^epyov, /StSetv, ^dKurt for fipyovf FtSav, FttKoai ; here,
however, j3 may have been pronounced as F.

B = I. E. p : ajSpo'e (luxurious), beside airaXog (tender),
perhaps connected with L. sapor ; 'A/zj3pa»cia beside the older
WfxnpaKia, ir becoming /3 on account of the preceding /x, just
as in Modem Greek /utt is written for the sound of the old)3 ;
taju)3oe beside ta7rra> ; KaXv^ri (a hut), beside KoXvirTU), L.
clupeus ; Ka/o/Sarin} (a shoe) = KapTrarti'?) ; ke/SXjj and KejidXri
(the head), Ku)3taTaa> (I jump headlong), beside Skr. kapdla
(the skull), KE0aX/;, and KVirpor (KS<pd.Xaiov apiOnov) ', k£ic-
AejSwc (found on an inscription of Andania) = K£KXo^a»c, from
R. kXctt; KOjjL^uKiveTai (ko/uttouc X£7£<, Hesych).) and Kpl/ujSa-
Aov (a clapper) beside L. crepare, owe their j3c to the influence
of fi ; Xtl^TipiQ (a skin) and Xo/3oe (a pod) beside XIttw ;
<Tn'X/3(u beside artXTrvoc (glittering), perhaps connected with
anpoirri, aarpdirTb) ; orotjSrj (stuffing) beside <rri;7roc» Skr.
5^upa (a heap), L. stipa, stupa ; v^giq from U7r£p ; ^artiv and
/3tKpdc were used at Delphi for traruv and 7r«icpdc ; jSddKw is
connected with L. pasco by Leo Meyer, but this comparison
is very doubtful, as there are no analogous cases save the last-
mentioned Delphic forms. In the Kret. a^Xovig for aj3Xaj3f c,
TT appears to represent an older (5 ; but Curtius suggests that
TT may be original, and that the root is not /3Xa/3, but (SXair
for fiXair, a causative formed from pXa = Skr. mid (to fade),
which is the root of /iaXoKoc* /3Xa^.

Whenever /3 corresponds to a Skr. g or g', either the ori-
ginal sound was ^v, or, if y was the original sound, it must

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 81

have passed through the stage gv in becoming /3. Thus we
have R. j3a, Skr. gd (to go), agdm = €/3?jv, Lat. betere, venio,
Osc. hen (to come), Goth, quiman (to come) ; R. |3aX, jSaAXw,
Skr. gal (to drop), 0. H. G. quillu, (scaturio) ; fiapCg = Skr.
gurus = Goth, ^awrs ; /3ta, Skr. /t (to conquer) ; (5iog, Skr.
^'et> (to live), L. t'zro, E. g'Mic^ ; Pori,'y6og, Skr. ^m (to sound),
L. Joere, bovare; R. /3op, |3opa, Skr. ^ar (to devour), L. vo-
rare ; (3ovc = Skr. gdus ; Boeot. ^ava = ywvtj ; irpia^vg
=Kret.7rp£t7uc»Dor.7rp£(T7uc» from 7rp£c(Lp^sinpm-cii5,/)m-
ft'nifs) = Trapoc = Skr. puras (before), and R. yv = 7a, 76 v, from
which also comes Yl^Xaayoi (the ancients) ; IpejSoe beside Skr.
rag as (darkness), Goth, riquis (darkness) ; Tapfdog beside
Skr. targ' (to threaten). When j3 represents an older gv we
occasionally find instead of it the dialectic variety ^, as in Ar-
kad. iTTitiapstv = eiri(5apHv, Arkad. ^iptOpov = fiapaBpov, from
same root as ^opa, Skr. gar (to devour), L. vorare ; Arkad.
Z,iWu) = /3aXXw ; Hom. TTE^u^orec = TrK^v^Pong. We find j3
for S in Thess. BwSwi' = AwSwvtj for AFtoSciiv}) from R. ^tF,
Skr. c?eu (to shine), whence come Ztvg, Stopj SijAoc, L. divus^
as L. 6ts and Jonw^ arise from duis and duonus ; ^o\. ^tXtpig
= dtXiptg, connected with Skr. grah for grabh (concipere),
Skr. garbhas (nom, sing. masc. a child), Z. garewa (foetus),
Gr. fipi(pog, ^eXcpvg, SoX(j>6g (17 fii'irpa, Hesych.), ^eX(pig thus
meaning "the fish with the belly;"* .^ol. BeA^oi = AeA^oj,
from last root, and perhaps so called from its position in a
deep ravine ;t ^5iol. aafij^aXov - aav^aXov, borrowed from
Pers. sandal (a shoe) •,X -lEol. jSA^p = SiXeap, connected with
SoXog, L. dolus, 0. N. tdl (fraud). We have also Dor. oBtXog
= 6/3£Ade> where S and /3 represent an original gv, ifthis word
belong to the same root as ^(Xog, (ieXovri, /3aAAw, Skr. gal (to
fall).

* Or itX^lc may be the " voracious fish," as Skr. grah means " to
seize."

t Curtius, " Grundzuge," p. 420. % Iljid. p. 425.

G

82 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

4> = I. E. hh: R. ^tp, ^ipui, Skr. hhar (to bear), \^. fero,
Goth, haira (0£pw) ; <ppaTr)p (member of a ipparpta), Skr.
hhrdtd (nom. sing, brother), L. frater, Goth, hrothar; R. ^u,
^v(u, Skr. bhu (to be), h.fui; R. ^ap, (f>apog (a plough), ipdp-
ay% (a ravine), Z. iar (to bore), L. forare. In vt^a (ace.
snow), 0 represents an I. E. ghv, L. ningu-it, nic, St. m'r for
rw'^i". We find ^ and ^ interchanged in tpXiapog beside ^Xt-
apoc (Hesych.), ^o\. av(j>riv = av\riv, 8a(/»vrj = Thess. 8auj^»/T/,
where \ is perhaps original, if the root be Skr. dah for dagh
(to burn).* Similarly in Latin we find/= I. E. gh in fri-are
= \pi -eiv, &c.

<P sometimes takes the place of 0, especially in the -^olic
dialect ; thus we have JEo\. (j>p6vog = Opovog in iroiKiXdippov
(Sappho I. l)t; -/Eol. (pijp = Oi'ip; JEol. <poiva = Oolvr} (a
feast) ; ^apvfiog (bold, Hesych.), beside Bpaavg with p for pp,
pg ; (p\dw, (pXijiu) beside dXdu), dXi(5u} (I crush) ; KOijuvog be-
side Skr. kathina (vas fictile). Similarly L. /= I. E. dh, in L.
fe7'a, Gr. Qj/p, L. fumus = Skr. dhiimas (smoke) ; L. famidus,
Skr. dhdman{a. house), Gr. Tidrjfxi, R. Os, Skr. <//<« (to place).
Grassmann suggests that in such cases the initial sound origi-
nally was dhv ; but, though this in some cases may be true, it
is very unlikely that it is so in all. We can explain the in-
terchange of/ and dh much more easily ; for we know that if,
in pronouncing dh or </t, we move the lower lip very slightly
towards the upper teeth, we change them into /.

^ = I. E. pin some cases : jci^aX/;, Skr. kapdla (cranium) ;
(iXi<papov from (dXtirw. In tv^w, R. TV(p for 0u(^ (to smoke),
beside Skr. dhup (suflire), dhupaydmi, and ort'^w, R. ort^,
Skr. sthapdydmi (I place), ^ has arisen from an older p, which
was employed to form causatives from the roots dhu (to move),
and sthd (to stand.)

M = I. E. wi: apa, Skr. samd (together), L. siimd ; R. tyu,
ipiu>, Skr. I'rtm (to vomit), L. vomo ; rifu-t ^/utauc, Skr. sdmi-,

• See Max Muller, vol. ii., p. 502.
. t Ahrciis '' De Dial, ^ol.," pp. 42, 256.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 83

L. semi- ; r)Oifia, Skr. ram (to rejoice), Goth, rimis (peace) ;
jUE, Skr. and Z. ma, L. m.e ; fiiaaog = Skr. madhyas = L, me-
dius. We find fi used for tt in Kret. afiuKig = aira^ ; Lak. 80-
Xofxdv = SdXoTra (a spy), Lac. Mspcrscpova = JJepae^ova ; and ft
for j3 in Lak. afivoctoq = a|3u«r<T0c> and Lak. afxaKiov = a/3a^.

§. 56. The Spirant Y.

Although the Greek alphabet contained no special sign
for the palatal spirant, traces of its presence are found even
more extensively than of that of the Digamma. Y must
have existed in Graeco-Italic times, and even in Greek till after
the separation of the dialects from each other. In Homer we
find traces of y in the frequent lengthening of short syllables
before tog (= ytog), as opvideg a>c» TreXsKvg wg, &c. Yis both
a spirant and a semivowel, and hence is easily vocalized.

Y = i: l^ito = Skr. svidydmi (sudo) ; £(<r)tr}v = Skr. (a)-sy-
dm = L. (e)siem ; -010 (gen. sing. term, of o-declension)
= Skr. -asya, as in linroio = Skr. as'vasya ; -mofxig (first plural
of Doric future) = Skr. -sydmas, as in Dor. irpa^iofieg, (pvXa^i-
ofjitg, beside Skr. totsydm/is, &c. ; -twv (term, of comparative)
= I.E. -yans, Skr. -iyans, as in 1781WV = Skr. svddiyans, &c. ;
Trarpiog = Skr. pitryas, &c. ; ^deipoj = (pOepijo), &c. Accord-
ing to Curtius, we find initial i for y only in proper names like
^Idoveg = Yavanas* and in Uvai beside Skr. yd.

Y= 6 : in the Doric future i is kept only before o-sounds,
as in irpa^iu), Trpa^iofieg, &c. ; but before e-sounds it becomes
c, as in tpya^rtrai ; in milder Doric i always becomes e, as in
TT/oa^w, irpa^ovfieg, &c. ; Ion. ritf), Tioiai = Lesb. rii^, Tiotai,
from Ti-^o; Argive S)^ea (eggs) = ojfija, I. E. dvyam, accord-
ing to Benfey, being a neuter adjective, meaning, "what
comes from a bird," from I. E. avi- (a bird) ; Aivvvaog= Ato-
vvaog; r]vopir\ beside avrjvo/otT/; Bopeijc for Eopyag (whence

* Curtius is wrong here, for Yavanas is a borrowed word. '\aovtQ,
however, may be equivalent to Skr. yuvdnas.

u2

84 COMPARATIVE GRAJMMAR.

Boppag, by assimilation), which is a spondee in Iliad I. 5, * 195 ;

arepEog, Att. amppog, for aTept/og, feminine oreTpo for arepya ;

Kevt6Q,JEol.KivvoQ, Ep.Kttrocj for Kivijog = Skr. s'unyas (empty)

= I. E. kvanyas ; Iriog = Skr. satyas (true) ; Hvaripig beside

L. janitrtces, ya becoming eg, and this again ii ; vurt = lort

for yore ; SoKe'o*, yafiiio, &c , for doKyu), yafiyw, &c.* In such

forms as TroXiwg, e does not stand for y, but TroXfa;^ = noXiog

iox TToXiyog, t?/ being the guna oft. Curtius considers that

i in SojpEa, avKiay Kpavta, &c., beside divpia (Hesych.), (rvKia,

Kpavia, &c., represents ty, and not y ; these words being

originally collectives in -yd ; Swpca, from an older ^ojpua,

means, therefore, "a collection of gifts ;" avKta, "a collection

of figs ;" and hence " the fig tree" itself, &c. Similarly

Tc'Aeoe = TiAttoc for nXtayog^ '^ivi.d = ytveta for ytveaya. In

Modern Greek we sometimes find the old £ represented by y \

and even in ancient times e before vowels must have had a

peculiar pronunciation, since we find Oeoi, via, &c., frequently

treated as monosyllables. The Modern Greeks also frequently

represent the y of other languages by c, as Beao-a = Skr. Vydsa

('li'StKat fxiraippaatig of Galanus).

F= u in Kvavog (a dark blue substance) = Skr. sydmas
(dark), v here being equivalent to u^.

Y = Spiritus asper : ^irap, Skr. yakrt (liver) ; L. jecur ;
vfitig, Skr. yushmat (abl. pi.) ; wpa, Z. ydre (a year) ; vafxlv^h
R. u0 = Skr. yudh (to fight); a7toc = Skr. yag'yas (to.be
honoured by sacrifice).

Fhas disappeared in ..'Eol. vufxtg ; fut. term. -atD = Dor.
aiu), from I. E. -sydmi ; term. s. -iw, -du), -dw, as rcXEw for
TtXiayu), ^opiu) - Skr. bharaydmi, &c. ; gen. term, ov for oo
= oio = oato = Skr. asya, as in 'iinrov = linroio, &c. ; nXiov beside
irXtiov ; ^ol. iraXaogi nXaOta, Xax6r)Vi beside TraXaiog,
iiXriSfia, Xa\o(r}v ; Ep. wK^a = ioKtXa ', kooi = Kaiw, &C.

Y= y : iiyovpog = dwpog, ayovpov being read by Aristo-

• Consult Curiius, " Grundziigc,'* p. 538 ; and " Tcmpora und Modi,"
pp. 92, 93.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 85

phanes in place of uKovpov in Od. tj 64 ; Kyprian Oiayov
(sulphur) = Ion. deriiov ; Kyprian anoyBfie (a^tXice, Hesych.)
and oyyEfiog (o-uXXajS/j, Hesych.) from root ya/j. = Skr. yam (to
take), L. em-o ; whence comes yivro. In Boeot. toJv = ly\ov,
Tarent. bXiog =6\iyogi aiaXog (fat) beside (ri^aXoeig (shining,
<Pia\la = ^lyaXia, y appears to have been lost from its ap-
proximating to the sound of y. In L. spargo = airtiptD for
(TTTipyw, g = y- In Modern Greek -y (pronounced y) has
arisen from and beside the old t, as in ^wp-y" = X***?'"' P'^n^
- fxvXa, KXatyb) = kXciw, avyov (an egg) = I. E. dvyam. Cur-
tius remarks that the Doric future term. -^a> of verbs in -^w,
as SiKcit^u), Dor. fut. BiKa^Q, is a proof that the old y was not
far removed from the gutturals.

Y = ^ : ^£a (spelt), Skr. yava (barley) ; K. t^eg, ^l(u, it^ta-
fxai (to gush, boil), Skr. yas (to strive), niryas (to perspire) ;
Krifjiia, K^irpog (a hangman) ; Skr. yam (to restrain) ; ^ijrttu,
Skr. yat (to strive), which is connected with yd (to go) ;
^i^v^ov, a tree, the fruit of which is called jujubce; ^vyov
= Skr. yugam, L. jugum ; (l^ajfiog (soup), Skr. yusha (pease
porridge), L. jus; ^a»vr?, tiwvvvfii, tiovadu) (= ^(ovvvadw,
Heysch.), Skr. yu (to bind) ; in the verbal terminations -aZ,w,
-iZ,(i), beside Skr. -aydmi, which became in Greek either
-a^w, or, by the falling out of y, -aw, -ow, -tw, -io. In these
cases the original y produced d before it, and this dy became
dz and then z. We find a similar phenomenon in other lan-
guages ; thus we have Ital. diacere, diacinto, maggiore, from
L. jacer'e, hyaciiithus, major; Middle Li^it. madius, from L. ma-
jus ; Mod. Gr. ^laKt, from oIclkiov (the tiller) ; Goth, daddja
(lacto) = 0. H. G. tdju, Skr. dhaydmi ; Goth, tvaddje, for tvajS,
gen. of tvai ; Goth, iddja (I went) = Skr. iydya, Gr. ^Va. This
assumption by y of a parasitic d is similar to that by u of a
parasitic g, in Ital. guadar, from L. vastare, &c. When y had
assumed this parasitic d, it frequently became St instead of ^,
as in the suffix -^log^ in ^L\Ba^i.og., piiSiog, &c., and the
^Eolic patronymics in -adiog, from A-stems, as ^YppaSiog,

86 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR,

TivaBioQ. The corresponding patronymics in Skr. end in
-ei/as (nom. sing, masc), dds^yas (the son of a slave), from
ddsa (a slave) ; and in Latin in -ejus, plebejiis, Pompejus,
&c. The termination of tStoc (Dor. FtStoe) is explained in
the same way by Curtius ; tlie root is I for oFc, Skr. sva,
L. se, whence we have tStoc through the steps aftyog, aFiBt/og,
aFfStoc, ft^iog, whence finally "iBiog. Such patronymic forms,
as Tvppaiog (Ahrens, " De Dial, ^ol.," p. 158), are related to
'Yppa^iog, as the verbal term, -nw to -a^o). As y becomes £ in
some cases, so St becomes Se, as in the term -diog, Att. Bovg,
aBaX^idsog, Att. aBe\(f>iSovg- We frequently find y, after it has
produced before it the parasitic S, vanishing and 8 alone remain-
ing ; Boeot. Svyov = t^vyov ; Boeot. ^wjuiog = ^(i>/xoc '» Dor. Sariv
= ZriTiiv ; \Oig = x^fc (by assimilation) = ■)(^t/£g = xi/^g = !• E.
ghyas, whence Skr. hyas, L. herijies-ternus ; poi^^og (a rushing
noise) = poiF^yog =» poiFyog (from poFyog by umlaut), connect-
ed by Curtius either with L. rumor, or with K. pv (to flow),
'Po7^oc, another form of /ooTj3Soe, is from poiByog. Curtius
connects Bi) with L. jaiu, Goth, ju (already) ; he treats S/;
as an instrumental, and^'a??i as a locative of the same pronomi-
nal root ^a. Beside Hom. afiipBu) (I rob), Pindar has afieipu),
both being from a/uepyw, R. pep. "E^i^va is perhaps for i^ivBa
by metathesis, which is for e^^ivya, a feminine form of £;^(c »
this feminine termination -vya is found directly in Trdrvm, as
-iva by umlaut in Biarroiva, Otaiva, \vKaiva, which correspond
to the Latin forms gaUinay regina, Diana for Deana^ and this
again for Deaina, Deauia, and as -vva by assimilation in the
^olic forms Kopivva, ^aalXiwa. MoAv|3Soc is for po\vftyog,
which is related to the older form p6Xv(5og, as xpvaiov to
\pva6g. 'PtjjSSocis for pa(5Byog= pan^yog = pairyog, wliich is
related to pairig, as BoKpvov to BaKpv. AafSBuKog is for
AafioKog from Aaiog (popular) from AoFoc (the people).*

• For additional examples consult Curtius, " Grundziige," p. 659, seq.,
to whom I am chiefly indebted for the materials of this and the followingj
poction.

comparative grammar. 87

§. 57. The Digamma.

The sound of F was very nearly the same as that of the
E. w. Dionysius of Halikarnassus defines it as ov auAXa/Si?
evl (jToi\H(^ ypacjiOfxtvri. It is both a spirant and a semivowel ;
and, as a semivowel, is easily vocalized.

F = u : We have six cases where initial F becomes i; :
vaXti (a worm, Hesych.) uaX^rai (it breeds worms, Hesych.),
from K. FcA (to twist), whence evXri (a worm), eX-fuvg ; 'YcAtj
(Herod. I., 167), the Italian town commonly called Elea or
Velia ; vtaig (cttoXtj Ylacpioi), maraKa (clothing), perhaps from
a nom. ucora^, from R. Fee (to clothe), L. vestis ; vi{] (the
vine), viov (the wild vine), connected with L. viere, vitis, with
which Curtius also connects olvog and L. vinum ; viXi} (a host,
Hesych.), beside Lacon. (^eiXt] = t'Aij (a host), from R. FtA,
Skr. var (to surround) ; vpnyaXiov (a cleft), beside Hom.
pu)yaXiov The change of F into v is very common in the
middle of words : kvwv = Skr. s'vd (a dog) ; icviio (I am preg-
nant), Skr. s'vaydmi (I swell) ; ttAuw, L. volvo ; ^idvoi (or
(iideoi, certain Spartan magistrates), meaning avviaropeg, fiap-
Tvpeg, from R. Fid, and suffix -Fo, -Fa = Skr. -va, and L. -vo,
-va, (iiSvog (Att. idvog or IdvTog). When F is vocalized,
it is frequently thrown back into the preceding syllable, as
in ravpog through ravpFog, from rapFog = Gall, tarvos ; Ion.
oSXoc = oAoc from oAFoc = Skr. sarvas (all) ; yowog, yovva
from yovFog, yovFa, gen. sing, and nom. pi. of -yovy ; dovpog
from SopFog, gen. sing, of Sopv ; ovXai (Att. oAai, L. mold),
from oAFat, as the Syracusan word oXjiaxoiov (a bread bas-
ket) proves. In the Lesbian--^ olic F between two vowels
became u, and thus formed a diphthong with the preceding
vowel, as in avtog (Lak. afidjp), <pavog (Pamph. 0aj3oc)
(Ahrens, "De Dial. ^oL," p. 36, seq.).

F = o : doav in Alkman = SZ/i/ from ^Ftji; = StFav, ace. of
St. StFa (a day) ; BocKraaro (it seemed) from R. StF, Skr. div

88 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(to shine), for Bfaaaaro ; Zoaaov = ff/Bto-ov (Hesych.), F be-
coming in the one case o, and in the other /3, the root being
ffFfc = I- E. svas, connected with G. sausen (to whistle), and
O. S. svistu (sibilus), not connected with Skr. s'vas (to breathe),
which is = I. E. kvas, L. queri, R. ques, E. whistle, wheeze,
the F is entirely lost in Ztivvfiiv = a^ivwuiv (Hesych.) ; ^oiol
(two) for SF/oi from St. SFt, Sic» L- l>is ; koo.^ (the croaking of
frogs) = G. quak, E. quack; koi^uv (to squeak like a young
pig) from KOi, G. quiek, E. squeak; "Oa^ug (the Kretan town
"A^og) the inhabitants of which are called fa^ioi upon coins,
and the district is called Ola^ig by ApoUonius Khodius, where
oi (= m') very nearly has the sound of v ; OldvOrj, or OlavOeia
(a Lokrian town), called in Plutarch 'YdvOeia, from fi-avBij
(violet blossoms) ; 'OiXevg = ^iXevg, from FtXij (a host) ;
opoEajuivog (a sprout) = pdSanvog, beside ^Eol. ftpiaBa = FptSm,
pf^a ; OtruXoc (a Laconian town), also called BehvXog (Bt-
TovXa by Ptolemy) from FiTvXog ; 'OXt<To-j?i/ (a Kretan town),
called by the later Kretans BXicraijv ; olava, olaog (osier),
beside hvg, ^ol. fiirvg for FiTvg, L. fi^o, vimen. The Sicilian
river "Avtc was sometimes called "Qavig, where to represents
F. This change of F into o is similar to that of y into s ; for,
as y became first / and then e, so F became first v and then o.
In 0. H. G. we find o for r, as in sneo = Goth, snaivs. It is
not probable that F ever became t ; for then it must have
passed through the three stages, u, u\ i, which is not likely ;
and in nearly all the cases adduced in proof of this change, i
is susceptible of another explanation. Thus in wiov = L.
ovum, F was present along with t, as is proved by the Argive
w/3ioi/, from tofiov ; TrXeUiv = irXtPyeiv, while nXietv = irXtftiv,
ya being a common verbal suffix ; dBeX(p(i6g = aS(X(pafiog from
St. aStA^cF = a^tX^v and suffix ya ; laptlov (7rpoj3aToj/, jiovg,
Hesych.) is from Upog, Dor. lapog, and not from St. fapv
(a sheep), &c.

After a prosthetic vowel F vanishes, as in Krct. aiptra,

comparati\t: grammar. 89

Horn, iipari = spatf (dew), Skr. varsha (rain) ; aXo^ (a furrow),
Horn. avXaK, Dor. iLXa^ for oFXa^, from R. FcXk (to drag) ;
aedXov (a prize), for aPtOXov, beside L. vas, St. vad (Leo
Meyer, however, connects this with L. avere, avidus, and treats
OXo as a suffix, the same as rgo) ; WiKoai = iFctKoat ; Hom.
ii^va = tSva from R. aPaS, whence i^Suc* &c., Skr. syacZ (to
please), svddu (sweet) = i^Su, &c.

F => spir. asp.: IWcpof, L.» vesper ; evvvij.i for itrvvfit, R.
Fee* L. vestire ; "(rrwp from R. FtS ; o^t?, for ottjc = oirFtr ;
'Ev£Tot = Veneti ; 'Eorrta beside F^ste. We find a similar
change in Fr. hors = L. foras, in Sp. ^a5a, harina, heno, hijo,
herir = L. faba, farina, fcenum, filius, ferire.

F = /3 : (iovXofiai, R. j3oX = Skr. var (to choose), L. volo ;
1(5v% (the name of an opvuov KpaKTiicov), beside Ivyri (shriek-
ing), St. Ifvy ; 6po(5og beside L. ervum ; 6X(3og beside oXoog
= L. salvus, &c. We find this change frequently in the dialects :
in Lesbian we find (3 for F before p, as in (5p6^ov, jSptaSa, Bpa-
SafxavOvg, &c. ; in Lak. we have (BeiKari = eiKOCfi, jSficac = tKag,
a(5i]p = a/j/o, a>j3a beside oyij (kw//t/) and ovai ((pvXai) ; &c.
We find a similar change in L. ferhui for fervui, bubile for
ftom'^ ; and in G. Schioalbe, Farbe, Erbse, &c., from 0. H. G.
swalawd, farawd, araweiz, &c.

F = ju : ajuvog = aFivo? beside ot'e = Skr. avis, Lith. avinas
(mutton) ; afivog, therefore, is equivalent in meaning to ovilis,
and then easily comes to mean lamb ; jxaXXog (shaggy hair)
beside L. villus, vellus, from same root as ouXoc (crisp), ipiov
(wool), Skr. urd (a sheep), urna (wool) ; E. wool; fieXSofisvog
{eTTiOvfiwv, Hesych.) beside aXSo/uLai and teX^ofxai {iiriOvfjiio)
from R. FeXS, as is proved by the last form with the pros-
thetic £ ; fxoXTTig = tXTTig from R. FeXtt, whence soXtto, UXtteto ;
afi<pr]v = iEol. av(p{]v = av)(ijv (the neck). Conversely we
find V in place of m in Lith. vidui = fxiaaoi, Ch. SI. "crUvX (a
worm) = Skr. hnnis, prUvy = L. primus, Skr. vayam (we),
Goth, veis (we), beside Skr. mam (me), &c.

The change of F into -y is very doubtful : we find ayarri-

90 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Hai (/3f/3Aa/i)uat) from afara = arijj Pindaric avara ; (ftiyyog for
0£vFoe which is related to <paog, JEol. ^aiiog, Pamphyl. <j>d(5og,
as (divOog to (iaOog, and wivOog to iraOog. The other cases in
which this change is said to occur are words of very uncer-
tain origin.

We find 0 = F in atpe = Skr. sva, and tripoyyog beside
Goth, si^amins (a sponge), E. swim ; p = F in Kret. rpc,
BedpoiKU)g, for rfe, ScSFotKwcj.T is said to be = F in na^og
found in Skylax for "Oa^oc? but the reading is doubtful ; in
Kret. woXxog = ox^og, but these words may be of different
origin, the root of TroAx**^' perhaps, being ireX found in
■jToXvg, L. pcpidus ; Lac, afxTriaai = afxt^Uaai, which Ahrens de-
rives from aix - Fccrat, afi being for ajxt^i '. Gurtius, however,
considers the tt to be due to the influence of the ^ of a/x^/ ;
Lac. airtWa = oFeAXa, according to Ahrens, from a= a (to-
gether) and R. FtX found in iiXuv (to press), ao\\{\g (crowded
together) ; but, as we have the forms airtlWio, ^o\. airiWio
(an-OKXE(u), Hesych.), it is possible that the tt may be due to
the preposition airo, and not to the F. 'AtteiX/j (threatening)
maybe from this root, and mean literally "shutting out,"
" excommunication."

The existence of F is in many cases shown by its effects
on a preceding consonant, as in iroaog (Ion, Koaog) for
kFoo-oc, or on a following vowel, as in o^og for Ftxoe, Dor.
TiToptg for TiTpapeg, J£>o\. opavog = Skr. Varunas, beside
ovpavog, -^ol. wpavogj Dor. u)pav6g, F becoming o, and oo
then ou, -^ol. and Dor. w. This effect of F or r on a follow-
ing vowel is found also in KoSpavrrig = L. qiuxdrans, L. socer
Skr. svas'uras, L. socrus = Skr. s'vas'rus, L. soror^ beside Skr.
svdsar (sister), &c.; and in the pronunciation of a in E. water,
what, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAE. ftl

§. 58. Assimilation.

I. When two consonants come together, the first is often
made the same as the second. Thus w = av in 'ivvvfn = Fca-
vvfii, R. Ffc ; K(^vvvfn = ^(i)(T-vvfxi, Skr. yu (to bind) ; ^ol.
^aevvog = (jtaeavog from <j>aog, St. (paeg, found in <pae<r<p6pog ;
^ol. opevvog = optavog, from opog, St. opeg found in opeaKii^og ;
ipi(5evvog = tptjSfo-voc, from epe(5og, St. tpejSec, found in epi-
^e<T(f>i ; £vv£ov (they swam, II. xxi. 11) = £<n;£ov, R. w for
<rvu, Skr. S7iu (to flow). Nv = tv in KavvEvo-av (Od. xv. 464)
= KaT-vtvcrav. Mp. = Vfx m Kappovir) = KUT—povit] ', Kapp.opog
(in Od., but never in II.) = Kar-popog. Mp. = ap. in ^ol.
tppi = lapi ; jEoI. 'ippevog, epp.a = £(T-jU£yoe, ta-pay R. Fe? ;
-^ol. ■)(pippa = \pi(jp.a ; Lesb. ap.peg, vpp.eg, beside Skr. as-
ma;i, ytishman ; (piXopptiSifg = ^tXo— <r/i£tS)]c> Skr. smi (to
laugh), E. smife, M^ = 7)u in Dor. irovpp.a (»j t^c X^iQog
irvypri, Hesych.). Mp. = (5p, irp., ^^, in Koppog (a striking)
from R. KOTT (as L. summus = sup-mus), rirpippai from R.
r/o</3, ypappa from R. 7pa<|), &c. AX = rrX in Lak. aXXav/;c
(safe) = airXavfig. AX = vX m truXXIyEti' = auii— X£7£tv, &c.
AX = rX in KaXXnrUiv (Od. xvi. 296) = Kar-XiTreBiv. Ttt = jutt
in Boeot. iiriraaig = ipiraaig {ijKTriaig) ; rXyTTTrta (the name
of a Lakonian village) = rXvpiria; Aairira (the name of a
town in Krete) = A.ap.ira. Yiir = ttt in Kainr(.aov = Kor-Tnaov.
BjS = 7rj3 in {ijSjSaXXEiv (II. xix. 80) = vtt-^oXXhv. B/3
= t|3 in Kaj3/3aX£ = Kar-j3aX£. AS = rS in icaS SI = kqt St.
Vy = Ty in Kay 701/0 = kut 70VU. Kk = tk m jcaK Kopv^-qv
= KUT K. and KUK KitpaXjfg = Kar ic- Kk = (TK in Lak. aKKOp = a<r-
KO{), StSaicK£t = SiSa(TK£t (in Deer, in Timoth.), Lak. (?) KOKKog
(6 p.iKpog SoKTuXoc, Hesych.) = koo-koc- Tr = err in Boeot.
Ittio, tTTB, ETrta, Erraexav = lorw, eote, earia, earrjaav ; Lak.
/Serrov (a garment) beside j3£(ttov = £<ttov ; Lak. Kirrop = Kia-
Tog; Lak. arraai for av<TTa0t= avacxTTjOt. Tr = Sr inTar.''A0paT-
roc (17 'EKar»} Trapa TapavTtvOic) = cK^pa^Tog. Tr = icr in Aurroc
(a Kretan town) beside A.vKTog. Pp = o-p in tppfov = Irrp^ov,

92 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

TTepippvTog = ireptapyTOQi beside afxcplpvrog, \eifiappoog, KaX-
XippooQ beside KaWipoog, all from R. pv for apv = Skr. sru (to
flow). P/0 = vp in ayappooQ from ayav and R. />u ; avpptiv
= <Tvv-peiv, &c. Vp = Tp in Kappt^ovaa (II. v. 424) = Kar-pt-
Zov(Ta. Pp = Fp in (ppi\pe = tFpi\p£ ; avTippoirog from R. F^ett ;
Trpoppi^og from Fpt'^a, with which root may be connected irt-
pt/o/orjSj'/c (headlong) ; appqicrog, JEol. avprtKTog from R. Fpay,
L. frango ; &c. 2c = vg in (juo-crmoi; = cruvo-moi/, and other
compounds of aw, except when ^ or o- followed by a conso-
nant come after, in which cases v is dropped, as in avZfVyog,
ffuo-TTjjua. The V in iv is always kept, and the v in irav and
TTaXtv is either kept or assimilated to the following a- 2a
= Sc in Hom. Troaai = vroS-rn. 2c = kc in Sicraog, rpiacrog
beside Si^og, rpi^og, ^ becoming aa through the steps ^g, hg.
This is Ebel's view, who compares L. nisii s= nixiis. Ch. SI.
desinu (dexter), Ir. des (dexter), Ir. ass and ess = L. ex beside
echtar (extra), Umb. tesfru = L. dextro, &c. Curtius considers
Si(T(Toc to have arisen from SFiryog = Skr. dvitiyas for dvityas.
II. When two consonants come together, the second is often
made the same as the first. This is very common in iEolic,
especially when a liquid is followed by F, y, or a. Thus w
= va in ^Eol. fii]vvog (a month) beside L. inensis ; Mol.lyyiv-
vaTO, KTivvoL = tytvaaro, Kvevaai ; tvviire = fvatTTE, L. insece.
Nv = vF in .^ol. yovvog = yovvog from yovFog. Nv = vy in
JEjo\. KTivvb) = KTiivto from Knvyuj ; ^ol. Kpfwo) = icptvcu from
Kpivytt) ; -^ol. Kevvog = Skr. s'unyas (empty), Ion. Keei/oc» ice-
VEOC, Att. Kivog- M/x = /iff in ivififxaTo = Ivifxaaro. AX = Xv
in oXXvfii = 6Avv/x(, as E. ell = ehi, L. w/na, and E. full=fuln,
Skr. ;>urna (full), L. plenus. AX = Xcr in iEol. tartAAa = ta-
rf Affa. AA = AF in ttoAAj'/ = ttoAFij from ttoAu ; kuAAo'c
(crooked) = kuAFoc L. curvus. AX = Ay in aAAoc = aAyoc, L-
alius ; (pCXXov = ^vXyov, L. folium; fiaXXov = /uaAtov ; uAAo-
fjiai = aXi/ofxai, L. salio ; icaAAoc, KaXXvvto, Dor. KaAAd (ko-
A(oc). beside Skr. kalya (sound) ; ortAAw = ortAyto ; Hom.
o^iXXtv = o^tlXw from 6<piXt/(v. Utt = irp. and 0/< in iEol.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 93

OTTTTara, aXnnra for ofxfiara, aXei/ifia from the roots dn and
aAi0. Ad = By in the Boeotic forms fiaBBa = )uo2^o = i^iaBi/a for
fxay-ya ; (r^aSSoj = a^a^yu) for o-^ayyw ; (raATrtSSo* = craXTrtSytu
for aaXTTiyyu) ; piBBu) = pt^o), Att. f|oSw = peByto for fp^y-yw,
K. F/ofy and Ft/oy ; the same change is found in Lakonic, as is
proved by the examples in the Lysistrata, yyjuvaSSo/xat (82)
HvctiBBu) for ij.v6t<^(o (94), TTOTodBei for irpoao^ei (206), &c.
When Sy is initial, we sometimes find it represented by S in-
stead of Sd, as in Boeot. Aevg = Ztvg, Adv = Zrjv, Svyov = ^u-
yov ; Lak. Btofjiog = t^wfiog ; Sa- = ^a- from Sid in Sacpoivog,
Bd<TKiog. Kk = K/) in Boeot. fjiiKKog = /uiiKpog. Kk = kF in ^ol.
i'/cKoc = L. equiis ; yXvKKov (yXvKu, Hesych.) = yXvKpov ; tteAek-
Kav = TTfAeKFaii from TTfAsKUC" Tr = rg in KUTTveiv = KaTO-uttv.
Tr = rF in TiTrapeg = rirFapig. Tt = ry in the Attic forms,
fiiXiTTtt = /neXirya ; KptiTTtov = Kpuryujv ', irepiTTog = Trepiryog ;
v£orToe = vsoryog. Pp={)(Tin a()pr\v = a.par]v , appi-)^og (a basket)
= ap(Tt;^oc5 ddppog = Odpaog, Tr6pp(o = 7ropau) beside tt/ooo-w, oppog
perhaps from opaoc, ttu/s'/soc = irvpaog, Att. x^phQ (^^J land)
= T^tptrog, Att. Koppt) = Kopffj). Pp = pv in fxvppa = ajivpva.
Vp = py in the ^olic forms (pOippw = tpOepyw, irippoxog = ttc-
pioypg, mppixtiv = '7ti.pd\Hv^ inpp azraAw (in Theokr. 29,
25) for nepX cnraXw, TUpPajLLog = Upia/xog, fXiTippog = fxirpiog,
&c. 2or = af in Horn. ttoSsctcti = TroSfaF* from St. ttoSe for
TToS (in later Greek this ctF becomes a, asinuoAfcr/, &c., which,
however, does not fall out, as it represents the old aa) ; JEiol.
tacTog = fiaFog, 7(Tog, Skr. vishu (seque) ; traces of the initial F
being found in Horn, ao-rj and Lak. (3iu)p = 'Icriog. Se = <yy in
iaaofxai = iayo}xai ; viaaofxai = viayopai from R. vtg, found in
vto/nai, vocTTog, Ntcrrtup, Skr. Jias (to come) ; TTTiaau) = iTTiayiOf
L. pinso, Skr. ^wA (to pound).

III. When two consonants come together, the first is gene-
rally made like the second. Thus, when labials or gutturals
precede mute dentals, they must be of the same order as the
following dental ; hence the only combinations allowed are
Kr, 7rr, yS, /38, x6, (pd, as in AcKTOcfor Xtyrog, R. Acy, ypairrog

94 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

lor ypa^Tog, and ypa(5Bijv for ypacpSi^v, R. 'ypa<p, Xe:\Ot]vai for
XeyOqvai, R. Xty, rv^^/jvai for ruTr^rjrat, R. rvir. Before cr, y
and X become k, and j3 and ^ become tt, as in a^w, R. ay,
Tpi\Lb), R. rpt/3, ypaxfjb), R. ypatf). Before ^ a guttural becomes
y , and a dental becomes o-, as in ^iwypog from ^twicw, (5if3piypai
from jBpixtjJi fivvafiat from avvrw, Triiruafiai from TreiOtt), ea/itv
beside oTSa ; sometimes this change does not occur, as in aic/LtTj,
Spa\jxiu pvBfiog, apiBf.i6Q, arpog, and in compounds with pre-
position EK, also in the Ionic forms oBpv = Att. 6<Tpr], ISptv =
Att. tffjuev, KtKopuO/ilvoc = Att. KfKopuff/ufvoci 'iK/xevog (favour-
able), a/caxjut'voc from R. ok (to sharpen), aur/xj'j (breath). N
becomes ;i before labials, and nasal y before gutturals, as
in epTTdpog from fv, ireipa, truyKaXctu from <tvv, KaXlw, &c.
Labials become p. before v, as in aepvog from R. o-f/3, ai^opai ;
but we find uttvoc beside L. sotJinus. T frequently becomes <j
before u and i, as in eru = Dor. tv, suffix -awr} for -rwri,
(jf-qm = Dor. ^ar^ tpaaig = Hom. ^drig, irXovtrtog from ttXou-
Toc, tiKOCfi = Dor. FtKar/, (pipovcri = Dor. tpipovTi, &.c.

IV. When two consonants come together, the second is
often made like the first. Thus initial Sy becomes dz, written
Z, as in Zevg = Skr. dydiis, Osk. AtovFet (dat.), 0. L. Diovis ;
^a = 8ta in Hom. Z,aBtog, taKorog, &c., also in the ^olic forms
t^a(ia\\eiv, Za vvKTog, Zovvv^og = Aiovvaog, &c. Medial St/
very frequently becomes ^, as in t<!iopai, R. tS ; o^w, R. 6S ;
ffT^i^w, R. (TXtS ; x^^*^' ^" X'^ ' TjOOTre^a for rerpaTrtSya, com-
pare L. acupedius ; x^^f^^^ from St. ^aXaS, I. E. ghrdd, Skr.
hrdduni (bad weather), L. grando ; piZ,a = FptSya, Tre^oc = Tre-
Syoc ; -^ol. KapX,a = KapBia ; -^oc in x.6i^6g and Trpwt^ocj
from R. StF, whence come ?(aXoc, SieXog, EijXoc, &c. ; ap/'^rjXoc
= apiByr}Xog from R. 8(F.

V. Mutual approximation of two united consonants to
each other. Thus yy becomes ^ through the step Sy in p/^tu
= ptyyu) beside tpyov ; pti^wv — ptyytov ; a^opai = ayyopai
beside ayiog ; Hom. v-noXit,it)v = imoXiyywv ; jua^a beside jua-
y£«/t)OC ■> ^i''^a = iivyifaf R. ^uy ; Zaiv -■ y.Vcitu, I. E. gh; Skr.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 95

g'iv (to live), beside ^iaira = yyaira ; kXcl^u) beside KXayyri ;
pt^b) (I dye) beside priyivg (a dyer) ; and some other verbs in
-K(i>. Z = /3y in Xatiofiai beside R. Xa/3, eXajSov. In vt^w
beside x£/o~^'i3~oc> vtVrto) for vi(5tw, Z, may represent yy, as
the Skr. n?^' (to wash), proves that the root once contained
y. Sff = ry in Xiaaofxai, R. Xir ; fiiXiaaa from St. fnXir ;
Kpijaaa = Kprjrya ; ipe(r(ra) = Ipiryu) beside apeTfiog ; Kpeicrcrbiv
= Kpeiryujv beside KpaTiarog ', vr\aaa = vrjTya, L. anas. Scr
= 0y in Horn, fiiaaog = Skr. madhyas ; jSao-o-wv = /3u-
^yajv beside ^aOvg ; Kopvaaio = KopvOyto beside KtKopvO-
fxai- S(T = Ky in T/crcrwv = r}Ki/u)v beside riKicrTog ', GpJjcrora =
QpilKya ; /iaXa(r<T(u - fxaXaKi/w beside fxaXoKog ; oo-ae (the eyes)
= ojcye beside Boeot. oicraXXog (the eye), and oKKog (the eye,
Hesych.) ; oaaa (a voice) » OKya, L. w-a? ; IvicriTU) (I attack,
= iviTTTw) = iviKyu), L. tco. So'= xy i^ IXaaawv = eXa^ytov be-
side eXaxvg ; (3pa(T(ju)v = ^payjjuyv beside jipaxOg, (5p6<T<Tovog
(^paxvTtpov, Hesych. (Ahrens, " De Dial. Dor.," p. 505). S«t
= /3y in ^aaaa (the ring dove) = (pa^ya, beside <pa^p (a smaller
species of ring dove). So- = iry in Koaraog (a slap in the face)
KOiryog from R. kott. 2(t = Sy in JEol. ireaaov = TraBiov ; ^ol.
Xaaog = "idiog ', Tar. (ppacraio = ^/oa^w from R. <ppad (whence
apKppadrjg, Trt^paSov), which Curtius deduces from an older
form TT/oar = L. pret in interpretdri, beside Lith. prat (to un-
derstand), QiO\h. fraths (understanding). 'S.a = yy in irrjorau)
= ir-qyytji beside Trr]yvvp.i ; ^paaau) = (ppayyu) beside ecppayr^v ;
p/j<T(Tw = priyyu) beside priyvvfii ; aaato = ayyuy beside ayvvfxi ;
tppvaaio (I parch) = <ppvyy(o beside ^pvyu) ; 7rXj7(T(Tfa> = irXriyyu)
beside tTrXayrjw ; opvaau) = opvyyo) (beside opvyi]) or opv^yw ;
ficKToix) = fxayyti) beside fxaytvg (a baker) ; Tacro-d) = rayyio be-
side Tayoc (3- ruler) ; and perhaps in a few other cases. In all
those, however, which are enumerated here, with the excep-
tion of aaao} (which does not appear till after Augustus),
<ppv(T(TU), and Taaaw, older forms of the roots occur with k in-
stead of y, so that in these cases era may represent jcy, and
not yy.

96 comparative grammar.

§. 59. Dissimilation.

Mute dentals before mute dentals become o-, as in avvarog
= avvTTOQ from avvrio ; ^OTtov = ^Sreov from ^Soj ; neKrOrivai
= irtiOdnvai from irtiOio. The ending 0( of the 2 sing, impera-
tive, first aorist passive, becomes n when an aspirate oc-
curs in the preceding syllable, as (Ta>0»}Tt beside kXvOi : we find,
however, (t>aSi or <paBt from ^rj/it. We have also ervOrjv
- WvOnv, from R. 0u and tTeOi^v = lOiOi^v from R. Os ; yet we
find ttpvcpy (the woof) from R. w^. When two consonants be-
gin a root, the fii'st is only kept in reduplicated syllables ;
hence aspirates are reduplicated by the corresponding tenues.
Thus we have -yly/aa^a = ypeypacpa, Kixprifxt = -xpixpriiui, lo-rtj-
fii = ai(m]fii = (TTKTTriixi, Tri(pvKa = (p£^vKa : similarly in San-
skrit we have bahhuva = irt^vKa, dadrdma = BiSpopa.* Roots
which originally began with one aspirate, and ended with
another, replaced the first aspirate by the corresponding te-
nuis. Thus we have tt^xuc (the arm) = (ptix^Q = I- E. bhdghus
= Skr. bdhits (the arm), beside 0. N. bogr, 0. H. G. bnoc ;
TTvOpi'tv beside (iv9p7]v, Hesych. (the bottom) = (pvOnr]v, Skr.
budhna (the bottom) = I. E. bhudhnay beside O. H. G. bodam,
L. fundus ; &c. j- We see the effects of Dissimilation in other
languages as in L. Parilia beside Palilia from Pales, L. meri-
dies from medidies, L. popidans for populalis beside regalis,
&c. ; It. veleno = L. venenum ; E. cinnamon for cinnamom, &c.

• Curtius has pointed out that Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin had not,
before their separation from each other, already fixed their peculiar laws
of reduplication, from the different ways in which they treat groups of
consonants of which the first is a sibilant. Thus we have the Latin steti
= stesti, spopondi = spospondi, while conversely the Sanskrit has only kept
the sibilant in the second syllable, as tishtami (I stand). We find some
traces of this latter kind of reduplication in Qreek and Latin, as in quis-
quilicB — KoaKvXfiana (parings of leather) beside okvWhv (to flay) and
KaaKa\iZ,uv (to tickle) beside er/caXXt(v (to stir up). A third form of redu-
plication is found in L. sisto = stisto, as 'iari)fii= aTitrrttfii.

t For other cxanipK-s consult Grassmann in K. Z., vol. xvi,, p. 114.

comparative grammar. 97

§. 60. The Rejection of a Consonant.

Dentals, when standing before o-, are generally dropped
without compensation, as in avvtrig = avvTmg, ^cojuat = 178(70-
juai, KOpvui = KopvOai, dai/uiocn = Saifiovtri. N also disappears
before ^, as in av^vyog = avvKvyog. N in kv is never lost ; v
in irav andTraAtvis either kept, or assimilated to the following
o- ; V in aw is dropped before ^ and o- with a consonant fol-
lowing, but before a single (xit is assimilated, as in avamnov.
In some cases the loss of v is compensated for by lengthening
the preceding vowel, as in fiiXag = jutXavc* raXag = ra-
\avgi &c. Nr, v0, vS, are also omitted before tr, but are nearly
always compensated for, asTt^ct'c = riBtvTg., Truaonai =TrevOao-
fiai, (TTTtio-to = (TTrevEab). N is also sometimes omitted between
two vowels, as in fxeitiovg = fiei^ovsg. K is lost in avXaw from
o-KuXop (plunder), as in Skr. savyas (left) = aKaiog, L. sccevus ;
<Tvv = Kvv ; Kypr. aoaXa = KvrjXri (a carpenter's plane), from
^vw. n is lost in Dor. aatKTOg {ayaBog napa 'PivOuJvi
TapavTivdfj) = aipiKTog from xpiyto ; aiTraKog = \piTTaKog (a
parrot) ; Ion. crtox^iv = t//wx£<v (to scrape) ; afifiog = y^afifiog
through aa/bipog. T is lost in Kipwg = Ksparog, from St.
Kepar (a horn) ; <pipn = tpepiTi, &c. The rejection of y and F
has been already noticed ; we may add that F is lost in cro;u-
<p6g (spongy), beside Goth, svamms (a sponge) ; ao/3jj (a
horse's tail), beside 0. N. svipa (a tail) ; aiyi) beside G.
schweigen (silence) ; alcijpog beside Skr. svidita (molten) ;
aaXog (swell of the sea) beside E. steel I ; "Sidpiog, aiXag be-
side Skr. svar (heaven), Z. hvare (the sun). S, as we have
already seen, is generally rejected between two vowels ; also
between two consonants, as in yeypacpOai = ytypa^adai, rirv-
<j)ds = TiTvrpaOe, &c. ; also before another a, as in yXvKtai - yXv~
Ktaai for yXvKtaPi, &.C. Initial <t is always lost before v, as in
vii^a beside Z. s'nizh (to snow), Goth, snaivs (snow) ; vivpov,
L. Ji^rtnw beside O.H.G. «nwor (laqueus) ; viw (I swim)=(TV£F(y,
Hom. tvviov = laviov, veixrig (swimming), beside Skr. S7iu (to

H

98 coMPARAim: grammar.

flow) ; vau) (I flow) = o-vaFo), ^ol. vauw, beside Skr. S7iu (to
flow), and not snd (to flow) as the ^olic form shows ; wog
(daughter-in-law) = avvaog, beside Skr. snushd, and L. nurus.
It is sometimes lost before ju, as in nudiao) beside (piXofifiuBi^g,
Skr. sjiii (to smile), E. smile ; /utXSw (1 melt), E. smelt ; fiip-
lnepoQ (care-laden), L. memor, beside Skr. smar (to remember) ;
fjivSog (damp, foulness), Skr. mid (to be clammy), Goth, bi-
smeitan {Iitl\qIhv), O. H. G. smiz (na^vus), and E. smut.
S is lost before k in Kag^oq (a twig) = aKapKpog ; Kin^avTig
{tpdaavTsg, Hesych.), beside aKin-nrHv (to prop), L. scipio
(staff) ; Kvi^p (a small insect) = (TKvixp ; Kapdpoi (^Kivijaeig, He-
sych.), beside aKatpeiv (to hop) ; KaireTOQ (a grave) = (TKawe-
Tog, beside crKaiTTiiv (to dig) ; Ki^vaaOai = aKiSvaadai (to be
scattered) ; ctKVTog (skin) = Kvrog, Skr. sku (to cover). 2 is
lost before tt in wivouai (I work, am poor), from R. o-ttev, be-
side (TTravig (want), G. spinnen (to spin, to do) ; irivog (dirt),
beside ottTXoc (stain) ; and before (ft in ^rfXog (deceitful), be-
side a<f>aX\<t). S is lost before t in ravpog Goth, stiur* (bull) ;
riyog = ariyog, Skr. sthagdmi = aTtyw, L. tego, Lith. stoga3
(roof), 0. N. thek (roof), 0. H. G. d<ikju (I cover) ; TvSavg,
from R. Tvd = Skr. <t/<?(to strike), L. tundo, tudes (a hammer),
beside Goth, stauta (I strike) ; tvittu} beside oruTra^ft (w^et,
Hesych.), O.H. G. stumhalon (obtundere); Tvp^aZ>Hv = arvp-
fta^iiv (to trouble), G. stitrm, stiirzen (to rush).

§. 61. The Insertion of a Consonant.

The groups vp, up, p\, become vBp, fi(5p, |i/3A : thus avBpog
= avpog ; pt(TTip(ipia = fna^ppia ; pip(5\u)Ka = ptp\(OKa, and
/SXwffKO) = pfiXwaKU) for juXwffKci), beside juoXeTi; (to go) ; /3po-
Tof = fifipoTog (found in ap^porog) for fiporog = Skr. martas
(mortal) ; yap(5p6g = yappog, L. gener ; (iXiTTw (I take the

* The Vedic sthuras (nom. sing, masc.) is an adj. meaning strong ; it
never means a hull.

I

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 99

honey) = /u/BXtrrw for fiXiTt/w from fiiXt ; /3Xa^ (lazy)> beside
fiaXuKOQ ; ^ju/3/oorov = ^/xaprov. In these cases )3 and 8 were
inserted to faciHtate the pronunciation ; consult §. 30. N is
inserted in the root syllable of the present tenses of many
verbs, as in Aay^avw, fxavOavo), &c., beside Xa)(^eiv, fxaBiiv, &c.
This V was originally the sign of the present tense, and is
found in its full form vu in deiKvvfxi, &c. Similarly we have
Skr. s'aknomi (I can), s'aknumas (we can), from K. s'ak, yuh-
g'anti) they bind), from R, yug', &c., and in L. jungunt from
^.jug, tundo, from R. tud, &c. Ffrequently assumed before it
the sound of 8, which when initial became ^, and when pre-
ceded by a tenuis became r, while the y was dropped. Thus
Z,ivyvvfii = Bytvyvvfii = Skr. yunacfmi (I join), L. jungo, &c. ;
similarly in Italian we have giacere for diacere = L. jacere, gio-
condo for diocondo = L. jucundus, &c. ; consult §. 56. We have
XaXtTrro)* from ;)^aA£7roc, through the steps ^oXett^^^^w, \aX£7ry<u ;
similarly we may derive tvtttu) from R. rvir, KXiwTui from R.
kXett, &c. In /3Xa7rr(u from R. /3Xa/3 we might expect /3S in
place of ITT ; but, as the verbs in -tttw were so numerous, this
case was assimilated to the others ; unless, indeed, the root be
|3Xa7r, found in Kret. ajSXoTrte = ajSXajSlc Nitttw from R,
r/j3, Skr. nig' does not occur till very late. Perhaps we may
in this way explain the forms Trr^oXtc, tttoXejuoc, &c. ; tttoX/c
= TryoXtc ; TTToXefxog = TryoXsfxog ', Trrtcaw beside Skr. pish (to
pound), h. pinso; irripva (the heel), beside Skr. pdrshni (the
heel) ; tttuw beside Goth, speiva (I spit), L. spMO ; KTeivo) be-
side Koivb) ', TTTa'uo (I makc to fall), beside Traiio (I strike) ;
jBSto) = /3y£w beside L. visium (/BSc'o-jua), Lith. ie^cZw (jSStw) ;
T^^tg = I. E. ghyas, whence Skr. hi/as (yesterday), L. heri ;
xGaf^oXog beside xafiai.

* Lottner considers r in these cases to be the sign of a presential form,
lost in Skr. but kept in Gr., Lat., and Lith.

h2

100 COMPARATn''E GRAMMAR.

§.62. Aspiration.

Although most of the Greek aspirates represent the I. E.
soft aspirates, yet under certain circumstances we find an as-
pirate developed from an original tenuis, after the Greek
had separated from the other cognate languages. The two
chief conditions for this development of an aspirate from the
corresponding tenuis are, firstly, the influence of a preceding
a ; and, secondly, that of a following A, /u, v, or p. In the fol-
lowing cases we find the aspirate due to the influence of a pre-
ceding a : axiKfj^f Skr. k'hid (to cut), L. scindo, Goth. sJcaida
(I separate) ; Att. axiKig = o-keXi'c (the ham) ; a<T(^a\a% = aa-
wa\a% (mole) ; Att. a^vpig = airvpig (basket) ; Att. cx^ovSuAn
= (TTTov^vXr) (insect), &c. This influence of o- is very com-
mon in Attic. S sometimes was dropped after it had aspi-
rated the following consonant, as in rovxto (I wear out)
= rpucTictu (Hesych.) ; i»j);^«u = o-vtj(7kw ; yXi\ofxai (I long for), be-
side y\i<TXpog (sticky) ; Trrtuxoc? beside Trrwo-Ko^cu (I crouch) ;
ipxajxai = fpaKo/iai, &c. A, /j., v, p aspirate the preceding
consonants in avdpaxXrj (a coal pan), from St. avOpuK
(coal) ; vavadXoo) (I carry by sea) = vavaroXib) ; suffix -OXo
(Bifjs-OXov) = -Opo, -Tpo ; airpXog (crippled) = miraXog ;
alxfifi = oKfiii ; iijj\fi6g (pursuit), beside Imki) ; Xaxnog (kick-
ing) beside Aaicrttx/ioc ; Ay^^voc from R. Xvk ; i^ai(j)vrjg = t^a-
TTiviig ; (iXrixpog (sluggish), beside (5XaK ; suffix -Opo (kXh-
Opov) = -Tpo (apoTpov), &c. ; Ti(ppa (ashes), beside Skr. tap
(to be warm) L. tepidus ; dpiva^ (a three-pronged fork)
= rpiva^ ; (ppoifiiov from older vpooipiov, &c. Sometimes the
same effect is due to a preceding nasal, as in tyxog beside
uKtov ; piyx"^ - ptjKu) (I snore) ; oinvOiip (spark), beside
\ J. scintilla ; 6p.^ri (voice) fromR. Fctt ; Boeot. £;^(ij»;0t = £;^ou(Tt,
from ix'^vTi, &c. We have also a few isolated examples
where a Greek aspirate represents an older tenuis, without
being influenced by A, p, r, p or <t, as in raxvg = Skr. takus

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 101

(quick); ewvxiog from St. vuk ; aXd(p(o beside Ai'ttoc (fat),
Skr. lip (to anoint) ; KetpaXi) beside KtjSaXfj (Hesych.), Skr.
kapdla (skull) ; ictKa^rjwc (gasping), beside kottuw (I gasp), and
a few other cases.

§. 63. Final Consonants.

N, p, and g are the only consonants allowed to end a word.
The only exceptions to this rule are Ik (from t^), ovk (from
ovKi), and the interjections w6ir, ott, i6(p. A final r and S are
dropped, or t is changed into q, as in to = Skr. tad; t(pv
= Skr. abhut ; e<p£pov = Skr. abharant ; ripag for repar, &c.
Final 0 becomes g, as in So? for So0 from So0<, Ot'c for Otdi,
(Txig for o-^£0t. A is lost in iraX, voc. of Traig, St. 7ra<8 ; also
K in yvvai, voc. of yvvrj, St. Yi»j/at»c ; also kt m oi/a, voc. of
ava^, St. ava/cT, &c. When several consonants, the last of
which is g, come together, only one is generally retained, and
the preceding vowel is lengthened in compensation, as in
^ipwv = ^tpovrg ; iroiiJirjv = Troi/JLevg ', tv/ntviig = evfitveg ; <TKwp
= (TKaprg ; yiydg = yiyavrg ; fiiXdg = /meXavg ; Tervtpwg = tbtv-
(porg ; TiOeig = riOevrg ; StSowc = ^tSovr^, &c. We sometimes
find, as final sounds, the combinations y^, p^, \p, as in ^op-
fxtyK, Xdpvy^, <rapK, So/)^, (gazelle), vTp, wxp, dip, &c. We
have Xg in the single case aXg ; pg in ^ol. forms, as fxaKopg ;
vg only in eXpivg (worm), Trtipivg (wicker basket), but more
frequently in the Argive and Kretan dialects, as Tipvvg, ivg
= elg, Toug = Tovg, dypovg = aypovg, &c. J'inal p, is dropped or
changed into v, as in ttoitiv = Skr. patim; viov = Skr. navam;
t^epov (1 sing.) = Skr. abharam ; dUa = h. decern; iraripa
= L. patrem ; iSei^a = Skr. adiksham ; (ptpio = Skr. bhardmi.
The V ItptXKvoTiKov in i(pip£v = Skr. abharat, iroaaiv, &c., is
peculiar to the Greek language. Schleicher is wrong in treat-
ing V in (pipopev (1 pi.) &c., as this v ; for the Dor. (pipopeg
and the common <pipopev both point back to an older (japo-
pivg.

( 102 )

CHAPTER VI.

The Latin Alphabet,
§. 64. Tabular View of the Sounds.

MUTES.

SEMIVOWELS

VOWELS.

utiasp.

Spirants.

Kasals.

r

& l-sounds.

surd. son.

surd. son.

son.

son.

Gutt c, q g
Pal.

h
j

n

?-f}'>0

Cer.

(;-,0?

/ 0, (J

Dent, t d

s

n

r,l

1

Lab. p b

f »

m

n, ft 1

The Romans borrowed their alphabet from the Dorians of
Cumae, omitting the three aspirates, 0, ^, 3^, as they did not
possess the corresponding sounds. Their alphabet consisted,
therefore, of the following letters, in the given order : a, h, c,
d^ e, /, s, A, i, k, I, m, n, 0, p, q, r, s, t, v, x. Z is still found
in a fragment of the Carmen Saliare ; but it was soon lost, and
was not employed again by the Romans till it was reintro-
duced in Cicero's time to represent Gr. Z, in borrowed words,
at which period also Y was introduced, as well as the custom
of marking the Greek aspirates, 0, 0, )^, by M, "pli, ch. Q is
the Doric Koppa. X appears at the end of the alphabet, be-
cause it was not introduced as early as the other letters, cs or
gs being used for it. It must have been adopted, however,
before the archonship of Eukleides, for after his time the
Greeks used the sign S. The oldest document in which X
is found is the Senatus Consultum de Baccanalibus. Some
time after the introduction of the Doric Alphabet at Rome the
distinction between the guttural tenuis and media was lost
there, as well as in Etruria and Umbria, and C and iTreprc-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 103

sented the same sound.* Thus on the Columna Rostrata
c = g in such forms as leciones, pucnandod, &c. This force of
c was still retained in the abbreviations C. and Cn. for Gains
and Gnoeus. K at last was only used in certain cases, as when
the words Koeso, Kalendce, Kalumnia, Kaput, were marked by
the first letter merely. After k had thus been almost lost,
the Romans felt that a distinction should be made between
the guttural tenuis and media ; and, to represent the latter, G
was introduced by Sp, Carvilius, a freedman of Sp. Carvi-
lius Ruga, and was placed by him between / and ^, in the
place of the old z. The Emperor Claudius attempted to in-
troduce three new signs — the inverted Digamma j for v, Anti-
sigma 3 for hs or ps, and the sign of the Greek spiritus asper
h for il. This attempt, however, failed, for after his death
these signs at once were given up. The sounds of the Latin
language are not so far removed as those of the Greek from
those of the Indo-European ; for, while Greek has changed u
into w, altered the three aspirates from mediae to tenues, lost
y entirely, v nearly entirely, and nearly always lost or changed 5
into the spiritus asper before vowels, Latin, on the other hand,
has kept the pure u, y, v, s, although 7/ and v sometimes disap-
pear, and s between two vowels becomes r, but represents the
three original aspirates by/, or when medial by b, and also
the I. E. ^^ by h. The vowel-system is, however, very far
removed from the I.E. ; for the distinctions of guna and vrddhi
have been almost lost; the effects of assimilation and dissimi-
lation are very great ; nearly all the old diphthongs have dis-
appeared in classical Latin and Umbrian, and non-orio-inal
lengthenings and shortenings of vowels continually occur.
The old diphthongs are found in old Latin and Oscan, but
these have been handed down in too fragmentary a state to be
of much assistance. The substitution of monophthongs for

* This is Corssen's view, but it appears to be only a theory invented
to account for the fact that the third letter of the Latin Alphabet has a
A-sound.

104 COMPARATIVE GKAMJIAK.

diphthongs is easily explained, from the assimilation of one
sound to the other, ei becoming l, &c. ; or from the mutual ap-
proximation of both to each other, ai becoming cb, &c.

§. 65. Pronunciation of the Vowels.

A had in classical Latin the full clear sound of the Italian
a. Long and short e had each two different sounds : ^ in
int^r^ patir, &c., sounded like e in E .father ; ^in tempestatShus,
merSto, &c., had an i-sound,* and was supplanted by i in the
language of the educated classes, but finally returned to e in the
language of the common people ; e had an o?-sound, as we see
from the 0. L. forms questores, Victorie, &c., and the ordinary
iorms fecu7idus, fmicm, &c. ; e had an !-sound, which was an-
ciently written e/, and which Quintilian notices (L 4, 18, "in
here neque e plane neque i auditur"). Short i had a thin
t-sound ; but in vulgar Latin in early times it was generally
pronounced e, to which sound it also returned in the later
Empire. The Oscan had an f-sound, for which they used the
sign h, and which was probably the same as the Fr. e fermi.
Long I had a thin i-sound, and a broad e-sound, which was
written ei. In Latin there also existed a sound between %
and M, equivalent to the Gr. v, for which Claudius introduced
the sign V. This sound was generally found before labials, as
in maxumus, voliimus^ &c. It approached nearer to w than
to t, inasmuch as the oldest inscriptions generally present w.
The Claudian \- is only found on inscriptions, in place of Gr. w,
as 'va.Aeg\-^\, Chcmis^ &c., except once for Gr. t, in hhb (liotheca),
and once in L. gt-bemator, on account of its relationship to
Gr. KvjBepviirrig. This sound generally became i in Italian,
as massimo, &.c. ; yet we find it kept as u in It. docuniento and
monumento. 0 had a clear sound in colo, honestits, &c., and an
obscure one in termination -o«, later -its, plosfrum, &c. The
L, u is a true «, and not the same as the Gr. u ; for the Greeks

* Of course I mean the Italian, and not the English t.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 105

generally transcribed it by ov, as in KopjiovXwv, Nou/^ac, &c.,
and in some few cases by o and v, as in UoTrXiKoXag, ^av-
(TTvXoQ, &c. This proves that the L. u was equivalent to
neither Gr. o nor v, but that it lay between these sounds.
That the Gr. v had not the same sound as the L. u is also shown
by the fact, that on inscriptions before the time of Augustus
Gr. V is represented by L. i, as in Stigio for STuyttji, and Sisi-
pus for '2i(TV(pog, and that they naturalized Gr. Y in their
transcription of Greek words. In later Latin also Gr. v was
pronounced as i ; thus we have st'mbolo, gimnasio, &c., whence
come It. simbolo, ginnasio, &c.

§. 86. Pronunciation of the Semivowels.

H is a, soft spirant, though traces of a hard h are found in
vexi and traxi from veho and traho. It seems to be hard be-
fore t, in the Umbrian forms ahta beside L. acto^ rehte = L.
recte, screihtor = L. scnpti, beside Osc. scrlftas = L. scriptoe, &c.,
though even in these it may scarcely have been heard in
pronunciation ; for we find Umb. suhator = L. suhacti, and a is
represented in Umb. by aha, or ah. In Latin h had a very
weak sound between two vowels, for we find vemens = vehemens,
Ala = Ahala, prendo = prehendo, &c. Initial A in early times
seems scarcely to have been pronounced ; for we find, in the
Senatus Consultum de Baccanalibus abuisse for habuisse, and
harenam for arenam. It at last entirely disappeared about the
end of the fourth Century A. D. Final h is found only in
ah ! and vah !

J, when initial in simple words, or in the second part of
compounds, had the sound of the E. y. Hence we see that
it is often lost in the latter case, as in abicit, obicit, eicit, coi-
cit,&c. When it occurred between two vowels in simple words,
j had a sound much nearer a vowel, and was frequently
written II. This sound is also sometimes lost, as in ploua
(Sc. de Bac.) for ploius. It finally became 2* (p. 13), as in

106 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Fr. jeune, juge, joint, It. giovane, giogo, giunto, from L. juvenem,
jugum, junctum. This change had already appeared in late
Latin ; for on a very late inscription conghinta is found for
conjuncta; cuj us is also found written ko^ou, Sixid Jesu Zesic,
where z is z^.

S, when initial, or when medial, before and after any con-
sonant, except after n, was always sharp. Initial s only occurs
before consonants in the groups sp, sc, st, and consequently
must have been sharp. Initial s before a vowel was also
sharp, for it has this sound in the Romance languages. When
medial, it was also sharp before and after other consonants,
as is proved by the forms jiupsi, lapsus, &c. It generally va-
nishes before m, n, I, and d, as in Camena for Casmena, cena
(Umb. gesna), corpulentus, idem, &c., while in a few cases it be-
comes r, as in carmen, &c. On account of its sharp sound,
s was lost before/, as in /alio beside tr^aXXw, &c. Between
two vowels s was soft, as in the Romance languages ; con-
sequently in this position it generally became r, as in the ter-
mination of the gen. pi. -arum = Osc. -azum = Skr. —dsdm (so
Goth, -izo led to 0. H. G. -iro, &c.), generis = I. E. gana-
sas, &c. S between two vowels was lost in spei for spesiy
as we see from the old nom. pi. speres for speses. S had this
soft sound after n, as in consul, censor, &c., beside cosol,
cesor, &c. So we find jurj^cc o^i an inscription for menses,
and in Umb. m.enzai'u = L. mensarum. Final s had in old
Latin a very faint sound, as we see from its loss in such nomi-
natives singular, as vigil, &c., in the nominatives plural of
the a- and o- stems, in the verbal forms of 2 sing, delectare,
hquerere, &c., beside delectaris, hquereris, &c., and in the ad-
verbs mage, pote, for magis, potis. On inscriptions of the time
of the Punic Wars, we find the « of the nom. sing, of the
o-stems sometimes not written, and on inscriptions of the later
Empire we find the same s also omitted. Cicero calls the
omission of a final s before an initial consonant subimsticum,
which is a proof that in his time this s had a very faint sound

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 107

in the language of the common people. Z, as we have al-
ready pointed out, was lost in early times, and s was employed
to represent it, when initial, and ss, when medial, as in sona^
Saguntum, hadisso, malacisso, &c. ; hence, to the old Komans,
the Gr. ^ must have had a sound like a sharp sibilant. In
the later Empire z must have had a sound between d and a
sibilant; for we find such forms as zaholus, zaconus, &c., for
diaholus, diaconus, &c. In old Umbrian z had perhaps, two
sounds — a hard one, as in pihaz hxpihats = h.piatus ; and a soft
one, as in menzaru = L. inensarum. In Oscan perhaps also, z
had two sounds : it was soft in the gen. pi. term -azum = L.
-arum, in censazet for censasent (censebunt), and it was hard
in hurz for hurts = L. Iiortu^, &c. In the pronunciation of x
the sibilant predominated, for we also find it written xs from
the time of the Gracchi ; hence we find it represented by s
in sescenti, Sestius, &c. This s has also disappeared before d, w,
m, u, in sedecim, seni, semestris^ sevir. In later Latin x and s
were pronounced alike ; for we find visit, hisit, and hissit for
vixit, coins for conjux, &c., and conversely xancto for sancto,
milex for miles, &c. In Italian x has become s or ss, as in
straneo, esempio, vissi, sasso, from L. extraneum, exemplum,
vixi, saxum. Similarly in Greek we find ^ interchanged with
<T or o-ff, as in Sttro-oc = St^oc-

i^ is a peculiar Italian spirant, the symbol of which the
Komans borrowed from the ^olic F, while the Etruscans,
Umbrians, and Oscans used for it the symbol g. From its
standing beside the digamma in such forms as frango, Gr.
Fpriyvvfii, frigus, Gr. FpXyog, &c., it is supposed /and F had
the same sound, but this is absurd ; for it might similarly be
argued that / and <p had the same sound, from the parallel
forms/a?na = <^nfir],fero = ^ipw, &c. Now, though the Greeks
used ^ for /, as in <l>a|3(oc = Fahius, &c., we know that their
sounds were perfectly distinct from the fact that Cicero ri-
diculed a Greek witness for his mispronunciation of Funda-

108 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

nius.* Rauraer accordingly considers ^ to have been equi-
valent at a certain period to bhv; otherwise, he says, no one
could say ^ in trying to say,/. Priscian asserts that the only
difference between ^ and / is, that the latter is pronounced
lion fixis labris ; thus there would be produced a strong aspira-
tion. This agrees with Quintilian's description of the sound,
that it was formed inter discrimina dentium. The labial ele-
ment in / was very weak ; for we find confero, infero, Umb.
anferener, and not comfero, &c.

V, when initial, or when medial after a consonant, had
the same sound as the E. v ; but when medial between two
vowels, it had the sound of E. w ; and consequently in this latter
position frequently vanished, as in bourn, petii, Gnceus for GncB-
vus, &c. This loss of v became very common under the Em-
pire, when we meet Faojiius for Favonius, Flaus for Flavus, &c.
Fin the perfect of the a-conjugation was omitted by the com-
mon people, as lahorait for laboravit, &c., which is identical
with the Italian form of the perfect, as in It. lavorai, amai, &c.
In Greek t; was represented by ov or p, as in Ohapptov beside
Bapjjwvi &c., and once on an inscription by ouj3 in Mijoi;/3m-
voc for Mevianus. This shows that Latin v had a sound
between ov and /3.

Initial n had the strong sound of E. ;i, as is shown by
the fact that it never in this position interchanges with any
other sound within the limits of the Latin language. When
medial, it was also strong between two vowels, as we see
from its being frequently doubled, as in Porse7ina, beside
Porsena, &c. It was also strong before dental mutes. W
(adulterinum) had a guttural sound before c, q, and g. Final
n had the sound of French nasal n, as we see from its vanish-

» " "Saxa. contra Graeci asplrare solent, ut pro Fundanio Cicero tes-
tem qui priiuam ejus literam dicere iion posset, irridet." Quint. " Ins.
Or.," I., 4, 14.

COMPARATIVE GRAJIMAR. 109

ing in nominatives singular in -on, as ordo, homo, &c.,* and in
ceteroqui, alioqui, and also from the fact that in the old dra-
matists it sometimes did not make position with a following
consonant. Medial n was also weakf before s, j, v, f.

Jtf had the sound of E. m. When final, it was very weak,
and frequently disappeared. In compounds of circum and
com it always was lost before a vowel, except in comitium,.
Final m was sometimes pronounced as n before n, d, t, as in
cun nobis (" Cic. Orat.," 45, 145) for cum nobis, an terminum
for am (= ambi) terminum (Orig. Macrob., Sat. I., 14), &c., and
before an initial guttural sometimes as n aduUerinum. On
inscriptions of the times of the Punic Wars, final m of case
terra, s is sometimes written, and sometimes not; but after the
time of the Sen. Cons, de Bac. it was nearly always written.
In the first century A. D. final m was scarcely pronounced in
vulgar Latin, and was at last entirely lost.

