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M DCCC XXVII.
. 31 1C2S
COMPENDIOUS
INTRODUCTIO
STUDY OF THE BIBLE
BY
S
THOMAS HARTWELL HORNE, M.A.
ILLUSTRATED WITH MAPS AND OTHER ENGRAVINGS.
BEING
an ANALYSIS of
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE CRITICAL STUDY AND KNOWLEDGE
OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES,"
IN FOUR VOLUMES, BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
LONDON:
PRINTED FOR THOMAS CADELL, STRAND
W. BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH;
AND RICHARD MILLIKEN, DUBLIN.
M DCCC XXVII.
London :
Printed by A. & R. Spottiswoode,
New- Street- Square.
PREFACE.
A he little Manual, now offered to the Public, has been
undertaken in consequence of requests long since com-
municated to the Author, and frequently repeated, that
he would prepare an Analysis or Abridgment of the
four octavo volumes of his larger " Introduction to the
Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scriptures ;"
as an assistant to the Studies of Gentlemen at the
Universities and other Seminaries of Theological Liter-
ature, as also of those individuals who may respectively
possess that work, and to whom such an auxiliary would
be acceptable. At the same time, the present volume
has been so arranged, as to form a Comprehensive
Guide to the Study of the Bible, adapted lo the use of
general readers : it will be found to contain,
I. A Summary of the Evidences of the Genuineness,
Inspiration, &c. of the Holy Scriptures, refuting the
most modern objections of Infidels ;
II. An Outline of the Literary History, and Inter-
pretation of the Bible ;
III. A Compendium of Biblical Geography and
Antiquities ; and
IV. Introductory Prefaces to the several Books of
Scripture.
a2
PREFACE.
In preparing this Manual for the press, the order of
the larger Introduction has generally been followed ;
the Parts and Books, into which it is divided, corre-
sponding with the volumes and parts of volumes in that
work. Those bibliographical, critical, and other details
only have been omitted, which either would not admit
of abridgment, or which would be uninteresting to the
generality of English readers. In lieu of the copious
Lists of Books on every department of Sacred Liter-
ature, which are dispersed through his larger work, the
Author has subjoined, in an Appendix, a Catalogue of
the most valuable books on the study of the Scriptures,
principally those which are most easily to be procured,
with their current prices, and accompanied with biblio-
graphical notices, particularly of such Expository and
Philological Treatises as have appeared since the
publication of the fifth edition of the Author's Jarger
Introduction. And he has also given a List of Select
Chapters of the Bible, forming an Epitome of the Old
and New Testaments, adapted to perusal in the family
or in private, together with chronological and other
Tables ; which he trusts, with the Divine blessing on
his labours, will contribute to facilitate the devout and
attentive reading of " the Holy Scriptures, which
alone are able to make us wise unto salvation,
through faith which is in Christ Jesus."
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION,
ETC. OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES.
' .PAGE
Chapter I. On the Necessity, &c. of a Divine Revelation - 1
Chapter II. On the Genuineness and Authenticity of the
Books of the Old and New Testament - -4
Sect. I. Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament ibid.
Sect. II. Genuineness and Authenticity of the New Test-
ament - - - - 7
Sect. III. On the Uncorrupted Preservation of the Books
of the Old and New Testament ~ - 9
Chapter III. On the Credibility of the Old and New Test-
aments - - - - 12
Sect. I. Direct Evidences of the Credibility of the Old and
New Testaments - ibid.
Sect. II. Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and
New Testaments, from Natural and Civil History - 17
§ 1. Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the
Credibility of the Old Testament - - ibid.
§ 2. Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of
the New Testament - - - - 23
§ 3. Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts re-
corded in the Scriptures, from antient Coins, Medals,
and Marbles - 26
Chapter IV. All the Books of the Old and New Testaments
are of Divine Authority, and their Authors are divinely
inspired - - - - - 29
Sect. I. Preliminary Considerations - - ibid.
Sect. II. The Miracles related in the Old and New Test-
aments are Proofs, that the Scriptures were given by In-
spiration of God - - - - 30
Sect. III. On Prophecy - - - 47
Class I. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in
particular - - - - 49
Class II. Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires
that were neighbouring to the Jews - - 53
Class III. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah - 54
A 3
VI CONTENTS.
PAGE
Class IV. Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles - 55
Refutation of various objections against Prophecy - 51
Chapter V. Internal Evidences of the Inspiration of the
Scriptures - - - - 60
Sect. I. The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts,
which are delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and
so perfectly holy, that the persons, who published them to
the World, must have derived them from a purer and more
exalted Source than their own Meditations - - ibid.
§ 1. A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal
Times - - - - - 61
§ 2. A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of
the Mosaic Dispensation - - - 62
§ 3. A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of
the Gospel Dispensation - - - 64
§ 4. On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrine
and Morality of the Bible - - - 67
Sect. II. The wonderful Harmony and intimate Connection
subsisting between all the Parts of Scripture are a further
Proof of its Authority and Divine Original - - 75
Sect. III. The Preservation of the Scriptures is a Proof of
their Truth and Divine Origin - - ibid.
Sect. IV. The Tendency of the Scriptures to promote the
present and eternal Happiness of Mankind constitutes
another unanswerable Proof of their Divine Inspiration - ibid.
Sect. V. The peculiar Advantages possessed by the Christian
Religion over all other Religions, a Demonstrative Evi-
dence of its Divine Origin and Authority - - 79
Sect. VI. Inability to answer all objections, no just cause
for rejecting the Scriptures. — Unbelievers in Divine Re-
velation more credulous than Christians - - 83
Chapter VI. Recapitulation. — Moral Qualifications for the
Study of the Scriptures - - - 84
PART II.
ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTER-
PRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES.
Book I. — on the literary history and criticism of the
SCRIPTURES.
PAGE
Chapter I. On the Original Languages of Scripture - 88
Sect. I. On the Hebrew Language - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Samaritan Pentateuch - - 91
Sect. III. On the Greek Language - - - 93
Sect. IV. On the Cognate or Kindred Languages - 95
CONTENTS. Vll
PAGE
Chapter II. On the Manuscripts of the Bible - - 96
Sect. I. On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament ibid.
Sect. II. On the Manuscripts of the Greek Scriptures - 100
§ 1. General Observations on Greek Manuscripts - ibid.
§ 2. Account of Greek Manuscripts containing the Old
and New Testaments - - 104
Chapter III. On Editions of the Old and New Testaments - 108
Chatter IV. On the Divisions and Marks of Distinction
occurring in the Old and New Testaments - - ibid.
Sect. I. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the
Old Testament - ibid.
Sect. II. Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in
the New Testament - - - - 111
Chapter V. On the Antient Versions of the Scriptures - 113
Sect. I. Of the Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases - - ibid.
Sect. II. Antient Greek Versions of the Old Testament - 115
Sect. III. Antient Oriental Versions of the New Testament 118
Sect. IV. Antient Western Versions of the Scriptures - 120
Sect. V. Use and Application of Antient Versions - - 122
Chapter VI. On the Modern Versions of the Scriptures - 123
Sect. I. On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New
Testaments - ibid.
Sect. II. Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe,
Asia, Africa, and America - - - 126
Chapter VII. On the Various Readings occurring in the Old
and New Testaments - - - - 134
Chapter VIII. On the Quotations from the Old Testament
in the New - - - 135
Chapter IX. On the Poetry of the Hebrews - - 143
Chapter X. On Harmonies of Scripture - - 148
Book II. — on the interpretation of scripture.
page
Chapter I. Subsidiary Means for ascertaining the Sense of
Scripture - - - - -151
Sect. I. Historical Circumstances - - - ibid.
Sect. II. Means of ascertaining the Sense of Scripture - 154
Sect. III. Analogy of Scripture or Parallel Passages - 161
Sect. IV. Of the Subject Matter and Context - - 165
Sect. V. Of the Scope - - - - 169
Sect. VI. Of the Analogy of Faith - - -171
Sect. VII. On Commentators - - - 175
Chapter II. On the Historical Interpretation of Scripture - 177
Chapter III. On the Interpretation of the Figurative Lan-
guage of Scripture - - - - 180
Vlll CONTENTS.
PAGE
Sect. I. General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes
and Figures - - _ 181
Sect. II. On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring
in Scripture - - - - 183
Sect. III. On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and
Allegories - - - - - 187
Sect. IV. On the Interpretation of Scripture Parables - 190
Sect. V. On Scripture Proverbs — Concluding Observations
on the Figurative Language of Scripture - - 1 93
Chapter IV. On the Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture - 196
Chapter V. On the Interpretation of Scripture Prophecies - 198
Chapter VI. On the Interpretation of Types - - 205
Chapter VII. On the Doctrinal Interpretation of the Scrip-
tures _____ 207
Chapter VIII. On the Interpretation of the Moral Parts of
Scripture . - - - - 212
Chapter IX. On the Interpretation of the Promises and
Threatenings of Scripture - - - 214
Chapter X. On the Practical Reading of Scripture - 217
PART III.
A COMPENDIUM OF BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND
ANTIQUITIES.
Book I. — a sketch of the geography of the holy land.
PAGE
Chapter I. Historical Geography of the Holy Land - 222
Chapter II. Physical Geography of the Holy Land - 243
Book II. — political antiquities cf the jews.
Chapter I. Different Forms of Government, from the Patri.
archal Times to the Babylonish Captivity - - 259
Chapter II. Political State of the Jews, after their Return
from the Babylonish Captivity, to the Subversion of their
Civil and Ecclesiastical Polity ---.-" 264
Chapter III. Courts of Judicature, Legal Proceedings, Cri-
minal Law, and Punishments of the Jews - - 270
Sect. I. Jewish Courts of Judicature and Legal Proceedings ibid.
Sect. II. Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treat-
ment of Prisoners - 273
Sect. III. On the Criminal Law of the Jews - - 275
Sect. IV. On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures 281
Chapter IV. Jewish and Roman Modes of computing Time,
mentioned in the Scriptures - 286
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
Chapter V. Of the Tributes and Taxes mentioned in the
Scriptures. — Contracts how made - - 291
Chapter VI. Of the Military Affairs of the Jews, and other
Nations mentioned in the Scriptures - - 293
Book III. — sacred antiquities of the jews and other
NATIONS MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.
PAGE
Chapter I. Of Sacred Places - 298
Sect. I. Of the Tabernacle - - - ibid.
Sect. II. Of the Temple - - - 302
Sect. III. Of the High Places, Proseuchee, or Oratories of
the Jews - - 308
Sect. IV. On the Synagogues of the Jews - - 309
Chapter II. Sacred Persons - - 312
Sect. I. Of the Jewish Church and its Members - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Ministers of the Temple and other Eccle-
siastical or Sacred Persons - 314
Chapter III. Sacred Things. — On the Sacrifices and other
Offerings of the Jews - - - 320
Chapter IV. Sacred Times and Seasons observed by the Jews 325
Chapter V. Sacred Obligations and Duties. — Of Oaths. —
Nature and Different Sorts of Vows - - 338
Chapter VI. On the Corruptions of Religion by the Jews - 337
Book IV. — domestic antiquities of the jews and other
NATIONS INCIDENTALLY MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.
PAGE
Chapter I. On the Dwellings of the Jews - - 343
Chapter II. On the Dress of the Jews - - 346
Chapter III. Marriage Customs of the Jews - - 348
Chapter IV. Birth, Education, &c. of Children - - 350
Chapter V. Condition of Slaves, and the Customs relating to
them, mentioned or alluded to in the New Testament - 351
Chapter VI. Domestic Customs and Usages of the Jews - 354
Chapter VII. On the Occupations, Arts, and Sciences of the
Jews _____ 357
Sect. I. Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews ' - 361
Chapter VIII. Allusions to the Theatres, Theatrical Per-
formances, and to the Grecian Games in the New Testament 369
Chapter IX. Jewish Mode of treating the Dead. — Funeral
Rites - - - - -371
CONTENTS.
PART IV.
ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE.
Book I. — analysis of the old testament-
PAGE
Chapter I. On the Pentateuch - 375
Sect. I. On the Book of Genesis - - - 376
Sect. II. On the Book of Exodus - ibid.
Sect. III. On the Book of Leviticus - - 377
Sect. IV. On the Book of Numbers - - - 378
Sect. V. On the Book of Deuteronomy - - 379
Chapter II. On the Historical Books - 380
Sect. I. On the Book of Joshua - - -381
Sect. II. On the Book of Judges - - -ibid.
Sect. III. On the Book of Ruth - - - 382
Sect. IV. On the Two Books of Samuel - - ibid.
Sect. V. On the Two Books of Kings - - 384
Sect. VI. On the Two Books of Chronicles - - 386
Sect. VII. On the Book of Ezra - - - 387
Sect. VIII. On the Book of Nehemiah - - 388
Sect. IX. On the Book of Esther - - 389
Chapter III. On the Poetical Books - - 390
Sect. I. On the Book of Job - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Book of Psalms - - 392
Sect. III. On the Book of Proverbs - • 393
Sect. IV. On the Book of Ecclesiastes - - 395
Sect. V. On the Song of Solomon - 396
Chapter IV. General Observations on the Prophets and
their Writings - - - - 397
Chapter V. On the Prophets who flourished before the Ba-
bylonian Captivity - - - 400
Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Jonah - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Amos - - 401
Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Hosea - - 402
Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah - -403
Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Joel - - 405
Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Micah - - 406
Sect. VII. On the Book of the Prophet Nahum - 407
Sect. VIII. On the Book of the Prophet Zephaniah - 408
Chapter VI. Of the Prophets who flourished near to and
during the Babylonian Captivity - ibid.
Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Lamentations of Jeremiah - -410
Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Habakkuk - ibid.
Sect. IV. On the Book of the Prophet Daniel - - 411
CONTENTS. XI
PAGE
Sect. V. On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah - ' -412
Sect. VI. On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel - - 413
Chapter VII. On the Prophets who flourished after the return
of the Jews from Babylon - - - - 414
Sect. I. On the Book of the Prophet Haggai - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah - 415
Sect. III. On the Book of the Prophet Malachi - - 416
Chapter VIII. On the Apocrypha - - - 417
Book II. — analysis of the new testament.
PAGE
Chapter I. On the Historical Books of the New Testament - 423
Sect. I. On the Name and Number of the Canonical
Gospels - ibid.
Sect. II. On the Gospel by Saint Matthew - - 424
Sect. III. On the Gospel by Saint Mark - - 426
Sect. IV. On the Gospel by Saint Luke - - 427
Sect. V. On the Gospel by Saint John - 428
Sect. VI. On the Acts of the Apostles - - 431
Chapter II. On the Epistolary or Doctrinal Writings of the
New Testament, particularly those of Saint Paul - - 432
Sect. I. A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of
the Epistolary Writings of the New Testament - - 432
Sect. II. On the Epistle to the Romans - - 437
Sect. III. On the First Epistle to the Corinthians - 439
Sect. IV. On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians - 440
Sect. V- On the Epistle to the Galatians - - 441
Sect. VI. On the Epistle to .the Ephesians - - 442
Sect. VII. On the Epistle to the Philippians - - 443
Sect. VIII. On the Epistle to the Colossians - -ibid.
Sect. IX. On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians - 444
Sect. X. On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians - 445
Sect. XI. On the First Epistle to Timothy - - 446
Sect. XII. On the Second Epistle to Timothy - -448
Sect. XIII. On the Epistle to Titus - - -449
Sect. XIV. On the Epistle to Philemon - - 450
Sect. XV. On the Epistle to the Hebrews - - 451
Chapter III. On the Catholic Epistles - - 453
Sect. I. On the Genuineness and Authenticity of the Catho-
lic Epistles - - - - ibid.
Sect. II. On the General Epistle of James - - ibid.
Sect. III. On the first General Epistle of Peter - - 455
Sect. IV. On the second General Epistle of Peter - - 457
Sect. V. On the first General Epistle of Saint John - 458
Sect. VI. On the Second and third Epistles of Saint John 460
Sect. VII. On the General Epistle of Saint Jude - - 461
Chapter IV. On the Revelation of Saint John the Divine - 463
Xli CONTENTS.
APPENDIX.
PAGE
No. I. Tables of Weights, Measures, and Money, men-
tioned in the Bible - - - 467
II. A Table of the Order and Dates of the Books of the
New Testament - - - 469
III. A Table of the Psalms, classed according to their
several Subjects, and adapted to the Purposes of
Private Devotion - 470
IV. A Table or List of Select Chapters of the Holy
Scriptures, forming an Epitome of the Bible, and
adapted to Family or Private Reading - - 471
V. A Select List of the most useful Books for facilitat-
ing the Study of the Scriptures, with Bibliographical
Notices, and their current Prices - - 483
VI. A concise Chronological Table of the Principal Epochs
mentioned in the Old and New Testaments - .512
Index - 517
LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.
I. A Map of Palestine or the Holy Land, with the Divisions
into Tribes — to face the Title Page.
II. A Map of Judaea, adapted to the Gospel History — to face
page 228.
III. A Map of the Travels of the Apostles — to face page 432.
IV. Vignette of the Grotto at Nazareth, said to have been the
House of Joseph and Mary — inserted in page 222.
V. Vignette, representing Mount Tabor, as seen from the
Plain of Esdraelon — inserted in page 243.
VI. Vignette, representing a Coin, struck by order of Titus, to
commemorate the Destruction of Jerusalem (from the
original in the Cabinet of the British Museum) — inserted
in page 241.
VII. Vignette, representing the Golden Candlestick, used in the
second Temple, from the Triumphal Arch of Titus, at
Rome — inserted in page 302.
VIII. Vignette, representing the Table of Shew-bread, from the
Triumphal Arch of Titus — inserted in page 307.
IX* Vignette, representing a Synagogue-Roll of the Pen-
tateuch (drawn from the original in the British Museum)
inserted in page 309. and also in the Title- Page.
A COMPENDIOUS
INTRODUCTION
TO
THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE,
ETC. ETC.
PART I.
ON THE GENUINENESS, AUTHENTICITY, INSPIRATION,
ETC. OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES.
Chapter I.
ON THE NECESSITY, ETC. OF A DIVINE REVELATION.
I. Revelation defined.
Revelation is a discovery by God to man of Himself
or of His will, over and above what He has made
known by the light of nature, or reason.
II. A Divine Revelation possible.
No one, who believes that there is a God, of infinite
wisdom, power, and knowledge, can reasonably deny
the possibility of His making a revelation of Him-
self, and of his will to men, in an extraordinary way,
different from the discoveries made by men themselves,
in the mere natural and ordinary use of their own
powers. To admit the existence of a God, and to
deny him such a power, is a glaring contradiction.
Though we cannot explain in what manner ideas ori-
ginate, or are impressed upon the human mind ; yet,
since we know that this is effected in various ways,
it is reasonable to suppose that God can act upon
B
2 NECESSITY OF A
it, in order to impart to us the knowledge of his will.
And, if so, he can do it in such a manner as to give
those, to whom such revelation is made, an assurance
that it proceeds from himself.
III. The Probability of such Revelation appears
from the two following arguments :
1. From the general sense of mankind in every age,
who believed that divine revelations were probable ;
and from the credit given to pretended revelations,
thus evincing a consciousness of their own ignorance,
and the need of a supernatural illumination.
2. From the confession of some of the wisest philo-
sophers, that they stood in need of such a revelation,
and the hope they expressed that God would at some
future time vouchsafe to make one.
IV. Divine Revelation is not only possible and
probable, but necessary :
1. From the utter inability of mere human reason
to attain any certain knowledge of the will or law of
God, of the true happiness of man, or of a future state,
as is evident from the endless differences and incon-
sistences, which prevailed among the most celebrated
antient philosophers, some of whom taught immoral
doctrines, while the influence of all was very incon-
siderable, both in rectifying the notions, and in re-
forming the lives of mankind. Thus
(1.) Their ideas respecting the Nature and Worship of God
were dark, confused, and imperfect.
(2.) They were ignorant of the true account of the Creation
of the World. Also,
(3.) Of the Origin of Evil, and the cause of the depravity
and misery which actually exist among mankind,
(4.) Of any Method by which a Reconciliation could be ef-
fected between God and man.
(5 ) Of Divine Grace and Assistance towards our attainment
of Virtue and perseverance in it.
DIVINE REVELATION. 3
(6.) They had only dark and confused notions of the Sum-
mum Bonum or Supreme Felicity of man :
(7.) They had weak and imperfect notions concerning the
Immortality of the Soul; and also concerning
(8.) The Certainty of the Eternal Rewards and Punish-
ments of a Future State, and the Resurrection of the Body.
2. From the defective instructions of the best of the
philosophers, which, moreover, were unsuited to the
common people, and which they wanted authority to
enforce in practice.
3. From the gross ignorance and idolatry universally
prevalent among unenlightened heathen nations.
V. Refutation of the Objection that Philosophy
and Right Reason are sufficient to instruct men in their
duty.
Answer 1. It is a fact, that the doctrines of Christ have had
a more powerful influence upon men, than all the reasonings
of philosophers : and though modern opposers of Revelation
ascribe the ignorance and corruption of the heathen, not to the
insufficiency of the light of reason, but to their non-improve-
ment of that light; yet, if this were true, it would not
prove that there is no need of a revelation, because it is
certain that the philosophers wanted some higher assistance
than that of reason.
2. Notwithstanding the pretences of modern deists to su-
perior wisdom, it is a fact that they have borrowed almost all
their wise and true observations from divine revelation. It is
one thing to perceive that the rules of life, which are laid be-
fore us, are agreeable to reason, and another thing to discover
them by the mere light of reason.
5. Besides, the speculations of modern deists concerning
religion are so glaringly contradictory, and their ethical pre-
cepts are so utterly subversive of every principle of morality,
as to demonstrate the necessity of a divine revelation now, in
order to lead mankind to the knowledge of God, and of their
duty to one another.
b 2
4 GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY
VI. Possible Means of affording a Revelation.
There appear to be only two ways of doing this, viz.
1 . An immediate Revelation to each individual ; or, 2. A
Commission given by God to certain persons to make
known his will, accompanied with indisputable creden-
tials of their being delegated by him. The former
method would be ineffectual : for either the freedom of
the will must be destroyed, or else it would fill the
world with continual impostures and pretences to reve-
lation. The latter method, therefore, is the most eli-
gible and satisfactory ; and writing was the best means
of transmitting such a revelation, on account of
1. The uncertainty and insecurity of oral tradition.
2. The greater security and permanence of writing.
3. The fairness and openness, which is the result of
writing.
4. The importance of the matter, the variety of the
subjects, and the design of the institutions contained
in the books, which Jews and Christians receive as con-
taining a divine revelation.
Chapter II.
ON THE GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY OF THE BOOKS OP THE
OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT.
Section I. — Genuineness and Authenticity of the Old Testament.
I. Genuineness and Authenticity defined. — A Ge-
nuine Book is one, that is written by the person whose
name it bears. — An Authentic Booh is one, in which
matters of fact are related, as they really happened.
There are two classes of proof; 1. Historical Testi-
mony or External Evidence ; and 2. Internal Evidence
arising from an examination of the books themselves.
OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 5
II. External Evidence.
1 . The persons, contemporary with any Hebrew writer
whose books they transcribed, knew by whom they
were written ; and, having a certain knowledge of the
author and of the age in which he lived, delivered
them to their descendants, and these again to their
posterity.
2. The small number of books, extant at the time
when the books of the Old Testament were written,
would render fraud impossible.
3. The Hebrews or Jews, by testifying that these
books are genuine, become witnesses against them-
selves, and their testimony consequently is unexcep-
tionable.
4. A particular tribe was consecrated for the ex-
press purpose of watching over the preservation of
these books.
5. The testimony of the antient Jews, of which we
have an unbroken chain ; and the fact that the Greek
version of the Old Testament, usually called the Sep-
tuagint, was executed at Alexandria two hundred and
eighty-two years before the Christian aera.
III. Internal Evidence.
Arc 1. The difference in language, style, and man-
ner of writing, proves that the Books of the Old Testa-
ment must have been written at various times and by
different persons. As Hebrew ceased to be spoken as
a living language soon after the Babylonish captivity,
all those books must be nearly as antient as that capti-
vity : and as they could not all be written in the
same age, some must be considerably more antient.
Arg. 2. The multitude of minutely particular cir-
cumstances of time, place, persons, &c. mentioned in
the books of the Old Testament is a further argument
both of their genuineness and authenticity ; because
b 3
6 GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY
no forger of false accounts superabounds in such pecu-
liarities, or could furnish them ; and because such for-
geries or falsehoods could be easily detected and
exposed.
IV. Proofs of the Genuineness and Authenticity of
the Pentateuch in particular.
This is manifest,
1. From the Language in which it is written, the
simplicity and archaisms of which prove it to be the
earliest of all the Hebrew sacred books.
2. From the Nature of the Mosaic Law, as contained
in the four last books of Moses.
These books contain a system of ceremonial and moral laws;
which, unless we reject the authority of all history, were ob-
served by the Israelites, from their departure out of Egypt until
their dispersion at the taking of Jerusalem. Their civil and
religious polity are so inseparably connected, and many of
their institutions are so connected with historical facts, as to
render forgery impossible.
3. From the United Historical Testimony of Jews
and Gentiles.
[i.] Jewish Testimony : — Jesus Christ, Ezra, Daniel, Solo-
mon, David, Moses, and others; to which is to be added the
fact, that the law of Moses was received by both Jews and
Samaritans before they became divided into two kingdoms.
[ii.] Gentile Testimony: — Manetho, Eupolemus, Artapanus,
Tacitus, Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Justin the abbreviator of
Trogus, Juvenal, and many other writers, testify that Moses
was the leader of the Jews, and the founder of their laws.
The great critic Longinus, and Numenius, a Pythagorean
philosopher of Apamea, in Syria, both speak highly of Moses :
and Porphyry admitted the genuineness of the Pentateuch.
The Egyptian, Greek, and Roman authors concur in relating
the tradition respecting the creation, the fall of man, the de-
luge, and the dispersion of mankind.
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 7
4. From the contents of the Pentateuch.
The frequent genealogies prove that it was composed
by a writer of very early date, and from original
materials.
The geographical details of places bespeak a writer
personally present at the transactions recorded.
The frequent repetitions, which occur in the Pen-
tateuch, and the neglect of order in delivering the
precepts, are strong proofs, that it has come down to
us precisely as it was written by Moses ; to which
may be added coincidences, so minute, latent, indi-
rect, and undesigned, that they could only have been
produced by reality and truth influencing the mind
and the pen of the legislator.
Section II. — Genuineness and Authenticity of the New
Testament.
I. General Title of the New Testament.
Every thing we know concerning the belief, worship,
manners, and discipline of the first Christians, corre-
sponds with the contents of the books of the New
Testament now extant, and which therefore are most
certainly the primitive instructions which they received.
The collection of these books is known by the appel-
lation of the New Testament or New Covenant, (be-
cause it contains the terms of the new covenant, upon
which God is pleased to offer salvation through the
mediation of Jesus Christ ;) in opposition to the doc-
trines, precepts, and promises of the Mosaic dispens-
ation, which Saint Paul terms the Old Covenant.
II. Canon of the New Testament.
The records, thus collectively termed the New Testa-
ment,consist of twenty-seven books, composed on various
occasions, and at different times and places, by eight dif-
b 4
8 GENUINENESS AND AUTHENTICITY
ferent authors contemporary with Jesus Christ, whose
history they either relate, together with the first pro-
pagation of his religion, or unfold the doctrines, prin-
ciples, and precepts of Christianity.
III. The Genuineness and Authenticity of the
New Testament are proved, not only from arguments
which demonstrate that it is not spurious, but also
from positive evidence arising from the impossibility of
forgery, and from direct external or historical evidence.
Of all the grounds, that either have been or may be
assigned for denying a work to be genuine, not one
can justly be applied to the New Testament : for
1. No one doubted of its genuineness and authen-
ticity when it first appeared.
2. No antient accounts are on record, whence we
may conclude it to be spurious.
3. No considerable period of time elapsed after the
death of the Apostles, in which the New Testament
was unknown. On the contrary, it is mentioned not
only by their contemporaries, but also by succeeding
writers.
4. No arguments can be brought in its disfavour
from the nature of its style, which is exactly such as
might be expected from the writers of its several books.
5. No facts are recorded, which happened after the
death of the apostles.
6. No doctrines or precepts are maintained, which
contradict their known tenets.
IV. Positive Evidence :
1. The absolute impossibility of forgery arising from
the nature of the thing itself; because it is impossible
to establish forged writings as authentic where there
are persons strongly inclined and qualified to detect
fraud, as was the case both with Jews and Gentiles*
2. External or Historical Evidence.
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 0
[i.] The Books of the New Testament are quoted or alluded
to, times innumerable, by a series of Christian writers as well
as by adversaries of the Christian faith, who may be traced
back in regular succession from the present time to the apos-
tolic age.
[ii.] The Antient Versions of the New Testament are another
important evidence for its genuineness and authenticity, as well
as of its antiquity ; some of them (as the Syriac and several
Latin versions) being made so early as the close of the first,
or at the beginning of the second century.
3. Internal Evidence of the Genuineness and Authen-
ticity of the New Testament.
[i.] The Character of the Writers of the New Testament : —
They are said to have been Jews by birth, and of the Jewish
religion, and immediate witnesses of the events which they
have recorded. And every page of their writings corresponds
with their actual character.
pi.] The Language and Style. — The Language is Greek, which
was a kind of universal language, just as the French now is :
but it is Hebrew-Greek, i. e. Greek intermixed with many
peculiarities from the native dialect of the Jews of Palestine,
and consequently such as we might expect from the persons, to
whom the several parts of the New Testament are ascribed.
The Style or manner of writing, too, is such as shows that its
authors were born and educated in the Jewish religion.
[iii.] The Circumstantiality of the narrative, and the coinci-
dence of the accounts delivered in the New Testament with
the history of those times, are also an indisputable internal
evidence of its authenticity.
Section III. — On the Uncorrupted Preservation of the Books of
the Old and New Testament.
I. The Uncorrupted Preservation of the Old Testa-
ment is proved from the impossibility of its being cor-
rupted : for
1. There is no proof or vestige whatever of any
b 5
10 UNCORRUPTED PRESERVATION OF
pretended alteration : if the Jews had wilfully cor-
rupted the books of the Old Testament before the time
of Christ and his apostles, the prophets would not have
passed such an heinous offence in silence : and, if they
had been corrupted in the time of Christ and his
apostles, these would not have failed to censure the
Jews. If they had been mutilated or corrupted after
the time of Christ, the Jews would unquestionably
have expunged or falsified the prophecies concerning
Christ, which were cited by him and by his apostles.
2. In fact, neither before nor after the time of Christ
could the Jews corrupt the Hebrew Scriptures ; for,
before that event, any forgery or material corruption
would be rendered impossible by the reverence paid
to these books by the Jews themselves, the publicity
given to their contents by the reading of the law in
public and in private, and by the jealousies subsisting
between the Jews and Samaritans, and between the dif-
ferent sects into which the Jews were divided. And
since the birth of Christ, the Jews and Christians have
been a mutual guard and check upon each other.
3. The Agreement of all the Manuscripts.
II. The integrity and uncorruptness of the books of
the New Testament is manifest,
1. From their contents : for, so early as the two first
centuries the very same facts and doctrines were uni-
versally received by the Christians, which we at this
time believe on the credit of the New Testament.
2. Because an universal corruption of those writings
was both impossible and impracticable, in consequence
of the early dispersion of copies, which were multiplied
and disseminated, either in the original Greek or in
translations as rapidly as the boundaries of the church
increased, and also of the effectual check interposed
bythe various sects that existed in the Christian church.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 11
3. From the agreement of all the manuscripts, the
various readings in which are not only of so little mo-
ment, as not to affect any article of faith or practice ;
but they also prove that the books of the New Testa-
ment exist at present in all essential points, precisely
the same as they were, when they left the hands of
their authors.
4. From the agreement of the antient versions of
these books, and the quotations made from them in the
writings of the Christians of the three first centuries
and in those of the succeeding fathers of the church.
III. That no canonical books of Scripture have been
lost, may be proved by the following considerations,
viz.
1. The ordinary conduct of Divine Providence, and
the care which the Divine Being has in all ages taken
to preserve these books.
2. The zeal of the faithful to preserve their sacred
books.
3. The dispersion of these books into the most distant
countries and into the hands of innumerable persons.
IV. With regard to the Old Testament, more par-
ticularly, we may conclude, that, if any books seem to
be wanting in our present canon, they are either such
as are still remaining in the Scriptures, unobserved,
under other appellations ; or they are such as never
were accounted canonical, and contained no points
essential to the salvation of man. Consequently they
are such of which we may safely remain ignorant here,
and for which we shall never be responsible hereafter.
V. The same observation applies with equal force
to the Books of the New Testament ; in which some
learned men have imagined that they have discovered
allusions to writings no longer extant; but, on examin-
b 6
12 ON THE CREDIBILITY OF
ation, their conjectures prove to be destitute of found-
ation. Thus the expression "Eypa^a / have written, in
1 Cor. v. 9., (which has given rise to a supposition that
St. Paul had already written an epistle to the Corin-
thian Church, that is no longer extant,) may probably
be put for Ypapu I write ; there being nearly one hun-
dred instances in the New Testament, in which the past
tense is put for the present. — So also, the expression
v) 'Etfts-oXvj ev. AaohUtiocs — the Epistle from Laodicea (Col.
iv. 16.), which seems to intimate that the same apostle
had previously written an epistle to the church at
Laodicea, is in all probability that which is called the
Epistle to the Ephesians, Laodicea being within the
circuit of the Ephesian Church.
Chapter III.
ON THE CREDIBILITY OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.
Section I. — Direct Evidences of the Credibility of the Old and
New Testaments.