L had a strong sound when it ended a word or syllable,
or when it had another consonant before it in the same syl-
lable, as in sol, silva, clarus. It had a weaker sound when it
began a word or syllable, as in ledum, talis ; and it was
weaker still when it succeeded another /, as in ille. L was
probably strong in such words as lac, latus (for tlatus), lis (for
stlis), &c., where a preceding consonant has been lost. On
account of I having this strong sound when following a mute,
it was frequently separated from this mute by a vowel, as in

• I have here assumed that in the Grseco-Italic period these nomina-
tives ended in -on. This assumption is supported by the fact that we
find corresponding nominatives in Greek ending in- wv; but, notwith-
standing this, the existence of such nominatives is still very doubtful. As
regards ceteroqui and alioqui, they may have originally ended in i, as other
locatives, domi, &c.

t Priscian asserts that n was weak when it came after m, as in dam-
num, columna, autumnus, scamnum, alumnts, &c., but this is very unlikely ;
for the corresponding Italian words danno, colonna, autunno, scanno,
alunno, &c., show that n here was at least a stronger sound than m, other-
wise it could not have assimilated to itself the preceding m.

110 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

dulcis beside -yXuKuc* pulmo* beside ttveujuwv, scalpo beside
yXcKpu), sculpo beside yXxx^ta. This I had a w-sound inherent
in it, hence periclum became periculum, &c. In French this
M-sound overpowered I, as in chevaux from caballos, cheveiue
from capillos, &c. L, beginning a syllable, was easily inter-
changed with r, as in ruralis, jloralis, beside Solaris, &c. LI
was pronounced nearly as I, as we see from the fact that 11
and I are frequently interchanged on inscriptions and in ma-
nuscripts.

H was a dental sound, formed by the vibration of the tip
of the tongue, as is shown by its being interchanged with d
and 5.

§. 67. Pronunciation of the Mutes.

C was originally pronounced in all positions as E. ^. That
it was = k before e and i, is shown by inscriptions, where
we find ^cetice for j^quitice, dekem for decern, and by its being
interchanged with q, g, and ch, in quercetum beside Querquetu-
lanus, vicies beside viginti, pulcer beside pulcher. C, however,
finally became a surd palatal spirant before e and i, as in
Italian. Traces of this change are found in the interchange
of ci and ti, in the sufiix -icius or -itius, where the Skr. -ika
shows that the former is original, as in concio beside contio,
where the latter is original, as being contracted from con-
vention &c.

It appears that c before i and e was still pronounced as k
in the sixth and seventh centuries, A. D. ; for we then find ScKt/u
for decern, <peKiT (or fecit, KpovKeg for cruces, &c. Besides Gothic
k, was used for L. c as in aikeits, lukarn, &c., beside L. acetum,
lucerna, &c. Now, if c at this period had become the palatal
spirant, neither Gr. k nor Goth, k would have been used for
it.t

• Pulmo is not borrowed from the Gr. irvivii<t)v ; for, if it were, its ge-
nitive sing, would be pulminis (= ^vivfiovoc), and not pulmonis.

t Consult, however, " Gesammelte sprachwissenschaftlichc Schriften,"
by Rudolph von Raumer, p. 93.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. Ill

In Umbrian we find c weakened not only to the pal.
spir. f , for which the Umbrians employed the peculiar sym-
bol d, but also to the dent, spir., as in Volscian : thus we
have gesna = L. cena^ isegetes==lu.insectis, desenduf= L. duodecim^
pase = L. pace, fagia = Volsc. fasia = L. faciat, &c.

Qu was perhaps nearly equivalent in sound to the E. qu,
but the u assumed various shades of pronunciation according
to the vowel that followed : thus before a and o it was a pure
M, before cb, e, and i, it was ?/*, and it finally coalesced with a
following u, so that at last cu supplanted the older guu. In
early times quu was frequently written qu, for on inscriptions
we find such forms as qu7n, pequniam, &c. During the Em-
pire qu was also written q before other vowels than u, as in
qintce, qa, qe, &c. The Umbrian and Oscan expressed qu in
words borrowed from the Latin by kv, as Umb. kvestur, Osc.
kvaisstur for L. qucestor. In later Umbrian q is used without
w, as in New Umb. dequrier = Old Umb. tekuries = L. decuriis,
New Umb. peiqu = L. pico. In Greek qu is expressed by
Kov and ko, and qui generally by ku, as Gr. v = m' : thus we
have such forms as KouaSot, K.oviQivogt Koivroc, KoaSot,
Kv/otvocj &c.

G was pronounced as E.^. In Latin an older k was fre-
quently replaced by g, while conversely in Old Umbrian g
was hardened into k, at least in writing, if not in pronunciation,
as in antakres beside L. integris, vestikatu beside L. vesti-
gium, &c.

J" was pronounced as E. <. When medial, it had a sharp
sound, for it was frequently doubled on inscriptions, and in
manuscripts, where we find such forms as Attilia beside Ati-
lius, quattuor beside quatuor, &c. Final t was very weak ; for
we find it changed into d in quid, quod, id,* &c., and in the old
termination of abl. sing., as pucnandod, altod, marid (Col.
Rostr.) ; and it was so weak, that it was sometimes entirely lost

* In these cases d was perhaps the original sound ; for final t in
E. what, it, &c., points back to a Skr., Gr., and L. d.

112 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

in old Latin, as in dede, dedro, &c. In classical Latin t was
restored, except in 3 pi. perf. as censuere, &c., but in later
Latin it was again lost. In Umbrian, final t in the 3 sing, of
the verb was lost, as inhabe = L. habet, portaia = L.portet, &c. ;
and also in the 3 pi., as in benuso = L. venerunt, &c. In A^ol-
scian < in 3 sing, was lost, as in fasia = L. facial.

D was pronounced as E. c?. Final d is sometimes inter-
changed with ty as in the forms aput, at, for apiid, ad, found
on inscriptions.

P was pronounced as E. jo. Final p was weakened to b,
after the falling away of a vowel, as in ab = Skr. apa, sub
= Skr. upa, ob = Umb. up, but the original jt? was restored be-
fore 5 and t. Yinalp was also aspirated in old Latin, for we
find af (Sen. Cons, de Tiburt.) for ab. Plautus, however, re-
tains final p in volup for vohipe.

^ was pronounced as E. 6. jB could not have had the
sound of V in early times ; for we find Burrus for Uvppoq,
Boblicola an old form of PopNcola, hapeat beside abuisse, &c.
In the later Empire, however, b was sounded as v, as we find
on inscriptions such forms as devitum for debitum, verva for
verba, acerva for acerba, bixit for vixit, laborabit and laborait
for laboravit, &c.

§. 68. The Vowels.

An original a is lost in sum for esum = Skr. asjyii, gigno
for gigeno from I.E. gan, patris = I. E. pataras, &c.

^ = I. E. a, especially before c and g; acus, Skr. as' (to
be sharp) ; ago = Skr. a^dmi; lacnma, Skr. asm (a tear) ; ab
= Skr. apa (from) ; animus, amis, Skr. anila (wind) ; &c. In
Umbrian and Oscan an original a is retained more frequently
than in Latin, as in 0. U and 0. 0. anter = L. inter, Anter-
statai* (dat. sing.) = L. Interstitce (the name of a goddess),
N. O. amprujid = L. improbe.

* The vowel i was ixii-haps equivalent to the Fr. e ferine. It is written
i on the B.antine Table, but in the National Oscaa Alpliabet its sign is y.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 113

E. = l. E. a: equus = Skr. as'cas (a horse) ; decern = Skr.
das'an (ten) ; ferentem = Skr. hharaniam (ace. sing.), &c.
This e has in some cases passed through o : verto = O. L. vorto^
Skr. vart (to turn) ; vester = 0. L. vaster, Skr. ras (vos), &c.
In Umbrian and Oscan e = I. E. a : N. U. desen = Skr. das'an ;
N. U. petur = L. quatuor ; O. 0. set (sunt) = Skr. santi ;
0. O. mefiai (dat. sing.) = L. medice, Skr. madhya (raedius),
&c. Short e was developed in some cases in Graeco-Italic
times, as we see from a comparison of/ero, decern, sex, ego, &c.,
with <f>ipot), BtKa, e^, lya>, &c. In other cases, however, a
existed then, from which in after times e was developed in one
language, while a was kept in the other, as in maneo beside
fxivto, egeniis beside axfiv (needy), anguis = £X'^» centum = tKa-
Tov, &c. Long e was also developed in Graeco-Italic times,
as in semi- = rifit -, her= ^rjp (hedgehog), siem = iiriv,*&,c.

I = I. E. a: ignis = Skr. agiiis (fire) ; quinque = Skr. pankfan
(five); inter = Skr. aiitar (within), &c. So also in Umbrian
and Oscan, as in N. U. dirsans (3 pi. pres. conj.) from dirs,
O. U, ter,* for did, a reduplicated form of da ; O. 0. ist
= Skr. asti (est), &c. A, in becoming i, passed through an
«-stage, as we see from assideo beside sedeo, Skr. sad (to sit) ;
nominis, gen. o^nomen = I. E. gndman ; artificis, gen. of artifex,
from facio, &c. 1 in some cases may represent an older o,
as in levis = XiXog, -lis (in similis, &c.)"= -Xoq (in u/xaXog, &c.)
-aris (in popular is, &c.) = -rjpoc (in Xvirripog, &c.), imber he-
side 6fx(5fjog, ills beside ollus, illico beside locus, inquilinus be-
side incolo, &c.

0 = I. E. a : vomo, Skr. vam (to vomit) ; vos = Skr. fas
(ye) ; oms = Skr. am'« (a sheep) ; morior, Skr. mar (to die), &c.
/So represents sva in somnus = Skr. svapnas (sleep) ; soror,
Skr. svasdr (sister) ; «owt^5 = Skr. svanas (sound) ; socer = Skr.

• R, represented in the Old Umbrian Alphabet by q, and in the New
Umbrian by rs, marks a peculiar change of d, and was probably a strong
hissing r.

I

114 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

s'vas'uras (father in-law) ; socrus = Skr. svan'rus (mother-in-
law). In Old Latin o is kept, where in later Latin ids found,
before s and m, in the terminations -tos (nom. sing, masc.) and
-toni (ace. sing. masc. and neut.), in neuters in -os, as genos
= Skr. g'anas, and Venos (fem.), in dat. pi. term. - bos = Skr.
bJiT/as. In New Umbrian, o- I.E. a. This N. U. 0 is repre-
sented in Old Umbrian by il, and is consequently a return to
that older stage through which the Old Umbrian ii must have
passed, just as the old o has been restored in Italian. Thus
we have 0. \J.puplum, N. U. poplom= h.populum, from I. E.
and Skr. par (to fill) ; N. U. ortom^ L. ortum ; 0. U. numeric
N. J].n6men = lu.n0men; N, U. erom (infinitive of verb eSy to
be), an accusative of an o-stem ; N. U. aferom (ambiferre), &c.
In Oscan, 0= I. E. a : O. 0. piiturus* (nom. pi.) = I. E. hva-
tards =»Gr. Trorfpot, L. utri ; 0. O. pud^ N. O. pot = L. quod
= I. E. kvad; 0.0. viii = L. via (but a is kept in ace. vtam, via,
= L. viam, pam = L. quam, &c.) ; in 0. 0. abl. sing, sakarahlud
(sacello), although the usual term is -ud. This 0^1 E. d
was developed in some cases in Graeco-Italic times, as in sol-
lus = oXoc ; pro-= TTpo- ; odd' beside o^eiv ; fero = 0Epw ; duo
{du^, however, is more usual) = dvtv ; ambo = an^w. In many
other cases, however, a existed then, as we see from the fact
that the original a is kept in one of these languages, and 0 in
the other, or it becomes 'e in one language, and 0 in the other :
thus we have o beside a in domare, beside Ba/xav, arduus be-
side opOoQi dare beside didovai, cornus beside Kpavovt ^ancea
beside X07XJJ, &c., and e beside 0 in novus = vi^og = Skr. navas
(new), vomo beside l/iiu), Skr. vam (to vomit), vox beside tirog,
Skr. vak' (voice), &c.

U = I. E. a, which had previously passed through 0 : genus
= 0. L. genos = Skr. g'anas, Gr. yivog ; opus = Skr. apas (work) ;
ferunt = 0. L. feront = Gr. (jtipovri = Skr. bharanti (they bear) ;
navibus from navibos = Skr. ndubhyas ; datus = Gr. ^orog ;

• •

• J7, in the Oscan Alphabet represented by V» was pronounced as

Latin o.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 115

quum= 0. L. qiu)m = \. E. kvam, &c. In Umbrian u = I. E.
a; O. U. puplutn = populum ; N. U. dupursus (hiiroari) = Skr.
dvipadbhyas (bipedibus) ; 0. U. aad N. U. vinu = vino = 0. L.
veinod=I. E. vaindt ; N. U. kvestur = 0. h. quaistOr. InOscan
t« = I. E. a: -ud (term, of abl. sing.) = I. E. -at, as in 0. 0.
aragetud = L. argento ; N. O. kenstur = L. censor ; -W7?i, the
termination of the infinitive, which was an old ace. of an
o-stem, and therefore was = I. E. -am, as in deicuni (dicere),
ezum [esse, U. erom\ , moltaum (moltare), &c. Traces of this
infinitive are found in Latin, in venum-ire and venum-dare. It
is possible that this u may have been developed in Graeco-
Italic times, but such Grseco-Italic examples are rare ; per-
haps XvKoq^lupus, from I. E. varkas, is one. Z7= I. E. a in
some cases passed through the u'-stage, and became t; this
M*-sound was represented by h by Claudius. Thus we have
optimns = 0. L. optumus ; mancupium (in Plautus) = mancipium;
occupare beside incipere from capio, &c.

/ = I. E. z : imiis = ifxiv = Skr. imas (we go) ; scindo, (t\iZ(u,
Skr. kHiinadmi (I split) ; linquo, AftTrw, Skr. rik' (to leave) ;
quid = Ti, Skr. kim (what) ; ovis = dig - Skr. avis (a
sheep), &c.

jE = I. E. i: index, indicis, from R. dic= Skr. dis' (to point
out) ; ignem = Skr. agnim (fire) ; navem beside navim ; mare for
mari, as is shown by maria; navehos (Col. Kostr.) tempestatehus
(t. Scipion, B. f.) from the stems navi— tempestati-. In
these cases e is younger than i, whereas in the cases Avhere
t = I. E. a, i must have passed through an older «-stage.

Z7= I. E. w : duo = kXvio, Skr. s'ru (to hear) ; jugum = ^vyov
= Skr. yugam (par) ; rumpo = Skr. lumpdmi (I break) ; uro
for uso, Skr. m.sA (to burn) ; tundo, tutudi, Skr. tuddmi (I strike) ;
«Mper = v-n-ep, Skr. wpan (over), &c. Long u sometimes ap-
pears to arise from a non-original lengthening of an older it
as in tu, Skr. tvam (thou), Gr. tv, Goth, thu, and perhaps in
£us = vg, 7nus = fxvg, &c. U = I. E. u also in Umbrian and

l2

116 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Oscan ; O. U. fuia (sit) = Skr. hhuydt, and fnta (esto) from
R. /M = Sk:r. hhxi (to be); N. U. riifrer (nom. pi.) = L. ruhri,
Skr. rudhira (blood), N. 0. fuid {oipt. perf.) and fust (3 sing.
fut.) from R./m.

0 = 1. E. n, only in fore from R. /a.

7=1. E. ti: lihet beside luhet, Skr. luhh (to desire) ; cliens
from duo ; lacnma - lacruma, Skr. as'ru (a tear) ; tibi, Skr.
tuhhyam (to thee) ; manibus for manubus ; fructifer^ arcite-
nens, eornicjer, &c., for fncctufer, arcutenem, cornuger, &c. So
also in Umbrian we find 0. U. sim (ace. sing.), sff (ace. pi.)
from a stem si (a pig), L. sus ; O. U. and N. U. maiii (abl.
sing.) = L. mwin ; O. U. tin, N. U. iiom, tio (ace. sing) = Skr.
tvam.

§. 69. GUNA AND VrdDHI.

The I. E. a is represented in Latin by e, o, a; its guna is
0, e, a, as in Greek ; its vrddhi is perhaps o and u. The guna
of i was in 0. L. ei, later I and e, and ai, later ffg ; its vrddhi
was in O. L. of, later oe, u, I. The guna of u was in 0. L. eu,
and later au, 6 ; its vrddhi was in O. L. ou, later u. In Latin
eu, the old guna of u, was supplanted by the vrddhi ou, while
conversely in Greek the vrddhi ov was supplanted by the guna
£u. In the following table* the O. L. diphthongs are placed
in brackets.

Primitive Vowels e, o, a, i u

Guna o, e, a, {ei) i e, (ai) ae (eu), au 0
Vrddhi o u (oi) or t*, I (ou) u

* In this table I have followed Schleicher, except that in some oases
I consider i to be a vrddhi of i. Many of the examples given by him to
illustrate this table are very doubtful. Indeed, it is almost impossible to
separate from each other the spheres of guna and vrddhi in Latin, on ac-
count of the almost universal reduction of the old diphthongs to monoph-
thongs. This is also the case with Umbrian. In Old Latin and Oscan these
diphthongs have been kopt, but then here we labour under a want of ma-
terials.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 117

A is the guna of a in the following examples : pax, pacts
beside pdcisci ; Idtenia beside Idteo ; vagiiut beside vdco ; auf-
fragium beside frdgor, from R. frag (to break) ; sagire, sdgus
beside sagax ; Idhi beside lahare ; amh-ages beside ago, amh-
igere ; frdter, Skr. hhrdtar, from R. hliar, &c. The feminine
of the o-stems also ended in a originally ; nova = Gr. vc'Fa
= Skr. navd (new) ; coctd = Gr. TreTrrij = I. E. kvaktd, &c. So
in Umbrian a (written aha, ah) is guna of d, as in 0. U./m-
trum, N. U. frdtrom (fratrum), &c. So also in Oscan, as in
Staatiis = L. Stdtitis, beside status, from R. std.

^ is guna of ^: tegula beside tego; lea;, legis, collegaheside
Ugo ; rex, regis beside r^go: sedes beside sedeo ; semen beside
sdttis from R. sd ; and perhaps a few other cases. 1 may be
guna of ^ in slca beside sSco.

0 is guna of S : procus beside precor; fors, fordus (preg-
nant) beside fero ; toga beside tSgo, Skr. sthagdmi (I cover) ;
moneo beside mens, memini, Skr. nuxn (to think) ; noceo beside
ngco, Gr. viKvg, Skr. nas' (to kill) ; modus beside mederi ; also
before two consonants in pondus beside pendere, extorris be-
side terra, &c. 0 is guiia of a in portio beside pars, scohina
beside scdbo, &c.

7J is considered by Schleicher to be the vrddhi of a, espe-
cially when an original a in a root is represented by o : pei'-
sona beside sdnus, Skr, svan (to sound) ; vomer beside vCmo,
Skr. vam (to vomit) ; sopio beside sdpor, Skr. svap (to sleep) ;
sodes beside sddalis ; vox, vocis beside vSco; ocior beside
Gr. wKuc = Skr. ds'us (quick), from R. as' (to be sharp) ; do-
num, dos, dotis beside ddtus from R. dd; gnotus = Gr. yvtorog,
gnomen beside ndta, cognitus ; datorem = Gr. ^orripa = Skr. dd-
tdram, &c. tl is found beside o in -turns beside -tor (datu-
rus beside dator, &c.) ; term, of gen. pi. -U77i, -rum, for -um,
-rum = Skr. -dm, sdm. In Umbrian we find 0. U. u, N, U. 6,
as vrddhi of a: 0. U. numen, N. U. nomen = L. nomen ; term,
of gen. pi. 0. U. -um, N. U. -dm, as in 0. V. fratrum, N. U.
frdtrom ; N. U. kvestur = 0. L. quaisior, &c. In Oscan u is

118 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

vrddhi of a in N. 0. kenstfir = L. censor ; 0. 0. Fluusai = L.
FlorcB from K. fla.

{Et\ i, e is the guna of i in the following examples : dlvus
{deivce, deivinam, &c., are found on inscriptions) from R. div
(to shine) ; dico, O. L. deico^ beside caicsidtcus from R. die
= Skr. dis (to point out) ; idus, 0. L. «W?« (the days of full
moon, and therefore the brightest days), beside Skr. idh (to
bum) ; is, it, itur (from eo, I go) , beside eis, eit, eitur ; difei-
dens, confldo beside perfidus ; leibertinus beside libido, &c. In
Oscan we find 0. 0. et, N. O. ei as guna of i in N. 0. deicum
(infin.) from R. die ; N. 0. deivaum* (infin. to swear), 0. O.
deivai (dat. sing.) beside L. dlviis from R. div.

(Ai), ae is the guna of i in aidilis, aedes, aestas (for cedtas)
beside Skr. idh (to burn), Gr. aiOu), aWrjo ; aevom, O. L. aivom,
from R. i (to go) ; aemulus beside imitari ; moestus beside miser;
and perhaps a few other cases. In Oscan we find ai as guna
of i in 0. 0. aidills = L. cediles, and in Umbrian e, as in O. U.
kvestur = 0, O. kvatstur = 0. L. quaistor.

(Oi), ce, u is the vrddhi oft, as in fcsdus beside /^f/^a ;
O. L. Icehesum (= liberum) beside Ixhet ;t oitile, oeiier, fitier;
loidos, loedos, ludus ; moiros, moeros, inurus ; ploirume, ploera,
plares ; coiravit, coeravit, curavit; moinieipium, comoinem (So.
de Bacc), inmoenis, comiinis ; oinvorsei (Sc. de Bacc), o^mis,
unus, &c. In Oscan wc find 0. O. iti, N. O. oi, as vrddhi of
i, as in 0. 0. muhiiks (nom. sing, masc.) beside 0. L. comoi-
nem ; uittiiif beside oitile, iitier.

I appears to be the vrddhi of i in a few cases : mltis for

• As deivaum in Oscan means ' to STvc4ir,' from St. deiva (a god), so
in Lettic we find the infin, devotees, also meaning' 'to swear,' from St.
deeva (a god), devs (nom. sing.) = L. divus.

t The roots lib and Jid are the only two roots in Latin that appear as
well in their simple as in their guna- and vrddhi -forms : thus we have
K. lib, libet, leibertinus, loehesum ; 1^. fid, fides, difi»idens,foidus.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 119

moitis, 0. Ir. moith and moeth (tender) ; vinum* for voinum,
beside Gr. olvog ; vtcus for voicus, beside Gr. oiKog. Schleicher
considers vinum and vicus to be examples of guna and not
vrddhi ; but it is better to suppose that the vrddhi-forms
existed in Graeco-Italic times. In Sanskrit the guna-forms
occur, ves'as - oIkoq and vena (pleasant).

JEu, the old guna of u, is found only in the proper name
Leucesius (Carra. Saliar.), beside lucerna from R. luc. In some
other words eu is found, where it is not a guna ; thus we have
neuter for ne-uter, neutiqiiam for ne-utiquam, neu for neve, seu
for seve, ceu, heu, eheu, in which cases eu is not the guna of w.
The vrddhi ou has in other cases been substituted for eu, as in
duco, 0. L. douco; uro for ou^o, and this again for euso = Gr.
(vui = Skr. oshdmi (I burn), from R. ush=l. E. us ; jits, 0. L.
jous, is for jovos, and this again is for jevos, which is formed
hy guna from R. ju (to join), as kXeFoc is formed from R. kXv
and Skr. s'ravas (nom. sing, neut.) from R. s'ru ; jus (sauce)
is also formed in the same way from R. ju, which is found in
Gr. Z,vixi] (leaven), and SI. juclia (sauce) ; 'pus - povos = pevos
beside Skr. puT/ (to be foul), Z. pu (to stink) ; pluont = plovont
= plevont = Gr. TrXiFovrt, whence TrXiovai, from R. plu ; fluont
= Jlovont=Jlevont, from 'R.fiu, and similar present forms ; trudo
= troudo = treudo, beside trUdis, &c. In Oscan also the vrddhi
of u appears to have taken the place of the guna, as in O. O.
tuvtlks (urbanus), N. O. touto (a city) from R. tu = Skr. tu
(valere).

Au may be the guna of m in raudus (unpolished brass), from
R. rud (to be red) = Gr. pvQ.

Curtius and Schleicher consider also that aurora and augeo
are cases of au as guna of u : aurora and Gr. avtuq pointing

* The connexion of »ena (pleasant), an adjective applied in Sanskrit to
the drink Soma, witR olvoc is very doubtful. I have already connected the
latter with the root vi (to bind), whence came vXri (the vine), and L. vieo,
vitis. Others treat o7voc as a borrowed word, and connect it with Heb.
yain, ^Ethiop. wain, (wine).

120 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

back to a Graeco-It. ausos, from R. us = Skr. ush (to burn),
this root appearing in its guna-form in the European languages
as 0. N. austur (oriens), Lith. auszra (morning), while it ap-
pears in its simple form in Sanskrit and Zend as Skr, iishdsd
(morning), tishd (early), Z. vsha (morning); augeo beside
Gr. av^w, Lith. dugii (I grow), from R. ug. I have already
(p. 65) pointed out that these words are susceptible of a dif-
ferent explanation. Au frequently becomes o, by passing
through the step ao, which is found in Aorelius, which
occurs on an old inscription. Thus we have rodus for raudiis,
coda for cauda, &c. Au freqviently arises from av, as in caiitus
from caveOf fautor from faveo, &c.

(Ou), it is the vrddhi o^ u, as in 0. L. Loucina, loumen,
Loncetios from R. luc ; rufiis from R. riidli, &c. In poiihlicos,
ou appears to be the vrddhi of an m that represents an origi-
nal a. In Umbrian, O. U. u, N. U o is also the vrddhi of m,
as in N. U. 7'ofu = L. nlfos, &c. (Ou) u in Latin arises also
from the rejection of the spirant j, and from the vocalization
of u, as in cuncti = cojiincti, pious for plojus, noundinum (Sc.
de Bacc.) for novendinwn, nountios for noviventios, &c.

§. 70. Assimilation of the Vowels.

One vowel is often assimilated to a preceding one, as in
luteolus from St. luteu-, vinolentus from St. vinu-, beside lior-
tulus, truculentus ; tristities beside tristitia ; siem = Skr. si/dm ;
-tens (in tutiens, &c.) beside Skr. -iydns ; o being nearer than
M to i and e, and e being nearer than a to i.

One vowel is assimilated to a following one, as in exilium
beside exul; nihil, nisi, nlmis, niniirum beside ne, nefas ; fa-
rnilia beside famulus ; bene beside bonus ; illecebrce beside il-
licio ; soboles for suboles ; socors for secors ; queam beside
quire; O. L. Jileo = filia; mihi, tibi beside me, te, U. mehe,
iefe ; nausea = Gr. vavvia; &c.

Vowels are frequently influenced by neighbouring conso-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 121

nants. Thus the labials and /prefer w, as in Hecuba = 'E,Ka^i} ;
occupo, aucupium, beside capio ; contuhemium beside tabema ;
0. L. pocolom becomes poculum ; epistula = iTriaroXri ; monu-
mentum beside monimentum ; puis beside ttoXtoq ; sepultus from
sepelio ; insuhus from salsus, &c. jR frequently prefers e
before it, as in operis, cineris, beside nominis ; camera from
Kafxapa, &c. In some cases r takes before it o, where other-
wise we should have expected u, as in ancora = ayKvpa ; /oris
beside Ovpa; fore from R. /m; corporis, gen. sing, of corpus ;
por (in Marcipor) = puer. The dental n prefers i in cecini
from R. can; machhia from fxr]\avr] ; nominis, hominis, &c.
Final n, however, changed this i into e, as in comicen, no-
men, &c.

§.71. Dissimilation of the Vowels.

The Latin language does not allow one vowel to be fol-
lowed by the same without the intervention of a consonant,
but always changes the first or second of these vowels into
another, as i into e, and u into a. Thus we have pietas, ebrietas,
societas, for pittas, &c., beside levitas, caritas ; arietis, parietis,
for ariitis, &c., beside militis ; alienns, Avienus, &c., beside
peregrinus, &c. ; hietare beside clamitare ; vanegare beside
levigare ; laniena beside carnijiGina ; meio for miio, and this
for migjo, beside mingo, Gr. bfii\(i) ; peior for piior ; ei, eis,
dei, &c., are older and more classical forms that it, iis, dii, &c.,
which were also sometimes written I, is, dl, &c. ; petiei, ostiei,
Juliei, vieis, &c., beside the later forms, petii, ostii, Julii, viis, &c.
Up to the period of Augustus we never find uu or vu, but
always uo and vo, as in equos, servos, novom, cequom, wipes,
volt, &c.

§. 72. Vowels LENGTHENED IN Compensation.

When a consonant is lost, the preceding vowel is fre-
quently lengthened in compensation ; or, if two vowels are
thus brought together, they are contracted into one. Thus

122 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

we have in the first case pes for peds ; aries for ariets ; pOno
for posno, R. pos^ found in pos-ui ; comp. term, -zor, -ioris
= I. E. -yans, -yansas ; ace. pi. term. -6s = I. E. -ans, &c.
In many cases, however, this vowel is again shortened, as in
pedSs for pedes = pedets, patter = Gr. TrarZ/p, for ijaters, &c.
Again, we find contraction in feci for feflci, E,. fac ; fregi
= frgfrSgi, R. frag ; fodi for flfddi, R. fod ; movi for momdvi,
R. mov ; fdvi for fafdvi^ R. /au, &c. Similarly we have nemo
for neemo = ne-homo ; vemens = vehemens ; amo = amao, and
other verbs of the first conjugation, &c.

§. 73. Weakening of the Vowels.

Vowels are generally weakened in words whose weight is
increased either by reduplication^ or by composition, or by
being formed from other stems by means of suji^es. Thus a
becomes e, as in f alio, fefelli; parco, peperci ; ba7'ba, imberbis;
farcio, refercio ; f actus, perfectus, &c.

A becomes i, as in tango, contingo ; capio, accipio ; fateor,
confteor ; manus, eminus ; nam, enim ; pater, Jupiter ; cano,
cecini, &c. This i of course passed through the stage e, and e
is still kept in cases where i might have been expected, as in
peperi [pario)^ tubicen {cano), where the retention of e is due
to r and final n.

A becomes u, as in capio, occupo ; datus = I. E. datas, Gr.
Soroc ; taberna, contubernium, &c. This u passed through the
stage 0 ; thus L. datv^, and Gr. Soroe, point back to a Graeco-
Italic datos.

A becomes e, as in halo, anhelo.

E becomes i, as in lego, colUgo ; emo, redimo ; teneo, reti-
neo, &c. In reduplicated syllables e is unchanged, as in te-
tendi, pependi. E becomes I, as in lenis, dellnire ; tsla, subtllis ;
it becomes ^in the reduplicated perkct pifpedi.

Ae becomes I, as in aeqiius, iniquus ; ccudo, cecldi, &c.

Au becomes <5 and fi, as in fauces, suffoco ; plaudo, explodo ;
causa, accuso ; claudo, includo, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 123

Long vowels and diphthongs are even weakened to short
vowels, as in agnXtus, cognUus, beside notus ; dejSro, pejSro^ be-
side jir<ro, 0. L. jouro.

0 and u are also weakened to i, as in duntas from St.
dura- ; corni-ger from St. cornu, &c. In reduplicated syl-
lables, however, o and u remain generally unchanged, as in
poposci, spopo7idi, totondi, momordi, pupugi, tidudi, cucurri. In
Old Latin these forms were sometimes lightened, as we find
O. L. spespondi, peposci, memordi, tetuli, peptigi, cecurri.

In Umbrian and Oscan the original vowel is not weakened,
as in Latin, in compounds, <S:c. Thus we have 0. U. arkani
from R. Jean (canere), and ar (ad) ; N. U. procanurent from
same root as last; O. U. arhabas = L. adhiheas ; N. U. Jupater
= L. Jupiter ; 0. 0. Anterstatii = L. Interstita ; 0. O. anter
= L. inter; N. O. amprufid = L. improbe ; N. 0. fefadd (3
sing. opt. perf^j/e/acus^ (3 sing. fut. exacti) hova fefac, a re-
duplicated form of R. fac. If hipid (3 sing. opt. perf.), pru-
hipust (3 sing. fut. ex.) be from the same root as L. habeo, we
have here a case of a being weakened to i, in Oscan ; hip being
for hikip, and this for hihap, and therefore having been fnp
originally.

§. 74. Shortening of the Vowels.

Vowels in unaccented final syllables are very generally
shortened in Latin, and hence a a few examples wiU suffice.
The final a of the feminine a-stems was long in Indo-Euro-
pean, and is still long in Sanskrit, In Old Latin it was
also long, but in classical Latin it has been shortened. Final
a in triffinta, &c., was once long, but in the later poets it is
short. Final e of the ablative of the i-stems was also long, as
representing an I. E. ait or aid ; patre is still found in Gnaivod
patrS progndtus, fortis vir sapiinsque (tit. Scip. Barb.). We
find car^, yu^^ beside cave^jube ; mild, tibt £ov mihei, tibei ; duo,
ambo, oct0, eg6, beside Gr. Suw, a/ji^oj, oktw, lyw ; homd, &c.,
for homo ; final o of the first pers. sing. pres. and fut. active

124 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

is either long or short, representing an I. E. d, as - o (in ago^
Gr. ayw) = — d = -ami, &c.

Vowels are shortened always before final t, as in amdt for
amdt, &c. : traces of the original a. are still found in the Poets,
as in Plautus, Terence, &c. The same is the case with the
verbal terminations -et, it, and is. We find also maUr for
mater, Gr. fiari'ip ; prcBtor for prcetOr, &c.

Medial vowels are also frequently shortened, as in docSo
for doceo ; audXo for audio; r8i for rei; spSi for spei; d^its
for detis, and this for deivos ; Diana for DXana ; unXus beside
nnlus ; &c.

§. 75. Total Loss of the Vowels.

Final e is lost in the imperatives die, due, fac, fer, inger
(Catull. 27, 2); in hie, hcee, hoe for hiee, &Q,.; in \oc. Jili for
Jilie, &c. ; in imper. audi £ot audie, &c. ; in amor (1 sing. pres.
pass.) for amose ; &c.

Final i is lost in est = Gr. icrri ; /erz^ = Skr. bharati; ferunt
= Skr. hharanti (tremonti is still found in Carm. Saliar. ; /em
= Skr. bharasi, &c. / is lost in pulvinar beside pulvinare for
pulvinari, and similar nouns in -ar = -an ; piper = Gr. TrtTrcpi ;
faexd, diffi.cul, simid = faeile, &c., iox facili, &c. ; <o< = Skr. tati;
quot = Skr. kati ; ut beside uti^ U. ote, 0. aw^i ; ob = Gr. tn-t
= Skr. abhi (ad) ; ad = Skr. adhi (super, ad), &c.

Final o is lost in ab = Gr. otto = Skr. apa (ab) ; sub = Gr.
UTTO = Skr. upa (ad) ; for, as the o-stcms in Greek and Latin
correspond to the a-stems in Sanskrit, the Grajco-Italic forms
of ab and sub must have ended in o.

Medial vowels are lost before either vowels or conso-
nants : thus before a vowel i is lost in minus for minius, semd-
nimus for semi-animus ; e is lost in mdlus for ne-idlits, nusqiiam
for ne-usquam ; o is lost in undculos for uno — oeulus.

Medial a is lost before a consonant in palma = Gr. TraXo/irj
through pahona ; cypressus = Gr. KviraQiaaoQ through cuperes-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 125

siis ; cervos = Gr. Kepafog (horned) ; domui* for domclvi, and
similar perfects, a being first weakened to i, and then this i
falling out, &c.

Medial e is lost between b and r in the suffixes -bra, -bris,
-brum, from R. fer = Skr. bhar; between p and r in capri,
supra beside supera (in Lucr.), infra beside in/era, &c. ; be-
tween t and r in infra, contra, dextra beside dexter a {-tra being
the eomparative suffix, Skr. -tara, Gr. -rtpo, Osc. -toi'O,
U. -trd); patris for pateris; habui for habevi, and similar per-
fects, e having first passed through i, as in habitum ; repperi
for repeperi ; rettuli for retetuU, &c.

Medial i is lost in caldus = calidus (warm) ; soldus - soli-
dus ; valde = valide ; cante (Carm. Saliar.) = canite ; nauta
= navita ; calx = Gr. xa\[^ ; term, -mnus (in alumnus, ver-
tumnus) = -minus (in terminus, amamini) = Gr. -fnvog = Skr.
-mdnas ; fertis = feritis, fert\ = ferit, volt = volit, and similar
verbal forms ; dixti for dixisti, &c. Under the later Empire
we find such forms as feet, vixt, expensavt, &c. 7 is often lost
in the i-stems : thus we have primas for 0. L. primatis ; sors
beside sortis ; plebs for plebis, whence plebes ; scobs beside
scobis, &c. In consequence of this loss of i, the consonantal
and the i-stems coincide in the form of nom. sing. Medial i,
is lost before a consonant sometimes in Umbrian and Oscan,
as in U. nomne = L. nomini, &c. ; O. cevs = civis ; U. fus = 0.
fust = L. fuerit ; U. habus = 0 . hipust = L. habuerit ; U. con-
vortust = L. converterit, &c. Comparing U. habus, 0. hipust
with L. habessit, we see that the Umbrian and Oscan forms
have lost two is, thei of the perfect, and the conjunctive mark
i. The perfect -vi has completely disappeared in L. habessit ;
and the only trace of it is found in the sharp s, written ss,
while habuerint stands nearest to the original form habe-vi-
sint.

* In Latin the accent was originally placed as far back as possible.
Consult Appendix B.

t Fert may be the older form, as we find Ved. bharti (fert).

126 COMPARATIVE GRAM5IAR.

In nouns of the o-stem, o or u (= I. E. a), is frequently lost
before s of the nom. sing. Thus we have puer for piters
= puerus ; vir for mrs = virus; famul (Enn. Ann.) beside /a-
rnulus ; damnas for damnatshQ^idiQ damnatus ; Sallustis, Clodis,
&c. (on inscriptions), for Sallustius, &c. Similarly we have
O. U. pihaz = L. piatiis ; 0. U. katel = L. catulns ; N. U.
tei'mnas = L. terminates ; N. U. tertis = tertius, tertim = tertium,
just as in Old Latin alis, olid, = alius, aliud. We have also
O. 0. tuvtiks = L. tuticus, Piimpaiians = L. Pampeianits, hiirz
= L. horius, Heirennis = L. Herennius, &c. ; N. O. Bantins =
L. Bantimis.

Medial u is also lost in stella for sterula ; ampulla for ampo-
rtda from ampora ; corolla for coronula from corona ; misellus
for miserulus ; lapillus for lapidulus from St. ^joic^ ; vinclum,
beside vinculum, &c. Similarly we have in Umbrian Tre-
blaneir = L. Trehulanis, vesclir = L. vascidis, pihaclu = L. piacu-
lum, &c., unless these be the original forms.

In Gothic we find i and u frequently omitted before a final
s; thus we have vidfs (nom. sing, wolf) = Skr. vrkas, and
similar nominatives; brOthrs (gen. sing.) = 1. E. hhrdtras,
namins (gen. sing.) = L. nominis^ &c.

§. 7(3. Insertion of a Vowel.

We find a vowel inserted in the following cases ; drachuma
(Plant.) = Bpax/iii, sumus for esumus = Skr. smas, volumus for
volmits, Tecumessa = Tecmessa, Hercules, JEsculapius, Patricoles,
where the neighbourhood of Z or m determines the inserted
vowel to be M or o; techina (Plant.) =Tixvr], Procina, Ariadine,
&c., where the inserted vowel is i, on account of the neigh-
bouring n ; umerus = Graec.-It. omsos beside Or. wfxog, and Skr.
amsa (the shoulder), ruber for rubros = Gr. ipvBpog = Skr. rud-
hira (blood, also with an inserted i), gener for genres - Gr. ya/x-
I5p6g, caper = Gr. Kavpog, &c., in all which forms r determines
the inserted vowel to be e. I is inserted in moriturus beside

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 127

mortwis, oriturus beside ortiis, &c. Similarly in Oscan we
find between a liquid and a following consonant the vowel of
the preceding syllable inserted, as in aragetud (abl. sing.) = L.
argento, teremnus = L. terminus, &c., just as in 0. H. G. puruc
for pure, Goth, haurgs, waram for warm, Goth, varms ; and
between a liquid and a preceding consonant the vowel of the
following syllable is inserted, as in puturumpid gen. pi., utro-
rumque), puticruspid (nom. pi. mas. utrique), putereiptd (loc.
sing. masc.

§,77. The Gutturals.

Candq = l.E k: acus, aeer, acupedius, ocior, Skr. as'ri
(the edge of a sword), ds'u (quick), Z. aku (a point) Gr. okwk/;,
uKpiQ (a mountain-top), oKpig (a point), uikuc 5 calo, Gr. koXIw,
E. halloo ; cella, celo, domi-cilium, Skr. s'dld (a house), Gr. ko-
\ia (a hut), E. hell, hole ; cedo, Gr. £K£*c/jS£t {vireKe^wpriKsi,
Hesych.), KCKaSovro (II. 15, 574), a redupl. aor. 2 of xaKojuiai
from E. ^aB = ffx°^ = I. E. skad; castus, Skr. s'udh (to purify),
Gr. KoOapog, Ch. SI. cistii (clean) ; cor, Skr. hrd (heart), Gr.
KopSta ; cerebrum, crista (in capite stans), Skr. s'iras (head),
Gr. KCLpa, Kpaviov ; carpo, Gr. Kapirog, E. harvest; civis = Osc.
kevs, Skr. s'i (to lie), Gr. Keifxai, Goth, haims {KU)fxri), heiva (do-
mus), &c.

Qu = I. E. kv : qidnque =1. E. kvankvan, whence Skr. 2?a/i-
^'an (five), Gr. tteVte, iEol. irifxirE, h. coic, W. ^wmp ; ^'wocZ
= I. E. kvad or ^ua^, whence Skr. kat, Gr. ttou, Ion. kov,
E. r^;Aaif, &c. In a few cases in Latin k may have had u de-
veloped after it, as in quies beside Skr. si (to lie), squalor be-
side Skr. kdla (black), and Gr. KeXaivog, &c. ; but in nearly
all the cases where this development of m is supposed to have
taken place, it is much more probable that kv had originally
existed in Indo-European, In Old Umbrian we find k, and
in New Umbrian c and g- = I. E. k, except in the pronouns
and numerals where p takes the place of I. E. kv: O. U. ka-
pres = L. capri ; N. U. pequo « L. pecua, &c. This k is

128 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

weakened to g and s before e and i* as in N. U. curnage (abl.
sing, of a noun corresponding to L. comix) beside N. U. cu?'-
naco (ace. sing.) ; X. U. page and pase = L. pace^ &c. In Old
Oscan ^, and in New Oscan c = I. E. ^', except that p = 1. E.
kv in the same cases as in Umbrian : 0. O. hkUud = licitud
= L. licelo ; 0. O. sakaraklud {phi. sing.) beside L. sacellum, &c.
C = 1. E. ^ in N. 0, acum (inf.) beside L, ago. In Old Um-
brian, as has been already remarked, k represents L. g.

G = 1. E. ^ : ago, igitur for agitur, Skr. ag'dmi (I go), Gr.
ayw, 0. N. aka (ago) ; genus,\ gigno {g)natura, Skr. g'an (to
be born), g'anitd (nom. sing, of St. g'anitar) = L. genitor^ Gr.
yivog, yiyvojuai, ytivo/xai for ytvi/ofxai, Goth, keinan (to ger-
minate), O. H. G. chind (offspring) ; grus, yipavog, E. crane ;
gnosco, (g)notus, gnarus, (g)narrare, 0. L. gnarigare, Skr. ^'na
(to know), Gr. yiyvuxTKw, yvivrog, O. H. G. kndu (I know),
Goth, kann (I know), kunths {yvwarog) whence E. uncouth ;
urgeo, Skr. varcf (arcere), Gr. eipyw, AvKoopyog, Goth, vrika
(?iwKtu), A. S. mn^fan (stringere), E. loring, lorong ; genu
= Skr. g'dnu, Gr. yovv, E. knee, &c. In New Umbrian and
Oscan, ^ = I. E. g.

G = I. E. ^ in a few words : digitus, Gr. SanrvXog, Goth.
taikd (toe) ; viginti beside vicies, Skr. vins'atiy Gr. ctKoo-t, Boeot.
FtKort ; tnginta, Gr. rptaicovra ; gracilis beside 0. L. cracentes
(graciles), Skr. krs'a (thin), Gr. KoXsKavoQ (long, lank), KoXo<r-

* K'lB retained in O. TJ. akeruniamem, N. U. acersoniem, O. U. kebu
(cibo), and a few other cases; also in nominal stems of the o-declension
that end in -Ao, as N. U. iVaAarce (dat.), Tesenocir, (abl. pi.), except
that we find O. U. puprige beside pupnke (publico), &nd pnpriges beside
puprikes (publici). We find jr sometimes before /, as in O. U. tiglu,
ereglu, &c. Was this the beginning of that change which we see in
Italian ehiamare = L. clamare, chiaro = L. clarut, occhio = L. oculuf,
piano = L. plimns, piangere = L. phngere, &c. ? K is also found un-
altered before I in O. U. ehvelklu^fiklas, &c.

t Tliere probably existed, in I. E. times, as a side form of R. gan, gvan,
as we find Gr. yu^^, Boeot. /3avd for yFava, Goth, gvens (^^^Wf), E. quean,
queen, and perhaps L. venter for gventer.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR 129

aog for KoXoKyog ; gttbemator beside Gr. Ku/Stpvrjrrjc ; Agri-
gentum* from Gr. 'AKpayac ; negotium = necotium ; pingo, Skr.
pis' (to adorn), ph'alas = Gr. TroiKiXog ; ungulus, angulus be-
side uncus, ancus (qui aduncum brachium habet), Skr, awAoa
(nom. sing. masc. the part above the hip), ankus'a (stimulus
quo elephanti impelluntur), Gr. oyicoc (a curve), ayKa\r\ (the
(bent arm), ayicwi; ; cygnus = Gr. kvkvoq ; gurgulio = curculio ;
ilignus from St. ifec ; salignus from St. sa^jc, Gr. IAikjj (the
willow, in Arkadia) ; dignus connected by Curtius with decety
decus, Skr. das'as (glory), Gr. Sokcw, but by others with Skr.
rfzV (to point out), Gr. deiKvvfii ; larigmis from St. laric; langula
(a little dish), from St. lane; pango, pignus, beside paciscor, paa^
Skr. and Z. pas' (to bind), Gr. irriyog (fast), irnywixi, TraactaXoe
= iraKyaXog, Goth, fahan (to seize), /a^rs (fw^croe) ; gloria
from St. chvos- = clevos- = Gr. kXcFoc- = Skr. s'ravas- (glory)
from sVu = Gr. kXw ; gummi = Gr. ko/u/lk ; gobitis = Kb)(5i6g ;
and a few other cases.f In all these cases where k is softened
to g, it either begins a syllable or is in close proximity to /,
w, n, or r.

G - I. ^. gh : fugio^ I. E. bhugh, Skr. 6Am^' (flectere) Gr.
(jtevyu), Goth, biu^a (kojutttw) ; rigo, Gr. (3pi\(t), Goth, rign
(rain) ; unguis ^ Skr. nakha (a nail), Gr. cvu^, from St. ovvx ',
Jingo, Jigura, I. E. dhigh, Skr. c?zA (to smear), dSha (the body),
Gr. Biyyavu), Goth.' deiga (TrXaadw), 0. H. G. teig (dough) ;
ango, angustus, Skr. ahhu (close), Gr. ay\(o, axpgy Goth, agg-
VM5 (close) ; lingo, ligurio, Skr. lih and rih (to lick), Gr. Xd^y),
Goth, bilaigon {ItclXux'^i-v) ', mingo, mejo, Skr. mih (mingere),
Gr. d[xixi(i); grando, suggrunda (eaves), Skr. hrdduni (bad
weather), hrddini (lightning), Gr. x^^f^^"^ fo^ X°^°^yj C^-
SI. gradU (hail) ; gratus, 0. and U. root Aer (to wish), Skr.

* Agrigentum is the accusative of 'Aicpdyac, and therefore must have
been introduced at a time when the intercourse between Kome and Sicily
was carried on without the use of writing.

+ Consult Corssen iiber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der
Lateinischen Sprache, p. 39, seq.

K

130 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

harydmi (I love), Gr. x^/otc> xoipf^, Goth. /aiAw-^atm* (greedy
of money) ; &c. In no case does an initial I. E. gh become
L. g, except when succeeded by r, as in gratus, &c., and per-
haps by l^ if Grassman be correct in deducing initial g in
glisco, glaber, and gluho, from an I. E. gh. In two cases fr
appears to represent an I. E. ghr : /no, frico, Skr. ghar (to
sprinkle), gharsh (to rub), Gr. XP'**^ ' f'^'cgro a reduplicated
form of R. gra = Skr. ghrd (odorari).

Schleicher considers that in some cases u was developed
after g, generally when a nasal, and sometimes when r pre-
ceded, as in langneo beside Skr. laiigd (a whore), Gr. ^ayapog
(slack), Xdyvog (lustful), and urgxieo beside urgeo, Skr. varg' (to
exclude), so that ^m = I. E. ^ or gh, and afterwards through
assimilation of g to v, v alone remained, as in nivis for nigvis
from nix. Now this development of ii after g is extremely
doubtful. In many cases gu most probably existed in Indo-
European times, in others m is merely a suffix, while in others
it seems to be inserted from a false analogy. Thus u was
a suffix, to which afterwards a secondary suffix i was added,
in pinguis beside Gr. iraxvg, hrevis for bregvis, beside Gr. /3/oa-
Xvcj l^vis for legvis, beside Gr. IXaxvg = Skr. laghus (light), &c.
In the following cases we infer the existence of an 1. E. ^t* or
ghu from the related words : voro (or gvoro, I. E.gvar, whence
gar (to devour), Gr. /3opa ; vivus for gvigvii3, a reduplication of
I. E. gvi whence Skr. g'tv (to live), Gr. /3toe, E. quick. Again u
may have arisen from a false analogy in ninguit heside 7iingit and
nivis for nigvis, gen. sing, of nt'or, from I. E. snigh, whence Gr.
vi<f)a, ayavvKpog for ayaavKfiog, Lith. S7iigti (to snow), Goth.
snaivs (snow) ; urgueo = urgeo ; unguis beside Skr. ahis
(nom. sing, masc, a serpent), Gr. txig, tyx'^^^g^ Lith angis (a
snake).

H=I.F..gh: hospes, hostis, 0. IL.fostis, Ch. SI. ^ros^f (guest),
Goth, ga^ts for gastis (a guest), Lith. gaspada (hospitium) ;
hSrus, heres, O. L. hir (the hand), Skr. /lar (to seize), Gr. xet'p;
heri, hes-temus, Skr. hyas (yesterday), Gr. x^'Cj 0. H. G.gester
(yesterday) ; hirundo, Gr. x*^'^'*'*' 5 hiemsy Jiibernus, Skr.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 131

hima (snow), Gr. x'<^v> X^'f^^^ ' '*^^^ helvus* Skr. hari
(green), Gr. x^o»?> O. H. G. groni (green) ; haruspex, hariolus^
hira and hilla (entrails), Skr. hird (entrails), Gr. ypXa^eg,
Xopdrj', hortus = Gr. -^oproq', haedus, Gr. joXra (Hesych. olg),
Mod. Gr. yi^a, Goth, gaits (a goat) ; humus, Gr. xapai (a lo-
cative from x^M^i = I. E. ghamd) ; homo (connected with hu-
mus), 0. L. hemones (nom. pi.), Goth, guma from St. guman,
whence -gam in G. Brdutigam (bridegroom) ; hio, Gr. -^^aivu),
X^oct X^io. (a hole), O. N. gin (I gape) ; prehendo for praehendo,
hedera, praeda, perhaps for prcehida, hasta, Skr. hasta (the
hand)(?),Gr.;)^avSai/w, ^.get ; veho,Sk.T.vah (to carry), Gr.oxog
from E. feXi Goth, vigs (via) ; traJio, perhaps connected with
Skr. drdgh (adnitij and d/irdgh (posse), E. drag, which pre-
suppose an I. E. dhragh. In the two last cases we have traces
of the guttural in the perfects vexi and traxifoT vegsi and tragsi.
Gh passed through / in becoming h, as we see from the Old
Latin forms folus, fostis, fordus, &c., for holus, hostis, hor-
dtis, &c. Similarly in Spanish, h represents L. f, as in hijo =
Jlliu3, hablar = fahxdari, hierro = ferrum.

JE? = I. E. gh in Oscan and Umbrian, as 0. herest, U. he-
riest (volet) beside Skr. harydmi (amo), and Gr. x^ip<^-

H = \. E. bh'va. mihi, U. iJiehe, Skr. mahyam, beside tibi,
Skr. tuhhyam, and in horda beside forda (pregnant), from R.
/er = Skr. bhar. Schleicher suggests that amavi for amnfui, &c.,
passed through the stage amahvi, &c., and that the dat. pi. of
the a-stems in -Is for -ais passed through the stage -iJiis
= I. E. -abhya7ns, but these cases are extremely doubtful.
Grassman considers that h = bh in herctum or Iwrctum. Festus
tells us that horctum or forctwm meant bonum ; and Grass-
mann considering that it meant originally " what is heaped
up," connects it with Skr. bhrs'am (multura, valde), with

* Grassmann is mistaken in connecting L. gilvus with this root, for an
initial I. E. gh followed by a vowel never becomes g in Latin, but alwajs
h through 0. L.y. Lottner agrees with Grassmann, and connects L.
germen also with the same root.

k2

132 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

which he also connects L. farcio^ frequens. Curtius, on the
other hand derives herctum, hercisco, from a root her lengthened
by k, connected with Skr. har (to take), Gr. x*''P' X^P'Jf' ^'
hir, herns.

H appears to represent an I. E. ^ in hie, from St. hi- =
Goth. Jd- = I. E. K-, and in haheo = Goth, haha (I have). Hie
(for hice) may be a reduplicated form of ki-, the original k
perhaps appearing in the second syllable ; compare dtra^
which may come from this root. Schleicher treats R. hah in
haheo as a side form of R. cap in capio, and compares 0. hipust
(habuerit) and hajiest (habebit). He considers that p is
weakened to h in haheo, just as in hiho, which he deduces from
an I. K.pipdmi; this latter comparison is, however, extremely
doubtful, as it is much more likely that the I. E. root began
with hh, of which we still find a trace in Skr. pihdmi. H =
I. E. ^ in Skr. hrd (heart) beside Gr. KapSia, E. heart.

Hva. Umbrian and Oscan not only corresponds to L. h,
as in 0. 0. hurz = L. hortus, &c., but it also takes the place of
c and p before <, as in O. U. screhto = L. scrlptum, rehte = L.
recte, suhahtu for suhactu, and this again for suhagtu = L. su-
higito, 0. 0. ehtrad = L. extra, saahtimi = L. sanctum, N. 0.
Ohtavis = L. Octavius, &c. The long vowels in Umbrian are
written, aha or ah, &c.

Corssen considers that h has sprung from y in L. ahenuf,
beside Skr. ayas (iron); in Mahestimcs (found on inscriptions)
= Majestinus ; and in 0. U. pihaz, N, U. pihos = L. piatus,
Volscian ^t'/iom = L. piMm,* beside Skr. priya (cams). Hora
is borrowed from Gr. cupa, which is connected with Z. ydre
(year), E. year. If Pott is correct in treating homus as = ho-jor-
nus, as higa = hijuga, we find in it the original Latin form corre-
sponding to Z. ydre, and E. year. Hercules (O.Hereklo-) is also

• L. pius has been also connected with Skr. piy (conviciari in dial.
vM.), Goth. _fijan (to hate), Yj. fiend ; L. piare is then explained to mean
" to reconcile an enemy."

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 133

borrowed from Gr. 'HpaKX^c; it has nothing to do with a
Latin verb hercere, which cannot be = Gr. tpicciv, for Greek
spiritus asper = I. E. s ; Mommsen erroneously connects the
Greek and Latin verbs, and considers Hercules to be a Zevg

EpKHOg.

An inorganic h is added to humerus for umerus, Gr. (Lfiog
~ Skr. ahsas (nom. sing, masc), Goth, amsa, all of which
forms point back to an L E. amsas, whence came a Graeco-It.
omsos or omesos, of which latter form we find a trace in Gr.
afiiau) (Hesych., the shoulder blades). Also humor = umor,
connected by Curtius with Gr. vypog Skr. uksh (humectare).
Similarly we find h added in Sp. hedrdr = L. iterare, Fr. haut
= L. altus.

§. 78. The Palatal J.

cT = I. E. y : jecur, Skr. yakrt, and in the weak cases yakan
(the liver), Gr. ijTrap from St. rjTrapT ; jugum, Skr. yv^am (par),
Goth, juk, O. H. G. joch ; jus, Skr. yusha (pease soup), Gr.
Ztofiog (soup) ; juvenis, Skr. yuvan (young), E. young ; jam,,
Goth.^M (now). Lith.^'aM (now) ; &c.

I. E. y is often vocalised in Latin: medius = Skr. mad-
hyas ; stem = Skr. sydm, Gr. etijv from I. E. asydm ; &c.

§. 79. The Dentals.

r= 1. E. t: ante (for anted, an ablative form found in an-
tidea), Skr, anti (before), Gr. avri; Stella (for sterula), Skr.
staras (the stars, in dial. Ved.), tdrd (a star), Gr. aariip, reipea ;
et, at, in at-avus, Skr. ati- (ultra), Gr. 'hi ; vetus, Skr. vatsara
(a year), Gr. trog ; peto, penna, O. L. pesna ioxpetna, Skr./?a^
(to fly), Gr. TTiTopai ; sto, Skr, sthd, Gr. \<mi\fii ; sterna, torus
for storus, Skr. star (stemere), Gr. aropvvfii ; tendo, teneo,
tenus, Skr. tan (to stretch), Gr. Tavvjuiai, rdvu), Goth, thanya
(I extend") : tu, Skr. tvam (thou), Z. turn (thou). Dor. tv,
Boeot. Tovv, Goth, thu (thou) ; tuli, 0. L. tulo, tetuli, Skr. tul
(to lift), Gr. rX^vat, reXafiwv, raXag, Goth, thula (I endure);

134 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

iermm, in-tra-re, trans, U. traf = L. trans, Skr. tar (to cross),
Gr. ripiia, E. through, &c.

St = I. E. sk in sterciia, Skr. s'akrt* (sterciis),Gr.<TKtopfroin
St. (Ticapr, (TTepyavoe (Hesycli. KOTrpwv), o-Tran'XTj (excrement),
A.S. skearn (dung) ; starmis, Gr.xpap for airap, a(TTpa\6g (Hesycli.

V V

6 xpapbg uTTo GErraAoJv), A. S. steam, Bohem. skorec (a star-
ling), where Curtius believes sk to be original, talpa for stalpa,
Gr. (TiraXa^, <TKaXo\p (a mole) ; ialla (caepae putamen) is, ac-
cording to Curtius, for stalla, and comes from an I. E. R.
skal, whence G. schale (husk, rind), &c.

St = I. E. sp in studium, Gr. airovBii, E. speed ; turgeo^or
sturgeo, Gr. o-Trapyao), a<ppiyaw (I swell, burst), perhaps con-
nected with <T<papayoQ (a noise), Skr. spurg' (to make a noise) ;
and perhaps one or two other doubtful cases.

T never =1. E. dh (except in the case of the initial group
tr, as in traho). All the examples brought forward to prove
the contrary can be easily explained without such a suppo-
sition. Thus, rutilus is for rudt'dus, from R. rud = Skr. Tnidh,
and -tilus is the same termination as is found in futilis, mu-
tilus, &c. ; pati and Gr. TraOtiv] are both independent forma-
tions from a root pa, va, which bears the same relation to
TTBv (in irivofxai) and irov (in iroviu)) as ya (in yeyawg) does
to yev (in tysvo fxr)v) and yov (in yiyova) and to (in
Toi/ujuat) to Ttv (in ruvui) ; putdre is not connected with
TTvOiaOai, for the latter comes from I. E. bhitdh, whence Skr.
budh (to know), and the former from L. putiis (clean), be-
side Skr. pu (to clean), putare therefore signifying "to make
clean " (compare amputare, lanam putare), and then " to make
clear ;'' putere and TrvOeaOai are independent formations from

• Bopp considers that s' in s'akrt represents an original k, and con-
nects it with Gr. Koirpoc for /co«rpoc, L. caco, &c. Curtius connects KOTrpoc
with Kanvu), Kairvoc, &c. All the comparisons in this section and the suc-
ceeding one are extremely doubtful.

* Lottner and others, however, identify / in lateo, potior, with 9 in
XaOitv, iraOhv, and consequently infer the existence of the hard aspirates
in Indo-European.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 135

E. pu, connected with Skr. puy^ (putresco), Z. pu (to stink),
and Goth, fuls (foul) ; the connexion of lateo with XaBtiv is
not so easily explained as the last examples, for we find Skr.
rah (to leave), and rahas (a secret, or secretly), which point
back to an 1. E. radh, but it is likely that latere is formed
from a R. la, as putere is from R. pu,

D = I. E. d : do, ddre, Skr. da (to give), Gr. Bidwfxi ; dex-
ter, Skr. dakshina (dexter), Gr. ^t^iog, Goth, taihsvo i^t^ia) ;
dvx), Skr. dva, Gr. Sww, Goth, tvai ; domus, Gr. So/lioc, A. S.
timber ; suadeo, svxivis for suadvis, Skr. svad (to please), svddus
= Gr. i7Sue ; sedeo, Skr. sac? (to sit), Gr. t^ojuai for tSi/Ofxai, &c.
jO = I. E. ^ in quadraginta from quatuor.
D = I. E. JA : medius = Skr. madhyas, Gr. fiiaaog for
fitOyog, Goth, midjis (medius) ; agcfgj?, aestus for aedtus, Skr. mrfA
(to burn), Gr. ai0(u, j0») (Hesych. ci/^poffuvjj), perhaps Atrvrj
and "H^-atorroc ; ^o in condo, credo, abdo is connected with
Skr. dhd (to place) = Z. rfa, Gr. TiOrtfii ; vidua* = Skr. vidhavd
from vi- (without), and dhava (vir) ; &c.

X) may be = I. E. y in fencZo = Gr. tbivoj for revt/u), Goth.
thanja (I stretch) ; in fendo = Gr. Oeivw for Oavi/u) ; and per-
haps in the part. term, -endus or -undus = I. E. -anyas
= Skr. -ardyas. In Zend we find the corresponding termina-
tion -Snya in verezenya (working), from R. r^re^ = Gr. Fs/jy.
In Oscan wy perhaps became nn, as in 0. O. upsannam = L.
operandam : in Umbrian also wy became mi or n, as double
consonants are generally not both written in Umbrian, as in
N. U. pihaner = L. piandi (gen. sing.), &c.

D = Gr. X and p in the two borrowed words, adeps and
caduceus, from Gr. aXtt^a and KapvKiov. We also find d for /
in Capitodium, a side-form of Capitolium, for Capitdlium,
d becoming o as in ignoro beside gndrus, &c. Cadamitas, a
side-form oi calamitas, is generally supposed to be original,
but it is much more likely that calamitas is the older form.
Calamitas means "destruction of the calami;" thus we are

• It is better, however, to derive vidua from the R. vid (to separate).

136 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

told (Serv. Verg. Georg. I. 151), Robigo, genus est vitii, quo
culmi pereunt, quod a rusticanis calamitas dicitur. Calamitas
is formed from St. calamo by means of the suffix -tat-, just as
civitas is from St. civi, &c. If on the other hand d is original
in this word, we would first have to form from cado, from
which it is derived, the St. cudwio, but as the Romans never
kept a before the suffix -mo, but always changed it into u or
i, this sopposed stem is foreign to the Latin, and most pro-
bably never existed. That I sometimes became d in vulgar
Latin is shown by vodeba on an inscription at Pompeii for vo-
lebam.

D in Old Umbrian, when initial, was represented by t, and
in New Umbrian by d', when medial or final it was in Old
Umbrian changed into a sonant hissing sound, represented by
q (r), which in New Umbrian became rs. Thus we have N. U.
dur = L. duo ; N. U. dupiwsus (bipedibus) from purs- = L.
ped- ; 0. U. asam-ar = L. aram-ad (ad aram) ; 0. U. arveitu
= L. advehito ; N. U. virseto = L. visus from R. vid ; 0. U.
pere, piri, N. U. perse, pirsi = L. quid, with the same I attached
as is found in Gr. -i (ovroai) compare Lith. -ai (tas-ai) ; 0. U.
tera, N. U. dersa = didat{AQi), a reduplicated form of R. da,
&c. We find r for initial c? in 0. U, rere = L. dedit (3 sing,
perf.) and runum = L. donum, but these forms may be, as
Schleicher suggests, only dialectic.

In Oscan d = \j. d; it is also retained in some cases where
I is found in Latin. Thus we have 0. O. pud, N. 0. pod =
L. quod, 0. O. pid = L. quid ; N. O. deicans (3 pi conj. pres.)
= L. dicant ; O. 0. dedet = L. dedit ; 0. 0. Akudunniad = L.
Aquilonid{d).

R = \. E. r: aro, Gr. apow, Goth, arjan (to plough);
orior, Skr. ar (to move), drta = Gr. wpro, Gr. opvvfit; rivus,
Rumo, (the old name of the Tiber), Skr. sru (to flow), Gr.
fiiu) ; fero, Skr. bhar^ Gr. <pipu) ; ruber^ Skr. rudhiram (nom.
neut. blood) ; -torr, -ter, = Skr. -tar -tar, as dator = Skr. data
for ddtdrs, pater = Skr. pita for paiars ; res = Skr. ms (divi-
tiae) from St. rdi ; &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 137

jR = I. E. d in arbiter for ad-biter and arcesso. In Old
Latin r is frequently found for d^ as in arvenas (Prise. I. 45),
for advenaSf arvorsum (Sc. de Bacc.) for advorsum, arfuisse
(So. de Bacc.) for adfuissef &c. Even apor and ar were used
for apud and ad. This is similar to the change of d into r in
Old Umbrian.

The Latin language, however, afterwards recovered itself
from this weakening of d to r, and restored d, except in ar-
cesso, arbiter, and meridies where r = d = I. E. dh as mediiLs =
Skr. madhyas. R in mirus is not developed from d, as is
asserted by those who look upon r as belonging to^ the root,
and compare it with Gr. fiu^aw, but -ro is a suffix, found
also in clarus, &c., and d does not belong to the root in
)u£i8a(i> ; these words are probably independent formations
from the L E. R. smi = Skr. smi (to laugh), whence also
O. H. G. smielen, smieren, (to laugh), E. smiley Lett, smeet
(to laugh).

i? = an older n in crepusculum, creperus (dubius), beside
Gr. Kvi(jiaQ ; groma borrowed from Gr. yvwfxwv. Leo Meyer
also derives germen from E. gen, and carmen from R.*raw;
but in both cases he is entirely wrong. Curtius connects
germen with Skr. garbha (uterus, foetus), Z. garewa (foetus),
Gr. SfX^ue (uterus) ; ^pi^og, from I. E. grabh (concipere),
whence Skr. grah (capere) ; germen would therefore be for
gerbmen. Carmen is for casm£n, compare Casmenae. We
find r representing an older n in Fr. diacre (= diaconus),
Londres, ordre (= ordinem) ; Sp. hombre (= hominem), fembra
(= femina), &c. Conversely in Wall, suspina = suspirare we
find n for r. It is a mistake to identify the n- with the r-
suffixes in vdwp beside Skr. udan (water) ; in L. jecur, Gr.
VTrap, Skr. yakrt beside Skr. yakan (from which the weak
cases of yakrt are formed), Lett, aknis (the liver) ; in Skr.
^akrt, Gr. oKwp, L. stercus^ stercor-is beside Skr. s'akan
(from which the weak cases of s'akrt are formed), for we fre-
quently find these suffixes coexisting in the same language,

136 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

and sometimes in the same word : thus, we have Gr. vBvi\g
(watery) beside vBwp, the former word being formed from
R. uS by means of the suffix -va ; in L. jecinoris, gen. sing, of
jecur, we find both suffixes coexistent ; and similarly we find
both in A. S. skearn (dung) = o-kw/o and A. S. steam = L. stumus.

i = I. E. r : loquor, Skr. lap (to speak), Gr. eAokop, Ch.'
SI. reica (to speak) ; linguo Skr. rik' (to separate), Gr. Xuiru) ;
luceo, Skr. riik' (to shine), Gr. XtuKoci Xvxvoq ; sollus = Skr.
sarvas (all) ; culter, cultus, Skr. kartari (shears), Gr. Kelpu) ;
plenus = Skr. pilrnas (full) ; hxcero, Gr. Xokoc, /oaKOc, -^ol.
jSpaicoc from R. F/oaic = Skr. vras'k' (scindere) ; latus for platus
beside Skr. prath (extendere) ; gallus for garlus beside garrio,
Skr. gar (to call), Gr. yripvq ; gula, gur-guUio beside gurges,
(g)voro, Skr. gar (to swallow) ; volo, Skr, rar (to choose) ;
vulguSf Skr. vargas (nom. sing. masc. a multitude) ; vellus,
Skr. umd (wool), Gr. tpiov, Ion. elpogt &c.

X = I. E. I: see §21.

X = I. E. (?: laoima, 0. L. dacruma, Gr. Sajcpu, Goth,
to^r, 0. H. G. zahar ; levir, Skr. rf^ya?' (husband's brother),
Gr. dafip, A. S. tdcoTi 0. H. G. zeihhur; lingua, 0. L. dingua^
Goth, it^^ro, O. H. G zunga ; impelimenta (in Festus) = im-
pedimenta ; ol-facio, oho beside odor, Gr. o^w = 6Sya>,
68(uSa ; Zauiia (entertainment) beside dautia, which Aufrecht
connects with Skr. duta (nuntius) ; Ulixes ^''Odvatrtvg; lig-
num connected by Bopp with dah (to burn), Gr. XiyvCg
(thick smoke mixed with flame) ; but Curtius prefers to
follow Jos. Scaliger in deriving it from legere (to gather),
whence legumen, &c., lignum would then mean "a bundle
of sticks ;" limpidus connected by Bopp with Skr. dtp (to
shine), but by Curtius with Gr. Xd/nirto, "OXv/irroc ; lacero
connected by Bopp with Skr. dans' (to bite), Gr. 8a»cv<i>,
but much more probably from R. lac = Gr. F/oqk ; pol-lingo,
lino beside Skr. dih (to smear); larva (a mask) connected
with Skr. dars' (to see), Gr. Stpicw ; laurus for daurus, Skr.
druma (a tree), ddrn (wood), Gr. Bpvg, Bopv ; -ilius (in Popi-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 139

lius, &c.) = idius* (in Popidius, &c.) ; delicare beside dedicare,
-sul (in consul, &c.) is generally connected ^vith R. sed,
whence sSdeo, sella for sedla, sedes, solium, butMommsen con-
nects it with salire, and Corrsen with Skr. sar (to go). In
Oscan we find d kept between vowels, where in Latin / is
found, as in 0. O. Akudunniad = L. Aquilonid (d), 0. U.
Akeruniam-em, N. U. Ace7'soniam-e (in Aquiloniam), the
modern Acedogna.

L appears to represent an I. E. n in a few cases : lendes for
clendes beside Gr. Kovi^tq (eggs of lice, nits), A. S. hnit, Lith.
glindas, for no word in Latin can begin with en ; pulmo beside
TTvevfxojv. For a similar change in other languages consult
§ 54. Although L. alius, Gr. aXXog, Goth, alis {aWog) are
generally connected with Skr. anya (another), it is more
likely that there were originally two independent pronominal
stems, al and an ; from the former of which came L. aliits, &c. ;
and from the latter Skr. anya, Gr. tvioi, Goth, anihar (aWog),
Ch. SI. inU (alius). Pulmo and lendes appear therefore to be
the only Latin words where ^ = I. E. n. The opposite change
never occurs in Latin, though it does sometimes in Greek, as
Dor. fiivTiarog, &c., = (BiXriarog, &c., vdpva^ (Hesych. a
chest) = Xapva^.

aS = I. E. s : sum, est, Skr. asmi (sum), asti (est), Gr.
etjut, -^ol. enfii = itTfii, eort, Goth, im, ist, Lith. esmi, Ssti, Ch.
SI. jesmT, jestt ; uro, ustus from R. us = Skr. ush (to burn),
Gr. ivb) ; septem = Skr. saptan, Gr. kiTTa ; sto, R. sta = Skr.
sthd (to stand), from I. E. sto ; -s (term, of nom. sing.) = I.
E. -s, as in equus = Skr. as'vas = Gr. 'iinrog, &c. ; 0. L. sum

* As we find O. U. famerias, karitu, Pumperias beside L. familia,
calare, Pompilia, it hasbeen suggested (Die Umbrischen Sparchdenk-
maler von S. Th. Aufrecht und A. Kirchhoff, p. 84) that the original
forms of these words had d in place of r and I, as O. U. r = I. E. d. I
cannot assent to this view as far as relates to familia and calare, ior fa-
milia is from famulus, which is formed from a St. fama, a&humilis, from St.
humo, and calare is connected with Gr. KoKku, G. hallen. R was, per-
haps, written for r by a mistake of the stone-cutter in these two cases.

140 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(him), sam (her), Skr. sa, sd = Get. 6, 17, &c. S is retained in
Umbrian and Oscan, where it is found in the corresponding
Latin words, and also in other cases where it is either lost or
changed into r in Latin. Thus we have O. U. tutas Ijuvinas
(gen. sing.) = L. totce IguvincB, kapres, katles = L. capri, catuli,
0. 0 . pumpaiianets = pornpeiani, N. O. eituds (gen. sing, pe-
cunice). The a-stems in Oscan and Old Umbrian still retain
the final s in the nom. pi. : 0. 0. Nuvlanus =• L. Nolani,
N. 0. pas, scriftas = L. quce, scriptce, 0. U. urtas = L. ortce.
In New Umbrian this final s has generally become r ; screihtor
(nom. pi.) = L. scriptif totcor (nom. pi.) = L. tuticiy motar
(nom. pi.) = L. multce (poenae), totar (gen. sing.) = L. totce,
popler (gen. sing.) = L. popuH. In New Umbrian final s is
still kept in the dat. and abl. pi. of the i-stems, as in aveis
= L. ambus. In Old Umbrian and Old Oscan the change of
final s into r had already begun in the passive voice, as O. U.
emantur = R. emantur, 0. 0. sakarater = L. sacratur, &c. S is
generally kept between two vowels in Oscan and Umbrian,
as in U. asa = L. ara, O. O. aasas = L. arce. In Oscan s be-
came a sonant s, represented by s, between two vowels in
certain cases, as in -azum (term, of gen. pi.) = L. -arum = I. E.
-dsdm, censazet for censasent (censebunt), &c. Final ts was
represented by z in Old Umbrian and Old Oscan, and by s in
New Umbrian, as O. U. pihaz = N. U. pihos = L. piatus, O. O.
hurz = L. hortus, &c. In Umbrian an original k is generally
weakened to a sibilant before e and t, as in pase = L. pace, de-
senduf = L. duodecem, gesna = L. cena, &c.

iV= I. E. n : in- (neg. prefix), Skr. and Z. an-, a-, Gr.
av-, a-, O. and U. an-, a- ; inter, indu, Skr. antar (within),
Gr. tv^ov, ivTtpov, 0. U. anter, N. U. ander ; mens, maneo,
Skr. and Z. man (to think), Gr. fievo), fiivoQ ; navis, Skr.
ndus = Gr. vavc ; novus, Skr. navas = Gr. viFog, O. O. Nuvla;
ne, non, Skr. and Z. na (not), Gr. i/tj- = Ved. 7id ; term, no-
(in plenum, somnus, &c.) = Skr. na- (in purna, &c.) ; term.
men (in nomen), &c.) = Skr. man (in ndman, &c.) ; &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 141

N= I. £. m in a few cases : nonus for novimus from noverriy
as decimus from decern, &c. ; gener for gemer beside Gr. yafi-
/3poc> although it may come directly from R. gen (to pro-
duce); tenebrce beside Skr. tamisra (darkness), 0. S. thim
(dim), O. H. G. demar (crepusculum), Jr. temel (dark).
Some writers consider that n = m in venio beside Skr. gam (to
go), janitrix beside Skr. ^dmdtar and ydmdtar (gener), and
aeneus = Skr. ayasmayas (ferreus), but these comparisons are
extremely unlikely : consult §. 54.

§. 80. The Labials.

P = 1. E. j? : super, Skr. upari (above), Gr. vTrep, Goth.
ufar (over) ; plus, plerique, Skr. puru (much), Gr. ttoXvcj
Goth. Jihi (ttoAuc) ; potis, potior, potens, Skr. pad (a master),
Gr. TTotrtc; pluit, pluvia, Skr. plu (to swim), Gr. irXiw, ttXvvw,
O. Ji.G.fliozan (to flow) ; pons, Ski.patha{a. way),Gr. irarog,
O. N. fatt (ibam) ; per, O. perum (outside), Skr. para (away,
Z. para (outside), Gr. irapa, Goth, fra-; porta, ex-per-ior,
Skr. par (to cross), Z. par (to bring over), Gr. iropoq, -mpabj,
Goth, faran (to go); serpo, Skr. sarp (to creep), Gr.

ipTTbi ; &C.

P perhaps represents an I. E. hh in potus; consult §. 55.

8p in Latin has in no case been developed from an older st.
Spica and spiculum are not connected with Gr. oraxve* but
rather with O. N. spiot (hasta), G. spies (a spear), spitze (a
point) ; perhaps Gr. rriKpog and sxiTrevKrig (pointed) belong to
the same root. Spatium = ^ol. (nra^iov is connected with Gr.
atraw, 0. H. G. spannan, and Gr. (rraBiov is a later form.
Spuo is connected with Gr. ittvw, h.pituita, Goth. «p«m(spuo),
Lith. spjavju (spuo). We find mr = an original (tt in ^Eol.
ffTToXa = (TToXri, KaawoXio) = KaraartXw, where (jr is original,
as we see from L. praestolor, O. H. G. stellan (to place), E.
stall. We also find Goth, sparva, 0. H. G. spare beside Gr.

142 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

arpovOuc;. We find sp beside Gr. trie in spolium beside Gr.
(TKuAov, where <tk is original. We also find specio, specto be-
side Gr. aKiiTTOnai for (nreKTOfiai from I. E. spak, whence Z.
s'pas' (to behold), Skr. pas' (to see), E. spy.

In Umbrian and Oscan j3 = I. E. kv and L. qu in the pro-
nouns and numerals and words derived from them, and
perhaps, in some other cases. Thus we have 0. U. and
N. U. pis = L. quis, 0. 0. pud, N. 0. pod, = L. quod, N. O.
pomtis = qidnquei N. U. peturpursus = L. quadrupedihus,
N. U. panta = L. quanta, &c. Hence when we findp = I. E. '
lev in any Latin word, we may infer that that word is borrowed
from either Umbrian, Oscan, or Sabine. Corssen* believes
that jt> has been developed from an I. E. kv within the limits
of the Latin language; but the examples by which he sup-
ports this view are either extremely doubtful or susceptible of
another explanation. Curtiusf also asserts that L. p has
arisen from an Older k in sapio, lupus, Epona, trepit, and swpio,
comparing these words with sucus, Gr. \vkoq, equus, torqueo,
and Gr. g^koq. Now sapio has nothing to say to sucus, but
is connected with 0. H. G. sab (to understand), whence ant-
sefan (Prat, ant-suoh), and Gr. ao^oQ and aatpi'ig, where ^ re-
presents an older tt ; lupus is most probably a Sabine word,
but Schleicher connects it with Z. urupis, raopis (a kind of
dog), and derives it from R. rup or lup (to tear) ; saepio does
not agree with ar\K6q in the vowel of the root for Gr. »j = L E.
a and L. ae = L E. ai; Epona is a Keltic term; trepit (vertit)
and Gr. Tpiiru) are, perhaps, formed from a root tar by the
suffix p, and torqueo from same root by the addition of a diflfe-
rent suffix. Corssen adds to these examples popina, palum-
bus, opinari, comparing them with coquina, colwnba, and Gr.
oaakadai for OKytaBai. Novr popina and palumbus are most
likely borrowed words, as we have beside them the genuine
Latin form, coquina and columba, just as we have Osc. rio^Tr-

• Kritische Nachtrage zur Lateinischen fonnenlehre, p. 29.
t Grundziige der Griechischen Etpnologio, p. 408.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 143

Tiog = L. QuinctiiLS beside li. Pompejus (borrowed from
Oscan) and Petrejus from Osc. petora (four). The connex-
ion of opinan with oaaeadai is very doubtful ; Curtius assents
to Grain's suggestion that an initial kv has been lost, and that
it comes from the same root as Gr. Kairvw, L. vapor for kvapor,
Lith. kvapas (smoke). Limpidus is considered by Schleicher
to be a dialectic form of liquidus; Bopp, however, connects the
former with Skr. dtp (to shine), Gr. Xafiirw, and the latter with
Skr. It (liquefacere). Curtius connects liquere, liquidus with
Skr. rile (to separate), Z. ric (to leave, to pour out), L. lin-
quo, &c.

^ = I. E. 6 in brevis for bregvis beside Gr. /SpoxuC) and
labi beside Skr. lamb (to fall), and a few imitative words :
consult §.22.

J5 = I. E. gv: be-tere, ar-bi-ter, venio for gvenio, N. U.
benust = 0. U. benus (3 sing. fut. ex.) from R. ben (to come),
Skr. gd (to go), Goth, quintan (to come) ; bos, Skr. gdus (nom.
sing, bos), Gr. /3ovc, -foiog (6 epydrrig (5ovg, Hesych.) O.H.G.
chuo (cow) ; bovare, re-boare, Skr. gu (to sound), Gr. )3o//,
(Boau), yoog, yoaw, yorjg ; super-bus, Skr. g'i (to conquer), Gr.
vKep(3iog, from I. E. gvi, whence, perhaps, also come Gr. Fig,
t(TxvCj Eac. /3t(Txuc5 L. vis for gvis; bullio connected by Bopp
with Skr. gval (flammare).

B = I. E. bJi* (when medial) : amb-, Skr. abhi (towards),
Gr. oft^t, 0. S. umbi, O. H. G. umpi; ambo, Skr. ubhdu (both),
Gr. afi(j)(x), Goth, bai (both) ; nubes, nebula, Skr. nabhas (aer,
coelum), Gr, viipog ; umbilicus, Skr. ndbhi (the navel), Gr.
6fx(pa\6g ; orbus, Gr. 6p(f>av6g ; labor, Skr. rabh (desiderare),
Gr. ^X^ov (I acquired), aX^ijcrrrjc? Goth, arbaiths (toil) ; -brum
(in candelabrum, &c.) from I. E. Mar = Skr. bhar (to carry) ;
imber, Skr. ambhas (water), aMra (clouds), Gr. 6fi(5pog ; -5m»

* Benary connects L. ebur with Skr. tft^a (an elephant), from which he
also derived Gr. i\-'e^as by prefixing the Semitic article. Others derive
tX«0ac from Heb. eleph (an ox), as, in Old Latin, the elephant was
called bos Lucas.

144 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(terra, of dat. pi.) = Skr. -bhyas; -ham, -ho (in amabam,
^maho, &c.) for -fuam, -fuo from I. E. bhu (to be) ; &c.

B is never = I. E. hh (when initial), except in hiho, re-
specting which consult §. 55. Bopp indeed connects hacca *
with Skr. hhaksh (to eat), and suggests that hucca comes from
the same root, unless it belongs to Skr. mukha (the face) !
He also connects hrachium with Skr. hdhu (the arm),Gr. Trr\\vq,
I. E. hhdghu. These examples are, however, so doubtful that
we cannot conclude that L. h is ever = I. E. JA, except in bibo.

^ = I. E. dh (when medial) : ruher^ robigo, Skr. rudhira
(blood) ; vher for ouber, Skr. udhas (uher), Grr. ovOap, 0. H.G.
Htcir, A. S. uder; uher (rich) for oiber, Skr. SdhaU (he in-
creases), from R. idh; verhum, U. verfale (= verbale), Groth.
vaurd (a word), G-. wort, Lith. vardas (a name) ; barba, Gr.
hart, E. beard; robur, connected by some with Skr. rddh
(perficere), but by Bopp with Skr. ruh (crescere) for rudk.
Other examples of this change have been adduced, but in
each case a better explanation of the L. b can be given:
liber has nothing to say to Grr. (XtvBepog, for we find 0. L.
loebesom = liherum, which is connected with Skr. lubh (to de-
sire), Gr. Ac'/ (cTTtOu/xta, Hesych.), XtTTTO/xat, Goth. Hubs (loved),
while the old derivation of eXivOspog, wapa to eXtvdeiv onov
£p^, is probably correct ; plebes and Gr. irXfiQog are inde-
pendent formations from the root par (to fill), and L. b is not
Gr. 0 here ; urbs is not connected with Skr. ardha, for the
latter meant originally half, and then it came to mean side,
as G. halbe means both half and side ; the term, -brum should

• Corssen (Kritische Nachtnige zur Lat. Form. p. 33) connects bacca
with Skr. pah' (coquere, maturescere), and considers hacca, therefore, to
be ioT pacca. In no case, however, except in a few words borrowed from
the Greek, does initial h in Latin represent an I. E. ;? ; besides, Skr. pah'
is connected with L. coquo, Gr. TrtTrrw, apTO-Koir-og, Ch. SI. peka (1 cook),
Lith. kepi, and all these forms seem to point back to an I. E. hvakv.
Bucca is also connected by Corssen with Skr. buhh (latrare, loqui) ; this
is explaining obscurum per obtcurius.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 145

not be identified with Gr. -Opov, for the latter was originally
-rpov and the former belongs to Skr. bkar (to bear). Libra
is, perhaps, borrowed from XcVpa (for rXirpa beside rXaw, as
L. latus for tlatus) through XiOpa, or else Xirpa is borrowed
from libra, the term -bra being connected with Skr. bhar (to
bear).

B is never = I. E. i/h. The onlj example adduced in
proof of this change is bilis, which is wrongly connected with
Grr. x"^oc, X**^'^ (g^^l» anger), O. H. Gr. galla (gall), l^- fel,
fell-is^ is the true Latin representative of -^^oXoc.

B =. I. E. dv : bini, bis, Skr. dva (two), dv/'s (twice), Z.
dva (two), bi- (two, in composition), Gr. Svo, Big, divripog
by metathesis from dvataras, L. duo^ dis-; bi- occurs several
times in composition, as in bivira (noticed by Varro in the
sense o^ widow), bipes, St. biped = Skr. dvipad (a man), bimus
= bi-himus (according to Aufrecht) from bi- and himo- = Z.
hima (a year) connected with Skr. hima (snow), L. hiems, but
= bi-smus (according to Bopp) from bi- and smo- connected
with Skr. samd (a year) ; bellum = duellum; Bellius = Duellius,
bonus beside duonoro (t. Scip. Barb, f ) = bonorum.

.B = I. E. m in blandus for mlandus, a participial form of a
R. mid, the original form of which was probably marl, which
is found in Skr. mrd (exhilarare), Gr. fieiXia (propitiatory
gifts), E. mil-d. This is the only example of this change
that has been adduced. It is better, however, to suppose
that blandus came from mlandus through the step mblandus, as
Gr. jSporoc = p(5poTog = ppoTog, than to suppose that b imme-
diately represented m.

B (according to Bopp) represents Skr. v in -ber {Septem-
ber, &c.) beside Skr. vara (time), and in balneum beside Skr.
bad (lavare). This latter comparison is certainly wrong, for
balneum is borrowed from Gr. ^aXavtiov, which was derived
from jSaXavoc (an acorn), on account of the similarity of
their shapes, and the Skr. bad is a very obscure word.

B = I. E. /> (when final) : ah, Skr. apa (away), Gr. otto,

L

146 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Goth, a/, O. H. G. aha; oh (whicli originally meant the same
as ad, as in obviam, obire, opportunus)^ Skr. api (used as an
adverb '^also, and as a prefix «= after, as in apig'as = liriyovog),
Gr. fir I, iirsi ; sub, Skr, and Z. upa (to), Gr. viro, Goth. uf.
(sub), 0. H. G. oba (super). B = Gr. tt in some borrowed
words, as Burrus = Ylvppoq, carbasus = Kapiraaog, biixus <= ttv^oq
Buxentum from ITu^ouc-

jP= I. E. M : fari, fatum, fax, fades, favilla, Skr. bhd
(to shine), bhdsh (to speak), Gr. 0t);U<, ^alvu), <paog ; forare,
Z. Jar (to bore), Gr. ^apog (a plough), <papayK (a ravine),
O. H. G. poran (to bore), E. 5ore ; /ero, fordus, fa?; Skr. Mar (to
bear), Z. bar (to bear),Gr. (piptj, ^. bear ; flare, flos,Gr . eKipXalvw
(I flow out), ^Xa-a/uiog (bubbling, boasting), 0. H. G. bidan,
(to blow), blatara (pustule), bluojan (florere), Goth, bloma
(bloom), blotJi (blood) ; fui, Skr. hliii (to be), Gr. ^vu), E. be;
fugio, I. E. bhugh, Skr. bhng' (to bend), Gr. ^su-yw, Goth.
6iMJ9'a (I bend) ; fagus, Gr. (jtriyog, E. Jggc/i ; fulgeo, fulvus,
Skr. bhrdg (to shine), Gr. ^Xeyw, E. bright; fremere, f return,
Freniani, Skr. bhram (to whirl), Gr. ^pefito, (5povTri, O. N.
6n'm (the surge) ; furviis, sindfiiscus, perhaps £ot fur-scus, as
TuscKS for Turscus, Skr. JaJ/iru (red, and the ichneumon), Gr.
</>pvvri (the toad, from its colour), E. broicn; fndere, Skr.
i7ii(i (to cleave), E. bite, &c. A medial/(= I. E. bh) between
two vowels is only found in such compounds as signifer, &c. ;
and in scrofa (a sow), Gr. ypofi<{>ag (a sow), so called from
its rooting, connected with ypa^u), ypo(})£ig {tiiwypd^oi,
Hesych.), Goth, graba (I dig), L. scrobs; &c. In Oscan and
Umbrian we not only find/= initial / in Latin, but also/
= medial L, 5 ; 0. U. tefe, ife = L. tibi, ibi ; O. U. trifor = L.
iribm ; O. U. prufe = L. probe, Skr. prabhdva (excelsus) (?) ;
0. 0. puf = L. ubi; 0. O. sifei == L. sibi ; N. 0. amprufid
= L. improbe, &c.

F = 1. E. (fA ; of-fendo, Gr. ^ftVw ; festua, feriae, Gr.
OiaaeaBat {iKtTtvtiv, Hesych.), perhaps Otog for Oea-oc, Oia^
(paTog; farmdus,^\ir.d/ui (to place), Gr. TiOtifxi; femina, filins

COMPAEATIVE GRAMMAR. 147

Skr. dM (to drink), Gr. BriaOai (to milk) ; fmnus = Skr. dhu-
mas (smoke), Gr. Ov/xog, &c. A medial/ (= I. E. dh) between
two vowels is only found in rufus, Gr. spvBpoc- In Oscan
and Umbrian medial /, as well as initial /, = I. E. dh, as in
O. U. mefa for i7ie/ia, 0. O. mefiai = L. mediae, O. U. verfale
= L. verbale, &c. This interchange between / and dh is easily
explained ; consult §. 55. We frequently hear children saying
fum for thumb, &c. ; oisofyrst is a dialectic form of thirst,

F = I. Ei. gh: formus, (hot) fomax, Skr. gharma (warm),
Gr. OtpfiOQ, E. warm ; frio, frico, O. U. frehtu = L. frictum,
Skr. ghar (to sprinkle), gharsh (to rub), Gr. xp'i^y ; fcnis, futis
(vas aquarium), fundo, Gr. ^tw for x^P**** from R. ^^j Goth.
^iMto (I pour) ; O. L. fostis* = hostis = Goth, gasts (a guest),
Skr. ghas (to eat) ; 0. L. folus = holus, olus, helvus, Jlavus
{Jlava is applied to Ceres, as x^ojj is to Demeter), Skr. hari
(green), Gr, ■)(Xori, E. green: 0. L,. fariolus = hariolus, harus-
pex, Skr. (Ved.) hird (entrails), L. hira, hilla (entrails), 0. N.
gamir (intestines) ; 0. \j. fcedus = hcedus, E. goat; fra-gra-re
is said to be a re- duplicated form of an I. E. ghrd = Skr. ghrd
(to smell), &c. In the same way ghis, pronounced as /in E.
laugh, cough, tough, &c.

i^ never represents an I. E. je», except when s originally
preceded, as in fallo = Gr. a^aAXw, fungus = Gr. <T<p6yyog,
fiinda beside a<^tv^6vr\, fides (catgut) beside Gr. or^tSij (cat-
gut). We hear children frequently saying funge for spunge,
foon for spoon, &c. Aufrecht connects N. U.frite (ritu) with
Skr. pri (to love), and ascribes / to the aspirating influence
of the following r, as in Gr. ritppa (ashes) beside Skr. tap (to
burn), A. S. thefian (aestuare), G. damp/ {stea,m). Fluo has
nothing to do with Gr. ttXIw from R. ttXu, but is probably con-
nected with Gr. (fkvii) ; 2)luit is the true Latin representative

* As/ia O. h. fostis, &c., became h, so L. /becomes h in Spanish, as
hijo =Jilius, &c. Similarly in Irish initial ji? is lost, as in atldr = L. pater,
laii = plenus, &c. ; p in Irish probably became ph, then h, and finally
disappeared.

l2

148 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

of R. ttXv. In Oscan t aspirates a preceding p, as in N. 0.
scriftas = L. scriptae (nom. pi. fern.) ; in Umbrian this /be-
came h, as in 0. U. screhto = L. scriptum.

Medial / between vowels occurs in serofa, rufus, com-
pounds of R. fer, as signifer, sifilus beside sihilus, Afer, vafer,
and tofus, and the derivatives of these words.

F= I. E. v. aevum, Skr. ^m (course), Gr. aUg, Goth.
aivs (alwv) ; ventiis, Skr. vd (to breathe), Gr. aa», a/jo, avpa,
from R. aF, Goth, rmt/s (wind) ; ver, Skr. vasanta (ver), Gr.
cap, Lith. vasara (summer) ; virus = Skr. vishas (poison), Gr.
log ; vitex, vimen, vitta^ vitis, vinum, Skr. vitikd (a band),
rg^ra (a reed), Gr. hvg, E. withe; oris = Skr. am (a sheep),
Gr. oig, Lith. avis (a sheep), E. eujg; riotms = Skr. ?iavas
(new), Gr. vtog, Ch. SI. wout? (new) ; venum, veneo, vendo,
Skr. vasnas (nom. sing. masc. prime cost), vasnam (nom. sing,
neut. hire), Gr. a»i'oc, Ch. 81. rSniti (to sell) ; verna, vesti-
bulum* (according to Bopp), Skr. vas (to dwell), Gr. aa-rv ;
Vesta, Skr. ush (to bum) = I. E. vas, Gr. i^rla ; Bopp, how-
ever, connects Vesta and lorm with Skr. vas (to dwell), &c.

V is vocalised frequently in Latin : guatuor, Skr k'atvdras,
Goth. Jidvor; vacuos for vacvos, contiguos for contigvos, inge-
nuos for ingenvos, &c., where term, -uo = -vo, as found in
alvos, arvom, &c. ; sudo (according to Schleicher) for suido,
as senatus for senatuis, Skr. svid (to sweat), Gr. t^/cu.

V is retained in Old Latin, Old Umbrian, and Old Oscan,
after o, w, and u, where, in later times, it disappeared, as
0. L. sovos = suus, Jlovont = fiuunt ; O. U. tuves = N. U. duir
= L. duobits, O. O. suveis, siivad = O. L. sort, sovad = L. 5ui,
«t<a, &c. In Old Oscan we find v retained before consonants,
as in tu'^t'ks = L. tuticus beside N. O. toxttad, from St. tuvta-
= O. U. tuta- (a city).

* Mommsen explains vestihulum as meaning dressing-room, from vestis,
so called from the fact that the Romans only wore the tunic in the house,
and put on the toga when they were going out.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 149

M = I. E. m: morior, Skr. mar (to die), Gr. a-n^po-rog,
from R. fxop, fxapaivu), Goth, maurthr (murder) ; mernor, Skr.
smar (to remember), Gr. fiipifiva, fxaprvp, fxipixhpa ipya ;
mensis = I. E. mansas = Skr. mdsas (a month), Z. mdonha (a
month), Gr. yur/i/, Ion. jmiig, ni]vri, JEioX. fxrivvoq for jxr]vaoQ ;
me, Skr. 7?ia?n, and ma (me), Gr. jul, Goth, mik (me); -m
(sign of ace. sing.) = Skr. -m, as equum= Skr. asvam; -m (in
«wm) = Skr. -mi = Gr. -fn, as sum = Skr. asmi = Gr. eifii ;
merffOi perhaps for mesgo connected by Bopp with Skr. mag'g'
(mergi), Lith. mazgdju (lavo), &c.

Ji" represents a Skr. t?, according to Bopp, in clamo = Skr.
s'rdvaydmi, a causal of s'ru (to hear), and mare = Skr. vdri
(water). In both these cases Bopp appears to be wrong, for
cld-mo is much more easily connected with Gr. KoXiw, KXriaig,
L. calare^ nomen-cld-tor, than with Skr. s'ru, and m.are pro-
bably meant originally a desert, connected with Skr. maru,
(a desert), mar (to die), Ir. mmV, E. moor, mere, Gr. ^Afi<pi-
fxap-og (a son of Poseidon). Other examples of this inter-
change of V and m have been brought forward, but all of them
are even more doubtful than clamo and mare. Thus Bopp
considers Gr. Bpiinw = Skr. dravdmi from dru (to run), though
it is much simpler to connect it directly with Skr. dram (to go).

J^/ represents a Skr. bh, according to Bopp, in maxilla
beside Skr. bhaksh (to eat), and multus beside Skr. bhuri
(multus). These comparisons are just as doubtful as those
between v and m. Curtius is inclined to assent to the opinion
that maxilla is connected with Gr. fiaaao)^ fxayevg (a baker),
and, consequently, means the organ " quod cibos depsit ac
subigit." Bopp had his own misgivings about the connex-
ion of multits with bhuri, for he also suggests that it may be
related to Skr. puru (multus). Multus, though apparently
connected with Gr. juu/ofoc, has never yet been satisfactorily
explained.* M is = bh in the Umbrian sing. loc. term.

* Multus may have originally meant " pounded," " ground into many
small fragments;" and from this its ordinary meaning may have been de-

150 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

-mem ; if this be = Skr. -hhyam (in tubhyam) or -hhydm. Si-
milarly in Lith. dual dat. wi/kam, -m = Skr. -hhydm.

§.81. Assimilation.

1. When two consonants come together, the first is
often made the same as the second. After long vowels
only one of these double consonants could be heard in
pronunciation, and consequently only one was written ; it
is therefore impossible to distinguish such cases from those
where a consonant has disappeared with or without com-
pensation. Schleicher reduces all the latter cases to those
of assimilation, and considers that a consonant, before it
vanished, was first assimilated to the following one. After
short vowels the double consonants are generally written. Cc
(eg) = dc in accurro, quicquid, quicquam, iccirco. Cc = be in
succurro, occurro. Cc perhaps = ^c in saccus and soccus* be-
side Skr. sag (to cover), and Gr. o-d-yij ; saccus is however most
likely borrowed. Cc = sc in siccus = Skr. s'ushkas (dry). Gg
= dg in aggero. J = jj = gj in major = mdgjor beside magnus;
djo - agjo beside ad-ag-ium ; m£Jo for mljo = mXgjo beside
mingo, Gr. R. /ut^ = Skr. mih ; ptdejum for puUgjum. We
find j = dj, rj, sj, nsj in sejungo, pejero, dljudico, trdjicio respec-
tively, &c. Pejor is connected by Benfey with Skr. papa
(bad), and if this view be correct, it must stand for pepjor ;
Bopp, however, connects it with Skr. piy (conviciari), Goth.
jijan (to hate), Y^. fiend. Tt = dt in attraho. Tt = kt in lit-
tera for lictera, beside Skr. likk (to write) ; Schweitzer con-

veloped. There existed, most probably, in Indo-European a root mar
(to pound) from which were derived L. mola, E. mill, meal, Gr. fivXos,
ftvXt], &c. ; for a full discussion of this root, consult Max Miiller, Lectures
IL, p. 315, seq.

• Spiegel connects soccus with Z. hahha (the sole of the foot) connected
■with Skr. sak' (to follow, to cling to), whence Skr. sakhi (a friend) sak'iva
(a. friend) beside L. seguor, socius.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 151

neets this word with Skr. lip (oblinere), and therefore consi-
ders it to have arisen from liptera; but^^ remains unchanged
in Latin, as in aptus, rupius, &c. In Vitorius (on an inscrip-
tion belonging to times of First Punic War, and also on very
late inscriptions), and the late forms alitor, Adauta for auctor,
Adaucta, c was probably first assimilated to t, and then fell out,
just as in late Latin we find such forms as otto, praefetto, and
in Italian henedetto, maledetto. Autumnus is also for Auctum-
nus, from aug-eo ; Corssen appears to be mistaken in connect-
ing it with Gr. aw for aFa>, which is found only in infin. pres.
ajuevai (to satiate). 2^= Tt = nt in N. 0. set = L. sunt. Si-
milarly in Old Irish we find -t = -nt in the term, s of the
3 pi. of the verb, as -at, -et = h.-unt, -etar = L. —untur ; we also
find etar = L. inter, cet = L. centum. Dd (and then d) = sd in
judex ^oxjusdex, idem for Xsdem, diduco for disduco. Ss (and then
s) = cs (x), as in Sestius = Sextius ; praetestati = praetextati;
frassinus = fraxinus ; trissdgo (the herb germander) = trixago
(Cels. 8. 3) ; cossim (on both the hips), from coxa, connected
with Skr. kukshi (the belly), and Gr. KO-)(ijjvr\ for ko^wi/t} ; O.
U. esuk for eksuk ; 0. 0. meddeis heside /neBdsik- Similarly we
have 0. I. dess, des beside dexter, Ch. SI. desinU (dexter) Skr.
dakshina (dexter) ; 0. I. ass-, ess- = L. ex. Ss = ds in ass-
uesco, assimulo, cessi for cedsi, pes for pgds, esse (to eat) for
edse. Ss = ts in possum for potsum, concussi for concutsi, fQns
for fonts, &c. Ss = ns in Oscan ace. pl. viass = L. vias for
vians, &c. ; similarly in o- and i- stems the Oscan ace. pl.
ends in -uss and -iss. We find s = ss = ns in formosus for
formonsuSi the suffix of which is perhaps the same as Skr.
-vant; also in cosul, cesor, quoties, &c. beside consul, censor,
quotiens, &c. Ss = rs in russum, sussum, retrossum, beside
rursum, sursum, retrorsum, also written rusum, &c. ; prossum
andprosa heside prorsum ; dossua7ius (bearing a burden), from
dorsum ; possideo from porsideo. Ss = hs in jussi ; - ms in
pressi ; = vs in lucassim, amasso, &c. Nn = dn in annuere, an-
nare, annectere. Benfey connects L. annona with Skr. anna

1 52 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(food) for adtia, from 11. ad (to eat), but it much more probably
belongs to L. annus. Nn=mn in annus for amnus, whence comes
solemnis, from am = ambi (round), meaning a ' complete revolu-
tion of the sun' ; Viiunnus beside Vitumnus, Neptumcs beside
Neptwnnus, Portunus beside Portumnus. Nn = mn in conniti.
Nn = sn in penna for pesna, and this f^ov petna from R.pei (to fly).
Pr = dr in arridere; = br in surripere ; = nr in irrumpere ;
= mr in corripere ; &c. Rr = cr in serra from R. seo (to cut)
and = tr in parricida for patincida (?). X/ = c?/ in alligare; = n^
in illinere ; = wiZ in coUocare ; rl in intelligere, pelhtcere ; &c.
X^ = c?Z also in sella for sec/Za ; lapillus for lapidlus ; Axtfellius
beside AuJiduSy &c. X/ = rl in gallus = garlus^ Skr. ^ar (to
call), Gr. yrfpvQ, Fr^pvojv, E. mW; oZZa = orw^ from a R. var
(to seethe), which is found in Gr. /Spatro-o) and fSpat^b) (I boil)
from R. /3pa = Fpa, Lith. virti (to boil), Ch. SI. vr^ti (fervere),
0. H. G. wall (heat) ; puella = puerla for puerxda ; ampidla
beside ampora ; stelh beside a<rri\p ; Tibullus from Tibur, &c.
LI = nl in asellus beside asinus ; corolla beside corona ; ho-
mullus beside St. hoinon-; Messalla from Messana ; illico (in
Plautus ilico) = in loco. LI = cl in panllus for paucidus (?).
P/) = dp in appeUo ; = 6/> in oppono. Ff = bf in oj^cium,
suffoco; - df in afferre ; c/ in efferre ; = sf in diffugere. When
a preceding consonant is assimilated to v, it disappears some-
times with and sometimes without compensation. Thus we
have no compensation in ISvia for legvis, Gr. iXaxyg ; br^vis for
bregms, Gr. [ipaxvg ; nivis for nigvis, beside nix for n?^i<, nm-
^MO ; in mvere and connlvere^ on the other hand, we find com-
pensation for the V thrown out. Mm = pm in siimmus; = ^
in Jlagma ; = im in summittere ; <= n??i in immittere, &c.

II. When two consonants come together, the second is
often made the same as the first. Tt perhaps = ty in mitto for
mityo. Ss «= $t in superl. term, -issimm, as in longissimus, -is-
being the remains of the old compar. term yans ; os, St. ossi
« osti, Skr. asthi (a bone), Gr. oariov ; censor = cens-tor = N. 0.
censtur, censwn «= N. O. censlum. When t is preceded by t or

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 153

dj the first dental generally becomes s, and then the second is
assimilated to it, so that dt and tt become ss, or s after long
vowels and consonants : thus we have fessiis for fettus, beside
fatigo, adfatim; esum for edtum, from edo (I eat), beside est
(he eats) = edit ; fossa = fodta, fodio ; missus = mittus, mitto;
usus and ussus (on inscriptions) = utttis, uti ; clausus = claiidtus
claudo ; Jissus = Jidtus, findo ; versus = vert-tus, verto, &c. So
in Irish we find ss for st in borrowed words, ksfess - Ij.festum ;
also in words not borrowed the same law holds as in Latin ;
thus we findyrss (scientia) for Jidiis, from R. y?c?= I. Y^.vid (to
know), &c. In Oscan tt is kept, and does not become ss as in
Latin: we find O. 0. iiittiuf heside L. usus from uti. JVn =
nd : dispennite hominem divorsum et distennite (Miles Gloriosus,
1407), /or dispendite, distendite; grunnio £ot grundio, E. grunt;
0.0. upsannam = L. operandam; N. U. pihaner = L. piandi
(gen. sing.) ; N. U. panupei = L. quandoque ; but when nd in
Umbrian represents an older nt, it does not become nn. Rr
= ry in curro, Skr. k'ar (to go), 0. H. G. Iiorsc (quick), E.
horse. Rr = rs : torreo for torseo beside tostus for torstus, Skr.
tarsh (to thirst), Gr, Tipaofiai ; terra (dry land) for tersa from
same root as last ; ferrem for fersem; porro for porso,(yT.Trp6(TU);
far (oT fars- and this perhaps for fart-, compare Skr. bhrti
(nourishment) from bhar (to bear), N. V.farsio = h.farreum;
terreo = terseo, Skr. tras (to tremble), Gr. rplw from R. rpcc?
trtQatv (t^ojSrjcTEv, Hesych.), Horn TQiaaa (1. aor.) ; erro = erso,
Goth, airzjan (to wander) ; verves (a boar) = verses beside Skr.
varsh (to sprinkle), vrsha (a bull) ; garrio* = garsio beside Lith,
garsas (the voice) ; horreo = horseo, Skr. hrsh (horrere). Rr
= rt in pidcerrimus, celerrimtis ; here rt probably passed
through the stage rs. LI perhaps = Ik in follis (a bag) be-

* Leo Meyer suggests that garrio is for garnio, from which latter he
explains gannio (I yelp). Bopp considers garrio to be for gargio, beside
Skr. garg' (clamare), but this is most improbable.

154 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

side Gr. OvXaKog (a bag), dvXXie (a bag), Goth, ba/gs. LI =
ly in pello, /alio, percello, tollo ; cella for celia beside L. celo,
domicilium, Skr. khala (a threshing-floor), s'dld (a house) Gr.
KaXia (a hut), unless cella be for celula ; procella for procelia,
beside Skr. kal (to impell), Gr. kIXijc, (5ovk6Xoq (a cow-herd),
L. cello, celox, celer ; 0. alio (nom. sing, fern.) = L. alia, Gr.
aXAoc, 0. H. G. alles (otherwise). LI = It in super term, -il-
limua = -iltimus, as facillimus, &c. ; /e^, fell-is (gen. sing.) =
/eZ<i5 (? ) ; TweZ, mell-is (gen. sing.) for melt-is = Gr. jueXtr-oc?
fjiiXiacja = fiiXirya, Go\\\.milith (honey). Bopp wrongly con-
siders mellis to be for nielvis, connecting it with Skr. madhu
(honey). Lt in becoming ZZ probably passed through the
stage Is, as pulsus is iox pultus. LI = Id in Polliuc = Gr. Ilo-
AuSeuKijo and, according to Bopp, in malleus for maldeus, be-
side Skr. mard (to pound). LI = Is in vellem = velsem, velle =
re/se ; collum = colsum, G. AaZs (the neck). X/ = In in vellus
villus beside Skr. wnia (wool), Lith. vilna (wool), Ch. SI.
vltlna (wool), Goth, vulla (wool) ; collis (according to Curtius)
= colnis beside Gr. ko\u)v6q, Lith. kdlnas (height), A. S. holm
(a hill). LI = Iv in pallor, pallidum beside 0. H. G. falo,fal-
wer, G. falb, hiih. pdlvas, (pale), Ch. Sl.plavil, (white) ;* pellis
= pelvis, beside pulvinar, G. fell (a hide), Gr. wiXXa (a hide),
vallis perhaps for valvis, Gr. tXog, 'EXta, '^HXtc ; sollus (solli-
ferreus, solli-citus, soll-ers) = Skr. sarvas, (omnis), Gr. uXog,
Ion. ovXog = oXFo? ; mollis = molvis, beside Gr. fiiijXvg (slug-
gish). Fp = pt in qidppe, ipsippe (ipsi neque alii, Fcst. p.
105), beside mepte, mihipte (Cato pro ' mihi ipsi,' Fest. p. 152,
154.), vopte (vos ipsi, Fest. p. 379) : -pte = -pote, (compare
nt-pote), —potis.

III. When two consonants come together, the first is ge-
nerally made like the second, or affected by it in some way,

• Gr. ntXXoe (dusky) is for irtXyoe, compare TroXtof (grey), iriXtSvoe,
ir«X»6c, niXoe, Skr. palita (grey). Now, if II (in pallor) = Iv, we have a
trace of a more intimate connexion between Latin, Lith. O. H. G. &c.,
than between Lat. and Gr.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 155

the second consonant still remaining unchanged. Thus, so-
nant consonants become surd before surd consonants : actus
= agtuSf R. ag ; scriptics = scribtus, R. scrib, connected per-
haps with Gr. ypd<p<t) ; ructo = rugto, beside L. erugo, Gr. tpevyu) ;
fictor, fictilis beside L. Jingo, figura^ Skr. dih (to smear), Gr.
i-9i-y-ov ; luctus beside L. kigeo, Skr. rug (vexare), Gr. \vyp6g ;
mulctus beside L. mulgeo, Skr. marg' (mulcere), Gr. afiiXyio ;
vectus beside veho, Skr. uaA (vehere), Gr, oxoq', lectus, lectica
beside Gr. \i^og, Goth, liga (I lie down) ; &c. There are
some apparent exceptions to this rule : thus, we find absens,
subter, obtego, obtineo* &c., where b is still retained ; but
these words were pronounced as apsens, &c., for Quintilian
(I, 7, 7) writes " cum dico obtinuit secundam b litteram ratio
poscit, aures magis audiunt p," and consequently we find them
frequently written according to the pronunciation, as apsens,
optineo, &c., on inscriptions and in manuscripts. Before r
and I surds frequently become sonants, as publicus = O. L.
poplicos ; negligo from 7!ec and lego; quadrupes oxid quadra-
ginta beside quatriduo, from quatuor ; 0. U. abruf= L. apros.
We also find surds becoming sonants before other sonants, as
in segmentum from seco ; salignus from St. salic ; dignus from
R, die ; ilignus from St. iUc ; cygnus = Gr. KVKvog. M before
gutturals becomes guttural n, and before dentals, dental n, as
in anceps = ambiceps ; concors = comcors ; nunquam = num-
quam ; contero = comtero ; tandem = tamdem ; &c. Initial
gutturals and dentals influence a preceding m, as in con quo
- com quo (on late inscriptions) ; an terminum = am, t. = ambi
t. ; &c. N before labials becomes m, as in impleo, &c. Labial
mutes before n become m, as somnus = sopnus, beside L. sopio,
Skr. svapnas = Gr. vttvoq ', Samnium = Sabnium, beside Sabini ;
scamnum beside scabellum. In Old Latin t before n became s,

• The junction of two mutes is sometimes avoided by inserting s, as in
abstineo, abscondo, ostendo for obstendo, asporto for adsporto.

156 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

as in pesna (peima) = petna, resmiis (remus) beside Gr. tptr-
fiog. In these cases t became th through the aspirating in-
fluence of the nasal, and then th became s. This aspirating
influence of a nasal upon a preceding surd mute is very
common in Greek. O, L. cesna {cena) is perhaps = cedna
beside Skr. khad (to eat), khddana (food). Tr appears also
in some cases to have become hr, through the steps tr, thr,
dhr, hr, the dental being aspirated by the following r : conso-
hrinus, from con and sostor = I. E. svastdr (sister), passed
through the stages consostorinus, consostinnusy consosthi'intcs,
consosdhriniis, and then dh became b, as in ruber, &c. : salu-
bris passed through stages saluttris (from St. salut), salustrisj
salusthris, salusdhris, saludhris, compare palustris from St.
pallid ; midiehris = midiestris, through a similar series of steps ;
tenebrae* = tenesthrae = tenestrae, perhaps from an 1. E, ta-
mastra, whence Skr. tamisra, beside Skr. tamas (darkness),
Z. temanh (darkness), Lith. tamsa (darkness), 0. H. G. demar
(crepusculum), 0. S. thim (dim), Ir. teim and temel (dark), W.
tywyll (dark).

T exercised an aspirating influence upon the preceding
tenuis in Umbrian and Oscan : thus in Umbrian ct and pt be-
came Id, as 0. U. screhto = L. scriptum, 0. U. rehte =L. recte,
0. U. subahtu for siibactu = L. subigito : in Oscan pt became
ft and ct, ht, as N. 0. scriftas = L. scriptae, N. 0. Ohtavis -
L. Octavius, 0. 0. ehtrad = L. extra, 0. 0. saaldum = L. sanc-
tum. This aspirating force of t upon a preceding tenuis ma-
nifested itself also in late Latin, as in jachtivus. Such Italian
forms, as oggetto, otto, perfetto, ottare, ottuso^ &c., from L. ob-
jectua, octo, perfectus, optare, obtnsus, &c., most probably
passed through the intermediate forms objechtics, ochto, per-

• Consult Ebel, K. Z. XVI. 77, seq. ; Ascoli, K. Z. XVI. 19G, seq.;
Bopp, Skr. Gl. under tamas, who considers that tencbree is for temhrce, b
being inserted for euphony (.is in afi^poaia) in temrce beside Skr. timira
(obscuritas) and tamisra.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 157

fe.chtw, of tare, oftusus, &c. In Irish* c and p before t become
ch, as ocht = L. octo, recht (lex) for red, lacht (milk) for lact,
secJit = L. septem, necht = L. neptis, &c. In Welsh this ch has
disappeared, and we find W. wyth (eight) = Ir. ochto, W.
noith = Ir. nocht (night), W. reith = Ir. recht (lex), W. taith =
Ir. techt (iter), &c., the palatal vowel (i) making its appear-
ance on account of the palatalization of the original guttural.
A change similar to this last is found in E. 7iight, might, eight
beside G. nacht, macht, acht ; and in the Romance languages
as Port, oito, Prov. oit, Fr. huit from L. octo ; Port, noite,
Prov. noit, Fr. nuit from L. noetem; Port, feito, Fr. fait from
L. factom.

In Gothic we find a mute before a dental changed into the
corresponding spirant, after which the dental always is or be-
comes t : sauhts (sickness) for sukthis beside sinks (sick) ; mahts
(might) for magthis from R. mag ; ga-skafts (creation) beside
ga-skap-jan ; fra-gifts (lending) beside gihan (to give. H in
these Gothic forms, sauhts, nahts (night) = Lith. naktis, raihts
= L. rectus, &c., was very guttural ; and the corresponding
gh in English once had a strong guttural sound, as it still has
in lowland Scotch, as in eneugh (enough), sheugh (a ditch),
which are pronounced as enuch, shUch would be in English,
or in the notation of the general alphabet as ^nu^, s^u-)^. The
guttural spirant prefers as neighbouring vowels, o and u, and
hence in Portuguese we find auto from L. actom, Outubro
(October), doutor (doctor), &c. : compare the English pro-
nunciation of enough, laugh, thought. We can account for the
remarkable substitution of pt in Wallachian for L. ct from this

* Aspiration is of common occurrence in the Keltic languages. In Welsh
r and I aspirate a succeeding consonant as in march (a horse) = Ir. marc.
In Irish c, t and p are aspirated between two vowels, as ech (a horse) for
ecu, and this for ecus = L. equos, O. S. ehu, &c. Similarly initial p dis-
appeared, as in athir = Jj. pater, iasc = piscis, Idn = L. plenus, &c. ; p here
passed through the stages ph, f, h, and then vanished as in h.faedus
*= haedus = aedus, &c.

158 COMPARAirS'^E GRAMMAR.

aspirating force of t. Ct passed through the stages cht, ght,
ft in becoming pt, and in a few cases remained at the/i5 stage-
Thus we have doftor = L, doctor, leftice = L. lectica, where ct
becomes ft and copt = L. eoctus, fript = L. frictiis, pept = L.
pectus, &c., where ct advances to pt.

In Modem Greek we also see the aspirating force of t in
o\TU) (eight), KXi<jiTt}Q from icXiTrrTjCj x'"^*'' from KTtvtov.

IV. When two consonants come together, the second is
sometimes made like the first, or affected by it in some way.
Thus t often become s after r, I, c and the nasals : no,va for
nocta from noceo ; fixus for figtus from f.go ; maximus for
magtimus ; beside actus from ago ; fetus from fngo ; &c. ;
sparsus for spai'gtus from spargo beside tortus for torctus and
sartus ; puUus for pultus from pello ; perculsus. for percultus from
percello ; excehus for exceltus from exceJlo ; &c., beside sepul-
tus from sepelio ; mmisum for mantum from maneo ; tensus and
tentus from i?en<fo ; &c. When the group nt belongs to the
same element of a word it is unchanged as in feimnt, aman-
tem, &c. r after 7; is unchanged except in lapsus for laptwi
from R. lab. In Sanskrit we also frequently find ksh (= ks)
representing an older kt, as takshd (a carpenter = Gr. riKTwv,
nakshatra (a star) from nakta (night) ; consult §.38.

V, Mutual influence of two consonants upon and approxi-
mation to each other, both consonants being changed. Thus
suggillatio comes from sub and cilium : it is a translation of
wTTtuTTtov (a blow under the eyes), whence was derived uttw-
TriaZ^tiv (to beat black and blue, to mortify), Appulus for Ak-
rulus (as "iirirog from ticFoc) from aqua connected with Skr.
dpas (nom. pi. water), Goth, ahva, A. S. eice. This root is
found in Miaa-dir-toi (the people between to two seas, com-
pare such formations as MfffOTrora/uta, MtOv^piov, Interamna),
yri ^Airia (the Peloponnesus, now called Morea from SI. more
= L. mare), l^ airitig ya/ijc (from the land across the sea), and
perhaps the Volscian town Apiola.

comparative gram.njar. 159

§. 82. Dissimilation.

A dental before a following t becomes s : thus we have
equester for equet-ter from St. equet ; pedester for pedetter from
St. pedet ; claustrum from R. claud ; est (he eats) beside edit
(in Plautus and Lucilius), &c. We find a similar change in
Zeud, Greek,. Irish, Slavic, Lithuanian and (jothic, but not in
Sanskrit. Thus in Skr. we have atti (he eats) from R. ad, &c.,
while in Zeud* we find has'ta (part, praet. pass.) from hand
(to bind), &c. : for Grreek examples consult §. 59 : in Irish we
have rofestar (he knows) for rofedtar from R. vid, estar (he
eats) from R. ed : in Slavic we have daste (2 pi. pres.) for
dadte = I. E. dadatasi from R. da (to give), dasti (he gives)
for dadti=I^^.dadati, &c. : in Lithuanian we have ses-czas (sit-
ting) for sed-tjas beside s'edeti (to sit), mesti (to throw) beside
metu (I throw), &c. : in (rothic we have vaist (thou knewest)
for vaitt beside vait (he knew), &c.

The termination -alis is used for -ari's when the stem to
which it is added does not contain I in the .syllable preceding
this termination ; thus we have mortalis beside popularis, &c.
Similarly we find caeruleus for caeluleus from coelum and Pa-
rilia from Pales. When two consonants, the same or similar,
follow each other, only separated by a vowel, this vowel is
thrown out, and only one of the consonants retained : thus
we have venejicus for venenijicus ; semestris for semimestris ;
semodius for semimodius ; stipendium for stipipendium ; nutrix
for nutritrix from nutrire ; consueiudo for consuetitudo ; aestas
for aestitas from aestxis ; antestari for antetestarif &c.t Simi-
larly in Greek we have rpdire^^a for TerpaTre^a ; rtrpaxfiov
for T£Tpadpa)(p.ov ', afi^opevg for afX(^i^oQiVQ ; KeXaivetprig for
KeXaivov£^r}Q ; &C.

* Consult Schleicher, Compendium, &c., pp. 203, 235, 289, 308, 321,
335.

t Consult Leo Meyer, Comp. Gram. I. 281.

160 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

The following words may also be cases of dissimilation :
dulcis for gulcis beside Gr. -yXuKuc, the gutt. g becoming d on
account of the next syllable beginning with gutt. c ; in te-
nebrae beside Skr. tamisra and mihi beside tibi = Skr. tub-
hyam, m may have been changed into n in the first case and
bh into h in the second, to prevent two labials immediately
following each other ; in a few words v, when followed or
preceded by o or u, became b* as in ferbui for fervui and bu-
hile for bovile ; proximus for propsimus beside prope ; tamen
is for tamem, and it bears the same relation to tarn that item
does to ita.

§. 83. Change of S into B.

S, when it comes between two vowels, or between a vowel
and a sonant consonant, or when final after a vowel, generally
becomes r. Thus we have gero for geso beside ges-si; uro
beside us-si; eram from R. es (to be) ; queri beside qicestus,
K. ques = Skr. s'vas (to sigh) ; auris for atisis beside aus-culto,
Gr, ovg Hom. ovara (pi-) ; haurlo beside haus-tus; dirimo and
diribeo for disirm) and dishibeo ; heri beside hes-ternxis ; sero,
for seso, a reduplication of R. sa (to sow) ; nnrus, Skr. snushd
(a daughter-in-law) ; virus, Skr. visha (poison) ; soror, Skr.
svasdr; haerco beside haesito ; aurora, Skr. ushas (the dawn) ;
maero beside maestus ; generis = Gr. yiveog = Graeco-It. genesos ;
oris, maris, muris, Liguris, &c., from os, mas, mus,Ligus, &c.,
beside musculus^ inusculus (a little mouse), Ligusticics, &c. ;
-rum (term, of gen. pi.) for -sum as (is-) tarum = Skr. tdsdn ;
vetemus for vetesnus from vetus ; diumus, hodiemus beside
Diespiter ; jurgo beside jus, Justus ; carmen beside Casmenae,
connected with Skr. s'ans to praise) ; &c. Final s becomes r

• Curtius compares to this change the substitution of (3 in Greek for a
Graeco-It. r, as in ^oiXo^tai beside L. volo, &c. Consult his Grundziige
der Gr. Etvm., p. 516.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 161

in those cases where a vowel originally followed it, and per-
haps in some other cases from the influence of analogy : amor
(I am loved) is for amose, &c. ; amatur (he is loved) is for
dmatise, &c. ;* major is for majos, r probably arising from the
influence of the oblique cases, beside majus, &c. ; similarly
we have hoiior for konos, &c. S is often retained, as in ve-
eicat casa, vasa (pi. of vas), pusillus, casus = cassus for cadtus,
and whenever s represents ss, quaeso beside quaero, nasus be-
side nares, miser beside maereo, posui, nisi, and compounds
with de as desino, &c. In Old Latin we find such forms as
Lases for Lares, fasena = harena, Fusius, esit = erit, &c. L.
Papirius Crassus (Consul B. c. 366) changed his name from
Papidus to Papirius ; from this we see that the substitution
of r for s had already shown itself early in the fourth century
B. C. In Umbrian and Oscan s is often retained between
two vowels : 0. U. asa = 0. L. asa {ard), 0.0. aasas, aasai
= O. L. asas, asai (aras, arae). We find, however, O.U. eru,
N. U. erom, as the infin. of R. es (to be). In Oscan the term,
of gen. pi. becomes -azum and in Umbrian -aru = L. -arum
I. E. -dsdm.

§ 84. The Rejection of a Consonant.

The rejection of one of two medial consonants belongs
perhaps properly to the province of assimilation, as has been
already pointed out in § 81. The vanishing of a consonant
between two vowels is also treated by Schleicher as a kind
of assimilation ; when a surd in this position vanishes, it must

* This is the ordinary account given of the origin of the Latin passive,
but there are several objections to it which render it somewhat doubtful.
In the first place, the form of the second pers. pi. (amamini, &c.) is evi-
dently a participle in -menus = Gr. -fitvog = Skr. -mdnas, and if in the
1st and 3rd pers. pi. final r represents the reflexive pronouns, how can
we account for the 2nd pers. being formed so difierently from them ? In
the second place, the passive in Irish ended in r, which never represented
an older « ; e. g. Ir. bertar = L. feruntur, Ir. berthar = L. fertur, &c.

M

1G2 COMPARATIVE GRAAIMAR.

have first become a sonant. The disappearance of initial
consonants is quite a distinct phenomenon, and cannot be
ascribed to the influence of assimilation.

Initial c has very rarely vanished ; it may have done so in
the following examples : — ubi, unde, titers ut beside ali-cubiy
ali-cunde, from I. E. St. kva (who), whence Skr. has (who) =
L. quis = Goth, hvas, Skr. kataras = Gr. ironpoQ (Ion. Konpoq)
= L. uter, E. whether; ut = quod: Weber however connects
vbi, uti, &c., with a pronominal stem that is found in Skr. «
(utrum), uta (vel, aut), but the preceding view is far more
probable. Curtius connects Gr. veuw, L. nuo, co-niveo (co-
nixi), mco, nidus, nictor with Goth, hneiva (I bend), O. H. G.
hniga (I bend), and accordingly assumes that the original root
was knu from which by gunation we form knav, whence we
have Goth, hniv; the form co-niveo points back also to an ini-
tial guttural, for, if the root began with n, we would have
found con-niveo : he supposes also that we find the lost k in
Kvu)(T(T(i} (I nod, slumber) = KV(DKt/w from kvojk (as irTaxTcrw from
TTTcoic) = KvoaK = KvoP-uK. Ludus, O. L. loidos, may be con-
nected with Skr. krid (to play), Libum may be for klibiim
beside Gr. Kpt^avtf, Goth, hlaifs, E. loaf, &c. Jurmann de-
rives lustrum (for clustrum - cludtrum) from klud, a secondary
form of R. klu whence 0. L. cluere, (' cluere antiqui purgare
dicebant.' Plin. xxv. 29, 36), cloaca, Gr. kXv^u) (I wash), Goth.
hlutrs (pure), 0. H. G. hlutar. Corssen derives luscinia from
duos or clovos (= Skr. s'ravas and Gr. kXcoc) and cayio, ex-
plaining the name accordingly as " the sweet songstress ;"
others derive it from luscu^,* and explain it as meaning " the
twilight songstress." K was similarly lost in Gr. Xa^ for kXo^
beside L. calx, E. heel. Vapor and vappa are for cvapor and
cvappa beside kottvcu (I breathe out), Kairog ('/'UX'i' irvtvfia,
Hesych.), KaTrvoc, &c., Lith. kvdpas (breath) : Grain connects

• Luscus properly means " blind of an eye,'" hence " dwunghted," and
Ittscum never means " twilight,'" consequently the proper translation of the
word would be " the dimsighted songstress."

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 163

opinor with this root, but Corssen prefers to connect it with
Gr. oaaofiai for oKyofiai. Vermis is for kvermis = Skr. krmis
(a worm) according to Corssen, but Curtius considers that
Skr. krmis (nom. sing.) Lith. klrmis (a worm), Ch. SI. crM (a,
worm) are quite unconnected with vermisy Gr. tXfiivq, Goth.
raurms, which belong to I. E. root var (to roll), whence Gr.
iXvto, (XXw, L. volvo, &c.

Medial c is lost before a vowel in sirpea, sirpicus beside
ftdrpus, scirpeus, 0. H. G. scilaf (sedge) ; sipo, dis-sipo beside
Skr. ksMp (to throw) for skip, G. schupfen (to push) ; sarmen-
tum, sarpio for scarmentum, scarpio beside 0. H. G. scarf, G.
acAar/ (sharp), from a root scar + p, scar being found in Gr.
Kiipw, ^vpov, E. sheers, plough-share, &c. Medial c is lost be-
fore t in Sestius beside Sextius, mistus beside mixtus ; sescenti
for sexcenti; mulsus for mulctus from mulceo; fartus ^ov farc-
tus ; sartus for sarctus ; Quintius = Quinctius; ultor for ulctor
beside ulcisci ; tortus for torctus from torqueo ; vito for vic{i)to
beside Skr. vik' (to separate), Gr. sIku) from K. F<(c ; in-vitus*
for in-mc{i)tus beside Skr. vas' (to desire), Gr. Ikwv from R.
Fejc ; in-vito for in-vic(i)to beside Skr. vakf (to speak), Gr. 67roc,
L. voco. C is lost before d in quindecim for quincdecim ; se-
decim for sexdecim. C is lost before 5 in torsi for torcsi ; sarsi
for sarcsi; disco for dicsco beside didici ; ursus for urcsus,
Skr. rksha (a bear), Gr. apKTog ; parsimonia for parcsimonia ;
musca for miLCSca^ beside Skr. makshikd (a fly), Z. makshi, Gr.
/uuTa for fivaia, 0. H. G. mucca (culex), A. S. micge. C is lost
before n in quernus for quercnus ; vdnus for vacuus beside r<X-

• Benfey connects invitus and tnti7o with Skr. vi (to desire), and
Corssen (Kritische Nachtrage zur Lateinischen Formenlehre, p. 52, seq.)
supports the same view. Corssen connects vito with Skr. vi (to throw),
whence a participial stem vita- may be formed meaning " removed, placed
at a distance," beside which he also places O. H. G. wit (far ofi), G. weit,
the t of suffix, Skr ta-, L. to-, being unchanged in German, an exception
to Grimm's law.

t Perhaps musca has merely arisen from mvx:sa by transposition.

M 2

164 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

cuus ; dSm for dScni; plnus for pfcnus beside pXc-is ; quini for
qxdncni ; luna for lUcna from R. luc = Skr. rnk' (to shine) ;
sent for sea-ni; ex becomes e— in enarro, enato ; pants for pd,c-
nis, according to Bopp, beside Skr.pa^' (to bake), but accord-
ing to Curtius connected with Skr. pa (sustentare), L. pa-bu-
lum, pa-scor, pas-tor ^ Pd-les, pe-nus (omne quo vescimur,
Cic), pe-nates, penes, Lith. penas (fodder), penii (pasco), &c.
C is lost before I in dla for ac-la beside axilla, Gr. aic\oc (the
shoulder), 0. H. G. aJisala (the shoulder) ; tela for texla be-
side texo ; culina for cuclina beside coquo, coquina. C is lost
before v in sevir for sexvir; coniveo for conicveo beside coiiixi,
nico, nictus ; obliviscor perhaps for oblicviscor beside linquo^
but Corssen prefers to connect it with the same root as llvor,
hvidus, comparing Horace's expression lividas obliviones. C
is lost before m in tormeritum for torcmentum from torqueo ;
semestris for sexmestris ; lumen for liicmen from R. luc; pomum
for pocmum (lit. " what is ripe ") beside Skr. pah! (coquere),
but, according to Curtius, for povmum (lit. " what has grown")
from an I. E. root pu (to grow), whence Skr. pu-mdns (a
man), pu-tra (a son), Gr. iroia for TroFm, iruAoq for ttoFAoc,
■naig and Trai'c for 7raF-t8c, L- pa-pav-er, prcB-pu-tium ; Omen for
ocmen beside Gr. oaaofiat for oKijofxai, Goth, ahman (spirit),
amnis for acmenis from I. E. R. ak or a^'u (to be quick) whence
aqua, &c., but Bopp connects it directly with Vedic apnas
(aqua) ; temo for texmo, beside Skr. tahsh (to form, to cut),
Gr. TiK-Tit), ri^-vt], Tsv\-(jj, O. H. G. dehsa (an axe).

Initial g was lost before n in nosco, notus, nomen, narro be-
side co-gnosco, co-gnomen, 0. L. gnarigo (narro), gnarus from
I. E. gna (toknow), whence Skr. g'nd, Gr. t-yvwv, O. H. G.
kndu (I know), &c. ; norma (= Gr. yviofxojv in meaning), is
for gnorima from last root, according to Benfey ; natu^ beside
cognatus, nitor, nixus beside gnitor, gnixus, 0. H. G. hnegenti
(nitens), ana-hnekenti (innitentes), Goth, ana-hnaiv-jan (to
place upon something). G was lost before I in lucuns from
Gr. yAuicouc ; lact- beside Gr. yaXuKT- ; and according to

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 165

Bopp, in lassus for glassus beside Skr. gldsnu (weary). G is
lost before v in venio, vddum, vddo from I. E. gva (to go),
when Skr. gd (to go), Gr. [iatvu), tfinv from R. j3a, Goth. 5'm»-
man (to come) ; voro from I.E. gvar, whence Skr. gar (to
devour), Gr. j3opa ; vivus, vita, victus beside Skr. ^tv (to live),
Gr. fiiog, Goth, qvius (living), E. quick; volo beside Skr. gal
(to fall), Gr. /SctXAw (as Skr. pat means both to fly and to
fall) ; venter perhaps for gventer, from R.^^en = I. E. ^won, but
connected by Curtius and Benfey with Skr. g'athara (venter),
Gr. ■yaoTjJp, Goth, quithus (the belly), laus-quiihr-s (inanem
ventrem habens) ; vescor, according to Bopp, for gvescor be-
side Skr. ghas (to eat), to which he also joins Gr. yacrrfip ;
Bopp connects vasto with Skr. gas (laedere), Goth, fra-qvistja
(deleo), considering the 'original form to have been gvasto ; he
also connects vigilo for gvigilo with the Skr. g'dgar (vigilare),
0. H. G. wachar (vigil). These comparisons of Bopp are,
however, extremely doubtful : as to vigil, Curtius is probably
correct in connecting it with L. vigeo, vegeo.

Medial g is lost before a following j, after having been as-
similated to it, and then the preceding vowel, if short, is length-
ened in compensation : thus we have mejo for mXgjo, major for
mdgjor, &c. G is lost before t in indultus for indulgtus, spar-
sus = spartus for spargtus, mulsus for mulgtus, tersus for tergtus,
&c. G is lost before s in fulsi, ursi, versi, indulsi, tersi, &c.,
from fulgeo, &c. ; compesco for compegsco, from R. pag {oxpak)
beside pignus, pango, pac-iscor, pax, Skr. pag'-ra (firm), Gr.
TTTiyvvfxi, &c. G is lost before I in stilus for stiglus beside
Gr. oTt^o), L. distinguo ; "pdlus for paglus from the root pag,
and perhaps in fllum (a string) for figlum beside figo. G is
lost before v in vivus for gvigvus ; hrSvis for bregvis, Gr. (5pa-
Xvg ; i^vis for legvis, Gr. aXaxvg ; nivis for nigvis beside nin-
guo, nix; malo for mavolo from magevolo; malva beside Gr. fta-
Aaxjj; uveo, uvidus for ugveo, ugvidus from I. E. ug whence
Skr. uksh (conspergere, huraectare) = -ug + s, Gr. vy-p6g, &c. ;

166 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

fruor iox frugvor beside frivgi* (useful), fruges, Skr. bhug'
(edere, frui), Goth, brukjan, O. H. G. prucJian, bruchan, G.
brauchen (to use), E. brook; torvus for torgvus beside Skr.
targ (to threaten), Gr. rap-yatvo) (japaaau)), rap^og, perhaps
rpaxvc* A. S. ihreagan (to chide), 0. H. G. drawa for drahwa,
Gr.drohen (to menace); fidvus ^or fulgvtis heside fulgeo, Jlagro,
&c. ; lues for lugveSy if it be connected with Skr. rug (vexare),
Gr. XvypoQ, \oiy6g, L. lugeo, luctus, &c. ; faveo oxvdfoveo are
for fagveo and fogveo, according to Corssen, who connects them
with Skr. bhac^ (colere, araare, coquere ?), which he supposes
to have originally meant "to heat." Curtius connects /aveo
uith Skr. bhd (to shine), bhdsh (to speak), Gr. (pd-rig, ^rj-fxt,
(pa'ivw, (pa-og, h. fa-ma, fa-ri, fa-teor,fa-cies, fav-illa, &c. G
is lost before m in fulmen iox fulgmen, fidmen iox flagmen be-
side Skr. bhrdg' (to shine), Gr. ^Xe-yw, ^Xo^, h. flagro, fuigeo,
fulvus {[or Jidgvus), &c. ; frumentum hQside fruges ; rumino for
rugmino beside Gr. epvyi) (a vomiting), L. ructo, erugo, used
by Ennius in the line contempsit fontes quihu sese erugit aquae
vis ; stimulus for stiffmulus beside Skr. tif (to be sharp), Z.
tighri (an arrow), Gr. ort^o^, ariyfxa, L. distinguo, instigo ; umor,
umecto for ugmor, ugmecta from I. E. ?<^, whence Skr. mX'sA,
Gr. vypog ; fames^ according to Bopp, for fagmes beside Skr.
bhaksh (to eat), Gr. t-tpay-ov, h.foba {^ox fagva ?), but Curtius
rejects this account of fames on the ground that a nominal
suffix cannot signify desire ; excmien from exago; contamino
beside tango, R. tag.

Initial h is lost in olu3 = holies == folu^; aedus = haedus =
faedus ; ircus = hircus = frcus ; er = her (a hedgehog) = Gr.

* Frugi meant utilis ; Clviifrugi homines xPV<fii^ovc appellant, id est
tantummodo utiles ; at illud est latius (Cic. Tusc. III. 8, 16). Ulfilas
translates Gt. w^tX«^oc, ivxpncTo^hy Goth, bruks. In the expression homo
frugi, frugi can be only a genitive like nihili, nauci, flocci, pensi, &c., but
whether it be the gen. of a noun in -um or -ium cannot be decided. Con-
sult Corssen, Nachtrage, &c., p. 83.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. [167

Xvp (a hedgehog) ; ariser beside Skr. /wnsa (a goose), Gr. yjiv,
O. H. G. gam; arvina (lard) beside Skr. (Ved.) hird (intes-
tines), Gr. xoXaSec, x*^^*^' X^P^^'' ^- haru-spex, har-iolm, hira
(entrails), hilla for hirida ; &c.* ZT is lost before ^ in te^um
whence luteus (yellow), hlu being = ^w in Gr. yXw-poq (yel-
low) ; the root of this word was probably an I. E. ghar (to
shine) whence on one side came Skr. hirana, hiranya (gold),
Z. zaranu, zaranya (gold), Gx. xpv<roc» XP*"^'°*'' Goth, gulth,
Ch. SI. zlato, and on another, Skr. hari (green, yellow), Z.
zairi (yellow), Gr. x^o*?) X^'^^^' X^^P^^^ ^- ^^^^i holus,Jia-
vuSj helvus, O. H. G. groni, croni (green), Ch. 81. zelije (olera),
Lath, zeliu (viresco), Ir. glas (green) : Bopp connects viridis
with Skr. harit, supposing that gviridis was the original form,
but all the forms in the cognate languages point back to a
root ghar and not ghvar.

Medial h is lost in mi = mihi ; nemo for nehemo ; nil = ni-
hil; cemens = vehemens ; Ala = Ahala; cors = cohors ; debeo
= dehibeo ; praebeo = praehibeo ; aenum = ahenum ; pius be-
side Volac. pihom (pium), U. pihaclu (piaculum) ; n'a, vea for
veha from leho ; prendo = prehendo for praehendo, praeda for
prae-hid-a, both from R. hed = I. E. ghad whence Skr. hasta
(manus) for had-ta(?}, Gr. ■)^avSav(v, i-xaS-ov, L. hasta for
had-ta, hSd-era (the " clinging" shrub), Goth, bi-git-an (to
find), E. get ; blmus for bihimusf (so trimuSi qicadrlmus, &c.)
beside Skr. hima (snow) Z. hima (a year), zima (winter), Gr.
\ufxwv, x^'^^f ^- h^^^^i Ch. SI. zima (hiems) ; lana perhaps
for lahna = Gr. Xaxvij ; aranea for arahnea beside Gr. apaxvn
from I. E. ark (to spin) whence Gr. apKvg, apKavn (a thread,
seam), ijXaKaTi} ; velum for vehlum beside vexillum from veho.

Initial j is lost in tixor beside conjux from jungo. Some
connect utxorX with Skr. vas' (to wish for), vasd (a woman), Gr.

* Consult Corssen iiber Aussprache, Vokalismus und Betonung der
Lateinischen Sprache, p. 49.

f Bhnus may be for bi-amnus, c. f. sol-emnis.

X Uxor has also been connected with Skr. uksh (to sprinkle), whence
Skr. ukshan (a bull).

168 COMPARATIVE GRAJIMAR.

tKwv. Pott has suggested two explanations of the word, both
equally wrong, (1) uxor = "she who is carried off" from vah
(to carry) and suffix -tor, but a passive sense never coexists
with this suffix, (2) uxor = " ducta femina" from Skr. vah +
stri (a woman).

Medial j {y) is lost in domo for domayo = Skr. damaydmi,
amo for amayo, &c. ; doceo for doceyo, &c. ; audio for audiyo,
&c. ; doceam, doceyam, &c. ; audiam = audiyam, &c. ; ferreus
«= ferreyus^ aureus = aureyus, &c. ; liga, quadriga for bijuga,
quadrijuga ; cuncti for cojuncti ; homus for hoyomus, yor- cor-
responding to Z. yare (a year), Gr. Sjpa, E. year ; minor for
minyor, minu^ for minyus, the comparative terminations -tor,
-M« being = I. E. -ydnSf -yas, Skr. -lydns, -iyas ; O. L. p?ot«
(plus) for ployuSf pleores (plures, Carm. Arv.) for pleyores ;
pris- (in pris-tinus, pris-cus) = prius for proyos ; ero for esyo
beside Gr. iaaofiai = layofiai', obex for ohjex ; abicio = abjicio;
-bics (term, of dat. pi.) = Skr. -bhyas.

Initial t is lost in Idtus ior tlatus beside tollo, 0. L. tulo, &c.

Medial t is lost in ac for jatc - aique ; misi for mitsi from
mitto ; lens for lents = lentis, mens for ments = mentis, sors for
«orte = sortiSi &c. ; primas = O. L. primatis, optimas = O. L.
optimatis, Samnis = 0. L. Samnitis, Tiburs = O. L. Tiburtis,
&c. ; mjTes for milets, beside milit-em ; quartus for quat(u)rtus.

Initial c?is lost in Juppiter, Jovis, U. Jupater beside 0. L.
Diovis, O. AtovFet (dat.), &c. ; viginti for dviginti.

Medial (i is lost in hoc for Aorfc; corculum for cordciilum;
pes for petfe ; sw«si for suadsi ; frons = frondis ; concors = con-
cordis ; glans for glands ; mdno for madno beside Gr. fxaSdu)
(madeo), L. mdd-idus, &c. ; mercenarius for mercednarius ; finis
for fidnis beside findo from R. yi(i = Skr. bhid (^ndere), E. 6tVe ;
scalae for scadlae beside scando, Skr. skand (scandere) ; sudvis
for suddois, Gr. i^Suc, &c. ; squama for sg'toXrfma from I. E. s^a</
(to cover) beside Skr. A'Aac? (tegere), k'hadman (occultatio,
alicnae formae assumptio), perhaps sku (tegere), Gr. okotoq,
oKia, (TKTjv/j, Goth, skildiis (a shield), s/raZ/a (tegula), Ir. scath

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 169

(shade), &c. ; caementum beside caedo ; ramentum beside rado.
The prefixes sffd- (sed-itio), rSd- (red-eo, red-igo, redi-vivus)*
prod- (prod-esse, prod-eo, prod-igus) lose their final d before a
consonant, as in segrego, sejugo, sedicco, sevoco, rSducor, r^pono,
rSmoveo, prodttco, promitto, &c.

Initial s is lost in cutis for scutis beside Skr. sku (to cover),
Gr. (TKuroc, KVTog, L. ob-scu-rus, scu-tum, Lith. skura (skin),
A. S. hud (a hide) ; caveOy cautus from R. skav beside Skr.
kam (wise, a poet), Gr. Ovo-aKoo-g, Koeto, Kovviw (I perceive)
= KoFvEw, Koq. {uKovei, Hesych.), aKOvu) for a-KoF-w, t-KO-fisv
{yadoiJieOa, Hesych.), Goth, us-skav-jan (to be cautious), skaus
(cautious), skauns (beautiful), O. H. G. scawon (to look), G.
schauen, schon ; caedo for scaedo beside Skr. k'hid (to tear, cut)
Z. sk'id (to tear asunder), Gr. (tki'^w, (TKtSrj, axivdaXfiog (a
splinter), L. scindo, Goth, skaida (I separate), 0. H. G. sceit
(discissio), 0. N. skid (lignum fissum) ; cena for cesna = ced-na
for sced-na from I. E. skad (to eat, lit. to cut, cleave) whence
Skr. khdd (to eat) ; cedo may be also connected with last root
beside Gr. Ikskti^h (uTrc^^wpft, Hesych.), KEKaSijaai {(^Xaxjjai,
Hesych.), k^Soc, &c., the idea of cutting asunder being closely
connected with that of separation, and then with that of sor-
row ; capis (a vessel) from St. capid = O. U. kapir,.capiilum
(the hilt of a sword, a bier), capedo, capisterium, &c., if Froehde,
Corssen,f and others be correct in connecting these words
with Gr. (TKa(f>igi aica^rj (a basin, skiff"), aKairTw, Kcnrerog (a
trench), Ch. SI. kopati (fodere), Lith. kdpas (a grave), Goth.
skip (a ship), ga-skap-Jan (to make), G. scJioppen (a scoop),
schau/el (a shovel), &c. ; but it is much preferable to connect
capis, &c., with L. capio, capax, Gr. kwttt/ whence was borrowed
L. cupa, Goth, hnjja (I lift), M. H. G. haft (vinculum), E.
heave, haft, &c. ; tego, tegula, &c., for stego, &c., beside Skr.
stha^ (to cover), Gr. ariyw, ariyog, riyog, L. istega (a cover)

* Re-div-ivus is explained by some as meaning " shining again" from
R. div,

f Consult Corssen's Nachtrage, &c., p. 293, and K. Z. xiii. 452.