I. The Writers of the Books of the Old and New
Testaments had a perfect knowledge of the subjects
which they relate : and their moral character, though
rigidly tried, was never impeached by their keenest op-
ponents.
II. If there had been any falsehood in the accounts
of such transactions as were public and generally
known, it could (and doubtless would) have been easily
detected : for these accounts were published among
the people, who witnessed the events related by the
historians. But this was not the case with the writings,
either of Moses and the Prophets or of the Evangelists.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 13
1. It is impossible that Moses could have asserted
falsehoods in his writings : for
[i.] If he had been an impostor, it is utterly incredible that
he could have given to men so perfect and holy a law as he
did.
[ii.] As Moses had been educated in all the learning of the
Egyptians, and was not of a rash, credulous, or superstitious
temper, he could not possibly have been himself deceived.
[iii.] It is absolutely incredible that he should or could have
imposed on the Israelites, as true, things that were notoriously
false, and of the falsehood of which they could convict him :
for he relates facts and events which had taken place in the
presence of six hundred thousand men ; and urges the reality
and truth of those facts upon them, as motives to believe and
obey the new religion which he had introduced among them.
[iv.] We cannot conceive for what end or with what view
Moses could have invented all these things. He sought nei-
ther riches nor honours for himself t and he left neither offices
of honour nor emoluments to his children. He did not write
to flatter his nation, nor did he conceal his own failings, or at-
tempt to palliate or excuse the errors or sins of his country-
men.
These observations are equally applicable to the
writers who succeeded Moses.
2. The credibility of the Writers of the Books of
the New Testament is established on evidence equally
conclusive with that adduced for the Old Testament.
For
(1.) The actions ascribed to Jesus Christ in the
New Testament are of such a description, that they
could not possibly have been recorded, if they had not
been true. Plain and unlettered Jews, as the apostles
were, though adequate to the office of recording what
they had seen and heard, were incapable of fabricating
a series of actions, which constituted the most exalted
character that ever lived upon earth. It is, indeed,
14 ON THE CREDIBILITY OF
highly probable, that the apostles and evangelists were
not wholly aware of that perfection which they them-
selves have described : for it is not contained in any
formal panegyric, but is known only by comparison
and inference. Whence it follows, that the actions
which are ascribed to Jesus Christ, either are truly as-
cribed to him, or they have been invented for a pur-
pose, of which the inventors themselves were probably
not aware, viz. the delineating of a model of perfec-
tion ; and applied to that purpose by means which the
inventors did not possess. And when we further con-
sider that the plan, developed by those facts, was in
direct opposition to the notion and expectation of the
Jews respecting a temporal Messiah, it is impossible to
believe that the apostles could have invented them.
(2.) The apostles could not be deceived in the facts
which they have recorded ; because,
[i.] They were competent witnesses of the facts which they
attested : and their testimony respected facts which they had
themselves witnessed with their eyes and with their ears. (See
1 John i. 1 — 5., and 2 Peter i. 16.) They had lived with Jesus
Christ during his ministry; they had heard his discourses;
they had seen his wonderful works, and consequently received
them on the testimony of their own senses. They had all the
same knowledge and in the same degree, and they all agree in
the same essential testimony.
[ii.] They were neither enthusiasts nor fanatics.
They were not enthusiasts : for they became Christ's disci-
ples, not upon internal persuasion alone, but upon rational
conviction, arising from proofs submitted alike to the judgment
of their minds and to the evidence of their senses, which enthu-
siasm could not have counterfeited, and would never have
required : and, at every step of their progress, as their faith was
called to signalise itself by new exertions, or to sustain new
trials, it was fortified by new proofs. Their slowness and cau-
tion in giving credit to miraculous operations, particularly the
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 15
account of their Master's resurrection from the dead, exempt
them from all suspicion of being the dupes of delusion and
credulity. Throughout their writings the utmost impartiality,
sobriety, and modesty prevail ; and, contrary to the practice
of enthusiasts, they record their own mistakes, follies, and
faults.
Neither were they fanatics. — This is evinced by the style
of the New Testament, which is the very reverse of fanaticism,
which is always obscure, arrogant, and violent. Though they
insist on the necessity of receiving and believing the Christian
system, yet they equally condemn all spirit of persecution and
all religious indifference.
(3.) As they could not be deceived themselves, so
they neither would nor did deceive others..
The whole tenor of their lives proved (what their adver-
saries confessed) that they were men of piety and integrity.
If the evangelists and apostles had confederated to impose upon
mankind, it is incredible that none of their associates should
not have confessed the fraud. They had nothing to gain by
obtruding falsehoods; but, on the contrary, they were exposed
to the loss of every thing, even of life itself, for preaching the
doctrine of the cross, and bearing witness to the truth of
Christianity. It is also utterly incredible, that so many precepts
of piety and virtue should have been delivered by men of such
abandoned principles as they must have been, had they really
been impostors. Still less is it to be credited on that supposi-
tion, that they performed miracles, (the reality of which was
acknowledged by their enemies,) in confirmation of their doc-
trine. Lastly, if the apostles and evangelists had designed to
impose upon mankind, they would have accommodated them-
selves to the humours of the people whom they addressed;
and would carefully have avoided whatever might shock or
offend them : whereas they acted in quite a different manner.
(4.) On the contrary, they were men of the strictest
integrity and sincerity.
This is evident from the style and manner of their writings,
which are characterised by the most rigid impartiality and fide-
16 ON THE CREDIBILITY OF
lity. There is in them no preparation of events ; there are
- no artful transitions or connections j no set characters or per-
sons to be introduced ; no reflections on past transactions or
the authors of them ; no excuses or apologies for what might
probably disturb their readers ; no specious artifices, no plau-
sible arguments to set off a doubtful action, and to reconcile it
to some other, or to the character of the person who did it.
They do not dissemble certain circumstances in the life and
sufferings of their Master, which have no tendency to advance
his glory in the eyes of the world. They announce the miracles
of Jesus Christ, with the same dispassionate coolness, as if
they had been common transactions, saying nothing previously
to raise expectation, nor, after the recital, breaking out into
exclamations.
The same striking integrity marks the conduct of the evan-
gelists, when speaking of their enemies, and also when they
are relating any circumstances respecting themselves. Their
enemies are barely mentioned, without censure and without
resentment; while they record the meanness of their own
stations, the inveteracy of their prejudices, the weakness of
their faith, their ambition, and on certain occasions their secular
views.
(5.) They appealed to miracles and other notorious
proofs, in such a manner, that, if they had conspired
to impose falsehoods upon the world, they might have
been easily detected and confuted. And
(6.) Lastly, they suffered every thing for the truth
of their narration, even death itself, and brought many
of their contemporaries, (among whom were persons of
eminent rank and acquirements,) to a conviction of its
truth.
III. The Credibility of the Old and New Testaments
is further attested, by the principal facts contained in
them being confirmed by certain commemorative or-
dinances, or monuments of great celebrity, that existed
among Jews and Christians from the very time when
the events took place, which they are said to com-
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 17
memorate, and which subsist to the present day in every
country where either Jews or Christians are to be found.
For instance,
[i.] Among the Jews there are the ordinance of Circum-
cision and the feasts of the Passover, of Tabernacles, and of
Pentecost.
[ii.] In like manner, among Christians, the sacraments of
Baptism and of the Lord's Supper, and the festival observed
on the first day of the week, in honour of Christ's resurrection
from the dead.
IV. The wonderful establishment and propagation
of Christianity is a most convincing proof of the entire
credibility of the New Testament, and of the religion
which it establishes. It prevailed without the assist-
ance of any temporal power, and it triumphed over
all opposition.
In considering all these direct evidences of the credi-
bility of the writers of the New Testament, it is of im-
portance to observe, that there is no opposite testimony
to contradict the positive credible testimony of the
apostles, evangelists, and multitudes of other persons,
to the history and miracles of Jesus. Those persons,
therefore, who reject the Gospel, are compelled to main-
tain, in opposition to positive credible testimony, that
the most extensive and important events have taken
place, without any adequate cause.
Section II. — Testimonies to the Credibility of the Old and New
Testaments, from Natural and Civil History.
§ 1. Testimonies from Natural and Civil History to the Credibility
of the Old Testament.
I. Testimonies to the Mosaic Account of the Creation
of the World.
1. The heathens had a tradition concerning the primeval
chaos and the production of all things by the Supreme Mind.
18 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF
This applies particularly to the Chaldaean, Egyptian, Phoeni-
cian, Hindoo, Chinese, Etruscan, Gothic, Greek, and American
Cosmogonies.
2. The division of time into iveehs has prevailed among the
Hebrews, Egyptians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans and northern
barbarians.
5. Even the Mosaic method of reckoning by nights, instead
of days, has prevailed in more than one nation.
II. The Formation of Man in the Moral Image of
God, and his State in Paradise.
These were the origin of the fabled golden age, which is
described by the poets ; and may also be distinctly traced in the
legends of our Scythian forefathers, and in the age of perfec-
tion of the Hindoos. In the classical story of the garden of
the Hesperides, we may equally discover a tradition of the
Mosaical Paradise, and of the promised Saviour who should
bruise the head of the infernal dragon.
III. The Fall of Man and the Introduction of Sin into
the World.
The Mosaic Narrative of these events agrees in the most
striking manner, both with the obvious facts of labour, sorrow,
pain, and death. Whatever some may assert to the contrary,
and however they may attempt to explain away that narrative,
or attempt to prove it false ; yet the evidently ruined condi-
tion of the human race would still remain as an undeniable
fact : and the Mosaic Account of the fall is confirmed by
various historical traditions. Thus,
1. From the Fall of the Angels, in all probability, origin-
ated the tradition of the Titans, and giants invading heaven.
2. The Disobedience of Eve is plainly alluded to in the le-
gend of Pandora.
o. The Corruption and Depravation of Human Nature are
frequent subjects of complaint among the antient heathen
moralists, philosophers, and poets.
4. The form, assumed by the Tempter, has been handed
down in the traditions of the most antient nations, particularly
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 19
the Persians, Hindoos, Greeks, Egyptians, and Scythians, or
Goths.
5. A Conviction of the necessity of an Atonement for sin
has universally prevailed, together with the practice of devot-
ing piacular victims.
IV. The Translation of Enoch
May be traced in the Grecian fables of the translation of
their heroes and demi-gods, particularly of Hesperus and As-
trgea; and in the translation of Dhruva among the Hindoos;
of Buddha among the Ceylonese, and of Xaca among the
Calmucks of Siberia.
V. The Longevity of the Antediluvians
Is confirmed by various heathen writers, mentioned by
Josephus : (Ant. Jud. lib. i. c. 5.) and the Mosaic account
of Men of a Gigantic Stature is confirmed by the Greek and
Roman poets and historians, particularly Pausanias, Philo-
stratus, and Pliny.
VI. The Fact of the Deluge is most completely attested
both by Natural and Civil History*
1. Testimonies from Natural History.
The Mosaic narrative of the Deluge is confirmed by the fos-
silised remains of animals belonging to a former world, which
are found in every quarter of the globe, frequently on the
summits of themostlofty mountains: and it is worthy of re-
mark, that the remains of animals, belonging to one part of the
globe, are often found in another part very distant. Further,
the deep southern indentations on the different continents of
the terraqueous globe, and the bold projecting capes on the
north, corroborate the account of the ark drifting northwards.
2. Testimonies from Civil History.
[i.] The paucity of mankind, and the vast tracts of
uninhabited land, mentioned in the accounts of the first
ages.
20 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF
[ii.] The late invention and progress of arts and
sciences.
The fabulous nature of early history shows how little credit
is due to the pretences to antiquity, made by the several na-
tions among the heathens : — pretences, which have no sup-
port whatever from authentic history, but are grounded only
on the uncertain calculations of astronomy, in which science
they actually had but little or no skill.
[iii.] The universal tradition of this event, which has
obtained among mankind in all ages.
The Chaldaeans, Phoenicians, Assyrians, Greeks, Romans,
Goths, and Druids, the Persians, Hindoos, Burmese, Chinese,
Mexicans, Peruvians, Brazilians, Nicaraguans, the inhabitants
of Western Caledonia, the Otaheitans, and Sandwich Islanders,
all bear testimony to this fact. The deluge is also mentioned
by Berosus, Hieronymus the Egyptian, and Nicolaus of Da-
mascus, according to Josephus ; and by Alexander Polyhistor,
Plato, Diodorus Siculus, and Lucian. It is most evidently al-
luded to in Ovid's description of Deucalion's flood, and Plu-
tarch relates the same particulars of a dove sent out by Deu-
calion, as Moses records of the dove sent out by Noah.
Notwithstanding all these testimonies, the Mosaic
narrative of the deluge has been objected to, as an im-
probable event contrary to matter of fact.
Objection 1. — The Ark could not contain all the
animals which are said to have entered it.
Answer. — The contrary has been satisfactorily demon-
strated. Reckoning the cubit at eighteen inches, Dr. Hales
has proved that the Ark was of the burthen of 42,415 tons.
(Analysis of Chronology, vol.i. p. 328.) Larger calculations
have been made, but the preceding is abundantly sufficient for
our purpose.
Ob J. 2. — As the same causes produce the same effects,
the Rainbow must have existed before thejlood.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 21
Answer. — So it may, but not as a sign of the Covenant.
The Hebrew word, which in Gen. ix. 1.3. is rendered set,
ought to be rendered appoint; in which case the passage would
run thus : — " I do appoint my bow in the cloud to be a sign
or token of the covenant between me and the earth."
Obj. 3. — If all mankind sprang from one white pair
(Noah and his wife), it is impossible to account for the
origin of the blacks.
Answer. — This difference of colour does not invalidate the
Mosaic Narrative : for it has been ascertained that the influence
of climate, and the local circumstances of air, water, food, cus-
toms, &c. are abundantly sufficient to account for the dis-
similarity in the appearance of different nations.
Obj. 4. — The peopling of America and of several
islands, in which mischievous terrestrial animals have been
found, has also been urged as an objection to the univer-
sality of the deluge.
Answer. — The straits that divide North America from Tar-
tary are so narrow, as to admit of a very easy passage from
one continent to the other : and the resemblance found be-
tween the inhabitants of the opposite sides of that passage,
and their uncivilised state and rude ignorance of the arts,
prove them to have had one common origin.
VII. The Building of the Tower of Babel
Is circumstantially mentioned by Berosus a Chaldaean his-
torian : according to Josephus, it is mentioned by Hestiaeus
and one of the antient Sybils ; and, as Eusebius informs us,
by Abydenus and Eupolemus. That it was constructed with
burnt bricks and bitumen, is attested by Justin, Quintus
Curtius, and Vitruvius, and also by the relations of modern
travellers.
VIII. The History of the Destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah
Is attested by Diodorus Siculus, Strabo, Solinus, Tacitus,
22 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF
Pliny, and Joseph us, whose accounts mainly agree with the
Mosaic Narrative : and their reports concerning the physical
appearance of the Dead Sea are confirmed, in all material
points, by the relations of all modern travellers.
IX. Antient historians, cited by Josephus and Euse-
bius, make mention of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
X. The Departure of the Children of Israel from
Egypt, and their miraculous passage of the Red Sea,
Are attested by Berosus, Artapanus, Strabo, Diodorus Sicu-
lus, Numenius, Justin, and Tacitus.
XI. The Heathen Writers borrowed images from the
accounts communicated in the Scriptures.
Such are the representations of their deities being veiled in
clouds, &c. ; together with several religious institutions, and
other particulars.
XII. Many other occurrences related in the Old Tes-
tament appear to have given rise to various stories among
the antients.
Thus, the story of Iphigenia being sacrificed by her father
Agamemnon, was borrowed from the circumstance of Jeph-
thah's devoting his daughter. The story of Scylla having cut
off the purple lock of her father, Nisus, and given it to his
enemy, Minos, was in all probability taken from the history of
Sampson's being shaved. Herodotus relates the departure of
the sun from its course four times, which seems to refer to the
times of Joshua and Hezekiah. Numerous other instances
occur, in which scripture characters and events are mentioned
by heathen writers.
XIII. Lastly, the Fertility of the Soil of Palestine
Is confirmed by the unanimous testimony of antient writers,
as well as of most, if not all the travellers who have visited
that country : and, if Palestine were as well inhabited and as
well cultivated as formerly, its produce unquestionably would
exceed all calculation.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 23
Besides these attestations from natural and profane
history, we may consider the Jews themselves as bear-
ing testimony, to this day, in all countries of the world,
to the truth of their antient history, that is, to the
truth of the Old Testament. Allow this, and it will
be easy to see, why they still persist in their attachment
to that religion, those laws, and those predictions,
which so manifestly condemn them, both in past times
and in the present. Suppose, however, that any con-
siderable alterations have been made in their antient
history, that is, any such alteration as may answer their
purposes of infidelity, and their present state will be
inexplicable.
§ 2. — Testimonies of Profane Writers to the Credibility of the New
Testament.
I. Testimonies of Jewish and Pagan Authors to the
Accounts of Princes and Governors, mentioned in the
New Testament,
Thus, Josephus, the Jewish historian, and various antient
writers, mention Herod, Archelaus, Pontius Pilate, and
other persons, whose names occur in the New Testament ,• and
they differ but little from the Evangelical Historians, concern-
ing their offices and characters.
TI. The Evangelical Writers agree with Josephus,
and with profane Authors respecting the Sects, Morals,
and Customs of the Jews.
III. The Characters and Pursuits of Heathen Nations,
for instance, the Cretans, Athenians, &c which are oc-
casionally introduced in the New Testament, are cor-
roborated by the testimonies of profane writers.
IV. Testimonies of Jewish Adversaries to the Name
and Faith of Christ.
l. Josephus bears testimony to the character, miracles, and
24 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF
doctrines of Jesus Christ, in the eighteenth book of his Jewish
Antiquities, Chap. iii. Sect. 3., which passage, though rejected
by some writers as spurious, has been satisfactorily demon-
strated to be genuine.
2. The Talmuds, or Books containing the Jewish Traditions,
the rabbinical constitutions, and explications of the law, though
blended with falsehood, refer to the nativity of Jesus Christ ;
they relate his journey into Egypt ; and do not deny that
he performed numerous eminent miracles.
V. Testimonies of Heathen Adversaries to the Chris-
tian Name and Faith.
1. Mention is made of the life and character of Jesus Christ
in the Acta Pilati, (which were an account sent by Pilate to
Rome of the transactions that occurred in his province, and to
which the Christian writers, Justin and Tertullian, appealed
in their apologies ;) and also in the writings of the heathen
historians, Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny, and ^Elius Lampridius.
And Celsus, Porphyry, and Julian, who were the earliest
learned opposers of the Christian Religion, bear evidence to
the genuineness of the books received by Christians, and con-
sequently to the truth of the history of the Life and Character
of Jesus Christ.
2. To the innocency of life, and constancy of the first
Christians in the profession of their faith, explicit testimony is
borne, during the Neronian persecution (A.D. 95,) by Tacitus
Suetonius, Martial, and Juvenal; and the celebrated epistle
of the Younger Pliny, which was written to the emperor Tra-
jan, A.D. 107, together with that emperor's reply or rescript,
are valuable documents, corroborating the truth of the New
Testament, inasmuch as they attest
(l.) The great progress made by the Christian Religion in a
short space of time.
(2.) The fortitude of the Christians in suffering, and their
steady perseverance in the faith of Jesus Christ.
(3.) That they disowned all the Gods of the Heathens, paid
divine worship to their God and Saviour Jesus Christ, and de-
voted themselves to the practice of moral virtue.
(4.) The innocent and virtuous lives of the first Christians,
whose religion was their only crime.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 25
Further, Celsus ridicules the Christians for their worship of
Christ, and attests the gradual increase of their numbers. He
also acknowledges that there were modest, temperate, and in-
telligent persons among them ; and bears witness to their faith
in Christ. Lucian also, another bitter enemy of the Christian
Faith, has borne testimony to its principal facts and doctrines,
as well as to the upright character of the Christians : and their
fortitude and constancy under persecution are referred to by
the philosopher Epictetus (A.D. 109.), the emperor Marcus An-
toninus (A.D. 161.), and by Galen. (A.D. 200.) Porphyry also,
(A.D. 270.) and the emperor Julian (A.D. 361.) have both at-
tested the truth of many facts and things related in the New
Testament.
VI. Refutation of the Objection to the Credibility
of the Scripture History, which has been raised, in
consequence of the silence of profane historians to the
facts therein recorded.
That silence may be satisfactorily accounted for, by their
great ignorance of facts which occurred v,ery long before their
own time, and by the peculiar contempt which several of them
entertained both for Jews and Christians, arising from the di-
versity of their customs and institutions. To these consider-
ations we may add —
1. That many books of those remote ages are lost, in which
it is very possible that some mention might have been made of
these facts.
2. Some of the Roman Historians, whose works have come
down to our time, are defective.
5. That of the few remaining historians who wrote about
the ages in question, most were engaged upon other subjects.
Besides, no profane historians, whether Jews or Gentiles, take
notice of all occurrences.
4. That several of the facts relating to Christ and his mira-
cles, coming from Jews, would be slighted as fabulous by the
Gentile writers, especially considering, on the one hand, how
common prodigies and magical stories were ; and, on the other,
how superstitious and credulous the Jews were reputed to be ;
and
c
26 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OP
5. That the first appearance of the Christian scheme would
shock them, as seeming so improbable, and so contrary to
their received maxims, that it cannot excite surprise, that
many of them cared but little to inquire into the evidences and
facts relating to Christianity. Many, however, who did inquire,
doubtless became Christians ; their testimony therefore is not
to be reckoned in this place.
§ 3. — Collateral Testimonies to the Truth of the Facts recorded
in the Scriptures, from antient Coins, Medals, and Marbles.
These are confessedly among the most important
proofs of antient history in general : and the confirm-
ation which they afford of many particulars recorded
in the Scriptures, is not less important and decisive than
the series of evidence, furnished by profane historians
in the preceding sections. Thus,
I. The Mosaic Narrative of the Deluge
Is confirmed by a coin, struck at Apamea in the reign of
Philip the elder ; which commemorates the sending forth of the
dove by Noah. (Gen. viii. 7 — 11.) On one of the front pan-
nels of the chest or ark, which is represented on the reverse of
this medal, is the word NOE in antient Greek characters.
II. The account of Pharaoh-Necho 's war against the
Jeivs and Babylonians, which is related in 2 Chron.
xxxv. 20 — 24., and xxxvi. 1 — 4.,
Is confirmed by Herodotus,, (Hist. lib. ii. c. 159.) and espe-
cially by the discoveries of the late Mr. Belzoni, in the tombs
of the Egyptian sovereigns. (See his Narrative of Operations
in Egypt, &c. pp. 245?, 243. 4to. edit, and Nos. 4, 5, and 6. of
his folio Atlas of plates.)
III. The Invasion of the Kingdom of Israel, by Shal-
maneser, King of Assyria, and the carrying of the ten
tribes into captivity, which are narrated in 2 Kings,
xvii. 6. and xviii. 10.,
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 27
Are confirmed by certain antient sculptures on the moun-
tains of Be-Sitoon, near the borders of the antient Assyria,
which are described in Sir Robert Ker Porter's Travels in
Georgia, Persia, &c. vol. ii. pp. 154 — 162.
IV. Acts xiii. 7. is confirmed by a coin, proving that
the islandof Cyprus was at that time under the govern-
ment of a proconsul.
On this coin the same title AN0TnATO2, or Deputy, is given
to Proclus, which St. Paul gave to his predecessor, Sergius
Paulus.
V. In Acts xvi. 11, 12. the evangelist Luke says,
" We came to Philippi, which is the chief city
of that part of Macedonia and a colony" — This pas-
sage may, more correctly, be rendered — " Philippi, a city
of the jirst part of Macedonia, or of Macedonia Prima."
The province of Macedonia had undergone various changes,
and had been divided into various portions, particularly into
four, while under the Roman Government. Many medals of
the first province, or Macedonia Prima, are extant, with the
inscription MAKEAONftN riPftTH2, or the * first part of Ma-
cedonia" which confirm the accuracy of Luke, and show his
attention to the minutest particulars. Further, by using the
term KOAHNIA, (which was originally a Latin word, Colonia,)
instead of the corresponding Greek word airoiKia, the historian
plainly intimates that it was a Roman colony, which the twenty-
first verse certainly proves it to have been. Now, among some
coins that have been discovered, in which it is recorded under
this character, there is one in particular, which explicitly states
that Julius Caesar himself bestowed the privileges of a Roman
colony on the city of Philippi, which were afterwards confirmed
by Augustus.
VI. In Acts xvi. 14. xve read that Lydia, a dealer in
purple, from Thyatira, had settled at Philippi.
Now, among the ruins of Thyatira, there is an inscription
extant with the words 01 BA*EI5 {the dyers) ; whence we learn
c 2
28 TESTIMONIES TO THE CREDIBILITY OF
that the art and trade of dying purple were carried on in that
city.
VII. In Acts xvii. 23. Paul relates his having found
an altar at Athens, ivith the inscription ArNH2TO @Efl,
TO THE UNKNOWN GOD.
We know from the testimony of Lucian that there was such
an inscription : and the occasion of this altar being erected, in
common with many others bearing the same inscription, is
related at length by Diogenes Laertius (in Epimenide, lib. i.
c. x. § 5.)
VIII. In Acts xix. 35. the word NEOKOPON (in the
English version rendered a worshipper) is very emphatic.
It properly signifies a person dedicated to the service of some
god or goddess, whose peculiar office it was to attend the
temple, and see that it was kept clean. At length the NEHKOPOI
became persons of great consequence, and were those who of-
fered sacrifices for the life of the emperor. Whole cities took
this appellation, as appears on many antient coins and medals.
Ephesus is supposed to have been the first which assumed this
title; and there is a medal extant, in which it is given to that
city.
IX. The Triumphal Arch erected at Rome in honour
of Titus, (whereon are represented certain vessels used
by the Jews in their religious worship, agreeably to the
statements in the Old Testament * ,) is an eviderfce to
the truth of the historic accounts, which describe the
dissolution of the Jewish State and Government, and
relate the conquest of Jerusalem.
Further, there are extant numerous medals of Judeea
vanquished, struck by order of the Roman general
Titus, (who was afterwards emperor,) in order to com-
memorate the subversion of the Jewish state and polity.
* The vignettes, given in the subsequent part of this volume, are
copied from this arch.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 29
On the reverse of one of these (a representation of
which is given in a subsequent page, from the original
medal, preserved in the cabinet of the British Mu-
seum,) the conquered country appears as a desolate
female, sitting under a tree. It affords an extraordi-
nary fulfilment of Isaiah's prediction — She, being deso-
late, shall sit upon the ground, (Isa. iii. 26.) as well
as a striking illustration of the first verse of the Lamen-
tations of Jeremiah.
Chapter IV.
ALL THE BOOKS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS ARE OP DIVINE
AUTHORITY, AND THEIR AUTHORS ARE DIVINELY INSPIRED.
Section I. — Preliminary Observations.
I. Inspiration defined.
It is the imparting of such a degree of divine in-
fluence, assistance, or guidance, as enabled the authors
of the several Books of Scripture to communicate re-
ligious knowledge to others, without error or mistake.
II. Such Inspiration is both reasonable and necessary.
1. It is reasonable that the sentiments and doctrines
delivered in the Scriptures should be suggested to the
minds of the writers by the Supreme Being himself;
since they relate to matters, concerning which the com-
munication of information to men is worthy of God.
2. Further, Inspiration is necessary: for,
(l.) Some past facts are related in the Bible, which could
not possibly have been known, had not God revealed them.
(2.) Some events are predicted, which God alone could fore-
know.
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30 DIVINE AUTHORITY QF
(3.) Other things also are contained in the Scriptures which
are far above the capacity of man.
(4.) The authoritative language of Scripture argues the ne-
cessity of inspiration, admitting the veracity of the writers.
They do not present us with their own thoughts, but exclaim,
" Thus saith the Lord;" and on that ground they demand our
assent.
III. The Scriptures could not have been the inven-
tion of men. Wicked men would not have produced
books which condemn every thing that is unholy, even
if they were capable of doing so ; and good men could
not deceive.
IV. Criteria of Inspiration.
These are twofold, viz. Miracles and Prophecy.
To these may be added other internal evidences for
the divine inspiration of the Scriptures ; viz.
The sublime doctrines and precepts which they con-
tain ;
The harmony and connection subsisting between their
various parts ;
The miraculous preservation of the Scriptures ; and
Their tendency to promote the present and eternal
happiness of mankind, as evinced by the blessed effects
which are invariably produced by a cordial belief of the
doctrines of the Bible.
Section II. — The Miracles, related in the Old and New Testa-
ments, are Proofs, that the Scriptures were given by Inspiration of
God.
I. A Miracle defined.
A miracle is an effect or event, contrary to the esta-
blished constitution or course of things ; or, a sensible
suspension or controlment of, or deviation from, the
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 31
known laws of nature, wrought either by the immediate
act, or by the assistance or by the permission of God,
and accompanied with a previous notice or declaration
that it is performed according to the purpose and power
of God, for the proof or evidence of some particular
doctrine, or in attestation of the authority or divine
mission of some particular person.
Nature is the assemblage of created beings : these beings act
upon each other, or by each other, agreeably to certain laws,
the result of which is, what we call the course or order of na-
ture. These laws are invariable ; it is by them God governs the
world. He alone established them; He alone therefore can
suspend them. Effects, which are produced by the regular
operation of these laws, or which are conformable to the esta-
blished course of events, are said to be natural ; and every
palpable deviation from the constitution of the natural system,
and the correspondent course of events in that system, is called
a miracle.
II. Nature of the evidence arising from Miracles.
Objection. — Miracles are beyond comprehension,
and therefore are contrary to reason.
Answer. — This is by no means the case : for the possibility
of miracles is not contrary to reason. Every thing we see, in-
deed, is in one sense a miracle. How many of the most com-
mon phenomena in nature are beyond our comprehension !
And yet, notwithstanding we cannot comprehend or solve the
most common of these phenomena, they make no impression
on us, because they are common, because they happen accord-
ing to a stated course, and are seen every day. If they were
out of the common course of nature, though in themselves not
more difficult to comprehend, they would still appear more
wonderful to us, and more immediately the work of God.
Thus, when we see a child grow into a man, and, when the
breath has left the body, turn to corruption, we are not in the
least surprised, because we see it every day : but were we to
see a man restored from sickness to health by a word, or raised
c 4
S2 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
to life from the dead by a mere command, though these things
are not really more unaccountable, yet we call the uncommon
event a miracle, merely because it is uncommon. We acknow-
ledge, however, that both are produced by God, because it is
evident that no other power can produce them.
Such, then, is the nature of the evidence which arises
from miracles : and we have no more reason to disbe-
lieve them, when well attested, and not repugnant to
the goodness or justice of God, only because they were
performed several ages ago, than we have to disbelieve
the more ordinary occurrences of Providence which
passed before our own time, because the same occur-
rences may never happen again during our lives. The
ordinary course of nature proves the being and provi-
dence of God ; these extraordinary acts of power prove
the divine commission of that person who performs
them.
III. Design of Miracles.
This is, not to prove the great doctrines and duties
of natural religion, but to prove netv revealed doctrines,
which neither were nor could be known to the reason
of man. Consequently, believers in the Bible do not
argue in a circle (as some modern objectors have as-
serted), proving the doctrines first by the miracles, and
then the miracles by the doctrines : because the doc-
trines which they prove by miracles, and the doctrines
by which they try them, are not the same doctrines.
No miracles are related in the Scriptures to have
been wrought in confirmation of falsehoods ; yet this
has been objected in the cases of the Egyptian Magi-
cians, the Witch of Endor, and Satan in the time of
Christ's temptation. But this objection is utterly de-
stitute of foundation : for
1. The Magicians did not perform any miracle. All they
did, as the narrative of Moses expressly states, — was to busy
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 33
themselves in their enchantments ; by which, every man knows,
miracles cannot be accomplished.
2. The Witch of Endor neither wrought nor expected to
work any miracle, being herself terrified at the appearance of
Samuel, who was sent by God himself.
5. There was nothing miraculous in Satan's leading Christ,
by his free consent, to a lofty mountain, whence he could dis-
cover,— not all the world, but all the four tetrarchies or
kingdoms of oIkov^v^s, that is, the land of Judaea.
The proper effect of miracles is, to mark clearly the
divine interposition ; and the Scriptures intimate this
to be their design ; for both Moses and the Prophets,
and Jesus Christ and his Apostles, appealed to them,
in proof of their divine mission.
IV. Credibility of Miracles vindicated and proved.
Wherever miracles are wrought, they are matters of
Jact, and capable of being proved by proper evidence,
as other historical facts are. The witnesses, however,
must be supposed to be acquainted with the course of
nature so as to be able to judge that the event in ques-
tion was contrary to it : for an event is not miraculous
merely because it is to us strange or unaccountable,
but because it is contrary to the known course of na-
ture. To those who beheld the miracles of Moses and
Jesus Christ, the seeing of those miracles was sufficient
evidence of their divine inspiration. But to other men,
miracles, like other events, admit of the evidence of
testimony : the credibility of the witnesses therefore is
the only point now to be considered.
Hints for estimating the value of human testimony.
1 . Any thing capable of being proved by mere testimony is
credible, in proportion to the opportunity which the witness
had of being well informed concerning it himself, and his free-
dom from any bias which might make him wish to impose upon
others.
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34f DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
If the person, who gives us information of any fact, appear to be
a competent judge of it, — and to have been in a situation in which
he had the best opportunity of being rightly informed, and if there
be no appearance of its being his interest to deceive us, we give our
assent, — but we hesitate in proportion to the doubts we entertain
on either of these heads.