170 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

for instega, Lith. stogas (a roof), 0. N. thek (a roof), 0. H. G.
dakju (I cover), E. thatch, deck; tundo, tudes (a hammer), &c.,
for stundo, &c., beside Skr. tud (to strike), Gr. Tvdevg, Goth.
stauta (I strike), O. H. G. stozu ; torus for storus beside Skr.
star (sternere), Gr. aTopw^ii, arparog, &c., L. sterno, stramen,
&c., Goth, strauja (arpuivvvfjii), 0. H. G. strdo (straw), Ch.
SI. strifti (extendere) ; Corssen supposes that initial s is also lost
in littera, lima, Hmus, lino beside 0. H. G. slim, G. schleitn
(slime) ; nurus for snunis, beside Skr. snushd, Gr. vvog,
0. H. G. snur, A. S. snor, Ch. Sl.snochd ; na-re, na-ta-re, nd-stis
for sna-re, &c., beside Skr. snd (lavare), Gr. i/f/o-oc, Na^op ;
nix for snix beside Z. s'nizh (to snow), Gr. ayavvi<pog for
aya(Tvi<pog, Goth, snaivs (snow), Lith. snigti (to snow), Ch. SI.
sn^gii (snow) ; nutria beside Skr. snu (to flow), according to
Corssen who explains it to mean " the person who makes to
flow," viz. " milk," as stator signifies " the person who causes
to stand ;" repo for srepo beside L. serpo, Skr. sarpa (a ser-
pent) ; rete for srete from sero beside Skr. sarit (a thread), Gr.
(r£(pa, tiQtt), ipfia, Lith. seris (a thread) ; rivus, Rumo (an old
name of the Tiber), rumen (the udder), Rumina beside Skr. sru
(to flow), Gr. /oo-oe, pev-fia, pv-B-fi6gy &c., 0. H. G. sfroum (a
stream), Lith. sravj'u (I flow) ; palea (chaff), pulvis, pollen
from L E. R. spar (to move quickly), when Skr. sphurdmi
(vibror), paldla (straw), Z. s'par (to go), Gr. (XTratpw, aawaipu),
aTTtipto, airapdaau}, Tra-airdX-i} (fine meal) = Trai-TrdX-ti, ira-
XvvtOf TToXAw, 7raX»? (pollen), &c., O. H. G. sprua (chaflf), spor
(vestigium), sporon (calcitrare), spurnan (ofiendere), E.spj^m,
L. spemo, Lith. splrti (to push), &c. ; pituita for spituita be-
side spiLOy spu-tum from I. E. spyu beside Skr. shtiv (spuere),
TTTvu) for (TTryua*, rpvTT-to, irvr-iZu) for irrvTrTi-l^tt), a frequenta-
tive form, Goth, speiva (spuo), 0. H. G. spiuvan, splhan (to spit),
Lith. spidu-ju (I spit), &c. ; falh, fides, funda, fungus beside
Gr. <j<pd\\<jj, atpiBri, a<ftevB6vri, a<p6yyoc > memor for sme-snior
beside Skr. smar (to remember), smara (love), Gr. nip-fxr\p-a.,
^lip-i-fiva, fidoTvp, &c. St is lost before I'm Idtus = 0. L. stld-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 171

tm beside sterno, &c. ; lis for stlis beside 0. H. G. strlt, G.
streit (a fight) ; locus for sthcut beside Skr. sthala (a place),
from sthal, a secondary root formed from sthd : Bopp, how-
ever, connects locus with Skr. loka (mundus), Lith. lavkas
(campus).

Medial « is lost between two vowels in viola for visola be-
side Skr. visha (poison), Gr. \6q, I-ov, L. virus, Benfey remarks,
♦' poison is connected with blue, cf. visha-pu^hpa (the blue lo-
tus), and Siva's neck growing blue, by swallowing the poison
churned out of the sea ;" CereaUs for Ceresalis beside Ceres,
Cereris; Ramnes, Titles, Luceres for Ramneses, Titieses Luce-
reses; spei for spesi beside speres (nom. pi. in Ennius) ; ver for
veser beside Skr. vas-anta (ver), Gr. tap for Peaap, Lith. vas-ara
(summer), Ch. 81. ves-na (ver), O. N. vdr (ver) ; vis perhaps
for visis beside vires, virium ; dies perhaps for diesis beside
diur-nus, Dies-piter, ho-dier-nus, Skr. divas-a (day), Divas-pati
(the lord of day, i. e. Indra) ; nubes perhaps for nubSsis beside
Skr. nabhas (nom. neut.), Gr. vi<j>og, vi(pi{<T)-og, Lith. debesis
(nubes) ; secies perhaps ioxsedesis beside Skr. sadas (nom. neut.)
= Gr. t^oQ ; and perhaps some other cases like nubes and sedes.
Medial « is lost before consonants in the following cases : — di-
gredior for disgredior; dijudico for disjudico; trdjicio for trans-
jicio ; diduco for disduco ; trdduco, trddo beside transduco,
transdo; Idem for isdem; judex iov jxisdex; nidus for nisdus,
E. nest; pndie, pndem iox prisdie, prisdem ; audio perhaps for
ausdio beside aus-culto, aur-is, Gr. ovg, Lith. ausis (the ear) ;
cenaior cesna ; pono iox posno beside /)os-uz; aeneus for aesneus;
satin for satisne ; audin for audisne ; pone (behind) for posne ;
anus for asnv^ beside Skr. dsana (a seat), dste = Gr. rjarat,
&c. ; penis for pesnis beside Skr. pasas (penis), Gr. iriog, ttoct-
Ori; fanum iox fasnum = O. fiisnu heside fes-tus, fer-iae, Gr.
Oea-aafiEvot, &c. ; canu£ for casnus, but Bopp considers that
the original form of the root was sA;an whence Skr. ^a/i (splen-
dere), Goth, skeina (I shine) ; venum for vesnum beside Skr.
vama (price) ; corpulentus for corjjuslentm ; qudlus (a basket).

172 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

beside quasillus ; diligo for disligo ; tenehrae for tenesbrae; di-
mitto for dismitto ; remus for resmus = retmus, Grr. e/oer/ioc;
Cdmena for Casmena beside carmen, Skr. s'ds (to say, teach),
s'dhs (to praise), with which Benfey connects ceriseo, cano, con-
cinn-m* but the two latter words belong to Skr. kvan (sonare) ;
pomoerium for pos-moerium ; dumus beside dusmus (incultus,
dumosus), densus, Gr. datrvg, SavXog for SacruAoc» ^Eiri-Eav-
poQ for 'E7riSa<TU-/ooCj AavXig for AaavXig. The words ex
and sex, as we have already seen, become e- and se- in com-
position, except before c, t, p; thus we have egero, editco, se-
decim, &c., but extendo, expelLo, &c.

Medial n is lost before gn in ignavus, ignarus, ignoro, cog-
natus, cognatus, &c. ; signum is connected by Ebel with Skr.
san^na (sign, name), and therefore stands for dngnum, sin-
being found also in sin-guli, sin-cerus, simplex and -gnu-m
being from R. gno = Skr. g'nd (to know). The preposition
con (= com) frequently loses its final n before h, j, v, and s in
composition ; thus we find cohibeo, coicio, cojunx, coventio, co-
sol, &c. N is lost before s in istega for instega (deck), isculpo-
neae from insculpo, intresecits beside intrinsecus. In Umbrian
we likewise find kuveitu = L. convehito. kuvertu = L. convertito,
covortust = L. converterit, &c.

Medial r is lost in rubigo for rubrigo from ruber; pejero for
perjero; sempitemus from semper ; pedo, podex beside ^kx.pard,
Gr. Tripdii) ; susum = sursum, &c. ; iosiws for torstus from torreo ;
fuscus for furscus beside fur-vus ; formosus for formonsus ; re-
trosum beside retrorsum ; Tuscus for Turscus = Etruscus, be-
side 0. U. Turskum, N. U. Tuscom : Etru-s-cusf being formed
from U. e<7T«- (alter) as pri-s-cus from /?7*i =prae, -s being the
remains of the comparative termination -iiis, Etrusci therefore
meant exteri " the strangers" in Umbrian.

* Lottner connects con-ctn-nus with cin-cin-nus, in Trhich case tlie
root must have meant " to connect, to twist.''

t Consult Clorssen, Uber Ausprache, &c , vol. i., p. 92, and his Kritisdie
Nachtragc, &c , p. 177.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 173

Medial I appears to be lost in dngere - clingere (Fest. 56)
beside 0. H. G. Tiring (a ring).

Initial p is perhaps lost before r in red beside Skr. prati,
Gr. ttqotL It is lost before I in lien beside Skr. plihan (lien),
Gr. airXriv, airXayxvov ', laetus for plaittis beside Skr. pri (to
love, to rejoice) ; lanx beside Gr. TrXa^, L. planca (a plate),
planus for placnus (?), 0, H. G. Jlah; Idtus, Latium beside Skr.
prath (to extend), prthu (broad), Gr. irXarvg, trXaTog, L. planta
(sole of the foot), planus for platnus (?), plautus for plotus,
(planis pedibus, Fest. 239) ; later (a tile), which is perhaps
connected with last root ; linter or lunter beside Gr. TrXuvr/jp
from R. ir\v whence nXio). The connexion of lavo with R.
ttXu is very doubtful ; it is better to connect it directly with
Gr. R. \v whence Xu/ua, Xovrjoov, &c. Pott also connects
. livor, lividus, with Gr. juoXujSoC) fxoXtfiog, h.plumbum, O. H. G.
plif Lett, ahca ; but this too is very doubtful.

Medial b is lost in sus = subs in suscipio, susiuli, susque,
surgo for susrigo; surpio beside subripio ; oportet for obportet,
beside pars, portio; operio for obperio beside a-perio ; opimus
for obpimus beside Skr. pydi (crescere), pivara (crassus), Gr.
vrtoiv, irlapog, irifXiXi}.

Initial / is perhaps lost in rigeo, rtgor, rXgidiLS beside Gr.
piyog for (jtpiyog, &c., L. frigeo, friguSf frlgidus.

Medial /is lost, according to Corssen, in illinif istim, &c.,
for illo-Jim, isto-fim, &c., -fim being = Skr. -bhyam.

Initial v is lost in olla (a pot), for vorula from I. E. var (to
boil), whence Gr. (dpaaao, [ipd^w (I boil), O. H. G. walm
(fervor), Oh. SI. vr^ti (fervere), Lith. virti (to boil), &c. ; odi
beside Skr. vadh (to strike), Gr. wBib) ; omo beside Skr. vama
(colour). In these cases a becomes o on account of the pre-
ceding V. Initial v is also lost in n'^o beside Gr. ^pixw, Goth.
rign (j^poxh) fron^^ I- F. vragh ; repente, repens, repentinus be-
side Gr. piTTd) for FptTTw, avTi-ppoirog, &c., Lith virpiu, (I tot-
ter), radix beside Gr. pit^a, Lesb. fipiaBa, Goth, vaurts (a root),

174 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

0. H. G. wurzaia, wurza ; ros perhaps for vros beside Skr.
varsh (pluere), {j(T.ipar\ for Fe/ocri}; laqueiis hesidiQ Gr. jSpoxoc,
Goth, vniggo (a noose); lacer, locus, lacinia beside Skr. vras'k'
(to tear), Gr. pa'icoct Xokoc, XoKig (a rent), -^ol. (SpuKog (= pd-
Koc) which points back to a root Fpaic, Benfey connects Gr.
cAicoe, L. ulcus, with this root ; lacio beside Gr. IAkw from R.
FsXk, Lith. velku (I pull), with which Corssen connects la-
qmus ; lupus,* Sabine irpus, beside Skr. vrkas (^nom. sing,
masc), Gr. Xvkoq, Goth, vulfs, Ch. SI. vluM, Lith. mlkas, con-
nected by some with Skr. vras'k' (to tear), and by others with
an I. E vrak, whence Gr. tAxw ; lana perhaps for vlana be-
side Skr. var (to cover), urna (wool), uruhhra (a ram, lit. the
woolbearer), Gr. ilpoq, ipiov, ovXog (woolly), apveg (lambs),
(iapviov (apviov Hesych.), ^apixoi {apvig Hesych.), L. vel-
lus, villus, Goth, vulla (wool), Lith. vilna (wool), Ch. SI. vluna
(wool).

Medial v is often lost between vowels as in suns = 0. L.
S0V08 = Gr. iog ; tuus for tovos = Gr. reog ; momentum for mo-
vim£ntum ; ploro for plovero from R. plu, according to Corssen ;
dom,ui, habui, &c., for domavi, habevi, &c. ; mox for movox
from Twowo ; Marsiox Mavors; nuntius ior noviventius ; praes
for praeres, the plural of which, praevides, is found in Thorian
law, from prae and vas ; junior for juvenior ; rursum for re-
vorsum ; nosse = novisse, &c. ; amaram, = amaveram ; &c. ;
audisti " audivisti, &c. ; 7iolo for nevolo ; &c. F is lost after
c in cants beside Skr. s'van (a dog), Gr. kvwv ; cano beside Skr.
kvan (to sound) : and after s in si (= O. svai), se,sibi, sedbom.
St. sva; 8omnus= Skr. svapnas, Gr. uttvoc ; soror = Skr. svasd,
Goth, svistar; sodalisixova. a lost stem sorfa beside Skr. svadhd

• Some separate L. lupus from Gr. \vKot, and connect it with Z. u-
rup-is, raop-is (a species of dog), from root rup or /«/> (to tear). The Sa-
bine irpus bears a great resemblance to the Zend words. It is not clear
whether this group of words is connected in any way with Gr, d-Xw7r-ij?,
Lith. lape (a fox), lapikas (a young fox).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 175

(the will, properly " one's own action" from sva and dhd),*
Gr. T/floc, £0oc from K. aFeO, the form tviOijjKa (eiujica Hesych.)
proving that the root originally contained F, L. suesco, Goth.
sidus (j)0oc), G. sitte (custom); sonus beside Skr. svan (to
sound) ; socer = Skr. s'vas'uras, Gr. eKvpog ; socrus = Skr.
s'vas'rus ; sermo perhaps for svermo beside Skr. svar (to sound) ,
Gr. avpiy^, L. susurrus, absurdus (compare ahsonus) ; serenus,
sol beside Skr. svar (heaven), Z. hvar^ (sol), Gr. Setptoc, <ri-
Aaci cteXtjvt}.

Initial m is lost in imago and imitor for mimago and mimi-
tor beside Skr. md (to measure), mimatS (imitantur), Gr. /ut-
rpov, fii-jxi-Ofxaii fxi-fxr\-aiQ, fu-fio-g.

Corssen connects imitor and imago with a Latin root ic =
I. E. ak, whence G. ah-men, L. aequus, and considers their
original forms to have been icmitor, icmago.

§. 85. The Insertion of a Consonant.

Pis inserted between m and a following dental, as in hiemps,
emptus, sumpsi, sumptus, contempsi, contemptiis, &c. S is in-
serted in mon-s-t7'um (from same root as maneo, moneo, mens,
&c., and -trum), lu-s-trum (from same root as luo, di-luv-ium,
lav-o, &c., and -trum), abstineo, ostendo for obstendo, sustineo
for substineo.

§. 86. Final Consonants.

The combinations rs, Is, ns, are in general never allowed
to end a word, except when they represent rts, Us, nts ; thus
we have ferens^ amans, &c., for ferents, amants, &c., puis for
pults, &c., but prier for puer(u)s, vir for vir(u)s, quatuor for
quatuor(e)s, vigil for vigil(i)s, novos (ace. pi.) for novons and
similar accusatives, sal for s&ls. We have, however, fers for
/em.

* This is Curtius' explanation, who translates dhd by G. thun, E. do ;
Kuhn explains svadhu to mean " selbstsetzung " from dha (to place)
«= Gr. Of in j-(0jj/t».

176 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Double consonants are never allowed to end a word : thus
we have os (oss-is) for oss- = ost- ; fel (fell-is) for fell- =
felt- ; novas for novoss = novons, novas for novass = novans, &c.,
while in Old Oscan the ace. pi. still ends in -ss/as viass = L.
vias^ &c. ; damnaa for damnass = damnat(u)s, compare O. U.
pihaz, N. U. pilws = L. piatus, 0. U. tagez, N. U. tages = L.
tacetus, 0. 0. /uirz = L. hortus, &c.

Two mutes are not allowed to end a word : thus we have
lac for lact (lact-is).

Final t was frequently lost : thus we find in Old Latin dede
(dedit), dedro (dederunt), &c. ; in Classical Latin the double
form of the 3 pi. perf fecere and fecerunt, &c. ; in late Latin
such forms as vixse (vixit), quiesce (quiescit), fecerun (fece-
runt), &c. In Umbrian such forms are common : thus we
find hahe (habet), fagia (faciat), fuia (fuat), portaia (portet),
benus (venerit), convortus beside convortust (converterit), be-
nuso (venerunt), &c. In Oscan t is retained, as 'mfust (fuerit),
fefacust (0. L. faxit), hipust (0. L. habessit), &c.

Final d was also frequently lost : thus in abl. sing, we find
patre (t. Scip. Barb.) beside Gnaivod and in Classical Latin
this abl. -d was universally lost, while it was retained in
Oscan, as in mvad (sua), ehtrad (extra), toutad (civitate), cas-
trid (castro), &c. Similarly d was lost in the imperatives
esto, agito, &c., beside Osc. estud^ actud, &c.

In Old Latin s was frequently lost after a vowel, as in
Tetio, Albanio, &c., for Tetios, Albanios^ &c. ; Cornell (or
Cornells, and this again for Cornelios, &c. ; in Classical Latin
we also find mage beside magis, pote beside potis, laudare be-
side laudarisy &c. Final s was also lost in the nom. pi. of the
0- stems, and in the gen. sing, of the a- stems, as in hi = 0. L.
heis, magistri = 0. L. magistreis, familiae =familias, &c. In
Oscan and Umbrian « (N. U. r) is retained in these cases, as
in O. U. urtas (ortae), tutas (totae), N. U. screihtor (scripti),
totcor (tutici), totar (totae), motar (multae, poenae), 0. 0.
Niivlanus (Nolani), N. O. pas (quae), scriftas (scriptae), &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 177

Final n was sometimes omitted as in ceteroquiy alioqui for
ceteroquin, alioquin, and in nominatives in -o as virgo, ca-
ligo, &c.

Final m in Old Latin was frequently omitted as in the
conjunctive forms attinge, dice, &c., for attingam, dicam^ &c. ;
also in the following examples from the Epitaphs of the
Scipios Taurasia (ace. sing.), Samnio {z,cc. sing.), oiVjo (unum),
duonoro (bonorum), urbe (urbem), &c. ; in Classical Latin m
before a vowel in verse was elided.

( 178 )

CHAPTER VII.

Roots and Stems.

§. 87. The root* of a word is that portion of it that re-
mains when eyerything fonnative and accidental has been re-
moved from it. Thus the root of L. pater, Gr. -rrarrip, Skr.
pita (nom. sing.) is pa = Skr. pa (to support), L. -ter, Gr. -rij/o,
Skr. -tar being the same suffix that appears in L. mater, &c. ;
the root of elementum is el, e being a connecting vowel and
~mentu-m the same suffix that appears in rudi-mentu-m ; the
root of hiOtTo is Oe, l being the augment signifying past time,
Tt the reduplication signifying duration, and to the sign of the
3rd pers. sing. ; similarly the root of tyiyvero for lyiytvero is
yBv ; the root of tievyvvfxi is ^u-y for w and fxi are formative
elements, the first signifying present time, and the second the
first pers. sing., while av is the gtma of u, and e is consequently
merely an accidental element ;t similarly the root of XiXoiira
is XiTT. In the above remarks I have used the word root in
its ordinary signification as representing that portion of the

* Max Miiller (Lectures, &c., ii., p. 81) calls "root or radical what-
ever, in the words of any language or family of languages, cannot be re-
duced to a simpler or a more original form." The Indian Grammarians
called a root dhatu from dha (to nourish); dhStu means any primary or
tf/emenfarysuisfance, and consequently shows that these grammarians looked
upon roots as the primary elements, the constituent parts of words. We
generally translate roots by the infinitive, as this gives the most abstract
idea of the word. The Indian Grammarians, however, represent them
by abstract substantives in the Locative, as gam (to go) by gat&u (in
going) ; Bopp's Skr. Gram., p. 69.

■j- Consult Curtius, Grundziige, &c., p. 49 seq., and Bopp's Compara-
tive Grammar, vol. i., p. 197.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 179

word which contains the fundamental idea ; but properly
speaking, every Indo-European word consists of two or more
roots : thus Skr. asmi (I am) = Gr. dfii consists of the two
roots as (to be) and mi = ma (I) ; Skr. hhardmi (1 bear) = Gr.
^1/0(1), consists of the three roots bhar (to bear), as (to be)* and
mi (I) ; Skr. bharati (he bears) = Gr. t^i^u for ^eptrt consists
of the three roots hhar, a (a demonstrative root) and ti (the
pronoun of 3rd pers. sing.) ; Gr. 6\p = L. vox = I. E. vaks
when Skr. vdk (nom. sing.) comes from the two roots vak (to
speak) = Skr. vach and sa (a demonstrative root), &c. In the
earliest period of the I. E. language, long before any separa-
tion of the dialects occurred, roots existed as independent
words, exactly as in Chinese at the present day ; thus the
words, just discussed, probably existed then as as ma^ hhar as
ma, bhar a ta, vak sa. There never was a period, however, in the
history of Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, or any other I. E. language,
after their separation from the parent stock and from each
other, when roots existed as actual words. No exception to
this statement is formed by such imperatives as die, fac, &c.,
for these are merely shortened forms oi dice, face, &c., nor by
such vocatives as vdk from St. vdk (voice) from R. vaJc^ for a
vocative is not properly a word, but rather an interjection,
nor by words which in the process of time appear only as
roots on account of the loss of their terminations.

§. 88. All Indo-European roots are monosyllabic, and
this is the only law to which they are subject. We con-
sequently find as roots the following combinations of vowels
and consonants : —

I. (Spiritus lenis +) Vowel : I. E. i (to go) = Skr., Z., Gr.,
L., Goth., Lith,, Ch. SI. i (to go), as Skr. imi (I go) = Gr.
ilfii = Lith. eimi, L. eo, Skr. imas (we go) = Gr. i/ttev, L. Imus
(the I of which seems to point to a root i) ; Skr. u (to sound)

* I assume here that bhardmi is for hhar-as-mi (to bear am I, i. e. I
bear) : the second syllable may, however, be the only demonstrative root
a lengthened to a.

N 2

180 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

is given by the grammarians ; L. u is found in inJ-ii-ere,
ex-u-ere.

II. Cons.+ vowel : I. E. da (to give), Skr., Z. da (to give),
Skr. daddmi = Gr. St8w/ii, Skr. dafa (nom. sing, from St. dd-
tar) = Z. c?«to (from St. ddtar) = Gr. Sor^jp or dwTi]p = L. rf^-
<or, L. J^re, donum, &c. ; I. E. joa (to guard), Skr. pa (id.),
pati-8 (nom. sing., a master), paint (a mistress), Gr. ttoctic,
Se(i-ir6-Tr}Q, iroTvia, dfairoiva, L. com-po-{i)s, j)0-t-is, &c. ; I. E.
dha (to place), Skr. dhd (id.), Z. rfa (id.), Gr. Oi-fia, Ti-Or}'fii =
Skr. dadhdmi, &c. ; I. E. A-i (to lie), Skr. s'i (id.), s'etS - Gr.
Kflrat, L. civis (= Osc. ceus), quiesco, &c.

III. Vowel + cons. : I. E. ak (to be sharp, quick), Skr.
as'-ri (point of a sword), as -us = Gr. wkvq, as'-vas = L. eq-uus,
Gr. aic-/ooC) aK-(uv, L. ac-er^ ac-u-o, dc-er, oc-ior; I. E. ap (to
obtain), Skr. dp (id.), L. ad-ip-iscor, aptus = Skr. rt/?to^ ; I. E.
ad (to eat), Skr. ad (id.), Gr. tS-tu, L. ed-o; I. E. as (to be),
Skr. asmi = Gr. tlfii (^o\. t^jut) = L. (e)sum, &c.

IV. Cons. + vowel + cons. : I. E. bhu^h (to fly, bend),
Skr. bhiig' (to bend), hhoga (a snake), Gr. (jtevyu), ^w/tj, ^u^a
= 0uSya for ^v-yya, L. fiujio^ &c. ; I. E. Zip (to smear), Skr. Zip
(id), Gr. AiTT-a (fat), a-Xei<p-(u, &c. ; I. E. pa^ (to bind), Skr.
and Z. p£w' (id.), Gr. iray-og, TracraaXog = TroKyaXog, L. pcwr,
pig-mcs, compesco = com-pec-sco, &c. ; I. E. bhudh (to know),
Skr. budh (id.), Z. 6iirf (id.), Gr. irvvB-avofiai^ &c.

V. Cons. + cons. 4 vowel : I. E. kru (to hear), Skr. a'ru
(id.), Gr. kXu-(u, L. clu-o, cli-ens ; I. E. plu (to swim), Skr.
joZw (id.), Gr. ttXI-cd, TrXtu-orojuat, 7rXo-o-c» L. phi-it, &c. ; I. E.
pri (to love), Skr. pri (id.), Z.fri (id.), Gr. Tr/o^oefor 7r/oay-o-c»
Trpauc for irpay-vg ; I. E. sta (to stand), Skr. s<A<f (id.), Z.
«7a (id.), Gr. aTa-aig, L. s<(J-«m« ; I. E. gva (to go), Skr.
^i-gd-mi (I go), Q-r. (iaivu) for /Sa-i/ytu, L. ar-bi~ter.

VI. Vowel + cons. + cons. : Skr. art^ (to kill), Gr. apd-ig
(point of an arrow) ; I. E. ard (to water) ; Skr. drd-ra (wet),
Gr. ap^-u) {1 water) ; I. E. argh, Skr. arh (to be worthy), Z.
areg (id.), Gr. apx*<»'> opx-apog ; I. E. arg (to shine), Skr.
arg'-una (white), Gr. apy-i)g (white), apy-vpog, apy-tXog, L.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 181

argentum, arg-ri-o (I make clear) ; I. E. ark (to shine), Skr. ark
(id.), arka (the sun), Ir. earc (id.) ; I. E. ardh (to grow), Skr.
ardh (id.), Gr. oXS-ati/&>, Ir. aU (nursing), according to Bopp.

VII. Cons. + cons. + vowel + cons. : I. E. stigh (to ascend),
Skr. stigh (id.), Qx.aTiix-u), <rroX-\oq, ari^oq, Goth, steiga (I go
up), O. H. G. stega (semita), Ch. SI. stXza (id.) ; I. E. stag (to
cover), Skr. s<A<7^(id.), Gr. aTiy-to, ariy-i], rjy-ij, lj.i-steg-a{a.
deck) for in-steg-a, teg-o, 0. N. thek (a roof), O. H. G. dak-ju (I
cover) ; I. E. bhrag (to shine), Skr. bhrdg (id.), Gr. ^Xly-w,
<p\6^, \jL. fulg-eo^ jiag-rOt flam-ma ; I. E. stan (to sound), Skr.
Stan (id.), Gr. otevo), L. ton-o, ton-itrUf O. N. styrv-ja (I groan),
O. H. G. stun-od (a sigh), E. stun.

VIII. Cons. + vowel + cons. + cons. : I. E. varg, Skr. varg'
(to exclude), Gr. ttpy-vv-fit, elpy-w from K. Fepy, L. urg-eo,
Goth, vrik-a (I pursue) ; I. E. marg^ Skr. mar^' (to wipe, rub),
Gr. ttfjiiXy-h} (I milk), ofiopy-vv-fxi (I wipe), L. mulg-eo,

0. H. G. milch-u. Benfey connects with this root Gr. yXdyog
(for fiXayog), yaXa, L. mulier, margo, lac (for m?ac) ; I. E. tars
(to dry), Skr. tarsh (to be thirsty), Z. tarsh-na (thirst), Gr
T£p<T-ofxai, L. torr-eo, tos-tus, terr-a, Goth, thaurs-ja (I thirst).

IX. Cons. + cons. + vowel + cons. + cons. : I. E. skand (to
move quickly ?), Skr. skand (to ascend), Gr. aKavd-aXov, L.
scand-o, de-scend-o, Lith. skhnd-u (I sink) ; I. E. stambh, Skr
stambh (to prop up), Gr.artju^-uXov (pressed olives), a-aTs/ncp^riQ
(firm), 0. H. G. stamphon (to stamp), A. S. stemn (mandatum) ;

1. E. sparg (to move quickly), Skr. sparh (to desire), Z. s'parez
(to strive), Gr. Giripx-ofiai (I hasten), aTTiQ\-v6q (hasty),
(TTripy-drjv {ippw^ivioq, Hesych.) ; I. E. spardh, Skr. spardh
(to contend with), Goth, spaurds {ara^iov), 0. H. G. spurt,
A. S. spyrd, E. spurt.

%. 89. It is very doubtful whether any roots began or ended
with three consonants in Indo-European. When such roots
appear in any of the Indo-European languages, either one of
the consonants is not original, and merely a late addition to
the root, or else the phenomenon arises from transposition. In
the following cases the conjunction of the three initial con-

182 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

sonants may be original : Gr. arpay^ (a drop), arpayy-tvw (I
twist), arpoyy-vXog, (TTpayy-a-XiKdt) (I strangle), L. string-o,
strang-ulo, 0. H. G. strangi (strong), from a root Strang or
strag, signifying "to penetrate, to press," yet the original
form of this root may have been starg, whence Gr. rapyavai
(ttAokoi, Hesych.), Terapyavoj/jLivai {e/jiTr en Xtyjuivai, Hesych.),
aapyavii (a basket), with the loss of r as in Ir. sreang-aim
(stringo), sreang (a string) ; L. scrof-a (a sow), scribo, scrob-s,
Gr. ypop<p-ag (an old sow), ypcKpto may point to an I. E. root
skrahh ; L. scruta (trash), whence scrutor beside Gr. ypiiTij
(trash) ; Gr. aKviir-og (stingy) beside yvicfuvv (id.), &c.

§ 90. Roots of the form cons. + a + cons, or a + cons, are
frequently found in the form [cons. + cons. + a] or [cons. + a] :
I. E. mar (to die) = mra (id.), Skr. mryati (he dies), marta-s
(nom. sing, dead), Gr. /Sjootoc for ppo-rog, L. morioi' ; I.
E. dhar (to bear) = dlira, Skr. dhar (id.), Gr. Opa-vog (a
seat), Opo-voQi Oprj-vvg (a stool), h. fre-tus, fre-num, jir-inus ;
I. E. dhar (to sound) = dhra, Skr. dhdra, (vox), Gr. Opi-ofxai,
6p6-og, Opfj-vog, dop-v-^og, Goth, drunjus (a noise), E. drone ;
I. E. man (to think) = mna, Skr. man (id.), Gr. fxi-p.ov-a,
fiiv-og, p.av-iaj pva-o-fxai, /jLvfj-firi, L. me-min-i, m/)n-eo ; I. E.
gan (to know) = gna^ Skr. g'nd (to know), Gr. yvto-rog, L.
gno-sco, Goth, kann (I know) ; Gr. Oav beside Ovif, t-dav-ovt
Oav-arog, 0i/»)-rdc» Ovri-aKU), perhaps connected with Skr. dhmd
(to blow), and consequently Oav would have meant originally
" to blow," hence " to breathe," and then " to expire," &c.

§. 91. According to the Indian Grammarians no Sanskrit
verbal root ended in <?, and they write such roots either with
d, or with the addition of a suffix, such as n, y (t), v (u) ; con-
sequently we find in place of da (to give), s'a (to sharpen), ^a
(to be born), hva (to call), &c., the assumed forms da, so (for
sau), gan, hve (for At;ai),&c. The only roots that they write with
d are pronominal roots, such as to, sa, &c. We see, however, at
once that this is merely an arbitrary custom, for we find nu-
merous verbal roots in Sanscrit ending in H : khyd (to speak)

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 183

is the original root, and not khyd, as we see from akhyat ; gd
(to go) is found in gcl-tas (nom. sing. part, praet. pass.), gd-hi
(2 sing, imperat.), ga-k'Wiati (he goes), Gr. ^i-fia-fxev ; dd (to
give), dadmas (we give) for dadamas, Gr. Bi-Bo-fisv, L. dd-miis ;
dha (to place), dadhmas (we place) for dadhamas, Gr. Ti-Oe-fiev,
Oe-aig, Oe-rog = Ved. dhi-tas = Skr. hitas ; sthd, (to stand),
ti-shtha-ti (he stands), sthi-tas = Gr. ara-rog, L. std-tus ; ma
(to measure), mi-ti (measuring), mi-ta (measured), Gr. fxi-
rpov ; pd (to drink), pibdti (he drinks), Gr. 7ro-me ; pd (to
protect), pdtis (a master) = Gr. iro-aig, dea-Tro-Trig, Skr. pi-tar,
Gr. ira-TxiQ ; ma (to think), mati (mind), mdtas (nom. sing. perf.
pass, part.) = fxarog (in avro-fiarog), Gr. /xi-fia-fitv, fxa-iofxai
(I seek), fid-Ttiv, fid-Taiog (not real, only imagined, according
to Benfey) ; ta (to stretch), tdtas (nom. sing. pass, part.) = Gr.
Tarog, ri-Ta-ixai ; ha (to kill), Aa^j (a striking), hatas (nom
sing. perf. pass, part.) = Gr. (parog (in ' Apei<paTog, nvkqtpa-
Tog), iri-^a-fiai, &c. These roots are written by the Sanskrit
grammarians under the forms khyd, gd, dd, dhd, sthd, md, pd,
pd, man, tan, han ; but the grammatical forms above adduced
prove that they also ended with d in Sanskrit. In Greek and
Latin we frequently find roots ending with d, which corre-
sponds to Sanskrit roots ending with a or an ; thus we find
Gr. yi-ya-fiev from K. 70 beside Skr. g'an (to produce, to
grow) ; Gr. ^a-X6g (bright), (pd-Ttg from R. ^a beside Skr.
bhd (to shine) ; L. rdtics from R. ra beside Skr. rd (to give),
compare Ved. rdtam astu with L. ratum esto and reor, &c.

§. 92. Neither in Sanskrit nor in Greek do any roots
occur of the form, aspirated mute + vowel + aspirated mute,
except a few dialectic forms in the former language, and the
forms* l-0d<j)-6r)v, T£-0d^-0ai, TE-0d(j)'0u}, Te-Od^-araii t6-

* Bopp (Vergleichende Grammatik., vol. i., p. 182, §. 104») accounts
for these forms (except Tf9d^aTai, which he confesses his inabiUty to ex-
plain), partly from the inclination shown by the Greeks for the combina-
tion <i>9, and partly from the fact that 0 in these cases was felt to belong
to the root, and was therefore allowed to show itself again contrary to the
usual custom.

184: COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

dpafp-Bai, l'Opi<l>-Btiv, in the latter. In Indo-European, how-
ever, roots of this form were common, as is shown by the
cognate languages; consult §. 31. But Sanskrit and Greek
were opposed to such a combination, and always omitted the
aspiration of one aspirated mute. This disinclination of San-
skrit and Greek to the proximity of two aspirates, is shown
by the fact that when aspirates occur in two groups of conso-
nants belonging to the same roots, and merely separated by
a vowel, one of these aspirates, generally the first, loses its
aspiration.* Thus in Sanskrit and Greek aspirates are redu-
plicated generally by the corresponding unaspirated conso-
nants, but this law did not hold in Indo-European, as we see
from the Latin fefelli, and the Oscan fufans, fefacust, &c., in
which, though /be not a true aspirate, it represents an original
Indo-European aspirate. Originally the whole root was re-
peated in reduplicated syllables, as we see in Sanskrit inten-
sive forms,t such as daridrd^ (to be poor) from drd (to run)
beside Gr. Ei-Bpa-nKU), e^pav, daridrs or daridrs' or dardrs
from dars (to see) = Gr. Stpic, k'rikar, or k'arikar, or k'arkar,
from kar (to make), &c., and in such Greek forms as irafx-
<paiv(t) for t^av-cpav'ywy nip-ini)p-a (care) and ^ip-jjiep'og (care-
laden) from R. pep = Skr. smar (to remember), pap-paip-to
(I shine) from R. pap whence pap-pap-og (stone, marble, lit.
'• Vhat glistens") ; Kip-Kvp-a (lit. Round town) from same root
as K(p-K-og (a ring), ku-kX-oc> L- circus, &c.

• This does not happen trhen the aspirates belong to different roots or
different suffixes, or when one belongs to a root and another to a suffix,
or when more than one vowel intervenes between the groups of conso-
nants, except in a few cases, such as iKi-xftpia from lx<^ and x»'P
rijXtOaw from R. 9a\ for 0a\6a-o)^ an irregular reduplicated form like
^'tp-^-ia from R. 0fp = Skr. hhar and (pt-fS-ofiai for ^e-/3i-o^ai from R. 0i
= bhi (to fear), &c.

f Consult Bopp's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 343 seq., and Grassmann in
K. Z., vol. xii., p. 111.

X Lottner considers daridrd to be a reduplicated form of I. E. dor (to
tear).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 185

Although in Greek we generally find no combinations
such as aspirated mute + vowel + aspirated mute, we fre-
quently find such as spiritus asper + vowel + aspirated mute
or p + vowel + aspirated mute; thus we find a^-r) (a fasten-
ing, lightning) from air-rw; v^-ri (a web) from K. v^ = I. E.
vabh whence Skr. urna-vd-bhas (nom. sing, a spider, lit. a
weaver of wool) ; riO-fiog* (a strainer) from rjdu) = artOiv (I sift) ;
tcp'Oog from £i//(ij beside o^pov, ott-toq, the initial aspirate per-
haps compensating for n (as in 'liTTafiai = TriirTa/xai from I. E.
pat), if the root be Trtrr, whence ireir-Tog, ttett-wv, &c. ; v6-Xog
(idle talk), from R. vB, whence vBiop, or from same root as
Skr. vad (to speak) ; po(j>-i<x) (I swallow), po^-avin (id.) beside
L. sorbeo, Lith. srebiu (1 swallow) ; pKp-ri (a throwing) beside
piTT-Tw, &c. In these cases the spiritus asper either is inor-
ganic, and did not exist in Indo-European, or represents a
lost consonant, generally s, and the same may be said of the
aspiration of p ; in no case does either aspiration seem to re-
present an original aspirated mute.

§. 93. In Sanskrit we find several combinations of more than
one syllable classified as roots, but such forms are not true roots.
They arise either from the reduplication of true roots, as g'dgar
(to wake) from I. E. gar whence Gr. lydpivf for yeyeipu),
k'a-hds (to shine) from kds (id.), &c. ; or from the union of
prepositions with true roots, as avadhir (to despise) from ava
(de, ab) and dhir, which Bopp connects with dhi (the mind),
sangrdm (to fight) from sam (Gr. avv, L. cum) and kram (to
go), unless it be a denominative formed from sdngrdma (a
fight), &c. ; or from nouns, as kumdr (to play) from kumdra
(a boy), &c.

§. 94. Roots in general may be divided into the two great

• This word is generally written nOfioc, the spiritus asper becoming the
lenis on account of the following 9 as in (%'>'• On Sigeian Inscription it
is written t)6fi6g.

■j- Some consider initial t here to be merely prosthetic, while Pott de-
rives it from (K. The view taken above is, however, much more plausible.

186 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

classes, verbal (called also qualitative or predicative), and pro-
nominal (called also demonstrative). The first class is com-
posed of verbs and nouns, of which the former stand in a closer
connexion with the root than the latter. Originally there was
no difference between verb and noun, the root da, for example,
signifying the giver, the thing given, the act of giving, &c. The
second class consists of all the pronouns, most prepositions,
conjunctions, and particles, which are generally derived from
pronominal roots, and perhaps a few other words. In this class
the root and the stem are identical, and the roots express some
relation to the speaker, while those of the first class express
a state or action.

§. 95. The chief pronominal roots in Indo-European were*
kva (who) whence Skr. ku-tas (whence), ka-s (who), ka-d
(what) ki-m (whatj, Gr. rig, Trorfpoc, Ion. Kortpog, ttwc* Ion-
Ktog, ri, Ktt-t (an old locative), Ktv (k£. Dor. kqv) = Skr. kam,
L. quis, quae,,quid, &c. ; ga or gha (perhaps derived from kva or
ka), whence Skr. ha - Ved. gha or ghd (indeed), Gr. ov-xU y^'t
ya (who) whence Skr. ya-s^ yd, ya-d = Gr. oq, ri, o, L. jam ;
i (he, she, it) when Skr. i-yam, id-am, i-ha (here) for idha, Gr.
I, -t (in ovToai, &c.), L. is, ea, id, i-terum, i-pse, &c. ; ta (this)
Skr. tarn, tdm, tad = Or. t6v, ttjv, to, Gr. ov-rog, av-rog, L.
is-te, is-ia, is-tud, turn, tarn, ipse (for i-p-te), i-ta, i-tem, &c. ; da
(perhaps derived from ta), Skr. ka-dd (when), Gr. iro-Sa-Trog,
ovTi-da-v6g, u-Be, dofxov-Be (homewards), L. qiuzm-do, qui-danij
in-de, mi-de, qui-dem, &c. ; dha (closely connected with da),
Skr. a-dhas (below), adhara-s (= L. inferu-s), i-Iia (here) for
i-dJia, Gr. tv-Oa, iro-Oi, av-dig (Ion. av-rig), ivOevt L. u-bi
and i-bi, according to Leo Meyer for cu-dhi and i-dhi ; sa (he),
Skr. sa, sd = Gr. 6, 17, Skr. sa-krt (once), Gr. a-vaKi a-irXovg,
O. L. sum, sam, sos, sas (ace. sing, and pi., masc. and fem.),
&c. ; na, an, ana, Skr. nas (us), na (not, lest ; like, Vedic),
ana-yd (instr. sing., through her), an-tara-s (alius), an-ya-s
(alius), Gr. vu), vfv, v/;, vvv, vai, av, ev, ava, L. nos, ne, num,

• \^o Meyer, Vergleichende Grammatic, &c., vol. i., p. 323, s<?q.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 187

nam* in, &c. ; pa, Skr. a-pa (away), pa-rd (away), Gr. o-tto,
TTE-pt, ira-pa, v-po, L. ah, p-ro, pe-r,f &c. ; bha (which is, per-
haps, connected with pa ; there does not appear to be any
trace of a stem ha), Skr. -bhis (term of instr. pi.), -hhyas (term,
of dat. and abl. pi.), -bhydm (term, of instr., dat. and abl.
dual), Gr. ap-^w = Skr. ii-bha (both) = L. ambo, fiiri-tpii vav-
ipiv, L. ti-bi, mi-Id, no-bis, &c. ; va,X Skr. va-yam (we), which
Bopp considers to be a weakened form of ma-yarn, butE. we,
Goth, veis, G. wir, establish the originality of the initial v,
Skr. vas (ye, ace. pi.) and vdm (ye two, ace. dual), Gr. au,
av-Tog, ovv (?), av-rap) L. ne-ve, vos, tu = t-va (Skr. tvam^
thou), &c. ; mn, Skr. mam and md (me, ace. sing.), ma-yd
(instr. sing.), Gr. p.i, p.a, firi {- Skr. md, not), fiiv, L. me,
ego-me-t, &c.

§. 96. No verbal root can by itself form a word. It be-
comes a word by the addition of a pronominal root ; thus
from the Latin verbal roots reg (to rule), luc (to shine), we
form the words rex (reg-s) and hix (luc + s) by the addition of
the pronominal root sa.

§. 97. Verbal and pronominal roots frequently agree in
form : thus i is a verbal root meaning ' to go,' and a pronominal
root meaning 'he'; similarly ta (to stretch) and ta (this), ka
(to be sharp) and ka (who), unless kva be the original form of
this pronominal root, as is probable. In consequence of this
agreement, some writers have derived the pronominal from the
verbal roots : thus Schleicher (Compendium, §. 265, p. 642,
2nd Ed.), writes : " I take ma (I) to be identical with the verbal
root ma (to measure, think) ; this root also signifies 'homo'
(compare Skr. ma-nu-, Goth, ma-n-)^ who was described as

* Nam is derived by some writers from I . E. naman (a name).

f Ij. per, pro, Gr. -rrapa, &c., may, however, be all connected with
I. E. Yooi par (to penetrate, cross, &c.).

t Va originally meant " is, ea, id.^'' We have Old Persian ava (iste)
from same root. Initial t was probably lost before Skr. vns and vdm ;
compare Skr. tvam (thou) = t + va ■{■ m for ta + ra + m.

188 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

' the thinker ;' what could 'i' have been originally save * man'?
The abstract conception of the 'i' cannot certainly be attri-
buted to the oldest stage of the Indo-European (ursprache)."
Bopp adduces as an argument against the deduction of pro-
nominal roots from verbal, his supposition, that no verbal
root ends in d, whilst pronominal roots for the most part end
in this vowel. We have, however, already seen that many
verbal roots do actually end in a, so that this argument of
Bopp is valueless. The Indian grammarians derive all words,
without exception, from verbal roots, either existing or in-
vented by them for this purpose ; thus, ta (this, he) they de-
rive from tan (to stretch), i/a (who) from yag' (to worship,
yadi (when) from yat (to make an effort), &c. Such deriva-
tions are of course preposterous ; but these grammarians are
not the only persons who offend in this way.

The connexion between verbal and pronominal roots is
is still unknown, and likely to remain so, for we have no ma-
terials on which to base our reasonings. A few sentences of
Indo-European, as it was spoken when the Indo-Europeans
first began to exist as a distinct race, would probably clear up
the difficulty.

Even if verbal and pronominal roots were originally iden-
tical, they must have been distinguished from each other in
very early times, in fact, before the origin of any gramma-
tical forms whatsoever, for these forms presuppose the dis-
tinction. " First," writes Curtius (zur Chronologic der Indo-
germanischen Sprachforschung, p. 205), " through this dua-
lity light and shade come into language, first through this it
becomes possible to arrange words beside each other so as to
express a meaning, the necessary condition of all further
development."

§. 98. Verbal roots are twofold, primary and secondary.
The primary consists (1) of a single short vowel, as I (to go) ;
or (2) of a consonant + a short vowel, as dd (to give), dhCl (to
place), pd (to drink;, kX (to lie) ; or (3) of a short vowel + a

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 189

consonant, as dd (to eat), ak (to be sharp), ds (to be), Xdh (to
burn) ; or (4) of a consonant + a short vowel + a consonant,
as ddr (to tear), hhdr (to bear), dXv (to shine), pdt (to fall, fly) ;
or (5) of two consonants + a short vowel, as std (to stand).

The last division (5) of these roots is very small, and per-
haps belongs to the secondary class.

Secondary roots are formed from primary by the addition
of a new sound, or sounds, called by Curtius the root deter-
minative. The object of this addition is to express a modifi-
cation of the meaning of the primary root. Thus from I. E.
yu (to bind, to mix dough, &c.), came I. E. yug (to unite in-
tentionally, to yoke horses), and I. E. yudh (to unite for the
purpose of fighting) ; from I. E. gan (to produce), came gnd
(for gand or gna + a) to express the idea of ^^ knowing how to
produce ;" similarly from I. E. man (to think), came mnd (to
remember) ; &c.

§. 99. A complete list of the primary and secondary roots
of Indo-European does not fall within the scope of the present
work. It will be sufficient here to give a few examples of
the chief root-determinatives.

K (root-determinative). Primary root, I. E. tar or tra (to
move), whence Skr. ^ara^ (tremulous), tora (a passage), -tora
(term, of comparative) = Gr. -rspo = L. -ter (in dex-ter), -tra
(in con-tra), ter-minus ; secondary root, Skr. tark (to suppose,
lit., to turn in one's mind), tarku (a spindle), Gr. a-TptK-i]g,
a-TpuK-Tog (a spindle), L. torqu-eo, torc-ular, torqu-es. Pr.
root, I. E. pat whence Skr. pai (to fall, fly), pat-ra (a wing),
Gr. jcara-Trrrj-rrjv, TTtTrrtit for Trt-Trtr-w, irir-ofxai, Trre-pov,, tttw-
fftCj L. pet-o, penna = O. L. pesna for pet-na ; sec, root, Gr.
TTTOK, £-7rraK-or, irTi]aa(x) for 7rrt}»c-ya>, tttw^, irrwaab} for tttwk-
-yut. Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go), whence Skr. gd or ga (to
go), Gr. (5a ; sec. root j3aic, Gr. (duK-rpov, L. hac-ulum. Pr.
root, Gr. 6X (to destroy), o\-\vm for ok-vv-m ; sec. root, oXeK,
oXfiK-ovTo. Pr. root, I. E. var (? to draw) whence Skr. var
(to choose), L. vel-lo for vel-yo ; sec. root, Gr. FeAk, biXkov -

190 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

cFcXkov- In English we similarly find roots lengthened by
k, as hark, talk, pluck, beside hear, tell, pull.

G (root-det.). Pr. root, yu (to bind ; sec. root, Skr. yug-a
(a yoke, pair), Gr. ^vy-6v, L. jug-um.

Khioi sk (root-det.) = Skr. k'h =■ Gr. -y^. Pr. root, gva (to
go) = Skr. ga; sec. root, Skr. gak'h-ati (he goes) = Gr. ^cktk-ii.
Pr. root, ar (to move) ; sec. root, Gr. tpx-o/xai = {paK-ofiai
probably. Sk here is perhaps the remains of a root = I. E.
sak to (follow) whence L. sequ-or^ &c.

T (root-det.). Pr. root, Skr. dyu = div (to shine); sec.
root, Skr. dyut (id.). Pr. root, I. E. av (to blow), whence
Gr. av-(i), a-r]fxi ; sec. root, Skr. dt-man (breath), Gr. avr-firjvt
ar-fiog, aer-fiov (irvtv/xa, Hesych). From the sec. root, Skr.
tup (to strike) = Gr. tvtt comes another sec. root, Gr. Tvir-T-(o.
Similarly from Gr. Oair or Ta<f), comes a sec. root, Ooltt-t-u).*
It is doubtfnl whether ra^ or Oair be a primary or a secondary
root ; if it be = Skr. tap (to bum) beside Gr. ritp-pa, L. tep-eo,
A. S. thef-ian (aestuare), it is a primary root and originally
meant " to burn" (sc. the dead). On the other hand, if it be
formed from dlia (to place) = Skr. dhd, by the root-determi-
native p, it is a secondary root, Oair (ratft) : dhap : : ^utt (ri/^) :
Skr. dhup (to fumigate).

D (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ska (to cleave) whence Gr.
R. KE (= ajct), KE-fo), K£-a^a>, Kaiddag, Skr. k'hdy k'hydmi (ab-
scindo), L. de-sci-sco, sci-o; sec. root, Skr. skhad (to cut), Gr.
(TKiB-avvvfii, L. scindo. Pr. root, I. E. ma (to measure), whence
Gr. fii-TQov, &c. ; sec. root, Gr. jxi^-ifivoq, fiio-ovrtg, L. 7nod-
ius, mod-eror, mod-us. Pr. root, I. E. ru (to sound) : sec.
root, Skr. rud (to weep), L. rud-o.

JJh (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. yu (to join) ; sec. root,
Skr. yudh (to fight, raanus conserere), Z. yud (to fight), Gr.
va-filvr) for vB-fxivr). Pr. root, I. E. ^a (to suffer) ; sec. root,
Gr. i'traO-ov, L. patior being formed from same root by means
of a different suffix {t), unless Gr. B and L. t represent an 1. E.

• These forms are perhaps only presential bases.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 191

th, as is supposed by those who believe in the existence of the
hard aspirates in Indo-European. Pr. root, 1. E. dar (to
sleep) whence Skr. drd (id.), L. dor-mi- o ; sec. root, Gr.
i-^paO-ovy SapO-dvu). Pr, root, I. E. pu (to stink), whence
Skr. puy (id.), Z. pu (id.), Gr. ttu-ov, L. ptis, pu-t-eo, Goth.
fii-Is (foul) ; sec. root, Gr. vvO-o). This root-determinative is
of frequent occurrence in Greek ;* thus we have such forms
as vrrO-b) from K. ve (vt-tu), ar]-0-u) from R. tra (<Ta-w), (pXey-
t-O-u), rrpi]-0-(i) from R. irpa = I. K.pa?; whence Ch. SI. pal-iti
(to burn), ea-Oio) from R. tS, /3pt-0-tu, £-(t;^£-0-oi/, elpy-a-O-ov,
a\-B-ofxai beside ax-oc, &c, 0 is frequently added to secon-
dary roots in v : thus from ttev = tto + v we have iri-irovB-a
and irivB-og ; from I.E. man (to think) = ma (to measure) +
n, whence Gr. nr\v-tq, fiiv-og, L. mens, &c., we have Gr. fiavO-
avw, fiivd-ripai {(f)povTiSeg, Hesych.). BivO-og which is related
to fidO-og as irivO-og is to iraO-og, is derived from R. (iev =
/3a + V from (5a (to go), unless indeed in both these cases
(TTivO-og and (5ivd-og), the forms wad and j3a0 are the older,
and TrevO and fievO formed from them by the insertion of v.
BdB-og, (5aB-vg, j3w0-oc perhaps come from a root fiaB (to dive
into) = Skr. gdh (id.) = I. E. gva + dh from gva (to go).

S (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ark or rak (to preserve),
whence Gr. cIXk-)], apK-iw, L. arc-eo, arc-a ; sec. root, Skr.
raksh (to defend) = rak + s, Gr. a-Xc^-w. Pr. root, I. E. tar
or tra (to move) ; sec. root, Skr. tras (to tremble), Z. tores'
(id.), Gr. Tpiti) for rpta-u}, Hom. Aor. rpiaaa, Tpr\p6g, perhaps
for Tpta-pog, L. terr-eo for ters-eo, tris-tis (?). Pr. root, I. E.
fZa^ (to bite), whence Skr. dam' (id.), Gr. Saic-vtD, Sok-oc (a
bite, beast), Goth, tah-ja (I tear) ; sec. root, Gr. 6-8a^-a>. Pr.
root, I. E. vag (to increase), whence Skr. ug-ra (strong), 6g'-as
(power), Z. vaz (to strengthen), Gr. vy-i-rig, L. veg-eo, vig-eOy
aug-eo, Goth, auka (I increase) ; sec. root, Skr. vaksh (to grow),
= vak + s, Gr. au^-w, at^w = a-Ft^-w, Goth, vahs-jan, E. wcw;.

* Curtius, Grundziige, &c., p. 62.

192 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Pr. root, I. E. dak (to take), whence Ion. SfVojuat, Saic-TuXoc;
sec. root, Skr. daksh-a (clever), daksh-ina (right), Gr. St'^-toc,
L. dex-ter, Goth, taihs-vd {^t^id).

N (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go), whence Skr.
gd (id.), Z. gd (id.), Gr. £-/3i7-v, (ia-rog, L. ar-bi-ter; sec. root,
(Baivb) = (5av- yw, 0. ben-ust (= L. ven-erit). Pr. root, I. E.
ga (to be born, to produce), whence G-r. yi-ya-a ; sec. root,
Skr. g'an (to bring forth), Gr. yiv-og, L. gen-us. Pr. root,
I. E. bha (to shine), whence Skr. hhd (id.), Gr. (pa-riq., ^. fa-
teor ; sec. root, ^aivu} = <^av-y<ji. Pr. root, I. E. ta (to stretch),
whence Gr. rd-w-Tai = Skr. ta-nu-U ; sec. root, Gr. Tiiva) -
Ttv-yu).

R ov L (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. ma (to measure),
whence Skr. md (id.), Gr. fii-Tpov ; sec. root, Gr. /utp-oc,
/uoTp-a, fxeip-ofiai = /xtp-t/ofMai, L. mSr-eOy mer-ces, mer-x. Pr.
root, I. E. 5to (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr. sthal (to stand
firmly), sthal-a (firm ground), Gr. ariXXu) = oreX-yw, L. prae-
stol-or, stul-tus, stol-idus, O. H. G. stel-lan (to place). Pr. root,
I. E. sta (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr. sthir-a (fast), star-i (vacca
sterilis), Gr. (mp-pog, artipa — crrep-ya, Goth, stairo (orctpa),
M. H. G. star (rigidus).

P (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. tar or tra (to move) ; sec.
root, Skr. (Ved.) trp-ra (hastening), trap (to be embarrassed),
Gr. tu-rpaTT-eXoc, TptTT-b), Ion. rpdir-u),* L. trep-idus, tuirp-is
(according to Benfey). This I. E. root tra was weakened to
tru, whence Gr. Tpv-)(h) (I rub away), Tpv-oKU) (id. Hesych.),
rpu-oi (id.), Tpv-pu (a hole) ; sec. root, Gr. rpv-n-avov, rpvir-
du). Pr. root, I. E. dhu (to move), whence Skr. dhic (to move,
to blow), dhu-ma-s (smoke) = Gr. 6v-fi6-g = L. fu-mu-s, Z.
dun-man (mist), Gr. Ov-e\\a, Ov-og, L. sub-Ji-o, 0. H. G. tunst
(storm), O.N. dust (dust), Lith. <fu-mas (mind); sec. root,
Skr. dhup (to fumigate), Gr. Tv<p-wv (a whirlwind), rixp-u) (I

• In these Greek works, however, n may represent an older hv, as we
find in Latin torqu-eo, torc-ulum.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. ' 193

smoke), tu^-oc (mist). Pr. root, I. E. da (to cut), whence
Skr. da (id.), Gr. Sa-iw, Sa-i'c, Sa-<r/ioc» Bat-rv-fiwv ; sec, root,

Gr. BoLTT-TOJ, SoTT-OVr;, SttTT-VOV.

5 (root-det.). Pr. root fri weakened from I E. tra (to
move) ; sec. root, Gr. rpi^-u), L. trih-ula.

Bh (root-det.). Pr. root, I.E. sta (to stand) ; sec. root, Skr.
stambh (to make firm), Gr. a-oT£/j</)-»/c (unshaken), (TTtft[5-(o
(I shake by stamping), A. S. stemii (stem) = stabh + na. Pr.
root, I. E. va (to twine round), whence Skr. va-ydmi (I
weave), Gr. ri-rpiov (the warp), L vimen ; sec. root, Skr.
urna-vdhh-a (a spider, lit. a spinner of wool, Gr. w^-j), u^-
aivu), iKp-ri^-acrfuxi.

F (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. sta (to stand); sec. root,
Skr. sthdv-ara (fixed), Z. s'tavra (strong), Gr. arav-poq, (TTtv-
TO, Goth, stiviti {yirofiovi]). Pr. root, I. E. hha (to shine) ;
sec. root, Gr. (pd-og for (jtaF-og, iEol. (f>av-OQ, Tri-^av-aKto-,
Pamph. ^aj3-oc (= (paf-og), L. fav-eo, fav-iUa, fau-stiis,

J/ (root-det.). Pr. root, I. E. tra (to move); sec. root,
Gr. rplju-w, L. trem-o, trem-ulus. Pr. root, I. E. gva (to go) ;
sec. root, Skr. gam (to go), Z. gam (id.), Goth, quim-an (to
come). Pr. root, I. E. da, (to bind), whence Skr. (Ved.) da
(id.), Gr. Si-Brj-fxi, Be-Tog, Bi-u) ; sec. root, Skr. dam (to tame),
Gr. Ba/i-d(o, B/iat-g, Bd/n-ap, L. dom-Oi E. tame.

§. 98. The primary roots were chronologically older than
the secondary. Some writers support the opposite, and be-
lieve that the so-called primary forms were obtained by ge-
neralization from the so-called secondary. They suppose that
they were originally special terms, for different cognate ideas,
e. g. for yoking horses {yug), coming together for the purpose
of fighting (yudli), &c., and that from these roots was developed
the general idea oi uniting for any purpose (yu). This opinion
is extremely unlikely ; it is far more probable that the sim-
plest form of the root was the oldest, as expressing the funda-
mental idea of all the secondary roots.

The oldest form of an I. E. root was perhaps either (1) d

0

194 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

+ any consonant : or (2) any consonant + a. Thus the most
primitive roots were M, Cik, da, dd, &c. The origin of such
roots is wrapped in impenetrable obscurity, for we have no
remains of any I. E. language in its radical stage to supply
us with materials on which we mi^ht found our investifjations.
We may theorize as much as we like, but that is all that we
can do. It is puerile to dogmatize.*

§. 99. The origin of the root-determinatives is as obscure
as that of the primary roots themselves. Various theories
have indeed been invented to account for them ; but although
a few of them may be explained by these theories, the vast
majority of them are still as dark as ever. Thus it has been
suggested that secondary roots arise from nominal stems, e. g.
I. E. gan (to produce), from a nom. stem gana derived from
R. ga + nom. suffix na ; but in the first place, on this theory,
primitive verbs would be confounded with denominative, and
in the second, very few of the usual root-determinatives ever
• appear as nominal suffixes, e. g./? is a common root-det., but
never occurs as a nominal suffix. Again we are told that
secondary roots are compounded of two primary verbal ones ;
thus I. E. yndh (to fight), is derived from 7/n (to join), and
dha (to place), and consequently meant originally " to make
to join," I. E. kalp (to make), is from kar (to make) + pa (to
do), &c. Thirdly, secondary roots are said to consist of a
primary verbal root + a pronominal root ; e. g. the root de-
terminatives, k, t, m, are identified with the pronominal roots
ka, ta, ma : this is, however, the merest guess-work, and
sheds no light at all on the subject.

We must, therefore, for the present be content to be igno-
rant of the origin of these secondary roots, but we need not

• Here is a specimen of dogmatism with respect to one theory of the
origin of roots. " The onomatopoeic theory goes very smoothly as long as
it deals with cackling hens and quacking ducks; but round that poultry
yard there is a dead wall, and we soon find that it is behind that wall that
language really begins." — Max Muller, Lectures II. p. 91.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 195

give up all hope of being ever able to account for them, for it
is quite possible that at some future period, when the non-
Indo-European languages shall have been thoroughly studied
and their connexion with the Indo-European family discover-
ed, these root-determinatives may be easily explained.

§. 100. Stems.

The stem of a noun or verb is that portion of the word
that remains after the case-endings or personal endings have
been removed. The first class of stems is called nominal^
and the second verbal. Thus the nominal stems of Skr.
devas (nom. sing, a god), as'vasya (gen. sing, a horse), Gr.
tTTTToe, iirirov, L. divus, equus, &c., are Skr. dSva, as'va, Gr.
tiTTTo, L. divo, equo, &c. The verbal stems of Skr. imas (we
go) = Gr. ifitv, Skr. bharati (he bears) = Gr. (pipei, L. vnuSy
are Skr. T, = Gr. t', Skr. bha7'a = Gr. (pepe, and L. I.

Stems may be of three kinds: (1) they may consist of
the root alone, its vowel being sometimes affected by guna
or vrddhi ; (2) of the root + a pronominal sufl&x, the vowel of
the root being affected as in (1) ; (3) of the union of two stems
so as to form a single new one.

I. Stems formed from the root alone* are such as Skr. ^ in
emi{\ go), i in imas (we go), from R. i, the guna of which is e,
Gr. on in 6i// from R. ott, &c. AVe find many examples of no-
minal stems consisting of the mere root, such as Gr. ott, the
vowel of the root being sometimes lengthened as in Skr. vdic
(the voice), from R. vak' (to speak). Thus in Skr. we have yudh
(a fight) , ^sAi^A (hunger), mudQoy), bhi (fear), drs {the eye),
vis (a man), &c., from the verbal roots yudh, kshudh, &c. In
Greek we have ^\oy (^Xo^) from R. <pXey, &c. In Latin we
h&veped {pes = peds) from I. E. pad (to go), voc {vox) = Skr.

* Consult Schleicher Compendium, pp. 346 seq., 374 seq., and Cur-
tius zur Chronologie, &c., pp. 218 seq.

02

196 COMPARATIVK GRAMMAR.

vdky &c. Curtius supposes that the signification of such stems
as these was originally a mean between an infinitive and a
participle, and nearly the same as that of English forms in
—ing; e. g. vis (a man) from vis' (to enter), originally meant
" the entering " person ; drs' (the eye) from (//•b' (to see)
meant " the seeing " faculty ; &c.

In stems of this first class the root was sometimes redupli-
cated, as in Skr. daddmi= Gr. ^i^iofxi, &c.

II. Stems formed from the root + a pronominal suffLe, are
such as Skr. deva (a god) from d^v, the guna-form of 11. div
(to shine), and pronominal suffix a ; Skr. divt/a (celestial; from
div + ya ; Skr. hhdra (a burden) = Gr. ^opo from Skr. hhdr
the guna-form of hhar (to bear) = Gr. ^cp and pron. suffix a ;
Skr. hhdraya, the stem of hhdrayati (he makes to bear) from
hhdr + a + ya, and similar causative forms ; &c.

Before nominal stems were formed from roots by means
of pronominal suffixes, the root itself must have been used
independently as a nominal stem, for the pronominal suffix
has merely an individualizing force, and is nearly equi-
valent to an article. In the earliest stage of Indo-Euro-
pean, language consisted of roots placed in juxtaposition; at
this period there were no stems, no case-endings, no personal
endings, no distinction between noun and verb. The root hhar,
for example, signified " to hear,"" " hearing" " the hitrden,"
'■Hhe hearer," &c. The next stage through which Indo-European
passed was the formation of verbal stems. Nouns were now
distinguished from verbs only negatively, that is, only by the
absence of the pronominal suffixes. This stage again was
followed by another, in which nominal stems were formed by
the addition of these suffixes in order to individualize the root
that had been used as a noun. That the verbal suffixes arc
older than the nominal ones is shown by the fact, that the
latter are preserved in a much more perfect form in the Indo-
European languages than the former ; thus we find the suf-
fixes a, an, ma, ta, &c., still kept perfect in nominal stems,

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 197

■while no single personal ending is found in its original form.*
An additional proof that verbal and nominal stems were
formed at different periods is supplied by the consideration
that, as the same suffixes are in many cases used to form both
classes of stems, a considerable period must have elapsed be-
tween the use of the same suffix in two such totally different
ways. Moreover, as the original meaning of the pronoun is more
manifest in the verbal stem than in the nominal, the former
must have been older than the latter ; thus the pronominal
stem ta (he, she, it) is employed to form the 3 pers. sing, of
the verb, as hJiarati (he bears), and also such nouns as Skr.
sthi-tOr-s (standing) = Gr. (Tra-ro-g, Gr. <f>6p-TO-g, jcot-rr;, L. sec-
ta, doc-tu-s, &c., and it is obvious that its original meaning can
be much more easily discovered from the verb than from the
noun.

Pronominal suffixes are twofold, primary and secondary.
The former are employed in forming stems from roots, and
the latter in forming stems from other stems. Stems formed
directly from roots are called lirimary, and those from stems,
secondary. In many cases these suffixes agree in form : thus
a is a primary suffix in Skr. hhdr-a-s (a burden) = Gr. ^op-o-Qy
Skr. dev-a-s (a god) = L. div-u-s^ &c., and a secondary suf-
fix in Skr. dduhitr-a-s (filiae natus) from St. duhitar, Gr.
riytfi6v-ri from St, riyefiov, &c. ; ya is -a, primary suffix in Skr.
madh-ya-s = Gr. piaarog (for ptQ-yo-g) = L. med-iu-s, Gr. poipa
= poQ-ya, L. exim-iu-s, &c., and a secondary suffix in Skr. pitv
-ya-s = Gr. 7rarp-t-oc> L* patr-ia, &c.

III. Stems formed by the union of two other stems are such as
Grr. Xoyo-ypa<l>0'g, Skr. urna-vdhha-s (a spider), &c. Schleicher
supposes that such compound stems existed in Indo-European,
and adduces as examples I. E. svastar (soror), and svakura
(socer).

§. 101. As there was a period when Indo-European con-

* Curtius zur Chronologie, «S;c., p. 220.

198 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

slsted merely of roots, so there was subsequently another
period when it consisted merely of stems.*

The nominal suflSxes -ant and -tar are found in all the
I. E. languages, and consequently must have existed in the
original Indo-European. Now \i^ ant is composed of the two
pronominal sufExes an and ta, and tar of the two ta and ra,
bharanta, ddtara must have been the original forms of the
stems bharant, ddtar ; and if the case-endings had already
existed, we would have found such forms as bharanta-s (nom.
sing.) in place of bharanta-s (= Gr. iftipwv, Li.ferem, &c.),
bharanta-sya (gen. sing.) in place of bharant-as (= Gr. tpipov-
Tog, L. ferentis, &c.), dcitara-s (nom. sing.) in place ofddtar-s^
ddtara-i (loc. sing.) in place of dutar-i, &c. Now although it
is possible to suppose that bharants came from bharantaa from
analogy with later formations, yet it is impossible to derive
the oblique cases bharantas, ddtari, &c., from bharantasya, dd-
tarai, &c., and therefore before the oblique case-endings
were attached, these stems must have already lost their final
vowel.

§. 102, We have remarked that in the earliest stage of
Indo-European there was no distinction between the noun
and verb. In its latest stage, however, this distinction was
sharply marked, firstly, by the form, and secondly, by the
syntactical construction of each, the verb requiring as its com-
plementary case an accusative, and the noun requiring a ge-
nitive. In Vedic even still many nouns, following the analogy
of the verb, are construed with the accusative.

* Consult Curtius, zur Chronologie, &c., p. 223, whom I have here
closelv followed.

( loy )

CHAPTER VIII.
Substantives.

§. 103. All the Indo-European words are either nouns or
verbs. Nouns include substantives, adjectives, pronouns,
and numerals. Prepositions, adverbs, and particles were
originally cases of nouns or verbal forms. No nominal stem
can be used as a word ; the only example of the pure stem
being found independently is the vocative case, but this case
is not properly a word, being only an interjection. The stem,
subject only to euphonic changes, occurs in the beginning
of compounds, as the representative of all the cases, and con-
sequently it has been called casus generalis : thus we have
Skr. g'alamuch (a cloud), from St. g'ala (water), and much (to
pour), Skr. rathas'dla (a coach-house), from St. ratha (a
coach) and s'dla (a house), Skr. as mriipa (having the form of
ahorse), from St. as'va (a horse) and rupa (shape), Gr. \oyo-
ypd<pog from St. Xoyo and "ypa^uj, Gr. wKOfifiepov from St.
vvKT and rifxipa., Gr. fiuKpoOvfiog from St. jmaKpo and Bvfxog,
L. longimanus from St. longo and manus, L. tubicen from St.
tuba and cano.

In Sanskrit when a noun has two stems, the weaker is
always employed in compounds, as in pitrrdg'a-s (the God
Yama, lit. the king of the Manes) from pitr the weak form of
the stem pitar; and when a noun has three stems, strong, in-
termediate, and weak, the intermediate is the one always em-
ployed in these forms. The Sanskrit grammarians treat as the
true form of the nominal stem, that which is found at the be-
ginning of compounds.

§. 103. There were three numbers in Indo-European,

200 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

singular, dual, and plural. The dual is of later formation than
the plural and derived from it, as is proved by the forms of
its case-endings. In Pali the dual is found only in the words
for two and both, while in Prakrit it is entirely lost. It did
not occur in jEolic Greek, and is lost in Modern Greek. In
Latin it is only found in dtio and ambo (nom. and ace. masc.
and neut.) ; the feminine and the other cases of these two
words are treated as plurals : even duos and arnbos are found
in the oldest poets, beside duo and ambo ; the neuter dua was
used in vulgar Latin, and finally crept into the literary lan-
guage, as in post dua lustra (Orestis trag. 26). There is no
trace of the dual in Umbrian ; N. U. dur (two) has assumed
the plural ending.

§. 104. There were three genders in Indo-European, mas-
culine, feminine, and neuter; the last was called kliva (an
eunuch) by the Sanskrit grammarians. In Semitic and Ha-
mitic, the latter including Egyptian, Ethiopian, Libyan, and
Hottentot, we only find two genders, masculine and feminine,
while no distinction* of gender is found in Tataric (Tungu-
sian, Mongolian, Turkish, Samoyedic, Finnic), the monosyl-
labic languages (Chinese, &c.), the isolated languages (in
Europe, Basque, in Asia, Japanese, &c.), the Polynesian,
Australian, African, and American languages.

The distinction of gender was of course unknown to the

* " It is not accidental (writes C. R. Lepsius, Standard Alphabet,
2nd Ed. p. 89), but very significant, that as far as I know, without any
essential exception, only the most highly civilized races — the leading na-
tions in the historj' of mankind — distinguish throughout the genders, and
that the gender-languages are the same as those which scientifically, by
linguistic reasons, may be proved as descending from one original Asiatic
stock. The development of peculiar forms for the grammatical genders
jiroves a comparatively higher consciousness of the two sexes ; and the dis-
tinction not only of the masculine and feminine, as in the Semitic and
Hamitic languages, but also of the feminine and neuter gender, exclusively
expressed in the Japhetic branch, is only a further step in the same dii-ec-
tion."

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 201

Indo-European in its radical stage, just as it is at present un-
known to radical languages, such as Chinese, &c. Such a
distinction was impossible when language consisted merely of
roots placed in juxtaposition. Moreover, at the period when
verbal suffixes first made their appearance, the difference of
gender was not marked, for had it been so, it would have
shown itself in the verb, just as the same distinction appears
in the Semitic verb, proving that in this latter case the diffe-
rence of gender was marked before the introduction of the
verbal suffixes. The early introduction of the verbal suffixes
in Indo-European also appears from the fact that they must
have been introduced before the difference of number was
marked in the noun, for had there existed at that period a
plural suffix, we would have found it in the verb instead of
such forms as I. E. -masi, -tvasi (or -tasi), -anti, (or -nti)*
for the suffixes of the Jirst, second, and third persons plural
respectively.

We find traces on all sides that originally there was no dis-
tinction between the masculine and feminine gender in Indo-
European; e.g. the words {ot father and mother are formed
with the same suffix (= I. E. -tar) in all the Indo-European
family of languages. The introduction of the neuter gender
took place at a period subsequent to that of the introduction
of the masculine and feminine. That these three genders
were all, however, introduced before the first separation oc-
curred among the Indo-Europeans, is obvious from the agree-
ment respecting them that pervades the whole I. E. family of
languages. Various methodsf were adopted of marking the
difference of gender as well in Indo-European as in the
languages that sprang from it.

* Consult Curtius zur Chronologie der Indo-germanischen Sprach-
forschung, pp. 214, 222.

f I have here followed chiefly Schleicher's arrangement ; see his Com-
pendium, p. 518.