2." The more persons there are, who relate the same trans-
action of which they are equally credible witnesses, the
stronger is the evidence for it. But the more persons there
are, through whose hands the same narration is conveyed to
us, the weaker is the evidence.
In the latter case the witnesses are called dependent ones ; but in
the former they are said to be independent. Whatever imperfection
there may be in any one of a number of independent witnesses, it is
in part removed by the testimony of others : but every imperfection
increases in proportion to the number of dependent witnesses,
through whose hands the story is transmitted.
5. The proper mark or criterion of a story being related by
a number of independent witnesses, of full credit, is their com-
plete agreement in the principal arguments, and their disagree-
ment with respect to things of less consequence, or, at least,
variety or diversity, in their manner of relating the same story.
4. We likewise distinguish respecting the nature of the fact
to which our assent is required. Miracles require stronger
testimony than common facts; and such testimony they really
have.
The greater part of our knowledge has no other foundation than
testimony. Yet has it been laid down as a maxim, that no human
testimony is sufficient to establish the truth of a miracle. This asser-
tion was first made by the ablest and acutest of the deistical philoso-
phers, and it has commonly been accounted the strong hold of infi-
delity. His argument, in substance, is this : — " Experience,
which in some things is variable, in others is uniform, is our only
guide in reasoning concerning matters of fact. Variable experience
gives rise to probability only ; an uniform experience amounts to
proof. Our belief of any fact from the testimony of eye-witnesses
is derived from no other principle, than our experience of the veracity
of human testimony. If the fact attested be miraculous, there arises
a contest of two opposite experiences, or proof against proof. Now,
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 35
a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature : and as a firm and un-
alterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a
miracle, — from the very nature of the fact, — is as complete as any
argument from experience can possibly be imagined : and if so, it is
an undeniable consequence that it cannot be surmounted by any
proof whatever, derived from human testimony."
To this specious reasoning it may be replied,
(l.) That the evidence arising from human testimony is not
derived solely from experience: on the contrary, testimony
has a natural influence on belief.
It is therefore more consonant to truth, to say, that our diffidence
in testimony is the result of experience, than that our faith in it has
this foundation. Besides, the uniformity of experience, in favour
o£ any fact, is not a proof against its being reversed in any particular
instance. The evidence, arising from the single testimony of a man
of known veracity, will go further to establish a belief of its being
reversed.
(2) What is usually called the ' course of nature' is nothing
but the will and pleasure of God acting continually upon
matter, according to certain rules of uniformity, still bearing
relation to contingencies. Now God is the governor of the
moral as well as of the physical world : and, since the moral
well-being of the universe is of more consequence than its phy-
sical order and regularity, it follows, that the latter may be
subservient, and occasionally yield to the former.
(3.) The futility of this sophism may also be shown upon its
own avowed principles. If the secret of compounding gun-
powder had perished by the accidental death of its inventor,
immediately after its extraordinary powers had been exhibited
before a hundred competent witnesses, on the principles of the
sophism now before us, the fact of its extraordinary powers
must be rejected as a falsehood.
V. The Credibility of Miracles does not decrease
with the lapse of years, as the antagonists of Christi-
anity object.
There may be cases, in which credibility vanishes
with time : but no testimony is really, in the nature of
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36 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
things, rendered less credible by any other cause than
the loss or want of some of those conditions, which at
first made it rationally credible. A testimony con-
tinues equally credible so long as it is transmitted
with all those circumstances and conditions, which
first procured it a certain degree of credit amongst
men, proportionate to the intrinsic value of those con-
ditions. But the evidence in favour of the facts of the
Christian Religion has increased instead of diminish-
ing; as the recent inquiries of learned men have pro-
duced fresh testimonies.
VI. Criteria of Miracles : — they are six in number,
viz. :
1. A miracle should have an important end in view,
worthy of its author.
2. It must be instantaneously and publicly per-
formed, before credible witnesses.
3. It must be sensible and easy to be observed : in
other words, the fact purporting to be miraculous
must be such, that the senses of mankind can clearly
and fully judge of it.
4. It ought to be independent of second causes.
Objection. — In three of his miracles (John ix. 1 — 7.
Mark viii. 23 — 25. Mark vii. 32 — 37.) Jesus made use of
external applications.
Answer. — These applications were made only upon the
blind or the deaf; and in these cases, the reason for using them
seems to have been, to convey to the persons on whom the
! miraculous cures were performed, a clear assurance that Jesus
Christ was the author of such cures.
5. Not only public monuments must be kept up, but
some outward actions must also be constantly per-
formed, in memory of the facts thus publicly wrought.
6. Such monuments must be set up, and such ac-
tions and observances instituted, at the very time when
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 3?
those events took place, and be afterwards continued
without interruption.
These two rules render it impossible that the belief of any
facts should be imposed upon the credulity of after ages, when
the generation asserted to have witnessed them had expired ;
for, whenever such facts come to be recounted, if not only
monuments are said to remain of them, but public actions and
observances had further been constantly used to commemorate
them by the nation appealed to, ever since they had taken
place, the deceit must be immediately detected, by no such
monuments appearing, and by the experience of every indi-
vidual, who could not but know that no such actions or ob-
servances had been used by them, to commemorate such
events.
VII. Application of these Criteria to the Miracles
related in the Sacred Writings.
1. With regard to the miracles recorded to have
been wrought by Moses and Joshua : —
The posterity of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, being chosen
by Jehovah to be his peculiar people for the preservation of
true religion, the miracles performed on their behalf were un-
questionably worthy of the Almighty Author. These miracles
were instantaneously performed at the command of Moses,
and before great numbers of Egyptians or Israelites, sometimes
in the presence of both nations ; as in the case of the plagues,
and the destruction of Pharaoh's army, which were witnessed
by the whole people of Israel, and were felt by the Egyptians.
In commemoration of these and other miraculous occur-
rences, were instituted the three great festivals of the Hebrews,
— the Passover, the feast of Tabernacles, and the feast of Pen-
tecost ; all the first born of man and beast were solemnly con-
secrated to God ; and the tribe of Levi was set apart, in special
commemoration of the destruction of the first born of the
Egyptians.
The memory of the miraculous supply of the Israelites with
food was perpetuated by the pot of manna ; and the twelve
stones, taken out of the midst of Jordan at the time of the
38 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
miraculous passage of the Israelites over that river, were set
up by Joshua at Gilgal, as a perpetual memorial to them.
In all these instances, the preceding criteria are
most decisively established.
2. With respect to the miracles related in the New
Testament.
(1.) The number of Christ's miracles was very
great.
About forty of them are narrated at length. The gospel
history is full of them : and one of Christ's biographers informs
us that he performed a greater number than are in any way
recorded.
(2.) There was great variety in the miracles re-
corded in the New Testament.
They were of a permanent nature, and might be reviewed
and re-examined, as in many instances they actually were.
We behold Christ giving sight to the born blind ; — healing
the obstinate leprosy ; — making those who wanted a limb,
perfect ; — those who were bowed double, straight ; — those
who shook with palsy, robust; — nerving the withered arm
with strength j — restoring the insane and demoniacs to reason ;
— and raising the dead to life. We behold the apostles also
expelling demons, restoring the lame from his birth, giving
sight to the blind, healing all manner of diseases, and giving
life to the dead. All these supernatural works were performed,
not in a few instances with hesitation and diffidence, but were
very frequently repeated through a series of years; so that
all suspicion of human management, compact, and imposture,
was for ever precluded.
(3.) The design of Christ's miracles was important,
and worthy of their Almighty Author.
The end and purpose, for which these miracles were wrought,
was, to carry on one vast and consistent plan of Providence,
extending from the creation to the consummation of all things ;
to establish a system of belief, hope, and practice adapted to the
wants and conditions of mankind ; which had been erevaled in
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 39
part to the Jews, and promised to the prophets, and which
tended to destroy the four great moral evils, so prevalent and
so pernicious, viz. — atheism, scepticism, immorality, and vice.
In subservience to their grand object, (the confirmation of his
divine mission,) the miracles of Christ were wrought for the
most benevolent of all purposes, — the alleviation of misery
in every form ; and they carry in them the characters of the
greatest goodness, as well as of the greatest power.
Only two of Christ's miracles bear any marks of seve-
rity ; viz. his suffering the demons to enter the herd of
swine (Matt. viii. 28—34. Mark v. 12—17.), and his
causing the fig-tree to wither away.
[i.] As to the destruction of the swine, though commonly
regarded as a miraculous work, it was in point of fact not a
miracle. He did not command, but only permitted, the demons
to enter the swine ; for which permission several satisfactory
reasons may be assigned. For, if the owners of the swine were
Jews, as there is every reason to believe, they were justly
punished for their deliberate violation of their laws, which
prohibited the keeping of swine : and if they were Gentiles,
Christ might have permitted the demons to enter the swine,
to convince them of the sanctity and divinity of the Jewish
laws (which they were accustomed to ridicule), and, further,
it may be, to punish them for laying a snare in the way of the
Jews.
[ii.] In causing the barren fig-tree to wither away, Jesus
Christ neither invaded private property, nor did any injury to
the community at large ; but by this action he dictated an im-
pressive and important moral lesson both to his disciples and to
all mankind : viz. That if we neglect or wilfully misemploy
our opportunities of improvement in religious knowledge and
in holiness, we must expect to be withered like the barren fig-
tree before the displeasure of the Lord Jesus, when he shall
come to judge the world.
Consider further the greatness of Christ's Miracles.
The diseases which he healed were incurable, inveterate, and
had baffled every attempt of art : and this greatness of Christ's
40 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
miracles secures them against the suspicion of imposture. Im-
postors usually satisfy themselves with little tricks, because they
are less open to suspicion, and usually gain credit.
(5.) Observe also the persons by whom these miracles
were accomplished.
They were wrought by persons, who were known to be poor,
unlearned, of low condition, and destitute of great friends and
powerful patrons ; who gave other proofs of their mission, and
did not rest the whole of their cause upon miracles, but likewise
insisted upon the reasonableness of the doctrines which they
offered to examination. Further, they were offered by persons,
who appealed to God, and declared that they would perform
them.
(6.) The persons, before whom the miracles were
wrought, claim our especial notice.
They were wrought in a learned age, and before people who
were not easily deluded, and they were stigmatised by the
name of magic.
(7.) The manner too in which these miracles were
performed is equally worthy of attention for its publi-
city, simplicity, and disinterestedness.
(8.) Another circumstance, which confirms the vali-
dity and truth of these miracles, is, the efeects pro-
duced by them.
Numbers who were spectators of them yielded to convic-
tion, and embraced the Gospel.
(9.) Lastly, the reality of the miracles of Christ
and his apostles was never denied.
Both Jewish and Heathen opposers of the Christian faith
were constrained, however reluctantly, to admit the reality of
the miracles of Christ and his apostles ; though they ascribed
them to magic, and denied the divine commission of him who
performed them.
VIII. A brief examination of a few of the principal
Miracles related in the New Testament,
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 41
1. The Conversion of Water into Wine. (John ii. 1 — 10.)
The Jewish Weddings continued seven days : during the nuptial
feast, from the poverty of the bridegroom and bride, or perhaps from
the number of guests being greater than was expected, there was a
deficiency of wine. Jesus commanded the servants to fill the vessels
with water up to the brim ; it was therefore impossible to mix any
wine. The servants alone were privy to the process ; and the go-
vernor of the feast gives his attestation to the miraculous supply in
so easy and natural a manner, that we cannot but esteem it beyond
the reach of artifice.
2. The miraculous Feeding of Jive thousand men, besides women
and children. (Matt. xiv. 15 — 21. Mark vi. 35 — 44. John vi.
5—13.)
The orderly disposition of the multitude, in ranks by hundreds and
by fifties, exposed the miraculous operation to the view of all ; so
that deception was impossible. The gathering up of twelve baskets
full of fragments is a proof that they had plenty of food ; and the
circumstance of the people being desirous to make Christ a King,
(for which he rebuked them on the following day) is a further proof
of the reality of the miracle, and of the impression which it had made.
3. The Healing of the Paralytic. (Matt.ix. 2—8. Mark ii.
4—12. Lukev. 18—26.)
This miracle was wrought in the presence of many witnesses, some
of whom were enemies to Jesus Christ. The manner in which the
sick man was presented, is unparalleled, and shows the confidence
which he and others had in Christ's power of healing him. The
manner, too, in which Christ addressed him, is still more striking,
beginning with the remission of his sins, without saying any thing
concerning his malady.
4. The Giving of Sight to a man, who had been born blind.
(Johnix. 1—7.)
' There are many remarkable circumstances in this miracle. The
man had not become blind by any accident, which admits of relief.
He was born blind. He did not ask to be restored to sight : thus
there was no room for suspicion on his part.
The question, proposed by the disciples (Johnix. 1, 2.) proves
that the man's blindness was from his birth ; but the answer was so
little in unison with their notions, that it never could have entered
42 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
their minds if they had not heard it from Jesus. The mode em-
ployed for giving this man sight, was utterly inadequate to produce
the effect which followed. Lastly, the miracle was performed in
public, and immediately subjected to the strictest possible scrutiny.
5. Tlie Cure, by Peter and John, of a man ivho had been
Lame from his Birth (Acts iii. 1 — 10.) is equally remarkable.
The man's person and lameness were universally known in Jeru-
salem ; a perfect cure was instantaneously wrought ; and the trans-
action immediately underwent a severe examination, the effect of
which was only to make the miracle still more widely known.
6. Tlie Raising of the Daughter of Jairus to life. (Matt. ix.
18—26. Markv. 22— 45. Luke viii. 41— 56.)
Though all the circumstances in the account of this miracle have
the aspect of the most natural and unexpected, occurrences, (which
could neither have been combined by human contrivance nor antici-
pated, by human foresight,) no circumstance was wanting, eithef to
ascertain the reality of the miracle, or, without any apparent ostenta-
tion or design, to give it the most unquestionable publicity.
7. The Raising of t/ie Widow's Son from the Dead at Nain.
(Luke vii. 11— 15.)
The fact of the young man's death was indisputable : a consider-
able number of her townsmen accompanied his mother who was fol-
lowing his remains to the grave : and in their presence the miracle
was instantaneously and publicly performed.
8. TJie Resurrection of Lazarus from the dead. (John xi.)
The precise time of Christ's arrival at Bethany gave his enemies
an opportunity of observing the transaction. " Many of the Jews
had come to Martha and Mary." and the restoring of Lazarus to
life has eveiy character of a miracle. For it was instantaneously
and publicly performed before credible witnesses ; it was independ-
ent of second causes ; and the end for which it was performed, was
important, for it was, to attest the divine mission of the Son of God.
IX. The most remarkable of all the miracles, related
in the New Testament, is the resurrection of Jesus
Christ from the dead, and it demands a distinct ex-
amination.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 43
1. As to Christ's prophetic declarations concerning his
death and resurrection.
Jesus repeatedly predicted the circumstances of his death and
resurrection to his disciples. Now, when he did this, he either did
or did not foresee his resurrection. If he did not foresee it, with
what hopes did he comfort his disciples ? and why did he volun-
tarily offer himself to death, and actually endure the ignominious
death of crucifixion ? If he did foresee that he should rise again,
he could not have believed it, but only on the experience he had
already made of his power of giving sight lo the blind, health to
the sick, and (above all) life to the dead. His miracles therefore
must be true ; and, if so, he then possessed sufficient power to
raise himself to life.
No one can doubt that Christ foretold his resurrection, who con-
siders that it was on this very account that the chief priests and
pharisees set a watch at the sepulchre.
2. Evidence of the reality of the resurrection.
It is an undisputed fact that Jesus died upon the cross and was
interred in the sepulchre ; at which the Jews took the precaution of
placing a military guard. After the resurrection, the Jews reported
that the disciples stole the body away while the guard were sleeping ;
a circumstance so manifestly improbable as well as false, that
Matthew, though he faithfully records the report, does not offer a
syllable to refute it.
Consider further,
(1.) The terror of the timid disciples, and the paucity of their
number ; the season, — that of the great annual festival, the Passover,
when Jerusalem was full of people, and when also, it being the
time of the full moon, the night was very light.
(2, ) Is it probable that so many men, as composed the guard,
would all fall asleep in the open air at once ?
(3.) If the soldiers were all asleep, they could not know what was
doing in the mean time ; would not the noise, made in opening the
sepulchre, have awakened some, if not the whole of them ? and if
any of them were awake, would they not soon have alarmed the
rest, and prevented such an attempt ?
(4.) Besides, are the appearances of composure and regularity in
the tomb consistent with the hurry and trepidation of thieves,
stealing when an armed guard is at hand, and in a moonlight night?
(5. ) But, observe the conduct of the rulers. Why did not they
order the Apostles to be seized ? Why did they not command the
44 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
soldiers to be punished ? Why did they not bring the whole to a
judicial determination ? Why is this neglect in men who had been so
anxious to have a guard placed upon the sepulchre ? Why did they
never after charge the disciples or apostles themselves with having
stolen the body ?
Objection. — Christ did not show himself to the
Chief Priests and Jews.
Answer. — For this various satisfactory reasons may be
assigned.
[i.] It is not probable that the Jews would have submitted to
that evidence.
[a.] If Jesus had appeared to them after his resurrection, and
they had acknowledged him to be the Messiah, it is most probable that
they who made this objection would not. have been satisfied, but
would have suspected, and would have represented the whole as an
artifice and imposture. Or it might have been said that they
were haunted with spectres, and consequently that their testimony
was of no value.
[iiu] If they had remained unconvinced, the fact would have
been questioned ; if they had been convinced, without honesty or
resolution to declare the truth, the fact would still have been
doubtful ; and, if they had been convinced, and had acknowledged
Jesus to have been the Messiah or Christ, loud would have been the
clamour of a combination, and the progress and prevalence of
Christianity would have been ascribed to the secular influence of its
advocates.
3. The Character of the Witnesses also proves
the truth of the resurrection of Christ. Observe,
(1.) The Condition of these witnesses.
They were mean, despised, and unlearned men, and consequently
were unequal to the task of imposing upon others.
(2.) Their Number, and also the number of the different
appearances of Jesus Christ, which was more than sufficient to
establish any fact.
Seven different Jewish Writers have related or mentioned not
fewer than eleven distinct appearances of Jesus Christ at different
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 45
hours of the day, and at different places; and on one occasion to
" above five hundred" persons.
(3.) The Incredulity of the witnesses, and their slowness in
believing the resurrection of Christ.
(4.) The Moral Impossibility of their succeeding in palming
an imposition upon the world. Because,
[i. ] It is inconceivable that a man should willingly expose himself
to all sorts of punishment — even to death itself — on purpose to
testify a matter of fact which he knew to be false.
[w.J Although there should have been one person so disposed, it
cannot be imagined — indeed it would be the height of absurdity to
imagine, — that numbers would have formed the same resolution.
[m.] Though a great number of persons should have agreed
together to attest a falsehood, yet it is incredible that they should
bear witness to it, who considered perfidy and lying as sins utterly
inconsistent with their salvation : neither could it be supposed or
expected of those, who, if they allowed the resurrection of Jesus
Christ to be a fiction, must also allow that they had followed an
imaginary Messiah.
[iy.] Such a mutual concert or agreement could never have been
so carried on, but that some of them, in order to avoid punishment,
or to gain reward, would have disclosed the whole intrigue.
[y.] The very same principles, which had dissolved their mutual
fidelity, would more probably break off their mutual treachery. It
cannot reasonably be supposed that those disciples, who were
scattered when their master was crucified, would afterwards conspire
to affirm a bold and unprincipled falsehood.
(5.) Observe the Facts, which they themselves avow.
Their testimony relates to facts, in which it was impossible
that they could have been deceived ; such as the seeing, touching,
sitting at table and conversing with, their risen master.
(6.) Consider further the Agreement of their evidence.
They all unanimously deposed that Christ rose from the dead.
(7.) Observe also the Tribunals before which they gave evi-
dence, and the multitude of people by whom their testimony
was scrutinised, — by Jews and heathens, philosophers and
rabbies, and by a vast number of persons who went annually
46 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
to Jerusalem : for Providence so ordered those circumstances,
that the testimony of the apostles might be unsuspected.
(8.) Take notice also of the Time, when this evidence was
given.
Only three days after the crucifixion, they declared that Christ
was risen again, as he had foretold. "Would impostors act thus ?
(9.) Consider likewise the Place, where the apostles bore
their testimony to the resurrection.
They preached a risen Saviour, in the synagogues, and in the
praetorium, at Jerusalem, the very city where he had been igno-
miniously crucified.
(10.) Consider the Motives, which induced the apostles to
publish the fact of Christ's resurrection.
It was not to acquire fame, riches, or glory, but to found on this
fact a series of exhortations to repentance, faith, and holiness : —
topics these which were never proposed by an impostor. At the
same time, they lived as no impostor ever did, and were enabled to
appeal to their converts for the sanctity, justice, and unblamable
tenour of their own lives.
(11.) Lastly, the Miracles performed by these witnesses in
the name of Jesus Christ* after the effusion of the Holy Spirit
on the day of Pentecost, and the success which attended their
preaching throughout the world, are God's testimony to the
fact of Christ's resurrection from the dead, as well as to their
veracity in proclaiming it.
On the miraculous fact of Christ's resurrection, the
first four of the Criteria above noticed (see p. 36.
supra) are most clearly to be discerned. With regard
to the last two, we may remark, that the Lord's Supper
was instituted as a perpetual memorial of the death of
Jesus Christ ; and that the weekly festival of the Lord's
Day (or Sunday) commemorates the miraculous factof
his resurrection. These memorials, it must be observed,
were instituted at the very time when the circum-
stances to which they relate took place, and they have
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 47
been observed throughout the Christian world, in alj
ages, to the present time.
X. A Comparison of the Scripture Miracles with
pretended Pagan and Popish Miracles.
Counterfeit miracles are no proof that the miracles,
related in the New Testament, are not real : the more
strictly such pretended miracles are investigated, the
more defective is the evidence adduced for them. For,
1 . The scene of most of them is laid in remote countries
and in distant ages.
2. They were performed in ages of gross ignorance, when
the common people were likely to be deceived, and were
wrought in secresy.
3. They were performed'by persons of high rank, who were
held in the profoundest veneration by the common people, and
were never subjected to any scrutiny.
4. The heathen miracles were designed to support the esta-
blished religion, and were engrafted upon the superstitious
notions of the vulgar.
5. They are not vouched to us by any credible testimony.
6. They were not credited by the intelligent and judicious
even among the heathen.
The same remarks are equally applicable to the pretended
popish miracles.
But the contrary is the case with respect to the
miracles recorded in the Scriptures, the reality of which
is substantiated by the most positive and irresistible
evidence.
Section III. — Oa Prophecy.
I. Prophecy defined.
Prophecy is a miracle of knowledge, a declaration or
description, or representation of something future, be-
yond the power of human sagacity to discern or to cal-
48 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
oulate, and it is the highest evidence, that can be given,
of supernatural communion with the Deity, and of the
truth of a revelation from God.
II. Difference between the pretended predictions of
Heathen Oracles, and the Prophecies contained in the
Scriptures.
The oracles of the antient heathens were delivered
either for the purpose of satisfying some trivial curio-
sity, or to abet the designs of some ambitious leader.
They uttered no spontaneous predictions. Those, who
conducted them, threw various obstacles in the way of
inquiry by sacrifices, &c. Sometimes, the gods were
not in a humour to be consulted : at other times, when
no means of evasion remained, the answers given were
ambiguous or delusive ; and whenever the oracles
failed, there was always some subterfuge, to which the
priests had recourse. If an evil event took place, when
an auspicious one had been promised, this was ascribed
to the fault of the enquirer. Something defective in
the sacrifices was discovered, when too late ; or the
gods were averse to him. If the contrary proved to be
the case, this was ascribed to the intercession of the
priests.
Widely different are the prophecies contained in the
Scriptures : for,
1. They were delivered without solicitation, and
were pronounced openly before the people : and the
prophet knew himself to be exposed to capital punish-
ment, if any one of his predictions were to be over-
thrown. The events foretold were often complicated
and remote ; depending on the arbitrary will of man,
and arising from a great variety of causes, which con-
curred to bring them to pass.
2. Some were accomplished shortly after they were
delivered: others, somewhat later; and others had a
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 49
still more distant object. But the different events
foretold were so connected with each other, that the
most distant bordered pretty nearly upon some others,
the accomplishment of which was preparatory to the
fulfilment of the last. The fulfilment of the first served
to raise an expectation of those which were distant,
and the accomplishment of the last served to confirm
the first.
3. A large portion of the scripture-prophecies was
committed to writing, and left open to public examin-
ation : this is a test, which the spurious predictions
of the heathens could never endure.
III. The Use and Intent of Prophecy was, — to
raise expectation, and to soothe the mind with hope;
to maintain the faith of a particular providence, and the
assurance of a promised Redeemer ; and to attest the
divine inspiration of the Scriptures.
IV. Of the Chain of Prophecy.
The scripture-prophecies respect contingencies too
wonderful for the powers of man to conjecture or to
effect : and they form a regular chain or system,
which may be reduced to four classes, viz.
1. Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in par-
ticular.
2. Prophecies relating to the neighbouring nations
or empires.
3. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah.
4. Prophecies delivered by Jesus Christ and his
apostles.
Class I. — Prophecies relating to the Jewish Nation in particular.
1. Predictions concerning the Posterity of Abraham.
Gen. xii. 1. xlvi. 3.; Exod. xxxii. 13. Gen. xiii. 16.
D
50 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
xv. 5. xvii. 2. 4—6. xxii. 17. xxvii. 4. xxviii. 14,
xxxii. 12. xxxv. 11.
See the fulfilment of these predictions, as it respects the
Jews (to omit the increase of Abraham's other posterity,) in
Exod. i. 7. 9. 12. Numb, xxiii. 10. Deut. i. 10. x. 22.
Ezek. xvi. 7. Heb. vi. 12. In less than five hundred years
after the first of the above predictions was delivered, the num-
ber of the Israelites amounted to six hundred thousand men,
besides women and children.
II. Prophecies concerning Ishmael. — Compare Gen.
xvi. 10—12. xvii. 20, and xxv. 12—18.
From him descended the various tribes of Arabs, whose num-
bers and manner of living, have ever since been, and to this
very day are, a verification of the predictions respecting them.
3. It was foretold that the Posterity of Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob, should possess the land of Canaan :
so that, though they should be expelled thence for
their sins, yet their title should endure, and they should
be resettled in it, and there continue in peace to the
end of the world. (See Gen. xii. 7. xiii. 14, 15. 17.
xv. 18—21. Exod. iii. 8. 17- Gen. xvii. 7, 8.)
Accordingly, the Jews enjoyed this land for above a thou-
sand years: and, when the two tribes of Judah and Benjamin
were carried into captivity, it was announced that it should
be for seventy years : which the event proved to be true, and
they continued in possession of Canaan, for six hundred years*
until the final subversion of their polity by Titus. Although
the ten tribes carried captive by Shalmaneser, and the body oi*
the two tribes who were carried into captivity by Titus, are not
now in Canaan j yet since the time of their final restoration
has not arrived, this is no objection against these antient pro-
phecies, but a fulfilment of others : besides we have reason to
believe that the Jews will ultimately be restored to their native
country.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 51
4. The twenty-eighth chapter of Deuteronomy con-
tains most striking Predictions concerning the Jews
which have literally been fulfilled during their subjec-
tion to the Chaldseans and Romans, and in later times in
all nations where they have been dispersed. To spe-
cify a very few particulars : —
(1.) Moses foretold that their enemies would besiege
and take their cities :
This prophecy was fulfilled by Shishak King of Egypt, Shal-
maneser King of Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar, Antiochus Epi-
phanes, Sosius and Herod, and finally by Titus.
(2.) Moses foretold grievous famines during those
sieges, so that they should eat thejlesh of their sons and
daughters*
This was fulfilled, six hundred years after the time of Moses,
among the Israelites, when Samaria was besieged by the King
of Assyria; again, about nine hundred years after Moses
among the Jews, during the siege of Jerusalem before the
Babylonish captivity ; and, finally, fifteen hundred years after
his time, during the siege of Jerusalem by the Romans.
(3.) Moses predicted that the Jews should be few in
number.
This was literally fulfilled by immense numbers perishing by
famine during the last siege of Jerusalem, after which many
thousands were sold ; and also after their final overthrow by
Hadrian when many thousands were sold, and those for whom
purchasers could not be found (Moses had foretold that no man
would buy them) were transported into Egypt, where very many
perished by shipwreck or famine ; and others were massacred.
Yet notwithstanding all their miseries and oppressions, they
still continue a separate people, and have become " an aston-
ishment and a bye-word among the nations."
5. Josiah was prophetically announced by name,
(1 Kings xiii. 2.) three hundred and sixty -one years be-
fore the event.
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52 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
The fulfilment of this prophecy was remarkable, plainly
shewing it to be, not from man, but from God. ( 2 Kings
xxxiii. 15.)
6. The utter Subversion of Idolatry among the Jews,
foretold by Isaiah (ii. 18—21.) was fulfilled after their
return from the Babylonish Captivity.
The calamities, denounced against them by the same pro-
phet, on account of their wickedness, within two hundred
years afterwards overtook them. (Isa.iii. 1—14. compared
with 2 Chron. xxxvi.) And, on the capture of Jerusalem by
the Chaldseans, a few poor people were left to till the land, as
Isaiah had prophesied. (Isa. xxiv. 13, 14, compared with Jer.
xxxix. 10.)
7. Jeremiah foretold the Conquests of Nebuchad-
nezzar, and the consequent captivity of the Jews.
These were literally accomplished. Compare Jer. xxvii.
3__7. with xxxix. 11—14. And although the predictions of
Jeremiah and Ezekiei concerning Zedekiah appeared to con-
tradict each other, both were fulfilled in the event ; Zedekiah
seeing the King of Babylon at Jerusalem, who commanded his
eyes to be put out, and being carried to Babylon where he died.
8. While Ezekiei was a captive in Chaldaea, he pro-
phesied (v. 12. and viii.) that the Jews who remained in
Judaea, should be punished for their wickedness. In a
very few years all the evils predicted literally came
upon them by the Chaldaeans.
9. The profanation of the temple by Antiochus
Epiphanes was foretold by Daniel (viii.) four hundred
and eight years before the accomplishment of the pre-
diction. The same prophet also foretold the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem, and the cessation of the Jewish
sacrifices and oblations.
10. Hosea foretold the present state of the people of
Israel in these words— "They shall be wanderers
among the nations." (ix. 17.)
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 53
Class II. — Prophecies relating to the Nations or Empires that
were neighbouring to the Jews.
1. The once prosperous city of Tyre, as Ezekiel
had foretold, (xxvi. 3—5. 14. 21.) is now become like
" the top of a rock, a place for fishers to dry their nets
on.
2. The Prophecies concerning Egypt, (see Isai. xix.
Jer.xliii. 8^— 13, and xlvi. ; and Ezek. xxix. — xxxii.,
particularly Ezek. xxix. 15. 10. and xxx. 6, 12. 13.)
have been signally fulfilled.
Not long after these predictions were delivered, this country
was successively attacked and conquered by the Babylonians
and Persians ; next, it became subject to the Macedonians, then
to the Romans, after them to the Saracens, then to the Mame-
lukes, and is now a province of the Turkish empire. And the
denunciation — "I will make her rivers dry," is fulfilled by
the generally neglected state of the numerous canals with which
Egypt was antiently intersected.
3. The doom of Ethiopia was foretold by Isaiah,
(xviii. 1 — 6. xx. 3—5. and xliii. 3.) and by Ezekiel.
(xxx. 4—6.)
This country was invaded by Sennacherib King of Assyria,
or by Esarhaddon his son, and also by Cambyses, King of Per-
sia. About the time of Christ's birth, it was ravaged by the
Romans, and has since been ravaged, successively by the Sara-
cens, Turks and Giagas.
4. Such an " utter end" has been made of Nineveh,
agreeably to the predictions of Nahum, (i.8,9. ii. 8 — 13.
iii. 17 — 19.) and Zephaniah, (ii. 13 — 15.), that its very
site cannot be ascertained.
5. Babylon is made " a desolation for ever," as Isaiah
(xiii. 4, 19—22. xliv. 27.) and Jeremiah (1. 38. Ii. 7. 36,
37. 64.) had severally foretold.
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54 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
This city was taken when Belshazzar and his thousand
princes were drunk at a great feast, after Cyrus had turned the
course of the Euphrates, which run through the midst of it, and
so drained its waters that the river became easily fordable for
his soldiers to enter the city. Its site cannot now be exactly
determined.
6. Daniel predicted the overthrow in succession of
the Jour great Empires of antiquity ; the Babylonian,
Persian, Grecian, and Roman. (Dan. ii. 39, 40. vii.
17 — 24. viii.) This prediction has literally been ful-
filled : but neither the rise of the three last, nor their
fall, could have been foreseen by men.
Class III. — Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah.
The Prophecies announcing the Messiah are nume-
rous, pointed and particular. They not only foretold
that a Messiah should come, but the special circum-
stances of his advent. Thus,
1. The Old Testament Prophecies announced that he should
come, when the sceptre should be utterly lost from Judah.
(Gen.xlix. 10.)
2. Daniel pointed out the precise time of his coming (ix.
24 — 27.), and Haggai (ii. 6 — 9.), and Malachi (iii. 1.) foretold
that the Messiah should come before the destruction of the
second temple.
3. The Place where he was to be born, and the Tribe from
which he was to descend, were literally predicted by Micah.
(V. 2.)
4. Isaiah foretold the circumstances and effects of his Birth,
Manner of Life, and Doctrine. See Isa. vii. 14., ix. 6, 7., xi.