202 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

I. By a Change of Stem.

While no attempt was made to distinguish the gender of
diphthongal and consonantal stems, those in -a, -i, and -m,
were lengthened to -a, -i, and -u, to express the feminine, al-
though this method was only very partially carried out in the i-
and Ur- stems, and there are some important exceptions in those
in -a. In Sanskrit, where the majority of stems in -i and -u are
feminine, we find many both masculine and feminine as papi-s
(the sun) nrtu-s (a dancer), &c., as well as stems, formed from
such roots as dhi (to think), lu (to cut), &c., such as s'uddha-
dhi-s (a man of pure thought), yavalu-s (a corn-cutter), &c.
Besides we find numerous feminine stems, as well as masculine,
in -i and -u ; e. g. mati-s (fem, thought), s'ucld-s (fem.
bright), mrdu-s (fem. soft). The feminines of adjectives in -u
may also be formed by adding t, as mrdvt (nom. fem.), &c.,
except when two consonants precede, as in pdndii-s (fem.
pale), &c. Some adjectives in -u lengthen this vowel in the
feminine, as pdngu-s (fem. lame from St. pdngu), kuru-s (a fe-
male Kuru) from St. kuru, &c. The allocation of the a- stems
to the masculine, and the a- stems to the feminine, was better
carried out than that of the i- and u- stems ; yet we find d in
such feminine forms as Skr. s'ivayd (instr. sing, of s'u'«), &c.,
and a in Skr. s'ivdt (abl. sing. masc. and neut. of s'iva), &c.
In Greek we find masculine stems in -a (jj, a) and feminine
ones in -d (o). Thus we have as masculines, veaviag, tTTTrorijc,
TToXiTjje, &c. ; and as feminines, 17 oBog, ri KiXevdog, and other
names for a road, except 6 (TTtvojirog; 17 vticrogy and the
special names of islands, such as 17 AI<tj3oc» &c. ; names de-
noting a collection, such as 77 "nrirog (a body of cavalry), 17

* We also find in Vedic a nominative plural, both masculine and fe-
minine, in -asas where & is common to both genders, e. g. dhumiisas (masc.)
from St. dhuma (smoke), yag'nusas (masc.) from St. yag'na (a sacrifice)?
puvak&sas (fem.) from;j''DaArt (pure).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 203

Bpoaog (the dew), &c. ; ri XiOog* (a precious stone) ; &c. In
Latin we also find masculine stems in a, and feminine ones
in d (o, u). Thus we have as masculines, poeta, scriba, col-
hga, terrigenaf &c., which originally ended in a, although in
classical Latin this a has been shortened to a, just as in Greek
we find the Epic forms tTrrrora, vs<f)e\r)yepiTa for tTTTrorrjc, ve-
<piXt]yepiTy]Q : and as feminines we have domus, nurus, alvus,
carbasus, mains (the apple tree), pomus (id.), Corinthus, Sa-
guntus, &c., along with many words borrowed from the Greek,
such as atamus, antidotusy dialectus, diametrus, &c. There was
some irregularity among the Komans in their use of the dif-
ferent genders : two forms of the same word often coexisted,
as rainenta beside ramentum, caementa beside caernentum, vimis
{vinus mihi in cerebrum abiit) beside vinum, &c. ; on inscrip-
tions we ^nd eiim sepulchrw7i, hunc munimentum, Corinto deleto,
&c., which prove that in vulgar Latin the distinction of the
genders was often lost; moreover, in classical Latin many
stems in —o are both masculine and feminine, such as colus
(the distafi), papyrus, pampinus (the vine), harbitos (the lyre),
&c. ; vtdgus, originally a masculine a- stem, is sometimes mas-
culine but generally neuter.

In Graeco-Italic timesf the masculine and neuter of adjec-
tives in -OS, -a, -om, were distinguished from the feminine by
the former changing the original a into o : thus we have Gr.
vioQ (m), viov (n.), L, twvos (m.), later novus, novom (n.),
later novum beside Gr. via (f.) and L. nova (f.).

* 6 \i6og is any stone, but Homer twice uses t) X. for 6 A. Names of
precious stones are in general feminine, but we find 6 and j) oiiapaySoQ.

t See Grundriss der lateiuischen Declination von Franz Biicheler (p. 4),
where he remarks that the tendency of feminines to retain the older gram-
matical forms shows itself also in adjectives whose stems ended in -ri, e. g.
Fem. celeris, equestris, salubris, Masc. celer, eguester, saluher, where the
helping vowel e was inserted after the loss of the final -is.

204 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

II. By different Case Suffixes.

S was added to the stem to mark the nominative of the
masculine and feminine genders, while the nominative neuter
was represented by the mere stem, or in the case of the <?-
stems, by the stem + m. In Indo-European times this s
was already dropped in the nom. fem. of the a-stems, as Skr.
luxvd = Gr. via = L. nova. In Sanskrit it is also dropped in
the case of polysyllabic feminine i-stems, as balirii (fem.
strong), except lakshmi-s (the wife of Vishnu), tari-s (a boat),
avi-s (mulier menstrualis, lit. not desiring), tanfrt-s (a lute),
starts (smoke). In Greek and Latin s is also dropped in the
nominative of feminine i-stems, but new suffixes are intro-
duced in its stead, such as -a, -dg in Greek, -cs in Latin, &c.
Sis kept in feminine w-stems in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin,
as Skr. vadhu-s (a wife), bhu-s (earth), Gr. Spvg, avg, L. sus*

The nominative neuter of a-stems was formed by add-
ing m to the stem, as Skr. navam = Gr. viov = L. novom, &c.
In other cases the mere stem, subject to the euphonic laws
peculiar to each language, was used as the nom. neut. : thus
the following stems act as nominatives neuter, Skr. vdri
(water), mrdu (soft), sumanas (benevolent), &c., Gr. I^pi (ex-
pert), yXvKV (sweet), ivfievig, ya\a for -yaXaicr, (Tio/na for awfiar,
Tfpacfor Tipar, &c., \^.mare for mari, facile ^OTfacili, genu, caput,
cor for cord, corpus, &c. Gr. yrjpag is neuter, but the cor-
responding Skr. stem g'arasf (old age) is feminine ; similarly
in Latin rulgus (nearly always neut.) and virus (neut.) corre-
spond to Skr. varga-s (masc. a multitude), and visha-s (masc.

* Schleicher considers that neither i nor fi existed in Indo-European,
and consequently that we cannot speak of I. E. stems in I and a. This is
a question upon which it is difficult to pronounce a decided opinion, on
account of the conflicting evidence, and it may consequently be considered
at present an open one.

f The usual form of this stem is gar A ; g'aras is defective in those
cues, whose case-endings do not begin with a vowel.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 205

poison). In Latin the masc. -5 has frequently penetrated
into the neut. ; thus prudens (St. prudent), concors (St. con-
cord), dives (St. divit), ferens (St. ferent), are both masc. and
neut. The Greek does not permit this confusion of the gen-
ders, for we find <pipov for (fttgovT, riOiv for riOevT, X"P^^^ ^^^
\apiivT beside L. ferens, &c. In Greek, however, we find
two neuter nominatives lengthened, although no -s could have
been lost, viz. irvp from St, ttu/o, and ttov from St. iravr.

D is used as a neuter suffix in the pronominal declension ;
it appears as t in Sanskrit, but the Latin, Gothic, and German
forms prove* that the L E. form was d. In Sanskrit we find
this t in yat (which), tat (it), Uat (this), tyat (this) from ta +
yaty Ved. hat (which) = Skr. kim, it (an old neuter = L. id,
Goth. ita)j found in Icet] (even, if) = k'a (and) + it, and in nH
(lest) = na (not) + it, any at (aliud), itaratX (aliud). We find on
the other hand Z. noid (lest) = Skr. nH, Z. had (quod) = Ved.
hat, Gr. otti = 68 + ti, L. aliud, alid (= aliud), isticd, id, illud,
Goth, ita (it), G. das, was, in which s points back to an older t,
which represents an I. E. <? according to Grimm's law.

A was the Indo-P]uropean case-suffix for the nom. pi.
neuter : thus we have Z. inadhva (or madhava) = Gr. fxidva
from St. fnadhu = Gr. jxiOv, Z. namana = L. nomina, Z. data
(gifts) from St. datS, Gr. 8a»pa from St. ^moo, raXava from St.
TttAav, tS/ota from St. tSpt, L. dona, maria, capita, Goth. 7^am-
7ia (names) = L. nomina, &c. In Sanskrit this a became i ;
as in ndmdni = L nomina, madhu-n-i from St. madhu, ddnd-n-i
from St. ddna = L. doJio, &c.

The genitive singular of masculine and neuter a-stems ends

* Bopp (Kritische Gramniatik der Sanskrita-Sprache, p. 173, note)
supports the view that the I. E. form of this suffix was t, and he considers
the Gothic forms to be exceptions to Grimm's law.

+ Benfey connects Gr. koi with k'et : Kai would then be derived from
an older koi^. Wilson derives Skr. k'et from R. k'it (to think).

:|: Beside itarat we also find Ved. itaram (nom. neut.) , which may be
compared with L. iterum.

206 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

in -5?/a, whereas that of the feminine d-stems ends in -6 ;
thus we have Skr. as'vasya (gen. sing, masc.) from St. as'va,
Gr. "ttttoio for iirirocno beside Skr. as'vciyds (gen. sing, fem.)
from St. as'vd, Gr. xwpdg from St. xwpd.

III. By a Change of the Stem after the Separation of the various
Indo-European Languages from each other.

Thus Sanskrit masculine and neuter stems in -i and -u
insert an euphonic n before a the instrumental case-ending,
as in kavind, from St. kavi (masc. a poet), vdrind from St. vdri
(neut. water), bhdnund from St. bhdnu (masc. the swa),tdlund
from St. tdlu (neut. the palate) beside gatyd from gati (fem.
motion), and dhenvd from dMnu (fem. a milch cow). Sanskrit
a-stems also insert an euphonic n in the masc. and neut. instr.,
but they shorten the final «, and change a of the stem into ^,
as in s'ivena from St. s'iva (masc. the god S'iva), gdtrena from
St. gdtra (neut. a limb), beside s'ivayd = a'iv^ + d from St. s'iva
(fem. propitious). In the Veda we find instrumental forms
without the euphonic n, as inahitvand from St. mahitvana
(neut. greatness), madhvd from St. madhu (neut. honey), &c.
We also find in the Veda such instr. forms as svapnayd from
St. svapna (masc. sleep), kulis'Snd from St. kulis'a (masc. and
neut. an axe).

In forming the genitive of Sanskrit i- and u- stems, we
gunate these vowels, and add merely s for masc. stems, while
for fem. stems we either form the genitive as in the masc. or
we simply add as to the stem, and for neut. stems we insert n
before the final as ; thus wj^ have kaves, gates or gatyds, vari-
nas, bhdnoSy dh^nos or dh^nvds, tdlunas as genitives of the
stems kavi, gati, vdri, bhdnu, dMnu, tdlu. In the Veda, how-
ever, we find sometimes the older form of the genitive, with-
out either the gunation of the vowel, or the insertion of w, as
pas'v-as from St. pas'u (masc. cattle), madhv-as (= Gr. /niOv-og)
from madhu (neut.), ary-as from St. ari (an enemy), as in Gr.
Itpt-OQ from St. iSpt.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 207

The above insertion of n in the instrumental was not Indo-
European, for we find in Zend as'pa = Skr. as'vena, pas'va =
Ved. pas'vd from St. pas'u. Similarly the gunation of i and u
in the gen. of masc. and fern, stems, and the insertion of n in
neuter ones, was not original, as is proved by the Grreek forms
TTiTvoq (fem.) 7r^;^woc (masc) fiiOvog (neut.) tdpiog (masc. fem.
and neut.) woaiog (masc.) ; the gunation of the genitives of
the i- and u- stems, however, occurred before the separation
of the Sanskrit from the Zend, or else the same course was
pursued independently by each of these languages. The
Gothic and Lithuanian present the same gunation of i and
?/, as in Goth, sunaus = Lith. sunaus = Skr. mnos from St.
sunu (masc), Goth, anstais from St. ansti (favor), Lith. awes,
from St. awi (a sheep) : these forms, on the other hand, sup-
port the opinion that the above gunation of i and u was
Indo-European.

I V, By a Change of Case-endings^ originally identical.

Thus in Indo-European the case suffix of the ace pi. was
-ns, while in Sanskrit masc. stems dropped the 5, and feminine
stems the n, the preceding vowel in each case, if short, being
lengthened to compensate for the loss of the consonant; con-
sequently we have s'ivdn, kavin, bhdnun, as aces. pi. of the
masc stems s'iva, kavi, bhdnu, and s'ivds, gatts, dhSnus, as aces.
pi. of the fem. stems s'ivd, gaii, dhSnu.

V. By the Formation of special Ste77is, especially for the Femi-
nine Gender.

Long i was perhaps used as a feminine suffix in the Indo-
European ; in Sanskrit its use as such is very common, as in
d^m (nom. fem. a goddess), from St. deva (a god), dhanavati
(nom. fem. rich) from St. dhanavant, laghvi (nom. fem. light),
from St. laghu, svddvi (nom. fem. sweet), from St. svddn,ddtri

208 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(nom. fem. a giver) from St. ddtar. In Greek this i also ap-
pear-s in feminine forms, but its exact signification seems to
have been lost, and consequently a was added to express the
feminine more definitely : thus we have ri^da for ijStFia beside
Skr. svddvi from St. iJSu = Skr. svddu ; Soretpo for Sorcpya =
SoTEp/ + a beside Skr. ddtri ; aivretpa for atonpya ; Biaiva (a
goddess) for Biavya; XvKaiva (a she-wolf) for XvKavya', tU-
TOiva, \iaiva,* &c., beside tcktwi;, Xlwv, &c. ; Stcnrotva = Bta-
trovya ; irorvia beside Skr. patni (nom. fem. a wife) ; avaaaa
for avaKya beside ava^ ; &c. We also find S added in Greek
fem. stems to this I. E. i to form new stems, as in irpo^OTig,
St. irgo^oTiZ beside TrpoSoVrjC) ^KvOig, St. 'EkvOiB beside Sku-
drjg, lltpaig, St. Tlepaid beside IleperijCj Kaini\tg,f St. KaTrrjXtS
beside Kairr^Xog, al\iJiaX(i)Tig, St. ai\fiaX(i)TiS beside alxfidXio-
Tog, &c. Many Greek masculines have two feminines of both
these classes : as Xytrreipa and Xytrrpig from Xyfrrrig or Xytrrrjp ;
6p-)(r\(TTpia and bp^i\(JTQig from 6pyr]crrr]o ; oXirupa and oXirig
for oXsTptc from oXeriip ; awXjjrpm and auXTjrp/c from auAijrj'/p
or ai»X»jr/je- In Latin i is found in feminine stems, but new
stems were formed by the addition of c, as victinx from St. vie-
trie, genetinx from St. genetrlc beside Skr. g'anitrl (nom. fem. a
mother), &c. This formative c has been identified by some
writers with k in Gr. yvvaiKog, but this is very unlikely. Curtius

• The stems of Xlwv, Qtpamvv, &c., are Xtovr, OtpairovT, &c., of which
the termination -ovt is = I. E. vant. The Greek feminines in -aiva
= -avya, and the Sanskrit ones in -vatiy therefore point back to an I. E.
fem. term, -vanti., or else these different feminine forms were developed
independently after the separation of Greek from Sanskrit. It is even pos-
sible that the Greek form is older than the Sanskrit, and that the Skr. i
is = I. E. -y5.

t Bopp (Sanskrit Grammar, p. 144) adduces as additional proof of
the connexion of Gr. -li with Skr. -f, the fact that the accent in many
Sanskrit feminines in -I changes in the same way as in many Greek femi-
nines in -iS: thus we have Skr. kalmushi' (nom. fem. variegated), nartuhi'
(nom. fem a dancer), Gr. y'lfiipii, ran->;Xi(, &c., all o.xytones, beside Skr.
kahm'i'xha-s^ u'artnha-s, Gr. Hftfpog, KairtiXogy &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 209

considers that the I.E. stem was ganaki, which is very probable,
as we findSkr. g'anaka-s (a father). Bopp supposes that-yupatic-
ineant originally "the figure of a woman," and derives it from
yvvri and R. Ik (to be like), whence come e-otic-a, e-t'ic-rrjvj "ik-
eXocj &c. It is very doubtful whether a was ever added in Latin
to form new feminine stems in -a from original ones in -i, but
some Latin words apparently point to such forms : thus gal-
Una appears to bear the same relation to gallus that Bealva
does to diog^ and if so, it must be for gallaina ; Diana or
Deana, which is found on an inscription, may be for
Deaina, a feminine similarly formed from deus ; regina may
likewise be for regaina, a feminine of rex. If gallaina, Deaina,
regaina ever existed, they were probably for gallantya,
Deantya, regantya, just as \iaiva is for Xeavrt/a beside St.

\tOVT.

§. 105. There were nine cases in Indo-European. These
were the nominative (casus* rectus), accusative, locative, dative,
ablative, genitive,^ two instrumentals and vocative. The last of
these, though not properly a case, and generally in the singu-
lar represented by the mere stem, I nevertheless enumerate
among the cases, following the common custom of doing so.
These nine cases are only distinguished from each other in
the singular : in the dual there are only three different case-
endings, one for nom. ace. and voc, another for gen. and loc.
and a third for dat. abl. and both inst. s : in the plural the

* Casus is a translation merely of Gr. itriHutQ, which meant the in-
clination that one idea had to another, and which was expressed by the
case-ending. The nominative was called rectus {ivQila, dpBf}) because it
stood erect at the beginning of the sentence, and did not depend on any-
thing : consequently some grammarians did not consider it to be strictly a
casus. The Sanskrit term for a case-ending is vibhakti (division), P&n. I.
4, 104 ; V. 3, 1 , sq.

■f The Greek term for genitive is ytviKrj, which meant casus generalis.
Genetivus is properly equivalent to ytvvTjTtKt) and is a mistaken transla-
tion of yfVtKri.

P

210 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

nom. and voc. agree in form, so do the dat. and abl., while
there is only one instr.

The question now suggests itself,* what are the relative
ages of these cases ? This is a question that in the present state
of our knowledge can only be partially answered. The
cases at once divide themselves into two groups,f the first
consisting of the nominative, accusative, and vocative, and the
second of all the rest. That the nom. ace. and voc. are closely
connected together, is shown by the facts, that in the neuter
they are generally all identical, and that they are never inter-
changed with any case belonging to the second division, while
these latter cases frequently interchange with one another : e. g.
in Sanskrit the ablative and genitive frequently agree in form,
so do the genitive and locative dual ; the instrumental is re-
presented in Greek by the dative, and in Latin by the abla-
tive ; -hi is locative in L. ubi, ibi, and dative in L. tibi, this
connexion of the loc. with the dat. is easily imderstood, for
the sentence, " You gave the book to me" (dative), is equiva-
lent to " The place where you deposited the book was I"
(locative) ; again, the genitive and dative are closely allied,
for "she is my daughter" has the same meaning as " she is
daughter to me ;" &c.J

♦ Consult Curtius zur Chronologie der indogermanischen Sprachfors-
chung, p. 250, seq., whose views I have followed in the text.

f Grassraann (iiber die casusbildung in indogermanischen in K. Z.
XII. p. 241, seq.), also divides the cases into these same two groups. The
first group are formed from the stem by the addition of what he calls die
deutende anhiinge, and the second, by the addition of die zeigende anhange :
die deutende are -», -d^ -a, -am, and are all of pronominal origin, die
zeigende are -as, -at, -in, -ana, -bhi, —abhi, -av, and are derived from
prepositions ; these latter, he says, only enter in those cases where a pre-
positional origin is probable, and where prepositions are used to a great
extent in Greek, Latin, German, and almost entirely in the Romance lan-
guages and English. Ahrens calls the genitive, dative, and accusative,
the three logical cases, and he justifies his use of this name by the relation
in which this triad stands to the three chief classes of words, substantives,
adjectives, and verbs.

:( So in Pali and Prikrit maykam dhitu and mama dhitu both mean

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 211

The vocative is the oldest of all the cases, and was origi-
nally merely the stem itself used as an interjection: e. g, Skr.
s'iva (masc.) is both the voc. and the stem, Gr. irpia^v is both
the voc. and the stem which is found in TrQi<T^v-ytvr)Q. Next
to the vocative the accusative, called by Curtius the case with
the M- suffix, was developed ; the suffix probably only acted
the part of an article, and was merely intended to call at-
tention to the word to which it was attached. That the case
with the M- suffix is older than the case with the 8- suffix,
(afterwards the nominative) appears firstly from the fact, that
the nominative of the pronouns frequently ends in m, as Skr.
aham, tvam, ayam, iyam, idam, Gr. iydjv. Boeot. tovv, L. idem,
and secondly from the very extended use of the accusative
which is used in so many different relations, and which con-
sequently must have existed for a long period by itself*

When the case with the M- suffix had been for some time
in use, the want of a suffix, which should distinguish the ani-

my daughter where mayham = Skr. mahyam Cdative), and mama = Skr.
mama (genitive). In modern Greek also we find the genitive used for the
dative, as in <tov \«ya> (I say to thee) ; in Constantinople and Athens, how-
ever, where the best Modern Greek is spoken, ai Xeyw is used in this sense,
while in printed books aol Xeyo) is used.

* Madvig, in his Latin Grammar (§ 222, Obs. 1, p. 197, Fourth English
Edition), explains the connexion of the accusative with the infinitive, on
the ground that the accusative, as the indefinite case, was naturally joined
to the indefinite infinitive expression. " The accusative," he writes, " is
originally the word without further definition or distinction. In the mas-
culine and feminine a peculiar form, the nominative has been devised, in
order to denote the word as a subject (or as the predicative noun), but in
the neuter, the accusative is also nominative. The accusative, therefore
(as an indefinite case), is used in the most simple way, in which a word is
added, to define and complete the predicate expressed in the verb. In the
indefinite infinitive expression, where the connexion between the subject
and predicate is not of itself asserted, the subject and the predicative noun
stand in the accusative, e. g. hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse do-
minum, to be lord."' The derivation of the nominative in the Romance
languages from the Latin accusative, as Fr. pere from L. patrem, It. do-
mino from L. dominttm, supports this view of the nature of the accusative.

p2

212 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

mate from tlie inanimate, began to make itself felt, and the S-
suffix was consequently introduced to satisfy the want. This
S was used to mark both masculines and feminines, and was
evidently derived from the pronominal root sa (he, she).

In the same period, during which the M- and /S- suffixes
were being developed, also arose the D- suffix to mark the
neuter of the pronouns. The introduction of this latter suflSx
probably occurred between that of the M- and that of the S-
suffix.

For a long period the Indo-European was content with
the three cases noticed above, the Vocative, Accusative, and
Nominative ; but gradually there arose the necessity of new
case-endings to express different ideas, and the remaining
cases began to develope themselves. Among these the ge-
nitive singular appears to be the oldest ; it originally ended in
-ST/a, a suffix which is found in Gr. drifi6-<Tio-Q, and which,
perhaps, arose from an older -tt/a* This form was evidently
of adjectival origin, and it is probable that adjectives in -sya
were used to denote the notion afterwards expressed by the
genitive in early times, even before the introduction ofthe3f-
and S- suffixes : in Greek we find one adjective in -sya, viz.,
8tjjuo(t«oc> the stem of which Sr^fioaio is the original of the
Epic genitive Bvfioio. The other genitive suffix -as is con-
nected by Curtiusf with the same pronominal root sa from
which the nominative suffix S is derived, and consequently
points back to an older -asa: the original form of I. E. gen.
vdk-as (Skr. vdk'-as, L. voc-is) was accordingly vdk-asa, just as
the original form of I. E. nom. svana-s (L. sonu-s) was svana-
sa. The compound vdk-asa, in Curtius' view, is therefore
related to svana-sa, as a Tatpurusha compound in Sanskrit

* This is the same pronominal root that appears in Skr. sya-s (he),
syd (she), tyat (it). With this pronoun Bopp connects the Old High
German and Anglo-Saxon article ; see his Sanskrit Grammar, 3rd Ed.
p. 176.

f Consult Curtius zur Chronologic, &c., p. 253.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 213

(i. e. one in which the last word governs the preceding one,
as tatpurusha-s, his man, where St. tat is used for gen. sing.
tasi/a, kumhha-kdra-s, a maker of pots, from St. kumhha, a pot)
is to a Karmadharaya (i. e. a compound in which the first
part is the predicate of the second part, as nila-utpalam, the
blue lotus, from St. nila, blue), vdk-a-sa being thus equivalent
to 6 (rijc) oTTog and svana-sa to 6 (pdoyyog, the suffix in the
first case governing the noun, and in the second, being only
in apposition ; and consequently vdkasa svanasa in conjunc-
tion would mean the sound of the voice, vdkasa being used in an
adjectival sense, and literally meaning vocal. The two ob-
jections that can be brought against this view of the genitive
are first, that the a which occurs before sa in vdkasa is left un-
accounted for, and second, that, while the combination vdkasa
svanasa (= vocis sonus) is quite comprehensible, vdkasa sva-
nama (= vocis sonum) is not so, but that we should expect
vdkama svanama. The first of these objections is of little im-
portance, for a may be merely an adventitious element similar
.to n, that is inserted so frequently in Skr. gen. pi. as in devd-
n-dm, vadhu-n-dm, mdtr-n-am, &c., frc n the stems d^va, vadhu,
mdtr, &c. ; or to i that is inserted ii the loc. pi. of Skr. a-
stems, as in s'iveshu = s'iva-i-shu from St. s'iva. The second
objection is of more importance, and different methods of ob^
viating it may be adopted : the simplest explanation seems to
be that these adjectival forms in -s^/a and -asa are relics of
that period when language had only arrived at the stage of
Htrnis, and that, when their true explanation had been lost,
they became genitives after the introduction of the M- and S^
suffixes, for before these latter suffixes were introduced, the
conception of the genitive could not have been formed. Cur-
tius compares this ancient genitive with the L. cujus, which
is used not only as genitive, but also declined like an adjec-
tive, as cujus pu£r, cuja puella^ cujum pecus.

In the present state of our knowledge, itappears irapossiblQ

214 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

to advance farthei- in the chronolo»ical arrangement of the

o o

cases.

Sanskrit Consonantal Stems.

§. 106. As the case-endings were originally the same for
all stems, we properly cannot speak of different declensions,
but only of different stems. We therefore, classifying stems
according to their final sounds, divide them into consonantal
and vocalic* The declension of stems, ending in i, i, u, u, or a
diphthong, agrees in many respects with that of those ending
in a consonant ; this arises partly from the fact that the vowels
i and it are closely related to the spirants j and u, and are
easily interchanged with them. Consonantal stems in San-
skrit generally end in n, t, s, and r ; the other consonants are
found only in root-stems or those of uncertain origin.

§. 107. Guttural Stems. — These are found much more fre-
quently in Greek and Latin than in Sanskrit. In Greek we
find gutturals ending both root-stems and those of uncertain
origin, as <pXoy, <j>piK, 6vv\y KopoKy &c. ; and in Latin we find
the mending not only root-stems, as due, reg, leg, &c., but also
formative suffixes, as vor-ac, ed-aCy geni-tric, junic, &c. In
Sanskrit we have sarvas'ak (omnipotent, nom. sing sarvas'aky-\

* Grassmann (K. Z. xii. p. 241) divides Indo-European stems into
those that end in a consonant or root -vowel and those that add a stem-
vowel before the case-endings. The declension of the first class of stems
he calls the first declension, and that of the second, the second declen-
sion.

t Sarvas'ak (nom. sing.) is for sarvas'ak + s, because two consonants
are never allowed to end a word in Sanskrit, the last being always reject-
ed, except when the one before the last is r (after which every consonant
is kept, except sh (= s of desiderative forms) as urk, nom. sing, of St.
urg" (strong). The nom. sing, of St. k'itralikh is k'itralik for k'itralikh + s,
final s being first rejected, and then kh becoming A:, as in Sanskrit only
tenues are allowed to end a word, aspirates and mediae consequently having
to pass into the corresponding tenues, in the guttural, cerebral, dental, and
labial rows, as kh, g, gh, into A-. No palatal can end a word ; A-', g', g'h,
generally become k, and k'h becomes /.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 215

from san-a, all, and s'ak, to be able), suvalg (going well, nom.
sing, suval, from su, well, andua/'^, to go), A;'iiraZ«M (a painter,
nom. sing, k'itralik, from k'itra, a picture, and likh, to paint),
lih (licking, nom. sing. lit\ guh (covering, nom. sing ghut),
updnah (a shoe, nom. sing, updnat, from upa = Gr. vtto and
nah, to bind), duh (milking, nom. sing, dhuk), druh (hating,
nom. sing, dhrut or d/iruk)^ &c. No stem ends in it-

§. 108. Palatal Stems. — Vdk' (voice, nom. sing, vdk), ruk'
(light, nom. sing, ruk), g'alamuU (a cloud, nom. sing, g'alamuk,
from g'ala, water, and muk' to shed), prdnk' (the east, nom.
sing, pran), rw^' (disease, nom. sing, ruk), samrdg' (a. king,
nom. sing, samrdt, from sam = Gr. crvv and rdg' to shine), urg'
(might, nom. sing, urk), bhug' (eating, nom. sing, bhuk), khang'
(lame, nom. sing, khdn), prdk'h (asking, nom. sing, prdt, from
pra = Gr. Trpo and I. E. ask), vis' (a man, nom. sing, vit, E.
wight), dis (a region, nom. sing, dik), &c. There are no stems
which end in y or n.

§. 109. Cerebral Stems. — Dadhrsh (bold, nom. sing.
dadhrk), dvish (hating, nom. sing, dvit), mrsh (bearing, nom.
sing, mrk), sitgan (a good reckoner, from su, well, and ga7i, to
number, a denominative verb formed from gana, a multitude,
for garna from I. E. gar, to collect, whence Gr. aydpio).

§. 110. Dental Stems. — Marut (the wind, nom. sing, ma-
rut), g'agat (the world, nom. sing, g'agat), bharant (= Gr. 0e-
povT, nom. sing, bharan = Gr. tpipwv = L. ferens), &c., sulwd
(good-hearted, nom. sing, suhrt, from su = Gr. ev and hrd =
E. heart), pad (a foot, nom. sing, pat), kravydd {one who eats
flesh, nom. sing, kravydt, from kravya, raw flesh, Gr. Kpiag,
L. caro, E. raic, and ad, to eat, Gr. tSu), L. edo), aranyasad
(living in forests, nom. sing, aranyasat, from aranya, a forest,
and sad, to sit), sad (found in the dative d-sad-e, used as an
infinitive, to place one's self), agnim<ith(G.Te-]lghtmg, nom. sing.
agnimat, from agjii, fire, L. ignis and math, to agitate), pa^A
(a way), s'is'rath (found in the dative s'is'rath-e, used as an in-
finitive, from s'is'rath, a reduplicated form of s'rath, to tie, to

216 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

loosen, with which Benfey connects Gr. kXiIjOui, KoXadog, L.
crates, rete, restis), budh (knowing, nom. sing, hhut), kshudh
(hunger, nom. sing, kshut), yudh (war, nom. sing, yut), idh
(found in the accusative sam-idh-am, used as an infinitive, to
set on fire), &c. Stems formed by the suffixes -as, -is, and -us
are common, as sumanas (= Gr. tw/xtvec), k'andramas (the
moon, nom. sing, k'andramds)^ sug'yotis (having good light,
nom. sing, sug'i/otis). suk'akshus (having good eyes, nom. sing.
suk'ashus), &c. We also find stems ending in radical s, as
pindagras (an eater of lumps, nom. sing, pindagras , ixoTcipinda,
a lump, and gras, to eat), supis (walking well, nom. sing, su-
pis from sii, well, and pis to walk), sutus (well sounding, nom,
sing, sutus), dos (the fore-arm), &c. Stems ending in 71 are
also common, as s'van (a dog, nom. sing, s'vd), maghavan (a
name of Indra, nom. sing, maghavd, from maghavant, wealthy),
yuvan (young, nom. sing, yuvd), rdg'an (a king, nom. sing.
rd'gd), &c. Stems in r are also of frequent occurrence, as
gir (voice, nom. sing, gir), dvdr (a door, nom. sing, dvdr), pur
(a town, nom. sing, pur), pitar (father, nom. sing, pitd),
ddtdr (giver, nom. sing, ddtd)^ &c. No Sanskrit stem ends
in I.

§. 111. Labial Stems. — Ap (water, only used in the
plural, nom. pi. dpas, ace. pi. apas, instr. pi. adbhis),* gup
(guarding), kakubh (a summit or a region, nom. sing, kakup),
labh (receiving, nom. sing, lap), rabh (found in the accusative
rabham, used as an infinitive, to desire), div (heaven, nom.
sing, dydus from another stem dyo, ace. sing, divam), pras'dm
(mild, nom. sing, pras'dn from pra = Gr. irpo and s'ain, to
cease, connected by Benfey with Gr. kqju-vw), kram (found
in the dative aii-kram-e, used as an infinitive, to step over).

§. 112. Unchangeable and Changeable Stems. — Nouns with
imchangeable stems have the same form before all the case-ter-

• Bopp (Sanskrit Grammar, p. 136), illustrates the change of the la-
bial media in this word into the dental media by the Dor. ociXoi- =

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

217

minations, subject only to the influence of euphonic laws ;*
e. g. marvi (the wind) belongs to this class, and remains un-
changed.

N.

A.

I.

D.

Ab.

G.

L.

V

Sing.
marut

marut-am

marut-d

marut-e

marut-as

marut-as

marut-i

marut

Dual.
marut-du

marut-du

marud-hhydm,

marud-bhydm

marud-hhydm

marut-os

marut-6s

m,arut-du

Plural.

marut-as

marut-as

marud-bhis

marud-bhyas

m,arud-bhyas

marut-dm

marut-sic

marut-as

Nouns with changeable stems are divided into two classes ;
the first class has two stems, the second has three.

The cases of the first class are divided into the strong
(called by the Indian Grammarians the Anga cases) and the
weak (called by the same grammarians the Pada and Bha cases) .
The strong cases in masculine and femininef nouns are the
nom. and voc. of the three numbers, and thenom. and ace. of
the singular and dual, while in neuter nouns the nom. voc.
and ace. pi. are the strong cases ; all the remaining cases are
weak.

The cases of the second class of nouns are divided into
strong (or Anga)^ intermediate (or Pada) and weak (or Bha).
The strong stem is found in the same cases as in the nouns with
only two stems ; the intermediate stem is found before all
case-terminations beginning with consonants, and in the nom.
and ace. sing, of neuter nouns.

The strong stem is evidently the oldest form, for it is found
in the three oldest cases, nom. ace. and voc. (consult §. 105),

* For the special euphonic laws of Sanskrit, consult Bopp's Sanskrit
Grammar, pp. 36-68, or Max Miiller's Sanskrit Grammar, pp. 9-59.

f Such feminine stems are very rare, and generally occur at the end
of compounds, for the feminines of changeable stems are formed by add-
ing i to the weak stem.

218

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

and in Greek and Latin the strong stems are preserved much
more generally than in Sanskrit, as may be seen from a com-
parison of the declension of the present participle, e. g. Skr.
bharant (bearing) = Or. <pspovT = L. ferent, the weak form of
which stem is hharat :

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Sing. N. V.

hharan

^tpwv

ferens

A.

hliarant-am

<pipovT-a

ferent-em

I.

bharat-d

—

—

D.

bharat-S

(pipovT-i

ferent-i

Ab.

bharat-as

—

ferent-e

G.

bharat-as

^ipOVT-OQ

ferent-is

L.

bharat-i

These Greek and Latin forms at once indicate that the origi-
nal form of the stem was the strong one.

The declension of the participle stem bharant (masc.) illus-
trates that of all stems with two bases ;

Sing.

N. V.
A.

Strong cases.
bharan

bharant-am

Weak cases.

I.

—

bharat-d

D.

—

bharat-e

Ab. G.

—

bharat-as

Dual.

L.

N. V. A.

bharant-du

bharat-i

L D. Ab.

—

bharad-bhydm

Plural

G. L.

. N. V.

bharant-as

bharat-6s

A.

—

bliarat-as

L

—

bJiarad-bhiti

D. Ab.
G.

^—

bharad-bhyas
bharat-dm

L

—

bharat-su

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

219

Neuter.

Strong caues.
Sing. N. A. V. —

Dual. N. A. V. —

Plural. N. A. V. bkaranti.

Weak cases.
hharat

bharat-i

The feminines of these participle stems* are formed by adding
i to the weak stem, as bharati, &c.

The declension of the participle of the prseterite active
illustrates that of stems with three bases ; e. g. rurudvdhs
(having wept) is the strong, rurudvas the intermediate (the
final s of which becomes t if it be either final or followed by
terminations beginning with s and bh), and rurudush the loeak
base.

Masculine.

Strong.

Intermediate.

Weak.

Sing. N.

rurudvdn

—

—

A.

rurudvdhs-am

—

—

I.

—

—

rurudush- d

D.

—

—

rurudush-^

Ab. G.

—

—

rurudu^h-as

L.

—

—

rurudusk-i

Y.

rurudvan

—

—

Dual.N.A.V.

rurudvdhs-du

—

—

I.D.Ab.

—

rurudvad-bhydm

—

G. L.

—

—

mtrudush-Os

Flur. N. Y.

rurudvdns-as

—

—

A.

—

—

rurudush-as

I.

—

i^rudvad-bhis

—

D. Ab.

—

rurudoad- bhyas

—

G.

—

—

rurudush-dm

L.

—

—

* For exceptions to this rule consult Max Miiller's Sanskrit Gram-
mar, p. 81.

220 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Neuter.

Strong. Intermediate. Weak.

Sing. N. A. V. — rurudvai —

[The others are the same as the masculine.]

Dual. N. A. V. — — rurudmh-i

[The others are the same as the masculine.]

Plur. N. A. V. rurudvdns-i — —

[The others are the same as the masculine.]

§. 113. The most important changeable stems in Sanskrit
are the followins; : —

I. Guttural. — Compound stems, whose last element is vdh
(bearing), retain vdh in the f^trong and intermediate cases, but
ruduce it to lih in the weak cases ; e. g. from St. vis'vavdh (the
supporter of the world) we have Sing. A. vis'vavdh-am, PI. I.
vis'vavdd'bhis, but PI. A. vis'vduh-as : in a similar way are de-
clined s'dlivdh (bearing rice), bhdravdh (bearing a burden).
S'vetavdh (a name of Indra, lit. drawn by white horses) differs
from the preceding compounds of vdh in forming its interme-
diate cases from svetavas, from which also the nora. and voc.
sing, are formed, and in allowing the weak cases to be formed
from either s'vetavdh or s'vetduh. The feminine stems of vis'-
vavdh, &c., are vis'vauhi, &c. Anaduh (an ox, lit. a waggon-
drawer, from anns, a waggon and vdh) forms the nom. and voc.
sing, and the nom. ace. and voc. pi. neut. from anadvdns (the
d of which becomes a in voc. sing.) and the remaining strong
cases from anadvdh, the intermediate from anadut and the
weak from anaduh. Updnah (fem. a shoe) forms the nom.
sing, and the intermediate cases from the stem updnat, as
Sing. N. updnat, Dual. I. updnadbhr/dm, PI. I. updnadbhis, and
the remaining cases from updnah : these forms are explained
by the fact that the original form of 7iah (to bind) was twdh,
connected perhaps with Gr. vnOto.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 221

II. Palatal. — Compounds o^ auk' (to go) have either two
or three stems : e. g. prank (directed forwards, eastern) and
avdnk' (directed downwards, southern, from ava, down, and
ank') have each two stems, prank' and avdnk' for the strong,
and prdk' and avdk' for the weak cases ; pratyanic (lying oppo-
site, westward, from prati = Grr. irpori and aiik!), vdanM (di-
rected upwards, northern, from ut, up, and anU), &c., have
each three stems, pratyanlc, udaiik', &c., for the strong, pra-
tyak', udfik', &c., for the intermediate, and prattle, iidik\ &c.,
for the weak cases. Yiiny (binding) forms its strong cases
from yung and its weak from yug.

III. Cerebral. — Sag'ush (a companion from sa, with, and
g'ushf to love) forms its strong and intermediate cases from
sag'ns (u also becoming u) and only its weak cases from
sag'iish.

IV. Dental. — The present and future participle stems* end
in ant in the strong, and in at in the weak cases ; see §. 112.
for the declension of St. bharant, in a similar way to which
are declined future participles, such as ddsyant = Gr. ^tjjaovT.
The present participles of reduplicated verbs use the weak
base throughout their whole declension, except in the Nom.
Ace. and Voc. PI. Neut., where either the strong or the weak
stem may be used : e. g. g'dgrat (waking, from g'dgar, to
wake) and dadat (giving from dd, to give) have as their ace.
s. sing, g'dgratam and dadatam (= Gr. StSoira). G'agat (neut.
the world, lit. moving, an old present participle of gam, to
go) is declined like dadat (neut.), except that it only has
g'aganti as nom. pi. Brhant or vrhant (great) and prshant
(m. a deer and n. a drop of water) are declined like bharant ;
these words are however real participles, the first two being

* Zend, as well as Greek and Latin, keeps the strong stem all through
the declension of participles in -ant ; in some words we find traces of the
weak stem, as In Z. heresant (great) = Skr. brhant, the dat. of which is
birisaite and the gen. beresato from the weak stem beresat, while the ace.
is bire'santtm from the strong stem.

222 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

from brh or vrh (to increase) and the last, which is used in
Vedic Sanskrit as an adjective, meaning speckled, being from
•prsh (to sprinkle). Mahant (great)* is also declined like
bharant, except that the strong cases are formed from mahant;
this word is a participle of mah (to be great) = I. E. magh,
whence Skr. magha (power). In Vedic we find other exam-
ples of ant becoming ant, as in mahant : e. g. Nom. Ace. and
Voc. PI. Neut. of the suffixes mant and vant and the present
participle of as (to be) ; thus we have pas'umdnti (abounding
in cattle), sdnti = Gr. ovra, &c. Stems in vant and mant are
declined like hharat, except that the nom. sing masc. ends in
van and man, whereas the nom. sing. masc. of the participles
ends in an, as nom. sing, agninidn (having fire), udanvdn
(having water) in opposition to hharan. In Greek the vowel
is lengthened in the participles, as Gr. <pip(i)v = Skr. hharan =
L. ferens = Z. harans. Arvant] (m. a horse) is declined like
nouns in -vant, except that the nom. sing, is arvd, as if from
a stem arvan. Kiyant (now much), iyant (so much), bhavant
(Your Honour) are declined like udanvant. In Vedic we find
that the vocatives of stems in -vant and -mant generally end in
-vas and -mas, which point back to an older -vat and -mat.

Pad (a foot) at the end of compounds keeps pdd in the
strong and intermediate cases, but shortens it to pad in the

* In Vedic we find mahihii (ace. sing.) for nwhuntam. Bopp com-
pares to this rejection of nt, that of vr in the Greek participles rv^dt,
'iardc, and he considers fiiyag to be for fiiyavrq, a similar participial form ;
he alse accounts for the short d in niydq by supposing that its participial
origin had been so long forgotten by the Greeks that they shortened the a.

•}• This stem comes from ar (to go) and vant (possessed of), the horse
being so called from his speed : similarly Skr. as'ra-s (a horse) = Gr.
iTTiroc, tKKO(, L. equus is from the same root as Skr. (is'u-s (swift) = Gr.
uiKvc, &c. ; E. horse has also been connected with Skr, k'ar (to move),
L. curro, though it seems better to connect it with Skr. hresh (to neigh),
and to look upon it as an onomatopceic word. L. armentum is perhaps
connected with Skr. nrvant.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 223

weak cases. The participle in -vdris* of the reduplicated pre-
terite has three stems, as we have already seen from the de-
clension of rurudvans in §. 112. Comparative stems in -lydns
preserve these forms in the strong cases, but reduce them to
-lyd'ns or -yas in the intermediate and weak cases ; e. g. from
yaviydns (younger) we have nom. sing, yavtydn, ace. pi.
yaviyasas, instr. pi. yaviydbhis, &c. The termination of the nom.
sing, is -iydn = Gr. iu)v = L. zor (the o of which is only shortened
when r is final = 0. L. -ids), all of which forms point back to
-iydns as the termination of the nom. sing, in Indo-European.
The feminines of participles in -vdhs and comparatives in
lydhs are formed by adding i to the weak base, as rurudushiy
yaviyasi. Pumahsf (a man) forms the strong cases from pu-
mdns, the intermediate from pum and the weak from puns.

* This suffix = I. E. vant which meant having, provided with, &(i. Its
use to express the idea of the perfect tense is similar to that of the auxi-
liary verb have in Enghsh : udanvant (having water, the ocean) is a per-
fectly similar form to rurudvant (having roared). We find -vant in Gr.
pipr (nom. sing. masc. -F"C, fem. -ptava- = -^ivrya, neut. -F<»'), as
vi^o-^tvT, &c., and in Lat. -osus = -onsus = -vant-a-s, as formdsus for
formonsus, &c. Similarly we find -vant in perf. part, in Gr. as \tkonr-u)i =
XtXotir-For-c (m.) X«Xo«jr-wio = \t\onr-vaya = XtKoiir -pavrj/a (f.) XtXonr-OQ
= XfXojw -poT (n.) : the only case of -vant being used to express the per-
fect in the Italic languages is the very doubtful one of the Oscan perfect;
e. g. prufatted, 3. sing. perf. (probavit), prnfattens, 3. pi. perf. (probave-
runt) are supposed to be for prufat-fed, prufat-fens, where ye«? andy^re*
come from root fu (to be) and prufat is supposed to be the participle
pret. and = profa-vot, vot being = Gr. ^or. Consult Schleicher's Com-
pendium, p. 834.

f Puvidhs is derived by Benfey from api (= Gr. » Tri, L. ob) and man
(to think) + t. This is a very unlikely account of the word. It is much
more probable that it is derived from an old root pu (with the suffix
-manf) whence come Skr. pu-tra-s (a son), po-ta-s (the young of any
animal) . Pu meant to grow, and from it arose in Sanskrit the secondary
verb push (to nourish) . This root perhaps is the origin of a very numerous
class of words in Greek and Latin, as Gr. va'iQ (for Trap-t^c) for which
iravQ and irovq are found on inscriptions, TrdiXoc (for ttoF-Xoc), ttoi-'iio, w6-a,
no'-ia, L. pu-er, pa-pav-er, po-mum {for pov-mum), pr<B-pu-tium, &c.

224

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Stems in -ati, -man, -van* form their strong cases from
-an, -man, -van, their intermediate form -a, -ma, -va, and
their weak form — n, —mn, -vn : e. g. rag an (m. a king) and
ndman (n. a name) are thus declined :

[St. rdg'dn'].

Sing.

Dual.

PI.

N.

rdg'd

rdg'dn-du

rdgdn-as

A.

rdg'du-an

rdg'dn-du

rdg'n-as

I.

rdg'n-d

rdg'a-hhydm

rdg'a-hhis

D.

rdgJi-S

rdg'a-hhydm

rdg'a-hhyas

Ab.

rdg'n-as

rdg'a-hhydm

rdg'a-bhyas

G.

rdg'n-as

rdg'n-os

rdg'n-dm

L.

rdg'n-i

rag' n- OS

rdg'a-su

V.

rdg'an

rdg'dn-du

rdg'dn-as

[St.

ndman"] .

N. A. V.

ndma

ndmn-i

ndmdn-i

I.

ndmn-d

ndma-bhydm

ndma-bhis

D.

ndmn-i

ndma-bhydm

ndma-bhyas

Ab.

ndmn-as

ndma-bhydm

ndma-bhyas

G.

ndmn-as

ndmn-os

ndmn-dm

L.

ndmn-i

ndmn-os

ndma-su

The locative sing, of these nouns may also be rd^ani and
ndmani; the voc sing, of ndman may also be ndman and its
nom. ace. and voc. dual also ndmani.

The femininesf of rdg'dn and similar stems are generally
formed by adding I to the weak stem, as rdg'nl (a queen).
Nouns in -vdn form their feminines in -varl, as pivdn (m. fat) =
Or. TTi'wv, pivarl (f.) = Gr. irUipa, lliepia, &c. Feminine stems
in -an, such as ddmdn (f. a rope) are declined like rd^dn.

• For special peculiarities in the declension of these stems consult
Bopp's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 129, seq., or Max Miiller's Sanskrit Gram-
mar, p. 85, seq.

f For special rules see Max Miiller's Sanskrit Grammar, p. 87, seq.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

225

S'van (ra. a dog), yuvan (m. young), and magkavan (m. a
name of Indra, lit. mighty) form their strong cases from s'vdn
yuvdn, maghavdn; their intermediate from sua, yuva, maghava ;
and their weak from sun, yun, maghon.

For other examples of changeable stems in — n Bopp's
Sanskrit Grammar (pp. 130-134) may be consulted.

Stems in -tar and -tdj^ form their strong cases from -tar
and -<dr, and the remainder from -^rand -tr: e. g. ddtdr (m.
a giver), pitar (m. father), mdtar (f. mother) are thus de-
clined.

Singular.

N.

ddtd

pita

maid

A.

ddtdr-am

pitar-am

mdtar-am

I.

ddtr-d

pitr-d

mdtr-d

D.

ddtr-i

pitr-S

mdtr-S

Ab. G.

ddtur

pitur

mdtur

L.

ddtar-i

pitar-i

mdtar-i

V.

ddtar

pitar

mdtar

N. A. V. ddtdr-du
I. D. Ab. ddtr-bhydm
G. L. ddtr-os

Dual.

pitar-du

pitr-hhydm

piir-08

mdtar-du

mdtr-hhydm

mdtr-os

Plural.

N.

V.

ddtdr-as

pitar-ai

mdtar-as

A.

ddtr-n

pitf-n

mdtf-s

I.

ddtr-bhis

pitr-bhis

mdtr-bhis

D.

Ab.

ddtr-bhyas

pitr-bhyas

mdtr-bhyaa

G.

ddtr-ndm

pitr-ndm

mdtr-ndm

L.

ddtr-shu

pitr-shu

mdtr-shu

226 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

The locatives pitari and mdtnri are treated as strong cases,
while the corresponding Greek datives naTpi and jUJjrpi have
become weak.

Bopp considers that the term, of the abl. and gen. sing.
-ur is for -urs, and that this is derived by metathesis from
-rus, which represents an older -ras : pitr-as would be ex-
actly = Gr. Trarpoc- This view is supported by Zend, in which
we find ddthro (gen. sing.), which has arisen from ddthras.

V. Labial. — Ap (f water), only used in the plural, forms
its strong cases from dp, and its weak from ap, which becomes
ad when followed by bh. Div (f sky) forms its nom. and voc.
sing, from dr/6, its intermediate cases from di/u, and all the
rest from div.

§. 114. The division of cases into strong and weak mani-
fests itself remarkably in the accentuation of monosyllabic
nouns, of which the strong cases retain the accent on the
stem, while the weak have it on the case-ending. In this
law of accentuation Greek in general agrees with Sanskrit,
and it has consequently been inferred by Bopp that the di-
vision of the cases into the strong and the weak had already
partially begun in Indo-European times. As far as the ac-
centuation is concerned, the accusative plural ranks as a strong
case : this fact points back to the time when the ace. pi. was
in every respect strong, as it must have been in early times
on account of its being older than all the other cases (except
the vocative). In the Veda we also find traces of its having
been strong, as in the ace. pi. pitdras (= Gr. Traripag) for
which in later Sanskrit we &nd pit /-n. The declension of the
Sanskrit stems ndu and vdk', as compared with that of the
Greek stems vav and on-, illustrates the agreement of Sanskrit
and Greek in the accentuation of the cases :

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

227

Singular

N. V.

nd'us

vaifQ

vd'k

6\p

A.

nd'vam

vTJa

vdfk'am

oira

I.

ndvd'

—

vdkd!

—

D.

ndvS'

—

vdJdi

^-

Ab.

ndvde

—

vdk'as

—

G.

ndvds

vdo'c

vdk'a's

OTTOg

L.(Gr.

D.)

ndvi

vat

Dual

vdk'i

oiri

N. A.

V.

nd'vdu

vae

vak'du

ove

I. D. Ab. 1
(Gr.G.D.)j

y nduhhyd'm

vaoiv

vdgbhydm

oiroXv

G. L.

ndvos

Plural.

vdk'oa

—

N. V.

nd'vas

vaec

vd'k'as

OTTJC

A.

nd'vas

vaac

vd'k'as

OTTOC

I.

nduhhis

—

vdgbhis

D. Ab

nduhhyds

—

vdghhyds

G.

ndvcHm

vaijjv

vdk'd'm

oirwv

L.(Gr

.D.)

ndushu

vavcri

vdkshu

6xpi

In the declension of vavg given above I have used generally
the Doric forms as being nearer to the Sanskrit, on account
of their having kept the original a, except in the ace. sing.,
where the Ionic vrja is nearer to nd!vam than the Doric vavv
or vav-

There are some exceptions to the foregoing law of accen-
tuation in Sanskrit : e. g. go (m. f. an ox, cow), s'van (m. a dog),
krunk' (m. a plover) always keep the accent on the stem-
syllable. The same is the case with rag' (m. a king), krt
(making), and roots in a, such as dhmd (to blow), when occur-
ring at the end of compounds, except in the vocative, where
the accent is thrown as far back as possible, as in sdnkhadh-

q2

228 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

mas, voc. sing, of St. s'ankhadhmd (m. a shell-blower). In the
Greek stems /Sou and icup, corresponding to Skr. go and «'ran,
the accent, however, follows the general rule : thus we have
Kvvi = s'wie, Kvvo^ = s'unas, kvvoXv = s'vdhhydm, Kvviov = s'lindm,
Kvai = s'vdsu, fioi = gdvi, /3ootv = gohhyam, /3owv = gdvdm,
(iovai = goshu. In div (f. heaven) the accent is kept on the
stem in the intermediate cases, as in the instr. pi. dyuhhis ; in
the intermediate cases of nar (m. a man), the accent may fall
either on the stem or on the case-ending, as in dat. pi.
nrbhyas or nrhhyds. In the Greek arjjp, corresponding to
Skr. war, the accent is kept on the £ whenever it appears as
in ai/f'pt, avf'pa, avipivv, but in the weak cases, when the e is
lost, the case ending is accented as in Sanskrit ; thus we have
Gr. av^pi = Skr. naH, &c.

The following Sanskrit monosyllabic stems accentuate the
case-ending of the accusative plural, like those of the other
weak cases : ap (f. water), dat (m. tooth), div (f. heaven), nas
(f. nose), nis' (f. night), pad (m. foot), puns (m. man), mas
(m. month), path (m. path), math (m. churning-stick), rdi
(f. riches), and uh (for vdh at the end of compounds), suhrd
(m. friend), and other compounds of hrd (n. heart). The
Greek presents an older form than the Sanskrit in woBag =
Skr. padds, while in the other cases the accentuation is the
same, as in ttoSi = padi, irodog = padds, TroSuiv =padam, iroaal
= pntm.

It has been already remarked that the opinion is main-
tained that the distinction between the strong and weak cases
in monosyllabic stems had already begun in Indo-European
times. Now, if such a distinction had then manifested itself,
and if it had begun in a difference of accentuation, it would
be quite natural to expect that the Greek stems /Sou and kvv
Bhould be accented in the same way as the Skr. stems g6 and
tlvan, but this, as we have seen, is not the case ; for in Sanskrit
these stems are accented throughout their whole declension,
whereas in the Greek corresponding stems the accent is placed

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 229

on the case-endings of the weak cases. It is then safer to
suppose that, when the Greek and Sanskrit separated from
each other, there was no distinction (as far as monosyllabic
stems were concerned) between the accentuation of the strong
and that of the weak cases, and consequently, as we shall see,
only one form of the stem (i. e. the strong one) existed. It
is, however, evident that certain latent tendencies already
existed in Indo-European, which afterwards bore similar
fruits in Sanskrit and Greek.

Before the first separation of any Indo-European language
from the parent stock, the only law of accentuation that
existed was this, that the root-syllable should always have the
accent. Consequently in the declension of monosyllabic stems
the accent always fell upon the stem, which preserved the
strong form in every case. In process of time, but not till
after the first separation that occurred in the Indo-European,
the accent began to move towards the termination, and con-
sequently, as generally happens to unaccented syllables, the
stem became shortened in form. The initial consonants*
{bh and s) of the intermediate case-endings preserved the ac-
cent on the stem in these cases for a longer period than it re-
mained on the stem in the weak cases, and consequently these
cases frequently preserve a stronger form of the stem than is
found in the weak cases. The accentuation of the interme-
diate cases o£ div (e. g. instr. pi. dyuhhis, &c.) is a relic of the

• Oxytone stems of the part. pres. active allow the accent to fall on
the case-ending in the weak cases, while in the intermediate cases the ac-
cent is kept where it originally was, as the consonantal combinations dbh
and ts prevent it passing over them : thus from St. tuddnt (striking) we
have instr. pi. tudddbhis, loc. pi. tuddtsi beside instr. sing, tudata, &c.
Similarly the consonantal conjunction nt prevents the accent moving on
to the final syllable in nom. and ace. dual neuter tuddnti, whereas in the
side form of the same cases tudati' the accent advances. In participles
such as 6Aara«< (bearing) the accent remains on the root syllable through-
out the whole declension.

230

COMPARATIVE GRAIIMAR.

time when the accent in these cases still remained on the
stem ; •while that of nr'hhyas or nrhhyds (dat. pi. of nar) points
to the time when the accent in the same cases was moving on
from the stem to the case-ending. The monosyllabic pro-
nouns and the numeral two also retain the accent on the stem
in Sanskrit in the weak cases : thus we have teshu = Gr. roiai
td'su = Gr, Toiai, yeshu = Gr. oTcti, mdhyam = L. mihi, iubhyam
= L. tibi, mama (gen. sing, oiahdm, I), dvd'bhydm = Gr, ^volv,
which latter has become weak beside the nom. Suo, which is
still strong.

Sanskrit Vocalic Stems.

§. 115. Stems ending in a (m. and n.) and a (f.) are very
numerous ; e. g. s'iva [which as an adjective means prospe-
rous, while as a noun Siva (m.) is the god Siva, s'iva (f )
his wife, and s'icam (n.) happiness~\ is thus declined :

Singular.

Masc

Fern.

Neut.

N.

is'ica-s

s'iva

s'ivam

A.

s'ivam

&imm

sii^avi

I.

s'irena

sivayd

sivina

D.

s'irdya

sUvdydi

s'ivdya

Ab.

s'ildt

sitdyds

s'ivdt

G.

s'ivasya

s'ivdyds

s'ivasya

L.

site

s'ivdydm

sivi

V.

s'iva

s'ivi
Dual.

s'iva

Masc.

Fem.

Neut.

N.A.V.

s'ivdu

s'ivi

s'ive

I. D. Ab.

s'ivdhhydm

s'irdhhyam

s'ivdhhydm

G. L.

s'irayos

s'ivaySs

s'ivayos

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

231

Plural.

Masc.

Fern.

Neut.

N.

V.

s'ivds

s'ivds

s'ivdni

A.

s'ivdn

s'ivds

s'ivdni

I.

s'ivdis

s'ivdhhis

s'ivdis

D.

Ab.

s'ivSOhi/as

s'ivdbhyas

s'ivebht/as

G.

s'ivdndm

s'ivdndm

s'ivdndm

L.

s'ivishu

s'ivdsu

s'ivSshu

The declension of these stems corresponds to that of maluSy
mala, malum in Latin, and ayaOog, ayaBi], ayadov in Greek.

Stems ending in a, both masculine and feminine, are de-
rived from verbal roots ending in d, as s'arik/iad/imd (m. f. a
shell-blower), from saiikha (a shell, Gr. Koyxri) and dhmd (to
blow). The strong and intermediate cases of this stem are
formed from s'arikhadhmd, and the weak from s'ankhadhm.
The neuter stem is s'arikhadhma, which is declined as s'iva (n,),

§. H6. Stems in i, I, u, u. We find masc. fem. and neut.
stems in i and m ; e. g. kavi (m. poet), gati (f. motion), vdri
(n. water), &c. ; bhdnu (m. the sun), d/ienu (f. a milch-cow),
tdlu (n. the palate), &c. We find stems in i and m, both masc.
and fem., derived from verbal roots such as krt (to buy), lu
(to cut), &c. ; these stems are of course monosyllabic. We
find other polysyllabic stems in i and u, also masc, such as
papi (m. the sun), nrtil (m. a dancer), &c. In general stems
in i and H are feminine, such as bhi (f fear), bhu (f. earth),
vadhu (f. a wife), &c.

§. 117. The chief diphthongal stems are rdi (m. f. wealth,
L. res), go (ra. an ox, f. a cow), dyo (f. heaven), ndu (f. a ship),
gldu (m. the moon).*

* For the special rules respecting all Sanskrit Vocalic stems consult Max
Miiller's "Sanskrit Grammar," pp. 96-115, and Bopp's "Sanskrit Gram-
mar," pp. 109, scq.

232 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

GREEK CONSONANTAL STEMS.

§. 118. Guttural Stems.

The nom. sing of these stems ends in ^.

I. Stems ending in k : KopoK (m. a crow), Spaic (f. the hand,
connected with ^paaao/^at, Bpaxni), ^paj/xai ^apK-eg, meaning
bundles according to Hesychius), OwpaK (m. a corslet), /3Aaic
(weak, connected with fiaXoKog), aXwiriK (f. nom. sing. aXwrrnK,
where e irregularly becomes t) ; this word is perhaps derived
from aXwirog which meant ci'aft, Hesych.), jt^ijk: (m., derived
from Curtius from the same root as L. vespa, by the addition
of the individualizing suffix k, which is found in iipa^ beside
hpog, pvofxx]^ = fivpfiog, an ant, aXwwr]^ beside aXaiTTo'c, &c. ;
the stages through which the original vaspa passed were ac-
cordingly FeffTra, FtairuK, cnraK, Ion. ctttt/k:, a<pr]K, as tt is aspi-
rated through the influence of <t), xoivik (f), 0otv7(c(m. and f.
nom. sing, (polvi^, where the i is irregularly shortened as in
Kripv^ from St. KtjjoiJic), yvvaiK* (f. nom. sin. yvvrt, voc. yvvai ;
this noun is also declined as an a-stem, as ace. sing, yvvriv
ace. pi. yvvag, &c.), &c. These K-stems are very common in
Greek, and are either root-stems such as Trraic (f. ace. sing.
TTTaica, a hare, found in^sch. Ag. 135) from R. Trraic, whence
i-TTTaKov, 7rr/j<rffo = Trrrjic-yai, tttu)^, or stems of uncertain origin
such as KOpaK, vedic (m. a young man), &c. The k of these
latter stems may however have arisen from an older ko = I. E.
ka, a very common suffix ; thus fiaXaKog became juaXaicc> and
then fiXa^, and finally j3X<i^, as (^ootoq from fiporog. Many
ic-stems exist side by side with ones in ko or kyj : thus oIk in

• rvpaiK is accented in the oblique cases like monosyllabic stems, such
as Ajt, see §. 114; thus as the strong cases we have ywa'tKa, ywaiiKt,
yvvaiKiQ, yvvatKac ] and as the weak, yvraiKoQ, yvvaiici, yvvaiKo7v, &C. :
ywvaie may either be for ywnKi = I. E. ganaki, the fem. oi ganaka, whence
Skr. g'anaka (a father) ; and as the accent generally is placed on the fem.
termination -f, it may be kept here on it, although transposed, or else it
may be derived from ywa + R. « (to be like), and declined as a root-
stem. This latter derivation is improbable, as the R. ik was originally Pik.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 233

oiic-a-Se beside otico, uXk in uXki for oXk^ from oXkti, Iwk in
IwKa for ItoKriv from (cuk??, KpoK-a for KpoKrjv from ic/ookt}, Xan-ac
(^apayyag, Hesych.) beside AaKKo-f (ra. a lake). Moreover
in the dialects we find a similar connexion between the K-and
the KO-stems : thus we have Ion. <pv\aKO-g = <pv\a^, Ion.
^plKr\ = 0/O(^j -^ol. lipaKO-g = iipa^, y\avKO-g = yXau^, avXa-
KO-g = avXa^.

II. Stems ending in y : apiray, pay (f. a berry), fiaarly
(f. a whip ; Homer uses paavL as the stem whence dat. fidan,
ace. juaaTiv), ^Xoy (f. from R. (pXsy = Skr. bhr4g', to shine),
St^uy (m. f. having two yokes), S^tyy (f. the Sphinx, lit. the
strangler : this stem becomes Otic in Boeotic, nom. sing. Ot^),
aiy (m. f. for ayi = I. E. agi, a she-goat, beside Skr. ag'a-s, a
he-goat, from R. ag = Skr. ag', to move, when Gr. ay-tjj, L.
ago), &c. &c.* There appears to be some connexion between
the -y-stems and those in -yo and -yri, but not so close as the
connexion between the K-stems and those in -ko and -kij ; thus
we find <ltvy in ^vy-a-de beside tpvyn, apna^ (f. = apirayri in
Hesiod), ^ol. "ipirayog = apwa^, alyo- (= aiy) foimd in Boeot.
riyvg, i. e. a^iyoig for ai^i.

III. Stems eliding in ^: j3i)X (f- ^ cough), rpix (f nom.
sing. Opi^), opvix (m. f. Doric for opviO, beside which in Pin-
dar we find stem opvi), crrix (f. a row), tttvx (f- a fold), ovvx
(m. a nail), &c.f There appears also to be some connexion
between these stems and those in -xo and -^jj ; thus we have
TTTv^ beside tttu^^t), ort^ beside arixo-g, ayx'^v (the gen. of an
old ^o-stem) beside ayx-i- (t^G loc. of an old ;^-stem) ; ovvx '^^
probably derived from an older bwxo = I. E. nagha, whence
Skr. nakha-s (m. a nail), L. unguis, Lith. naga-s (id.).

* Uv% (with the fists) may be a shortened dat. pi. from a stem ttw}-,
connected with irvy-u)v (an ell), wy-ixr) (the fist), L. pug-nus, pug-il, &c.
Consult Curtius, Grundziige, &c., p. 258.

f n\i? (f. ^ijna), appears to be from the stem ir\ix ; compare 7rX«x-ac
(interferainium). 'Ayx-i may be the loc. of an old stem ay^, connected
with ayxw, axoc, L- angustus, anxius, &c.

234 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

§. 119. Dental Stems.

I. Stems ending inr: yaXaicT (n. nora. sing yaXa), vvkt
(f. nom. sing, vu^), /ucXtr (n. nom. sing. f^iXt), repar (n. nom.
sing. Ttpag), dair (f. nom. sing. Saig), ictpar* (n. horn, nom.
sing. KipaQi dat. pi. Kipaat, but Kipdrog, Kipari, &c.), Kpear (n.
meat, nom. sing. Kpiag), "Xpf^T (m. nom. sing. xP^^)i *P*^^
(m.), X"/"''t (f- nom. sing, xa/o'c)) ovtipar (n. found in gen.
sing. 6v£ipaT-oC) nom. pi. oviipar-a beside nom. sing. 6vstpo-g,
m. a dream), irpoatovar (n. found in dat. pi. irpoawira-ai be-
side irp6<ru)iro-Vi n.), -yovFar (n. the knee, nom. sing, yow,
gen. sing, yovvarog and yovarog = yovFarocj &c. : 70i'u is
also declined as an v-stem, from which the former stem yov-
Far has been derived by means of the individualizing suffix
OT, thus, gen. sing, yovvog = yovvog, ace. pi. yovva = yovva),
dopFar (n. a spear, nom. sing. Sopv, gen. sing. Bovparog and
Boparog = SopFarocj &c., Sojou is also declined as an v-stem,
thus gen. sing. Bovpog = Sopvog, &c., and as a p-stem, thus
gen. sing. Bop-6g, dat. sing. Sop-(, and perhaps as a ff-stem,
thus dat. sing. Bopei = dopsa-i, ace. pi. Soprj = Sopta = So/oter-a),
d>r (n. the ear, Ion. ovar, nom. sing. o5c>t Ion, ouac, gen.
sing. u)T-6g, Ion. ouar-oc : Curtius supposes that the ori-

* The stems Kipdr, Kpiar, xP^^i iJpwr, ytXur, (fee, appear to have side
forms ending in t : thus (ctpwc (gen. sing, of rfpac) = Ktpaoc = Ktpaa-og, Ktpgt
(dat. sing.) = (ctpaV = Ktpaa-i, xpo^ (dat. sing, of xpwe) = xpoo-i, y'i\i» (ace.
sing, of ysXwc) = ytXoo = yeXoff-o, &c. Beside tpwr we find the stem ipo,
whence comes ace. sing. tpov.

\ Beside such stems as x«P«'" *Qd other dental stems ending]in -iS, -i9,
-vf, -v9, which are not oxytone in the nom. sing., other stems are found
ending in -t and -v ; thus we find x^ptr-a = x^p^-v, ipti-a = tpi'v, Bhtl-
of = eirt-oc, &c. : in the case of oxytone stems no such side forms exist,
and we only find such forms as i\iriS-a, x^af^vl-a, XafirrdS-a, &c.

t Ouc may be connected with Skr. av (to desire), Gr. d-tui (I hear), d-
iTt {iKomri, Hesych.), L. aveo, au-dio, &c. The sufHx ar appears also
in stem aXar (salt), whence dat. pi. dXaaiv.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 235

ginal form of wr was ava-ar, ar being the same suffix that
appears in ^opv-ar and yovvar, and he connects with it L. aur-
is for aus-is, cf. aus-cidto, Goth, aus-o, the ear, Lith. aiis-is,
id.j ; Std/xar* (n. bonds, nom. pi. diafiar-a beside dacrfxog, m.),
atjifiaT (n. nom. sing. cr(l)fia), ofifxar (n. for oir-fjiar, ^o\. oTTTror,
nom. sing, ofi/jia), eifiar (n. for ka-fiar, .^ol. Ififiar, nom. sing,
eljua), &c. ; participial stems in -avr, -svt, -ovr, -uvr, such
as ^jj3avT, /3ayr, TV\pavT, ridtvT, Oevr, /3Xi}0£vr, tutttovt, St-
SovT, SftKPi'vT, &c, ; stems, which perhaps were originally par-
ticiples, such as Fficovr (willing, from R. Ffic = Skr. vas', to
wish), OepairovT, Xeovr, 'AtXovt (lit. the bearer, from R. toX
= Skr. tuly to bear, cf. rX^-vat, raXa-g, &c.), Xw»ca/3avr (the
year, lit. the course of light), oSovr (lit. the eater, from R. IS,
to eat, nom. sing, o^ovg, cf. StSouo nom. sing, of participial
stem BiSovt), &c. ; tpwr (m. a man, nom. sing (pwg) may be
an old participle of R. <j)v (to produce), and = (poFar (lit. the
producer), cf. Skr. hhavat (being) from R. hhu (to be) ; par-
ticipial stems in or = For, such as tvTafor (nom. sing, karawg),
XcXuKor (nom. sing. \tXvKwg), &c. ; stems in -Fcvr (nom.
sing. m. -F€<c> »• -Ftv, f. -Ftaaa = -Ptrya from the weak form
of the stem -Fer = Skr. -vant\ (full of, provided with), such as

• Stems in -/xar are very common, and have arisen perhaps from older
Jorms in -fiavr, traces of which are found in the cognate adjectival and
other stems in -/tov, and in verbs ending in -fiaivio ; thus we have tv-
iinov (well clad) beside tifxar, dvoftar, beside ovojxaivii) = 6vofiavTi/o>, \ufiaT
beside xtifuvv and xf'A'"'*"^ (compare Skr. heman, m. winter, and hemanta,
m. and n. id.). That verbs in -atvco originally possessed t appears not
impossible if we compare v^aana and fiiacffia, which arose from ixparfia and
/«ar/<a, with u0atr(K and ftiaivu). This connexion of -/*ar with -/iajr is
supported by comparing dvoftar with L. cognomen and cognomentum, te-
gumen with teffumentum, &c.

f Uarr (nom. Traj, vaaa, vav) appears to contain this suffix, and to
point back to an I. E. hvd-vant or kvu-vanta, whence L. quantu-s, U.
panta. Kvuvan meant "how much," just as Skr. tuvant meant "so
much'''' (cf. L. tantus) and yavant. "how much.^^ llaaa {Mo\. iraiaa)
arose from iravrya through the steps navr-za, iravT-aa, irav-aa : a in nav
is irregularly lengthened ; it is short in dnav.

236 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

PpoToPtvT (full of blood), SoXoFeit (crafty), &c. ; stems in -apr
(the nom. sing, of which ends generally in -ap, and sometimes
in -wp, whereas the oblique cases reject p*, and are formed
from stems in -ar, except Safxap, f., the oblique cases of
which are dapapr-og, ^apapT-i, &c., compare Sopopri-g = Sa-
pap, Hesych.), such as tppidr for <ppeapT (n. a well, gen. sing.
^oidrog and ^p-qrog, nom. pi. Hom. <ppudTa, Att. tppiaTa),
TfiraT for ijTrapT = Skr. yah't (n. the liver), oKopr (n. dung,
nom. sing. (TKU)p) = Skr. s'akrt (n. id.), (maT for (mapr (n. fat,
beside to araig, gen. araiT-og, dough), uSar for v^apr (n. nom.
sing. vSwp), aXaiuT (n. meal), Kuar (n. a hole), &c. ; stems in
-TijTf, all feminine, such as ^tAorijr (love, nom. sing. tpiXo-
Tije), &c.

II. Stems ending in -B (which is lost in nom. sing.)| ; \ap-
TraS (f), SpopaB (m. f.) &c. ; QtpiB (f. beside Qepi, Dor. QepiT,
and Ep. Qepiar), 'Apre/xtS (f. beside Dor. 'Apre/itr), GenS (f.
beside Gert), IXttiB (f.), atS (m. only used in the oblique
cases) ; ttoS (m. nom. sing, irovg, the compounds of which
can also form their ace. sing, like stems in ov, e. g. OlBiiroBa
and OlBlwovv, TpiiroBa and r/otjrouv, &c.) ; ■)^XapvB (f.), Sa-yi/S
(f. a doll) ; (Jii^B (f. a blister) ; TratS (m. f.) ; kX£(S§ (f. ace.
sing. kXuv and KXiiSa, ace. pi. KXtlg and icXtTSac), &c.

• We find other instances of the omission of r ; thus ttoti = Kret!
iropTi = npori = Skr. prati (jtpoQ), SpvfaKrog for SpvippuKTOQ from R. ^pay,
whence ppuaau = fpayyui, L. /)erfo = Gr. iriplu, E. speaA = G. sprechen,
&c.

t This stem- termination arose from an I. E. -tdti, which is found in
Skr. s'ivatdti (f. benevolence), sarvatuti = Gr. oXorijr, &c., and in the
Latin plural genitives, civitati-um, atati-um, voluptati-um, &c.

X In .£olic i is also lost in ace. sing. : thus we find in this dialect such
forms as Ki'afiiv, a<ppayiv, K\aiv, nciiv, xXapvv, for KvijplSa, aippaylia,
fXtfila, ira'iSa, xXdpvSa.

5 Beside kXiIc we find the Doric form xXdC, which Ahrens (" De Dia-
lecto Dorica," pp. 94, 140, 141), considers to have arisen fromrXaic, <c being
changed into K- This explanation is very doubtful, and it is much more
likely that the final guttural in cXa^ arose from the dental in irAft^. If this

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 237

III. Stems ending in -6 (which is lost in nom. sing.):
UapvnO (m. a mountain in Attica) ; opvlO (m. f. beside opvt
and Dor. opvix)', KopvO (f.)» KbJfivd (f. a sheaf of hay); iXfiivO
(f. a worm, beside eX/it and iXfiiyy), ireipivd (f. a wicker
basket) ; TipvvB (f.) ; &c.

IV. Stems ending in -g (preceded by any vowel).

1°. Sterna in -ag : aeXag (n. gen. sing. aiXaog for triXa-
(Tog), Kve<pag (n. gen. sing. Kvi(paog and Kvi^ovg, the latter being
from a stem Kve(peg), fiperag (n. an image), Kutag (n. a fleece),
ovSag (n. the ground), ynpag (n.), Seirag (n.), &c. These
stems appear to be closely connected with others in -eg : thus
^pirag, Kojag, ov^ag, &c., form their oblique cases from (ipereg,
kweCj ovdeg, &c. It has been suggested that stems in -ag have
arisen from older forms in -ar, and accordingly they have
been compared with such stems as Kepar (n. a horn, whence
nom. sing. Ktpag, gen. sing. Kipdr-og and K^ptog = Kepaog, t
being thrown out), Kptar (n. flesh, for (CjOtFyar, whence nom.
sing. Kpiag and Kptlag, gen. sing. Kpiwg).

2". Sterna in -eg: adjectival stems in -e^ such as aa^ec,
&c., of which the nom. sing. masc. and fern, ends in -rig ; sub-
stantival masc. stems in -eg, of which the nom. sing, also ends
in -rjgy as StuKjoaree, 'Apsg, &c., while the ace. sing, may either
come from these stems (Swic/oarj] = ScuKparerr-a), or from
stems in -a (SwKparjjv) ; substantival neuter stems in -eg,
which becomes -og in the nom. sing. ; e. g. yeveg, nom. sing.
yevog, gen. sing, yivovg = yeveaog = L. generis for genesis,
from St. genes, &c. These latter stems have frequently side
forms ending in -o : thus we have ctkotec (n.) and gkoto (m.),
ox*C (n.) and 6xo (m.), kXoSec (found in dat. pi. icXaSecTt) be-
side kXoBo (m.), SevSjoec (n-) beside StvSpo (n.), av^pairo^eg

be so, K\aK bears nearly the same relation or kXi'iq (for kKuSq), that Dor.
bpvix does to o/ovi0. 9 and x appear to be interchanged in Mod. Gr.
AtOald -vriaa from AixaStQ and Mod. Gr. np^a from ^XQov. Compare also
Dor. y^a(paK (m.) from St. ^a^dx with t^»/^»c (f. dim. of^'^'poc) from St.

238 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

(found in dat. pi. avBpairoSsaai) beside avSpavoSo (n.), and
many others.

3°. Stems in -og : alSog (f. nom. sing. alBiog, gen. sing.
alBovg = alBo(T-og), rixog (f. nom. sing, rixtj, gen. sing. ri)(ovg
= T]xo(T-og), jjoc (f- nom. sing, riojg), ;)^poc (m. nom. sing. XP<^C»
gen. sing. XQOog = xpoa-og, beside Attic stem ^ptor), vetdog
(f. nom. sing, ireidb), gen. sing. Treidovg), &c. The vocative
singular of these stems ends in -oT, as alBot, nxol, ttilBoI, &c.,
and various theories have been proposed to account for these
forms. One writer suggests that the original form of these
stems ended in -ovi ; another that they ended in -ov, and that
V was merely vocalized into t, as in iEol. fxiXatg for fieXavg,
&c., Tiditg for TiOevg, &c. ; another that they ended in -ovi ;
another that they ended in -o ; another that they ended in
-ot, inasmuch as we find such nominative forms as Ar)T(f,
^air(j>(^, &c., and, lastly, another that a is vocalized into t.
Whatever may be the true explanation of this vocative in
-ot, it apparently bears a remarkable resemblance to the San-
skrit vocative in ^ of feminine nouns in -a, e. g. s'ive from, s'ivd ;
for a> : a : : ot : ^ (m).

4°. Stems in —vg : f^vg (m. nom. sing. )uuc> g^n sing, /luoc
= fxvG-og).

5**. Sterna in -wg: dwg (m. a jackal, nom. sing. Otvg, gen.
sing. 9(i>6g = Sw<T-og), "npofg (m. gen. sing, ^pwoc), ptiTpog (m.
avunculus), aXiog (f the threshing-floor, found in ace. sing.
aXwa = aXwa-a, Arat. 940), KoXwg (m. a rope), &c. Some of
these stems hav€ side forms in -wy, and most of them can also
be declined according to the Attic second declension.

V. Stems eliding in -v (preceded by any vowel).

1°. Stems in -av : raXav (nom. sing. m. raXag, f. raXaiva «=
raXavya, n. raXav), and similarly /leXav, the only other adjec-
tival stem in =av ; Yldv (m. Pan, nora. sing. Uav), iraiav (m.
nom. sing. Tratcii;).

2**. St&ms in -iv : adjectival stems in -cv, such as upatv
(nom. sing. m. and f. apar]v, n. apaev), riptv (nom. sing. m.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 239

Tipr]v, f. TtpHva, n. Tipev) ; <ppev (f. nom. sing. ^piiv)\ iroifiev
(m. nom. sing, iroifii'iv) ; ktsv (m. a comb, nom. sing, ktuq),
tv (nom. sing. m. sTg, n. ev) ; &c.

3°. Stems in -tfv (nom. sing, -ijv) : fxrtv (m. beside Ion. fiug
= fi£v + c ; Curtius considers that the original form of this stem
was fxrjvg, whence comes ^olic juijvvoc for firjvaog, cf L.
V2ens-i-s), x^iv (m. beside xr^vo found in ^jjvo-/3o(T(coc ; Cur-
tius considers that this stem was originally x^^Cj or a fem. stem
Xevai beside Skr. hahsi = I. E. ghansi, Ch. SI. gansi), Zijv (m.
Jove), 'EXXrjv (m.), TrevOriv (m. an inquirer), vvpriv (m. a
fruit-stone), \prfv (m. the gall-insect), &c.

4°. Stems in -iv : piv (f. the nose, nom. sing, plq^ and later
plv)t B'lv (m. f. a heap, nom. sing. 0/c, and later O'lv), Ikt'iv
and KTiv (m. a weasel), SeX^Tv (m.), &c.

5°. Stems in -ov : xOov (f . perhaps for an older x^^i^, com-
pare X"i""*' X^°/^""^*^C' ^- ^^^' earth, L, htimu-s, Ch. SI.
zem-lja, land) ; adjectival stems in -ov (nom. sing. m. f. -wv,
n. -ov), such as jxhI^ov and other comparatives, in which v
may be thrown out, and the vowels contracted as in pei^ovg
for and beside fiti^ovtg, while other adjectival stems in -or,
as (T(i)(j)pov, evdaiinov, cannot throw out v ; Baifiov (m,), riysfiov
(m.), x<ov (f.) ; arjSov (f. nom. sing. arjSwv, gen. sing. arjSo-
voc and arjSouc), x^^'^o^ (^- J^om. sing. xiAtSwv, gen. sing.
XeXtSovoc and xcXtSouc)* (Ikov (f. nom. sing, eticaiv, gen. sing.
jtKOvoc and £tKovc)» ropyov (f- nom. sing. Fopya* and Vopjivv,
gen. sing. Fopyovoc and Fopyoocj Dor. Vopywg, -iEol. Fop-
-ytu^), &c. These feminine stems in -ov partly agree in their
declension with feminine stems in -og : e. g. ireiBovg (gen.
sing, of St. ireiOog) is similar to eikouc (gen. sing, of St. £i-
Kov). This similarity is, however, not a sufficient basis on
which to build the theory that all these stems in -ov and -og,
such as aiSog, TrsiOog, £tKov, &c., were originally identical.

6°. Stems in -vv : poaavv (m. a tower, nom. sing, fxoaavv),
^opKvv (nom. sing. <^6pKvg), Toprvv (nom. sing. Toprvg). The

240 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

oblique cases of kixdv (m. f.), with the exception of the voca-
tive Kvov, are formed from St. kvv.

7°. Stems in -wv : 'AttoAXwv, Yloaei^iuv, kXwv (m. a branch,
nom. sing. kXwv), aliov (m.), rip(i}v (m. found in Syracusan
ripijjvtacn,* beside St. riptog), rawv (m. a peacock, nom. sing.
Taa»c, which is generally declined according to the Attic se-
cond declension), aXcuv (f. nom. sing. aXwg, also declined
according to Attic second declension), Tv<piov (m. nom. sing.
Tv^wv and tv<P<j}q), &c.

8°. /S^gms in V preceded by a consonant : apv (m. f. alamb,
without nom.), IIuki; (f. the Pnyx, nom. sing. 11 vw^).

VI. Stems ending in -p (preceded by any vowel).

1**. Stems in -ap (nom. sing, -ap): vetcrap (n.), \pap (m.the
starling), fiaKop (m. happy, nom. sing. /laKapi -£ol. fiaKapg),
bap (f. a wife, from 6 = Skr. sa, with, and a root aap, to join,
whence atipa, a rope ; or from 6 = Skr. sa and Fap = L. vir ;
in the former case bap would be for baap, and in the latter
for oFap).

2°. Stems ending in cp : -xtp (f. nom. sing. x£^p> ^ol. x^PC>
beside St. x«'p)> at^fp C™- nom. sing. alOffp), Trarsp (m.), avep
(m.), &c.

3°. Stems iii -rip : Onp (m. a wild beast), Kparrip (m.), &c.

4". Stems in -op : pnrop (m. nom sing, pfirwp), rirop (n.
nom. sing. 1770^, the heart), aop (n. a sword), &c.

5°. Stems in vp : irvp (n. nom. sing, irvp), fiaprvp (m, nom.
sing. fiapTVQ, and later juaprup), Aiyvp (m.), KepKvp (m.).

6°. Stems ending in -wp : <pwp (m. a thief), veXwp (n.),

VII. The only Greek stem in -X is aX (m. salt, f. the sea,
nom. sing. aXg).

* Consult Ahrens " De dialecto Dorica," p. 241.

comparative grammar. 241

§. 120. Labial Stems.

I. Stems ending in -tt : \aiXair (f. a storm, nom. sing. Aat-
Xa(//), Oepaw (m. found in ace. sing. Bepmra for BepairovTo^ ;
pivr (m. nom. sing. pi\p, a mat), kvItt (m. an ant); dir (f),
'AiOtoTT (m.), KaXavpoTT (f. a shepherd's crook) ; yvTr (m. a
vulture) ; wir (m. f ), &c.

II. Stems ending in -/3 : 'Apa/3 (m-)» ^'^P i^- ^ drop, from
same root as Xtt/^o)), Aij3 (m. the south-west wind, lit. the
moist wind, connected with last stem), x^P^^^ C^-)' X"^^^
(m. steel).

III. Stems ending in -tp: vij) (f. snow, found only in
oblique cases), kuttjXkP (f. an upper story, nom. sing. KorijAti/'),
A*^ (f. nom. sing. X/i//, lirSvfxia Hesych.).

§. 121. Strong and Weak Stems.

The strong form of the stem is kept in Greek in many
places where we find in Sanskrit the intermediate or the weak
form (consult §. 112). We however find several examples
where there is a change of stem in Greek.

The adjectival suffix Ffvr = I. E. vant assumes frequently
the weak form Fer, as in firiTiotaaa = firiTiofeTya, fern, of /x?/-
Tiotig = firfTioFevT-Q, yaphaaa - \apiFsTya, fern, of x'^pieig =
XaptFivT-g, &c. The weak form of the stem is also found in
the dat. pi. masc. T^ayoteci = X"P'^ erai, &c., and in the compa-
rative and superlative of such adjectives, as xapiia-repog,
■Xapiia-raTog = ^^aptFer-rc/ooe, xapiPtr-TaToq, &C.

The above I. E. suffix vant also assumes the weak form
For in participles in -wq, as X£Ai;k«5c = X^Xuk-Fot-c, \iXvKvXa =
XeXvK-FoT-ya, &c. : when a vowel precedes For, it generally
becomes Fwr, as in Iotewc (g^n. sing. Iotewtoc) = icrra-FoT-g,
TtOvewg = TtOva-FoT-g, &c. This suffix vant is also supposed
to appear in kuwi/ = I. E. ku-vant, from kix (to howl, c. f. Gr.
K(n-Kv-(o), which has two stems, the strong kvov and the weak
Kvv. In Latin we find this stem appearing as can in can-is,

B

2^ COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

and cat in cat-idus, and in Goth, we find it as hund in hund-s,
E. hound.

The I. E. suffix mant appears in the strong form fxavr and
the weak fiav, fiar, fiov : thus we have ifiavr (m. a strap,
nom. sing. Ifxag from R. t = Skr. s/, to bind, whence siman, f
a boundary, and simanta, m. a separation of the hair on each
side, so as to leave a distinct line on the top of the head), be-
side ijxaT (whence lixaaau) = l/xaTyw and luaaOXt} = l/uaTdXr}, a
whip), and Ifxov (whence Ifxovia, the rope of a well), ovofiar (n.
nom. sing, ovo/ua) beside ovo/uav (whence ovo/jiaivb) = ovofxav-
yu)), which point back to an older stem ovojxavT, c. f. L.
cognoment-um, &c. ; aittpfiar beside (rmpfiav (whence <r7rep-
fxaivb)), &c. Stems in -fuv are also connected with those in
fiar, as prjyfiar (n. a breach) with priy/juv (m. breakers), &c.

The oblique cases of participles whose stems end in ovr
and avT retain the strong form : but we find a few examples
where the weak stem apparently shows itself ; thus we have
.^ol. fao-cra and to-cra (fem. of wv, being) which must be for
laarya and irya, crar being the weak form of participial stem
ovr = I. E. sant = L. sent in ah-sent-em, &c. This weak form
of the participle of HfjX appears also to be found in inog
(true) = Skr. satyas (id.), trvfioq, iTijTVfiog.

Nouns of relationship in rrjp, such as naTi'ip, ixijTrip, have
two stems ending in rep and rp, and may form their oblique
cases from either, e. g. gen. sing, naripog and Trarpog, fiiyripog
and firfrpog, dat. sing, iraripi and narpl, inrfrtpi and pr]Tpi, &c. ;
but in ace. sing, we only find iraripa and pr^ripa, &c., while
in dat. pi. the stem ends in rpa, as irarpaai, &c.

§. 122. Vocalic Stems,

I. Stems in -a, -tj, and -o (= I. E. d and d).

1°. Stems in -o (m. f. n.), as imro (m. f.), ^o/oo (m.), voao
(f.), 2;u70 (n.), &c.

Many consonantal stems have side-forms in o, especially in
-/Eolic, where we find the stems ayu)vo, ^vAoko, paprvpo,

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 243

iKUTOvx^ipOf ytpovTo, iraBr]jxaTOi &c. In Bceotic we find^-y^'C"
= ai-yoiQ from stem aiyo*

2^. Stems in -a, -a, -rj, as fxovua (f. nom. sing, iiovaa),
XWjoa (f. nom. sing. x<^P")> ToXtra (m. nom. sing. ttoX/tijc),
vfavm (m. nom. sing, rcavtac), 'E|Ojutj (m. nom. sing. 'Epjurjc)
iinroTa. (m. nom. sing. Ep. tTTTrora), &c.

II. Stems ending in -t, as Troo-t (m. for ttoti = Skr. pati)^
Sripi (f. strife), TroAt (f.), k7 (m. a worm), aivairi (n. mustard),
iSpt (m. f. knowing), &c. Some stems in -a and -o became i-
stems by throwing out these vowels, as Dor. Aetvi-c? = Aeivia-g
and in later Greek Ajjjuijrpt-e = ArifiriTpio-g, Aiovixri-g - Aio-
vv<Tio-g.

III. >S«gm« in -u, as t;^0u (ni-)» ""Jixv («!•)> hx^^^ (^Oj ^«-
ic/)u (n.), a(TTV (n.), yXuKU (m. n.), &c.

IV. Diphthongal stems, as vav (f.), ypav (f.), ^ovev (m.),
l5d(Ti\ev (m.), vttv (m. beside vlo), 'Apeu (m. beside 'Ap£c and
'Apfl), Zfu (m.), &c. ; oi (m. f. a sheep, the only diphthongal
stem in oi ; it is also an t-stem, oi) ; |3ot/ (m. f.), ^ov (m. con-
guis).

The original stem of Xaac or \ag (m. a stone), was pro-
bably XaF : its declension is very similar to that of vavg, thus
we have gen. sing. Xaog (beside \aov, as if from an a-stem
\aa), dat. sing. Xai", ace. sing. Xaa (beside Xaav and Xav from
St. \aa)i &c. That Xaac originally contained a digamma may
be inferred from the words \t\no (I stone), Xivcrnog, &c.
Bopp and Benfey connect it with Skr. grdvan (m. a stone).

Latin Stems.

§. 123. Guttural Stems.

I. Stems in -c (nom. sing. m. f. n. ^ and c) : fdc (f. a
torch), pdc (f.) ferae (m. f. n. fruitful), n^c (f.), ^afec (nom.
sing. f. halex, and n. hake, brine of fish) , salic (f. a willow),

• Consult Ahrens de Dialectis iEoliciset Pseudaeolicis, pp. 120, 236.

R 2

244 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

suppltc (m. f. n.), radic (f.), felic (m. f. n.), Cappaddc (m.),
precede (m. f. n.) vOc (f.), atroc (m. f. n.), critc {(.), true (m. f.
n.) Polluc (m.), &c.

II. Stems in -g (nom. sing, x) : grSg (m.), reg (m.), remXg
(m.), AllohrSg (ra.), conjUg (m. f.), /Vw^ (f.), &c..

§. 124. Dental Stems.

I. Stems in -t (which is lost before the nom. sing, s, the
preceding vowel being frequently lengthened in compensa-
tion) : andt (f. a duck), cetdt (f.), abiet (f.), quiet (f), millt (m.),
ft< (f.), cot (f. a whetstone), virtut (f.), &c. Oss (n. a bone),
yyiell (n.), /e/^ (n.), were originally i-stems, for oss = ost (as
messis = mes-tis = met-tis from R. wig^, cf. Gr. oar-ouv), me/^ =
»ne& (c. f. Gr. fieXiT, Goth, milith, honey)) fell = felt, and this
perhaps for fel-ti.

II. AS^ems m -(Z (which is lost before the nom. sing, s, the
preceding vowel being frequently lengthened in compensa-
tion) : vdd (m. a surety), p^d (m.), hered (m. f .), obstd (m. a
hostage), custod (m.), pecUd (f.), palud (f.), &c.

III. )S^em« i» -j: m(5ts (m. a male), vds (n. a vessel), ^ew^s
(n. nom. sing, genus, gen. sing, generis = genesis), cinXs (m. gen.
sing, eineris = cinisis, the second « becoming e through the in-
fluence of the succeeding r), glis (m. a dormouse),' ar^^s (f.
nom. sing, arbor and arbos), corpOs (n. nom. sing, corpus),
m^s (m.), 05 (n.), LemUs (m. ghosts, found only in plural Le-
mUres)) LigUs (m.) s, jus (n.), mm (m.), &c. Farr (n. com) is
probably for /ars, rs becoming rr, as in/(?n'e for ferse, and as
^s becomes // in telle ioxvelse. Vds (n. gen. sing, vasis), is the
only stem that retains s throughout its whole declension ; in
other stems it becomes t between two vowels. The Latin in-
finitive in -re is perhaps the dative of an old stem in -as ; le-
gere would then be for leg-es-e, just as in Vedic similar datives
are used as in6nitives, such as sahasS (to strengthen, lit. for
strengthening. Rig. I. 16, 6), &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 245

IV. Stems in -n : ren (m. the kidney), lien (m. the spleen,
beside lieni) ; stems in -min=\. E. -man, nom. sing. (-Tnew),
as nomin (n.), agmin (n.), &c. ; jUvmin (m. nom. sing, ^men),
tibicin (m.), tubicin (joa..) , pectin (m.) , sanguin {nom. sing. m.
sanguis, and n. sanguen), homin (m. nom. sing, homo), from
an older homon which is found in O. L. ace. sing, homonem
and kemonem, cardin (ra. a hinge, nom. sing, cardo), praedon
(m. nom. sing. prcedo), cam (f. nom. sing, caro), for caron, &c.
The stems of cants and juvenis were originally n-stems, as we
see from the gen. pi. can-um and juven-um, and the correspond-
ing Sanskrit stems s'van and yuvan, nom. sing, s'vd and yuvd.

V. /Sfeww ending in -r : baccdr (n. a kind of berry), calcdr
(n. a spur), career (m.), ver (n.), cequiir (n.), ciofer (m.), /?</-
grwr (n.), fur (m.), &c.

VI. Stems ending in -I : sdZ (m. n. salt), animal (n.), pugtl
(m), soZ (m.), consul (m.), &c.

§. 125. Labial Stems.

I. Stems ending in -p : dap (f), oK^tp (m. f. nom. sing.
adeps, fat) ; compounds, the latter part of which is derived
from. E. cap (to take), as princip (m. nom. sing, princeps),
aucup (m. nom. sing, au^eps), &c.

II. Stems ending in -b : urb (f.), stems in -b are generally
short forms of other stems, as pleb (f. nom. sing, plebs), is for
plebi (gen. pi. plebi-um), scrub (m. f. a ditch), is for scrobi, &c.

III. There is only one stem in wi, viz., hiem (f. nom. sing.
hiems and hiemps).

IV. There is only one stem in -v, viz., nigv (f snow,
nom. sing, nix, gen. sing, nivis) beside ningui.

§. 126. Strong and weak Stems.

The distinction between strong and weak stems has only
manifested itself in Latin in a few cases : thus pair is the weak

246 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

form of St. pater, and from it in Classical Latin the oblique
cases o^ pater are formed, whereas in Old Latin e was retained,
as in the gen. sing. Diespiter-is, Opiter-is, &c., similarly ventr,
mater, are the weak forms of the stems venter and mater.

Cam is the weak form of caron (nom. sing, caro) and may
be compared with Skr. rd<j'n, the weak form of St. rag an.

The participles in -ant and -ent retain their strong forms
throughout their declensions, but it is possible that the weak
form may show itself in the following examples : pariSt (m. a
wall, nom. sing, paries) from par = Skr. pari = Gr. irtpi and
ient (going), and therefore, meaning literally, "what goes
round," abiet (f. the fir), from ab and ient, and meaning lite-
rally "what goes up," teget (f a mat, lit. "what covers" for
tegent, part, of teg-o), potestat for potet-tat = potent-tat, egestat
for eget-tat = egent-tat, while we have the strong form of the
participial stem in voluntat, 0. herentat.

§. 127. Vocalic Stems.

I. Stems ending in -a (a, e, o).

1°. Stems in -a (which lose the final s of the nom. sing,
although it originally existed there, as in paricidas found in
the law of Numa, and hosticapas, i. e. hostium captor), as equd
(f originally equd), incolci (m.), fontid {(.hnt forma on the in-
scription on the tomb of the Scipios), aquild (f but aquild in
Ennius), &c. Greek nouns in -aq lose the final q when bor-
rowed by the Latin, as Pintia (for fpivriaq), Apella, Mena,
&c., Gr. noirirriQ (m.) becomes poeta and x«/>'"'JC (m.) be-
comes charta (f )

2°. Stems ending in -e (all of which are feminine except
dies, which is either masculine or feminine, while meridies is
always masculine) : re (nom. sing, res), fide {L), plebe (f.) &c.
These stems are closely connected with those in -a, and we
frequently find two forms of the same stem existing beside
each other, one ending in -a and another in -e, as barbana
and barbarie, materia and materie, effigia and effigie, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 247

3<*. Stems in o : equo (m. nom. sing, equos^ later equus),
alvo (f. the stomach, nom. sing, alvos, later alvus), jugo (n.
nom. sing, jugoniy later jugum), &c. We frequently find
stems in -a beside stems in -o, as transfuga beside profugo,
collega beside sacrilego, Graiugena beside Asiageno and privigno
(= privigeno), &c. When >• preceded o, the latter was gene-
rally dropped and e inserted in the nom. sing, when another
consonant immediately preceded, as in caper = Gr. Kavp6-g,
ager = Gr. aypog, &c. : this inserted e was not retained in the
oblique cases, as in gen. sing, capri, agri, &c., except where
it belonged to the root, as in corniger, armiger, prosper (from
pro and R. sper, whence sper-o, spes, O. L. ace. pi. sper-es),
&c., and in some other cases as O. L. magisteres = magisteri,
dexteri beside dextri, &c. In many cases o is retained in the
nominative after r, as in 0. L. socerus = socer, 0. L. puerus =
puer (= poverus, which also became por in the proper names,
Marcipor, Publipor^ &c., and was then declined as a stem
in -r), 0. L. vulturus = vultur, numerus, umencs, uterus, pros-
perus = prosper, herus, verus, laurus, taurus, severus, serus, mi-
rus, virus, -parus {oviparus), -vorus (carnivorus), purus^ murus.
After ^ o is only omitted in famul beside famulus, and nihil =
nihilum, just as in N. U. katel = L. catulus and O. 0. Mutll =
Mutilos.

0 is also lost in nom. sing, in O. L. damnas for damnats =
damnatos, just as in N. U. ta^ez = L. tacitos, 0. 0. hurz ■= L.
hortos, &c. In Old Latin o was lost after i, and then the nom.
sing, s was itself frequently lost, as in Clodis and Cbdi =
Claudius, Cornelis, and Comeli = Cornelius, &c.

O was written in the nom. sing, of all o-stems until about
the middle of the third century, b. c,., when u took its place,
except in stems ending in -vo, in which a was stiU written, as
in servo-s, equo-s, &c.

II. Stems ending in -i (nom. sing. m. f. -ts^ and
-es, n. -e) : amni (m. nom. sing, amnis), torqui (m. f. nom.
sing, torquis and torques), avi (f nom. sing, avis), scrobi

248 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR,

(f. a ditch, nom. sing, scrohs and scrohis), sinapi (mustard,
nom. sing. f. sinapis, and n. sinape), mari (n. nom. sing.
mare, pi. man-a), sali (n. the sea, nom. sing, sale beside
St. sal), o?si (n. a bone, nom. sing, osse beside St. oss),
lacti (n. milk, nom. sing, lacte beside St. lad), &c. In nouns
formed with suffix -ti the stem of the nom. sing, generally
ends in -t as menti (f nom. sing, metis = merits), morti (f. nom.
sing, mors = morts), juventuti (f. nom. sing, juventus = juven-
tuts), civitati (f nom. sing, civitas =civitats), &c. Stems end-
ing in -ri often lose the final i and insert e before r, like stems
in -ro ; imbri (m. nom. sing, imber), acri (m. f. n. nom. sing,
m. acer and acris), silvestri (m. f. n. nom. sing, m Silvester ajad
silvesfris), &c. Similarly i is sometimes lost when preceded
by / as in t'igili (m. f. n. nom. sing. m. vigil), pugili (ra. nom.
sing, pugil), &c. 1 is frequently added to adjectival stems in
-M, and thus new stems in -i are formed, as brevi = bregu-i
from bregu = Gr. jSpaxu, gravi = garu-i from garu = Gr. (3apv
= Skr. guru, levi = legxi-i from legu = Gr. iXax^ = Skr. hghu,
suavi = suadu-i from suadu = Gr. 1781; = Skr. svddu, pingui from
pingu = Gr. Tra^Vj tenui from ienu = Gr. raw = Skr. tanu. 1
is also frequently employed to lengthen consonantal stems, as
in voc-i-hus, duc-i-biis for voc-bus due-bus, amant-i-a, amant-i-
um, amant-i-bus, &c. Votes is for vats (gen. pi. vat-um), from
a root = Z. vat (to speak) ; canis (and cowes) is for cans (gen.
pi. can-um) ; navis is for 7iav5 = Gr. vavg = Skr. naws ; O, L.
Jovis (nom. sing.) = Jovs = Gr. Ztvg = Skr. dydus, bovis or 6o«
= 6(W« = Gr. /3ouc = Skr. ^au*.

III. Stems ending in -u : fruetu (m.), lacu (m.), socrt; (f.),
manu (f.), comw (n.), genu (n.). These stems are often inter-
changed with others in -o : thus beside the stems senatu, tu-
multu, cupressu, penu (provisions), &c., we also find the stems
setiato, tumulto, cnpresso, peno (n.), &c. In some cases we
find consonantal side forms of w-stems, as pecud (f.), and pe-
cos (n.) beside pecu (n.), impet (m.) beside impetu (ra.), penos
(n.) beside penu (f.).

No Latin stem ends in a diphthong.

comparative grammar. 249

The Cases.
§. 128. The Nominative Singular.

The nominative singular masculine and feminine is formed
from the stem by the addition of s, which is derived from the
pronominal root sa {sa = Gr. 6, sd= Gr. 17). The nominative
singular neuter is identical with the ace. sing, and consequently
adds m to the stem in the case of a-stems, while in all others
it is identical with the stem itself, subject only to the euphonic
laws peculiar to each language.

1. Sanskrit Nom. Sing. In all consonantal stems s is
omitted, and in some cases the vowel of the final syllable is
lengthened in compensation for this omission, and in others
not : thus durmands = durmanas + s, is nom. sing, of St. dur-
manas = Gr. Sva/xtvEg, whereas bharan = hharant + s, is nom.
sing, of St. hharant = Gr. ^tpovr. Masc. and fem. stems in
-dr and -ar reject both r and s, and form their nom. sing, in
-d : thus pitd is nom. sing, of St. pitar = Gr. irarep, and ddtd
is nom. sing, of St. ddtdr = Gr. Sorijp. Masc. and fem. nouns
in -an and -in reject both n and s, and lengthen preceding
vowel : thus, rd^d is nom. sing, of St. rdg'an (m. a king), and
dhani is nom. sing, of St. dhanin (rich). In all vocalic stems
s is retained, except in feminine ones which end in -d or -i,
if the latter are polysyllabic. When d however belongs to
the root, s remains as in vis'vapd-s (m. and f . all preserving,
from nVm, all, and pa, to preserve), dhanadd-s (m. and f.
wealth-giving, from dhana, wealth and dd to give).*

II. Greek Nom. Sing. In the case of guttural and labial
stems, s is simply added, and the nom. sing, ends in ^ and xp^
as xpvXa^ from St. ^vXqk (m.), ^Xo^ from St. (^Xoy (f.), 6x{j
from St. on (f.), &c. In dental stems r and B are never kept

* For further particulars as to forming the nom. sing, in Sanskrit, con-
sult §. 104, and §. 107-113; also Bopp's and Max Muller's "Sanskrit
Grammars."

250 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

before c, but always disappear, and the preceding vowel is
generally lengthened in compensation : thus we have x^P'C
from X'^P^''' C^')' A.ajU7rac from Xa/xTraS (f.), Trouefrom ttoS (m.),
TETv^tjg from rtruTrFor, vu^ from vvkt, &c. In Bafiap from
Sojua/OT (f ) both T and o- disappear. Stems in -vt sometimes
lose both consonants before <t, as in rvxpdg from rvxf^avT, Soue
from dovT, Otig from ^evr, &c., and sometimes lose r and g, re-
taining V, as in <pip(ov from ^epovr, &c. The -tEolic dialect
kept V before g, as in ndivg = nddc, and in this respect is
similar to Zend, Latin, Lithuanian, and Old Prussian ; thus we
have Z. barans = Jji.f evens =Gr. ^ipujv, hith. degaiis (burning),
0. P. sidans (sitting), &c. In v-stemsthe nasal is sometimes
thrown out and the preceding vowel lengthened, as in raXag
from TaXav, Krdg from ktev, &c., while in other cases the nasal
is retained and the preceding vowel lengthened to compensate
for the loss off, as in rfprjv from repev, (f>pi}v from (ppev (f.),
)U£t'^wv from puHiov, xOtJv from ^Oov (f.), &c. We often find a
later nominative in v beside an older one in g, as Oiv beside Oig,
^eX<piv beside StX^^e, &c. S is lost after p, as in ^e/p from ^tp
(f.), iraTT]p fromTrarep (m.), &c. : whereas in -<Eolic both con-
sonants are kept, as in xipg = x*^P» juafapc- Iii paprvg from
papTvp, p appears to be lost before g. The solitary X-stem
(«Xc) retains both X and c- In c-stems g is lost, and the pre-
ceding vowel lengthened as in dvajnevrig from Suffjucvcc-

In vocalic stems g is simply added to stem, as in aypog
from aypo (m.), rafiiag from rapid (m.), iroXig from 7roXt(f.),
"iBpig from l^pt, (dotiTvg from (iorirv (f.), &c. S is lost in fe-
minine stems in d (tj) as x'^P"^ Kopij, &c., and in the Homeric
forms, iTTTroTa (ni.) for 'nrnoTrtg^ alxj^riTd (m.) for alxfXflTrigi
&c.

III. Latin Noni. Svig. In guttural and labial stems s ia
simply added to the stem, as in vox, lialex, lex, auccps, urbs,
&c., from the stems voc (f.), halec (f.), leg. (f.), ancup (m.),
urb (f), &c. In the case of adjectival stems this s is also re-
tained in the neuter nom., as audax (m. f. n.), ferox (m. f. n.),

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 251

&c. : atriplex (the orach) is also neuter, and halec (n.) is
a side-form of halex (f.) In dental stems t and d disappear
before 5, and the preceding vowel was originally lengthened
in compensation ; this lengthening is only found in Classical
Latin, in monosyllables, and where the preceding syllable ends
in i, as in pes = pSd + s, vds = vdd + s, aries = ariSt + s, "paries ■=
pariSt + s, abies = ahiSt + s; in other cases the vowel has be-
come short as in miUs = milet + s, pedSs = pedet + 5, &c. Par-
ticipial stems in -nt only reject t, as in amam = amant + s, &c.
In Old Latin and in the vulgar dialect we find n also lost in in-
fos, sapies, &c. for infans, sapiens, &c. : compare Gr. rv^pag for
Tv\pavT + Q. In these stems in -nt s is also retained in the neuter
nom. as sapiens (m. f. n.), &c. In s-stems s is lost, and the pre-
ceding vowel, although originally lengthened as in Greek, is
generally short in Classical Latin. Traces, however, of its hav-
ing been originally lengthened still remain, as in Ceres (f.) from
St. Cer^s, arhos (f ) from St. arbds, &c. In the declension of
these stems the final s became r in the oblique cases, except
in vas ; and in the case of masculine and feminine nouns this
r often supplanted the final s of the nominative, especially in
later Latin ; thus we have puher (m.) beside pubes, arbor (f )
beside arbos, sudor (m.) for sudds = Gr. Idpwg, honor (m.) be-
side honos, vomer (m. a ploughshare) beside vomis (m.), lepor
(m. wit) beside lepos from St. lepos (gen. sing, lepor-is) &c.
The nom. sing, ends in-wsin lepus(m. a hare), from St. lepos,
and in vetus (m. old) beside veter (m. id.) used by Ennius.
Neuter stems in -os retain the final s in nom. sing., yet we find
robur (n.) = ^kr. rddhas (n. strength) and calor used as a neuter
in Plautus Merc. 660, nee calor necfrigus metuo. Masculine and
feminine stems in -n lose the final -ns in the nom. : thus we
have homo for homons, combibo (m.) for combibons, &c. In some
cases n is netained, as in pecten (m.), Jlamen (m.), &c., and in
sanguis for sanguins, s is kept and n lost. S is always lost after
r and I, but the preceding vowel was originally lengthened
in compensation as in Greek : thus we have lector {m.) for

252 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

lector + s, mater (f.) for mater + s, sol (m.) for sol + s, par (m.)
for pdr + s, sal (m.) for sdl + 5, &c.

In the t- and w-stems s is kept, as in amni-s (m.) fructu-s
(m.), &c. In stems ending in -ti, i is frequently lost before s,
as in m,€ns (f.) for ment + 5 = menti + 5, mors (f.) for mort + «
= mor^i + s, vetustas (f.) for vetustat + 5 = vetustati + s, senectus
(f.) for senectut + s = senectuti + 5, &c. After r and Z, is was
lost in masculine stems and e was inserted before r, when
another consonant immediately preceded, as acer for acri + s,
equester for equestri + s, &c. : the full form is kept in the fern,
nom. acris, equestris, &c. Similarly we have vigil for and
beside vigilis. In neuter stems i was sometimes lost and some-
times changed into e, as in animal, calcar, &c., and mare, ex-
emplare (also exemplar), &c. Stems ending in -0 also retain s,
as servo-s (m.), equo-s (m.), &c., except when r precedes, in
which case -os (-us) is often lost, as in ager for agj'o + 5, puer
for piiero+ s, &c. 0 (u) was sometimes lost after t, and then
< disappeared, as in damnas for damnato-s ; similarly we find
O. U. pihaZf N. U. pihos = L. piatus, 0. O. htirz = L. hortuSf
N. U. ^G^es = L. tacitus. After i o was sometimes lost, as
in Cornells for Cornelius, Clodis for Clodius, &c., and then
« sometimes disappears, as in Cornell, &c., which occur as
nom. s. on inscriptions : similarly in Oscan we find Heirennis
for Herennivs, m which u first became i or i (as m Pupidiis =
L. Popidius, Viinikiis = L. Ftnicij«) and then u or ii be-
came I. We also find 0 (u) lost after n in Umbrian, as in
Ikuvim = L. Iguvinus, and in Oscan, as in Bantins = L. ^an-
tinus, Pumpaiians = L. Pompeianus. 0 is lost after ^ in 0. 0.
tuvtiks = L. iuticus. Feminine stems in -a have entirely lost
s, and -a has become -<T in Classical Latin : Bucheler suggests
that the change of final —a of nom. sing, into -d was contem-
poraneous with that of final -dd ofabl. sing, into -a. In Old
Umbrian this d sometimes became u, and in New Umbrian it
always became o, as in 0. U. tuta, tutu, N. U. toto = tida (a
city) ; similarly in Old Oscan it became u, and in New Oscan

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 253

0, as in 0. 0. viii = L. via, 0. O. tuvtu, N. 0. tovto = tuta.
Masculine stems in -a, such as incola, nauta, &c., have also
lost s, but that they once had it is shown by the forms pa-
ricidas, hasticapas (see page 246).

§. 129. The Nominative Plural.

The sign of the nom. pi. appears to have been originally the
reduplication of that of the nom. sing. Its oldest form, accord-
ingly, must have been -sasa, whence came firstly -sas and
then -as. Sas, as the sign of the nom. pi., occurs in Vedic
Sanskrit in the declension of the a-stems : thus we have, as
nom. pi. dhumd-sas from dhuma (m. smoke), devd-sas from
d^va (m. a god), pdvakd-sas {rom pdvakd (f. pure). Traces of
this -sas also appear in Zend, in which such forms of the
nom. pi. as vShrkdonlw (m. wolves) = I. E. varkd-sas, &c.,
point back to older forms in -sas. The nom. pi. neuter is the
same as the ace. pi. neuter.

I. Sanskrit Nom. PI. Masculine and feminine stems form
this case always in -as, before which X and U are gunated ;
thus we have marut-as from marut (m. the wind), mdtar-as
from mdtar (f. a mother), nddy-as from nddt (f. a river), s'ivds
for s'iva + as from s'iva (m. fortunate) or for sivd + as (f. id.),
kavay-as from kavi (m. a wise man), dhenav-as from dhinu (f.
a milch cow). In the Veda we find nom. s. of stems in -^and
-U without gunation of these vowels, as ary-as from ari (m. an
enemy), mumukshv-as from mumukshu (m. a sage abstracted
from all human passion). In Vedic we also find nom. pi. of
polysyllabic i-stems formed by simply adding s to the stem,
as dSvi'S from devi (f. a goddess).

II. Greek Nom. PL Masculine and feminine stems form
this case by adding -eg to the stem ; thus we have ^\i(5-eg
from ^XejS (f • a vein), voifxiv-ig from Troifiriv (m.), iraTtp-eg
from irarep (m.), ix9v-eg from Ixdv (m.), Ki-ig from ki (m. a
worm.

254 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Stems ending in r and U may either gunate the final
vowel or not, before adding -ig : thus we have as examples
of -fc being added to unchanged stem, juavrz-ec from fiavri
(m.), ot-£c from bi (m. f.), tSpt-cffrom llgi (m. f ), vUv-ig from
viKV (m.), &c. ; and as examples of gunated stems we have,
TToXiiq, TToXtjig, TroXftc = TroXty-cc from TToXtt, the gunated
form of TToXi (f. a city), whence also we have without guna-
tion, Ion. iroXi-eg, TroXeTc = 7roXeF-£c from iroXtv, the gunated
form of TToXu, ra^iig = raxieg = Ta\£lr-tg from Ta)(y, iyxiXeig
= £7XfcX£F-tc from £YX^^^ C^-) beside Ion. ey^eXw-ecj &c. Mas-
culine and feminine stems in o and a (= Skr. a) form their
nom. pi. in -oi and -ai, as tTTTrot from tVTro (m.), and xf^paf-
from x'*'?" (f-) These forms originally ended in g and were
not developed till after the Greek and Latin languages sepa-
rated from each other. The loss of the final g may have oc-
curred first in the nom. pi. of the pronominal stems 6 or to, d
or TO. Schleicher suggests that rot (= ol), and rai (= at) may
have arisen from ta-y-as and td-y-as, the pronominal stems ta
and td having been increased by y (i) before the addition of
-OS, and that tayas and tdyas became tai and tdi by the loss of
the final syllable. In Sanskrit we find s lost only in the nom.
pi. masc. of some pronominal stems, while the fem. retains s :
thus yi (m.), beside yds (f.) from ya (who), tS (m.), beside
tds (f.) from ta (he, she), ty^ (j^-)i beside tyds (f ), from tya
(this), &c. This similarity between the nom. pi. masc. of the
pronoims in Sanskrit and Greek is not sufficient to prove that
these nominatives were already developed in Indo-European
times. All that can be asserted is that it is just possible that
the final a of the nom. pi. was lost in some pronouns before
the first separation occurred in the Indo-European family of
languages.

III. Latin Nom. PI. Masculine and feminine consonantal
stems originally formed this case by the addition of -^s = Gr.
tg. Final s was frequently lost in Old Latin, as we see from
Inscriptions, on which we find such forms as Pisaurese for

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 255

Pisaurenses. Even ^itself was also lost, so that the nom. pi.
was reduced to the mere stem, as in U. /rater (fratres), O.
censtur (censores), L. qvattuor for quattuor-es, Luceres for Lu-
cerenses, Titles for TUiemes, Ramnes for Ramnenses. Conso-
nantal stems, however, perhaps during the third century, B. C.
ceased to form their nom. pi. by the addition of -Ss, but, as-
suming the form of the i-stems, formed this case by adding
-es, as in leg-es, bov-es, ferent-es. The nom. pi. of the i-stems
ends in -es, as oves from on, hostes from hosti, &c.:e here
may be explained in either of two ways, either as being for
ie (oves = ovi + Ss, as ttoXi-ec from TroXt, without gunation of
stem-vowel) or as being for gg (oves = ovSSs = ovey + gs as iro-
Xelq for TToXsy + tg from TroXt, with gunation of stem-vowel),
/-stems also form their nom. pi. in -eis and -is, which are pro-
bably of later formation than-e*, although some writers hold
that -Is (= -Us = -iSs) was the oldest form. The nom. pi. of
the w-stems ends in —us, as fructus from fructu : fructus may
either be for fructu + Ss (as viKvag from veku, without gunation
of stem-vowel) or for fructov-es (as iriixug - Trtjx^F-ee from
Trr\\v, with gunation of stem- vowel). The nom. pi. of the a-
stems ends in -ai, the original termination was -ds^ as may be
inferred from the O. U. urtas = L. ortoe, N. U. ivengar = L.
juvencce, N. O. seriftas = L. scriptoe, N. 0. pas = L. quce. Final
s was then lost, as we see from inscriptions, on which we find
as nom. pi. matrona, &c., and then after the analogy of the
pronominal declension, i was added, and the nom. pi. of these
stems ended in -ai, as in tabelai, datai (Sc. de Bacc), which
finally became ae. In Classical Latin the nom. pi. of the o-
stem ends in -l, but originally -es was attached immediately
to the stem, so that the original termination was -oes. This
termination appears in various forms : thus we find as nom.
pi. 'pilumnoe poploe (in Carmen Saliare, explained by Festus as
Romani pilis uti assueti), fescenince (qui depellere fascinum
credebantur), modies, ques, ploirume, leibereis, oinvorsei, minis-
trls, &c. Final s is retained in Oscan and Umbrian : thus we

256 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

have 0.0. Nuvlanus = L. Nolani, pidurus = Gr. iroTtpoiy 0. U.
Ikuvifius, N. U. screitor = L. scripti, &c. In Latin ^-sterns s
is kept as in dies, &c., but in some cases the pi. is formed from
a corresponding a-stem, as nom. sing, intemperies or intemperia,
nom. pi. iiUempericB.

§. 130. The Nominative Dual.

The original termination of the masCuHne and feminine
nominative dual was -sds, which was merely the lengthened
form of the nom. pi. -sas; similarly I, the case-ending of the
nom. dual neuter, is the lengthened form of -X, the case-end-
ing of the nom. pi. neuter, and -hhydm (for -bhydms), the
case-ending of the dat. abl. and ihstr. dual, is the lengthened
form o^ -hhyas (for -hhyams), the case- ending of the dat. and
abl. pi. As -sas became —as, so -sds became -as. That the
dual nom. ended in —as is proved by the Zend. nom. dual,
which sometimes ends in -do, which represents an I. E.-as.
The nom. ace. and voc. dual have the same case-ending.

I. Sanskrit Nom. Dual. Masculine and feminine stems
form this case by the addition of du, as marut-du from marut
(m.), nady-du from nadi (f.), s'ivdu from s'iva (m.), &c. In
Vedic we find d for du, as in \ihh.d (both), as'vind (the two
As'vins"), &c. Masculine and feminine stems in -f and —U
omit -du, and in compensation lengthen the final vowel, as in
kavi from kavfC (m.), dhenii from dlientt (f). Feminine stems
in -a merely change this vowel into -i, as in s'ive from s'ivd
(f.). Bopp* considers that the original form o£s'ivS was s'ivay-
du and that, when the final tt had been lost, s'irayd became
s'ivi, as Skr. k'intaydtni (I think), has become k'inUmi in Pra-
krit. The nom. neuter is formed by adding -i to the stem as
s'iv^ for s'iva + i from s'ivn (n.), vdri-n-i from vdri (n. water),

• Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., p. 418, and
Bopp's " Sanskrit Grammar," p. 93.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 257

balini from balin (n. strong) : stems ending-in -t and H insert
n before -i.

II. Greek Nmn. Dual. The sign of this case for the three
genders is e for all stems except those ending in -a (o, a) :
thus we have fieXavs (m. n.) from fxeXav, ridie (m. n.) = ridtFe
from rjdv, iroXu from iroXi (f.) beside ttoXcc and iroAjje = tto-
Acy-e, &c, In the a-stems the dual case-ending coalesces with
the stem-vowel : thus we have ittttw from 'nnro (m.), Kopa
from Kopd (f ), &c.

III. Latin Nom. Dual. There are only two dual nom. s,
in Latin, duo and amho : duO = Skr. dvdu = Gr. Suw, ambo = Skr.
uhhdu = Gr. cifi^u)^

§. 131. The Accusative Singular.

This case in all masculine and feminine nouns ended in
-m, which was attached immediately to the stem if it ended
in a vowel, or by means of -a if it ended in a consonant. In
the a-stems the neuter ace. sing, was formed by adding -m,
but in all other neuters the stem and the ace. sing, were
identical. The ace. sign, -m or -am is perhaps connected
with the pronominal root which is found in Skr- am-u (that),
i-m^ (those), &c.

I. Sanskrit Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonantal
stems add -am, as marut-am (m.), bharant-am, (m.), pitar-am
(m.), &c. The ace. sing. neut. is merely the stem itself, sub-
ject to the euphonic laws of Sanskrit, as bharat (n.) from St
bharant, hrt (n.) from St. hrd, &c. Vocalic stems add -m, as
s'iva-m (m.), s'ivd-m (f), kavi-m (m.), nadi-m (f.), &c. Mo-
nosyllabic vocalic stems, however, except those in -6, add
-am, as ndv-am from ndu (f.), bhiy-am from bhi (f. fear), bhuv-
am from bhu (f the earth), &c. The ace. sing, neut, of stems
in -i and -u is merely the stem, but in the a-stems m is added,
as in s'iva-m from s'iva (n.). The nom. sing. neut. and the
ace. sing, neuter are the same.

S

258 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

II. Greek Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonan-
tal stems add -a for -av = I. E. -mn, as in Aa/x7ra8-a (f.), ^i-
povT-a (m.), trarip-a (m.), &c. Masculine and feminine vocalic
stems, except those ending in ev, add -v, as fiavn-v (m.), viicv-v
(m.) ayp6-i' (m.), ^vy{]-v (f), &c. : those in -iv add -a, as
/3ao-iX^-a and (BamXi-a = ^aaiXeP-a (m.), (cp^a and iepi-a =
icptF-a (m.). Beside vav-v (f.) we find Hom. vrjf-a and vtF-a ;
beside 6<ppv-v (f.), we find the later form 6(ppv-a ; from evpv
we have both evpv-v and cupl-a = £upeFa, &c. In consonantal
stems and those ending in -t and -v, the ace. neuter is merely
the stem, subject to the euphonic laws of the Greek language,
while in o-stems it ends in -v ; thus we have ripag (n.), for
TepaTf ^ipov (n.) for tpepovr, fxiXi (n.) for fxsXiT, tS/oi (n-)>
yXvKv (n.), o-o^o-v (n.), &c. Stems ending in -lo (= I. E.
•ya) sometimes lose o in later Greek, as in fxaprvpi-v for fiap-
Tupto-v, &c. ; similarly in Umbrian we find ferti-m = fertio-m,
&c., and in modern Greek Traidi for traidiv =Traidiov, fxapri for
fiapTiv = fiapnov, &c.

III. Latin Ace. Sing. Masculine and feminine consonantsJ
stems form this case in -em, thus agreeing in form with the i-
stems : thus we have voc-em (f.), ferent-em (m. f.), patr-em,
&c. This -em does not represent an I. E. -am, as has been
suggested by some writers, but the consonantal stems were
lengthened by t, which became e before the ace. sing. -m.
Masculine and feminine vocalic stems add -w, as frmta-m^
(m.), hona-m (f.), bono-m (m.), &c. In the z-stems the stem-
vowel generally becomes e, as this vowel is more easily pro-
noimced with m than i ; but we nevertheless find i retained in
many feminine stems, as fehn-m, siti-m, tiissi-m, Tiberi-m,
vi-m, navi-m (also nave-m), &c. The ace. s sing, of sm-« (f.)
and gru-8 (f.) are su-em (compare Gr. av-v and v-v) and gru-
em. In neuter stems the ace. sing, is merely the stem, sub-
ject to the euphonic laws of Latin : thus we have lac for lact,
mel for mell = melt, cor for cord, mare for mari, nomen, &c. In
some cases the ace. sing, neuter agrees with the nom. sing.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 259

masc, as in such forms as feren-s £ot ferent-s, audac-s, &c. In
Umbrian and Oscan the ace. sing, ends in -m, as in Latin, and
this m very often disappears, as in Old Latin : thus in Um-
brian we have 0. U.puplum = N. U. poplom = h. populum;
0. U. tutam = N. U. totam^ N. U. Fisim = Fisiom, N. U. ter-
tim = L. tertiom, &c. ; and in Oscan, 0. 0. hurtiim = L. hov'
turn, viam and via = L. viam, &c. Consonantal stems in
Umbrian do not go over to the i-declension, as in Latin, but
form their ace. in -um or -m, and -om or -o, as O. U. uhturu =»
L. auetorenif N. U. cumaco = L. cornieem^ &c.

§. 132. The Accusative Plural.

The accusative plural of masc. and fem. stems appears to
have been formed by adding s to the ace. singular ; its ending
was, therefore, originally -ns (= -ms), the labial m becoming the
dental n on account of the following dental s. Traces of this
-ns are found in Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, and Latin ; but it is
kept perfect in Gothic vocalic stems, for the euphonic laws
of this language did not forbid such a combination as ns, oc-
curring at the end of a word. The ace. pi. neuter and the
nom. pi. neuter were formed by adding -a to the stem.

I. Sanskrit Ace. PL Masculine and feminine consonantal
and monosyllabic vocalic stems form this case by adding -as to
the stem, as mamt-as from marut, bhiy-as (f.) from hhi^ &c.
Masculine vocalic stems, ending in a short vowel, form their
ace. sing, by adding w, and lengthening the stem-vowel : thus
we have s'ivdn = s'iva-ns from a'lva (m.), kavhi = kavi-ns from
kavi (m.), &c. The ace. pi. of masc. stems in -tar ends in
tfn^ as pi-tfiif &G. ; but an older termination was -tar-as, as
in Vedic pitar-as from pitar. Feminine vocalic stems form
their ace. pi. by adding *, and lengthening the stem-vowel,
when it is short, as in gatis = gati-ns from gati (f motion),
s'ivds = s'ivd-ns from sivd (f), &c. We find traces of the ter-
mination -ns still appearing in Sanskrit, as in kdns, the ace.

s2

260 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

pi. of ka (m. who), which occurs only before kdji, the regular
form : thus Mns kan = O. Pr. kans kmis, compare Gothic ace.
pi. hvajis, found in hvans-uh (quoscunque).* In Yedic also
masc. stems in -i and -u form their ace. pi. in -inr, -uhrf be-
fore vowels, and occasionally before y, v, and A, as in girihr
from giri (m. a mountain), rtiinr homrtu (m. a season), vasuhr
from vasu (m.) ; we also find in Vedic nrnh and nriir as the
ace. pi. of nar (m. a man) : in these cases -nr and -nh repre-
sent an original -ns ; compare the Gothic ace. s pi. gasti-ns,
8unu-ns from gasti and sunu, and Z. ner-a-hs. Neuter vocalic
stems form the ace. pi. by lengthening the stem-vowel, and
adding ni ; neuter consonantal stems add i, and insert n be-
fore the final consonant, except in the case of stems ending
in a nasal, or y, r, I, and v : thus we have s'ivd-ni from s'iva
(n.), vdri-ni from vari (n. water), tdlu-ni from tdlu (n. the
palate), g'aganti from g'ogat (n. the world), hmdi from hrd
(n. the heart), &c. Stems ending in -s or -n also lengthen
the preceding vowel, as in mandhsi from manas (n. the
mind), haUni from balin (n. strong), &c. This final i is pro-
bably a weakened form of an older a, and was obviously
introduced in Sanskrit after the other Indo-European lan-
guages had separated from the parent stock. In the Vedas
we find for the ace. pi. terminations -dni, -ini, and -uni, -a, 4,
and -M, as in vand for vandjii from vana (n. a wood), vis'vd for
visvdni from vis'va (n. all), vdri for vdrini from vdri (n. water),
puru for puruni from purti (n. much).| Vand and vis'vi are
formations similar to Gr. koko and L. towa, where the final
a was originally long ; but in puru for puru-a, and ran for
vdri-a, the final a has been assimilated to the preceding vowels,
whereas in Greek and Latin this is never done, as in Gr. tS/om,
yovva for yovva, L. maria, pecua.

II. Greek Ace. PL This case was formed by adding ? to

• Consult Bopp's " Sanskrit Grammar," p. 97.
t The sound of the Anunasika is represented by «.
X We also find in Vedic as ace. s pi. madku, vdri.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 261

the acc. sing., but the full termination -vc was only kept in
the Argive and Cretan dialects ; when v was lost, the preced-
ing vowel was originally lengthened in compensation, traces
of which still remain ; thus we have lx6v-ag and lx,Gvg =
IxOvvg from l^Ov (m. ; compare acc. sing. IxOva and lx9vv)^
yXvKeig = yXvKtF-ag, from -yAuKU (m.), iroXeig «= TroXty-ag be-
side woXi-ag, 7roXjj-ac» and ttoXTc = iroX'ivg from TroXt (f.), &c.
The full term -vg is found in Arg. and Cret. rovg = roue, t/oei-
yevTcivg = Trpfff/Bcwrac- In Lesbian -ovg and -avghecs,ine -oig
and -aig, just as we find in the same dialect, raXaig = raXavg
for TaXag, Kivfiaaig = Kivriaag for Kivrjaavrg, &c. : thus we have
KaXaig = KaXae, ao^aig = a6<f)ag, aXXaXoig = aXXijXovg, &C. In
Doric -oi/f became wg, as cttttwc = "nrirovg. The acc. pi.
neuter is formed by adding o to the stem, as in (pipovr-a, yivr\
= 7£V£o--a, 'Idpi-a, aoTTj = aortF-a from atrru, &C.

III. Latin Acc. PI. In masculine and feminine stems this
case always ends in -s, the vowel preceding which is always
long, th€ consonantal stems, as usual, assuming the form of
those in -i: thus we have Ieg-es,ferent-es, patres, artus = aHii-
ns from artu (m.), turrets, turris, and turres from turri (f.),
bono-s from bono (m.), bona-s from 6ona(f.). With such forms
as turrets, finds, tristeis, compare Gr. rroXeig, and with turris,
ignis, hostls, compare Gr. noXlg. The acc. pi. neuter is formed
by adding -a, as cornu-a, corpor-a for corpos-a, bona for bo^id =
bona-a, &c. Participial stems in -nt assume i before adding a,
as ferentia from ferent, amantia from amant, &c. ; yet silenta
from «i/ew^ occurs. In Oscan we find -ss for -ns, n beinor
assimilated to 5, as in via-ss = L. vias for via-ns, &c. In Um-
brian the acc. pi. ends in/, as in 0. U. avef, avlf, N. U. avif,
aveif= L. ares, avw, aveis, 0. U. a'pruf, N. U. aprof= L. aprosy
&c. No satisfactory explanation has as yet been suggested
for this/: some writers consider it to be the remains of a
postposition before which final s has disappeared, in which
case are/ would be for aves-f ; others connect it with I. E.
-bhi, which is used to form some other cases, but this expla-

262 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

nation is just as improbable as the preceding one. It is more
likely that / arose merely from a provincial pronunciation of
the original s, and s may have become / in Umbrian, just as
-as passed through the stage -af in becoming -6 in Sanskrit
(consult §. 34).

§. 133. The Accusative Dual.

This case has the same termination as the nom. dual.

I. Sanskrit Ace. Dual. The masc. and fem. ace. dual,
being the same as the nom. dual, has been already noticed
under that case. Neuters have as their ending ?-, which is
merely the lengthening of the nom. pi. neuter sign -X, as ba-
lin-l from balin (n. strong), vdn-n-l from vdri (n. water),
madhu-rir-i from madhu (n.), s'ivi = s'iva + i from s'iva (n.).

II. Greek Ace. Dxial. This case has the same termination
as the nom. dual. Greek differs from Sanskrit in having the
same termination in the three genders, as KopoK-e from KopaK
(m.), ^Xt'/S-E from ^XejS (f.), awfiar-e from o-w/xo (n.), Xo'yw
from Xoyo (m.), vo'cru) from voao (f ), tvXu) from ^v\o (n.), &c.

III. Latin Ace. Dual. In duo and ambo the ace. masc. is
either duo and ainbo, or duo-s and ambo-s, following the analogy
of the plural. The feminine is formed only as a plural, nom.
ducB, ambcB, ace. dua-s, amba-s. In vidgar Latin dua was
used for the neuter beside duo.

§. 134. The Instrumental Singular.

In Indo-European two forms of the instr. sing, existed,
one ending in -a, and another in -bhi. Now, as the instru-
mental has two meanings, the one comitative^ and the other
instrumental proper* it is likely that each of the above ter-
minations was limited to one special meaning, although finally
this limitation was lost. The termination -a is perhaps con-

• So E. with has both these meanings, as in " I went with him," and
" I cut the bread with a knife." See Schleicher, " Compendium," &c.
p. 677.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 263

nected with the pronominal root a, of which it is the guna : bhi
has been connected by some writers with the preposition Skr.
abhi = Gr. afK^l ; but then how is abhi itself to be explained ? It
is generally supposed to be the instrumental of the pronominal
root a. Besides, if bhi be of prepositional origin, how are the
terminations -bhy-as^ bhy-dm, to be accounted for? Such
forms as Skr. vdg-bhy-as cannot be compared to such as L.
vobiscum^ for in the latter the preposition comes last ; they
would rather require vo-cum-his as a parallel case. Curtius*
suggests that -bhi is connected with the root bhu (to be) ; from
bhu was formed the nominal stem bhu-ya^ whence came bhya,
and finally bhi. Bhuya and consequently bhi in this view meant
existence, and being added to another nominal stem expressed
coexistence ; hence we have the coniitative instrumental.

I. Sanskrit Instr. Sing. In consonantal stems and femi-
nine ones ending in -i, -t, -u, and -u, this case is formed by
simply adding -a, as in vdk'-d from vdk! (f.), marut-d from ma-
rut (m.), nady-d from nadi (f.), dhSnv-d from dhenu (f.), &c.
Feminine stems in -d alter the stem-vowel to -6 before add-
ing -d ; hence we have s'ivay-d from s'ivd, &c. In Vedic,
however, we find such forms as dhdrd (= dhdrd-d) for dhdray-d
from dhdrd (f. a shower), &c. Masculine and neuter stems
ending in -i and -u insert w, as in bhdnund from bhdnu (m.
the sun), vdrind from vdri (n. water), &c. In the Vedas we
find other forms of this case without w, as pas'vdfvoui pas'ti (m.
cattle), madhvd from madhu (n. honey) ; also with guna, as
prabdhavd from prabdhu from bdhu (m. the arm) ; and also
with euphonic y, as uruyd from uru (great). Even in lateu
Sanskrit we find patyd from pati (m. a master), and sakhyd

* Consult Curtius "zur Chronologic," &c., p. 257. i?At appears to be
connected with other suffixes beginning with bh^ as Skr. -hha = Gr. -<po in
karabha-s, karam-bha-s, Gr. lAo-^o-f, arkpt-fo-g, &c. As Curtius con-
nects bhi with R. bhu, so he connects the Greek suffixes -9a, -6i, -dtp, with
the I. E, dha (to place), whence perhaps also the suffix -Bo in fxia-96-c
(from R. A«£^), &c.

264 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

from sakhi (m. a friend). Masculine and neuter stems in -a
also insert n, but change the stem-vowel into 6, and shorten
the final d, as s'ivena from s'iva (m. n), &c. In the Vedas we
find the final d sometimes retained, as in kulis'^nd from kulis'a
(m. n. an axe) ; also without the euphonic w, as mahitvd from
mahitva (n. greatness) ; and also with an euphonic y, as svap-
nayd from svapna (m. sleep).

The other instrumental termination, -bhi, does not occur in
Sanskrit, unless the preposition abhi be the instr. of the pro-
nominal root a. It is, however, much more probable that
abhi was originally a locative, meaning " on both sides of;"
compare Skr. abhitas, which still retains this sense.

II. Greek Instr. Sing. The form ending in -d appears pro-
bably in the adverbial forms, ufxa, Dor. afia, Sixa> Dor, Bixa,
TaxOi Trrj, <jiri (found in II. 2, 144 ; 14, 499, perhaps for a^rj =
Goth. svS, as), aXXax^} ^V (for dyd = yd, from pronominal
stem ya, whence we have the locative form in L. jam), iravTrj,
Dor. TTovra, &c. "Iva may be the instr. of pronominal stem
t = I. E. ya, with v inserted, as in rivog from ri-g.

The other instrumental ending, -^i, is used also in an abla-
tive and locative signification. It is an instrumental proper in
^ii}(pi, ijcfn, &c. ; and comitative in (^uv) 6\t(T<pi, {afi ijoX) (ftai-
vofxivi\<^it &c.

III. Latin Instr. Sing. Neither form of the instr. is found
in Latin or any other Italic language.

§. 135. The Instrumental Plural.

In Indo-European this case ended in -bhisj the plural form
of the sing -bhi.

I. Sansknt Instr. PI. Marudbhis from marut (m.), kavi-
bhis from kavi (m.), s'ivdbhis from s'ivd (f.), &c. Masculine
and neuter stems in -a change the stem-vowel into e in Vedic,
as in as'vebhis from as'va (m.) ; whereas in ordinary Sanskrit
a becomes d, and bkia thrown out, as in sivdis from s'iva (m.
n ) . The oldest form of the instr. of the (t-stems ended in

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 265

-dbhis, as we see from the pronominal instr. forms asmdbhis
and yushmdhhis^ from asma and ymhma. The Prakrit instr.
pi. of the of-stems ends in -^hin = Ved. -4bhis, as in kusumShin
= Ved. kusum6hliis beside Skr. kusumdis from kusuma (n. a
flower). In Old Persian this case in these stems ends in
-aibhish = Ved. -^bhis.

II. Greek Instr. PL The final g was lost, and consequently
the form of the instr. pi. is the same as that of the instr. sing. ;
i. e. -<pi or -^(v, as in vav^iv (H. 2, 794). The form -(piv
probably belonged originally to the dual, and corresponded to
Skr. -bhydm.

III. Latin Instr. PI. There is no trace of this case in
Latin or the other Italic languages,

§. 13(). The Instrumental Dual.

See the section on the dative plural, which is identical in
form with this case.

§. 137. The Dative Singular.

In Indo-European this case was formed by adding -ai
to the stem. The origin of this termination is very doubtful.
Some writers consider it to be the guna of the locative ter-
mination -i ; others derive it from the preposition abhi, bh
being lost, as in Skr. s'ivdis, instr. pi. o^s'iva (m. n.), &c., and
in Lith. vilkais (for vilkamis) instr. pi. ofvilka, &c., and as <p
is lost in Doric Ifiiv = Skr. mahyam for mabhyam, and Homeric
Tuv =Skr. tubhyam. Bh also appears in these pronominal
datives ; and as the pronouns generally preserve more archaic
forms than the noun, it is likely that here also they point back
to the oldest form of the dative. We may compare with this
use of abhi to form the dative the use of the Latin preposition
ad to express the dative idea in the expression te ad camuji-
cem daboy which occurs in Plautus. Bopp identifies ^, the
termination of the Sanskrit dative, with the demonstrative stem
e, whence ay -am = ^ + am, and which & he considers to be only
another form of the stem ^.

266 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

I. Sanskrit Dative Sing. The dative of the consonantal
stems is formed by the addition of -S, as inarut-S from niarut,
&c. Polysyllabic feminine stems in -i and -u form the dative
by adding at, while monosyllabic feminines in -I and -m, and
all feminines in -i and -u may form this case in either -e or -di.
All masculine and feminine stems in -i and -u gunate the final
vowel before -e, as gatay-S from, gati (f. motion), bhdnav-e from
bhdnu (m. the sun), &c. Neuter stems in -i and -u insert n, as
vdri-n-6 from vdriy &c. Masculines and neuters in -d add -aya^
as sivdya from s'lua, &c., while feminines in -d add -ydi, as
sivdydi from s'iua, &c.

II. Greek Dative Sing. The true dative termination in
Greek is only found in stems ending in -a (a, »/, o) : thus we
have oiKd^ = oiko + oi, Oeq. = Oea + at, &c. In other stems the
locative is used as the dative.

It is a disputed question whether Greek infinitives in -at,
-fiBvai, -evai, -vai, are datives of consonantal stems, or loca-
tives of feminine stems in -a. In favour of the first view we
have the analogy of the Sanskrit, in which datives are used as
infinitives ; and in favour of the second view we have the
fact that no Greek dative ends in -ai, whereas this termination
is found in X"i"«'> ^^^- ^^ S^* X°A*<*' Thus Xvcrai, TeOva/juvat,
XeXoirrivai, ^eiKvvvai, may be either datives of the stems Xu-c,
TtSva-fxav, XeXotTT-ev, ^etK-vv-v, or locatives of the stems Xu-cra,
TtOva-fxeva, XeXoiir-tva, SeiK-vv-va. The infinitive in -crOai is
either the dative of a feminine stem in -/, corresponding to the
Sanskrit dative of stems in -dhi, which is used as an infinitive,
as piba-dhydi (to drink, Rigv. 4, 27, 5), or it has assumed the
termination -at, following the analogy of other infinitives.

III. Latin Dative Sing. The dative of cons, stems ends
in -f, which probably represents the I. E. -ai. In the fifth
century A. U. C. the termination of this case was -e, as in the
Umbrian forms nomn-e = Skr. 7idmn-S, patr-e = Skr. pitr-e. In
the sixth century A. U. C. S became ei, as in Oscan : thus
find L. patr-ei, Diov-ei, &c., beside O. pater-el, Diiiv-ei, &c.
Finally H became ?, as in voc-l, &c. The u-stems follow the

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 267

analogy of the cons, stems, asmsenatu-ei (SC.deTiburtibus) :
here also final ei became I, as in ostentu-i, and at last -u-i be-
came -u, a change which began early, as in visu (Lucr. 5,
101), &c. In the a-, e-, and o- stems the initial vowel of the
termination -ai united itself to the stem vowel, and final i
while it remained an independent syllable was long. Thus in
the «-stems we have terrd-l (Enn. Ann. 479) = terra-ai, later
terrcBy &c. ; final I sometimes entirely disappeared in early
times, as in the datives Matuta, Tuscolana, and similar forms
dating from the sixth century, just as in Greek we have Oea
for Seal, &c. ; -di sometimes became e, as in the datives Diane,
Victorie, &c., just as in Umbrian we have the datives O. U.
tute Ikuvine = N. U. tote Ijoveine, O. U. ase = L. aroe. In Os-
can we find the dative ending in at) as in aasai = L. arce. In
the e- stems we have the dative ending in -el = -e + ei, aa Jlde-i,
spe-l, &c. ; and later in e, i being lost, as fide. The dative of
the o-stems ended originally in -oi, as populoi = populo-oi, later
populo, i being lost, as in Gr. tTTTr^) = tTTTrwt, &c. In Umbrian
this dative ended in e, aspople = L, populoi, Martie=l^.Martioi ;
similarly in Volscian we have deve = L. divoi, Declune = L. De-
clunoi. In Oscan o-stems this case ends in -ui, as in 0. 0. hiir-
tia =" L. horto, &c. The Latin infinitive in -re is probably the
dative of an abstract noun in -as, just as similar datives are
used as infinitives in Sanskrit, as Skr. k'akshas-e (to see), &c. :
legere would therefore be for legese — final e, though originally
long, as representing ai, being shortened. This shortening of
final e is not surprising, as the Romans forgot that the infini-
tive had been originally a dative ; and moreover, we have an
analogous case in the loss of the final at in Greek infinitives
in -fxtvat, as ifiev = ifxevai, &c.

§. 138. The Dative Plural.

We have already seen that in Sanskrit hhyam (= bhi + am),
is used to form the dative singular of the pronouns, as in tuh-
hyaniy mahyam. This termination, with the addition of s, was

268 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAK.

therefore most probably the original termination of the dative
plural in Indo-European. The Old Prussian supplies us with
a positive proof that this supposition is correct, as in it the
dat. pi. ends in -manSy which represents an I. E. -hhyanis. In
Lithuanian this case ended in -mus, which also must have arisen
from the same form, as the presence of the nasal is shown by
u ; for had the original form been -bhyas, we would have found
-tnas.

I. Sansh'it Dat. PI. Here -bhi/ams becomes -bhyas, as in
marud-bhyas, ndubhyas, &c. Final d becomes e, as in s'ivebhyas
from s'iva (m. n.), &c.

II. Greek Dat. PI. The locative plural is used as the
dative in Greek.

III. Latin Dat. PI. Here -bhyams became -beis^ and later
-bis in the pronouns, as in vobeis, later vobis, &c. ; and -bos (?),
and later -bus in the nouns, as in navebos, ovibus, &c. The
consonantal stems add i to the stem, as in fratribus, hotninibus,
from the stems frater, homin. It is possible that originally in
Latin -btis was added immediately to the stem, and perhaps
bobus or bubus= bov-bus, is a relic of this stage. In thei-stems
i in Old Latin became e, as in tempestatebiis. In the w-stems^
u sometimes became i, as in fructibus. In the e-stems -bus
only occurs in Classical Latin in diebus and rebus ; speciebus is
censured by Cicero as not correct. In the o-stems -bus only
occurs in dxtobiis and ambobus. In feminine a stems -bus often
occurs, as in Jilidbus, dedbus, &c. The dat. pi. of the a- and
o-stems ends in -is. Two different explanations have been
suggested to explain this termination. Schleicher supposes
that eqids, for example, arose from equois, and that equois again
represents an older equo-hios = equo-Jios, in which -fios = -bhyas.
This explanation is most improbable, and it is much more
likely that here,* as in the Greek dat. pi., we have the old lo-

• Consult Schleicher, "Compendium," &c., p. 587 ; and " Gnmdriss dcr
lateinischcn Declination von Franz BUchelcr," p. 66.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 269

cative : silvais, agrois, would then be for silvaisi, agroisi, just
as Gr. uXatc, aypoig, are for vXatm, aypoXai. The loss of final
iis very common in Latin ; thus we have est = Gr. lori, iremunt
= 0. L. tremonti, &c. The oldest form of the Latin dative,
without the addition of i to the stem- vowel, as in mensa-i-s,
&c., is found on an inscription (C. I. L. 1, n. 814), where we
read devas Corniscas sacrum, where devas and Comiscas cor-
respond to the old Attic datives Ta/xlatTi, wpam, &c. That the
dative plural of the a- and o-stems originally ended in the
diphthongs -ais and -ois is proved by the forms noticed by
Festus, oloes (= illis), privicloes (= privicidis), and by the cog-
nate Italic languages. On an old inscription, perhaps of
Latin origin, we find suois and cnatois = L. suis and gnatis.
In Oscan we find Nuvlanias (ra.) = L. Nolanis, ligatuls (m.)
= Jj. legatis, diumpals(L)=h.lymphis. InUmbrianthedat.pl.
of the a- and o-stems ends in -eis, -es, -is, and in later
Umbrian in -eir, -er, -ir ; thus we have O. U. termnes
(= Li. terminis), O. U. veskles (= L. vasculis), O. U. tekuries
= N. U. dequrier (= L. decuriis), O. U. Treplanes - N.
U. Trehlandr or Trehlanir, N. U. toter (= L. tutis), N. U. alfir
(= L. albis), &c. In the i-stems this case ends in -eiSf.-es, fol-
lowing probably the analogy of the a- and o-stems ; Schleicher,
however, explains this form in the same way as Latin datives
in -is, and deduces aves, aveis, from avi-fos, &c. The dative
pi. of the consonantal stems ends in -tis, asfratrus (fratribus),
dupursus (bipedibus), &c. Schleicher considers that the oldest
form otfratms was fratr-o-fos, whence came fratrus through
the stages fratrufos, fratrufs, fratruss.