1, 2. liii. I — 3. xxviii. 16. viii. 14, 15. vi. 9 — 11. xlii. 1. &c.
Ix. 10. lv. 13. lvi. 6 — 8.
5. The same prophet foretold with singular minuteness (liii.)
the humiliating sufferings and death of Christ.
6. The Resurrection and Ascension of Messiah were likewise
predicted with singular minuteness. Compare Psal. xvi. 10.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 55
with Matt, xxviii. 6.; — Hos. vi. 2. with Matt. xx. 19. xxviii.
1 — 7., and lCor.xv.4.; Psal. xvi. 11. lxviii. 18. and Isa.ix. 7.
with Luke xxiv. 50, 51. ; Acts i. 9. and Matt, xxviii. 18.
7. The abolition of the Jewish covenant by that of the Gos-
pel. Compare Jer. xxxi. 51—34. with Heb. viii. 6—13.
Class IV. — Prophecies by Jesus Christ and his Apostles.
Jesus Christ foretold,
1. The Circumstances of his own Death; Matt. xvi. 21.
Mark. x. 33, 34. Matt. xx. 18, 19. xxvi. 23. 31. all which
were most minutely accomplished.
2. His Resurrection; Matt. xvi. 21. xxvi. 52. fulfilled in
Matt, xxviii.
3. The Descent of the Holy Spirit ; Luke xxiv. 49. Mark
xvi. 17, 18. fulfilled in Acts ii.
4. The Destruction of Jerusalem with all its preceding signs
audits concomitant circumstances ; and the very generation that
heard the prediction lived to be the miserable witnesses of its
accomplishment.
5. The Spread of Christianity; and both sacred and profane
historians bear testimony to the rapid propagation of the
Gospel.
The character of the age, in which the Christian Faith was
first propagated, must be considered.
It was not barbarous and uncivilized, but was remarkable
for those improvements by which the human faculties were
strengthened.
The profession of Christianity was followed by no worldly
advantage, but, on the contrary, with proscriptions and perse-
cutions.
Sceptics, particularly Mr. Gibbon, have endeavoured
to account for the miraculous success of Christianity,
from causes merely human, viz.
(1.) The inflexible and intolerant Zeal of the first
Christians.
This indeed might supply Christians with that fortitude which
should keep them firm to their principles : but it could hardly
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56 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
be of service in converting infidels. No intolerance, however,
existed among the primitive Christians ; but, on the contrary,
among their heathen persecutors.
(2.) The Doctrine of a Future Life.
The success which attended the preaching of this doctrine,
was owing rather to the demonstration of the spirit and of
power that accompanied it, than to the doctrine itself, which
was by no means suited either to the expectations or the wishes
of the Pagans in general. Men must have believed the Gos-
pel, generally, before they believed the doctrine of a future life
on its authority.
(3.) The Miraculous Potvers ascribed to the Primitive
Church.
The actual possession of such powers by the apostles and
first preachers of Christianity has already been proved. But
when the numerous pretended miracles ascribed to the popular
deities of the heathen, and the contempt in which they were
held by the philosophers and by other thinking men, are con-
sidered; the miracles ascribed to the first propagators of Chris-
tianity, must have created a prejudice against their cause,
which nothing could have subdued but miracles really and
visibly performed.
(4.) The Virtues of the first Christians.
These Mr. Gibbon reduces to a mean and timid repentance
for sins, and zeal in supporting the reputation of their society.
But such virtues would have equally excited opposition to
Christianity. The infidel historian does not account for the
exemplary virtues of the first Christians ; whose virtues arose
from their faith, and not their faith from their virtues.
(5.) The Union and Discipline of the Christian Re-
public, as he terms the Christian Church.
But it is an incontrovertible fact, that the Gospel was pro-
pagated, before its professors were sufficiently numerous to
establish a discipline, or to form themselves into a society
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 57
V. Notwithstanding the variety and force of the evi-
dence in favour of Christianity, its opposers continue to
raise a variety of objections, viz.
Objection 1 The rejection of Christianity by the
unbelieving Jews, in the time of Christ, and also by
the greater part of the Gentiles.
In reply to this objection, we may
Answer, 1. — As to the Jews — That the Almighty does not
force the judgment, and that their wickedness and strong pre-
judices blinded their understandings and prevented them from
receiving the evidences of the Gospel. Anger, resentment,
self-interest and worldly-mindedness induced the scribes and
pharisees to reject Christ and cause him to be put to death, and
to prevail upon the people at large to reject the Gospel. Such
were the principal causes of the infidelity of the Jews and of
their rejection of Christ at jirst: nor is it difficult to conceive
what may be the reasons of their persisting in their infidelity
now. For
(1.) In the first place, on the part of the Jews, most (if not
all) the same reasons which gave birth to their infidelity, con-
tinue to nourish it, particularly their obstinacy, their vain hopes
and expectations of worldly greatness, and the false Christs and
false prophets who at different times have risen up among
them. To which may be added their want of charitableness
towards Christians, and their continuing to live insulated from
the rest of mankind.
(2.) Secondly, on the part of the world, the obstacles are,
the prevalence of Mohammedism, and other false religions, the
schisms of Christians, the unholy lives of many nominal Chris-
tians, and the cruelties, which have at various times been in-
flicted on this unhappy people. So far, however, is the infi-
delity of the Jews from being an objection to the truth of the
Gospel, that, on the contrary, it affords us a great number of
unsuspected witnesses to the truth of the Old Testament : and
many predictions of Moses and the prophets, of Christ and
his apostles, are remarkably fulfilled. It is also a great advan-
tage to the Christian Religion, to have been first preached and
propagated in a nation of unbelievers : for nothing but divine
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58 DIVINE AUTHORITY OF
truth could have stood the trial, and triumphed over all oppo-
sition.
Answer, 2. — With regard to the rejection of the Gospel
by the Gentiles, many of the preceding observations on the
infidelity of the Jews are equally applicable to them. Both
Jews and Gentiles were influenced by the prejudices of educa-
tion, — by hatred of the pure morality of the Gospel, — by the
temporal inconveniences which attended the profession of
Christianity, and the temporal advantages to be obtained by
rejecting or opposing it, — by the mean appearance, which
Christ had made in the world, — and by his ignominious death,
which they knew not how to reconcile with the divine power
ascribed to him by his disciples.
The Gentiles also had other causes of unbelief peculiar to
themselves, viz. the high notion, entertained by them, of the
efficacy of magic, of charms and incantations, and of the power
of demons and demi-gods; — their indifference about religion
in general, — the utter incompatibility of Christianity with the
established worship of their several countries, — the bad opi-
nion which they had of the Jews in general, of whom Chris-
tians were for some time accounted to be a sect, — the false
doctrines and crimes of heretical teachers and vicious professors
of Christianity, — and lastly, the antiquity of paganism.
Objection 2. — The prevalence of Mohammedism
over a considerable portion of the world.
Answer. — The prophecies are fulfilled, when all parts of the
world shall have had the offer of Christianity ; but it by no means
follows that it shall be upheld among them by a miracle. The
present state of those countries, where the Koran is received,
is an accomplishment of prophecy ; inasmuch as it was foretold
that such an apostasy would take place. The rapid progress of
Mohammedism is not to be compared with the propagation of
Christianity ; for Mohammed came into the world at a time
exactly suited to his purposes, when its policy and civil state
were favourable to a new and ambitious conqueror : and he
availed himself of every means, especially force of arms, to
promote the diffusion of his pretended revelation.
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 59
Objection 3. — Christianity is knoton only to a small
portion of mankind*
Answer. — For one, who professes deism, we shall find in
the world one thousand who profess Christianity.
The partial propagation of the Gospel, with the other ob-
jections brought against Christianity, having rendered its divine
original a matter of dispute, the tendency of these disputes has
been to separate the wheat from the chaff, and to make Chris-
tians draw their religion from the Scriptures alone.
The not having more evidence for the truth of the Gospel is
not a sufficient reason for rejecting that which we already have.
If such evidence were irresistible, it would restrain the volun-
tary powers too much, to answer the purpose of trial and pro-
bation. " Men's moral probation may be, whether they will
take due care to inform themselves by impartial consideration ;
and afterwards, whether they will act as the case requires, upon
the evidence they have." Further, if the evidence of the Gos-
pel were irresistible, it would leave no room for internal evi-
dence. They who sincerely act, or endeavour to act, according
to the just result of the probabilities in natural and revealed
religion, seldom fail of proceeding further : while those, who
act in a contrary manner, necessarily fail to perceive the force
of the evidences for the truth of the Gospel.
VI. Objections have been made to the darkness and
uncertainty of prophecy, which have been ascribed
1. To its Language, and 2. To the Indistinctness of its
Representations*
Answer 1. — With regard to prophetic Language, as prophecy
is a peculiar species of writing, it is natural to expect a pe-
culiarity in the language of which it makes use. Sometimes it
employs plain terms, but most commonly figurative ones. It
has symbols of its own, which are common to all the prophets ;
and these symbols have their appropriate rules of interpret-
ation.
Answer 2. — With respect to the alleged Indistinct Repine-
sentations of events predicted, it should be remembered, that, if
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60 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
some prophecies be obscure, others are clear : the latter furnish
a proof of the inspiration of the Scriptures, the former contain
nothing against it. Some predictions were to have their accom-
plishment in the early ages of the church, while others were
designed for the benefit of those who lived in after ages.
Answer 3. — Another reason for throwing a veil over the
face of prophecy will appear on considering the nature of the
subject. Some of the events predicted are of such a nature,
that the fate of nations depends upon them ; and they are to
be brought into existence by the instrumentality of men. In
the present form of prophecy, men are left entirely to them-
selves; and they fulfil the prophecies without intending, or
thinking, or knowing that they do so. The accomplishment
strips off the veil, and then the evidence from prophecy appears
in all its splendour.
Chapter V.
INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES.
Section I The System of Doctrine and the Moral Precepts, which
are delivered in the Scriptures, are so excellent and so perfectly
holy, that the Persons who published them to the World, must
have derived them from a purer and more exalted Source than their
own Meditations.
The sacred volume opens with an account of the
creation of the world by the Almighty, and of the for-
mation of man in a happy state of purity and innocence.
In this account there is nothing but what is agreeable
to right reason, as well as to the most antient traditions
which have obtained among the nations. We are fur-
ther informed, that man fell from that state by sinning
against his Maker ; and that sin brought death into the
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 61
world, together with all the miseries to which the human
race is now obnoxious : but that the merciful Parent of
our being, in his great goodness and compassion, was
pleased to make such revelations and discoveries of
his mercy, as laid a proper foundation for the faith and
hope of his offending creatures, and for the exercise of
religion towards him. (Gen. iii.) Accordingly, the re-
ligion delivered in the Scriptures is the religion of man
in his lapsed state : and every one, who impartially and
carefully investigates and considers it, will find, that one
scheme of religion and of moral duty, substantially the
same, is carried throughout the whole, till it was brought
to its full perfection and accomplishment by Jesus
Christ. This religion may be considered principally
under three periods, viz.
1. The Religion of the Patriarchal Times ;
2. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Mosaic Dis-
pensation ; and
3. The Doctrines and Precepts of the Christian
Revelation.
§ 1 . — A Concise View of the Religion of the Patriarchal Times.
The Book of Genesis exhibits to us a clear idea of
the Patriarchal Theology, which taught
I. Concerning the nature and attributes of God :
That He is the Creator, Governor, and Preserver of all
things ; that He is eternal, omniscient, true, omnipotent, holy
and just, kind, supreme, merciful, long-suffering, gracious to-
wards them that fear Him, and that He is not the author of
Sin.
IL Concerning the Worship of God :
The Patriarchs held that it was the duty of men to fear
Him, to bless Him for mercies received, and to supplicate #im
62 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
with profound humility ; that the knowledge of God is to be
promoted ; vows made to Him are to be performed, and idol-
atry is to be renounced. With regard to the external rites of
religion, the most antient on record is that of offering sacri-
fice ; and the Sabbath also appeal's to have been observed by
the Patriarchs.
III. With regard to the Moral Duties between man
and man :
These likewise are clearly announced, either by way of pre-
cept or by example ; more particularly, the duties of children
to honour their parents, of parents to instil religious principles
into the minds of their offspring, and of servants to obey their
masters. Wars may be waged in a good cause. Anger is sinful
in the sight of God ; strifes are to be avoided ; murder is pro-
hibited ; hospitality is to be exercised ; and injuries are to be
forgiven. Matrimony is appointed by God, from whom a vir-
tuous wife is to be sought by prayer ; and a wife is to be subject
to her husband. Children are the gift of God ; and adultery
and all impurity are to be avoided.
§ 2. — A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the
Mosaic Dispensation.
The Mosaic Dispensation was substantially the same
as that given to the Patriarchs, but with the addition
of a special covenant made by the Almighty with a par-
ticular people, for wise and moral purposes worthy of
the Supreme Being, and beneficial in its results to the
whole human race.
I. In the Mosaic Law the essential Unity of God is
most explicitly inculcated, no less than His underived
self-existence, eternity, immutability, omnipotence, pro-
vidence, justice, mercy, and other perfections. And
the same sublime representations of the Divine Being
and Perfections are made by the prophets and other
inspired writers among the Jews.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 63
II. Concerning the Duty of Man towards God,
both Moses and the Prophets enforce the obligation of
loving Him, fearing Him, believing in Him, trusting in
His promises, and obeying all His commandments ;
together with the duties of patience and resignation to
the divine will, and the internal worship of the heart.
III. The belief of a Future State which was held by
the Patriarchs, (though not explicitly taught by Moses,
whose writings pre-suppose it as a generally adopted
article of religion,) was transmitted from them to the
Israelites, and appears in various parts of the Old Tes-
tament.
The Book of Job is very explicit on this subject; David has
spoken of it with great confidence, particularly in Psalms xxi.
xxxvi. xlix. Ixxiii. and cxxxix.; and Solomon expressly alludes
to it in Proverbs v. 21 — 23. xiv. 52. and Eccles. iii. 16, 17. and
viii. 11. 13, This doctrine is also inculcated, and pre-supposed
as a matter of popular belief by the prophets Isaiah (xiv. 19.
xxvi. 19 — 21.), Hosea (xiii. 14.), Amos (iv. 12, 15.), and Daniel
(viii. 9 — 14. xii. 1 — 3.).
IV. The Expectation of a Redeemer, which had been
cherished by the Patriarchs, was also kept up by various
predictions, delivered by Moses and the prophets.
V. The Morality of the Jewish Code exhibits a per-
fection and beauty in no respect inferior to its religious
doctrines and duties. We owe to it the decalogue —
a manual of duty to God and man, so pure and com-
prehensive, as to be absolutely without parallel : and
the sanctions of the remaining enactments of the law
are such as morality possessed in no other nation. More
particularly,
1. It taught humility and meekness.
2. It prohibited all uncleanness and unnatural lusts, as well
as drunkenness, gluttony, and all covetous desires.
64i INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
3. Our duty towards our neighbour is also clearly set forth
(Levit. xix. 18.), together with all the social and relative duties
of life.
4. Every kind of justice was strictly required by the law of
Moses. Murder was forbidden by the sixth commandment,
adultery by the seventh, and theft by the eighth. All kinds of
violence, oppression, and fraud were also forbidden.
5. All hatred and malice were prohibited ; nor were kind
offices to be confined to brethren and friends; they were also
to be performed to enemies and to strangers. Nay, mercy was
to be extended even to the brute creation.
VI. The Mosaic Dispensation was introductory to
Christianity.
The Law of Moses, though not absolutely perfect, had a per-
fection suited to its kind and design. It was adapted to the
genius of the people to whom it was given, and calculated to
keep them distinct from the rest of mankind, and to prevent
them from being involved in the idolatries common among
other nations. It was at the same time ordained to pre-signify
good things to come, and to bear a strong attestation to the
truth of the Christian Religion.
But, however excellent in itself, and admirably
adapted to the purposes for which it was designed, the
Mosaic Dispensation was only of a local and temporary
nature, and preparatory to that fuller manifestation of
the divine will, which, " in the fulness of time" was
to be made known to the world under the Gospel Dis-
pensation.
$ 3. — A Summary View of the Doctrines and Precepts of the
Gospel Dispensation.
I. The whole character and conduct of the Founder
of Christianity proved him to be a divine person.
Never indeed was there so perfect a character, so
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 65
godlike, venerable, and amiable, and so utterly remote
from that of an enthusiast or an impostor.
II. The Leading Doctrines of the Gospel are worthy
of the character of the Almighty, and adapted to the
necessities of mankind ; particularly,
1. The Account of God and of his Perfections, and the duty
and spiritual worship which we owe to him.
2. The vicarious atonement made for sin by Jesus Christ.
3. Forgiveness of sins.
4. Justification by faith, and reconciliation to God.
5. The Promise of the Holy Spirit to renew and sanctify
our nature.
6. The Immortality of the Soul, and a future state of
Rewards and Punishments.
III. The Moral Precepts of the Gospel are admirably
adapted to the actual state of mankind.
1. As to the Duties between man and man, the Gospel par-
ticularly enjoins integrity of conduct, charity, forgiveness of
injuries.
2. It lays down the duties incumbent upon us in the several
relations which we sustain in civil and social life, for instance,
the mutual duties of governors and subjects, masters and ser-
vants, husbands and wives, parents and children.
3. It enforces, and recommends by various considerations,
the personal duties of sobriety, temperance, chastity, humility,
&c. ; and guards us against an immoderate passion for transient
worldly riches ; while it affords us the best remedies against
anxious cares, excessive sorrows, and desponding fears. While
it enjoins trust in God, it directs us to the use of all honest
and proper means and industry on our parts.
4. The Holiness of the moral precepts of the Gospel is an-
other proof of its divine origin. All its precepts aim directly
at the heart ; teaching us to refer all our actions to the will of
our Creator, and correcting all selfishness in the human cha-
racter, by teaching us to have in view the happiness of those
about us.
66 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
5. The Manner in which the morality of the Gospel is deli-
vered attests its divine origin.
Among the heathen, no provision was made for the moral
instruction of the unlettered multitude :. but Christ taught all
that would listen to him, with inimitable plainness and sim-
plicity, and at the same time with the most perfect modesty
and delicacy, blended with the utmost boldness and integrity.
The character of Christ forms an essential part of the
morality of the Gospel. In each of the four narratives of his
life, besides the absence of every appearance of vice, we per-
ceive traces of devotion, humility, patience, benignity, benevo-
lence, mildness, and prudence The New Testament is
replete with piety and devotional virtues, which were unknown
to the antient heathen moralists.
IV. Superiority of the motives to duty presented by
the Gospel. They are drawn,
1. From a consideration of the reasonableness of the duty
enjoined.
2. From the singular favours conferred on us by God.
3. From the example of Christ.
4. From the sanctions of duty, which the civil relations
among men have received from God.
5. From the regard which Christians owe to their holy pro-
fession.
6. From the acceptableness of true repentance and the
promise of pardon.
7. From the divine assistance, offered to support men in the
practice of their duty.
8. From our relation to heaven, while upon earth.
9. From the rewards and punishments proclaimed in the
gospel.
All these sublime moral precepts and motives are found in
various parts of the New Testament. How the writers of
that volume should be able to draw up a system of morals,
which the world after the lapse of eighteen centuries cannot
improve, while it perceives numberless faults in those of the
philosophers of India, Greece, and Rome, and of the opposers
of revelation, is a question of fact, for which the candid deist
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTTJRES. 67
is concerned to account in a rational way. The Christian is
able to do it with ease. The evangelists and the Apostles of
Jesus Christ " spake as they were moved by the Holy Spirit."
§ 4.— On the Objections of Unbelievers to the Doctrines and
Morality of the Bible.
Objection I. — Some of the peculiar doctrines
which the Scriptures propound to our belief, are mys-
terious and contrary to reason : and, where mystery
begins, religion ends.
Answer. — This assertion is erroneous : for nothing is so
mysterious as the eternity and self-existence of God; yet, to
believe that God exists, is the foundation of all religion. We
cannot comprehend the common operations of nature; and if
we ascend to the higher departments of science — even to the
science of demonstration itself, the mathematics — we shall
find that mysteries exist there.
Mysteries in the Christian Religion, instead of being sus-
pected, should rather be regarded as a proof of its divine
origin: for, if nothing more were contained in the New
Testament than we previously knew, or nothing more than we
could easily comprehend, we might justly doubt if it came from
God, and whether it was not rather a work of man's device.
Further, the mysteries which appear most contrary to reason,
are closely connected with the truths and facts of which reason
is convinced.
Though some of the truths revealed in the Scriptures are
mysterious, yet the tendency of the most exalted of its myste-
ries is practical.
Objection II. — The scripture doctrine of redemp-
tion is inconsistent with the ideas, which are now
generally received concerning the magnitude of
creation.
Answer. — The comparative dimension of our world is of
no account ; if it be large enough for the accomplishment of
68 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
events, which are sufficient to occupy the minds of all intelli-
gences, that is all which is required.
Objection III. — The doctrine of a future judg-
ment is improbable; and the twofold sanction of
rewards and punishments is of human invention.
Answer. — It is but reasonable, that the same person, by
whom God carried on his merciful design of recovering man-
kind from a state of sin, who felt our infirmities, and was
tempted as we are, should be appointed the final judge of all
men, and the dispenser of future retribution.
Lord Bolingbroke intimates, that the notion whereon the
sanction of future rewards and punishments is founded, savours
more of human passions than of justice or prudence ; and
that it implies, that the proceedings of God towards men in
this life are unjust, if they need rectifying in a future one.
But the present life is a state of trial, to fit us for a future and
better condition of being. Though justice requires that re-
wards and punishments should, in this world, be proportioned
to the different degrees of virtue and vice; facts prove that
this is not the case. If therefore there be no recompense
hereafter, injustice must characterise the divine government,
and the Christian doctrine alone vindicates the ways of God
to man.
Lord Shaftesbury argues against the doctrine of future
rewards and punishments, as affording a mercenary and selfish
motive to virtue, which ought to be practised because it is
good and amiable in itself. It will however be seen, that this
is not the case, if it be considered that the Christian looks for
his reward, only to higher improvements in useful knowledge
and moral goodness, and to the exalted enjoyments which
result from these. But it is a proper reason to choose virtue,
because it will make us happy : for man has a natural desire
of life and happiness, and a fear of losing them ; and a desire
of well-being may conspire with the rest in the discipline of
the mind, and assist the growth of more liberal principles.
Further, when this respect to a future recompense is the
effect of a deliberate trust in the Judge of the universe, an
acquiescence in his government, and a belief that he is the
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 69
rewarder of such as faithfully seek him, and disposes us
to well-doing, it becomes religious faith, the first duty of
rational beings, and a firm bond of virtue, private, social, and
divine.
Objection IV. — Christianity establishes a system
of priestcraft and spiritual despotism over the minds
and consciences of men.
Answer. — Christianity establishes no such thing. That
there should be teachers of religion, to instruct men in its
principles, to enforce its precepts, and to administer its consol-
ations, has nothing in it contrary to the fitness of things, and
the public good. This argument acquires additional weight,
when we consider the qualifications which the New Testament
requires of the different orders of Christian ministers. See
particularly 1 Tim. iii. 1 — 7. iv. 11, 12. 16. 2 Cor. vi. 3.
2 Tim. ii. 22. 24, 25. 1 Tim. iv. 13, 14. ]2. 1 Tim. iii.
8—10.
It has however been said, that the most extravagant claims
to wealth and power have been made by men, who call them-
selves ministers of the Gospel. But with these claims Chris-
tianity is not chargeable. The New Testament establishes the
support of the ministers of religion on a reasonable footing.
Is it thought equitable, that those who teach philosophy and
the learned languages should be recompensed for their labour?
The Gospel sets the maintenance of its ministers on the same
footing (see Luke x. 7. 1 Cor. ix. 11 — 14.); but it does not
countenance in them any claim of either power or wealth.
Objection V. — The Gospel prohibits free inquiry,
and demands a full and implicit assent, without any-
previous examination.
Answer. — The contrary is the fact. The Gospel not only
invites but demands investigation : free inquiry is not preju-
dicial, but in the highest degree beneficial to Christianity,
whose evidences shine the more clearly, in proportion to the
rigour with which they are examined.
70 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
Objection VI. — The Morality of the Bible is too
strict, and lays mankind under too severe restraints.
Answer.^ — The contrary is the case: for the morality of
the Bible restrains us only from what would be hurtful to our-
selves or to others, while it allows of every truly rational,
sober, and humane pleasure.
Objection VII. — Some of the Moral Precepts of
Jesus Christ are unreasonable and impracticable.
Answer. — A candid examination of a few of the precepts
objected to, will show how little foundation there is for such
an assertion. For,
1. The prohibition of anger, in Matt. v. 22. condemns only
implacable anger, — sinful anger unrepented of. The same
restriction must be understood respecting other general asser-
tions of Jesus, as Matt. x. 33., which cannot apply to Peter.
2. The precept of Jesus Christ to forgive injuries, has been
asserted to be contrary to reason and nature.
A few of the most eminent heathen philosophers, however,
have given the same direction ; particularly Socrates, Cicero,
Seneca, and Confucius.
It has further been objected that this precept is given in a
general and indefinite way ; whereas there are certain necessary
restrictions.
Assuredly. But these exceptions are so plain, that they will
always be supposed, and consequently need not to be specified.
The Christian religion makes no alteration in the natural rights
of mankind, nor does it forbid necessary self-defence, or seek-
ing legal redress of injuries in cases, where it may be expedient
to restrain violence and outrage. The substance of what it
recommends, relates chiefly to the temper of the mind.
3. Against the injunction to love our enemies, it has been
argued, " If love carry with it complacence, esteem, and friend-
ship, and these are due to all men, — what distinction can we then
make between the best and worst of men ?"
But, in this precept, as in all moral writings " love" signifies
benevolence and good will ; which may be exercised by kind
actions towards those whom we cannot esteem, and whom we
are even obliged to punish.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 71
4. The commandment to " love our neighbour as ourselves" is
also objected to as unreasonable, and impossible to be observed.
In moral writings, love (as we have just noticed) signifies
good will expressing itself in the conduct. Now, this precept
of Jesus Christ may be understood,
(l.) As enjoining the same land of affection to our fellow
creature as to ourselves, disposing us to avoid his misery, and
to consult his happiness as well as our own. Or,
(2.) It may require us to love our neighbour in some certain
proportion as we love ourselves. The love of our neighbour
must bear some proportion to self-love, and virtue consists in
the due proportion of it. Or,
(3.) The precept may be understood of an equality of affec-
tion. Moral obligation can extend no further than to natural
possibility. Now, we have a perception of our own interests,
like the consciousness of our own existence, which we always
carry about with us ; and which, in its continuation, kind, and
degree, seems impossible to be felt with respect to the interests
of others. Therefore, were we to love our neighbour in the
same degree (so far as this is possible) as we love ourselves, yet
the care of ourselves would not be neglected.
The precepts, — to " do to others as we would have them
do to us," and to " love our neighbour as ourselves," — are
not merely intelligible and comprehensive rules : but they also
furnish the means of determining the particular cases which
are included under them : and they are likewise useful means
of moral improvement, and afford a good test of a person's
progress in benevolence.
5. The command to believe in Jesus Christ, and the sanctions
by which it is enforced, — " he that believeth and is baptised
shall be saved, but he that believeth not shall be condemned,"
(Mark xvi. 16.) — have been objected against : and it has been
said that " Faith, considered in itself can neither be a virtue
nor a vice, because men can no otherwise believe than as things
things appear to them."
Yet, that they appear in such a particular manner to the
understanding of individuals, may be owing entirely to them-
selves. All threatenings, moreover, must be understood of
unbelievers, who had sufficient light and evidence afforded them,
and who, through inattention, neglect, wilful prejudice, or
72 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
from corrupt passions and vices have rejected the Gospel, as
Christ himself says in John iii. 19. and xv. 22.
Objection VIII. — Christianity produces a timid
passive spirit, and also entirely overlooks the generous
sentiments of friendship and patriotism.
Answer 1. — Christianity omits precepts founded upon false
principles, such as recommend fictitious virtues, which, how-
ever admired and celebrated, are productive of no salutary
effects, and in fact are no virtues at all.
Valour, for instance, is for the most part constitutional;
and, when not under the controul of true religion, so far is it
from producing any salutary effects by introducing peace, order,
or happiness into society, that it is the usual perpetrator of all
the violences, which, from retaliated injuries, distract the world
with bloodshed and devastation. But, though Christianity
exhibits no commendation of fictitious virtues, it is so far
from generating a timid spirit, that, on the contrary, it forms
men of a singular courage. It teaches them to be afraid of
offending God, and of doing injury to man; but it labours to
render them superior to every other fear. The lives of Chris-
tians have, in numberless instances, displayed the efficacy of
its divine principles, which have enabled them to sustain unex-
ampled active exertion, persevering labour, and patient suffering.
2. With regard to Friendship, various satisfactory reasons
may be assigned why Jesus Christ did not enact any laws con-
cerning it.
[i.] A pure and sincere friendship must be a matter of choice,
and reluctant to the very appearance of compulsion.
[ii.] It depends upon similarity of disposition, and coincidence
of sentiment and affection, and upon a variety of circumstances
not within our control or our choice.
[iii.] Partial attachments, which usually lead persons to prefer
their friends to the public, would not be favourable to the
general virtue and happiness. But though the Gospel makes
no provision for friendship, it does not prohibit that connection,
but rather sanctions it by the example of Christ himself; whose
attachment to Lazarus and his family, and to John, the beloved
disciple, may satisfy us of his approbation of friendship both as
a duty and as an enjoyment.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 73
3. With respect to Patriotism, — if by this be meant a
bigoted, selfish, or fiery love of our country, which leads us to
seek its aggrandisement, regardless of the morality of the means
by which that is accomplished, it is no virtue.
But Jesus Christ virtually established the duty of patriotism,
by establishing the principle from which it flows, viz. the uni-
versal obligation of justice and love ; leading us to do good unto
all men, but especially unto them who are of the household
of faith, and enforcing more than ordinary affection between
husbands and wives, parents and children, brethren and sisters.
In all which cases he has decided that every additional tie,
by which man is connected with man, is an obligation to addi-
tional love. Above all, Christ himself, by his own conduct,
sanctioned, exemplified, and commanded patriotism.
Objection IX. — The Bible is the most immoral
book in the world.
Answer. — A candid examination of the morality of the
Scriptures most completely refutes this assertion. If, indeed,
the Bible be an immoral book, how is it that the reading of
this book should have reclaimed millions from immorality ? —
a fact, too notorious to be denied by any impartial observer.
Further, many of the immoral statements, which are said (but
which cannot be proved) to exist in the Bible, are founded on
a wilful inattention to the difference which exists between
antient and modern manners. The characteristic of modern
manners is the free intercourse of the two sexes in the daily
commerce of life and conversation. Hence the peculiar system
of modern manners ; hence that system of decorum, delicacy,
and modesty (founded on the morality of Scripture) which
belong entirely to this relation of the sexes, and to the state
of society in which it exists. But in the antient world there
was nothing of this intercourse. Besides, the immoral actions
which are recorded in Scripture, are not related for our imit-
ation, but for our caution.
Objection X. — The Bible inculcates a spirit of
intolerance and persecution.
Answer. — The religion of Jesus Christ has been represented
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74 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
as of an unsocial, unsteady, surly, and solitary complexion,
tending to destroy every other but itself. It does, indeed,
tend to destroy every other, but in the same manner as truth
in every subject tends to destroy falsehood, that is, by rational
conviction. Jesus Christ uniformly discountenanced bigotry
and intolerance in his disciples. Distinctions of nations, sects,
or parties, as such, to him were nothing : distinctions of truth
and falsehood, right and wrong, were to him every thing.
The moderation and liberality of pagan governments have
been eulogised by the opposers of Christianity, who have
asserted that persecution for religion was indebted for its first
rise to the Christian system. The very reverse is the fact.
Antient history records numerous instances of pagan govern-
ments that persecuted the professors of other religions.
Thus, the Athenians put Socrates to death, on account of
his religious tenets ; and Antiochus Epiphanes exercised the
most horrid cruelties against the Jews for their religion,
(l Mac. i. 40 — 64.) Tiberius prohibited the Egyptian and
Jewish worship, banished the Jews from Rome, and restrained
the worship of the Druids in Gaul, while Claudius had re-
course to penal laws, to abolish their religion. Domitian and
Vespasian banished the philosophers from Rome, and the former
confined some of them in the islands, and whipped or put
others to death. The violent means and cruel persecutions,
which were adopted by pagan governors to annihilate the Chris-
tian religion, for three hundred years after its first origin, are
too well known to be controverted.
Men, indeed, calling themselves Christians, have cruelly
persecuted others ; but the Gospel does not authorise such a
conduct and therefore is not chargeable with it. And facts
and experience have proved (particularly in France during the
revolution,) that not the friends but the enemies of the Gospel,
— not sincere believers, but apostates and atheists, — have
been the most cruel oppressors and persecutors, and the
greatest enemies both of civil and religious liberty.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 75
Section II The wonderful Harmony and intimate Connexion
subsisting between all the Parts of Scripture, are a further Proof
of its Divine Authority and Original.
Most of the writers of the Scriptures lived at very
different times, and in distant places, through the long
period of sixteen hundred years, so that there could
be no confederacy or collusion : and yet their relations
agree with, and mutually support, each other.
The same essential agreement, and the same depend-
ency of one upon another, obtains also among the
chief practical precepts, as well as between the doc-
trines and precepts of Christianity.
Objection. — There are contradictions to morality
as well as among the different writers themselves.