§. 139. The Dative Dual.

This case in Indo-European perhaps ended in -hhydms, a
lengthened form of the pi. -hhyams.

I. Sanskrit Dot. Dual. The I. E. termination here became
-hhydm^ as in marud-hhydm from marut (m ), s'ivd-bhydm from
s'iva (m. n.) and s'ivd (f.), &c. The (t-stems lengthen the stem-
vowel before adding this suffix.

270 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

II. Greek Dot. Dual.* The dative and genitive dual have
the same form in Greek : -hhydms first, probably, became -0tv,
and then -tv, ^ being lost. Stems ending in -t, -u, or a conso-
nant, follow the analogy of the a- stems : thus we have yiviotv
and -yevoiv = yzvta-o-^iV) fiaripoiv = fiarep-o-cfuv, veicvotv =
vtKV-o-(j>iv, yXvKiotv = y\vKiP-o-(piv from St. jXvkv with guna
of the stem-vowel, Ion. iroXioiv = TroXt-o-^tv, ttoXsoiv = TroXfy-
O'^iv from St. TToXt with guna of the stem-vowel, "iwiroiv =
tTTTTO-^iv, &c. In the Homeric forms roiiv, wfiouv, oXXtj-
\ouv, ^Xt(papouv, &C.J from the stems to, w/uo, aXXijXo, /3Xe-
^apo, &c., t appears to have been added to the stem, and con-
sequently ToXiv = To-i-ipiv, &c. This £, perhaps, represents an
older a, by which the c?-stems.were lengthened as in Sanskrit ;
Toiiv would then be identical with Skr. tdhhydm (from St. ta)
= ta-a-hhydms. It has been suggested that the second a here
is not a mere lengthening of the stem, but that it belongs to
the termination : consequently the word should be thus di-
vided, ta-ahhi-dms, abhi being in this view the preposition.
We find in some Greek consonantal stems datives similar to
rottv ; thus we have ttoSouv = TroB-o-t-(j>iv from St. ttoS, Sttpjj-
vouv = Sctprjv-o-t-^iv from St. Setprjv.

III. Latin Dat. Dual. There is no trace of the termina-
tion -hhydms in any Italic language.

§. 140. The Ablative Case.

In Indo-European this case was formed by adding -t] to
the vocalic stems, with gunation of the stem vowel, or -at

• C!oDsult Schleicher, ** Compendium," &c., p. 590; and Leo Meyer,
" Gedrangte Vergleichung der griechischen und lateinischen Declination,"
p. 64.

f As the abl. sing, ends in Zend in d (written t by Schleicher), and in
Latin in rf, it is likely that d was the original form of the case-ending.
This d may be connected with the pronouns ad-as (n. that) and id'Om (n.
that). Bopp considers that the d in these pronouns is derived from an
older /, but it is quite possible that here we may have an independent pro-
nominal stem.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 271

with or without this gunation : in consonantal stems -at was
simply added. This -t or -at is of pronominal origin, and was
probably connected with the pronominal stem ta*

I. Sanskrit Abl. Sing. The original t only occurs in the
d-stems, as in s'ivdt from s'iva (m. n.). Benfeyf adduces one
ablative of an w-stem ending in -i, vidyot from vidyu. In all
other stems -t has become -s, and the ablative agrees in form
with the genitive. The change of final t into s is common in
Greek, as in T£TV(p6g = TeTV((>OT, &c., ofiCjg for ojitwr = Skr.
samdt (abl. of St. sama, similar), &c. That final s of the abl.
has sprung from -t is proved by the Zend, where we still
find the abl. termination d : thus we have Z. patoid (abl. of
pati) = Skr. pates (abl. ofpati = Gr. irocri), which is found in
compounds, beside Z. patois (gen.) = Skr. pates (gen.).

II. Greek Abl Sing. The I. E. t is found in Greek adverbs
in -wg, where final o- = I. E. *, as no Greek word can end in t :
moreover, -at has become -at = -tor = -wg, just as in Zend.J
Thus we have vug. Ion. kwc = I. E. kvdt from kva, iravr-wg
= TTOvT-cuT, Ta\i-t»}g =Tax£F-a>r, &c.

III. Latin Abl. Sing. In Old Latin and Oscan the abl.
ends in -d, which is lost in Classical Latin and in Umbrian.
Thus in Old Latin we find dictator-ed^ convention-id, senatu-d,
navaU-d, mari-d, alto-d, Gnaivo-d, praida-d, sententia-d, &c.
From facilumed, which is found in the S. C. de Bacc, we see
that all adverbs in -e are of ablatival origin, and spring from
adjectives in -us, -a, -um ; the adverbial ablative ending in -ed,
so as to be distinguished from the masc. and fem, ablatives of
the adjective, which ended in -od and -ad. This e was originally
long, but gradually became short, as the adverbs were words
in constant use. In Oscan -d is also found : thus we have

* Consult Curtius "Zur Chronologie der Indogermanischen Spach-
forschung," p. 255.

. t Benfey's Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language for the use of
early Students, §. 237, p. 197.

\ Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., pp. 347, 348.

272 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

from a-stems, saJcaraklti-d (sacello), aragetu-d = L. argento,
preivatii-d = 0. L. preivato-d, suva-d = 0. L. sova-d (sua),
ehtra-d = 0. L. exstra-d (in S. C. de Bacc, exstrad urbem)^
Akudunnia-d = L. Aquihnid, &c. ; from an t'-stem, slaagi-d
(fine); the w-stems follow the analogy of those in -i, as cas-
tri-d from St. castru^ which appears in Latin as an a-stem
castro; the consonantal stems partly follow the t'-stems, and
partly end in -vd^ as prcBsent-id = L. prcBsente, lig-ud = L. lege.
The Oscan also supplies us with additional proof that adverbs in
-e were originally ablatives ; for we find amprufi-d ( = L. m-
probe), which is either from an /-stem or from an a-stem, as L.
improhe. Perhaps the stem vowel was lengthened by a, as in the
Latin adverbs ; in the latter case 0. -id and L. -ed would both
point back to an older -eid = -oid = -a-i-d = -a-a-d or -a-a-t.
This lengthening of a-stems by adding d is, as we have already
seen, of frequent occurrence in Sanskrit. In Umbrian -d has
been lost, as in the a-stems, puplu = 0. L. poplod (populo),
vinu = 0. L. veinod (vino), termnu = L. tejininOy mefa = L. me-
did, tuta = 0. touta-d, mest'f'u= L. tnagistro, &c. ; in the e-stems,
ukri, &c. ; in the w-stems, which, however, as in Oscan, fol-
low the analogy of the /-stems, as mani = L. manii, &c. ; in
the consonantal stems, as kvestw-e = L. quaestore, &c.*

• In Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, we find the suffixes, Skr. -tas, Gr.
-0fv, L. -tus^ employed to form adverbs with an ablative meaning, and
which in some cases actually take the place of the ablative, especially in
the pronominal declension. Thus in Sanskrit we have svarga-tas (from
heaven) from svarga, ku-tas (whence) from ku = kva (who), itas (from
here), also used as abl. of id-am (n. this), &c. The Skr. pronouns of the
1st and 2nd pers. attach -tas, not to the true stem, but to the abl., as
mat-tas, tvat-tas. In Latin -tus corresponds to Skr. -tas, as in cceli-tus,
&c. This termination has also a locative meaning in Latin, as in in-tus,
sub-tus. The Greek Otv is from a diflferent root ; for Gr. 6 =Skr. dh, and
not t ; ir6-9tv, ro-Gtv, o-6iv, do not therefore correspond exactly to Skr.
ku-taa, ta-tas, ya-tas, but would require such forms as ku-dhas, &c. We
find -dhas, however, in Skr., adhas (down), with which Benfey connects
Gr. fv-9fv. We also find the exact representative of Skr. -tas in Gr.
iv-Toc, iKT6(, which have a locative meaning. It is possible that in

comparative grammar. 273

§. 141. The Ablative Plural.
This case agrees in form with the dat. pi.

§. 142. The Ablative Dual.
Tliis case agrees in form with the dat. dual.

§. 143. The Genitive Singular.

In Indo-European the gen. sing, of the ^-sterns ended in
-sya^ and that of all other stems in -s or -as. The origin of
these suffixes has been already discussed in §. 105.

I. Sanskrit Gen. Sing. In consonantal stems and mono-
syllabic ones ending in any vowel except 6, this case ends in
-as, as marut-as from marut (m.), ndv-as from ndu (f.), hhiy-as
from 57ii (f. fear), &c. The gen. sing, of monosyllabic stems in
-I and -u may also end in -as, as bhiy-ds, &c. ; stems in -ar ori-
ginally formed their gen. in -as, as we see from the Vedic
genitives pitr-as, nar-as, from the stems pilar, nar (m. a man) ;
but in later Sanskrit we find the remarkable forms, pitur, md-
tiir, ddtur, &c., as gen.s of the stems pitar, mdtar, ddtdr, &c.
Bopp considers that -m?* here arose from -urs = -rus = -ras,
and consequently that the old form pitras passed through the
stages pitrus (= Gr. irarpog) and piturs in becoming pitur.
According to this view the final r is the stem -r transposed ;
but it is more natural to suppose that the old form pitras be-
came pitrs (a being lost, and r treated as a vowel), and that
from pitrs arose pitus (as this gen. ought properly to be writ-
ten), r becoming u, as is very common in Prakrit.* The Zend
supports the view that these gen.s originally ended in -as :
thus we have Z. dathro (for dathr-as) = Skr. ddtus, Z. nafif-

Indo-European these suffixes had at first a merely locative signification,
and that -ta-s marked the direction whither, and -dha-s the place where,
the former being from the verbal root ta (to stretch), and the latter from
dha (to place), and the final s coming from the pronominal stem sa.

* The form pitus may also be accounted for by supposing that the
gen. sing, was originally pitdras (= Gr. irarkpoQ), and that this, through
the influence of the accent, became, firstly, J9t7ar5. and then pitus.
* T

274 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

dhro (euphonically for naptro) = Skr. naptus^ final -as becom-
ing 6, as usual. In Z. dthras'-h'a (ignisque) we find the gen.
still ending in -as, from St. dtar. In Vedic the gen. of the i—
and w-stems was formed by adding -as directly to the stem-
vowel, as in pas'v-as from pas'u (m. cattle), madhv-as = Gr.
fiiSv-oQ from madhu (n. honey), ary-as from ari (m. an enemy),
^s Gr. iBpi-og from iBpi. We find traces of this formation in
later Sanskrit, as in paty-us for paty-as from pati (m. a mas-
ter), sakhy-m for sakhy-as (m. a friend). The original geni-
tive in -as was supplanted by other forms ; and with the ex-
ception of Skr, paty-us, and sakhy-us no traces of it are found
except in Vedic. Masculine stems in -i and -u gunate the stem-
vowel, and add s, as kave-s from kavi (m. a poet), bhdno-s from
hhdnu (m. the sun), &c. Neuter stems are lengthened by n,
as vdri-n-as from vdri (n. water), &c. Feminine stems in -i and
-u either follow the analogy of the masc. stems in -i and -m,
or attach -ds directly to stem, while feminine stems in -i and
-u can form their genitive only in the latter way : thus we
have gates or gaty-ds from gati (f.), but only nady-ds from
nadi (f.), &c. Feminines in -d change the stem-vowel into
-di before -ds, as s'ivdy-ds from s'ivd, &c. Masculines and
neuters in -d form the gen. by adding -sya, as s'iva-sya from
s'iva (m. n.), &c. ; -sya occurs in no other stems except in the
pronominal stem amu, the gen. of which is amushya.

II. Greek Gen. Sing. In consonantal stems this case is
formed by adding -oe to the stem, as in ttoS-oc, fxivovg = /u£-
V£(t-ocj al^ooQ and at^ouc (-^ol. atSoif) = alBoa-og, Ipi^ovq
(Hom. Igi^ivg) = tpef^ta-og, Fopyoog (Dor. FopyioQ, ^o\.
r6pyu)g) = ropyovog, irarp-og and irarip-og, &c. The gen. of
stems ending in a diphthong, or t or u, is formed in a similar
way, as vaF-oc> /3oF-oc> v^pi-og, axAw-oc> yovvog = yow-og,
^ovpog = Bopv-og, &c. : the stem-vowels i and v can also be
gunated before -og, as ttoAe-wc?* TroXe-og, and Hom. ttoAtj-oc

• The lengthening of -"i here is analogous to the lengthening of -as
in the gen. sing, of Skr. feminine stems in •<}, -i", and -w.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 275

= TToXey-oC} beside Ion. voXi-og, Horn, fxam-n-og = fxavrey-ng,
beside navri-og, yXvKfF-OQ, aortF-oc and a(TTt-(og,TroXiF-og from
iroXv. In feminine a-stems the gen. sign -as was immediately
added to the stem-vowel, as in (jo^tac, (pvyJig. The gen. of
the masculine and neuter a-stems ended originally in -ayo ;
the Horn. gen. s in -oio and -oo are derived at once from
-o-ayo ; thus icrafiivoio = icrafxevo-tryo, ay poo = ay polo = aypo-
ayo. The ordinary gen. in -ow, ^ol. -w, arises from -oo
simply by contraction. The Hom. gen. in -ao is probably
derived from an older form in -a-ayo, as in ^Arpd^ao, &c. ;
-do sometimes become -w, as in Aivtiw, &c. ; and final -o is
sometimes lost, as in the -^ol. 'A'/Sa, Kpovi^a, &c. In the
Arcadian dialect -ao becomes -av, as in ' AwoXXwviSav, "Eav,
&c. Curtius* deduces the gen. ending -ao from -aog = Skr.
-ay as, but the former explanation is much more probable.
Such genitives as 7ro/?/rou, ttoXitov, &c., are derived from
older forms in -do : thus iroXiTov = iroXirao, &c. In the
Thessalian dialect f the gen. sing, of the o-stems frequently
ended in -oi. Ahrens considers, and rightly I believe, that
this -01 represents the older -oio, final o being merely lost, as
in gens, in o. In opposition to this view it has been sug-
gested that this gen. in -oi is properly an old locative, which
is here used in the genitive signification, just as in Latin the
gen. in -i is supposed to have been also originally a locative.
III. Latin Gen. Sing. — The I. E. gen. suffix -as appears
in Latin in the forms -os, -us, -is, -es. The gen. of conson-
antal stems is formed by adding the suffix immediately to the
stem : thus we have ped-is, gener-is for genes-is, nomin-is, patr-
is, &c. The I. E. -as in becoming -is first became -os (which
is found in the w-stems), and then -ics (which is found on in-
scriptions up to the middle of the seventh century A. U. C.

* Curtius, " Grundziige der griechischen Etymologie," p. 646.
t Ahrens, " De Dialectis Solids," &c., p. 221 ; and "DeDialecto
Dorica," p. 528, seq.

t2

276 COMPARATIVE GRAMAIAR.

in homi7i-us, Vener-us, Cerer-uSy patr-us, &c.). In Old Latin
we also find the gen. of consonantal stems ending in -es, as in
Salut-eSf Apolon-es, Cerer-es. In late Latin this gen. in -es
again appears as in the gens. Ccesar-es, campestr-es. This -es
either arose from -is, or else preceded it, the I. E. -as be-
coming first -es, and then -is ; or perhaps we can detect here
the influence of the i-stems, and -es may be equal to -eis or
~ls. Final s was often lost in old and vulgar Latin, as in
Ccesar-u (C. I. L. 1, n. 696), Falcestrion-i (PI. Mil. Glor. 387),
&c. ; and in many cases, where it was written, it was not pro-
nounced, as in militXs qui amicam (PI. Bacch. 574), &c.* As
the gen. of the i-stems ends in classical Latin is -Xs, it agrees
in form with that of the cons, stems ; thus ovXs^ piscis, &c.,
would have had the same form, if they had been derived from
the stems ov, pise, &c. But this gen. ending -is was perhaps
originally long {-Is), and arose from -i-os, just as alls = alios.
The close connexion of the consonantal stems with those in -i
is shown by the gen. form part-us (Tab. Bant.), from St. part
beside parti-s from St. parti. The gen. of the w-stems was
formed by adding -os to the gunated stem ; thus, senatu-os
(S. C. de Bacc.) = senatov-os, magistratu-os, &c. ; -os after-
wards became -us, as in domu-us, exercitu-u.% conventu-us (all
on inscriptions) ; and from -u-us, by contraction, arose the
usual gen. in -its, and in Old Latin -u, final s being lost. Be-
side these gens, in -ti-os, -u-uSi -us, we also find another
form in -u-is in use up to Cicero's time, as in senatu-is,
domu-is, &c., cited by Gellius, anu-is (Ennius), metu-is
(Cicero), &c. : su-is and gru-is always kept this form. The
M-stems are also declined like those in -o, as gen. sumpti be-
side sumptus, qucesii beside qucestu-is (Ter. Hoc. 735), and
qucEstus, senati, gemiti, geli, &c. The gen. of neuter w-stems
followed the analogy of the masculine, as comU'is, eornus, and
coriiu (final $ being lost, as in gen. senatu, C. I. L. 1, n, 1166),

• Biicheler, " Grundriss der latL-inischen Declination," p. 80, seq.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 277

from St. cornu. The gen. of the o-stems, masc. and neut.,
ends in z, in late Latin -ei. Three different ways of explain-
ing this form have been suggested : one is, that this case is
really the locative, which has here supplanted the old geni-
tive ; another is, that we find here a trace of the termination
-asya, e. g. agn= agroi = agro-sya; the last is, that the gen.
originally ended in -o-is, e. g. agri = agro-is. This last ex-
planation is much the most likely, for in Umbrian and Oscan
the final 8 is still retained ; thus we have O. O. suvels = L. mi,
O. O. Pumpaiia-nets = L. Pompeiani; 0. U. puples, puple, and
N. U. popl€r= L. populi; 0. (J. katles a.nd katle = L. catuli, &c.
These forms point back to an Italic gen. in -ois, whence came
O. 0. -eiSy 0. U. -es, -e, and L. -i, final s being lost. This
•ois may be explained in three different ways : either the stem
was lengthened by y (= i), and -us added, as to the consonantal
stems, agrois representing therefore an older agra-y-as; or
the analogy of the /-stems was followed here, and -is added
directly to the stem ; or, more simply, -as was added to the
stem without the intervention of y, and, consequently, -o-is
= -a-is <= -a-as. Final i, though essentially long, was some-
times shortened by Plautus ; and disappeared in Ncepor for
Ncei (= GruBvi), por and Marpor = Marcipor. The gen. sing,
of the fem. a-stems ended originally in -as, as terras (Nsev.),
vias (Enn.), fortunas (Naev.), &c. ; the same ending is found
in 0. eituas (pecuniae), 0. multas (= L. mulctce), U. tiitaSy &c. ;
in classical Latin it is still found in {pater-, mater-) familias.
The gen. sing, of these stems also ends in -di (in Ennius,
Plautus, Lucretius, &c.), later -cb. This -al arose perhaps
from -ais = -ay-as, the stem being lengthened by i/ (= i) ; -ais
is found in the gen. Prosepnais (C. L L. 1, p. 554) = Proser-
pincBf and it appears as -cbs in Faustces, Diances, Lepidobs,
&c. This form in cbs belonged entirely to vulgar Latin, and
is not found before the seventh century A. U. C. It pene-
trated even into the masc. a-stems, as in Messa/ee.f, MidcBs. We
may also explain the form -ais in the same way as we ex-

278 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

plained the masc. -ois, without supposing the stem to be
lengthened by y : thus, by adding -as directly to the stem we
get, on the one hand, -d-is = -Ci-as, the second a being weak-
ened to i to diminish the weight of the termination, as in -o -is
«= -d-as, while on the other hand we obtain by simple con-
traction the other form of the gen. -as = -d-as. A third expla-
nation has been suggested : it is supposed that the «-stems
formed their gen. by adding -sya, folio wing the analogy of those
in -dK, and that consequently -at = -d-sya ; but this theory is ex-
tremely improbable, forno trace of the I. E. -sya is found in the
corresponding Oscan and Umbrian stems. The gen. of the e-
stems is formed similarly to that of those in -d : thus corre-
sponding to the gen. in -as, we find the gen. in -es, as rabies
(Lucret.),yi£^s (Plant.), rf/«s (Enn.), &c. ; this gen. perhaps
appears in Diespiter (the father of day). Corresponding also
to the gen. in -di, we find the gen. in -el, later -eTi, except
when immediately preceded by a vowel ; and then still later
corresponding to -ae, we find -ei contracted into a diphthong :
thus we have yi(?^i (Enn.), rel (Plant.), &c. ; then rei (PL),
JidM, &c. ; but always aciei; then in the Comedians, rei, spei,
are frequently monosyllables. The gen. of the «-stem8 also
ends in e, which may be derived either from -es, s being lost ;
or from -ei, i being lost ; as pernicie, fide, acie, die. Finally,
we find a gen. in -i after the analogy of the o- and u- stems,
as fami (Cato), plebi (Tab. Bant.) ; and even when i imme-
diately precedes, as in pemicii (Cic. according to Gellius), pro-
genii (Pacuv,), &c., where we might have expected final e to
be retained to avoid the conjunction of two «'s : this i evi-
dently arose from the diphthongisation of the original -el, as
in the monosyllabic rei. In Oscan the gen. of the consonantal
stems is formed by adding -eis, as Juv-eis = L. Jovis, maatr-
eis = L. matris. The gen. of the i-stems also ends in -exs, as
Herentateu, from St. Herentati, Luvkanateis from St. Liivka-
nali. We find only one example of an w-stem, viz., castrous
from St. castru; here -s appears to have been simply added to
the gunated stem, as in Sanskrit. We have already noticed

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 279

the Oscan and Umbrian a-stems. In Umbrian the conso-
nantal stems form their gen. in -es, N. U. -er, following the
analogy of the z-stems, as N. U. nomn-er from St. nomn be-
side N. U. ocrer from St. ocri. In the w-stems we find o
instead of the old u, as in N. U. trifo-r (from St. trifu) = L.
tribu-s.

§ 144. The Genitive Plural.

The oldest form of the termination of the gen. pi. in Indo-
European was probably -as-am-s, -as being the sign of the
gen. sing., -am the pronominal element which is found
in -bhi-am, &c., and -s the sign of the plural. From -asams
came first -asdm^ then -sdm, and finally -dm. We find traces
of the first of these forms in the Sanskrit pronominal declen-
sion, as tSshdm (horum) = fa-dsam from St. ta (hie), yeshdm
(quorum) = ya-dsam from St. ya (qui), &c. ; and in the Latin
o-stems, as equorum (from St. eqiid) = I. E. akva-asdm (from
St. akva), &c.

I. Sanskrit Gen. PL The gen. ending -sdmis only found
in the pronominal declension : in the nominal declension this
case was formed by attaching -dm immediately to stems end-
ing in a consonant or diphthong, as marut-dm, manas-dm,
bharat-dm, ndv-dm, &c., from the stems marut (m.), manas (n.),
bharant (m.), nda (f.), &c. Pollysyllabic vocalic stems
lengthen the stem by w, as in gati-ndm, vdri-ndm, s'ivd-ndm,^
nadi-ndm, &c., from the stems gati (f.), vdri (n.), s'iva(m. n.),
nadi (f.), &c. : short stem- vowels are always lengthened before
this n. Monosyllabic feminine stems in i and u may either add
n or not ; thus from bhi (f.) we have bhiy-dm, or bhi-ndm^ &c.
Stems in -ar form tneir gen. pi. from the weak stem in -r*, and
add w, as pitr-ndm, mdtf-nam,, ddtr-nam, &c., from the stems
pitar, mdtar, ddtdr, &c. In Vedic we find older forms of these
genitives without w, as devdm from St. dSva (m. a god), nar-dm,
svasr-dm from stems nar (m. a man), svasdr (f. a sister).

II. Greek Gen. PL This case is formed by adding -wv
to all stems, except those ending in -a ; t- and v- stems are

280 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

sometimes gunated. Thus we have ttoS-wv, BtTra-wv = diiratr-
(t)v, (TTr}Bujv and (mjBiwv = cmriBia-wv, fiaKap-wv, vaPwv, /3a-
(n\r)-(jjv = /SacTtXtF-tuv, av-(jjv, yevu-wi', yovv-tov = ^ovv-tuv,
TToXuiv and iroXi-tov = TroXtF-wv from St. ttoXu gunated, TroXt-
(uv beside iroXs-wv = TroXty-wv from St. iroXt gunated, a^ptuv
= aypo-wv, \(t)pwv = X'^P" -ffwv. The gen. pi. of the a-stems
generally ends in Homer in -a-a>v = -d-sdm; thus we find
Osa-wv = Otd-au)v from St. Ota, rd-wv = rd-awv = Skr. td-sdm
from St. ta, &c. This -a-a>v became -s-wv in Ionic.

III. Latin Gen. PI. This case is formed by adding -um,
0. L. -om (found in the w-stems and in the o-stems after v or
m), to stems ending in a consonant or -i or -u. Thus we have
princip-um, fulmin-um^ can-um^ matr-um, &c. ; avi-um, ovi-um,
&c. ; magistratu-om perhaps for magistratov-om, fructu-um, &c. ;
and with -u-um contracted, as in passum (PI.), currum(YiTg.),
but in vulgar Latin also after the analogy of the o-declension,
verso-rum, spirito-runit &c. Many consonantal stems are
lengthened by i, and so their gen. pi. termination agrees in
form with that of the i-stems : thus we have merc-i-um, radio-
i-um, forcip-i-um, penat-i-um, amant-i-um beside amant-um^
ferent-i-um beside /ergn^wm, &c. Stems ending in -n, -r, or
-s, seldom permit this addition of i ; we find, however, vir-i-
um and complur-i-um. We find some examples of consonan-
tal stems following the analogy of those in -u : thus we have
alit-u-um (Lucr. and Virg.) beside alit-um, and on inscriptions
virtut-u-um, fratr-u-um, &c.

The masc. and neut. o-stems form their gen. pi. in two
ways : by adding either -om (or -um) = I. E. -dm or -drum
= I. E. -asdm. Thus we find in Old Latin the forms in -om,
Romanom (C. I. L. 1, n. 1), sovom (C. I. L. 1, n. 588) = sxio-
rnm, divom (Lucr.) &c. ; later in -um, as in virum, deum,
meum, nummum, modium, talentum, fabrum, &c. Similarly
in Oscan we find Ahellanum, Tiiatium, Nuilanum, and in
Umbrian puplum, later poplom (populorum), &c. The other
gen. pi. ending in -orum^ (m. n.) ai^ -drum (f ) is the usual

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 281

form, as in bonOrum = bond + drum, bondrum = bond + drum^ &c.
In Oscan the gen. pi. of the o-stems ends in -azum, and in Um-
brian in -arum, -aru, as in 0. eisa-zun-c egma-zum (illarum
rerum), U. menzaru = L. mensarum, &c. The e-stems follow
the analogy of the a-stems, as dierum, rerum, &c. Masc.
stems in -a form their gen. pi. in -rum, but in the poets we find
the form in -icm in compounds of -(/ena and -cola, and in the
patronymics in -des, as agricolum, terrigenum, ^neadum, &c.
Two feminine stems in -a form their gen. pi. also in -um — name-
ly, amphorum and drachmum, but these forms were probably
borrowed from the Greek. We find other traces of the gen.
pi. ending -sum in the forms (noticed by Varro and Charisius)
boverum, nucerum, regerum, lapiderum, which are supposed by
Bopp to have been formed from the i-stems bovi, nuci, regi,
lapidi, and consequently to be for bovirum, &c., thus proving
that -rum was also originally attached to the t-stems. These
forms have been also explained by supposing them to have been
formed from the stems bover, nucer, &c., the original stems
bov, nu£, &c., being lengthened by the addition of -er, be-
cause this r appears also in some stems in the gen. sing., and
consequently is not peculiar to the plural : thus we find sueris,
puberis, acipenseris, cucumeris, beside suis, pubis, acipensis,
cucumis*

The Oscan and Umbrian form the gen. pi. of stems ending
in -i or a consonant in the same way as the Latin.

§. 145. The Genitive Dual.
This case agrees in form with the locative dual.

§. 146. The Locative Singular.

In Indo-European the sign of this case was probably -in,
which was added directly to the stem. This -in was connected

* Consult Bopp's "Comparative Grammai"," i., p. 490 ; and Biicheler
'■ Grundriss der lateiaischea Declination," p. 40.

282 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

with the pronominal root -am^ which was reduced firstly to
-an (n being weaker than rn), and then to -in (i being weaker
than a). From -an are derived the prepositions, Gr. tv, L. hi.
The oldest form (-am) of this suffix is still perhaps found in
-dm, the locative ending of Skr. fem. stems.

I. Sanskrit Loc. Sing. Stems ending in a consonant or
diphthong form this case by adding -i to stem, as marut-i,
bJiarat-i, pitar-i, ndv-i, gav-i, from the stems marut, bharat,
pilar, ndu, go. Masc. stems in -i and -u add -aw, before which
the stem-vowel disappears, as in kavdu, bhdndu, from kavi,
bhdnu : the stem-vowel is still kept in paty-du and sakhy-du
from pati and sakhi. This -du perhaps represents -dm, the
gunated form of -am. Fem. stems in -i and -u either follow
the analogy of the masc. in -i and -m, or else add -dm, as gat-du
or gaty-dm from gati. Polysyllabic fem. stems in -a, -i, or u,
always add -dm, as s'ivd-y-dm, nddy-dm, vadhv-dm, from s'ivd,
nodi, vadhu. Monosyllabic fem. stems in -i and -u add either
-i or -dm, as bhuv-i or bhuv-dm from bhd. Neuter stems in
-i and -u lengthen the stem by n, as vdri-n-i from vdri. Masc.
and neut. stems in -a add -i, as s'iv^ from s'iva (m., n.).

In Vedic we find the loc. of the i/-stems formed by simply
adding -i, as tanv-i (from tanu, f. the body) = Z. tanv-i (loc. of
tanu, f. id.) ; this form corresponds to Gr. dat., as viicv-i, &c.
We also find in Vedic -i added to the gunated M-stem, as
sunav-i (from sunu, m. a son) = Ch. SI. siinov-i. The loc. of
the fem. a-stems also ends sometimes in -4 in Vedic. The
loc. ending -in is only found in Sanskrit in the pronominal
declension, as in ya-sm-in from ya (who), ta-sm-in from to
(that), &c.

II. Greek Loc. Sing. The Gr. dat. sing., except in the
case of the a-stems, is properly a loc, being formed simply
by the addition oft: thus we have ttoS-i, yipovr-i, ^r\Tip-i,
\po-i for yjpoa-i, (3iXt-i for ^tXea-i, \aF-i, vr)f-i, (tv-i, vskv-i,
Sovp-i for Sopv-i, y\vKt-i for yXvKtf-i, rroXt-t for noXiy-t, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 283

The loc. meaning is still frequently found, as in AwSwv-t,
Mapa9u)v-i, SaAojuTv-t, vwicr-t, &c.

In the a-stems we find the loc. and dat. both in existence
beside each other, as dat. aypd^ = aypo + ot beside loc. oticoi
= oIko + t, dat. Tifiy = Tifxd + ai beside loc. x^A***' ~ X"/*** "^ '•
Xafiai is the only example of the loc. of an a-stem, unless the
preposition virai (viro) be the loc. of a stem vTra, just as vTreip
{virep) appears to be the loc. of a stem virep, and to be for
vwepi = Skr. upari and Z. upairi. Besides oiKot we find many
other examples of Iocs, of o-stems, as JTIuXo-t (found in Ilv-
XoiytvrK — compare xafxai-ivviig), irido-i (^Esch. Prom.), jEoI.
fxiaao-i or p.iao-i (Ale), -^ol. tv'^o-i (tvSov), ^ol. v\po-i (be-
side uj//ow), TTot = TTo + £, &c. In -^oHc we frequently find
this loc. termination -o-l becoming -v-i : thus we find fxiav-i
= ixiao-i, TviSs (here) for TO-i-Sf, 7r»)Xv-t (rrjAoat), aXXu-t, aripv-i
(iripoai) = knpo-i. In Doric we find -ot represented by -«,
as in el (ol), ttc? (ttoT), Trjvet, tovtv., thSb, Lac. t^et (t^w,
Syrac. I^ot). We also find in common Greek this same loc.
in -at, as in Iku = e-ko-i from St. ko = I. E. kva, ap.a)(ti, iravoi-
Kii, upiadai, iravcTTpaTd : -ti sometimes became -t, as in afiaxi-
"Ayx't is perhaps for oyxt-t from'an o-stem ayxo, whence
ayxov : comp. Hom. ayxi^-fJiaxpg, where ay\e = ayx'"'* * being
lost. 'At£t may also be the loc. of a stem, aiFo = Skr. eva
= L. cBvo : in Lesbian ^olic this particle appears also in the
forms aliv, aiv, where final v is perhaps the original loc. 71.
The datives ij.oii aoi = Dor. rot, are probably locatives, and
correspond to the Skr. Iocs may-i, tvay-i, from the stems ma,
tva ; may-i being = ma-i-i = ma-a-i, the stem being lengthened
by a, and then this a being weakened to e, and similarly
tvayi = tva-a-i.

III. Latin Loc. Sing. The locative of the consonantal stems
ended in -I, later -^: the loc. ending was properly ?; but
the consonantal stems were lengthened by i, and so followed
the analogy of the i-stems, and thus I = -t + i arose ; thus
we find loc-i (PI. Amph. 165), rur-l (PI. Most. 799), and

284 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

rur-S, veq>er-i and vesper-e, infelic-i, arhor-i (Liv. 1, 26, infe-
lici arbori reste suspendito), her-i for hes-i from lies (= Gr.
X^t'c) which appears in hes-ternus^ Aivnur-i, Acheinint-i, Si-
cyon-i, &c. Mane is the loc. of an t-stem, and domu-i of an
«-stem ; for domu-i we generally find domi and domX after the
analogy of the o-stems.* The loc. of the o-stems ends in
'i (Old Latin also -ei and -e) = -o-i, as humi (from St. humo)
= humo-i, belli, foci, Ephesi, Corinthi, &c. This case is also found
in postri-die, quoti-die, pri-die ; and in Old Latin we find ^e
quinte and die quinti, die septimei, die crastini, &c. Similarly
the loc. of the a-stems is formed by adding -i, as Rovia-i, later
Homce, miliiice, &c. In Oscan the loc. of the o- and a-stems
is formed in the same way as in Latin : thus we have miimiktn.
terei (in coramuni agro), tero- being a neuter stem, and esai
viai mejiai (in ea via media). The loc -n has nearly disap-
peared, but it probably still exists in -en (lo !) loc. of St. i,
and in peren-die, peren being loc. of St. pero = Skr. para
(another), which is also found in per-egre, from pero and agro.
In Oscan we find this n in hortm Kemim (in horto Cereali),
horhn being probably for hortein from St. horto. In Sabellian
we also find it in esmen-tk asin (on this altar), from stems
esmo and asa : esmen is identical with Skr. asmin, except that
it stiU retains the stem-vowel, which is lost in Sanskrit. Jam
is also supposed to be a loc. from a stem ja, and is identified
with Skr. yasmin, loc. of ya. In Umbrian we find two pe-
culiar locative suflSxes, -mem or -me in sing., and -fern or fe
in pi. No satisfactory explanation of these forms has as yet
been suggested : Aufrecht and Kirchhoff consider that mem
and/em were originally identical,t and connected with Skr.

• Damns was originally an o-stem = Gr. Sofioz.

t Ixjttner agrees with Siegfried's view that the suffixes -mem, -fern
originally began with mbh ; see Siegfried's remarks on the Gaulish in-
scription of Poitiers, arranged and edited by C. F. Ix)ttner.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 285

hhydm^ while Bopp* considers that they arise from a postpo-
sition added to the aces sing, and pi. In Umbrian we also
* find traces of a loc. in -i, as in O. U. sve (if) = 0. O. svai = L.
«i, 0. U. pre = L. prcR for pra-i^ from a St. pra; N. U. perne
(from the front), N. U. poatne (from the rear).

§. 147. The Locative Plural.!

Schleicher considers that the original termination of this
case in Indo-European was -sva-sa^ -sva being of pronominal
origin, and sa the mark of the plural. From -svasa are de-
rived the Vedic loc. ending -susu, the Zend -shva, -shu, -shu,
-hva, -hu, -huy the old Persian -suvd, the Skr. -su, -shu, and
the Gr. -am, -ert.

I. Sanskrit Loc. PL — This case is formed by adding -su
(or -shu) to the stem, final a becoming S ; thus we have s'iv^-
shu, s'ivd-su, kavi-shu, marut-su, &c., from s'iva (m., n.), sivd
(f ), kavi (m.), marut (m.), &c.

II. Greek Loc. Pi. — This case ends in -aai or -ai, from
-(Tpt, before which stems in -a are lengthened by the addition
of i, as is the case with cf-stems in Sanskrit. This -aai or -at is
added to some consonantal stems and some ending in -i and
-u, by means of the helping vowel £ : thus we have iroa-ai for
TToS-fft, KTrifia-cfL for KTrjfiaT-cri, deTra-eaai for Seiraa-ecrm, /BtXt-
eaai for ^eXia-eaai, j3oF-£(T(Tt, and (3ov-ai, Kvv-eorai and KV-ai,
<l)ipov-<Ti for (f)£povT-(n, vsKV-Eaai and vsKV-aai, voXi-etTiri, ttoXi-
ai and TroAe-o-t = iroXiy-iaai from TroXt, iroXi-aai for ttoXcF-
cffffi from TToXv-, \inro-i-ai, ywpa-i-ai, &c. The lengthening
of the a- stems by i was probably much later than that of
the a-stems ; for we still find fem. Iocs without this i, as Ovpa-
m, 'A0/jvTj-(Tt, &c.

III. Lati7i Loc. PL This case agrees in form with the
dat. and abl. pi. A trace of the Indo-European loc. termi-

* Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," voL i., p. 400, seq.
t Consult Schleicher, " Compendium," &c., p. 673 ; and Bopp, " Com-
parative Grammar," pp. 494, 545.

286 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

nation is supposed by some to be found in the plural ending
-is, which is also used for the dat. and abl. in the a- and o-
declensions : thus we find foris, Athenis, Cumis, Delphis, &c.,
all used as locatives.

§. 148. The Locative Dual.

I. Sa7iskrit Log. Dual. This case is formed by adding
-OS to the stem, final -a becoming -e and neuter stems m -i
and -u being lengthened by n: thus we have marut-6s, kavy-
6s, vdri-n-Ss, sivat/-6s, &c., firom marut (m.), kavi (m.), vdri
(n.), s'iva (m., n.), and s'ivd (f.), &c.

II. and III. This case is not found in either Greek or
Latin.

§. 149 The Vocative Singular.

The vocative singular consisted of the mere stem in Indo-
European.

I. Sanskrit Voc Sing. Masc. and fem. stems in -i and -u
gunate the stem-vowel in this case, as kave, dheno, &c., from
kavi (m.), dhenu (f ), &c. Polysyllabic fem. stems in -I and
•u shorten the stem- vowel, as in nadi, vadhuy from nadi (f.),
vadhu (f ) ; fem. stems in -a change the stem-vowel into ^, aa
s'ivS from s'ivd (f ). Monosyllabic stems ending in a vowel
use the nominative for the vocative, as bins, ndus, &c., from
hhi (f.), ndu (f.), &c. Neuter stems in -i and -u may either
gunate the stem-vowel or leave it unchanged, as vdri and
vdr& from van (n.), &c. Neuter stems in -n may either re-
tain or lose this consonant, as ndma or ndman from ndman
(n.), &c. In all other stems the vocative consists of the mere
stem, as s'imt maruty vdk, &c., from s'iva (m., n.), marut (m.),
vdk (f.), &c. In all Skr. vocatives the accent is always
placed on the first syllable, as nadi, hdlin, &c, from nadi,
balin, &c.

IL Greek Voc. Sing. — In guttural and labial stems the vo-

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 287

cative is the same as the nominative, as (jtOXa^, KvkXwi/', &c. ;
we find, however, yvvat from ywaiK. In dental stems the
vocative generally is identical with the mere stem, subject
to the euphonic laws of the Greek language, as Trot for waid,
ava for qvokt, "Aprefxi for 'Ajors/itS, yipov for -ye/oovr, kvov,
warzp (with accent thrown back as in Skr. Voc. pilar) ^ Bva-
fxevig, &c. ; we find, however, ttouc used as the voc. ; and
in participles ending in -ag, -tig, -ovg, and -wv, the voc.
is the same as the nom. The voc. of masc. o-stems ends
in -c generally ; but we also find voc. dtog (beside Qd
/xou, Gee juou, Matth. xxvii., 46), ^lAoc (Od. 3, 375), &c.
Masc. stems in -d (-»?) form the voc. in a and »), as TroXtra, Kpo-
vidri, &c. Fem. stems in -a form voc. in d generally, as Osd,
Kovpd (JEol. Kovpd), &c. ; and this a often becomes a, as in
the nom., as fioixra, avaaaa. In stems ending in -«, -u, or a
diphthong, the voc. is the mere stem, as fxavri, raxv, ypav,
&c. The fem. voc.s in -oi, such as alBoi, appear to be related
to the nom.s in -w as the Skr. voc. of fem. a-stems is to the
nom. ; for -ot (= I. E. -ai) : -w (= I. E. -a) : : -S (= I. E.
-ai) : -a.

III. Latin Voc. Sing. The voc. in Latin is always the
same as the nom., except in the case of the masc. o-stems,
where it ends in -e, as bone, puere (PI. Most. 947), from puerus
= puer,jilie (in Livius Andronicus), and later ^fo', &c. So in
Umbrian the voc. of the o-stems ends in -e, as Sangie, &c.

§. 150. The Vocatives Plural and Dual.

In Sanskrit and Greek the voc. pi. and the voc. dual are
the same as the nom. pi. and the nom. dual, except that in
Sanskrit the accent is always placed on the first syllable of
the voc. In Latin the nom. pi. and the voc. pi. are the
same.

288

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

§. 151. Paradigms* of the Nominal Declension.

I. Consonantal Stems.
I.— I. E. vdk- (f.), &c.

Stem.
Sing. N. V.
A.
I.
D.
Ab.
G.

Skr.
vdk- (£)
vdk.

v&k'-am.
v&k'-d.
v&k-e.
vdk'-aa.
vdk'-as.

L. (Gr. D.) vdk'-i.

Plur. N. V. v&k'-as.

A. vdk'-as.

I. v&g-bhis,

D. Ab. v&g-bhyas.

G. vdk'-um.

L. (Or. D.) vdh-shu.

Dual. N. A. V. vdk'.uu..

„ Ved. vdk'-u.

G. L. vdk'-ds.

Gr.
6v (f.)

OTT-C.

oir-a.

djr-df.
6ir-i.

oir-ag.

6ir-<iiv.
biT-ai.

vOe- (coc-t, f.)

vdc-s.

v6e-em.

vOe-it.

v6c-es.
vde-es.

v6e-i-bu8.
v6e-um.

II. — I. E. bharant- (m., f., n.),&c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

bharant. (m.,

n.)

<ptpovT- (m.,

n.)

ferent- (Jerent-i.)

»>

(m., £, n.)

Sing. N.V.

bharan (m.)
bharat (n.)

<pipu)v (m.)
0£poi/ (n.)

ferent (m., f., n.)

A.

11

bharant-am (i
bharat (n.)

^.)

<pspovr-a (m
^tpov (n.)

•)

ferent-em (m., f.)
ferent (n.)

I.

bharat-d.

—

—

D.

bharat-e.

—

/erwiM.

Ab,

bharat-as.

—

ferent-e(d).

G.

bharat-as.

^epovr-og.

ferent- it.

L. (Gr.

D.)

bharat-i.

<pipovT'i.

—

• Consult Bopp's " Comparative Grammar," vol. i., pp. 449-619 ; and
Schleicher's " Compendium," &c, pp. 524-623.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR:

289

Skr.

Gr.

L.

riur. N. V.

bharant-as (m.)

^ipovT-iQ (m.)

fermt-es (m., f.)

>>

bharant-i (n.)

<t>i(iovT-a (n.)

ferent-i-a (n.)

A.

bharat-as (m.)

^kpovr-ag (m.)

ferent-es (m., f.)

II

bharant-i (n.)

^ipovT-a (n.)

ferent-i-a (n.)

I.

bharad-bhis.

—

—

D. Ab.

bharad-bhyas.

—

ferent-i-bus.

G.

bharat-um.

(pep6vr-wv.

ferent-i-um.

L. (Gr. D

.) bharat-su.

(ptpov-at.

—

Dual. N. A. V.

bharani-du (m.)

—

—

11

Ved. bharant-u (ni.)

^spOPT-i.

—

,,

bharant-i (n.)

11

bharat-t (n.)

—

I. D. Ab.
(Gr. D. G.

bharad-bhyAni.

(pfp6vr-o-iv.

—

G.L.

bharat-6s.

__

III. a. — I. E., manas- (n.), durmanas- (n.), &c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

manas- (ii.)

/levEC- (n.)

genes-.

„

—

—

{gener-i-) (u.)

Sing. X. A. V.

manas.

p.ivoQ.

genus.

I.

II

manas-a.

KpaTl(T-<pl.

I

D.

manas-e.

—

gemr-l.

Ab.

manas-as.

—

gener-e{d.)

G.

manas-as.

fiivOVS (-VKT-Of

•)

gener-is.

L. (Gr. D.)

manasj.

flivil (-l/t(T-t.)

—

Plur. N. A. V.

manuns-i.

Hsvt] {-t>ta-a.)

gener-a.

I.

mano-bhis.

oxto-^i.

—

D.Ab.

mano-bhyas.

—

gener-i-biis.

G.

manas-am.

Htvuiv (^-vta-iov

•)

gener-um.

L. (Gr. D.)

manas-su.

(livta-ai.

—

11

—

fikvfai.

—

Dual. N. A. V.

manas-i.

jttSVJJ ( -Piff-l.)

—

I. D. Ab. \
(Gr. D, G.)

mano-bhyam.

fXlVoiv (-Vf(T-0-JV.)

—

G.L.

manas-6s.

—

—

290

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

III. h. — I. £., dusmanas- (m., f.), &c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

durmanas- (m., f.)

SvcTfttvtc- (m., f.)

vetes-

>i

—

—

(veter-i-") (m.,f.,n.)

»

—

—

arbos-

»»

—

—

(arbor-i-) (f.)

Sing. N. V.

durmanas.

SvfffisviiQ.

retiis (m., f., n.)

>»

—

—

arbos (f.)

A.

durmanas-am.

Ivafiivii (-vfff-a).

arbor-em.

I.

durmanas-A.

—

—

D.

durtnanas-e.

—

arbor-u

Ab.

durmanas-as.

—

arbor-e (d).

G.

durmanas-as.

Svaftivovg (-vta-og").

, arbor-is.

L. (Gr. D.)

durmanas-i.

SvfffiivH {-vea-t).

—

Plur. N. V.

durmanas-as.

Svafiivilq (- vt(T-£c)'

arbor-es.

A.

durmanas-as.

Svffiitvtic {-vta-ac).

arbor-is.

I.

durmano-bhis.

—

—

D.Ab.

durmand-bhyas.

—

arbor-i-bus.

G.

durmanas-am.

SvfffltvUlV (-»'£ff-Wl').

arbor-um.

L. (Gr. D.)

durmanas-su.

Svffftivia-ai.

—

Dual. N. A. V.

durmanas-&u.

—

—

»

durmanas-&.

Svafifvij (-vf ff-«).

—

I. D.Ab. ]
(Gr. G. D.) J

\ durmano-hhyum.

SvafitvoXv (-vt(T-o-tv). —

G. L.

durmanas-6s.

—

IV. a. — I. E. ahnan- (m.), &c.

Skr.

Stem.

as'man- (m.)

>i

—

Sing. N.

os'mA.

A.

as'mun-am.

I.

as'man-&.

D.

a^man-i.

Ab.

as'man-as.

G.

asman-as.

L. (Gr.

D.)

as'man-i.

V.

as'man.

Plur. N. V.

as'mdn-as.

A.

as'man-as.

D.

I.

as'ma-bhis.

Gr.

L.

datfiov- (m.)

homin-.

—

(Aomtn-t) (m.)

^ai/xwv.

homd.

iaipiov-n.

homtn-em.

homin-i.

—

homin-e (d).

laifiov-OQ.

hotnin-ii.

^aifiov-t.

—

lalftov.

homo.

Saifiov-cc.

homin-et.

lainov-ag.

homin-es.

KOTV\tlSov-6-l(llV.

—

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

291

Skr.

Gr.

L.

D, Ab.

as'ma-bhyas.

—

homin-i-bm.

6.

as man-Am.

Saifi6v-ti}v.

homin-um.

L. (Gr. D.)

as'ma-su.

SaifiO-ffi.

—

Dual. N. A. V.

as'inan-du.

—

—

fi

Ved. as'man-d.

Saifiov-t.

—

I. D. Ab.
(Gr. D. G.)

1 asma-bhy&m.

Saifi6v-o-tv.

—

G.L.

as'man-os.

—

—

IV. h. — I.E. gndman- (n.), &c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

niiinan- (n.)

ToXav- (n.)

nomen-

>>

—

—

(ndmin-i-) l^n.)

Sing. N. A.

n&mc^.

Ta\ai>.

nomen.

1.

ndmn-A,

—

—

D.

ndmn-e.

—

niimin-l.

Ab.

ndmn-as.

—

nomin-e {d).

G.

ndmn-as.

Ta.\av~OQ.

nomin-is.

L. (Gr. D.)

ndmn-i.

—

—

j>

ndman-i.

TaXav-t.

—

V.

ndtnan.

ToXav.

notnen.

>>

numa

—

—

Plur.N.A.V.

ndmdn-i.

ToKav-a.

nomin-a.

I.

ndma-bhis.

—

—

D.Ab.

ndma-bhyas.

—

nomin-i-bus.

G.

ndmn-um.

Ta\av-b)v.

nomin-um.

L. (Gr. D.)

numa-su.

raXa-fft.

Dual N. A. V.

ndmn-i.

TaXap-f.

—

I. D. Ab.
Gr. G. D.

ndma-bhydm.

Ta\dv-o-iv.

—

G. L.

ndmn-6s.

—

V. a. — I. E. mdtar- (f.), patar- (m.), &c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

mdtar- (f.)

Iinrtp. (f.)

mdUr-

>>

—

—

(mdtr-i) (f.)

Sing. N.

mdtd.

nhrnp-

mater.

A.

mdtar-am.

UriTtp-a.

matr-em.

I.

mdtr-d.

—

—

D.

mdtr-e.

—

mdtr-l.

U2

292

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Sing. Ab.
G.

Skr.
matu-s.
m^tu-s.

L. (Gr. D.) mdtar-i.

»»

y. m&tar.

Plur. N. V. m&tar-as.

A. mdtr-s (f.)

» pitr-n (m.)

,, Ved. jM<ar-««.

I. mdtr-bhia.

D. Ab. matr-bhyas.

G. m(2^^n-d»t.

„ Ved. svasr-uin.

L. (Gr. D.) m&ir-shu.

Dual. N. A. V. muitar-au.

Ved. mdtar-d.

(GraD.)}""^''^-**^""'-
G. L. tndtr-os.

V. 6.— I. E.

Gr.

fltjTp-OQ.
fltjTtp-OC.

unrip-'-

firjTp-i.
piJTtp.
HflTtp-n-.

prfTfp-ng.

Skr.

Stem.

ddldr- (m.)

Sing. N.

ddtd.

A.

dutdr-am.

I.

ddtr-d.

D.

ddtr-e.

Ab.

ddtu-8.

G.

ddtu-t.

L. (Gr.

D.)

ddtar-i.

V.

ddtar.

Plur. N. V.

d&tdr-at.

A.

ddti:-n.

I.

ddtr-bhit.

D.

Ab.

ddtr-bhyas.

G.

ddtr-n-dnu

IMtinp-utv-
fit]rpd-ffi.

ltt)Tfp-l.

[iTirip-o-iv.

ddtdr- (in.), &c.

Gr.
Sortip- (in.)

ooTr]p.
Sorrip-a.

SoTtip-oc.
SoTtjp-i.

SoTTJp.

loTtip-tg.
SoTJjp-ai.

L. (Gr. D.) ddtr-shu.
Dual N. A. V. ddtdr-au.

,, Ved. ddtdf-d.

COTTIp-UtV.

Sor^p-ffi.
loTtip-i.

L.

matr-e (rf).
matr-is.

mater,
mdtr-es.

matr-es.

mdtr-i-bu».

m&tr-um.

L.
datdr-.

(jiatir-i-) (m.)
datdr.
datOr-em.

datdr-i.
datdr-e (ef).
datdr-u.

datdr.
datdr- is.
datdr-es.

da(d>-i-bu».
datdr-um.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

293

Skr.
I. D. Ab, \ ,,. ., ^
(Gr. D. G.) j »«'r-o«i'«"'-

G. L. dAtr-ds.

Gr.

Sorr)p-o-iv.

VI. a. — I. E. akva- (m.), yuga- (n.)

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

as'va- (m.)

tJTTTO- (m.)

«^«o- (m.)

1)

!/uffa- (n.)

^;uyo- (n.)

Jugo- (n.)

Sing. N.

aa'va-s (m.)

tTTTTO-C (m.)

ejMM-» (m.)

„

yuga-m (n.)

Kvyo-v (n.)

Jugu-m (n.)

A.

as'va-m (m.)

tTTTTO-V (m.)

equu-m (m.)

V

yuga-m (n.)

Z,vy6-v (n.)

jugu-m (n.)

I.

as've-na.

—

—

II

Ved. as'td.

aiTO-jfK.

—

D.

as'vu-ya.

'iltTTtfi.

«JMOt, «^M0.

Ab.

as'vd-t.

—

e^M5-<f.

G.

as'va-sya.

tTTTTo-to {-o-tryo).

'ilTITOV.

equl.

L.

as've.

o'lKO-i, fto-i

doml.

V.

aa'va.

'iirire, ^wyov.

eque, jugum.

PL N.V.

as'vd-s (m.)

V'TTTTo-t (m.)

eque-i, equl (m.)

>i

Ved. as'vd-sas (m.)

—

eque-is.

,,

—

—

C. Ikuvinu-8.

11

—

—

0. Nitvlanit'S.

II

yugd-ni (n.)

—

—

II

Ved. yiigd (n.)

^vya (n )

yM^«(n.)

A.

as'vd-n (m.)

'iiriro-VQ (m.)

C^'MS-*.

i>

—

Kret. 7rpiiyvrd-vc.

—

„

yugd-ni (n.)

—

—

II

Ved. yugd (n.)

Jwya (n.)

>^a(n.)

I.

as'«(i-M.

—

—

,,

Ved. as've-bhis.

9i6-^iv.

—

D.At

as've-bhyas.

—

equi-s, dud-bus.

G.

as'vd-ndm.

tV7rwj'(-7ro-wv).

{equu-m.)
eqtid-rum.

L. (Gr.

D.)

as've-shu.

iirjro-t-fft.

—

II

—

tTTTro-t-e.

—

Dual. N. A. V.

aa'v&u {-va-au) (m.)

—

II

Ved. as'vd (m.)

ijTTTw (m.)

duo (m., n.)

,

yuge (n.)

?i;yw (n.)

—

I. D. Ab.
(Gr. G. D.)

as'vd-bhydm.

iinro-iv.

—

L.

G.

as'va-y-6t.

—

—

294

COMPARATIVE GRAMSIAR.

VI. b.— I. E. akvd (f.), &c.

Stem.
Sing. N.
A.
I.

Ab.

G.

Skr.
cu'vu- (i.)
asv&,
as'vd-m.
as'va-y-d..
Ved. aivA.

as'vd-y-di.
Ved. as'vii-i (-td

aava-y-at.

as'vd-y&s.

L. (Or. D.) a^td-y-6m.

V.

<u'vL

J>

Ved. as'va.

P1.N.V.

as'td-e.

A.

as'vd-s.

1.

as'vd-bhis.

D. Ab.

ag'id-bhyas.

»

—

G.

aa'vd-n-dnu

i»

Ved. asvA-m.

L. (Gr.D.)

as't&-8u.

»>

—

Dual. N. A. V.

as've.

I.D. Ab. .
(Gr. G. D.) ,

(u'cd-bhydnt.

G.L.

(ufcd-y-ds.

Gr.

Xupa- {{.)

Xwpa-v.

X^pa-f.
Xafta-i.

Xwpa.
Xwpaic

Xwpa-c.

XiMipa-ujv.

\ll)pUV.

Xwpa-i-oi.

Xtipa-i-f.

Xuipa.

\upa-iv.

L.
equa- (f.)
equa.
equa-nu

equa-i (^-ra-ai)
equae.
praedo'd.
0. tovta-d.
familia-s,
Frosepna-i$.
Diano'es.
equa-i, equae.

Eomae.

*
0. vta-t.

equa.

equaif equae.
0. scriftas.
U. urta-s.
equa-s, 0. vi<*-3S.

equd-bus, equi-s.
0. diumpa-is.
equd'Tum.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

295

VII.— I. E. avi- (m., f.), &c.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

ao»- (m., f.)

TToXt- (f.), Kl-

. (m.)

opt- (i.),faaei (m.)

»>

vdri- (n.)

—

ma?-«- (n.)

»»

«'«A'»- (m., f., n.)*

iSpi- (m., f.,

n.)

/«vj (m., f., n.)

Sing. N.

avi-a (m., f.)

iroXi-e (f.)

ovi-s (f.)

>»

vdri (n.)

ii^pi (n.)

ware (n.)

A.

art-OT (m., f.)

TToXi-J' (f.)

oi;e-w (f.)

>>

vdri.

i5pt (n.)

mare (n.)

I.

avi-n-d (m.)

—

—

»

apy-« (f.)

—

—

„

vdri-n-d (n.)

—

—

D.

avay-e. (m., f.)

—

—

>j

avy-di (f.)

—

ovi.

>»

»dn-w-e (m.)

—

—

Ab.

fl»^-s (m., f.)

—

ove-d, mari-d.

>»

at;y.<l« (f.)

—

—

)>

vdri-n-as (n.)

—

—

G.

awe-* (m., f.)

TToXt-bjg.

ovi-s.

5>

wy-da (f.)

Horn. iroXt}-.

OS-

—

J>

vdri-n-as (n.)

TToXt-Of.

—

L. (Gr. D.)

ai;-aM (m., f.)

iroXt-'i.

—

»

avy'dm (f.)

iroXet, TToXl.

—

»)

vdri-n-i (n.)

Horn. ttoXt]-

i.

—

V.

flw^ (m., f.)

noXi (f.)

ovi-s {i.~)

»

i-an (n.), vare (n.)

t^pi (n.)

mare (n.)

P1.N.V.

avay-as (m., f.)

Horn. 7r6\>y-i

EC(f.)

ove-s (f.)

1)

—

TToXt-te (f-)

—

»

—

TToXtt-e (f.)

—

»

»drj-M-i.

iSpi-a (n.)

mari-a (n.)

A.

ovi-n (m.)

7r6X«-ac (f.)

ove-8 (f.)

»»

avt-s (f.)

TToXtt-C (f.)

—

>'

—

Horn. ttoXjj-

ac(f.)

—

>>

v^ri-w-j.

i^pt-a.

mari-a (n.)

I.

<M)J-JAW.

—

—

D.Ab.

(wi-bhyas.

—

ovi-bus.

G.

avi-n-dm.

iroXi-wv.
iroXt-wv.

ovi-um.

* Neuter adjectives in -i in Sanskrit in the D. Ab. G. and L. sing., and in
the G. and L. dual may follow the declension either of ran (n.), or of act (m.).

296

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

L. (Gr,

D.)

avi-shu.

7r6X(-(Ti.

—

>>

—

woXt-ffe.

—

))

—

Horn. TToXi-tiTiri.

—

Dual. N. A,

v.

av'i (m., f.)

7r6X»-5.

—

,,

rdri-n-i (u.)

TToXt-t.

—

I. D. Ab.
(Gr. D. G.)

1 avi-hhy&m.

iroXI-o-iv.

—

G.L.

avy-6s.

—

—

"

rdri-n-6s.

—

—

viir.— I. E.

sjJnw- (m.),

&C.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Stem.

sitnu- (m.)

vficv- (m.)

fruetu- (m.)

dhinti- (f.)

^«-(f.)

manu- (f.)

tdlu- (n.)

/xtflw- (n.)

cornu- (n.)

wr^M- (m., n.)*

yXwKW- (m., n

•)

—

Sing. N.

s&nU'S (m.

vt'icw-f (m.)

fntctu-s (m.)

„

/(i^?< (n.)

/i£0u (n.)

cornu- (n.)

A.

sunu-m (m.)

I'tKW-i' (m.)

fructu-m (m.)

»»

^(i/M (n.)

/ieOu (n.)

forwM (n.)

I.

sunu-n-a (m.)

—

—

„

rfA^«t-d (f.)

—

—

>»

tdlu-n-d (n.)

—

—

D.

sunat-e (m.)

—

fructu-i.

»»

dhenave (f.)

—

fruetu.

j>

dhenv-di (f.)

■ —

—

„

tdlu-n-i (n.)

—

—

Ab.

s««o-« (m.)

—

magistratu-d.

)>

dheno-s (f.)

—

—

>»

dhenv-ds (f.)

—

—

»

tdlu-n-as (n.)

—

—

G.

silno-* (m.)

v'tKV-Oi.

fructu-os.

n

dheno-t (f.)

yXvK'f-OQ.

fmctu-a.

»

dhenv-ds (f.)

avri-u^ (n.)

0. castrou-s (ii .)

<t

tdlu-n-as (n.)

—

U. /ri/o-r.

L. (Gr.

D.)

aun-du (m.)

v'tKV-i.

—

t)

dhin-du ((.)

dtrrii.

—

»

dhenv-dm (f.)

—

—

* Noutcr adjectives in -u in Sanskrit in the D. Ab. G. and L. sing., and in
tho 0. and L. dual may follow the declension either of iAlu (n.), or s&nu (m.).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

297

Skr.

L. (Gr. D.)

idlu-n-i (n.)

V.

suno (m.)

»»

dheno (f.)

»»

M« (n.)

,,

«/« (n.)

.V.

««»ar-a» (m.)

1»

dhenav-as (f.)

)»

fd^il-«-t.

A.

sunu-n (m.)

»»

Ved.saMf-a* (m.)

>»

rfAewd-sCf)

»

tdlu-n-i (n.)

>>

—

I.

tunu-Mw.

D.Ab.

suntt-bht/as.

»

—

G.

sun^n-4m.

Gr.

L. (Gr. D.) sunti-shu.

Dual. N. A. V.

1. D. Ab.

«M»il (m.)
dhenu (f.)
tdlu-n-i.

frtKtu-8 (m.)

/i£0u. cor»JM (n.)
7Xi;icfrc(-icfF-€c)(ni.) fructu-s (m.)

fyX'^f'C (f-) —

y\w«-a (n.) eornu-a (n.)
doTij (-rfF-rt) (n.) —

viKV-aq. frtteta-s (m.)
yXwiceTt: (-KfF-ac). —

tyX*^«'C (f.^ —

y\vKe-a (n.) cortm-a (n.)
affr;; (n.) —

— fructi-but.

— portu-bus.
vtKv-uv. fruetu-um.
yXvKt-wv. —

ViKV-Ktai. —

vBKV-aai. —

v'iKV-ai. —

yXvKt-ai. —

ViKV-t. —

yXwicf-s. —

> sunu-onyam. y\vKi-o-iv.

(Gr. D. G.) ;

G. L.

IX. — I. E. ndu- (f.), gvau- (m., f.), &c.

Skr. Gr. L.

Stem. nau- (f.) vav- (f.), Ion. vtv- nav-i-* (f.)

„ ffo- (m., f.) jSou- (m., f.) bo- {bov-), bov-i-

(m. f.)

* There were no diphthongal stems in Old Latin ; diphthongs were avoided
either by the addition of i, as in nav-i, or by dropping the second vowel, as in bo-.
Greek diphthongal stems, sucb-as 'AxiXXtwf, &c., when introduced into Latin,
became, in early times, Aciles, &c. ; while in later times either the Greek de-

298

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Skr.

Gr.

L.

Sing. N.

ndu-s, gau-s.

vav-e, pov-c.

navi-s, bo-s, bov-i-s.

A.

nac-am.

vij-a, vaii-v, vi-

a.

tiaie-m.

n

ffd-m.

f3ov-v.

bovc-m.

I.

ndvd, gav-d.

—

—

11

—

vav-^i.

—

D.

nav-e, gav-L

—

navi, bom.

Ab.

ndv-as, gu-s.

—

nave-(d),bwe {d).

G.

ndv-as.

vti-6c, VE-u>(;, vt-

6g.

tiavi-s.

>»

go-s.

fio-OQ.

bovi-s.

L. Gr. D.

ndv-i, gav-i.

vij-t, vt-t, Po-t.

—

Y.

ndu-s, gdu-s.

vav, /3ow.

navi-s, bovi-s.

Plur. N. V.

ndv-aS) gdv-as.

vij-t£, vt-ig, 136-

«C-

nave-s, bove-s.

A.

ndv-as.

vii-ag,vav-g, vk-

ag.

nave-s.

„

gdv-as, gd-s.

^6-ag, fiov-g.

bove-s.

I.

ndu-hhis, go-bhis.

vav-^iv.

—

D.Ab.

ndu-bhyas.

—

navi-bus.

>>

go-bhyas.

—

bo-bus, bu-bus.

G.

ndv-dm.

VIJ-WV, Vl-WV.

navi-um.

)>

gav-dm.

. (io-Civ.

bo-um.

Plur. L.

Tidu-shu.

vii-t-aai, vijv-ai

—

»

—

vav-ai, ve-t-crai

—

>»

go-shu.

/36-£-(Tfft, ^ov-ai

—

Dual N. A. V.

ndv-du, gdv-du.

—

—

ndv-d, gdo-d.

vrj-t, /36-t.

—

I. D. Ab.
(Gr. D. G.)

^ ndu-bhydm.
] go-bhydtn.

Vfl-O-lV.

fio-o-lv.

G.L.

ndv-6s, gav-6s.

—

—

clension was followed, or the diphthong was resolved into its two constituent
elements, and the word passed over to the o- declension ; thus we find N. Achille-
us, Orphe-tts, &c. ; G. AehiUe-'i, Orphe-'i, Ulixe-'i, &c.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 299

CHAPTER IX.

adjectives.*

§. 152. The Comparative Degree.

The stem of the comparative degree was formed in Indo-
European either by the addition of -yant (= yan-td), or by
that of -tara to the stem of the positive. Yant and tara may
be derived either from verbal or from pronominal roots.
Those writers who connect them with verbal roots derive
-yant from I. E. root ya (to go), whence come Skr. yd (id.),
Gr. li-vai, &c. ; and -tara, from I. E. root tar (to cross over) ;
whence come Ye^.tiras (across), Z. taro (id.), Kelt, tair (id.),
L. trans, Goth, thair-h, E. through. These roots signify a pro-
gression, and consequently their addition to the positive
heightens the idea implied by it. It is, however, better to
derive these suffixes from pronominal roots, and to connect
-yant with the common suffixes -ant, -m-ant, -v-ant, and to re-
solve -tara into the elements ta and ra — the latter of which
by itself sometimes expresses the idea of the comparative, as
in Skr. avara (posterior), apara (id.), Goth, afar, G. aber, L.
sup-er-us, &c. As regards the relative age of these suffixes,
it is probable that -yant is the older of the two, for it is a pri-
mary suffix, i. e. it must be attached immediately to the root,
whereas -tara is a secondary suffix, and consequently must be
of later introduction than those primary suffixes to which it is
attached. We find, however, traces of -tara being used as a
primary suffix in Skr. antara (interior, other), antar (within),
L. inter, Goth, anthar (other), E. other y all from pronominal
root an, Gr. (piX-repog, &c.

* The declension of the adjectives has been already noticed in Chap-
ter vm., and consequently we have here only to do with the degrees of
comparison.

300 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

§. 153. The Sanskrit Comparative.

I. The form in -ydnsand -lydns. We find -ydns {i. -yasi,
n., -yas) in Ved. nav-ydns, from nava (new), Skr. sthe-ydns,
hora sthira (firm) ; sph^-ydns, from sphira (swollen) ; s'ri-ydns,
from s'rtla (lucky) ; pre-ydns, from priya (dear) ; g'yd-ydns,
from R. g'yd (to grow old, overpower), the positive of which is
not found.but which is supposed by Bopp to have been g'yd-yin,
formed from g'yd, as yd-yin (going), from yu ; bhu-ydns, from
bhuri {much), according to Bopp, or from bahu (much), accord-
ing to Benfey. In stheydtis, spheydns, s'reydhs, and preydhs the i
of the positive is gunated ; but we may also explain the e in the
first two of these forms by adding -{ydns to what were probably
the original forms of their positives (omitting the ending -ra)
sthara (from R. sthd = L. sta), and sphara (from R. sphd-y,
c. f. Gr. (T<paipa = acjiapya) : this latter explanation is, how-
ever, more improbable than the preceding one, for the stem-
vowel of the positive, if it be i or u, is gunated when final -ra
is lost, as we shall see further on ; and it is also possible that
the form -tydhs had not been developed from -ydns before
sphara and sthara had become sphira and sthira. The form
-lydns arose from -ydns through the influence of y, which has a
tendency to generate i before it, as in the Pali nadiyd = Skr.
nadyd, Instr. of nadi. That -ydns is older than -lyans appears
at once from the cognate languages ; thus, beside Skr. mah-
iydhs, from Ved. maha (great), we find Z. mas'-yas, Gr.
Iiii^ov = fxty-yovi L. major = mag-yor, from I. E. magh (to be
mighty) ; beside Skr. ds'-iydhs, from ds'u (swift), we find Z.
ds'-yas, Gr. b>Kiov = Jiic-yov, L. dc-i&r. Before -lydns the final
vowel of the positive stem is suppressed, and the vowel of its
first syllable, if susceptible of gunation, receives it, except
this vowel be r, which becomes ra^ or a, which is unaltered.
Thus we have alp-iydiis, from alpa (small), pdp-iydhs (= Gr.

COiMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 301

KOK-iov), from ^opa (bad), var-lydiis (= Gr. apt-iov), from vara
(good), &c. ; sddh-iydm, from sddhu (good), lagh-iydns
(= Gr. Waaaov = 'fXax-yov), from laghu (light), gar-iydns
(= Gr. fiap-iov), mrad-iydn's (=Gr. |3pa8-tov), from wrc^M (soft),
prath-iydris, from prthu (= Gr. irXarv), &c. ; -ra is lost in
kship-iydns, from kshipra (swift), &c. ; as in Gr. alax-iov, from
alaxpo, &c. ; -Za is lost in s're-ydiis, from s'rl-la (lucky) ; -ya
is lost in pre-ydns, from pn't/a (dear) ; adjectives in -mant,
-vant, -vin, and -tar lose these suffixes before -iydhs.

II. The form in -tara. This suffix is attached immediately
to the positive stem, as in punya-tara, from punya (pure),
hali-tara, from halin (strong), final n being lost, beside Ved.
supathin-tara. In words with two stems -tara is attached to
the weak form, and in words with three, to the intermediate
one, as mahat-tara, from mahat, the weak form o£ mahdnt
(strong), and vidvat-tara, from vidvat, the intermediate form
otvidvdns (Gr. eiBor), beside Ved. vidush-tara, from the weak-
est form of vidvdns, &c. In the pronoun we find this suffix
constantly employed, asm ka-tara (uter), from ka (= I.E. kva,
L. qui-s), ya-tara (uter), from ya (= Gr, 6-), i-tara, from i
(= L. is, whence i-terum = Ved. i-taram), eka-tara (one of
two), from eka (one), &c. From the preposition ut (up) is
formed ut-tara (higher) = Gr. va-Tipo.

§. 154. The Greek Comparative.

I. The form in -lov- In adding this termination to the
stem of the positive final, o, v and po are omitted, as in (piX-iov,
from ^iXo, Ka-K-iov, from koko ; oXi^ov = oXiyyov, from oXiyo;
178-tov, from r]dv] Oaaraov = Ta\-yov, from Ta\v ; iXaaoov
= hXa\-yov, from iXa^v ; 7Xi;ic-tov, and yXvaaov {aa = ki/),
from 7XUICU, (5pad-iov and ^paaaov {aa = Sy), from (SpaBv ;
irax-tov and Traacrov (aa = xy)^ ^^rom ttoxv ; naaaov = fiUK-yov,
from paK-po ; atdx-tov, from aiirx-po, &c.

II. The form in -repo. In adding this termination to the

302 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

stem of the positive, the stem- vowel is generally retained,
-repo being a secondary suffix, as in (piXto-repo, from ^iXo (the
stem-vowel here being lengthened as the penult is short),
Kov(po-Tepo, from KOV(fto ; yXvKV-rspo, from -yXuKU ; \apie<T-Tepo,
from \apuT, the weak form of ■)(apuvT, &c. In ^tA-rc/oo this
suffix is primary, being attached directly to the root.

By adding -npo to the preceding form of the comparative
suffix -lov «= yan-s, we obtain the forms -ea-repo, -itr-TBpo, and
-ai-Tspo;* as in a<pOov-e<JTspo,i^rora a(pBovo', XaX-iarepo, from
XaXo ; <j>iX-aiTepOy from 0tAo, &c. ; the stem- vowel being lost
in these cases. In -ai-rtpo it is possible that a may belong to
the stem, and so represent the original a from which o was
developed ; Benfey, however, considers -at to be an old lo-
cative termination, to which the comparative suffix was
attached. We find the two forms -lov and -Tspo combined
also in aaao-ripw, from aaaov = o.y\-yov, and in the Hom.
IrraaavTipoL from the same root. The suffix -npo is added
also to prepositions, numerals, and pronouns ; as irpo-repo,
from Trpo ; Esv-repo, from Svo ; c-rtpo, from t ; iro-Tfpo and
Ko-Tspo, from I. E. kva, &c. It is also employed in other cases
where only opposition in space is implied, as in St^i-rtpo,
apia-Thpo, &.C. In aXX6-Tpio-q we find -rtpo augmented by
the suffix -lo - I. E. -ya.

§. 155. The Latin Comparative.