Answer. — These contradictions, as they are termed, are
seeming only, and not real : they perplex only superficial
readers. Nor is there a single instance, which does not admit
of a rational solution, by attending to the original languages,
and to the manners, customs, &c. that obtained in the coun-
tries where scenes mentioned in the Scriptures were situated.
Section III. — The Preservation of the Scriptures a Proof of
their Truth and Divine Origin.
To nothing, indeed, but the mighty power of God,
can we ascribe their preservation, amid all the attempts
made to annihilate them.
Section IV. — The Tendency of the Scriptures to promote the
present and eternal Happiness of Mankind, constitutes another
Proof of their Divine Inspiration.
Were all men sincerely and cordially to believe the
Bible to be a divine revelation, and to obey its precepts,
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76 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
how would the moral face of the world be changed !
Wherever it has been thus embraced, the most bene-
ficial effects have been the result.
I. The Writings of the earliest Professors of Chris-
tianity prove, that the first converts were reformed
characters.
1. For testimonies from the New Testament, compare
Rom. vi. 21, 22. 1 Cor. vi. 9—11. 1 Pet. iv. 3, 4.
2. The various Christian Apologists, who were com-
pelled to vindicate their character, bear ample testimony
to their exemplary lives and conversation. Among
these, the attestations of Justin Martyr, Athenagoras,
Tertullian, Minuciiis Felix, Origen, and Lactantius,
are particularly worthy of notice.
Though we cannot expect, from pagans, direct
testimonies to the virtues of men whom they perse-
cuted ; yet the works of heathen writers incidentally
furnish proofs of their innocence and worth. Pliny,
for instance, in his memorable letter to Trajan, says,
that the great crime of the Christians consisted, — not
in the commission of any wickedness, but — in assem-
bling together on a stated day before light, to sing
hymns to Christ as God. The apostate emperor
Julian, also, in his epistle to an heathen pontiff, com-
mended their charity and other virtues to the imitation
of the pagans. If the Gospel were merely the con-
trivance of man, the virtues and holiness of the first
Christians would be an inexplicable fact.
II. A Summary of the beneficial effects of Christian-
ity 011 SOCIETY IN GENERAL.
The benevolent spirit of the Gospel has served as a
bond of union between independent nations, and has
broken down the partition which separated Heathens
and Jews ; has abated their prejudices, and has rendered
them more liberal towards each other. Further, it has
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 77
checked pride and promoted humility and forgiveness;
has rendered its sincere professors just and honest, and
it has inspired them with firmness under persecution.
The benign influence of the Gospel has descended
into families, and abolished polygamy ; has diminished
the pressure of private tyranny ; has exalted and im-
proved the female character ; has improved every do-
mestic endearment ; given tenderness to the parent,
humanity to the master, respect to superiors, and to
inferiors ease : numberless charitable institutions, un-
known to the heathen world, have sprung from Chris-
tianity.
III. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on the poli-
tical state of the World.
A milder system of civil government, and a better
administration of civil justice, have been introduced :
the horrors of war have been mitigated ; and the mea-
sures of governments have been directed to their
proper objects.
IV. Beneficial Effects of Christianity on Literature
and the Fine ^rts.
Christianity has been the means of preserving and
disseminating moral, classical, and theological know-
ledge in every nation where it has been established.
The Law, the Gospel, the comments on them, and the
works of the fathers, were written in Hebrew, Greek,
or Latin, so that the knowledge of these languages
became necessary to every man, who wished to become
an intelligent Christian. The Christian doctrines and
precepts being contained in books, the use of letters
became necessary to its teachers ; and by them was
learning preserved. Modern opposers of revelation
ascribe all our improvements to philosophy : but it
was religion, the religion of Christ, that took the
lead. The reformers opened to us the Scriptures, and
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78 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
broke all those fetters which shackled human reason.
Philosophy crept humbly in her train, and now un-
gratefully claims all the honour and praise to herself.
Luther, Melancthon, and Cranmer, preceded Lord
Bacon, Boyle, Newton, and Locke.
Christianity is not to be charged with the crimes of
those who have assumed the name of Christians, while
their conduct has shown that they were utterly destitute
of every Christian sentiment. It is not peculiar to the
Christian revelation, that it has sometimes furnished a
pretext for introducing the very evils and oppressions,
which it was designed to remedy.
The mischiefs, which, through the corrupt passions
of men, have been the accidental consequences of
Christianity, ought not to be imputed to its spirit.
Nothing is better calculated to diffuse real comfort,
peace, and happiness throughout the world : and a
candid comparison of the morals of professing Christians
throughout the world, with those of heathen nations in
a similar stage of society, will demonstrate the beneficial
effects of Christianity.
V. Historical facts attest the benefits conferred by
the Gospel on the world.
Wherever Christian Missionaries have gone, the
most barbarous heathen nations have become civilized.
The ferocious have become mild ; those, who prowled
about for plunder, have acquired settled property, as
well as a relish for domestic happiness. Persons, who
dwelt in caves or huts, have learnt from missionaries
the art of building ; they who fed on raw flesh have
applied to agriculture ; men, who were clothed in
skins and were ignorant of manufactures, have become
acquainted with the comforts of apparel ; and the vio-
lent and rapacious have renounced their rapine and
plunder.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 79
The antient inhabitants of Germany, Hungary,
Scythia, Denmark, Sweden, and the aboriginal inha-
bitants of Britain and Ireland, as well as the modern in-
habitants of North and South America, the East and
West Indies, Greenland, South and West Africa, are
all illustrious monuments of the blessed effects pro-
duced by Christianity.
VI. The practical efficacy of Christianity, espe-
cially when contrasted with the effects of infidelity, is
seen more conspicuously and more satisfactorily in the
holy, useful, and exemplary Jives of real Christians in
the private walks of life, and in the peculiar supports
and consolations which they enjoy under adversity and
afflictions, and in the prospect of futurity : while in-
fidelity offers and can offer no ground or prospect of
support to its unhappy professors.
Section V. — The peculiar Advantages, possessed by the Christian
Religion over all other Religions, a demonstrative Evidence of its
Divine Origin and Authority.
It is the peculiar and distinguishing excellency of
the Christian Religion, that it possesses advantages
which no other religions or revelations have ; at the
same time it has none of the defects by which they are
characterised.
No other religions are confirmed by antient prophe-
cies, or by the blood of an infinite number of sensible
and intelligent martyrs, who voluntarily suffered death
in defence of what they had seen and believed. And
although other religions may pretend to be confirmed
by signs and remarkable events, (as the Romans
ascribed the success of their arms to their deities, and
the Mohammedans consider the successes of their
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80 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
prophet as a proof of the divinity of his mission ;) yet
it is not prosperity or adversity simply considered, but
prosperity or adversity as foretold by God or his pro-
phets, which is a certain character of true religion.
Nor has the Christian Religion any of those defects,
by which other religions are characterised. It is not
designed for the satisfaction of the carnal and worldly
appetites of men, as that of the Jews, who aspire after
temporal prosperity and worldly pomp ; nor is it a
medley like that of the antient Samaritans, made up of
a mixture of the Jewish and Pagan religions ; nor has
it any of the faults or extravagant superstitions of the
various religions of the heathen nations, antient or
modern.
The superiority of the Christian Religion over
every other is particularly evident in the following
respects :
I. In its Perfection.
Other religions, as being principally of human invention
and institution, were formed, by degrees, from the different
imaginations of several persons, who successively made such
additions or alterations as they thought convenient. But it is
not so with the Christian Religion ; which was wholly deli-
vered by Christ, is entirely contained in each of the Gospels,
and even in each epistle of the apostles.
II. In its Openness.
Other religions durst not show themselves openly, and there-
fore were veiled over with a mysterious silence, and an affected
darkness. But the Christian Religion requires no veil to cover
it, no mysterious silence, no dissimulation or disguise; although
it proposes to us such objects as are contrary to our prejudices
and received opinions.
III. In its Adaptation to the Capacities of all Men.
In heathen countries, the philosophers always derided the
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 81
religion of the vulgar; and the vulgar understood nothing of
the religion of the philosophers. But the Christian Religion
is alike suited to the learned and to the unlearned, having a
divine efficacy ; and an agreeable power suitable to all hearts ;
and it is most wonderfully adapted to those habits and senti-
ments which spring up in proportion as knowledge and refine-
ment advance.
IV. In the Spirituality of its Worship.
The heathen worship was corporeal and grossly sensual,
both in its object and in its rites. But the Christian Religion
gives us for the object of our worship, — not a God in human
form, — but a God who is a Spirit, whom it teaches us to ho-
nour not with a carnal but with a spiritual worship. (John
iv. 24.)
V. In its Opposition to the Spirit of the World.
While all other religions induce men to seek after the plea-
sures and profits of the world, in the worship of God ; the
Christian Religion makes us glorify God by renouncing the
world, and teaches us that we must either glorify God, at the
expense of worldly pleasures, or possess the advantages of the
world with the loss of our religion.
VI. In its Humiliation of man, and Exaltation of the
Deity.
All false religions debase the Deity and exalt man : but the
Christian Religion debases man and exalts the Deity.
VII. In its Restoration of Order to the world.
The heathen religions degraded their deities to an equality
with themselves, and elevated four-footed beasts, fowls of the
air, and creeping things, — yea, even their own vices and im-
perfections, to the rank of gods. But the Christian Religion
alone restores that order which ought to be established in the
world, by submitting every thing to the power of man, that he
might submit himself to the will of God.
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82 INTERNAL EVIDENCES OF
VIII. In its Tendency to eradicate all evil passions
from the heart.
Other religions chiefly tend to flatter the corrupt desires
and propensities of men. But the Christian Religion tends to
eradicate those desires and propensities from our hearts, and
teaches us utterly to renounce them.
IX. In its Contrariety to the covetousness and am-
bition of mankind, and in its aversion to policy, and
corruption, all of which were promoted by other reli-
gions.
X. In its Restoration of the Divine Image to Man.
Other religions would have God to bear the image of weak
and sinful man ; but the Christian Religion teaches us, that
men ought to bear the image of God, which is a most power-
ful motive to holiness.
XI. In its Mighty Effects.
False religions were the irregular, confused productions of
the politest and ablest men of those times : whereas the
Christian Religion is a wonderful composition, which seems to
proceed only from the most simple and ignorant sort of
people ; and, at the same time, is such as evinces that it must
have for its principle the God of holiness and love.
To conclude this argument : — if we contrast the ad-
vantages, which infidelity and Christianity respectively
afford to those who embrace them, we shall perceive
the evident superiority of the latter. The deist is not
happier, or more useful, in society, than the real
Christian, nor can he look into futurity with more
composure. But the latter is both happy in himself,
and useful in his day, and he looks forward to futurity
with humble and holy tranquillity. At least, he is as
safe in his death as any of the children of men. The
deist, on the contrary, by rejecting all moral evidence,
forfeits all things, and gains nothing; while the
Christian hazards nothing, and gains all things.
THE INSPIRATION OF THE SCRIPTURES. 83
Section VI — Inability to answer all Objections, no just Cause for
rejecting the Scriptures. — Unbelievers in Divine Revelation
more credulous than Christians.
Even though all the difficulties which are alleged
to exist in the Sacred Writings could not be accounted
for, yet this would be no just or sufficient cause, why
we should reject the Scriptures ; because objections
are, for the most part, impertinent to the purpose for
which they are adduced ; and if they were pertinent,
yet, unless they could confute that evidence, they
ought not to determine us against the Bible. If the
various arguments by which our Religion appears to
be true, cannot be disproved (and disproved they can-
not be), all the objections which can be conceived must
proceed from some mistake ; and those arguments, to-
gether with the conclusions deduced from them,
ought not to be rejected on account of the objections,
but such objections ought to be rejected on account of the
arguments. -There is no science without its difficulties,
and it is not pretended that theology is without them.
But difficulties can never alter the nature of things,
and make that which is true to become false.
To a considerate mind, all the objections, which can
be invented against the Scriptures, cannot seem nearly
so great as that, which arises against infidelity, from
the supposition that God should not at all reveal him-
self to mankind ; or that the heathen oracles or the
Koran of Mohammed, should be of divine revelation.
Nothing is more frequent than the charge of super-
stition and credulity, which is brought by modern
unbelievers against Christianity : and yet this charge
attaches with no small force to the opposers of revela-
tion. For it is much more easy to believe the facts
recorded in the New Testament, than to suppose them
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84 RECAPITULATION.
false, and believe the absurd consequences which must
follow from such a supposition. It is much more
credible that God should work a miracle for the esta-
blishment of a useful system of religion, than that the
first Christians should act against every principle that
is natural to man.
They, who will not be convinced by the present
evidence of the truth and certainty of the Christian
Religion, would not be convinced by any other evi-
dence whatever.
No man of reason can pretend to say, but that God
may require us to take notice of some things at our
peril, to inquire into them, and to consider them tho-
roughly. And the pretence of want of greater evi-
dence, which is sometimes made, will not excuse
carelessness or unreasonable prejudices, when God has
vouchsafed to us all that evidence, which was either fit
for him to grant, or reasonable for men to desire, or of
which the nature of the thing itself, that was to be
proved, was capable.
Chapter VI.
RECAPITULATION. MORAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR THE STUDY OF THE
SCRIPTURES.
I. Such are the principal proofs for the genuineness,
authenticity, credibility, and inspiration of the Holy
Scriptures : and, taking the whole together, every can-
did inquirer must be convinced that we have every
possible evidence for their truth and divinity, which can
be reasonably expected or desired. How absolutely
necessary a revelation was, to make known to mankind
RECAPITULATION. 85
the proper object of their worship, and to communi-
cate to them a just rule of life, is manifest from the de-
plorable state of religion and morals in the Heathen
world, both antient and modern.
II. The manner in which the sacred Scriptures have
been transmitted to us, their language and style, toge-
ther with the minute circumstantiality of the facts and
doctrines recorded in them, added to the moral impos-
sibility of imposing forged writings upon mankind —
are all indisputable proofs of their Genuineness and
Authenticity.
III. Equally satisfactory is the evidence for the Cre-
dibility of the writers. For they had a perfect know-
ledge of the subjects which they have related, and their
moral character was never impeached by their keenest
opponents ; their accounts were published among the
people, who witnessed the events which they have re-
corded, and who could easily have detected falsehood
if any such there had been, but who did not attempt to
question either the reality of those facts or the fidelity
of the narrators ; there is an entire harmony between
the Sacred Writers and profane history, both natural
and civil ; and the reality of the principal facts related
in the Bible, is perpetuated and commemorated by
monuments that subsist to this day in every country,
where either Jews or Christians are to be found.
IV. And that the Scriptures are not merely entitled
to be received as credible, but also as containing the
revealed will of God, — in other words, that they are
divinely inspired, — we have evidence of various kinds
amounting to moral demonstration : for, on the one
hand, their sacred origin is evinced by the most illus-
trious external attestations, viz. miracles and prophecy,
which carry with them the most manifest proofs of a
divine interposition ; and which it cannot reasonably be
86 MORAL QUALIFICATIONS FOR
supposed that God would ever give, or permit to be
given, to an imposture. And, on the other hand, the
Scriptures have the most excellent internal characters
of truth and goodness, in the sublimity, excellence, and
sanctity of the system of doctrines and morals which
they announce, — in the harmony and connexion that
subsist between all the parts of which they consist, in
the preservation of the Sacred Scriptures, and in their
admirable tendency (which is shewn by its effects where-
ever the Scriptures are cordially and sincerely believed)
to promote the glory of God and the good of mankind,
and the cause of virtue and righteousness in the world,
and to prepare men by a life of faith and holy obedience
upon earth for the eternal enjoyment of God in Hea-
ven ; — together with the peculiar advantages possessed
by the Christian Religion over all other religions.
On all these accounts the Holy Scriptures are thank-
fully to be received and embraced, as the word of
God, and as the rule of Christian faith and practice.
" And till I can see the evidence of them disproved, or
the religion of Christ demonstrated to be irrational and
absurd, I am determined, by the grace of God, to hold
fast my profession to the end, seeking after the king-
dom of glory by the practice of that righteousness
which prepares for, and leads to it, in a firm depend-
ence upon that comfortable declaration of Jesus Christ,
That God so loved the tvorld that whosoever believeth
in him should not perish, hut have everlasting life." *
Since the Holy Scriptures contain all things neces-
sary to salvation, it becomes the indispensable duty of all,
carefully and constantly to peruse these sacred oracles,
that through them we may become perfect, thoroughly
furnished to every good toorA\(2 Tim. iii. 17.) This, in-
* Bishop Watson's Tracts, vol. iii. p. 484.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 87
deed, is not only agreeable to the divine command —
Search the Scriptures, (John v. 39.) and to the design
of the Sacred Writings, but is further commended by
the practice of the Church in every age, and by the
divine promise to all true believers, that they shall all
be taught of God, (Isa. liv. 13.) The circumstances of
every individual must regulate the portion of time, that
ought daily to be devoted to this important study ;
which should be undertaken with devout simplicity and
humility, and prosecuted with diligence and attention,
with a willingness to resort to all necessary helps for
advancement in the truth, and for security against error.
To these qualifications, especially, should be added
prayer for divine aid and teaching, together with a sin-
cere desire to know and perform the will of God, and,
laying aside all prejudice, to follow the Scriptures
wherever conviction may lead our minds : for it is in-
dubitable that persons of piety, who are anxiously de-
sirous of the knowledge of divine truth, are aided by
the Spirit of God, in searching out the meaning of Scrip-
ture, particularly in such subjects as have a special re-
ference to faith and religious practice.
88
PART II.
ON THE LITERARY HISTORY, CRITICISM, AND INTER-
PRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES.
BOOKI. — ON THE LITERARY HISTORY AND
CRITICISM OF THE SCRIPTURES.
Chapter I.
ON THE ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE.
Section I. — On the Hebrew Language.
I. Antiquity of the Hebrew Language. — In this
language the Old Testament is written, with the excep-
tion of a few words and passages in the Chaldaean dia-
lect, which occur in Jer. x. 11. Dan. ii. 4. to the end
of vii. and Ezra iv. 8. to vi. 19. and vii. 12 — 17. It
derived its name from the root "\^y (aber) to pass
over : whence Abraham was denominated the Hebrew,
(Gen. xiv. 13.) having passed over the Euphrates, to
come into the land of Canaan. The shortness of its
words, the descriptive character of the names of places,
of animals, and of nations, as well as of the names given
to heathen deities, (as Jove, which is deduced from
Jehovah, Vulcan from Tubal-cain, &c.) together with
the traces of Hebrew, which are to be found in the
Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and other languages ;
— all combine to prove that Hebrew is the original of
all the languages or dialects which have been spoken in
the world. The knowledge of this language was very
ORIGINAL LANGUAGES OF SCRIPTURE. 89
widely diffused by means of the commercial connexions
of the Phoenician merchants.
The Hebrew language has had its several ages or de-
grees of purity. Its golden age was the period from the
time of Moses to that of David ; its silver age was the
interval between the reigns of Solomon and Hezekiah,
or Manasseh ; the iron age, between that period and
the 70 years' captivity in Babylon : after which the
Jews for a short time spoke a mixed dialect of Chaldee
and Hebrew, and ultimately lost it. The priests and
Levites, however, continued to cultivate it to the time
of Christ, as a learned language, that they might be
enabled to expound the law and the prophets to the
people ; which last period has been termed the leaden
age.
II. Antiquity of the Hebrew Characters. — The 22
characters, now in use, are of a square form, and are
generally ascribed to Ezra, who transcribed the antient
characters of the Hebrews into the square characters
of the Chaldeans, since which time the Samaritan or
antient Hebrew character ha3 fallen into disuse.
III. Concerning the antiquity of the Vowel Points,
a considerable diversity of opinion exists. The most
generally received opinion is, that they were neither
coeval with the Hebrew language, nor first introduced
by Ezra, but that they were invented about 500 years
after Christ, by the doctors of the school of Tiberias,
for the purpose of marking and establishing the genuine
pronunciation, for the convenience of those who were
learning the Hebrew Tongue.
1. Arguments for the modern date of Vowel Points: —
(l.) The Samaritan Letters (which were the same with the
Hebrew Characters before the captivity) have no points.
(2.) The copies of the Old Testament used in the synagogues
to the present time are unpointed ; which would not have
90 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES
been the case if the vowel points had been coeval with the
language itself. The oldest and best Hebrew manuscripts are
either unpointed, or the points therein are a late addition.
(3.) Rabbi Elias Levita (who first in the 16th century as-
cribed the vowel points to the Doctors of Tiberias) has con-
firmed the fact by the Authority of the most learned Rabbins.
(4.) The antient Cabalists draw all their mystical interpre-
tations of Scripture and metaphysical speculations from the
letters, but none from the points.
(5.) Points are never mentioned in the Talmud, the compil-
ation of which was not finished until the sixth century.
(6.) The Keri and Ketib, (a collection of various readings
made a short time before the completion of the Talmud,) re-
late exclusively to consonants.
(7.) The antient Chaldee Paraphrases and Greek Versions
read many passages of the text, in senses different from that,
which the points determine them to mean : whence it is clear
that they were unknown to the authors of those versions.
(8.) The antient Jewish Writers and Fathers of the Chris-
tian Church are totally silent concerning these points.
(9.) The letters «, n, \, and '» (Aleph, He, Vau, and Yod,)
upon the plan of the Masorites, are termed quiescent ; because,
according to them, they have no sound. At other times, these
letters indicate various sounds, according to the fancy of these
critics : — a contradiction this, which annihilates this supposed
argument.
(10.) As no traces of vowel points are to be found earlier
than the middle of the tenth century, we are authorized to as-
sign it as the true date of these points.
2. In behalf of their Antiquity, it is contended
that,
(l.) All languages require vowels.
Answer. — This is granted. But that is no proof of the anti-
quity of the vowel points: because the Hebrew language always
had, and still has, vowels independent of the points, without which
it may be read.
(2.) The reading of Hebrew would be rendered very uncer-
tain, after the language ceased to be spoken.
OF SCRIPTURE. 91
Answer. — Even after Hebrew ceased to be vernacular, its true
reading might have been continued among the learned men to
whom it was familiar, and also in their schools which flourished be-
fore the invention of the points. Daily practice in reading, there-
fore, and a consideration of the context, would enable them not only
to fix the meaning and reading of doubtful words, but also to sup-
ply the deficient vowels.
(3.) Without the points the text would be so uncertain,
that we should be obliged to follow the direction of the Church
of Rome for the interpretation of Scripture.
Answer. — This is not necessarily the case : for we acknow-
ledge the divine original of what the points express, viz. the senti-
ments conveyed by the letters and words of the sacred text.
(4.) Accents and Verses are mentioned in the Talmud.
Answer. — Though the fact is admitted, yet that is no proof of
the existence of points : neither is the mention of certain words in
the masoretic notes, as being irregularly pointed, any evidence of
their genuineness or antiquity: for the masoretic system of annotation
was the work of several ages, and the later masorites being unwilling
to alter the mistakes of their predecessors, contented themselves with
noting particular words as having been irregularly and improperly
pointed. These notes therefore furnish no evidence of the existence
of points before the time of the first compilers of the Masora.
From the preceding sketch of the arguments for and
against the vowel points, the reader will be enabled to
form his own judgment. The weight of evidence, it is
conceived, will be found to determine against them.
Section II. — On the Samaritan Pentateuch.
I. Origin of the Samaritans. —
The Samaritans, mentioned in the New Testament,
were descended from an intermixture of the ten tribes
with the Gentile nations. This origin rendered them
odious to the Jews, who refused to acknowledge them
92 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES
as Jewish citizens, or to permit them to assist in re-
building the Temple, after their return from the Baby-
lonish captivity. In consequence of this rejection as
well as of other causes of dissension, the Samaritans
erected a temple on Mount Gerizim, and instituted
sacrifices according to the prescriptions of the Mosaic
law. Hence arose that inveterate schism and enmity
between the two nations, so frequently mentioned or
alluded to, in the New Testament. The Samaritans
(who still exist but are greatly reduced in numbers)
reject all the sacred books of the Jews except the
Pentateuch. Of the latter they preserve copies in the
antient Hebrew characters : these agree in all material
points with our present copies, which were those of the
Jews, and thus prove that the important books of
Moses have been transmitted to us uncorrupted, in any
thing material.
II. The few differences that actually exist between
the Samaritan and Hebrew Pentateuchs, may be satis-
factorily accounted for by the usual sources of various
readings, viz. the negligence of copyists, the con-
founding of similar letters, transposition of letters, &c.
The Samaritan Pentateuch is of great importance in
establishing correct readings. Two versions of it are
extant.
1. The Samaritan Version, made in the Aramaean
dialect (which is intermediate between the Chaldee
and the Syriac languages), by an unknown author in
Samaritan characters before the schism took place be-
tween the Jews and Samaritans. It is close, and faith-
ful to the original.
2. An Arabic Version, in Samaritan Characters,
which was made by Abu Said in A.D. 1070, to sup-
plant the Arabic translation of the Jewish Rabbi,
OF SCRIPTURE. 93
Saadia Gaon, which had till that time been in use
among the Samaritans.
Section III. — On the Greek Language.
I. The Septuagint Version of the Old Testament
was executed in the Greek language ; and as every
Jew, who read Greek at all, would read the Greek
Bible, the style of this operated in forming the style of
the Greek Testament, to which, as well as to the Old
Testament, the Septuagint is an important source of
interpretation.
II. The New Testament was written in Greek, be-
cause it was the language best understood both by
writers and readers, being spoken and written, read,
and understood throughout the Roman Empire. Its
style is characterized by the prevalence of Hebrew
phraseology, the language of the New Testament
being formed by a mixture of oriental idioms and ex-
pressions, with those which are properly Greek.
Hence it has been termed Hebraic Greek : and, from
the circumstance of the Jews having acquired the
Greek language rather by practice than by grammar
from the Greeks, among whom they resided, it has also
been termed the Hellenistic-Greek. A large propor-
tion of the phrases and constructions of the New Tes-
tament, however, is pure Greek, that is, of the same
degree of purity as the Greek spoken in Macedonia,
and that in which Polybius wrote his Roman History :
whence the language of the New Testament will derive
considerable illustration from consulting the works of
classic authors, and particularly from the Septuagint
Version of the Old Testament.
94 ORIGINAL LANGUAGES
III. The popular Greek dialect was not spoken and
written by the Jews, without some intermixtures of a
foreign kind : in particular, they intermixed many
idioms and the general complexion of their vernacular
language. These peculiar idioms are termed He-
braisms ; and their nature and classes have been treated
at considerable length by various writers. A few ex-
amples will suffice to show the nature of these He-
braisms. Thus :
1. To be called, to arise, and to be found, are the same as to
be. See Isa. lxi. 5. Matt. v. 9. 1 John iii. l. Esth. iv. 14.
Luke xxiv. 58. Dan. v. 12. Lukexvii. 18.
2. Verbs, expressive of a person's doing an action, are often
used to signify his supposing the thing or discovering and ac-
knowledging the fact, or his declaring and foretelling the
event. Matt, x, 59. l Cor. iii. 18. Isa. vi. 9, 10. Actsx. 15.
5. Negative verbs are often put for a strong positive affirm-
ation. Psal. lxxxiv. 11. Rom. iv. 19. John xiv. 8.
4. The privileges of the first born among the Jews being very
great, the chief or most eminent thing of any kind is called the
firstborn. Jobxviii. 15. The first born of death is the most
fatal and cruel death.
5. The words son, and children, have various peculiar signi-
fications : as, Sons of Belial, wicked men ; Children of dis-
obedience (Eph. ii.) are disobedient persons, &c.
6. Name is frequently synonymous with Persons. John i. 12.
iii. 18. Rev. iii. 4.
7. The Jews, having but few adjectives, and no superlatives,
in their language, had recourse to substantives to supply their
place. Thus kingdom and glory denote a glorious kingdom,
1 Thess. ii. 12.; glory of his power denotes glorious power,
2 Thess. i. 9.; Mountains of God are exceeding high moun-
tains, Psal. xxxvi. 7, &c.
8. According to the Hebrew idiom, a sword has a mouth ;
or, the edge of a sword is called a mouth, Luke xxi. 24.
Heb. xi. 54.
9. The verb to know frequently denotes to approve ,• as in
Psal. i. 6. Matt. vii. 23.
OF SCRIPTURE. 95
10. To hear denotes to under stand, to attend to, and to re-
gard what is said, Deut. xviii. 15. with Acts iii. 23. Matt.
xvii. 5. Luke viii. 8.
Besides these Hebraisms there are found in the New
Testament various Syriac, Chaldee, Latin, and other
idioms and words, which are respectively denominated
Syriasms, Persisms, Latinisms, &c. &e.
1 . Syriasms are the idioms peculiar to the Syriac or West-
Aramaean dialect ; and Chaldaisms are those peculiar to the
Chaldee or East-Aramaean dialect. Instances of these idioms
occur in Rom. viii. 15. Matt, xxvii. 46. Mark v. 41. vii. 34.
2. Latinisms are those Latin words and phrases, which oc-
cur in the New Testament, in consequence of the intercourse
of the Jews with the Romans, after Judaea had been reduced
into a Roman province. See Matt. x. 29. John ii. 15. Acts
vi. 9, &c.
3. The number of words used by St. Paul in peculiar senses,
as well as words not ordinarily occurring in Greek writers, are
considered to be provincial idioms at that time used in Cilicia:
whence they have been termed Cilicisms.
Section IV, — On the Cognate or Kindred Languages,
The Cognate or kindred Languages are those which,
together with the Hebrew, are dialects immediately
derived from the primitive language, if they are not ac-
tually derived from the Hebrew itself: and all of
which, though in progress of time they have become
distinct, may yet be considered in many respects as
similar, from the connexion that may be traced between
them.
I. The Chaldee was a dialect of the Aramaean
language, acquired by the Jews during the captivity,
and currently spoken in Judaea, in the time of Christ.
The knowledge of it is necessary, in order to under-
96 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
stand those passages of the Old Testament, which are
written in this dialect, as well as to understand the
Chaldee paraphrases made by Jewish authors.
II. The Syriac is also a dialect of the Aramaean
language, which was vernacular in Galilee. It differs
from the Chaldee in the character in which it is written,
as well as in the vowel points. It is of great use in
interpreting the Old and New Testaments by the aid of
the Syriac Versions.
III. The Arabic is a living language, possessing
sufficient analogy to enable us to explain and illustrate
the meaning of Hebrew words.
IV. The Ethiopic is derived from the Arabic, and
has been applied by eminent scholars to the illustration
of Scripture.
V. The Rabbinical-Hebrew is a mixture of
several languages, not wholly to be despised, though it
cannot very materially assist in the explanation of the
Bible.
VI. The great use of the Cognate Languages is, to
enable us to discover various readings.
Chapter II.
ON THE MANUSCRIPTS OF THE BIBLE.
Section I. — On the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Testament.
I. Hebrew Manuscripts are divided into two classes,
viz. autographs, or those actually written by the inspired
penmen, and apographs, or copies made from the ori-
ginals, and multiplied by repeated transcription. The
manuscripts still extant are of two descriptions ; viz.
OF THE BIBLE. 97
1. The Rolled Manuscripts used in the synagogues,
which are transcribed with great care, and under various
minute regulations designed to secure the purity of the
sacred text. The form of one of these rolled manu-
scripts (from the original among the Harleian MSS. in
the British Museum, No. 7619.) is given in the vignette
at the head of the section, which treats on the syna-
gogues of the Jews, in the third part of this volume.
It is a large double roll, containing the Hebrew Pen-
tateuch ; written with very great care on forty brown
African skins. These skins are of different breadths,
some containing more columns than others. The
columns are one hundred and fifty-three in number,
each of which contains about sixty-three lines, is about
twenty-two inches deep, and generally more than five
inches broad. The letters have no points, apices,
or flourishes about them. The initial words are not
larger than the rest ; and a space, equal to about four
lines, is left between every two books. Altogether, this
is one of the finest specimens of the Synagogue-rolls
that has been preserved to the present time.
2. The Square Manuscrijrts, which are in private use
among the Jews, are written, after the manner of our
printed books, on vellum, parchment, or paper, of various
sizes.
II. Among the Jews, five exemplars, or standard
copies, have been particularly celebrated for their cor-
rectness ; and from them all subsequent copies have
been made. These are,
1. The Codex of Hillel, a manuscript seen by Rabbi
Kimchi, in the 12th century, at Toledo.
2, 3. The Codices of Aaron Ben Asher, President of
the Jewish Academy at Tiberias, and of Jacob Ben
Naphtali, President of the Jewish Academy at Babylon ;
98 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
who, in the eleventh century, respectively collated the
Manuscripts of the Oriental and Occidental Jews.
4, 5. The Codex of Jericho and the Codex of Sinai
are both in high repute for their correctness. Of the
Codex Sanbouki nothing certain is known.
III. Various criteria, furnished by external testimony
as well as by internal marks, have been laid down by
learned men, for ascertaining the age of Hebrew Manu-
scripts : but these criteria have been questioned by
other distinguished critics, who have advanced strong
reasons to prove that they are uncertain guides in deter-
mining the age of manuscripts.
IV. The order in which the Sacred Books are ar-
ranged varies in different manuscripts. Few of those
which have been preserved contain the Old Testament
entire ; the greater part, indeed, comprise only par-
ticular portions of it ; and many have become mutilated
by the consuming hand of time.
V. As the Hebrew Manuscripts, which have been
in use since the 11th century, have all been corrected
after some particular recension or edition, they have,
from this circumstance, been classed into three or four
families, according to the country where such recension
has obtained : viz.
1. The Spanish Manuscripts, which were corrected
after the Codex of Hillel, follow the Masoretic System
with great accuracy. They are beautifully written, and
highly valued by the Jews, though some critics hold
them in little estimation.
2. The Oriental Manuscripts are nearly the same as
the Spanish MSS., and may be referred to the same
class.
3. The German Manuscripts are less elegantly written
than the Spanish MSS. They do not follow the Ma-
soretic Notation, and frequently exhibit important
OF THE BIBLE. 99
various readings, that are not to be found in the Spanish
MSS. This class, though little esteemed by the Jews,
is highly valued by Biblical critics.
4. The Italian Manuscripts hold a middle place, both
in execution and critical value, between the Spanish
and German MSS.
VI. The total number of manuscripts collated by
Dr. Kennicott for his edition of the Hebrew Bible, is
about 630 : the total number collated by M. De Rossi
for his Collection of Various Readings, is 479 MSS.,
besides 288 printed editions.
Almost all the Hebrew Manuscripts of the Old Tes-
tament, at present known to be extant, were written
between the years 1000 and 1457; whence Dr. Kennicott
infers that all the MSS. written before the years 700
or 800 were destroyed by some decree of the Jewish
Senate, on account of their numerous differences from
the copies then declared genuine.
VII. Among thevaluable biblical manuscripts brought
from India by the late Rev. Dr. Claudius Buchanan,
and now deposited in the University Library at Cam-
bridge, there is a roll of the Pentateuch, which he pro-
cured from the Black Jews in Malabar, who (there is
every reason to believe) are descended from the remains
of the first dispersion of that nation by Nebuchadnezzar.
The date of this MS. cannot be ascertained ; but it is
supposed to be derived from those copies which their
ancestors brought with them into India. It agrees in
all material points with our common printed Hebrew
text, and affords an additional argument for the in-
tegrity of the Pentateuch.
f 2
100 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
Section II. — On the Manuscripts of the Greek Scriptures.
§ 1 . — General Observations on Greek Manuscripts.
I. Materials of Greek Manuscripts. — These are
twofold: viz. 1. Vellum, of various thickness, which is
either purple-coloured, or of its natural hue ; and, 2.
Paper, made of cotton or linen. MSS. on paper are of
much later due than those on vellum.
II. Form of Letters. — The letters are either capital,
which in the time of Jerome were called uncial, i. e.
initial, or cursive, that is, small. Greek MSS. were
written in capital letters till the 7th century ; and a few
so lately even as the 9th century : but the small letters
were generally adopted towards the close of the 10th
century. The most antient MSS. were written without
accents, spirits, or indeed any separations of the words,
until the 9th century.
III. Numerous abbreviations exist in the earliest
MSS. They are made by putting together the first and
last letters, and sometimes also the middle letter: thus
KC (KS) for Kvpw (Kurios), Lord, 2HP (ser) for ^arrjp
(soteR), Saviour, &c.
In the author's larger work, facsimile specimens are
given of some of the more antient MSS., which could
not be reduced within the size of this page, so as to
convey an accurate idea of them : but the following
literal rendering of Matt. v. 1 — 3., according to the
Codex Bezas, or Cambridge MSS. of the Four Gospels
and Acts, (which is described in p. 107. infra,) will con-
vey to the English reader some idea of the manner in
which manuscripts were antiently written and printed.
Matt. v. 1—3.
andseeingthemultjtudeshewentupintoamountain
andwhenhewassetdown'cametohim
OF THE BIBLE. 101
HISDISCIPLES'ANDOPENINGHISMOUTH
HETAUGHTTHEMSAYING
BLESSEDJ-ff-ETHEPOORINSPT-FORTHEIRSIS
THEKINGDOMOFHEAVEN.
Very few MSS. contain the whole either of the Old
or the New Testament ; and almost all the more antient
are imperfect.
Corrections and erasures occur in all MSS. Such
corrections as were made a primd manu, that is, by
the copyist of a manuscript, are preferable to those
made a secundd manu, that is, by later hands. Era-
sures were made, either by drawing a line through a
word, or with the penknife, or sometimes the old writing
was obliterated with a sponge, and other words — trea-
tises indeed — were written in lieu of it.
IV. Manuscripts thus re-written are termed Codices
Palimpsesti, or Rescripti : many of them are of con-
siderable antiquity. They may be easily known, as it
rarely happens that the former writing is so completely
erased, as not to exhibit some traces. In a few instances
both writings are legible.
V. Families, Recensions, or Editions of the New
Testament.
Nearly 500 manuscripts, either entire or in frag-
ments, have been collated, for the New Testament,
by eminent critics ; the result of whose labours has
shewn that certain MSS. have an affinity to each other,
and that their text is distinguished from that of others
by characteristic marks. So early as the third century
there were in existence two families, recensions, or
editions of MSS., in other words, two entirely different
texts of the New Testament. Five different systems of
* SPT is contracted for sk«t : the original Greek is FINI (jmi)
for riNTEMATI (?xeumati).
F 3
]02 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
recensions have been proposed by distinguished modern
critics, viz.
1. The system of Dr. Griesbach and Professor Mi-
chaelis embraces the four following classes, viz.
[i.] The Alexandrian or Egyptian Recension com-
prises those MSS. the readings of which agree with the
quotations of the early Alexandrine Writers, after whom
it was adopted by the Egyptian Greeks.
[ii.] The Occidental or Western Recension was adopted
by the Christians of Africa, Italy, Gaul, and the West
of Europe generally.
[iii.] The Byzantine or Oriental Recension was in
general use at Constantinople, (which was called By-
zantium before Constantine gave it his name,) after that
city became the capital and metropolitan See of the
Eastern Empire.
As the Peschito, or old Syriac version of the New
Testament, differs from the three preceding recensions,
Michaelis, after Griesbach, has instituted another, which
he terms
[iv.] The Edessene Edition. It comprehends those
MSS. from which that version was made. No MSS. of
this edition are extant.
Most of the manuscripts now extant exhibit one of
the texts above described ; and some are composed of
two or three recensions.
2. The system of M. Matthaei recognises only one
Class or Family of MSS., which he terms Codices textus
perpetui, and pronounces every thing that is derived
from Commentaries and Scholia to be corrupt. It appears
to correspond with the Byzantine Text of Griesbach.
3. The System of the Rev. F. Nolan, which is the
result of a most laborious investigation, that does not
admit of analysis in this place, proposes three recen-
sions, viz. The Egyptian, Palestine, and Byzantine,
OF THE BIBLE. 103
coinciding respectively with the Occidental, Alexan-
drine, and Byzantine texts of Griesbach.
4. The System proposed by Professor Hug, of Fri-
bourg, divides the history of the text of the New Tes-
tament into three periods, viz.
[i.] Period 1. Comprises the text of the New Testament,
from the time when its several books were written, to the third
century. During this period the text did receive various alter-
ations ; and the text thus altered was, what is commonly
termed Kou/7? E/c8o<ns, or the common edition.
[ii.] Period 2. Comprises the three several -and independent
revisions of the common text, made nearly simultaneously
about the middle of the third century, viz. 1. By Origen, in
Palestine, whose revision was soon superseded by 2. That of
Lucian, a presbyter at Antioch in Syria, which obtained through-
out the East, in Thrace, and at Constantinople ; and 5. That
of Hesychius, a bishop in Egypt, where it was generally re-
ceived, and became the source of the Alexandrine family.
[iii.] Period 3. Embraces the variations made in the text of
the New Testament from the threefold recension in the third
century to our own time.
This ingenious system of Professor Hug has been
modified by
5. His pupil, Professor Scholz, who has, in fact, pro-
posed two systems of recensions, viz.
[i.] The first, which was announced in 1820, consisted of five
recensions, viz. 1, 2. The Alexandrine and Occidental, cor-
responding with the same classes of Griesbach ; 3. The Asiatic ;
and 4. The Byzantine, or Constantinopolitan, which answered
to the Byzantine of Griesbach ; and 5. The Cyprian, so deno-
minated from its containing the text of the Codex Cyprius, a
MS. of the 8th century, brought from the Isle of Cyprus. This
system Professor Scholz has since modified very materially, in
consequence of the results obtained by him in his biblical
researches in various parts of Europe and of Palestine.
[ii.] His second system consists of two classes only, viz.
1. The Constantinopolitan, which comprises all the MSS
f 4
104 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
written within the limits of the patriarchate of Constantinople,
or which were destined for liturgical use ; and 2. The Alexan-
drine, comprehending all the MSS. written in Egypt, Sicily,
the south of France, and elsewhere, the text of which originated
in Alexandria, but was never generally received or employed
for liturgical use.
The certainty of this last system, which is more simple as
well as more probable than any of the preceding, can only be
determined by the appearance of the critical edition of the
New Testament announced by Professor Scholz.
§ 2. — Account of Greek Manuscripts, containing the Oldand New
Testaments.
No existing MSS. of the New Testament can be
traced higher than the fourth century; and most of
them are still later. Some contain the whole New
Testament; others comprise particular books or frag-
ments of books, and several contain only detached
portions or lessons appointed to be read in the public
service of the Church. Some are accompanied with a
version, either interlined or in a parallel column.
These are called Codices Bilingues : the greatest num-
ber of them is in Greek and Latin ; and the Latin version
is in general one of those which existed before the
time of Jerome. *
1. The Codex Alexandrinus, or Alexandrian Manu-
script, is one of the most precious relics of Christian
* As the author found it impracticable to abridge the numerous
bibliographical accounts of MSS., which are given in his larger In-
troduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy Scrip-
tures, so as to convey a. full idea of their various contents, he has been
obliged to confine the analysis, contained in this section, to a notice
of the three most important manuscripts; viz. the Alexandrian,
Vatican, and Cambridge, MSS.
OF THE BIBLE. 105
antiquity. It consists of four folio volumes : the three
first containing the Old Testament and Apocryphal
Books ; the fourth comprising the New Testament,
together with the first epistle of Clement to the Corin-
thians, the apocryphal psalms ascribed to Solomon,
and some liturgical hymns. Athanaslus's Epistle to
Marcellus precedes the Psalms, to which last are an-
nexed the arguments of Eusebius, as his canons are,
to the Gospels. In the New Testament there is want-
ing the beginning as far as Matt. xxv. 6. ; likewise,
from John vi. 50. to viii. 52. and from 2 Cor. iv. 13. to
xii. 7. This MS. was procured at Alexandria, by
Cyrillus Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, by whom
it was sent as a present to King Charles I., in the year
1628. Since the year 1752, it has been deposited in
the British Museum. It was most probably written
between the middle and end of the fourth century ;
and tradition attributes the transcribing of it to one
Thecla, a martyress, of whom nothing certain can now
be known. It is written in uncial or capital letters.
A fac-simile of the New Testament was published in
1786, in folio, by Dr. Woide, Assistant Librarian at
the British Museum ; and a fac-simile edition of the
Old Testament is now in progress, under the editorial
care of the Rev. H. H. Baber, keeper of the printed
books in that noble library. The following passage,
rendered rather more literally than the idiom of our
language will admit, will enable the reader to form a
correct idea of the manner in which the original Greek
is written.
John, i. 1 — 14-.
INTHEBEGINNINGWASTHEWORDANDTHEWORDWAS
WITHGOD'ANDGODWASTHEWORD*
HEWASINTHEBEGINNINGWITHGOD
F 5
106 ON THE MANUSCRIPTS
allweremadebyhimandwith
outhimwasmadenotonethzng
thatwasmadeinhimlifewas
andthelifewasthelightofmen
andthelightindarknessshin
ethandthedarknessdidnotitcompre
hend* therewasamanse
Ntfromgodv/hosename^t^s
iohn^thispi^soncame
asawitnessthathemighttesti
fyconcerningthelightthata
llmightbelievethroughhim.
II. The Codex Vaticanus, or Vatican Manuscript,
which is preserved in the Vatican Library at Rome, is
also written on vellum in uncial characters, and most
probably before the close of the fifth century, though
some critics assign to it an earlier, and others, a later
date. It wants, in the Old Testament, from Gen. i. to
xlvi. and from Psalm cv. to cxxxvii. inclusive ; and in
the New Testament, from Hebrews, ch. ix. 14<. to the
end of that epistle, as well as St. Paul's other epistles
to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, and the entire book
of the Revelations. This last book, however, has been
added, as well as the latter part of the epistle to the
Hebrews, by a modern hand in the fifteenth century.
In many places, the faded letters have been retouched
by a modern but careful hand. Various defects, both
in orthography and language, indicate that this MS.
was written by an Egyptian copyist.
The following literal English version of the prophecy
of Ezekiel, ch. i. ver. 1 — 3. will enable the reader to
form a similarly correct idea of the manner in which
the Codex Vaticanus was executed.
OP THE BIBLE. 107
IEZEKIEL.
* # #
NNOWITCAMETOPASSINTHETHIR
INTHB
TIETHYEARFOURTH
MONTHONTHEFIFTHOFTHEMONth
WHENIWASINTHEMIDST
OFTHECAPTIVESBYTHE
RIVERCHOBARAnd
THEHEAVENSWE REOPENED
ANDISAWTHEVISIONSOFGDONTHEFi
FTHOFTHEMONTHTHIs
WASTHE FIFTH YE AROFThe
CAPTIVITYOFTHEKI
NGJOACHIM ANDCA
METHEWORDOFTHELDTOE
ZEKIELTIIESONOFBUZITHE
PRIESTINTHELANDOFTHECHALDEESB
YTHERIVERCHo
BARANDUPONMEWAS
THEHANDOFTHELDANDTLOOKEDANDLO
AWHIRLWNDCAMEOUTOF
THEN0RTHANDAGREATCL0UD
W1THIT
This manuscript has been repeatedly collated by
various critics : the Roman edition of the Septuagint,
published in 1587, professes to exhibit the text of this
manuscript, of which no fac-simile edition has ever been
printed.
III. The Codex Cantabrigiensis was presented to
the University of Cambridge by Theodore Beza, in
1531, after whom it is most commonly called the Codex
Bezce. It is a Greek-Latin manuscript ; concerning
its date, critics greatly differ ; but it may most pro-
bably be referred to the fifth or sixth century. It con-
tains the four Gospels and Acts of the Apostles : sixty-
six leaves of it are much torn and mutilated, and ten
have been supplied by a later transcriber. Notwith-
f 6
108 DIVISIONS AND MARKS OF DISTINCTION
standing its acknowledged antiquity, this MS. is deemed
of comparatively little value, in consequence of the
Greek text having been altered, and readings in-
troduced from some Latin version, which were war-
ranted by no Greek manuscript. An elegant fac-simile
edition of it was printed at the expense of the uni-
versity of Cambridge, under the editorial care of the
Rev. Dr. Kipling, in 2 vols, folio, 1793.
Chapter III.
ON THE EDITIONS OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENT.
[For the reason of the omission of this chapter, the
reader is referred to the Preface.]
Chapter IV.
ON THE DIVISIONS AND MARKS OF DISTINCTION OCCURRING IN. MA-
NUSCRIPTS AND PRINTED EDITIONS OT THE SCRIPTURES.
Section I. — Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring in the
Old Testament.
I. Different Appellations given to the Scriptures. —
The collection of writings, which is regarded by Chris-
tians as the rule of their faith and practice, has been
variously termed, — the Scriptures, as being the most
important of all Writings ; — the Holy or Sacred
Scriptures, because they were composed by divinely
inspired persons ; — the Canonical Scriptures, either
because they are the rule of our faith and prac-
OCCURRING IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 109
tice, or to distinguish them from apocryphal writings
(those of uncertain authority and of human origin) ;' —
and, most frequently, the Bible, that is, The Book, by
way of eminence, as being the Book of Books, infinitely
superior to every unassisted production of the human
mind.
II. The canonical books are usually divided into two
parts: 1. The Old Testament^ containing the revela-
tions of the divine will before the Birth of Christ ;
and 2. The New Testament, which comprises the in-
spired writings of the Evangelists and Apostles.
III. The Old Testament was divided into three por-
tions or classes ; viz.
1. The Law, including the Pentateuch or five Books of
Moses ;
2. The Prophets, containing the Books of Joshua, Judges,
1 and 2 Samuel, and 1 and 2 Kings : these were termed the
Former Prophets; and also the prophetical Books of Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve minor Prophets, who were
called the Latter Prophets, with reference to the time when
they flourished.
3. The Cetubim, or Hagiographa, that is, the Holy Writings,
so called because the Jews affirm that they were written by
holy men divinely inspired, but who had no public mission as
prophets. This division comprehended the Psalms, Proverbs,
Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations of Jeremiah, Ec-
clesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and the two
Books of Chronicles.
The Pentateuch is divided into 50 or 54* Paraschioth
or larger sections, according as the Jewish year is
simple or intercalary, one of which is read in the syna-
gogues every Sabbath day : and these paraschioth are
further subdivided into smaller sections termed Siderim
or orders. The reading of the law being prohibited
during the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, the
Jews substituted for it 54- Hapktoroth or sections from
110 DIVISIONS AND MARKS OP DISTINCTION
the prophets, which are further divided into pesuhim
or verses. After the restoration of the reading of the
law, by the Maccabees, the section which had before
been read from the law was used for the first, and
that from the prophets for the second lesson.
IV. Origin and rise of the Masora. — The sacred
text was, originally, written without any divisions into
chapters or verses, or even into words. In the lapse
of ages, various readings having arisen in consequence
of successive transcriptions, the Jews had recourse to
a canon, which they judged to be infallible, in order to
fix the reading of the Hebrew text. This rule they
called Masora, or Tradition, pretending that it was at
first given by God to Moses on Mount Sinai, when he
taught him, first, its true reading, and, secondly, its true
interpretation. 'The former is the subject of the Masora,
the latter (or true interpretation) is that of the Misna,
or Collection of Jewish Traditions and Expositions
of Scripture Texts, and of the Gemara or Commentary
thereon.
The Masoretic criticisms relate to the divisions of
the books and sections of books, the number of verses,
the notation of omissions, alterations, repetitions of
words and verses, and other minutiae. To this sys-
tem also belong the marginal corrections found in
Hebrew MSS. and printed editions of the Old Testa-
ment, termed Ketib, that is, tvritten, and Keri, that is,
read or reading, as if to intimate, " write in this man-
ner," but " read in that manner :" for instance, instead
of the sacred name Jehovah, the substitute Adonai
or Elohim. Learned men are greatly divided in senti-
ment concerning the date of the Masora ; but the most
probable opinion is that which refers its commence-
ment to the sixth century, when it was invented by the
learned Jews of Tiberias, and continued at different
OCCURRING IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. Ill
times by various authors. Their chief design in this
undertaking appears to have been the establishment or
preservation of the Hebrew text, without variations.
V. The Old Testament is now divided into four
parts ; viz
1. The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses.
2. The Historical Books, comprising Joshua to Esther, in-
clusive.
3. The Doctrinal or Poetical Books of Job, Psalms, Pro-
verbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon ; and
4. The Prophetical Books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, with his La-
mentations, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the twelve Minor Prophets.
These are severally divided into chapters and verses.
The former were invented by Cardinal Hugo de Sancto
Caro, about the middle of the thirteenth century: who,
having projected a concordance to the Latin Vulgate
translation, divided the Old and New Testaments into
chapters, which are the same we now have. These,
again, he subdivided into smaller sections, distinguished
by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. The facility of
reference, afforded by these subdivisions, suggested
the idea of a Hebrew concordance upon the same plan
to Rabbi Mordecai Nathan, a celebrated Jewish teacher
in the fifteenth century ; who retained the divisions of
chapters, but substituted Hebrew numeral figures for
the Cardinal's marginal letters. The introduction of
verses into the Hebrew Bible was first made, in 1661,
by Athias, a Jewish printer at Amsterdam : and from
him the division of verses has been adopted in all
copies of the Bible in other languages.
Section II. — On the Divisions and Marks of Distinction occurring
in the New Testament.
I. Antient Divisions.— Before the fourth century,
the New Testament was divided into longer chapters,
112 DIVISIONS, &C. IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.
called nrXoi (titloi), and others which were shorter,
called KE<pa\aia. [kephalaia), or heads, and also breves.
The most celebrated division of the four Gospels into
chapters was that of Ammonius, a learned Christian of
Alexandria, in the third century, from whom they have
been termed the Ammonian Sections. The Acts of
the Apostles and the Catholic Epistles were similarly
divided by Euthalius, an Egyptian Bishop, in the fifth
century, after whom these divisions have been called
the Euthalian Sections. Saint Paul's Epistles were
divided in like manner, by some unknown author, in
the fourth century. These divisions were superseded
by Cardinal Hugo's chapters, in the thirteenth century.
II. Punctuation and Division of Verses. — Eu-
thalius, who has just been mentioned, was the inventor
of the division of the New Testament into r'%o*
(stichoi), or lines regulated by the sense ; so that each
terminated where some pause was to be made in read-
ing. The introduction of points or stops, to mark the
sense, is a gradual improvement, commenced by Jerome
in the fourth century, and continued and improved by
succeeding critics. The verses at present found in
the New Testament were invented (in imitation of
those contrived by Rabbi Nathan) by Robert Stephens,
a learned printer, who first introduced them into his
edition of the New Testament published in 1551.
III. The Inscriptions or Titles prefixed to the
various books of the New Testament, are of great an-
tiquity ; but the author of them is not known.
IV. But the Subscriptions annexed to the epistles
are manifestly spurious, for some of them contradict
both chronology and history.
ANTIENT VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 113
Chapter V.
ON THE ANTIENT VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES.
To those who possess ability, means, and leisure, of
consulting them, the Antient Versions of the Old
Testament are a very important source of criticism
and interpretation of the sacred writings, the value of
which, however, varies according to the age and
country of their respective authors, the purity of the
text whence these versions were made, and the ability
and fidelity of the translators.
Section I. — Of the Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases.
Targum is a Chaldee word, signifying generally
any version or explanation : but this appellation is
particularly restricted to the versions or paraphrases
of the Old Testament, which have been composed in
the Chaldee Dialect. Ten of these expositions have
been preserved to our times ; viz.
I. The Targum of Onkelos on the Pentateuch, or
five books of Moses, was composed by a learned Jew-
ish rabbi of the same name, who is supposed to have
been contemporary with our Saviour. It is preferred
to every other on account of the purity of its style,
and its general freedom from idle legends.
II. The Targum of the Pseudo-Jonathan, so
called from being erroneously ascribed to Jonathan
Ben Uzziel, is a more liberal paraphrase of the Penta-
teuch than the preceding, but abounds with the most
idle Jewish legends. From internal evidence, learned
men concur in referring its date to the 7th or 8th cen-
tury of the Christian i£ra.
114 ON THE ANTIENT VERSIONS
III. The Jerusalem Targum, also on the five books
of Moses, in many respects agrees with that of the
Pseudo- Jonathan, in the impurity of its style, legend-
ary tales, &c. It was most probably written in the
8th or 9th century.
IV. The Targum of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, on
the Prophets (that is according to the Jewish Division
of the sacred books mentioned in p. 109.), is held in the
highest estimation. Its date cannot be exactly ascer-
tained ; some learned men making it nearly coeval with
the time of Christ, while others place it three or four
hundred years later.
V. The barbarous and in many places obscure
Targum on the Cetubim, or Holy Writings, though
ascribed to Rabbi Joseph, surnamed the Blind, in the
third century, is evidently a compilation of much later
date.
VI. The Targum on the Megilloth, or five books
of Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations of Jere-
miah, Ruth, and Esther, could not be written before
the sixth century. It is of very little value. The
same remark is applicable to
VII — IX. Three Targums on The Book of
Esther ; and X. a Targum on The Books of Chro-
nicles ; all of which are of very recent date.
XI. Of all these Chaidee Paraphrases, the Targums
of Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel are held in the
highest estimation by the Jews : but it is in establishing
the genuine meaning of particular prophecies relative
to the Messiah, in opposition to the false explications
of the Jews, and the erroneous expositions of Anti-
Trinitarians, that these paraphrases are pre-eminently
useful.
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 115
Section II. — Antient Greek Versions of the Old Testament.
I. Among the Greek Versions of the Old Testament,
the most antient and valuable is that usually designated
the Septuagint, from the tradition (now generally
rejected) of one Aristeas, who related that it was made
in seventy-two days, and by seventy learned Jews, who
had been sent by the Jewish High Priest Eleazar to
Alexandria, at the request of Ptolemy PhiladeJphus,
King of Egypt. It is, however, most probable, that
this version was really executed during the joint
reigns of Ptolemy Lagus, and his son Philadelphus,
and about 285 or 286 years before the Christian iEra.
II. The introd action of Coptic or pure Egyptian
words, and the rendering of Hebrew ideas in the
Egyptian manner, clearly prove that the translators
were natives of Egypt ; as the difference of style and
various ability, with which particular books have been
rendered into Greek, evince this version to have been
the work, not of one, but of several individuals.
III. The Septuagint Version, though originally made
for the use of the Egyptian Jews, gradually acquired
the highest authority among the Jews of Palestine,
who were acquainted with the Greek language, and
subsequently also among Christians. It retained its
authority, even with the rulers of the Jewish Synagogue,
until the commencement of the first century after
Christ; when the Jews, being unable to resist the
arguments from prophecy which were urged against
them by Christians, in order to deny these of the bene-
fit of that authority, began to deny that it agreed with
the Hebrew Text, and, ultimately abandoning it, they
adopted the Greek Version of Aquila, which is noticed
in p. 118. infra.
116 ON THE ANTIENT VERSIONS
IV. Numerous errors having in the lapse of ages
crept into the Septuagint, by the inaccuracy of tran-
scribers and other circumstances, Origen, a learned
Christian Father, in the early part of the third century,
undertook the laborious task of collating the Greek
Text then in use with the original Hebrew, and with
other Greek Translations then extant, and from the
whole to produce a new recension or revisal. Twenty-
eight years were devoted to this great critical work,
which antient writers have variously termed the Tetra-
pla, Hexapla, Octapla, and Enneapla. The Tetrapla
contained the four Greek Versions of Aquila, Sym-
machus, the Septuagint, and Theodotion : when he
subsequently added in two columns the Hebrew Text,
in its original characters, and also in Greek characters,
these six columns formed the Hexapla. The addition
of two other Greek Versions of some parts of the
Scriptures, in particular places, composed the Octapla;
and, a separate translation of the Psalms being after-
wards subjoined, the entire work has by some been
termed the Enneapla. It is, however, most probable,
that Origen edited only the Tetrapla and the Hexapla.
AsOrigen's object was to correct the differences found
in the existing copies of the Old Testament, he care-
fully noted the alterations made by him, with peculiar
marks. Fifty years after his death, this great work was
discovered in an obscure corner of the city of Tyre,
by Eusebius and Pamphilus, by whom it was deposited
in the Library of Pamphilus the Martyr, where Jerome
saw it about the middle of the fourth century. It is
supposed to have perished on the capture of that city
by the Arabs, A.D. 653. A few fragments, retrieved
from MSS. of the Septuagint and the writings of the
Fathers, are all that remain of this noble undertaking
in behalf of sacred literature.
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 117
V. The Septuagint continuing to be read in most of
the Greek churches, the text, as corrected by Origen,
was transcribed for their use together with his critical
marks. In progress of time, from the introduction
of numerous errors by copyists, a new revision became
necessary : and as all the oriental churches did not
receive Origen's labours with equal deference, three
principal recensions were undertaken nearly at the same
time, viz.
1. The edition, undertaken by Eusebius and Pam-
philus, about A.D. 300, from the Hexaplar Text, with
the whole of Origen's critical marks : by repeated tran-
scriptions these marks soon became changed, and were
finally omitted.
2. The recension of the Vulgate, or common Greek
Text, by Lucian, a presbyter of the Church at An-
tioch, who suffered martyrdom A.D. 311. He took
the Hebrew Text for the basis of his edition, which
was received in all the eastern churches from Con-
stantinople to Antioch. Contemporary with Lucian
was
3. Hesychius, an Egyptian Bishop, who undertook
a similar revision, which was generally adopted in the
churches of Egypt.
All MSS. and printed editions of the Septuagint,
now extant, are derived from these three recensions.
The Septuagint Version is of great importance, in a
critical point of view, not only for correcting the He-
brew text, but also for ascertaining the meaning of
particular idiomatic expressions and passages in the
New Testament.
VI. It remains to notice, briefly, some other antient
Greek Translations which have been incidentally men>-
tioned.
118 ON THE ANTIENT VERSIONS
1. The Version of Aquila, a native of Sinope, in
Pontus, was executed about the year 160. He was of
Jewish descent, and had apostatized from the Christian
faith to Judaism. His version, which is very literal,
was undertaken to gratify the Jews. Nearly contem-
porary with him was
2. Theodotion, an Ebionite or semi-christian : his
version is a kind of revision of the Septuagint ; it holds
a middle place between the servile closeness of Aquila
and the freedom of 4. Symmachus, who lived about the
year 200, and was also an Ebionite.
4 — 6. The three anonymous translations, usually
called the fifth, sixth, and seventh versions, derive their
names from the order in which Origen disposed them in
his columns. Their authors are not known.
Section III. — Antient Oriental Versions of the Old and New
Testaments. *
I. Syriac Versions. — Christianity being very early
preached in Syria, several versions of the Scriptures
were made into the language of that country.
1. The most celebrated of these is the Peschito (that
is, right, literal, or exact,) also called the Versio Sim-
flex, on account of its close adherence to the original
sacred text. It was made early in the second, if not
at the close of the first century : and, from some inter-
nal evidences furnished by the style, it is supposed to
have been the work of several authors. The second
* In the larger edition of the author's Introduction to the Study
and Knowledge of the Scriptures, he has treated the oriental ver
sions of the Old and New Testaments in distinct sections. They
are here condensed, in order to avoid repetitions, that would other-
wise be necessary.
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 119
epistle of Peter, the second and third epistles of John,
and the epistle of Jude, as well as the disputed pas-
sages in John, viii. 2 — 11. and 1 John, v. 7. are all
wanting in the New Testament of this version ; having
been added in the sixth century by some unknown and
indifferent translator. This version is much esteemed
for its singular fidelity.
2. The Philoxenian, or Syro-Philoxenian Version
derives its name from Philoxenus, or Xenayas, Bishop
of Hierapolis in Syria, A.D. 488 — 518, who employed
his rural bishop Polycarp to translate -the New Testa-
ment from the original Greek into the vernacular
Syriac of that time. Though inferior to the preceding,
it is nevertheless of considerable value in a critical
point of view, as well as for the intrepretation of the
New Testament.
3. The Syriac Translation of Jerusalem is known to
have existed from its having been discovered in a lec-
tionarium or book containing ecclesiastical lessons
from the New Testament. It has never been pub-
lished.
II. Egyptian Versions. — Two Translations of the
Scriptures have been made in the Egyptian language,
— one in the Coptic or antient dialect of Lower Egypt,
the other in the Sahidic or dialect of Upper Egypt,
and both from the Greek. The Coptic Version is by
some eminent scholars referred to the second or third
century, though others carry its date so low as the fifth
century; the Sahidic Version was probably executed
in the second century.
III. Several Arabic Translations have been
made at different times between the seventh and the
tenth or eleventh centuries, for the inhabitants of those
countries, where the Syriac and Egyptian languages
have been supplanted by the Arabic. They were not
120 ON THE ANTIENT VERSIONS
all executed from the original text, but from those
versions, which they were intended to accompany.
IV. The Ethiopic or Abyssinian Version of the
Old Testament was made from the Septuagint : some
fragments of it only have been printed, but the entire
new Testament has been published. This version is of
considerable antiquity, the Old Testament being re-
ferred to the second and the New Testament to the
fourth century.
V. The Armenian Version of the Old Testament was
also made from the Septuagint ; the New Testament
has been twice translated, from the Syriac, and then
from the Greek. This version is ascribed to Miesrob,
the inventor of the Armenian Alphabet, towards the
close of the fourth, or early in the fifth century.
VI. Though the Scriptures are said to have been
early translated into the Persian language, no frag-
ments of this antient version are extant. The Penta-
teuch is all that has been printed of the Old Testament;
it was translated by a Jew, and for the benefit of Jews.
Of the New Testament, there are extant two versions
of the four Gospels ; the most antient and valuable of
which is printed in the London Polyglott, by Bishop
Walton, from a manuscript of the 14-th century.
Section IV. — Antient Western Versions of the Scriptures.
I. Many Latin Versions of the Scriptures were made
at the first introduction of Christianity, by unknown
authors. One of these, called the Vetus Itala, or Old
Italic, appears to have acquired a more extensive circu-
lation than the others, to which it was 'preferred on
account of its clearness and fidelity. It was translated
from the Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments ;
OP THE SCRIPTURES. 121
and was made in the early part of the second century.
In the progress of time, very numerous alterations,
however, being made by transcribers, Jerome, towards
the close of the fourth century, undertook to revise it,
and make it more conformable to the original Greek.
Some parts only of this revision have been preserved.
But before it was completed, he undertook and at
length accomplished a version of the Bible, which gra-
dually acquired so great an authority in the west of
Europe, that, ever since the seventh century, it has
been exclusively adopted by the Roman Catholic
Church ; and in the sixteenth century the assembly or
council of Trent pronounced the Latin Vulgate (for so
this version is termed) to be authentic, and to be ex-
clusively used in the public service of the church.
Various grave errors having crept into this version in
the lapse of ages, several revisions were undertaken by
learned men. Of these, the most celebrated is the
revision of Pope Sixtus V. published at Rome in 1590,
but suppressed by Pope Clement VIII. whose authentic
edition appeared in 1592. This edition has been fol-
lowed in all subsequent impressions of the Latin Vul-
gate. Notwithstanding the variations between the
Sixtine and Clementine editions (both published by
infallible pontiffs !), and that several passages are mis-
translated in order to support the peculiar dogmas of
the Romish Church, the Latin Vulgate preserves
many true readings, where the modern Hebrew copies
are corrupted.