I. The form in -ids (m. f. n.), later -ids (m. f.), -ins (n,).
The masc. -ior and the neut. -ius were both originally -ids ;
the neuter -ius is still found in Plautus. This suffix is both
primary and secondary in Latin ; in adding it to vocalic
positive stems the stem-vowel is always lost. Thus we have
sapient-ior, from sap-ient; prob-ior, from prob-o ; lev-ivr, from
l£v-i = leg-u-i ; major = mag-jor, ma-jus, and mag-is = mag-ius,

• From this form is probably derived the Modern Greek comparative
in -i7repoc, as KaX-tirtpog from iraX(5c, cac-^ripoc from KOKogy &C.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 303

from R. mag, whence mag-nus ; min-or = min-jor, from R,
min ; plus = plo-jus, from I. E. par or pra (to fill), whence
ple-nus, ple-rique ; Gr. TrXe-iwv, &c.

II. The form in -tero. This suflSx is not used in Latin to
form regular comparatives. It is, however, of frequent oc-
currence: as in dexter = Gr. Se^irepo-g ; u-ter =^ Goih. hva-ihar
(which of two), from I. Y,.kva (who); neu-ter, al-ter, £rom. the
same root, as Gr. aXXo-c = aX-t/og, L. al-iu-s, &c. ; ce-teru-s
from same root as L. -ce in hi-ce, ci-s, ci-tra; Gr. I-keT, £-ic£T-
vo-g. We find -ter also employed to form prepositions : as in
prce-ter, prop-ter, in-ter; and adverbs, as in sub-ter, audac-ter,
pari-ter^ &c. It appears as -tro in ul-tro and -infra; and as
-trd in ex-trd, in-trd, con-trd^ &c. These forms in -^m are
supposed by some to be old instrumentals, just as in Skr. the
instr. antar^r^ is used adverbially; this view is, however,
wrong, for they are really old ablatives, as we see from 0. L.
exstrdd = extrd.

In many cases both forms of the comparative suffix are
united in Latin. Thus in sin-is-tero-, min-is-tero-, inag-is-tero-,
we have -is-tero = I. E. -ydns + tara ; and in dex-ter-ior, in-
ter-ior, ci-ter-ior, &c., we have -ter-ior = I. E. -tara + ydns.
With sin-is-tero, &c., may be compared the Gr. XaX-ia-repo,
&c.

§. 156. The Indo-European Superlative.

In Indo-European the idea of the superlative was ex-
pressed by adding either -ma or -ta to the stem of the posi-
tive. After the first separation that occurred in the I. E.
family of languages, these suffixes were either used separately,
or united together, or doubled, or ia and tata were added to
-ydns. Thus we find -ta in the stems Skr. shash-tha = Gr.
Ik-to, L. qiiar-to, &c. : -ma in Skr. nava-ma (= L. no-no by
assimilation for nomo), Skr. ava-ma (low) from ava (down),
which is, perhaps, connected with Gr. av, av-rog, L. au-t,

304 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

au-tem, Skr. agri-ma (first), from agra (a point), L. sum-mo
for sup-mo^ &c. ; -tama* in Skr. punya-tama from punya (holy),
and other superlatives, in pra-thama (beside Gr. irpM-ro, L.
pri-mo), &c., L. op-tuno, &c. ; -mata in Gr. e/3So-;uarot (beside
i(5So-fxo), irv-fxaTo (for Trva-fiaro, from ttucj an^Eolicised form
of a root TToc which is connected with Skr. pas'kdt, after, Gr.
o-Trla-tt), L. pos-t, po-ne = pos-ne, O. pos-mo-m = h.postremum)^
and especially in the Irish ordinals, as secht-mad (the 6th),
ocht-mad (the 8th), &c. ; -mama^ also in the Irish forms
naisli-mem, from uasal (high) ; doir-bejn, from doir (a slave),
with b for m, &c. ; -tata in Gr. Kou^o-raro, and other super-
latives ; -ydns + ta = ish-tha, in Skr. mah-ishtha (= Gr. /ut-y-
t(TTo, &c., and = kj-to in Gr. wk-ioto, &c. ; -ydns + fa + fa = -((t-
ra-ro, -£o-ra-ro, -at-ra-ro in Gr.

§. 157. The Sanskrit Superlative,

The form in -ta is found in some ordinal numbers, as
k'atur-tha = Gr. Tirap-ro, &c. Ish-tha- is of common occur-
rence, and is added to the stem in the same way as the comp.
suffix iydhs, as in pap-ishtha (= Gr. KOK-KTro), &c. J/a-is found
in ashta-ma (the 8th), nava-ma (the 9th), madhya-ma (middle),
&c. Tama- is the usual superlative suffix, as in mahat-tama,
&c. ; it is also found in the ordinals, as in vins'ati-tama (the
20th), &c. From the superlative g'yeshtha (eldest) is also
formed the double superlative gyishtha-tama.

* Bopp derives -tama from -tara + ma, and -raro from -rapo + ro ; be
had previouslj' suggested tan (to stretch) as the root of both forms ; but
it is much more probable that they arise from the pronominal roots ta
and ma, as these roots are separately found expressing the idea of the
superlative.

t Lottner and others consider that initial m of the suffixes -ma and
-mata belongs sometimes to the stem, and that the words noticed in the
text should be divided thus: Skr. ashtam-a, navam-a; Gr. ej3don-o,
ipiofi-aro ; Ir. sechlm-ad, &c.

comparative grammar. 305

§. 158. The Greek Superlative.

The form in -to is found in some ordinal numbers, as
rerap-TO, &c. Ict-to is added to stem in the same way as the
comp. suffix -lov, as in rfd-iaro, from rjdv, &c. Ta-ro is the
usual superlative suffix, as in ^iX-raTo, &c. ; added to the
comparative suffix -ydns, it appears as -at-raro, -str-TCTO, -la-
TOTO, in riavx-ai-TaTO, (T(jj(f)pov-£(r-TaTO, TTTOJX-av-raTO, &c.
from r}(Tvxo,ooj(j)pov, tttw^o, &c. We find -fio in £j3So-juo and
7rpo-fio and -fia-ro in k^^o-fiaTO and irv-fiaTO-

§. 159. The Latin Superlative.

The form in -to is foimd in some ordinal numbers, as
quin-fo-, &c. ; also in quo-to-, from I. E. A;j;a. JbTo- is found
in i-mo-, sum-mo-^* &c. In min-i-mo- a,rxdplur-i-mo-, it is added
to the comparative suffix -ios, of which the vowel i alone is
left ; and we find it added to the other comparative suffix -ter
in ex-tre-mo- beside ex-timo-,pos-tre-mo- heside pos-tu-mo-. The
form -timo or -tumo is found in op-timo-, and op-tumo-, dex-
timo; maximo- = mag-timo-, pessimo- = pep-timo-., proximo--^ =
prop-timo; liberrimo- = liber-timo-, facillimo- = facil-timo-, &c.
This suffix is also used in other words without expressing any-
superlative idea, as mjini-timo-, mari-timo-, &c. Timo is added
to the comparative suffix -ios, which here becomes is, and
-is-timo becomes -issimo-, as in prob-issimo-, levissim-o, pot-
issimo-, &c.

* I-mo is a superlative stem formed from the preposition in, and summo
is a superlative of sub.

f This is Benfej's view, who ccmiects the word with Skr. papa (bad),
L. peccare ; pejor is, in his view, for pepjor. I^ottner, however, connects
it with an I. E. root pi (to hate), whence "Et. fiend, &c.

306 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

CHAPTEK X.

Ny.JIERALS.

§. 160. The Cardinal Numbers.*

I. — Ind. Eur. : the idea of unity was probably marked by the
demonstrative stem i- or its gunated form ai-.

Sanskrit : e-ka- from ^- = I. E. ai-, the gunated form of
the demonstrative stem i-, and ka- .f

Greek : nom. sing, m., tig = tv-c, f- fiia, n. ev ; tv may be
= I. E. sam, or sa, whence Gr, a-iraK, Kret. ofi-aKig
(once), Tarent. afi-arig (id.), Skr. sa-^rt (id.), L.
sem-el, sim-plex, sin-guli, and lAa would then be = sam-
ya. In Hesiod we find Uig for eTc, where the initial t
must represent a lost digamma ; and if this be so, then
it is possible that Fcv may be an older form of the
stem, with which we may compare the Lith. vena-s
(one), and E. one (as pronounced). If Bopp's expla-
nation of Lith. venas (Comp. Gram, II., p. 57) be cor-
rect, then it is also possible that Gr. Ftv may be = an
older /i£v, whence fiiv. In tt^ (= Ivi), and to (= fda), the
demonstrative stems i and a are united. Gr. ot-Fo-
(whence oTo-c) is identical with Z. aeva (one). Gr.

* For the declension of the Sanskrit numerals, consult Bopp's " San-
skrit Grammar," pp. 157-161.

f Ka- (one) is found, according to Bopp, in L. codes (one-eyed),
from ca, and oculus and ceecus = ca-icus, from ca and a supposed ocus (eye),
whence oculus, a diminutive ; and in Goth, halta- (lame), from ha = I. E.
ka, and lith (to go) ; halha- (half), from ha, and leihan (to remain) ; haihs
(one-eyed). Curtius connects L. emeus and Goth, haihs with I. E. root ska
to shade) ; whence Skr. k'hayd for skdyd, Gr. oKi-a, oko-io. (aKOTiivi,
Ilesych.) = I. E. skaya, oKti-vi}, oKo-rof, E. shade, sky, &c. : cocles he
considers to be a diminutive from the same root.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 307

ot-vo-c» oi-vri (one) correspond also exactly to 0. L.

oinos, Goth, ain-s ; oi- in oivog and olog, being from

the stem i- .
Latin : uno-s = 0. L. oino-s^ from stem i- .
II. — Ind.-Eur. : dva-.*

Sanskrit : dva-, dvi- (in compounds) ; dvis (twice).
Greek : Suo, Suai, G. ^voivt Sua), Att. ^vilvy Dor. ovcuv,

Mod. Gr. ^vovMv, D. Suoti', Suoj, Dor. Zvai, ^o\.

dveaai ; St'e (twice) for SFtc 5 Sto-ao-c for SFt-ryo-e » St-a

(originally meaning between and then through), for SFt-

a, Instr. of stem SFt, as E. between is from twain; donv,

Boiot (two), from stem BFi-o ; Si- (in compounds) ; SI

(lit. second!]/).
Latin : m. duo, f. duae, n. c?uo (and (f^a in vulgar Latin),

Ace. m. duo, duos; f. duas ; biniiox dvini ; bis for dm ;

* Various methods of explaining the numerals have been suggested;
but, except in the case of the first numeral, which is probably derived
from a demonstrative stem, none of these explanations are satisfactory.
Thus tri- is derived from I. E. tar (to cross) ; but how is the idea of
crossing connected with the idea of three more than with that of four f
Kvankva is supposed to be the reduplication of a root kvan, which is said
to mean to seize, whence are derived Skr. s'van (a dog), Gr. kvov, &c.,
and therefore to have originally meant the five fingers, as that part of the
body with which we seize anything; but what proof have we that such a root
ever existed ? Skr. pankan is again connected with pdni (the hand), but
pdni is probably for par-ni from par (to fill). The I. E. form often is
said to be dva-hvan from dva- (2), and kvan- (5) ; but there are no
traces of the two b s in any I. E. language. Again, it is suggested that
the root of dahan is I. E. dak (to point out), whence come Gr. 5fiKvv/it,
SaKTvXoc ; L. digitus, Skr. dis (to point out), &c. Kantam probably
meant host, multitude ; but its origin is obscure. Other methods of ex-
plaining the numerals have been suggested, but so absurd as scarcely
to deserve notice ; thus Skr. tisar (fem. three) is derived from tri (3),
and stri (a woman) ! Ashtdu (8) is for asvdu (two horses), &c. ! It is
also impossible to connect the I. E. numbers with the Shemitic ; the
likeness that exists between the names of numbers six and seven is merely
accidental.

x2

308 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

du-plum, du-plex. N. U. duf (duos), duir (duobus),
O. U. tuves (duobus), N. U. du- (in compounds), L.
bi- (id.).
Ill — Ind. Eur. : t7'i-.

Sanskrit : m. n. tri-, f. tisar- for titar-, according to Bopp,
a reduplicated form of tri- ; tn-s (thrice).

Grreek : m. f, rpalg. Dor. rpi-g ; n. rpl-a, from rpi- ;
rpi-g.

Latin : m. f., tres, n. tri-a, from tri- ; ter ; 0. U. tri- in <ri-
ir?«f (triplicatio).
IV. — Ind.-Eur. : kvatvar-.

Sanskrit : m. n., k'atvdr-, l^atur- ; f. k'atasar- (according to
Bopp, from ka, one, and tasar, three) ; k'atur (four
times).

Greek: m. f., Tttraapeg, rirrapig', n., riacrapa, Tirrapa;
Dor. TETopeg (o = Fa), BcBOt. irirTapeg, ^o\. iriaavpeg,
Hom. widvp^g (e becoming i through the influence of
v) ; New Ion. and Mod. Gr. riaaepeg ; rerpa-Kig.

Latin : quatuor and quattuor, quadru- (in compounds), g'jm-
^^r; U. petar- (in compounds), 0. petor-a, whence
Petr-ejus, petiro- (in compounds).
V. — Ind.-Eur.: kvankva-.

Sanskrit: pank'an-.

Greek : ttevth for Trevra found in 7r£i/ra-Ktc> for I. £. -an
becomes -o in Greek ; -^ol. irinTre, the gen. of which
occurs in naxiiov airv irifiirwv* (Alcaei fragmenta, 26).

Latin : quinque, O.pomtis, whence Pontius (= L. Quindius),
Pomp-ejus: p = I. E. kv as in W. pump (5), &c.
VI. — Ind.-Eur. : ksvaks- ; from this compHcatcd form alone
can be deduced the various words expressing the
idea of six, in the Indo-European languages. Thus
in Z. kksva-s we find the initial ksv still preserved ; ks
is found in Ossetian achsazll and the initial sh in Skr.

• " .\hren8 de Dialectis iEoHcis et Pseudaeolicis," p. 245.
f The a in achsaz is merely prosthetic, as < in ix^ic.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 309

shash arises from s through the influence of the pre-
ceding k ; sv is found in Afghan spash ( Afgh. sp = Skr.
8v), and in Welsh chwech (W. chw = Skr. sv*) ; s is
found in Gr. e^ (aspirate = s), L. sex, Ir. sS ; v is found
in Dor. Ft^, Armenian wez.

Sanskrit: shash-.

Greek : 1'^, Dor. Fl^, Mod. Gr. I'^t.

Latin : sex.
VII. — Ind.-Eur. : saptam- or saptan-.

Sanskrit: saptan-.

Greek : Ittto, Mod. Gr. t^ra.

Latin : septem. Bopp supposes that the final m in septem,
novem, and decern is due to the influence of the corre-
sponding ordinal numbers, septimo- = Skr. saptama-, &c.
VIII. — Ind.-Eur. : aktam-, or, according to Bopp, aktdu-.

Sanskrit: asA^an- (after analogy of sop ton-), nom.. ashtdu,
apparently a dual form, as s'ivdu from s'iva (m.), 8
being equal to twice 4, and therefore being the dual
of 4.

Greek : oKrw, Dor. oktoj (the aspirate being added as in
Fr. huit, from L. octo, New Pers. hest = Skr. ashtdu),
Mod. Gr. oxrw.

Latin : octo.
IX. — Ind.-Eur. : navam- or naran-.

Sanskrit : navan-.

Greek : Ivvia, Dor. kvvia., Mod. Gr. ivvia.

Latin : novem.
X. — Ind.-Eur. : dakam- or dakan-.

Sanskrit : das'an-.

Greek : StKa.

Latin : decern, U. degem.
XI. — Ind.-Eur. : ai- (?) dakam- (this and the other I. E. num-
bers up to XIX. were probably two separate words).

* Thus we have W. chwegyr = Skr. s'vas'ru (where s'v = I. E. sv), W.
chwaer (O. W. chwior) = Skr. svasar.

310 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Sanskrit*: ekd-das'an-.

Greek : tv-ScKa, Slica tic-

Latin : un-decim.
XII. — Ind.-Eur. : dva-dakam-.

Sanskrit: dvd-das'an-.

Greek: Sw-Seica, Suw-Setca, Suo-Kot-Seica (gen. SuoKmSljcwv,
Alcsei Fragmenta,* 98), ^Ua Svo.

Latin : duo-decim, U. desen-durf (ace. pi.).
XIII. — Ind.-Eur. : tri- dakam-.

Sanskrit : trayo-das'an-.

Greek : Tpig-Kai-deKa, dsKa-Tpug.

Latin : tr8-decim.
XIV. — Ind.-Eur. : kvatvar- dakam-.

Sanskrit : k'atur-das'an-.

Greek: Teaarapeg-Kai-d^Ka, Teaaapa-Kai-dtKa.

Latin: quatuor-decim.
XV. — Ind.-Eur. : hvankva- dakam-.

Sanskrit : pank'a-das'an-.

Greek: iravTi-Kal-diKa.

Latin : quin-decim.
XVI. — Ind.-Eur. : ksraks- dakam-.

Sanskrit : sho-das'an-.

Greek : iic-Kai-BiKa.

Latin : se-decim, sex-decim.
XVII. — Ind.-Eur. : saptam- dakam-.

Sanskrit : sapta-das'an-.

Greek : twra-Kai-diKa.

Latin: septem^ecem,.
XVIII. — Ind.-Eur. : aktam- dakam-.

Sanskrit : ashtd-dasan-.

Greek : oicrtu-Kai-Scica.

Latin : decern et octo [duo-de-viginti].
XIX. — Ind.-Eur. : navam- dakam-,

* " Ahrens de Dialectic .Xolicis et Fseudaeolicis," p. 255.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 311

Sanskrit: viava-das'an- \una-vim'ati-~\.

Greek : ivvza-Kai-^$Ka.

Latin : decern et novem [un-de-viginti].
XX. — Ind.-Eur. : dvi-dakan-ta- or dvi-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : vihs'ati- = dmn-dm'a-ti-. The nasal in dmn is
probably the remains of the nom. pi. case-ending of a
neuter stem dvi-.

Greek : tFeUocTi, eiKoai, Boeot. flKari, Lacon. (HiKari. He-
sychius notices "kuvtiv (e^iKaaiv), which is remarkable
on account of the retention of the v before r.

Latin : viginti, g taking the place of the original c, which
is retained in vicesimiis, vicies.
XXX. — Ind.-Eur. : tri-dakan-ta-, or tri-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : trihs'ati- or trihs'at-.

Greek : rptdKOvra (gen. rptrjKJvTwv, Hes. Op. et D. 694)
a neuter pi. the first a being lengthened. The remain-
ing decades XL.-XC. are also neuters pi.

Latin : tnginta for tridginta, a neuter pi., as are also the
remaining decades.
XL. — Ind.-Eur. : kvatvar-dakan-ta-, or kvatvar-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : k'atvdrihs'at-.

Greek : rcffo-apaKOvTa, Ion. recraapriKOVTa, Dor. rcrpwicovra ;
Ion. -Tj- and Dor. -w- = -a-.

Latin : quadrdginta.
L. — Ind.-Eur. : kvankva-dakan-ta-, or kvankva-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit: pankds'at-.

Greek : Trtvrjjicovra. -ij- = -a-.

Latin : quinqudginta.
LX. — Ind.-Eur. : ksvaks-dakan-ta^ or ksvaks-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : shashti-.

Greek : t^TjKovra. -tj- = -a-.

Latin : sexdginta.
LXX. — Ind.-Eur. : saptan-dakan-ta-, or saptan-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit: saptati-.

312 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Greek : tj38ojLt/jKovra from ordinal stem tjSSojLto- ; -?j- = -a-.

Latin : septudginta for septumdginta from ordinal stem sep-
tumo-,
LXXX. — Tnd.-Eur. : aktdu-dakan-ta-, or aktdu-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : as'iti-.

Greek : oyBovKOvra from ordinal stem oydoo; with -rj- for
-a- ; Hom. oySwKOvra.

Latin : octo-ginta.
XC. — Ind,-Eur. : navan-dakan-ta-, or navan-dakan-ti-.

Sanskrit : navati-.

Greek : £v£vt)k.o vra, Hom. IvvyKovra, from an ordinal stem
Ivivo- = L. nono- ; ->j- = -d-.

Latin : nondginta from ordinal stem nono-.
C. — Ind.-Eur. : kantam.

Sanskrit: s'ata-m.

Greek: iKwro-v, I being = %v (one).

Latin: centu-m.
CC-DCOCC. — Ind.-Eur. : here no compound forms were
found, but the constituent numerals were kept sepa-
rate, as in E. two hundred, &c.

Sanskrit: here also the constituent numerals were either
kept separate, as in dve sate (200), or the compound nu-
meral was formed in usual way, as dvis'ata- (200), &c.

Greek : SmicoeTto- (m. -o(, f. -ai., n. -a) ; Ion. StrjKoo-to-,
Dor. Smicarto-, &C.

Latin : ducento- (m. -t, f. -<c, n. -a) ; trecento-, quadringento-y
quadrin- being formed after the analogy o^ septin-\
quingento- for quinc-gento- ; sexcento-, septingento-, octin-
gento; where octiii- is either formed after analogy of
septin-, or else = I. E, aktan- ; nongento- from ordinal
stem nono-.
M. — Tnd.-Eur.: ?

Sanskrit: sahasra- (m.andn.).

Greek : ^TAto- (m. -oi, f -at, n. -a), Lesb. x«^^'o-> BoBOt.
X«Xto-, Dor. xnAto-. Bopp suggests that this stem

COMPABATIVE GRAMMAR. 313

may be connected with Skr. sahasra-, the original
Greek form having been aaxiXto-, then axiXto-, and
finally )(i\io- ; r became X, and the preceding s was
assimilated in the Lesb. form, or became i, as in Boeot.,
and a new suffix -lo = Skr. -ya was added. Schleicher,
on the other hand, considers x^Xyo- to have been the
original stem, which would be identical with an I. E.
ghar-1/a-.
Latin : milli- {mille, milli-a).

§. 161. The Ordinal Numbers.

In Indo-European the ordinals appear to have been formed
by adding either -ta or sometimes -ma to the cardinal stems ;
pra-ta- ox pra-ma- {lsX),dva-ta- (2nd), tri-ta- (2>xdi),kvatvar-ta-
(4th), kvankva-ta- (5th), ksvaks-ta- (6th), sapta(m)-ma or sap-
tan-ta (7th), akta(m)-ma- or aktdv-(m)a- (8th), navan-ta- or
nava{m)-ma- (9th), dakan-ta- or dakan{m)-ma- (10th). The
ordinal decades were formed in a similar way. The ordinals
from 11 to 19, &c., were formed of two separate words, as
prata- dakanta- (11th = 1st + 10th), &c.

In Sanskrit we have prathama- (1st), from preposition
pra and superlative suffix -tama ; dvitiya- (2nd) for dvitya
(Gr. ^iOTfTo-), =dva-ta-ya-; trtiyd- (^rd) i^oitritya- (Gr. rptcrao-)
= tri-ta-ya-; k'aturtha- and turiya- (4th) = {k'a)turiya-, perhaps
for (k'a)turtif/a-, the second t being thrown out to distinguish
this form more completely from trtiya-, unless ya- is used here
by itself instead of ta-ya- ; pank'ama-^ Ved. pank'atha- (5th) ;
shashtha- (6th), saptama-, Ved. saptatha- (7th), ashtama-
(8th), navama- (9th), das'ama- (10th).* In the numerals com-
pounded with das' an final -an is lost, and the suffix a- added ;
thus we have ekddas'a- (11th), &c. The cardinal stems end-

♦ Lottner considers that the ordinals, Skr. saptama-, ashtama-, nava-
ma^, das'ama-, Gr. i^Sofio-, L. septimo-, decimo-, &c., are formed simply
by the addition of a to the cardinal stems, saptam, ashtam, &c.

314 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

ing in -ti or -t either add -tama or -a ; in the latter case
vins'ati and the numerals ending in -t lose t- with the preceding
vowel, while shashti, saptati, as'Ui, and navati only lose final i :
thus viiisatitama- or vihs'a- (20th) ; trins'attama- or trihs'a-
(30th) ; k'atvdnhs'attama- or k'atvdrihs'a- (40th) ; pank'ds'at-
tama- or pank'ds'a- (50th) ; shashtitama- or shashta- (60th),
&c. From s'ata and sahasra we have s'atatama- (100th), sa-
hasratama- (1000th).

In Greek we have tt/owto- (1st), Dor. irparo-, Ep. ttqojxo-,
from TTpo (whence irpiv = irpo-iov, irpoatrw = irpOTt/u), irpoTipoq.,
&c.), SsuTEjoo- (2nd) = I. E. dvatara- ; rpiTO-, TpiToro-, ^ol.
repro- (3rd) ; teto/oto-, Ttrparo- (4tlL) ; infnno- (5th) ; Ikto-
(6th) ; l(5dofio-, lj38ojuaro- (7th) ; 67800- (8th) = 0780F0- from
OKToF = I. E. aktdv : tvaTO-, twaro-, ilvaTO- (9th) ; SfKoro-
(10th); IvSeicaTO- (11th) ; SwSeKaro-, SwoSeicaro- (12th) ; Tpiar-
KaiBeicaTO-, rpiTo- kul BsKaro- (13th), &c. ; ttKOaro- (20th) ;
TpiaKOaro- (30th) ; rtaaapaKOcno-i Dor. TeTpwKoaro- (40th),
&c. ; cKarooTO- (lOOthj ; ^tXtocrro- (1000). The termination
-<TTo is, perhaps, connected with the superlative ending -ktto,
initial i being lost. The same ending is found in iKaorro-,

TTOdTO-, OTrOOTO-.

In Latin we have primo- (1st) for pro-imo-, according to
Curtius, or for pris-mo-, according to Pott, pris being for
prim; secundo- (2nd), from R. sequ (to follow), whence sequor ;
iertio- (3rd) ; quarto- (4th), for quatuorto- ; quinto- (5th), for
quincto- ; sexto- (6th); septimo- (7th); octavo- (8th), from
octav = I. E. aktdv; none- (9th), for novimo-, m being assimi-
lated to the preceding n; decimo- (10th) ; undecimo- (11th) ;
duodecimo- (12th) ; tertio- decimo- (13th), &c. ; vigesiino-, vi-
cesimx)-, (20th), for vicensimo- = vicent-timo- ; trigesimo-, tri-
cesimo- (30th), for tricensimo- = tricent-timo-, &c. ; centesimo-
(100th) following the analogy of the preceding decades, &c. ;
millesimo- (1000th).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 315

CHAPTER XL

§. 162. Pronouns.

In the pronouns of the first and second person we find no
distinction of gender in any of the Indo-European languages.*
This may be accounted for by supposing that they were de-
veloped at a period preceding the introduction of this dis-
tinction, as is probable, for they express ideas that are among
the first to suggest themselves to man. Their antiquity also
accounts for the fact, that there is such a variety in the
diflferent pronominal roots employed to express these ideas,
and also for the fact that these pronominal roots have become
so disguised in various ways, that it is impossible to analyze
the greater portion of them, and consequently impossible to
reproduce the original Indo-European forms from which they
are derived. f

No distinction of gender is found also in the reflexive
pronoun ; all the other pronouns have three genders.

No vocative case is found in the pronouns.

In Sanskrit in all the pronouns the real stem is not used
in compounds, but in the pronouns of the first and second
person the abl. sing, or pi. is used, and in the others the nom.
sing. neut.

* In Sanskrit the pronouns in their aces. pi. asmdn, yushman, and
their Vedic nom.s pi. asme, yushme., appear to be masculine inform. In
the White Yag'ur-Veda (XI., 47) we find a remarkable exception in
the fem. ace. pi. yushmds.

f Consult an Essay by Dr. C. Lottner, " On the Forms and Origin of
the Pronouns of the First and Second Persons," in the Transactions of
the Philological Society (1859, Part i.).

316 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

§. 163. The Pronoun of the First Person.

The stem of this pronoun was originally ma-, connected
either with the I. E. verbal root ma (to think), whence Skr.
man (id.), or with the pronominal root ma- (this), whence
Skr. i-ma- (id.). Ma is of universal occurrence in the verbal
inflexion, as in Skr. as-mi (I am), i-ma-s (we go), &c. ; Gr,
el-fii, i-fit'V, &c. ; L. su-m, i-mu-s, &c.

Beside the stem ma- we also find in Indo-European a stem
agham(a-), whence Skr. aham (I.), or agam(a), whence Goth.
ik (I.), Gr. tyw. As ma- has been connected with the verbal
root ma (to think), so agam{a-), from which, after the sepa-
ration of the European branches of the Indo-European from the
Asiatic, the Sanskrit agham, and finally aham,, was developed,
has been derived from the I. E, verbal root ag (to move),*
whence Skr. ag' (id.), Gr. ayw, &c. : agam-a would then be
divided thus : ag (a verbal root) + a- (a pronominal demon-
strative root) + ma- (the preceding stem of I). Bopp, how-
ever, considers that in Skr. aham an initial m has been lost,
and supposes that the first portion of the word is merely the
stem ?7ia- (I.).

The other explanation, suggested by Bopp, is much pre-
ferable to either of the preceding, viz. : that the initial a- is

* In this case agama- would mean '■^ Ithe mover,'''' and hence " I," as
the first idea we have of a mover ^ a cause, ia derived from the power we
have oi willing. The I. E. root ag also meant " to speak,^^ whence Skr.
ah (which also passed through the stage agh) ; L. ad-ag-ium, ajo = ag-io,
Goth, af-aik-a (I deny); and here agama- would mean " I the speaker."
Although it is possible that both forms of this stem, agama- and aghama-,
existed in Indo-European, it is nevertheless more probable that aham is a
special Sanskrit form developed from agama-, through the stage aghama-.
We find a few other examples of a Skr. h being = an I. E. g- ; thus we
have Skr. hanu-s (the jaw), Gr. yew-c, L. gena, Goth, kinnu-s ; Skr.
maha-l (great), Gr. /ueya-c, Goth, mikil-s.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 317

the demonstrative stem * a- (this). A-ga-ma- (or a-gha-ma-)
would then be resolved into the three pronominal stems, a-
(this) ; ga- (or gha-), which is connected with Ved. ghd, gha,
hd; Skr. Aa, Gr. -yc, -yo (in Dor. eywvya, BcEOt. Itovya) ; Goth.
-k in the acc.s sing, mik (me), thvk (te), sik (se), 0. H. G, -h
in the acc.s pi. unsih (nos), iwih (vos), and ma- (the other
stem of the first person).

Nominative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : agam{a-).^

Skr. : aham.

Gr. : lyw, Dor. tywv, tyiovt}, lyd)vya ; BcBOt. toiv, toivst,

Iwvya. Here (o = I. E. a, but the cause of this change

is unknown.
L. : ego (with o as in Greek), and later egif.

* So in the Sanskrit Dramas we find ayaii g'anah (lit. this person)
used to express the first personal pronoun. Compare also the use of L.
hie, and of this in vulgar English.

t Lottner (in the essay quoted in p. 315) considers that there were
two periods in prehistorical Indo-European times : firstly, a period when
M was solely the characteristic of the first person ; secondly, a period
when M became restricted to the oblique cases of the singular. Both
periods had been gone through before our ancestors separated. " In
the historical times," he writes, "the difierence of singular and plural,
and of the nominative ' /,' as opposed to the oblique case 3Ie is, upon the
whole, preserved ; but here and there we observe a tendency to come
back to the preprimitive — if I may say so — simplicity." .... The ten-
dency, that J-/ has to return to the nom. sing, we find " in some of the
English dialects which partly replace I by me, in the tnoi of the French,
in the m«n of the New Persian .... in the thc of the Old Irish." . . . .
" Secondly, we find the m of the first person extended to the plural.
This we have in some German and Norse dialects (mer, mir for wir is
common about Thuringia ; mer is also sometimes used in Old Norse), in
the New Iranian languages almost throughout (vc is in New Persian md,
Armenian meq, Ossetian max), ^"^^ '° Modern Greek /*«'£•" I have ob-
served similar phenomena in the Italian dialect of San Eemo.

318 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Accusative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : md-m.

Skr. : md-m, md. Mam in form is a fem. ace. Bopp
suggests either that a was first developed in md to
compensate for the loss of the final m, and that it was
borrowed by mdm from md, or that mam is for ma-ha-m,
ha being = Gr. ye.

Gr. : fii, Ifii (the first e being only prosthetic), Dor. Ifxii.

L. : ms for mem = mim from stem mi-, final e being lengthen-
ed to compensate for loss of m. In Old Latin m£d was
used for me, as in Novios Plautios m£d Romai fecid
(C. I. L. I. n, 54). Mehe was also written in Old
Latin for me. Bucheler suggests that mehe may be
= Gr. Ifitye, Goth mik.

Instrumented, Singular.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : mayd = ma + i + a = ma + a + «.

Dative Singular.
Ind.-Eur. : ma-hhyam.
Skr. : ma-hyam.

Gr. : Dor. Ifiiv, tfiivri^ i/jLivya ; -11/ = -a~(fnv = -a-bhyam.
L. : mi-hei, mi-hi, from St. mi- ; U. me-he.

Ablative Singular.
Ind.-Eur. : ma-d or ma-t.
Skr. : ma-t, Ved. mama-t, a reduplicated form.
L. : me, 0. L. me-d from St. mi-.

Genitive Singular.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : mama, a reduplication of stem, with loss of case-
ending.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 319

Gr. : nov, Ifiov ; Ep. ifxeio (= l/us-oyo) ; Ion. ifito ; Dor.
ifitv, ixev ; Lacon. l/xtvvri ; Syrac. tjuio, ifiiu). In Dor.
ifiiog, enovQ, Ifitvg ; Syrac. IfxCjg ; the gen. case-ending
Q appears to be added to the old genitive.

Tjocative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : ma-i.

Skr. : mayi = ma + i + i = ma + a + i, the stem ma- being
lengthened by a, as in the instrumental. Skr. m4
which is used for gen. and dat. sing, is properly a loc;
compare s'ivS, loc. of s'iva.

Gr. : fioi, lnoi from St. juo- = I, E. ma-.

L. : Bopp considers gen. mei to be a loc. = met-t = mai-t
= Skr. mayi.

Nominative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : the stem of this case was probably formed by
adding sma- to the demonstrative stems ma-, a-, va- ;
consequently it may have appeared in the forms masma-,
asma-, vasmxz-. Initial m is found in Lith. mes, 0. SI.
mUf Arm. meg ; initial v in Skr. vayam, Goth, veis (E.
we) ; initial a in Ved, asmL Bopp considers that Skr.
vayam is for mayam, and that v represents an original
m. This is possible, for initial m and v are sometimes
interchanged ; thus we find* Basque maguina from L.
vagina^ Sp. mimbre from L. vitnen, Sp. milano from L.
villus. In Pali we find mayam (we) from Skr. vayam.
In all these cases, however, v is older than w, so that
it is just as likely that m is derived from v, as v from
m (consult §. 95, p. 187).
Skr. : vayam = ua + i + am = va + a + am; Ved. asme ;
Pali mxiyamy amhe.

* Diez, " Grammatik der Romanischen Spracben," vol. i., pp. 250,
357.

320 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Gr. : rifieiQ from St. 17/xt- (not from tJ/zo- = Ved. asma-, for
then the nom. pi. would be 17/uot), ^ol. afifxig, Dor.
afiig, Ion. i7/u£6c (-£ic = Ion. -tec = -sycc)-

L. : nos; nos is, perhaps, an old accusative used as a
nom., and follows the analogy oi eguos from eqtio-.
Bopp, however, considers that the final s here belongs
to the stem, as it occurs in nos-ter, and accordingly he
connects it with -sfna, from which he also derives -me-t
in egoniet, memet, tumet, nosmet, and -mmo in immo*
= ismo from St. i-. The final s of Skr. nas is also con-
sidered by Bopp to belong to the stem, as it is used
for the ace. dat. and gen. pi., and is explained in the
same way. In Z. ndo = nds we find the vowel length-
ened, as in L. nos. Nos may be connected with the
pronominal root na-, as has bfien already suggested in
§. 95, or it may be derived from ma-, as initial m and
n are sometimes interchanged : thus we find It. nespolo
from L. mespilum, nicchio from L. mitulus; Sp. nespera
and nispola from L. mespilum, mar/11 from Arab, nab-
fil, mueso from L. noster, masfuerzo from L. nasturtuim,
naguela from L. magalia, 0. Sp. nembrar from L. me-
morare; Fr. nappe from L. mappa, natte from L. matta,
nhjle from L. mespilum ; Wall. na/Je from L. j^iaZva.f

Accusative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : asma-ns and ma-ns.

Skr. : asmun = asma-ns and wtfo = ma-ns. Schleicher con-
siders that lias is for ma-sma-ns, initial m becoming n
through dissimilation on account of following i7i.

Gr. : ?7juac> Ion. iifxiag from St. r]^- ; uEol. aju/u£. Dor.

* I prefer to connect immo with the superlative stem imo- for immO'
= in-mo-.

f Diez, " Grammatik der Romanischen Sprachen," vol. i., pp. 199^
357.

^

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 321

afii, either following the analogy of ace. sing, fii, or
being the mere stem for afifxi-, ufiL-.
L. : nos.

Instrumental Plural.

Jnd.-Eur: : asma-bhis.
Skr. : asmd-hhis.

Dative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : asma-hhyams.
Skr, : asma-hhyam, nas, Ved. asma-bhya.
Gr. : rifxiv, ^o\. afxfiiv, ajutfii ; Dor. afxiv ; {-iv = -i-^iv).
L. : no-Ms perhaps for nos-bis, nos appearing as the stem,
as in nos-ter.

Ablative Plural.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : asma-t, following analogy of abl. sing.
L. : no-bis.

Genitive Plural.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : asmdkam, properly an adjective in ace. sing, neuter ;

Ved. asmdka, with loss of final m ; nas.
Gr. : 17/iwv, Ion. rifxiwv, Ep. rmuojv from St. rffii-t jEoI.

afifiiiov, Boeot. afiiwv, Dor. afjiiov, afiswv.
L. : nostrum, gen. pi. of possessive stem nostro-, for nostro-

rum, which occurs in Plautus ; nostri^ gen. sing, of the

same stem. Some writers consider nostrum to be an

ace. sing, neuter.

Locative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : asma-sva.

Skr. : asmd-su.

Gr. : jEoI. afifii-aiv.

322 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Nominative and Accusative Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : dvdm from St. dva- = a + tva- (/ + thou), according
to Bopp, or = a + dva- (7+ numeral two) according to
Schleicher, as in Old Lith. vedu (m.), vedvi (f.) ; New
Lith. mudu (m.), mudvi (f.) ; and Goth, vi-t {we two).
We also find as ace. ndu, for nda according to Bopp, a
lengthened form of pi. nds. Ndu is also used for gen.
and dat,, and therefore -du belongs probably to the
stem; it corresponds to Gr. vw in which w also ap-
pears to belong to the stem (c. f. Skr. ashtdu = Gr.
OKTb)) . In form ndu is a regular ace. dual of St. na-,
as s'ivdu from s'iva-.

Gr. : vwii va» ; Bceot. vw£.

Instrumental and Ablative Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : dvdbhydm.

Dative Dual.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : dvdbhydm, ndu.
Gr. : vCJ'iv, v(i^v.

Genitive Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : duayos, ndu.
Gr. : vd'iv, vtjjv.

Locative Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : dvayus.

comparative grammar. 323

§. 164. The Pronoun of the Second Person.

Nominative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : tvam for ta* + ua + ma (see §. 95, p. 187)

Skr. : tvam.

Gr. : cru, Dor. ry, Bceot. tovv (= Z. iilwi), tov, tui^ij,

Lacon. Tvvr\.
L. : ifM.

Accusative Singular.
Ind.-Eur. : tva-m.
Skr. : tvam, tvd, which Bopp explains in the same way as

mam, ma.
Gr. : <r£, Dor. ri, tv, th ; Cret, rpi, Boeot. n'v.
L. : te for tvem, from St. ^fi-; 0. L. ^ecZ (an ablatival form

used as an accusative by Plautus), U. iiom for tuom

= tvam ; or, according to Corssen, for tvio-m from St.

tvi' lengthened by a.

* Lottner (in his essay quoted in p. 315) remarks, that *' whatever
the actual nature of the Thou may be, it cannot be overlooked, that in a
mere abstract metaphysical point of view it is but one of the many cases
of the non-ego, and that therefore it is not altogether unreasonable to ex-
pect that language should treat it as such ; in other words, that the pro-
noun of the second person should somehow be a variety— strongly marked
indeed by individual characteristics — of the pronoun of the third per-
son."

Thus in the Indo-Eur. languages ta is the stem of Skr. ta-m (eum),
Gr. Tov, L. (is-) turn, SI. til, Goth, tkana, O. H. G. den, &c.

Also in the Semitic languages the stem of the second person is either
tha or ta, to which the syllable an or en is prefixed, and this same t/ia or
<a with the same prefix an or en is also used as the stem of the pro-
noun of the third person. Thus we have Egyptian ento-k (thou, m.),
Coptic entho-k (thou, m.), &c., beside Egyptian ento-f (he), Coptic
entho-f, &c.

Those writers who derive the pronouns from verbal roots connect tvam
with I. E. tan (to stretch).

y2

324 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

Instrumental Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : tvayd = tva + i + a = tva + a + d.

Dative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : tva-bhyam.

Skr. : tvr-hhyam, Ved. tu-hhya.

Gr. : Horn. t«v, Dor. riv., Tarent. Tivn-

L. : tihi (final m being lost, as in Ved. tubhya) ; U. tefe.

Ablative Singular.
Ind.-Eur. : iva-d or tt>a-t.
Skr. : tva-t.
L. : te, 0. L. <«<:? from St. <i-.

Genitive Singular.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : tava for tvatva, a reduplication of stem, with loss of

case ending.
Gr. : ffou, Ion. aio, o-eC ; Ep. atio, rcoTo (= tava-sya) , Dor.

rto, T£Ov, Tcu, rta». In Dor. rioq, novq, rcuc, tIoq,

rliOQi the gen. case-ending p appears to be added to

the old genitive.
L. : tui, the gen. sing of the possessive stem tuo-.

Locative singular.

Ind.-Eur. : tva-i.

Skr. : tvayi = <ya + z + i = <«a + a + i. Skr. t^, Ved. tvi,

which is used for dat. and gen. sing, is properly a

locative.
Gr. : (TO-/, Dor. ro-l.

Nominative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : tvasma- was probably the stem.
Skr. : yuyam for tva + i + am = tva + a + am; Ved. yushmi;
PMi tumhi (= tus-me).

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAE. 325

Gr. : vfxelg from St. vfii-, Mo\. vfxfxeg, Dor. vfiig, Boeot.

ovfxig, Ion. vfiug,
L. : vos (compare nos).

Accusative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : tvasmd-ns or tvci-ns.

Skr. : ymhmdn = tvasmdns, Ved. yushmds (f.) ; vas = tvdns.
Gr. ; vfjiag, Ion. vfiiag from St. v/ut- ; ^ol. u/ujU£, Dor. w/xl
(compare ayu/ie, &c.).

Instrumental Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-bhis.
Skr. : yushmd-bhis.

Dative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-bhyams.

Skr. : yuslima-hhyam^ vas.

Gr. : v/itv = w/ut-0iv, -^ol. v/ijut, vfifxiv ; Boeot. ovfxtv'

L. : ro-6?s (compare no-bis).

Ablative Plural.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr- : yushma-t (compare asma-t).
L. : no-bis.

Genitive Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : yushmdkam, Ved. yushmdka ; vas.

Gr. : vfxiov, Ion. vfxicjv, Ep. vfxiicjv from St. u^t- ; ^ol.

vfifiibjv, Boeot. ovfiiwv.
L. : vostroruniy vostrum {ves-), vosfri (ves-).

Locative Plural,

Ind.-Eur. : tvasma-sva.

Skr. : yushmd-su.

Gr. : ^ol. vfxniaiv probably, after analogy of afifisdiv.

326 COMPARATIVE GRAilMAR.

Nominative and A ccusative Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : yuvdm from St. yuva- = tva + tva- (thou + thou), or

tea + dva (thou + numeral two), compare Lith, yii-du

(m.), yu-dvi (f.) ; Ved. yuvdm. We also find as ace.

vam for vdv (according to Bopp) = vdu = vds, (compare

ndu).
Gr. : <Tif)U)'i, <T0tt».*

Instrumental and Ablative Plural.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : yuvd-bhydm. In Vedic we also find yuvat as abl. ;
compare mat, &c.

Dative Dual.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Skr. : yuvd-bhydm, vdm ; Ved. yuva-bhydm.
Gr, : (TcpCo'iv, crcpi^v-

Genitive Dual.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : yuva-yos, Ved. yuvos, vdm.
Gr. : (j<pwiv, a<j)(^v.

Locative Dual.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Skr. : yuva-yos.

§. 165. The Reflexive Pronoun.

There is no distinction of gender in this pronoun, except
in Gr. nom. and ace. pi. <T(pia. The Ind.-Eur. stem was sva-,
which in Sanskrit only occurs in compounds, as in sva-yam
(self) = sva + i + am = sva + a + am, sra-tas (by one's self),

• 2^ in these forms implies an original sv, which may represent an
I. E. tv.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 327

sva-dhd (spontaneity), sva-bhu (self-existent), &c. In Sanskrit
the stem sva- is also used as a possessive; Skr. sva-s = Gr.
<T0o-C, L- suus. This stem is found in Gr. IBiog = aFe-Eiog, trrjg
= (xFc-rije, iOoQ and fjdog = afe-Oog (compare Skr. svadhd) ;
Hom. <^{i = (70JJ (initial a being lost, as in Lac. <^iv = a^lv, Lac.
KOvraXa = CTicwraArj, Lac. Kvpauviov = (TKupOartov, Lac. ^aipid-
Belv = (T0at|Ot^£tv, Boeot. $i$ = '2.<pLyK ; L, funda beside Gr.
(T^evSovrj, L. /r(igs beside Gr. <T(f>iEeg, L. /aZZo = Gr. acpaXXwy
h.Jlgo = Gr. a^iyjw, whence <fifx6g = a(piy-fjLog) ; and in L.
si, si-qua = U. sve-pu, si-ne (?) , sed (an ablative form), se-voco,
sed-itio, s^-orsum, sue-sco, so-ddlis (from soda = Skr. sva-dhd).
Bopp connects -pse in ipse with swa-, u becoming^ when trans-
posed, as in Dor. ^iv = ct^jV ; but this is wrong, for ipse = i-pte
(compare sua-pte), and -pte is, probably, connected with Skr.
pati- (master) = Gr. iroai-, L. pot-is, Lith. pati-s (self).

Nominative Singular.
This case is not found in Greek and Latin.

Accusative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : svd-m.

Gr. : £, ^ol. Fl = (tFe, Hom. ki = aePe, Dor. (T(j>i. Ep.
|utv, Dor. viv, which are used for e, are, perhaps, for
Ifi-ifi* a reduplicated accusative of St. i ; compare the
Latin reduplicated accusatives sese, 0. L. em-em (eun-
dem).

L. : se = sve = svi-m from St. svi, O. L. sed (inter sed in SO
de Bac, apud sed in tab. Bant.) ; Osc. siomf for suom
= sva-m. Corssen explains siom as a lengthened form
Irom St. si- by the addition of a, and consequently as
= svi-o-m (compare e-u-m = i-u-m, Osc. i-o-n-c from
St. Z-).

• Curtius, " Grundziige der Griechischen Etymologie," p. 477.
t Schleicher, " Compendium," &c., p. 644.

328 COMPARATIVE GRAMJIAR.

Dative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : sva-bhyam.

Gr. : BcEOt. ktv (Corinna), Dor. tv, contracted from l/v

• L. : sibiy U. sihe, O. dfei, from St. svi-.

Ablative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : sra-d or sva-t

L. : 5J, 0. L. sed for sei'c?, from St. sui-.

Genitive Singular,

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Gr. : ou, Ep. tlo = oFe-oryo, Ion. to, Dor. ew, Iou, Boeot. iovg.
L. : SM2, the gen. sing, of the possessive stem suo-.

Locative Singular.

Ind.-Eur. : sva-i.

Gr. : ol, Mo\. Fol, Boeot. Fu.

No7ninative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Gr. : a({>tig, atpia (n.), from St. o-^t-.

Accusative Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Gr. : (T^ac, a^ia (n.) ; Ion. a(j)iag, (Ttfteiagi Dor. a^t, Syrac.

;//£, -ZEol. ao-^c.
L. : same as in sing.

Dative Plural.
Ind.-Eur. : sva-hhyams.

Gr. : Dor. cr^tv, Syrac. ;//tv, Lacon. ^tv, .^ol. ao(pi.
L. : same as in sing.

Ablative Plural.

Ind.-P^ur. : ?

L. : same as in sinjr.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 329

Genitive Plural.

Ind.-Eur. : ?

Gr. : (T0WV, Ion. acpiwv, iEol. o-0£ta»v, Syrac. xfjtov and twv.
L. : same as in sing.

Locative Plural.
Ind.-Eur. : sva-sva.
Gr. : (T(pi-<Tt.

Nominative arid Accusative Dual.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Gr. : a<p(i)i, <T(j)(ji).

Dative and Genitive Dual.

Ind.-Eur.: ?

Gr. : a(pw'iv = cf(pw-(f)iv.

§. 166. The Pronouns in which the Gender is marked.

An examination of all the pronouns of this class found in
each language belongs to the special grammar of each, and
"we here'limit our investigation to the declension of these pro-
nouns, selecting the I. E. demonstrative stem ta as the one of
which the declension will be given in full. In the three fol-
lowing sections we merely notice the chief points of difference
between the declension of the pronouns and that of the nouns,
omitting some exceptions which will be found in the special
grammars of each language.

§. 167. The Sanskrit Pronominal Declension.

The nom. sing. masc. generally ends in -s, as in the noun,
except in sa (nom. sing, masc), where the final s was omitted,
because it was perhaps a repetition of sa itself The same
omission is found in Goth, sa and Gr. 6. We also find the
peculiar nominatives ayam (m,), t'l/am (f), which are ana-

330 COilPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

logous to the personal pronoun aham;* also the nom. asdu
(m. f.), which, perhaps, arose from an older asds. The nom.
and ace. neut. sing, ends in d or t^ and this form is used as
the true stem in compounds. The nom. pi. masc. ends in -^,
which, perhaps, arose from -a-i-as = -a-a-as, the stem being
lengthened by a, which afterwards became i, and the final as
being lost ; thus te = ta-i-as = ta-a-as. In the dat., abl., and
loc. sing, the masc. and neut. a- stems are lengthened by
the addition o? snia; and in the same cases the fem. a- stems
are lengthened by si (= smi, according to Bopp). The gen.
pi. ends in -sdm.

§. 168. The Greek Pronominal Declension.

The nom. sing. mas. ends in -g, as in the noun, except in
6 = Skr. sa. The nom. sing. neut. ends in -o = -or, final t (or
S ?) being lost. In other respects the pronominal is the same
as the nominal declension.

§. 169. The Latin Pronominal Declension.

Final -s of nom. sing. masc. is sometimes lost, as in ipse
(beside ipsiis), isle (beside istus), ecqui, siqui, qui (beside
qruis) = 0. pis, hie. Qui is probably for quoi (whence 0. L.
quei) = U. poi, poei, poe^ and hie for hoi-ce, the stems
in both cases being lengthened by -i. The nom. sing. fem.
ends in -a except in qu42 = 0. pat, hcee, illcee (beside
ilia), istcec (beside ista), the stems of these pronoims being
also lengthened by -i. Quis is used as a nom. fem. in Plau-
tus {quis mulier est), as Gr. tic- This -i that is added
to the stem in quce is of common occurrence, as in U.
pir-if pir-e = L. quid + i, &c. ; Gr. ovroa-i, &c. : Bceckh con-

* The neater termination -m, which is used as masculine and feminine
in ayam (m.), iyam (f.), and aham, dates from a time when the distinction
of gender had not yet been developed.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 331

siders that it is also found in the forms rot (= to), rai (= rd),
which occur in the " Fcedus Eleorum et Heraeensium," but
Ahrens (" de Grsecse Linguae Dialectis," I., p. 280) opposes
this view, and considers roi and rai to be for rtjJ and ra. The
fern, sometimes occurs without this addition, as in aliqua,
numqua, siqua = U. svcpu. The nom. and ace. sing. neut. are
formed by adding d to the stem, as in id = 0. id, quod = 0.
pud, quid = O. pid, O. L. alid = aliud, U. pir {-%) = quid, &c.
In the second century B.C. this d had a very weak sound,
and was sometimes ahnost imperceptible, just as in Gr. ri and
aXXo the suffix vanishes. Beside aliud ore find alium (Fabr. 95,
211), as in Gr. rocTourov beside roo-ouro. Ipsumia neut. oiipse.
Hoc, 0. L. Iioce is forhod-ce. The nom.s pi. masc, and fem. are
formed in the same way as in the noun : as in the masc. forms
eeis, ieis, eis, ei, ques, quei, qui, heis, hisce, hei, hi, and the fem.
qu^, istce, &c. The O. pas (= L.quw) is analogous to Skr. nom.
pi. fem. The nom. and ace. pi. neut. is the same as in the
noun, except in hcBc, O, L. haice, qu(s = 0 pat, istcBC (beside
ista, illcec (beside ilia), where the stems are lengthened by i.
This i is not found in aliqua and siqiux.

The dat.s sing. (m. f. n.) illi, ipsi, toti, alteri = O. L.
alterei for altero-i, &c., are, probably, old locatives : such as
humi and domi. In the 0. L. quoiei we fine the stem length-
ened by i and then the true dative suffix -ei = I. E. -ai was
added. It is possible that isti, &c., may have been formed as
quoiei, and accordingly that they may have arisen from the
true dative forms istoiei, &c. We also find the dat. sing,
masc. ending in -o, as in nullo usui, in Caesar, &c., and the
fem. ending in -cb in Plautus, &c. In the Umbrian datives
e-smsi, pu-sme, we find the stem lengthened by -sma, as in
Sanskrit.

The gen.s sing, istius, &c., were formed by adding -ius to
the stem lengthened by i : istius would then be for isto-i-ius.
The ending -ius is supposed by Bopp to have arisen merely
by transposition from the gen. ending -si/a, but it is much

332 COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

more probable that isto-i-ius is for isto-i-siu-s, -siu being = -sya,
and -s being added, as in the Doric gen. sing, of the first and
second personal pronouns, kfiiog, t/novg, riog, teovq. Meunier
considers istlus, &c., to have arisen from istl-iuSi &c., isti
being the usual genitive in -i and i-us, an enclitic genitive of

*

the pronominal stem

The adverbs hie = 0. L. heic and qui are old locatives,
and = hoi-c and quoi. Similarly in Oscan we find loc.
exei-c fi-om pronominal stem exo-. Corssen considers qui to
be an ablative form for quei-d; quicum is used for both quo-
cum and quacum.

Beside quorum, gen. pi. of stem quo-, we find cuium as
gen. pi. of stem qui (Charisius II,, 136).

§. 170. The Declension of the Stem ta- (m. u.)

Skr. Gr. L.

Stem. ta-. ro-. is-to-.f

Sing. N. sa, sa-s (m.), <a-< (n.) 6 (m.), rd (n.) iste^m.),iitit-d(n.)

A. ta-m (m.), ta-t (n.) ro-v (m.), to (n.) istu-m (m.), htu-d

(n.)

te-n-a.

* Consult Meunier's Essay " De quelques anomalies que prdsente la dcclinai-
son de certains Pronoms Latins" (" Memoires de la Societe de Linguistique de
Paris." Tome I., pp. 14-62). Beside these genitives in -iu* we also find in Old
Latin the gcn.s «, quoi, cut, qui, &c. : as in £t m argumenta dicam (PI. Trin. 622)
Quoijidesfidelitasque amicum erga aquiperet tuam (PI. Trin. 1126), Ferii qtiot hie
ipse annos vivet, cuijilii tam diu vivont (PI. Mil. 1081), &c. In Plautus Pers. 83,
Meunier reads Set eccum parasitum quoi mi ius auxiliost opus, and considers that
here we find existing separately the two genitives {quoi from stem quo-, and ius
irom stem t-), which afterwards coalesced into quoius.

The dative qitoiei (which occurs on the fourth inscription on the tomh of the
Scipios, Qvjiei vita defteit, non honos, honoreis), is, according to Meunier, a douhle
locative from quoi loc. of quo-, and ei loc. of t-. Similarly the dat. eiei (as in
Lucr. III., 555, Sive aliud quidvis potiut connexius eiei) is a douhle loc. of t-.

t L. is-to- is compounded of the three stems i'-, sa- and ta-. In addition to
the declension of iato- I also give some other pronominal forms to illustrate the
original declension of the pronouns.

COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

333

D.
Ab.
G.
L.
Plur. N.

I.

D.Ab.
Plur. G.
L.

Dual. N. A.

Gr.

L.

TIf.

isti, U. pu-sme.

rWff = Tbt-T.

istd-d.

TO-lo, TOV.

isiius.

Skr.
ta-smdi.
ta-sm&-t.
ta-sya.

ta-sm-in. — —

U (m.), t&-n-i (n.) rol, oi (m.), to. (n.) istl, TJ, pur-e (m.)

— ista, qua-e (n.)

t£i-n{m.'),tu-n-i{TL.) t6vq,tovq(vii.'), rd isto-s (m.), ista

I. D. Ab. td.-bhy&m.
G. L. ta-y-6s.

(n.)
t&ia. —

U-hhyas. —

te-tham. rwv.

te-shu. Tol-fft, Toig.

tdu, td (m.), te (n.) rci.

ro-tj/.

(n.)

isto-rum.

§. 171. The Declension of the Stem td- (f.).

Skr.

Stem.

td.

Sing. N.

sd.

A.

td-m.

I.

ta-y-d.

D.

ta-sy-di.

Ab.

ta-sy-ds.

G.

ta-sy-ds.

L.

ta-sy-dm.

Plur. N.

td-s.

A.

td-8.

I.

td-bhis.

D.Ab.

td-bhyas.

G.

td-sdm.

L.

td-su.

Dual. N. A.

U.

I. D. Ab.

td-bhydm

G.L.

ta-y-6s.

Gr.
ro-.

ra-v, TTf-v.

Ty.

rri-e.

rai, ai.
(jd-Vf;'), ra-Q.

ra-wv, rwv.
ry-ai, Tale,
ra.
ra-Tv.

L.

is-ta-.
ista, qua-e.
ista-m.

istl.

ista-d.

istlus.

istce, 0. pas.
ista-s.

istis.
istd-rum.

APPENDIX.

The Sanskrit Ceeebbals or Linguals.

Dr. Geor&e Buhxer, in his essay "On the Origin of the Sanskrit
Linguals," has attempted to demonstrate that these sounds were not
borrowed from theDravidian races of India, but that they were for the
most part developed within the limits of the Sanskrit. As Biihler's
essay is very instructive, I have condensed his chief arguments in
this Appendix, and frequently employed his own words.*

The borrowing of sounds by one language from another is a
phenomenon that has never been proved to have occurred in lan-
guages that have been influenced by others in historical times.
Thus, take the case of English ; though it was under I^orman in-
fluence for so many centuries, and though traces of that influence
are seen on all sides ia borrowed words, loss of the old Saxon in-
flexions, &c., yet not a single Norman sound was introduced into it.
Neither the French a nor u nor nasals were adopted by the English ;
and it is just as difficult for an Englishman of the nineteenth cen-
tury to pronounce these sounds as it was for a Saxon of the tenth
century. But the case of such nations as the Irish, the Germanised
Sclavonians, &c., demonstrate the same fact still more manifestly;
for, while these nations have almost completely lost their original
language, and adopted that of their conquerors, they still retain
their native sounds, and have adapted their new language to them.f

* BiiHer of course is not responsible for all the examples and comparisons
adduced here.

t Thus the initial sound heard in the Irish pronunciation of E. car is not ky,
as is commonly supposed, but the hard aspirate kh, which, with the other hard
aspirates, is still found in Irish.

336 APPENDIX.

Moreover, before we can assert that the Skr. cerebrals are bor-
rowed from the Dravidian languages, we must prove that the con-
ditions under which alone sounds can be borrowed, existed in the
case of Skr. ; i. e. we must prove that a great many foreign words
containing the sound in question were first borrowed and that thus
the new sound became perfectly familiar to the people. Therefore
it has first to be demonstrated that Sanskrit in very early times
alreadj'' possessed, as loans, a number of Dravidian words'containing
these cerebrals. Dr. Caldwell, who strongly supports the theory
of the Dravidian origin of these sounds, enumerates only sixteen
nouns containing cerebrals which he supposed to have been bor-
rowed. Only two of these, dni (the pin of the axle of a cart), and
katuha (sharp), are found in the Rigveda, and even these can be easily
deduced from ordinary Sanskrit roots. Ani is for arni, from R. ar
(to fit) ; and consequently may mean " a thing to be fitted (into
some other tiling"), compare ara (a spoke); l-atu (sharp) is for
kartu from krt (to cut). Even supposing that these sixteen words
were borrowed, they would be far too few in number to cause the
introduction into Sanskrit of the cerebral sounds which they con-
tain.

As Zend, however, contains three cerebrals, the consonantal and
vocalized r and s7^, and as it can be shown that' nearly aU the Skr.
cerebral mutes and nasal are produced by the dii-ect change of r and
sh into them, or by the change of dentals into the corresponding
cerebrals through the influence of r, r and sh, we must surely infer
that cerebralization is not due to the influence of foreign tongues,
but solely due to the genius of the language itsel£ As proof of
this, we have the following facts : —

A dental n is frequently changed into n, when it is immediately
succeeded by a vowel or y or v, under the influence of a preceding
r, r, r or sh, provided no palatal, cerebral, dental, sibilant, or I in-
tervene ; thus k'iktrsha with suflix mdjia forms k' ikirsliamdna, hhrah-
mdnan comes from bhrahman, &c.* Anadvah (an ox) is for anarvahj
from anas (a cart), and vah (to draw) ; the change of -as into ar be-

* Consult Bopp's "Kritische Grammatik der Sanskrita-Sprache," pp.
60, 61.

APPENDIX. 337

fore a soft consonant is found in the Vedas as uskarhudh (early awake)
for later ushdbudh, vanargu (a thief) for vandgu. R, when followed by
n, is assimilated to it sometimes in Sanskrit and always in Prakrit. In
Sanskrit the first of these n's may be dropped, and the preceding
vowel lengthened, as dunds'a (imperishable) for and beside durnds'a,
dtLri.as'a (difficult to obtain) for and beside durnas'a. Pdni (the hand)
= parni from pr (to fill). Anu (small) = arnu from I. E. ar
(to hurt, grind), whence Skr. arm (n. a wound), and Gr. aXew (I
grind), aXevpov* (flour); anu would accordingly mean Literally
"ground down." Fan (to buy) is for parn from pr (to fill) be-
side Gr. irepprjfii, TTopvrj (cf. ^Vr.panya-stri), irptafiai, &c. ; the obscure
banig' or vanig' (a merchant) may be connected with this root. Biihler
illustrates this change of ^ into hov v hjpibdmi ox pivdmi (I drink)
for pd and sphdvaya for sphdpaya, the causal of sphdy (to swell).
"We also find vishtapa (a world) for and beside pishtapa, vdna and
bdna (an arrow) beside ^arna (a leaf, a feather).

In Prakrit, Pali, and the modern vernaculars, mute dentals have
become cerebrals through the influence of r. Thus Skr. tdlavrnta
(a leaf of a palm tree, a fan), vrddha (old), krta (made), bhartd
(nom. sing, a husband), gardabha-g (nom. sing, an ass), &c., become
respectively talaventa, vudha, kata, or Jcita, bhattd, gaddaho, &c.
This influence of r shows itself even in Vedic as in dudhi for durdhi,
kuta for krta, &c. In Classical Sanskrit we find many similar ex-
amples, as ndtaka (a dancer) for and beside nartaka ; bhata (a sol-
dier), derived by Benfey from bhar, and therefore being for bharta ;
bhdtaka (wages) for bhartaka ; vata (a circle, rope) for varta from vrt
(to turn), cf. L. verto ; patta (a table, seat), from patra, according
to Benfey ; patu (skilful) from pat (to divide), for part, cf. L.

* Curtius deduces these Greek words from a R. FtX or Fa\ = I. E. val or
var, whence Skr. urtni-s (a wave), Gr. IXi/w (I roll), ovXai (unground barley),
bXfioQ (a mortar, a round stone), aXodut (I thresh), dXut), Att. iiXwg (a thresh-
ing floor), jxaXivpov (= aXivpov, Hesych.) fromFaXivpov, &c., L. volvo, Goth.
vahjan (to roll). The final sound in Gr. iXv-, L. volo-, Goth, valv- is a short-
ened form of reduplication ; the F is represented by o in oXooirpoxoQ (a rolling
stone) = oXfoirpoxoz, and in aXodm = aXFa<u. We find similar eases of short
reduplicated forms in Greek, as <p6-(3-o-e, 0l-j8-o-/xat beside Skr. bhl (timere),
<pep.p-u>, beside <p'fp-u>, Skr. bhar, xop-w-t; beside vep-dw, L. por-ta, &c.

Z

338 APPENDIX.

par{t)-s ; vata (an enclosure) for varta, from vr (to enclose), cf.
L. vallum; kantaka (a thorn) for karntaka, according to Benfey,
from krt (to cut) ; tafa (horizon, bank of a river, mountain) for twrta
from tr (to cross), as para* (ripa opposita) comes from par (to
cross), cf. Gr. iropo^, ircpaipw, irepav, L. per ; tad (to strike) for
tard, with which Bopp connects Goth. {us-)thrut (molestiam facere) ;
tadit (fulmen), tandula (granum frumenti, pnecipue oryzae) from
tad ; path (to recite) from prath (to celebrate), cf. L. inter-pret-
ari; Benfey, however, considers it to be a demonstrative derived
from pashta for spashta (evident) ; purddds'a (a cake made of rice
meal, oflFered to the gods) from ddtf (to make oblations). In these
two last examples the dental is influenced by r, although a vowel
intervenes, Biihler considers that a dental has become a cerebral
in the following cases through the influence of a succeeding r;
k'anda (flaming, passionate)for k'andraj (the moon, glowing); danda
(a stick) for dantra from dam (to coerce, tame), and tra (a suffix
signifying the instrument) ; metha (an elephant- driver) beside
mahdmdtra (id.).

Sh, when it is original or a substitute for k'h, g', «', ki, becomes
t, whenever it ends a word or precedes either the termination (-««)
of the loc. pL or hard consonants except t, th, and s : while before a
soft consonant it becomes d, and if d or dh immmediately follow,
then these become d or dh respectively. J Thus we have from the
stems dvish (hating), rd/ (a king), rtV (entering), vinhh (desirous
to enter) = viviks, prdk'h (asking), nis' (night), as nom. sing, dvit,
rdt, vit, vivit, prdt, nit; as instr. pi. dvidhhis, rddbhis, vidhhis,
vividbhis, prddbkis, nidbhis ; and as loc. pi. dvitsu, rdtsu, vitsu,
viviUu, prdtsu, nitsu. We have also such verbal forms as dviddhi
(2 sing, imper. Par.) from dvish (to hate), diddhvam (ye ruled) from
it (to rule), &c. We find one of the soft cerebrals formed in ac-
cordance with this rule sometimes rejected, and then a preceding a

* Bopp (" Gloss. Comp. Ling. Sanskr.," p. 238) suggests that p&ra may
come from para (alius).

t Bopp connects k'anda with Goth, fuita (I hate).

X There are some exceptions to this law ; from SL nirsh (enduring) wc
have mrk (nom. sing.) mrffbhit (instr. pi.), &c.

APPENDIX. 33i>

becomes o, and i or u becomes i or H. Thus sh6das'an (sixteen) =
shash (six) + das' an (ten), shddha (sixfold) = shask + dha, shodant (a
young ox with six teeth) = shash + dant. Nidha (a nest) = nishda -
ni + sada (what lies under) ; pid (to press) = pishd = apt + sad (to
sit upon). Again, n becomes n when preceded by sh under the same
conditions as when preceded by r,r or r, as has already been remarked.
Lastly, when sh immediately precedes a hard dental, it changes
it into the corresponding cerebral, as dveshtum (to hate, infin.),
dveshti (he hates), dvishtha (ye hate), dvishta (hated), ushtha (ye
desire) from vas\ ashtdu (eight) for as'tdu from an original ahtdu =
L. octo, shashtha (sixth), shashta (sixtieth), &c. In a few cases «
after a becomes sA, and then changes a following t or th into t or th,
thus from ava and stambh (to prop) we get avashtambha (relying on),
avasUabhnati (he supports himself), dshddha (the old name of a
month, partly June and partly July, or a staff carried in that month
by an ascetic), g'athara (the belly) for gastara beside Gr. f^aarrip.

J2"can also become a cerebral and change a neighbouring dental
into a cerebral : thus we have from St. Uh (licking) we have lit
(nom. sing.), lidbhis (instr. pi.), Utsu (loc. pi.) : from Uh (to lick)
we have ledhi (he licks), lidha (licked), lidhve (ye licked) ; from
ruh (to grow) we have rddhum (to grow, infin.) rudha (grown), &c.

Cerebrals also arise from the assimilative force of neighbouring
cerebrals, thus from id'* (to praise) we have itte (he praises) from
id + te, diddhvam (ye praised) from did + dhvam; ^aw^* (calculation)
from gan (to number) + ti, gan is a denominative derived probably
from gam (a multitude) connected with Lith. gand (satis), ganau
(pasco greges), according to Bopp, but it is better to treat gana as
for ga/rna from I. E. ga/r (to collect) when ar^elpw ; phdnta (easily

* According to Benfey, id is a denominative verb based on ish (to wish,
chose), and accordingly it is for isht = w + ^ ; compare Gr. lortjg, 'iftepoe (?) from
same root In the Vedas we find il for id, as in tvam .... martdsa ilate (te
homines celebrant) ; consult Bopp's " Skr. Gloss.," p. 48. It is possible that
il is the original form, and that id is derived from it, as we frequently find d re-
presenting I in the Romance languages, as in Sardinian pedde from L. pellis,
poddhige from L. pollex, casteddu from L. castellum, and Sicilian cavaddu from
L. eahallusy beddu from bellus, &c.

340 APPENDIX.

prepared) from phan (to produce easily) + ta; tad dayanam (this
flight) for tat d., tun dindimdn (these drums) for tun d., &c.

Finally, we find a great number of words where cerebrals have
arisen from dentals without any apparent reason, and of many of
which we still find side-forms in Vedic still preserving the original
dentals. Thus we have Vedic bhanati (he praises) beside Skr. bhan
(to speak), Biihler identifies bhan with (pwv-ew, but wrongly, as
(pwveu) is from (pwvrj = (pw + VI] and 0w = Skr. bhd ; pan and pan
(to praise), &c.

We may conclude then that cerebralisation is a phenomenon that
has arisen within the limits of the Sanskrit language, and that it is
not due to Dravidic influence. In the course of time this predilec-
tion for cerebrals grew rapidly stronger, till it produced the results
that manifest themselves so plainly in Prakrit*

In English the original dentals have all become cerebrals, as we see
from the transliteration of English words into the various languages
of India. Thus in Tamil isttar is written for Easter, kdrttu for
court, portt iox fort (initial /always becoming^ in Tamil), advdna
for advance, kalaktar for collector, testu for test, &c. In Telugu,
likewise, we have kalkataru for collector, ddktar for doctor, dgashtu
for August, &c. These examples completely prove that the English
pronounce t and d as cerebrals, and not as dentals. In other European
languages we likewise find cerebrals developed, as in schtehen, the
High German form of the classical German stehen. In schtehen,
however, Biihler believes that the sound of the t is not quite so
hollow as that of the Indian t, because the G. sch is not pronounced
so far back in the mouth as the Indian sh.

The German ^-sounds accordingly differ from the English ^sounds
in this, that the former are pure dentals, while the latter are pure
cerebrals or linguals.

* For further information on this subject, consult C. Lassen's most valuable
work " Institutiones Linguaj Pracriticae."

END OF VOL. L

ADDENDA ET COEKIGENDA.

Pa^e 12, line 20, for Inez, read /ilez.

84, 33,/or 131, read 110. seg.

86, 12, for bhugh, read bitag/i.

41, 23, 24, for datrnam, read datrnam.

48, 6, for mrs', read mrs'.

49, 33, omit A.

52, 26, for tubhpan, read tubhyam.

59, 25, omit Burrus (= flilppoj;).

63, a, for <<froj, (jTf-'p, read i^liog, lirip.

69, 1,/or ii, read id.

70, 14, after aspect, insert nnless the dangers of the sea are supposed to arise from

shoaLs.

73, 2, for ghrana, read ghrana.

125, 34, omit Consult Appendix B.

128, 24, for krs a, read irsa.

141, 24, for spies, read spiess.

143, 34, /or as, readjust as.

146, 24, omit only.

147, 6, for mefiai, read mefiat-

159, 6, 8, /or Zeud, read Zend.

163, — — 14, 22, omit in line 14, " Sestius beside SexHus, mistus beside mixlus ; lesceiUi for

sexcenti;" and insert these words in line 22, after " in."

- 179, 9,/or when, read whence.

186, il,omiti.

189, 17, omit §. 99.

190, 6, for qakfh-aH, read galCth-aU.

193, 24, omit §. 98.

195, 27, for drs, read di:s'.

198, — 10, for bharanta-s, read bharant-s.

199, 29, omit §. 103.

- 202, 24, for -a, read -a.

208, 36, for n'artaka-s, read na'rtaka-s.

218, 13, for bharati. read bharat-i.

219, 31, Insert runcdvat-su in the intermediate colomn.

220, 24, for anadcahs read anadvans.

226, 2, Z,for have become, read are.

227, 29, for krt, read krt.

229, 30, for tudatsi, read tudatsu.

232, 10, /or from, read by.

232, 22,/or irriiaau, read mtjaao).

240, 18, add, after oFap, " or rather oap = Skr. svatar (sister), men originally having to

marry their sisters."

243, 18, 19, for cmiguis, read congitcs.

244, • 29, for t, read r.

249, 29,/ar ij/uXaf, ^jivXaK, read pi/\uf, <pvXaK.

250, 8, /or iEclic, read Argive.

[^ 251* HZ 13 1 /"'■ 1° o-stems <r, read In o-stems the nominatival <r.

253, 4, for hasticapas, read hosticapas.

292, 10, ioxpitrn, Ttadpitrn.

- 295, 23, for avy'am, read avy-am.

- 305, 18, the reference belongs to peptimo, and not to proximo-.

- — 308, 24, 25, omit " for I. E. -an becomes -a in Greek."

- 320, 20, for nasturluim, read nasturtium.

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