II. The Gothic Version of the Bible was made
from the Greek, both in the Old and New Testaments
by Ulphilas, Bishop of the Maeso-Goths, who invented
the Gothic characters. A fragment of the Book of
Nehemiah, the four Gospels, and some portions of the
Epistles, are all that has been published, from this
122 ANTIENT VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES.
version ; which, though interpolated from the Latin
Vulgate, is nevertheless much esteemed for its general
fidelity.
III. The Sclavonic or Old Russian translation
was executed from the Greek, in the ninth century, by
the two brothers, Cyril and Methodius. It is said to
have undergone several revisions ; and the New Tes-
tament is rendered with more perspicuity than the Old.
IV. The Anglo-Saxon Version is ascribed by Dr.
Mill to several authors, and is supposed to have been
executed in the eighth and ninth centuries. Having
been made from the Old Latin, it may be of use in
determining the readings of that version. Several
portions of it have been published at different times.
Section V. — Use and Application of Antient Versions.
As no one version can be absolutely free from
error, reliance ought not to be implicitly placed
on any one translation. Versions of Versions, that is,
versions not made immediately from the Hebrew of the
Old Testament, or the Greek of the New Testament,
are of authority only to determine the meaning of the
version from which they are taken.
I. The Alexandrian or Septuagint Greek Version,
from its very great antiquity, and its influence on the
style of the New Testament, claims the first place.
Next in order is,
II. The Syriac Peschito, which is particularly ser-
viceable for the interpretation of the New Testament.
III. The Latin Vulgate, with the exception of the
Psalms, claims the third place.
IV. The Targums or Chaldee Paraphrases, especially
that of Jonathan Ben Uzziel, illustrate many difficult
MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES. 123
passages in the Old Testament, as well as in the New
Testament.
V. Other versions made immediately from the He-
brew and Greek originals follow next in order.
Antient versions need not to be consulted, except in
passages that are really difficult, or unless an examina-
tion of them be instituted for some special object of
inquiry.
Chapter VI.
ON THE MODERN VERSIONS OF THE SCRIPTURES.
Numerous as were the antient versions of the Sacred
Scriptures, the publication of a version, being accom-
plished by the tedious process of transcription, was
necessarily slow, while the high price of manuscripts
enabled only the wealthy to procure them. The dis-
covery of the art of printing in the 15th century, and
the establishment of the glorious reformation through-
out Europe in the following century, facilitated the
circulation of the Scriptures, both in the original
Languages and through the medium of translations.
The Modern Versions of the Scriptures are two-fold,
viz. in the Latin Language, and in the vernacular lan-
guages of almost all the countries in which Christianity
has been propagated: and both are made, either by
persons in communion with the Church of Rome, or by
Protestants.
Section I On the Modern Latin Versions of the Old and New
Testaments.
I. Modern Latin Versions, executed in communion
with the Church of Rome.
g 2
124 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS
I. The Version of Sanctes Pagninus, a Dominican
monk, was undertaken under the patronage of several
popes ; and, after twenty-five years of unremitting
labour, was published in 1528. Though it has been
censured by one critic for its close adherence to the
original text, all the later commentators and critics
commend it for its exactness, and fidelity. It contains
only the Old Testament. This translation was re-
vised by
2. Arias Montanus, who has from this circumstance
been, erroneously, considered as a new translator of the
Bible into the Latin Language. Montanus's aim being,
to translate the Hebrew words by the same number of
Latin words, his edition may rather be considered as a
grammatical commentary than a true version, and is
best adapted to suit young beginners in the Hebrew
language.
3. The translations of Thomas Malvenda, and of
Cardinal Cajetan (who was not the author of that
which bears his name) have both fallen into oblivion.
4. Houbigant's Latin Version of the Old Testament
is framed according to the corrected Hebrew Text,
published by him in 1753, in 4 vols, folio, a work,
which has not answered the high expectations enter-
tained of it.
II. Modern Latin Versions of the Bible, executed
by Protestants.
1. The translation of Sebastian Munster, first pub-
lished in 1534, is considered, upon the whole, as very
exact and conformable to the original.
2. The Version which bears the name of Leo Juda,
though commenced by him, was finished by others : it
is acknowledged to be very faithful. It was first pub-
lished in 1543.
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 125
3. Sebastian Chatillon (better known by the name of
Castalio) in 1551 published a version of the Bible, in
which he aimed at rendering the Old and New Testa-
ments into classical Latin. His style has been severely
censured, as departing from the simple grandeur of the
sacred originals.
4. The Version of Francis Junius and Immanuel Tre-
mellius, first printed in 1575, is held in great estimation
for its simplicity, perspicuity, and fidelity.
5. The Latin Translation of Sebastian Schmidt, pub-
lished in 1696, is strictly literal.
6. The Version of Professor J. A. Dathe, printed
between the years 1779 and 1789, is deservedly in high
repute for its general fidelity and excellence.
7. The Version of the Old Testament, commenced
in 1816 by H. A. Schott and J. F. Winzer, professes
to be very close. The Pentateuch only has been pub-
lished.
III. Besides the preceding new modern Latin Ver-
sions, there have been several editions of the Latin
Vulgate, so much corrected from the Hebrew and
Greek originals, as in some degree to be considered
new translations. Of this number are the Latin Bibles
published by Isidore Clarius, in 1542 ; by Paul Eber,
in 1565 ; and by Luke Osiander, in 1578, and Andrew
Osiander in 1600. The edition of Clarius, who was a
Romanist, is preferred to those of the other three Pro-
testant scholars.
IV. Of the Latin Versions of the New Testament
the following are the principal :
1. Erasmus claims the first place. His version was
published in 1516 ; and it is admitted that he did suc-
ceed in giving a clear and faithful version as far as it
was possible, at that time. He varied but little from
the Vulgate.
g 3
126 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS
2. The Latin Version of Theodore Beza, published in
1556, has always been held in high estimation for its
fidelity.
3. The Latin Version of Leopoldo Sebastiani, which
appeared in 1817, professes to be formed after the text
of the Alexandrian Manuscript, collated with other
MSS. and critical helps. In all doctrinal points it
agrees with the tenets of the Romish Church.
4. The Latin Version of H. A. Schott accompanied
his edition of the Greek Testament, published for the
first time in 1805. It has been repeatedly printed, and
is much valued on the Continent as a useful critical
help to the understanding of the New Testament.
Section II. — Versions in the Modern Languages of Europe^
Asia, Africa, and America.
The translations of the Scriptures into the different
modern languages, which are spoken in the four quar-
ters of the globe, are so numerous, that it is extremely
difficult to obtain correct accounts of all of them,
and still more difficult to compress those accounts into
an analysis, like the present. The following tables,
however, will exhibit at one view the principal transla-
tions, together with the dates when they appeared,
the authors by whom they were executed, and the
places where they were severally printed. The first
of these tables is taken from the second volume of the
author's larger work, with a few additions ; and the
second and third are given, by permission, from the
eighteenth volume of the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana,
for which work he originally composed them.
OF THE SCRIPTURES.
Table I.
VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN EUROPE.
127
Translation.
N.T
Bible.
Author.
Place of Printing.
German - - 1522
1534
Martin Luther
Wittemberg.
English - -1526
1535
Tindal and Coverdale
.
Uncertain.
French - -| -
1535
Robert Olivetan
.
Geneva.
Swedish - -! 1534
1541
Olaus Petri
.
Upsal, Sweden.
Danish - J 1524
1550
Palladius and others
.
Copenhagen.
Dutch
I .
1560
Italian
1 -
1562
("Antonio Brucioli's re- 7
}_ vised ?
Geneva.
Spanish - J 1556
1569
Cassiodorus de Reyna
.
Frankfort or Basil
Russian - -' 1519
15S1
Cyril and Methodius ,
.
Ostrog. -
Helvetian dialect -j 1525
1529
-
Zurich.
Lower Saxon Dialect
1533
-
.
Lubeck.
Finnish . J 1548
1642
...
.
Stockholm.
Croatian - - 1553
.
-
.
Tubingen.
Basque . J 1571
_
.
_
Rochelle.
Welsh - -; 1567
1588
-
_
London.
Hungarian
1574
1589
-
.
Vienna.
Wendish
1584
-
_
Wittemberg.
Icelandic
1584
Thorlack
_
Holum, Iceland.
Pomeranian dialect -
1588
-
_
Barth.
Polish
1585
1596
Several
.
Bohemian
.
1593
Several
.
Cralitz, Moravia.
Hebrew
1599
.
Elias Hutter
.
Nuremberg.
Modern Greek
1638
.
Maximus Calliergi
.
Geneva.
Wallachian
1643
.
.
.
Belgrade.
Romanese
.
1657
.
Schuol.
Lithuanian
-
1660
Chylinsky
.
London.
Turkish
1666
.
Lazarus Seaman
.
Oxford.
Irish
1602
1685
Dr. Daniel, Bp. Bedell
.
London.
Livonian
1685
1689
.
.
Riga.
Esthonian
1685
1689
-
Riga.
Esthonian, dialect of
1686
.
.-
.
Riga.
Dorpatian dialect
1727
Grisons
.
1719
-
.
Coire.
Upper Lusatian
1706
1728
Several
.
Bautzen.
Lapponic
1755
Manks
-
1763
("Bishops Wilson and Hil-
(_ desley
Gaelic
1767
1802
f James Stewart and"?
t others -
Edinburgh.
Portuguese - -5
1712
1748-53
CFerreira d' Almeida
i Cath. -
}
Amsterdam and
Batavia.
I
1781
1783
Antonio Pereira, Cath
Lisbon.
Spanish
-
1793,4
Padre Scio, Cath. -
.
Madrid.
Maltese
1820
-
("Rev. W. Jowett, M. A. 7
i and Signor CannoloJ
Malta.
Samogitian
1820
.
.
.
Petersburgh.
Judffio- Polish
1821
_
N. Solomon
.
London.
Modern Russ
1821
>
Russian Dialects, viz.
Karelian (Gospel?
of Matthew) i
Mordwassian (4 7
Gospels) $
1820
1821
.
) Russian Bible Society
Petersburgh.
Tcheremissian, (47
Gospels) j
1821
-
J ,
G 4
128
ON THE MODERN VERSIONS
Table II.
VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN ASIA.
Language.
1
New Testament, or Bible, or Old Testa-
detached Books I ment, or detached'
thereof. | Books thereof.
New
Test.
Detached Bible, or Detached
I Books, I Old Test. I Books. I
Author.
Place of
Printing.
1 . Arabic, and
I its derivative
languages. I
Arabic - - -
Persian -
1816
Pushtoo -
1815
1818
Bulocha - —
2. Sanscrit,
and its de-
i rivative Ian-
guages |
Sanscrit - - 1808
Sikh or Pun- 1
jabee - I J
Assamese
Kashmiree I
Wutch, or "1
Multanee 3
Guzerattee
Bikaneer - I
Kunkuna -
Maruwar -
Oojuvinee- '
BundelkunO
dee \
Nepaulese
Mahratta
C 4 Gosp.
~~ i 1804.
4 Gosp.
1816.
fN. Sabat and RevJ?
— } H. Martyn, B.D I £ Calcutta.
J — — Lt.Col.Colebrookelj
— I Rev. H. Martyn jPetersburgh
5" Gen.Lev. JohnLeyden.M.D. 7 Spramnnre
i 1822. and others J Serampore
*1
1811-18
Hindee
Hindoostan- 1
hee - - 3
Bengalee <
Orissa -
Canarese
Tamul
! Telinga or!
Telogoo $
Cingalese
Malay
1811
_
1819
1819
—
1819
—
1820
1819
1818
1822
1822
=
1822
—
1822
—
1807
-
1812
-
__
1808-14
1801
1807
1820
^
1715
-
Pentl818
-I
Baptist 1
Missionaries^
Serampore.
Pent, and
Hist.Bks.l
1812-15. I
Pnt.Hist.1
and Poet. I
Books, I
1806-12.
Ps. 1747.
1801.05
1809-14
— 1725-28
-I
Gosp. of
Mark,
1812.
1771-80
1820
1731-33
] Halle.
("Danish Mission
iBenj. Schultz
Rev. H. Martyn Calcutta.
Paries' Mission-.} Serampore
Rev. W. Hands j
Danish Miss, f '
Ziegenbalg, £;Tranquebar.
and Schultz J i
— M. Des Granges
Gen. Ex. Fybrantz and
& Levit.
1771-83.
tam.
Phillipz
fMr. W. Tolfrey, Kcl<>mb<>-
\ and others J
Various Persons rAms*erfdam
(.1 & Batavia.
OF THE SCRIPTURES.
129
Table II. — continued.
New Testament, or Bible, or Old Testa-'
detached Books ment, or
detached
thereof. Books thereof.
Place of
\ New
Detached
Bible, or
Detached
g-
| Test.
Books.
Old Test.
Books. |
3. Chinese. ^
4. Other Asia-
1809-14 I —
1811-13-16 —
1815-21
1815-20
—
Rev.Dr.Marshman Serampore.
C Rev. Dr Morrison 7 r__f __
i& Rev.Mr.Milne J Cantoa
tic Versions.
Formosan
Tartar - -
C[ Matt, to
~* I John 1661
1813 —
i -
— Robert Junius
Psalt.1815 Edin. Soc. Mission
Amsterdam.
CKarass &
(.Astrachan
Astrachan.
Orenburg 7
Tartar - J
1820
-
-
-
Ditto
Calmuc 7
Tartar -J
Mongolian1!
Tartar -J
1815-20
Mora v. Mission. /
C Matt. & 7
~" i Lukel815 1 —
-f
Two Mongolian^
Petersburg!).
Chieftains J
Georgian -
1743
Unknown
Moscow.
Otaheitean or
] 1818-25 —
{"Missionaries of
l_ the Lond. Soc.
Eimeo and
Tahitan -
Tahiti.
Table III.
VERSIONS IN THE LANGUAGES OF MODERN AFRICA AND AMERICA.
New Testament, or Bible, or Old Testa- [
detached Books! ment, or
detachedi
thereof. I Books thereof.
Place of
Printing.
I New
Detached Bible, or
Detached
jTestament
Books.
Old Test.
Books. |
African.
Bullom -
- *
Gosp. of
Matt.
1-
_
Rev. G.Ny lander "7
Amharic, a 7
dialect of £ 1822
Abyssinia. J
1816.
-{
M. Asselin de \
Cherville
London.
American In-
dian.
Virginian
1661
—
1663
—
Rev. John Eliot { g
Delaware
-I
3 Epist.
of John.
1818.
}~
-
C- F. Dencke
New York.
Indian-Mas-
sachussett
-I
c
Gosp. of
John.
1709.
Matt.
}-
Psal 1709
-I
r Experience
t Mayhew
Rev. Mr. Freeman,
Boston, New
England.
Mohawk
- >
Mark, &
John.
1787,1804
c _
Capt. Brant,
f
/
\
Capt. Norton
> London.
Esquimaux 1809-13-19
_
_
Moravian Mission
J
Greenlandish 1799
_
_
—
Ditto.
West Indian. 1
C Copenha-
t gen'
Crcolese. 1781
'
~
"~
Unknown
G 5
130 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS
Of the numerous versions noticed in the preceding
tables, those are most interesting to the reader, which
have been executed in our vernacular tongue : a few par-
ticulars, therefore, respecting the different translations
into the English language, which have been made at
different times, will appropriately conclude this section.
The earliest English translation, known to be extant,
was made by an unknown individual, and is placed by
Archbishop Usher to the year 1290: of this there are
three manuscript copies preserved in the Bodleian
Library, and in the Libraries of Christ's Church and
Queen's Colleges, Oxford. Towards the close of the
following century, John de Trevisa, vicar of Berkeley
in Gloucestershire, is said to have translated the Old
and New Testaments into the English tongue, at the
request of his patron, Lord Berkeley : but, as no part
of this work appears ever to have been printed, the
translation ascribed to him is supposed to have been
confined to a few texts, which were painted on the walls
of his patron's chapel, at Berkeley Castle, or which
are scattered in some parts of his writings, several
copies of which are known to exist in manuscript.
Nearly contemporary with him was the celebrated
John Wickliffe, who, about the year 1S80, translated
the entire Bible from the Latin Vulgate : the New
Testament of Wickliffe was published in folio by Mr.
Lewis in 1731; and was handsomely re-edited in
quarto, in 1810, by the Rev. Henry Hervey Baber, one
of the librarians of the British Museum, who prefixed
a valuable memoir of this " Apostle of England," as
Wickliffe has sometimes been called.
The first printed edition of any part of the Scriptures
in English was of the New Testament, at Hamburgh,
in the year 1526. It was translated by William Tin-
dal or Tyndale, with the assistance of John Fry and
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 131
William Ray: the whole of this impression (with the
exception, it is said, of a single copy,) being bought up
and burnt by Tonstal Bishop of London and Sir Tho-
mas More, Tindalput forth a new edition in 1527, and
a third in 1528 ; and, two years after, his translation
of the Pentateuch appeared at Hamburgh, with another
edition of his Testament. In 1535 was published the
translation of Miles Coverdale, great part of which was
Tindal's ; and two years after, John Rogers, martyr,
(who had assisted Tindal in his biblical labours,) edited
a Bible, probably at Hamburgh, under the assumed
name of Thomas Matthews, whence it is generally
known by the name of Matthews's Bible. A revised
edition of this translation, corrected by Cranmer and
Coverdale, was printed at London in 1539, by Graf-
ton and Whitchurch, in large folio, and from its size is
usually denominated the great bible, No new ver-
sion was executed during the reign of Edward VI. ;
though several editions were printed both of the Old
and New Testaments.
During the sanguinary reign of Queen Mary, Miles
Coverdale, John Knox, Christopher Goodman, and
other English exiles, who had taken refuge at Geneva,
published a new translation hetween the years 1557
and 1560, with short annotations, inculcating the doc-
trines espoused by Calvin. The New Testament of
this edition was the first in English, which was divided
into verses. The Geneva Bible was highly esteemed
by the Puritans, and, in the course of little more than
thirty years afterwards, not fewer than thirty editions
of it were printed in various sizes, principally by the
royal printers. This translation is allowed to possess
considerable merit, for its general fidelity and perspi-
cuity. Eight years after the completion of the Geneva
Bible, a new version was published, with two prefaces,
g 6
132 ON THE MODERN VERSIONS
by Archbishop Parker, now generally termed the
Bishops Bible, from the circumstance of eight of the
translators being bishops : although this translation
was read in the churches, the Geneva Bible was gene-
rally preferred in families.
In 1582 the Roman Catholics published in 4to. an
English Translation of the New Testament at Rheims,
and of the Old Testament at Douay, in 1609-10, in
2 volumes 4to. It was crowded with barbarous and
foreign terms, calculated to perplex rather than to dif-
fuse the light of truth.
The last English version, which remains to be no-
ticed is the translation now in use, which is commonly
called King James's Bible. Shortly after his accession
to the throne in 1603, several objections being made
to the English Bible, the King, at the Conference held
at Hampton Court in the following year, commanded
that a new version should be undertaken, and fifty-four
men, of distinguished learning and piety, were ap-
pointed to this important labour : but, before it was
begun, seven of the persons were either dead, or had
declined the task. Such of them as survived till the
commencement of the work, being ranged under six
divisions, entered upon their labour in 1607, and com-
pleted it in 1610 ; it was then revised by a committee
of six of the translators, and finally reviewed by Bishop
Bilson and Doctor Smith ; the latter prefixed the ar-
guments, and wrote the preface. This translation,
generally known by the name of King James's Bible,
was first printed in 1611, and is that now universally
adopted wherever the English language is spoken. The
edition, generally reputed to be the most correct, is
that of Oxford, in quarto and folio, 1769, printed under
the superintendence of the late Rev. Dr. Blayney : the
text was carefully collated with several correct editions,
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 133
and the punctuation amended ; the summaries of chap-
ters and running titles at the top of each page were
also corrected, and 30, 49.5 new references were inserted
in the margin. From the singular pains bestowed, in
order to render this edition as accurate as possible, it
has hitherto been considered the standard edition, from
which all subsequent impressions have been executed.
Notwithstanding, however, the great labour and atten-
tion bestowed by Dr. Blayney, his edition must now
yield the palm of accuracy to the very beautiful and
correct edition published by Messrs. Eyre and Strahan,
His Majesty's Printers, but printed by Mr. Woodfall
in 1806, and again in 1813 in quarto; as not fewer
than one hundred and sixteen errors were discovered
in collating the edition of 1806 with Dr. B.'s, and one
of these errors was an omission of considerable import-
ance. Messrs. Eyre and Strahan's editions may there-
fore be regarded as approaching as near as possible to
what bibliographers term an immaculate text.
Of all modern versions, the present authorized Eng-
lish translation is, upon the whole, undoubtedly the
most accurate and faithful ; the translators having
seized the very spirit of the sacred writers, and having
almost every where expressed their meaning with a
pathos and energy that have never been rivalled by any
subsequent versions either of the Old or the New Testa-
ment. " Its style is incomparably superior to any
thing which might be expected from the finical and
perverted taste of our own age. It is simple ; it is
harmonious, it is energetic ; and, which is of no small
importance, use has made it familiar, and time has
rendered it sacred." *
* Bishop Middleton on the Greek article, p. 328.
134 VARIOUS READINGS OCCURRING IN
Chapter VII.
OF THE VARIOUS READINGS OCCURRING IN THE OLD AND NEW
TESTAMENTS.
I. Origin and Nature of Various Readings.
The Old and New Testaments, in common with all
other antient writings, being preserved and diffused
by transcription, the admission of mistakes was un-
avoidable : which increasing with the multitude of
copies necessarily produced a great variety of different
readings.
Among two or more different readings, one only can
be the true reading ; the rest must either be wilful cor-
ruptions, or the mistakes of the copyist. As it is often
difficult to distinguish the genuine from the spurious,
whenever the smallest doubts can be entertained, they
all receive the appellation of Various Readings ; but,
where a transcriber has evidently written falsely, they
receive the name of errata.
II. Sources of Various Readings.
As all manuscripts were either dictated to copyists,
or transcribed by them : and, as all these persons were
not supernaturally guarded against the possibility of
error, different readings would naturally be produced,
1. By the negligence or mistakes of the transcribers :
to which we may add, 2. The existence of errors or im-
perfections in the manuscript copied ; 3. Critical emend-
ations of the text made by the copyist without any
authority ; and 4. Wilful corruptions made to serve the
purposes of a party. Mistakes thus produced in one
copy, would, of course be propagated through all suc-
ceeding copies made from it, each of which might have
peculiar faults of its own ; so that various readings
THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 135
would thus be increased, in proportion to the number
of transcripts made.
III. The means by which the true reading is to be
determined are, 1. Manuscripts ; 2. The most antient
and best Editions ; 3. Antient Versions ; 4. Parallel
Passages, (which, being an important help to inter-
pretation, are noticed again in a subsequent page) ;
5. Quotations made from the Scriptures in the Writings
of the early Fathers of the Christian Church ; and
6. Conjectural Criticisms. All these sources are to be
used with great judgment and caution ; and the com-
mon reading ought not to be rejected but upon the
strongest evidence.
IV. Infidels have endeavoured to shake the faith of
less informed Christians, by raising objections against
the number of various readings. The unlettered Chris-
tian, however, need not be under any apprehension
that they will diminish the certainty of his faith. Of
all the many thousand various readings that have been
discovered, none have been found that affect our faith,
or destroy a single moral precept of the Gospel. They
are mostly of a minute and trifling nature : and by far
the greatest number make no alteration whatever in the
sense. Such are Aa/3iS (Damd) for Aavti (David);
SoXopuvra. (Solomonia) for ^oXo^ava (Solomon a) Solo-
mon ; ycaya (hago) for xa; eya (kai ego) (&£} for and
I); which, with many others, may be used indifferently.
Chapter VIII.
ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW.
A considerable difference of opinion exists among
some learned men, whether the evangelists and other
186 ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM
writers of the New Testament quoted the Old Testament
from the Hebrew, or from the venerable Greek versions
usually called the Septuagint. From an actual collation
of the passages thus cited, (which is given at length in
Hebrew, Greek, and English, in the author's larger work,)
it appears, that, though the sacred writers of the New
Testament have in many instances quoted from the
Hebrew Scriptures; yet they have very frequently made
their citations from the Septuagint, because it was
generally known and read : and as the apostles wrote for
the use of communities, whose members were ignorant
of Hebrew, it was necessary on that account that they
should refer to the Greek version. But where this ma-
terially varied from the meaning of the Hebrew Scrip-
tures, they either gave the sense of the passage cited in
their own words : or took as much of the Septuagint as
was necessary, introducing the requisite alterations.
Difficulty sometimes arises, with respect to the ap-
plication of the Quotations made by the apostles and
evangelists; when they are applied to a purpose to
which they seem to have no relation, according to their
original design. This difficulty is occasioned by the
writers of the New Testament making quotations from
the Old, with very different views. It is therefore
necessary to distinguish accurately between such quo-
tations as, being merely borrowed, are used in the
words of the writer himself, and such as are quoted in
proof of a doctrine or the completion of a prophecy.
The quotations from the Old Testament in the New
are generally introduced by certain formulae, such as,
That it might be fulfilled — As it is written — &c,
and various rules have been framed in order to account
for their application. They may, however, be referred
to the four following classes : viz.
I. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New,
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW.
137
in which the things predicted are literally accom-
plished.
Direct Prophecies are those which relate exclusively
to Christ and the Gospel, and cannot legitimately be
taken in any other sense ; and the Scripture is said to
be fulfilled in the literal sense, when that event, which
it foretells, is accomplished. The following table
exhibits the principal quotations which belong to this
class :
Gen. xii. 3. xviii. 18. xxii
quoted
Gen, xvii. 7. 19. xxii. 16, 17.
Deut. xviii. 15. 19.
Psal. ii. 1, 2. -
Psal. ii. 7.
Psal. viii. 2. -
Psal. viii. 4. -
Psal. xvi. 8—11.
Psal. xvi. 10.
Psal. xxii. 1. -
Psal. xxii. 18. -
Psal. xxii. 22. - -
Psal. xxxi. 5. -
Psal. xli. 9. -
Psal. xlv. 6,7. -
Psal. lxviii. 18. -
Psal. lxix. 21. -
Psal. lxix. 25. cix. 8.
Psal. xcv. 7—11.
Psal. cii. 25 — 27.
Gal.
Psal. ex. 1.
Psal. ex. 4.
Psal. cxviii. 22, 23.
Psal. cxviii. 25, 26.
Psal. exxxii. 11. 17. -
Isa. vii. 14.
Isa. ix. 1,2.
Isa. ix. 7. (with Dan. vii. 14. 27
Isa. xi. 10. -
Isa. xxv. 8.
Isa. xxvii. 9. and lix. 20, 21.
i. 18. 1 . . ... og
, . > Acts in. 25.
d in J
Luke i. 55. 72, 73, 74.
Acts iii. 22, 23.
Acts iv. 25, 26.
Acts xii. 33. Heb. i. 5. v. 4.
Matt. xxi. 16.
Heb. ii. 6—8.
Acts ii. 25 — 28. 31.
Acts xiii. 35.
Matt, xxvii. 46. Mark xv. 34.
( Matt, xxvii. 35. Mark xv. 34.
\ Luke xxiii. 34. John xix. 24.
Heb. ii. 12.
Luke xxiii. 46. .
John xiii. 18. Acts i. 16.
Heb. i. 8, 9.
Eph. iv. 7, 8.
C John xix. 28, 29. Matt, xxvii. 48.
I Mark xv. 36. and Luke xxiii. 36.
Acts i. 20.
Heb. iii. 7—11. iv. 3. 5—7.
Heb. i. 10—12.
Matt. xxii. 44. Mark xii. 36. Luke
xx. 42. Acts. ii. 34, 35. Heb.
i. 13.
■ Heb. v. 6.
{Matt. xxi. 42. Mark xii. 10. Luke
xx. 17. Acts iv. 11.
{Matt. xxi. 9. Mark xi. 9. John
xii. 13.
- Luke i. 69. Acts ii. 30.
- Matt. i. 23.
- Matt. iv. 15, 16.
Luke i. 32, 33.
Rom. xv. 12.
1 Cor. xv. 54.
Rom. xi. 26, 27.
138 ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM
Isa. xxviii. 16. ("with Joel ii. ") „ . aa , , ,-> . •• '
00 x ^ , , . >• Rom. ix. 33. and 1 Pet. n. 6.
32. ) quoted in j
r „ , 0 _ C Matt. iii. 3. Mark i. 3. Luke fii.
Isa. xl. 3-5. - - -} 4_6>
Isa. xlii. 1 — 4. - - Matt. xii. 17 — 21.
T v _ f Acts xiii. 47. and xxvi. 23. Luke
Isa.xhx.6. - - -j ..;32i
Isa. liii. 1. - - John xii. 38. Rom. x. 16.
Isa. liii. 3 — 6. - Acts xxvi. 22, 23.
Isa. liii. 4—6, 11. - - 1 Pet. ii. 24, 25.
Isa. liii. 4. - - - Matt. viii. 17.
Isa. liii. 9. - - 1 Pet. ii. 22.
Isa. liii. 12. - - - Mark xv. 28. Luke xxii. 37.
Isa. liv. 13. - - - John vi. 45.
Isa. lv. 3. - Acts xiii. 34.
Jer. xxxi. 31 — 34. - - Heb. viii. 8—12. x. 16, 17.
Hosea i. 10. - Rom. ix. 26.
Hosea ii. 23. - - Rom ix. 25. 1 Pet. ii. 10.
Joel ii. 28— 32. (in the He-") .•" . .. ■ 01
, ... . vv > Acts ii. 16— 21.
brew in. 1 — 4.) - -J
Amos ix. 11, 12. - - Acts xv. 16, 17.
Micah v. 2. - Matt. ii. 5, 6. John vii. 42.
Habak. i. 5. - - - Acts xiii. 40.
Haggai ii. 6. - - Heb. xii. 26.
Zech. ix. 9. Matt. xxi. 4, 5. John xii. 14. 16.
Zech. xi. 13. - - Matt, xxvii. 9, 10.
Zech. xii. 10. - - - John xix. 87.
y , ... - C Matt. xxvi. 31. 56. Mark xiv. 27.
Zech.xm. 7. - " "J 5o.
Tyj , j- , ("Matt. xi. 10. Mark i. 2. Luke vii,
~\ 27,
■»* , . - _ J Matt. xi. 13, 14. xvii. 10 — 13.
luai. iv. s>, t>. - - - 1 Mark .x> n_13 Lukei# 16^ 17#
II. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New,
in which that is said to have been done, of which the
Scriptures have not spoken in a literal, but in a spirit'
ual sense.
There are citations out of the Old Testament in the
New, in a mediate and typical or spiritual sense,
respecting Christ and his mystical body the Church.
The Scripture is therefore said to be fulfilled, when
that is accomplished in the antitype which is written
concerning the type. Thus, in John xix. 36. we read,
These things were done that the Scripture should be
fulfilled, — " a bone of him shall not be broken."
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 139
These words, which were originally written of the
paschal lamb, (Exod. xii. 46. Numb. ix. 12.) are said
to be fulfilled in Christ who is the antitype of that
lamb. Additional examples of the same kind will be
found in the annexed passages.
Gen. xiv. 18. 20. cited and applied in Heb. vii. 1 — 10.
Gen. xv. 5. Rom. iv. 18.
Gen. xvi. 15. - - - Gal. iv. 22.
Gen. xvii. 4. - Rom. iv. 17.
Gen. xviii. 10. - - Rom. ix. 9.
Gen. xxi. 1 — 3. - - Gal. iv. 22, &c.
Gen. xxi. 12. - - Rom. ix. 7.
Gen. xxv. 23. - - Rom. ix. 10.
Exod. xii. 46. Numb. ix. 12. John xix. 36.
Exod. xvi. 13—15. - - Johnvi. 31. 49. 1 Cor. x. 3.
Exod. xvii. 6. Numb. xx. 11. 1 Cor. x. 4.
Exod. xix. 6. '-*....'-"! Pet. ii. 9.
Exod. xxiv. 8. - - Heb. ix. 20.
Levit. xxvi. 11, 12. - - 2 Cor. vi. 16.
Numb. xxi. 8, 9. - - John iii. 14.
Deut. xxi. 23. - - Gal. iii. 13.
Deut. xxxii. 21. - Rom. x. 19.
2 Sam. vii. 14. - Heb. i. 5.
Psal. ii. 9. - - Rev. ii. 27.
Psal. viii. 4. - Heb. ii. 6—8.
Psal. viii. 6. - 1 Cor. xv. 27.
Psal. xviii. 49. - - Rom.xv. 9.
Psal. xxxv. 1 9. lxix. 4. and cix. 3. John xv. 25.
Psal. xl. 6—8. - - Heb. x. 6, 7.
Psal. lxix. 9. John ii. 17.
Psal. civ. 4. . - - Heb. i. 7.
Isa. xl. 6, 7. - - 1 Pet. i. 24, 25.
Isa. Iii. 7. and Nahum i. 15. Rom. x. 15.
Isa. liv. 1. - - Gal. iv. 27.
Isa. lxiv. 4. - - 1 Cor. ii. 9.
Hosea xi. 1. - - Matt. ii. 15.
Jonah i. 17. ii. 1. and iii. 5. - Matt, xii- 40, 41. Lukexi. 30. 32.
Habak. ii. 3. - Heb. x. 37.
Habak. ii. 4. - - Rom.i. 17. Gal. iii. 11. Heb. x. 38.
III. Quotations from the Old Testament in the New,
in which a thing is done neither in a literal nor in a
spiritual sense, according to the fact referred to in the
Scriptures, but is similar to that fact ; in other words,
where the passages referred to are cited in the way of
illustration.
140
ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM
Numerous passages of the Old Testament are cited
and applied by the writers of the New Testament to
an occurrence, which happened in their time, merely
on account of correspondence and similitude. These
citations are not prophecies, though they are said
sometimes to be fulfilled. This method of explaining
Scripture by the way of illustration, will enable us to
solve many difficulties relating to the prophecies. Simi-
lar instances are to be found in some classic authors.
The following table presents a list of the passages,
thus quoted from the Old Testament by the writers of
the New, in the way of illustration :
Gen. xv. 5. - cited
in Rom. iv. 18.
Gen. xv. 6.
\ Rom. iv. 3. Gal. iii. 6. and James
" ( ii. 23.
Gen. xviii. 10.
- Rom. ix. 9.
Gen. xix. 15. 26.
- Luke xvii. 28, 29. 32.
Gen. xxi. 12.
- Rom. ix. 7.
Gen. xxv. 23.
- Rom. v. 12.
Gen. xxv. 33.
- Heb. xii. 16.
Gen. xxvii. 28, &c.
- Heb. xi. 20. xii. 17.
Exod. ix. 16.
- Rom. ix. 7.
Exod. xxxii. 6.
- 1 Cor. x. 7.
Exod. xxxiii. 19.
- Rom. ix. 15.
Lev. xi. 45. - '
- 1 Pet. i. 16.
Lev. xviii. 5.
- Rom. x. 5. Gal. iii. 12.
Deut. vi. 13.
- Matt. iv. 10. Luke iv. 8.
Deut. vi. 16.
- Matt. iv. 7. Luke iv. 12.
Deut. viii. 3.
- Matt. iv. 4. Luke iv. 4.
Deut. xxv. 4.
- 1 Cor. ix. 9. 1 Tim. v. 18.
Deut. xxvii. 26.
- Gal. iii. 10.
Deut. xxxii. 35. -
- Rom. xii. 19. Heb. x. 30.
Deut. xxxii. 36.
- Heb. x. 30.
Deut. xxxii. 43.
- Rom. xv. 10.
Josh. i. 5.
- Heb. xiii. 5.
1 Sam. xxi. 6.
C Matt. xii. 3, 4. Mark ii. 25, 26.
" { Luke vi. 3, 4.
1 Kings xix. 14. 18.
- Rom. xi. 3, 4.
Psal. v. 10. and cxl. 4.
- Rom. iii. 13.
Psal. x. 7.
- Rom. iii. 14.
Psal. xiv. 1—3. and liii. 1
—3. Rom. iii. 10—12.
Psal. xix. 4.
- Rom. x. 18.
Psal. xxiv. 1.
- 1 Cor. x. 26.
Psal. xxviii. 16. -
- Rom. x. 11.
Psal. xxxii. 1, 2. -
- Rom. iv. 7, 8.
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW.
141
Psal. xxxiv. 12 — 16. . cited in 1 Pet. iii. 10— 12.
Psal. xxxvi. 1.
Psal. xliv. 22.
Psal. li. 4.
Psal. lxix. 9.
Psal. lxix. 22, 23.
Psal. lxxviii. 2.
Psal. lxxxii. 6.
Psal. cxii. 9.
Psal. cxvi. 10.
Psal. cxvii. 1.
Psal. cxviii. 6.
Prov. i. 16. Isa. lix. 78.
Prov. iii. 11, 12.
Prov. iii. 34.
Prov. x. 12.
Prov. xxv. 21, 22.
Prov. xxvi. 11.
Isa. i. 9.
Isa. vi. 9, 10.
Isa. viii. 12, 13.
Isa. viii. 17, 18.
Isa. x. 22, 23.
Isa. xxix. 10.
Isa. xxix. 13.
Isa. xxix. 14.
Isa. xxix. 16. and xlv. 9
Isa. xlv. 23.
Isa. Iii. 5. with Ezek. xxxvi. 20. Rom. ii. 24.
Isa. Iii. 7. andNahumi. 15. Rom. x. 15.
Rom. iii. 18.
Rom. viii. 36.
Rom. iii. 4.
Rom. xv. 3.
Rom. xi. 9, 10.
Matt. xiii. 35.
John x. 34.
2 Cor. ix. 9.
2 Cor. iv. 13.
Rom. xv. 11.
Heb. xiii. 6.
Rom. iii. 15 — 17.
Heb. xii. 5, 6.
James iv. 6.
1 Pet. iv. 8.
Rom. xii. 20.
1 Pet. ii. 22.
Rom. ix. 29.
f John xii. 40. Matt. xiii. 14, 15.
\ Luke viii. 10. Rom. xi. 8.
1 Pet. iii. 14, 15.
Heb. ii. 13.
Rom. ix. 27, 28.
Rom. xi. 8.
Matt. xv. 8, 9. Mark vii. 6.
1 Cor. i. 9.
Rom. ix. 20. 21.
Rom. xiv. 11. Phil. ii. 10.
Isa. Iii. 11, 12.
Isa. hi. 15.
Isa. lvi. 7. (and Jer. vii. 1
Isa. lxi. 1, 2.
Isa. lxv. 1, 2.
Isa. lxvi. 1,2.
Jer. xxxi. 15.
- 2 Cor. vi. 17.
- Roni. xv. 21.
( Matt. xxi. 13. Mark xi. 17. Luke
' 1 xix. 46.
- Luke iv. 18, 19.
- Rom. x. 20, 21.
- Acts vii. 49, 50.
- Matt. ii. 17,18.
Jer. xxxi. 33. and xxxii. 38.")' ~ . lf>
>2 Cor. vi. 18.
(with 2 Sam. vii. 14.)
Hab. ii. 4.
Joel ii. 32.
Mai. i. 2, 3.
Rom. i. 17.
Rom. x. 13.
Rom. ix. 13.
IV. Quotations and other passages from the Old
Testament which are alluded to in the New.
The following table presents a list of the principal
passages of this description :
142 ON THE QUOTATIONS FROM
Gen. i. 6. 9. alluded to in 2 Pet. ill. 5.
^Q„ . £^ f Matt, xix. 4. Markx. 6. 1 Cor. xi.
uen. i. 2/. .. - _^ ...
^ 7. James ni. 9.
Gen. ii. 2, 3. - - - Heb. iv. 4.
Gen. ii. 7. - - - 1 Cor. xv. 45.
Gen. ii. 21, 22. - - - 1 Cor. xi. 8. 1 Tim. ii. 13.
Gen. ii. 24. - - - {Mf *' ™\ 5' M*rk x' 7' l Cor' vi*
\ 16. Eph. v. 31.
Gen. iii. 6. - - - - 1 Tim. ii. 14.
Gen. iii. 4, 13. - - 2 Cor. xi. 3.
Gen. iii. 16. - - 1 Cor. xiv. 34.
Gen. iv. 4. - Heb. xi. 4.
^ . a f Matt, xxiii. 35. Luke xi. 51. 1 John
Gen. iv. 8. - -< ... ,,_ T ,
1 in. 12. Jude verse 11.
Gen. v. 24. - - Heb. xi. 5.
f Matt. xxiv. 37, 38. Luke xvii. 26,
Gen. vi. vii. - - - 1 27. Heb. xi. 7. 1 Pet. iii. 1 9, 20.
C 2 Pet. ii. 5. iii. 6.
Gen. xii. 1—4. - - Acts vii. 5. Heb. xi. 8.
Gen. xiii. 15. - - Rom. iv/ 13.
Gen. xv. 18, 14. - - Acts vii. 6, 7.
Gen. xvii. 10. - - Acts vii. 8.
Gen xviii. 3. xix. 2. Heb. xiii. 2.
Gen. xviii. 10. ... Heb. xi. 11.
Gen. xviii. 12. - - 1 Pet. i'i. 6.
Gen. xix. 12. - - - 2 Pet. ii. 6. Jude verse 7.
Gen. xxi. 12. - - Heb. xi. 18.
Gen. xlvi. 27. - - Acts vii. 14.
Gen. xlvii. 31. - - - Heb. xi. 21.
Gen. 1. 24. - Heb. xi. 22.
Exod. ii. 2. 11. - - Heb. xi. 23—27. Acts vii. 20—29.
Exod iii 6 f Mark xii. 26. Acts vii. 31,32. Heb.
"\ xi. 16.
Exod. xii. 12. 18. - - Heb. xi. 28.
Exod. xiv. 22. - - 1 Cor. x. 2. Heb. xi. 29.
Exod. xix. 12, 18, 19. - - Heb. xii. 18 — 20.
Exod. xx. 12 — 16. Deut. v.") Matt. xix. 18, 19. Markx. 19. Luke
16 — 20. - -J xviii. 20. Rom. xiii. 9. James ii. 2.
Lev. xiii. 2. Numb. viii. 16,
xviii, 15. 17. rLukeii. 23.
17:}
Lev. xiv. 3. 4. 10. - -/Matt* ™' 4' Mark i( 44' Luke
\ v. 14.
Lev. xix. 12. - - Matt. v. 33.
Lev. xix. 18. - - - Matt. v. 48. Gal. v. 14.
Numb. xi. 4. - - - 1 Cor. x. 6.
Numb. xiv. 23. 29. 37. andl TT , ... ,„ ,- T j r
xx vi. 64, 65. - 1 - f m' ' VerSG
Numb. xxi. 4—6. - - 1 Cor. x. 9.
Numb. xxii. 23. 39. . - 2 Pet. ii. 15, 16. Jude verse 11.
Deut. xviii. 1. . . .1 Cor. ix. 13.
THE OLD TESTAMENT IN THE NEW. 143
_. . . . u a a 4. • f Matt. v. SI. Mark x. 4. Luke xvi.
Deut. xxiv. 1. alluded to in -i 2g ^ XVI*
Josh. ii. 1. vi. 22, 23. - - Heb. xi. 31. James ii. 25.
Josh. vi. 20. - Heb. xi. 30.
Judges, the whole book, generally Acts xiii. 20. Heb. xi. 32.
1 Sam. viii. 5. and x. 1. - - Acts xiii. 21.
] Sam. xiii. 14. xv. 23. xvi. 12, 13. Acts xiii. 22.
1 Kings xvii.l. and xviii. 42 — 45. James v. 17, IS.
1 Chron. xxiii. 13. - - Heb. v. 4.
Psal. xc. 4. - - - 2 Pet. iii. 8.
Prov. xxvii. 1. - - James iv. 13, 14.
Isa. xii. 3. - - John vii. 38.
Isa. Ixvi. 24. - - Mark ix. 44.
Jer. vi. 16. - - Matt. xi. 29.
Lam. iii. 45. - - 1 Cor. iv. 13.
Dan. iii. 23—25. - - Heb. xi. 34.
Dan. ix. 27. xii. 11. - - Matt. xxiv. 15. Mark xiii. 14.
Hos. xiii. 14. - - 1 Cor. xv. 55.
Hos. xiv. 2. - Heb. xiii. 15.
Amos v. 26, 27. - - Acts vii. 42, 43.
Concerning the class of quotations contained in the
preceding table, it has been remarked, that when the
inspired writers quote a passage from the Old Testa-
ment, merely in the toay of allusion, it is enough that
the words which they borrow emphatically express
their own meaning. It is not necessary that they be
precisely the same with those of the passage alluded to,
nor that they be there used, either of the same subject
or of a similar subject. Thus, Deut. xxx. 12 — 14*.
which was originally written concerning the law, is by
Saint Paul accommodated to the Gospel, (Rom. x.
6 — 8.) with proper variations and explanations.
Chapter IX.
ON THE POETRY OF THE HEBREWS.
I. Nature of Hebrew Poetry.
The diversity of style, evident in the different books
of Scripture, sufficiently evinces which of them were
144 OS THE POETRY
written in prose, and which are poetical compositions
though the nature of the Hebrew verse cannot now
be exactly ascertained. The grand characteristic of
Hebrew Poetry is what Bishop Lowth terras Parallel-
ism, that is, a certain equality, resemblance, or relation-
ship, between the members of each period : so that, in
two lines or members of the same period, things shall
answer to things and words to words, as if fitted to each
other by a kind of rule or measure. Such is the gene-
ral strain of Hebrew Poetry, instances of which occur
in almost every part of the Old Testament, particularly
in the ninety-sixth psalm.
II. Gradations of the poetical parallelism.
The poetical parallelism has much variety and many
gradations ; which may be referred to four species, viz.
Parallel Lines Gradational, Parallel Lines Antithetic,
Parallel Lines Synthetic, and Parallel Lines Intro-
verted. An example of two of each of these shall be
given, which will enable the attentive reader of our
admirable authorized version readily to discover others
as they arise : for, that version being strictly word for
word after the original, the form and order of the ori-
ginal sentences are preserved ; and this circumstance
will account for its retaining so much of a poetical cast,
notwithstanding it is executed in prose.
1. Parallel Lines Gradational are those, in which the
second or responsive clause so diversifies the preceding
clauses, as generally to rise above it, sometimes by a
descending scale in the value of the related terms and
periods, but in all cases with a marked distinction of
meaning. This species of parallelism is of most fre-
quent occurrence, particularly in the psalms and the
prophecies of Isaiah. The following example is given
from the evangelical prophet, ch. lv. v. 6, 7. :
OF THE HEBREWS. 145
Seek ye Jehovah [or, the Lord] while he may be found ;
Call ye upon him while he is near ;
Let the wicked forsake his way,
And the unrighteous man his thoughts :
And let him return unto Jehovah, and he will compassionate him ;
- And unto our God, for he aboundeth in forgiveness.
" In the first line men are invited to seek Jehovah, not knowing
where he is., and on the bare intelligence that he may be found ; in
the second line, having found Jehovah, they are encouraged to call
upon him, by the assurance that he is near. In the third line, the
wicked, the positive, and presumptuous sinner, is warned to forsake
his way, his habitual course of iniquity ; in the fourth line, the un-
righteous, the negatively wicked, is called to renounce the very
thought of sinning. While, in the last line, the appropriative and
encouraging title our God is substituted for the awful name Jeho-
vah, and simple compassion is heightened into overflowing mercy
and forgiveness." (Bp. Jebb's Sacred Literature, pp. 37, 38.) See
further instances in Isa. li. 1. 47. Joel ii. 7. Psalm i. 1. xxi.
1, 2. and xxiv. 3, 4.
2. Parallel Lines Antithetic are those, in which two
lines correspond one with another, by an opposition of
terms and sentiments ; when the second is contrasted
with the^r^, sometimes in expressions, sometimes in
sense only. This is not confined to any particular
form. Accordingly, the degrees of antithesis are va-
rious, from an exact contraposition of word to word,
sentiment to sentiment, singulars to singulars, plurals
to plurals, down to a general disparity, with something
of a contrariety in the two propositions. Thus, Prov.
ch. x. 1.
A wise son rejoiceth his father :
But a foolish son is the grief of his mother.
Here every word has its opposite, the terms "father" and " mo-
ther" being relatively opposite.
3. Parallel Lines Constructive are those, in which the
parallelism consists only in the similar form of con-
struction ; wherein word does not answer to word, and
sentence to sentence, as equivalent or opposite : but
H
146 ON THE POETRY
there is a correspondence and equality, between the
different propositions in respect of the shape and turn
of the whole sentence and of the constructive parts ;
such as, noun answering to noun, verb to verb, member
to member, negative to negative, interrogative to inter-
rogative. This form of parallelism admits of great
variety, the parallelism being sometimes more, some-
times less exact, and sometimes hardly at all apparent.
Psalm xix. 7 — 11. will furnish a beautiful instance of
this description of poetical parallelism.
The law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul ;
The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making wise the simple ;
The precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart :
The commandment of Jehovah is clear, enlightening the eyes :
The fear of Jehovah is pure, enduring for ever;
The Judgments of Jehovah are truth, they are just altogether ;
More desirable than gold, or than much fine gold,
And sweeter than honey or the dropping of honey combs.
4. Parallel Lines Introverted, or Introverted Parallel-
isms, are stanzas so constructed, that, whatever be the
number of lines, the first line shall be parallel with the
last ; the second with the penultimate, or last but one ;
and so throughout, in an order that looks inward, or,
to borrow a military phrase, from flanks to centre.
Dr. Jebb, Bishop of Limerick, has illustrated this defi-
nition with numerous apposite examples, from which
the following has been selected.
" And it shall come to pass in that day ;
Jehovah shall make a gathering of his fruit :
From the flood of the river ;
To the stream of Egypt :
And ye shall be gleaned up, one by one ;
O ye sons of Israel.
" And it shall come to pass in that day ;
The great trumpet shall be sounded :
OF THE HEBREWS. 147
And those shall come, who were perishing in the
land of Assyria;
And those who were dispersed in the land of Egypt ;
And they shall bow themselves down before Jehovah
In the holy mountain, in Jerusalem. (Isa. xxvii. 12, 13.
" In these two stanzas, figuratively in the first, and literally in the
second, is predicted the return of the Jews from their several dis*
persions. Theirs* line of each stanza is parallel with the sixth ,• the
second with the fifth ; and the third with the fourth. Also, on com-
paring the stanzas one with another, it is manifest, that they are con-
structed with the utmost precision of mutual correspondence ; clause
harmonizing with clause, and line respectively with line ; the first
line of the first stanza with the first line of the second, and so
throughout." (Sacred Lit. pp. 54, 55.)
Until very recently, the poetical parallelism was
supposed to be confined to the Books of the Old Test-
ament : but Bishop Jebb has shewn that this charac-
teristic of Hebrew Poetry, also exists to a considerable
degree in the New Testament.
III. Different kinds of Hebrew Poetry.
Bishop Lowth reduces the various productions of
the Sacred Poets to the following classes.
1 . Prophetic Poetry, or that peculiar to the prophetic
Books : for, though some parts of them are evidently
in prose, yet the remainder are clearly poetical.
2. Elegiac Poetry, of which many passages occur in
the prophetical Books, in the Book of Job, in the
Psalms, and especially in the Lamentations of Jeremiah.
3. Didactic Poetry, or that which delivers moral
precepts in elegant verses. To this class belongs the
Book of Proverbs.
4. Of Lyric Poetry, or that which is designed to
be accompanied with music^ numerous instances occur
in the Old Testament, especially in the Book of Psalms.
See also Exod. xv. Deut. xxxii. and Habakkuk iii.
5. Of the Idyl, or short pastoral poem, the historical
h 2
148 ON HARMONIES
Psalms afford abundant instances. See particularly
Psalms lxxviii. cv. cvi. cxxxvi. and cxxxix.
6. To Dramatic Poetry, Bishop Lowth refers the
Book of Job, and the Song of Solomon : but this
opinion has been questioned by later critics. Many
of the Psalms however are a kind of dramatic ode,
consisting of dialogues between persons sustaining
certain characters.
7. Acrostic or Alphabetical Poems are those which
consist of twenty -two lines, or twenty -two systems of
lines, periods, or stanzas, according to the number of
letters of the Hebrew alphabet ; that is, the first line
or first stanza begins with tf'Xaleph), thesecond with ^
(beth)t and so on. Twelve of these poems are found
in the Old Testament, viz. Psalms xxv. xxxiv. xxxvii.
cxi. cxii. cxix. and cxlv. Prov. xxxi. 10 — 31.
Lament, of Jeremiah i. ii. iii. iv. Some of these poems
are perfectly, and others more or less, alphabetical.
Chapter X.
ON HARMONIES OF SCRIPTURE.
I. Occasion and Design of Harmonies.
The several Books of the Holy Scriptures, having been
written at different times, and on different occasions,
necessarily treat on a great variety of subjects, histor-
ical, doctrinal, moral, and prophetic. The sacred
authors also, writing with different designs, have not
always related the same events in the same order :
some are introduced by anticipation ; and others again
are related first, which should have been placed last.
Hence, seeming contradictions have arisen, which have
OF SCRIPTURE. 149
been eagerly seized by the adversaries of Christianity,
in order to perplex the minds and shake the faith of
those who may not be able to detect their sophistries.
These contradictions, however, are not real ; for they
disappear as soon as they are brought to the test of
candid examination.
The manifest importance and advantage of com-
paring the sacred writers with each other, have in-
duced many learned men to undertake the compilation
of works, which, being designed to shew the perfect
agreement of all parts of the sacred writings, are com-
monly termed Harmonies. Two classes of these prin-
cipally claim to be noticed in this place, viz. Harmonies
of the Old, and Harmonies of the New Testament.
II. Harmonies of the Old Testament.
The design of these is, to dispose the historical,
poetical, and prophetical Books in Chronological Order,
so that they may mutually explain and authenticate
one another. Our learned countryman, Dr. Lightfoot,
in the year 164<7, published a " Chronicle" or Har-
mony of the Old Testament ; on the basis of which
the Rev. George Townsend constructed " The Old
Testament arranged in Historical and Chronological
Order ;" but he has deviated from, and improved upon
the plan of Lightfoot very materially. His work is
noticed in the Appendix.
III. Harmonies of the New Testament are of two
sorts, viz.
1. Harmonies of the entire Netv Testament, in
which not only are the four Gospels chronologically
disposed, but the Epistles are also placed in order of
time, and interspersed in the Acts of the Apostles.
Mr. Townsend's M New Testament arranged in
Chronological and Historical Order" is the most com-
plete work of this kind in the English language.
h 3
150 ON HARMONIES OF SCRIPTURE.
2. Harmonies of the Gospels, in which the narratives
or memoirs of the four evangelists are digested in their
proper chronological order. These are very numerous,
according to the plans which their several authors pro-
posed to themselves. Among foreign authors, the
Latin Harmony of Chemnitz (or Chemnitius) is the
most esteemed : and among our British divines those
of Drs. Doddridge and Macknight are most generally
read, on account of their valuable expositions and
commentaries.
151
BOOK II. — ON THE INTERPRETATION OF
SCRIPTURE.
_L he Literary History of the Sacred Volume having
thus been considered, we now proceed to discuss its
interpretation : and here the subsidiary means for
ascertaining the sense of the inspired writers first
demand attention. This is the subject of the first
chapter of the present book : the second chapter will
shew in what manner the sense, when discovered, is to
be communicated, expounded, and applied.
Chapter I.
SUBSIDIARY MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE.
Section L — Historical Circumstances.
Historical Circumstances are an important help
to the correct understanding of the sacred writers.
Under this term are comprised: — 1. The Order;
2. The Title ; 3. The Author ; 4. The Date of each
of the several books of Scripture ; 5. The Place where
it was written ; 6. The Chronology or period of time
embraced in the Scriptures generally, and of each book
in particular ; 7. The Occasion upon which the several
books were written ; 8. Their respective Scopes or de-
signs ; and 9. An Analysis of each book. 10. Biblical
Antiquities. All these topics are adverted to, in the
third and fourth parts of this volume.
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152 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
I. A knowledge of the Order of the Different Boohs,
especially such as are historical, will more readily
assist the student to discover the order of the different
histories and other matters discussed in them, as well
as to trace the divine economy towards mankind,
under the Mosaic and Christian dispensations.
II. The Titles are further worthy of notice, because
some of them announce the chief subject of the book
— as Genesis, the generations of heaven and earth —
Exodus, the departure of the Israelites from Egypt,
&c. ; while other titles denote the churches or particu-
lar persons for whose more immediate use some parts
of Scripture were composed, and thus elucidate par-
ticular passages.
III. Where the name of the Author of a book is not
distinctly stated, it may be collected from internal
circumstances, as his peculiar character, mode of think-
ing, and style of writing, as well as the incidental tes-
timonies concerning himself, which his writings may
contain. Thus,
The expressions in 2 Pet. i. 18. and iii. 1, 15. prove Saint
Peter to have been the author of that epistle ; and a compar-
ison of the Epistles and Gospel of Saint John prove also that
they are the production of one and the same author.
IV. A knowledge of the Time when a Book was
written shews the reason and propriety of things said
in it.
The injunction in 1 Thess. v. 27. which may appear unneces-
sary will be found to be a very proper one, when it is considered
that that was the first epistle written by St. Paul ; and that
the apostle, knowing the plenitude of his divine commission,
demands the same respect to be paid to his writings, which
had been given to those of the antient prophets, which
in all probability were read in every assembly for Christian
worship.
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 153
V. The consideration of the Place where a Book
was written, as well as of the nature of the place, and
the customs which obtained there, is likewise of great
importance.
The first Psalm being written in Palestine, the comparison
(in v. 4.) of the ungodly to chaff driven away by the wind will
become more evident, when it is recollected that the thresh-
ing-floors in that country were not under cover as those in our
modern barns are, but that they were formed in the open air,
without the walls of cities, and in lofty situations, in order
that the wheat might be the more effectually separated from the
chaff by the action of the wind. (See Hosea xiii. 3.) In like
manner, the knowledge of the nature of the Arabian desert,
through which the children of Israel journeyed, is necessary to
the correct understanding of many passages in the books
of Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy, which were written
in that desert.
VI. Chronology, or the science of computing and
adjusting periods of time, is of the greatest importance
towards understanding the historical parts of the Bible,
not only as it shews the order and connexion of the
various events therein recorded, but likewise as it
enables us to ascertain the accomplishment of many of
the prophecies, and sometimes leads to the discovery
and correction of mistakes in numbers and dates, which
have crept into particular texts. The chronology in
the margin of our larger English Bibles is called the
Usserian Chronology, being founded on the Annales
Veteris et Novi Testamenti of the eminently learned
Archbishop Usher.
VII. A knowledge of the Occasion on which a book
was written will greatly help to the understanding of
the Scriptures, particularly the Psalms, many of which
have no title. The occasion, in this case, must be
sought from internal circumstances.
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154? MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
Psalm xlii. was evidently written by David, when he was in
circumstances of the deepest affliction : but if we compare it
with the history of the conspiracy of Absalom, aided by Ahitho-
phel, who had deserted the councils of his sovereign, as related
in 2 Sam. xv., and also with the character of the country
whither David fled, we shall have a key to the meaning of that
psalm, which will elucidate it with equal beauty and propriety.
VIII. The consideration of the Scope or design,
which the inspired authors severally had in view, will
greatly illustrate the entire book ; as its whole struc-
ture, arrangement, and principal arguments, are mate-
rially affected by the scope. On the investigation of
the scope, see page 169. infra.
IX. An Analysis of each book is of equal import-
ance with the preceding subjects of consideration : as
it will exhibit to the reader a comprehensive view, not
only of the chief subject-matter of every book or
epistle, but will also shew the methodical and orderly
coherence of all the parts of the book with one another.
Such an analysis the author has attempted in the
Fourth Part of this volume.
X. To all these are to be added a knowledge of Bib-
lical Antiquities ; which include Sacred and Profane
History, Geography, Genealogy, Natural History, and
Philosophy, Learning and Philosophical Sects, Manners,
Customs, and private Life> of the Jews and other
Nations mentioned in the Bible. A concise sketch of
the principal topics comprised under this head, is given
in the Third Part of this manual.
Section II Means of ascertaining the Sense of Scripture.
Although in every language, there are very many
words, which admit of several meanings, yet in com-
mon speech there is only one true sense attached to
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE, 155
any word, which sense is indicated by the connexion
and series of the discourse, by its subject-matter, by
the design of the speaker or writer, or by some other
circumstances, unless any ambiguity be purposely in-
tended. The same usage obtains in the sacred writings.
I. The Literal Sense of any place in Scripture is that
which the words , signify or require, in their natural
and proper acceptation. Thus, in
Gen.i. 1. God created the heavens and the earth, the words
mean what they literally import, and must be interpreted accord-
ing to the letter. So, in John x. 30. the words land the Father
are one so distinctly and unequivocally assert the deity of Christ
and his equality with God the Father, that it is difficult to
conceive how any other than their proper and literal meaning
could ever be given to them.
The literal sense has been termed the Historical
Sense, as conveying the meaning of the words and
phrases used by a writer at a certain time.
Thus, in Gen. x. 5. Isa. xi. 11. and many other passages of
Scripture, the word isles or islands signifies every inhabited re-
gion, particularly all the Western Coasts of the Mediterranean
Sea, and the seats of Japhet's posterity, viz. the northern parts
of Asia, Asia Minor, and Europe, together with some other
regions.
II. Of the Spiritual Sense of Scripture.
Where, besides the direct or immediate signification
of a passage, whether literally or figuratively expressed,
there is attached to it a more remote or hidden mean-
ing, this is termed the spiritual or mystical sense :
and this sense is founded not on a transfer of words
from one signification to another, but on the entire
application of the matter itself to a different subject.
Thus,
Exod.xxx. 10. and Levit. xvi. — What is here said concern-
ing the high priest's entrance into the most holy place on the
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156 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
day of atonement, we are taught by St. Paul to understand
spiritually of the entrance of Jesus Christ into the presence of
God, with his own blood. (Heb. ix. 7—20.)
The spiritual sense of Scripture has frequently been
divided into allegorical, typical, and parabolic.
1. The Allegorical Sense is, when the Holy Scrip-
tures, besides the literal sense, signify any thing be-
longing to faith or spiritual doctrine.
Such is the sense, which is required rightly to understand
Gal. iv. 24. in our version rendered, which things are an alle-
gory ; literally, which things are allegorically spoken, or, which
things are thus allegorized by me ; that is, under the veil of the
literal sense they further contain a spiritual or mystical sense.
2. The Typical Sense is, when, under external objects
or prophetic visions, secret things are represented,
whether present or future; especially when certain
transactions, recorded in the Old Testament, presignify
or shadow forth those related in the New Testament.
Thus, in Psal. xcv. 11. the words, they should not enter into
my rest, literally understood, signify the entrance of the Israel-
ites into the Promised Land ; but, typically, the entering into
rest and the enjoyment of heaven, through the merits and
mediation of Jesus Christ, as is largely shewn in the third and
fourth chapters of the Epistle to the Hebrews.
3. The Parabolic Sense is, when, besides the plain
and obvious meaning of the thing related, an occult or
spiritual sense is intended. As this chiefly occurs in
passages of a moral tendency, the parabolic has by
some writers been termed the moral or tropological
sense.
Of this description is the parable of the talents : the design
of which is to shew that the duties which men are called to
perform are suited to their situations and the talents which
they severally receive ; that, whatever good a man possesses, he
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 157
has received from God, as well as the ability to improve that
good ; and that the grace and temporal mercies of God are
suited to the power which a man has of improving them.
Thus, also, the injunction in Deut. xxv. 4. relative to muzzling
the ox while treading out the corn, is explained by St. Paul
with reference to the right of maintenance of ministers of the
Gospel. ( l Cor. ix. 9—11.)
III. Rules for ascertaining the sense of Scripture.
1. The most simple sense is always that which is the
genuine meaning.
Where two meanings present themselves, without doing any
violence to the words or to their scope and connection, and to
the subject-matter, &c. in such case we must carefully weigh
the different arguments for and against each meaning, and
prefer that, which is found to be the most probable and con-
sistent, as the genuine sense.
2. Since it is the design of interpretation to render
in our own language the same discourse which the
sacred authors originally wrote in Hebrew or Greek,
it is evident that our interpretation or version, to be
correct, ought not to affirm or deny more than the
inspired penmen affirmed or denied at the time they
wrote, consequently toe should be more willing to take
a sense from Scripture than to bring one to it.
For want of attending to this simple rule, John iii. 16, 17.
which the whole context of the passage evidently shows to
refer to the whole race of mankind, is by some expositors re-
ferred to the elect alone. They are obliged to interpret that
comprehensive word, the world, by a synecdoche of a part for
the whole ; and thus say, that it means the nobler portion of
the world ; viz. the elect, in opposition to all those passages
of Scripture in which the same consolatory truth is clearly
affirmed in other words. In this way we are to understand
Matt, xviii. 1 1 .
3. Before we conclude upon the sense of a text, so
15& MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
as to prove any thing by it, we must be sure that such
sense is not repugnant to natural reason.
Whatever is repugnant to natural reason, cannot be the
true meaning of the Scriptures : for God is the original of
natural truth, as well as of that which comes by particular
revelation. No proposition, therefore, which is repugnant
to the fundamental principles of reason, can be the sense of
any part of the word of God ; hence the words of Christ, —
This is my body, and This is my blood, — (Matt. xxvi. 26. 28.)
are not to be understood in that sense, which makes for the
doctrine of transubstantiation : because it is impossible that
contradictions should be true ; and we cannot be more certain
that any thing is true, than we are that that doctrine is false.
4<. Although the plain, obvious, and literal sense of a
passage may not always exhibit the mind of the Holy
Spirit ; yet it is ordinarily to be preferred to the figur-
ative sense, and is not to be rashly abandoned, unless
absolute and evident necessity require such literal sense
to be given up. This can be done only in the following
cases.
(l.) Where words, properly taken, contain any thing con-
trary to the doctrinal or moral precepts delivered in other
parts of the Scripture.
The command of Jesus Christ, related in Matt, xviii. 8, 9. if
interpreted literally, is directly at variance with the sixth command-
ment, (Exod. xx. 13.) and must consequently be understood figur-
atively.
(2.) Where the same thing is elsewhere expressed in proper
and clearer words, the latter are preferably to be adopted.
In illustration of this remark, see and compare Matt. xiii. 15.
with Mark iv. 12. and Luke xi. 20. with Matt, xii. 28. See also
Ezek. xx. 37, 38. Isa. i. 22, 23. xliii. 20, 21. xliv. 3—5. and
li. I, 2.
(3.) Where the proper signification presents a meaning that
is either absurd, or manifestly contrary to truth, it must ne-
cessarily be given up.
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 159
Matt, viii. 22. " Let the dead bury their dead" cannot possibly
be applied to those who are really and naturally dead ; and conse-
quently must be understood figuratively. " Leave those who are
spiritually dead to perform the rites of burial for such as are naturally
dead."
IV. Rules for investigating the meaning of words.
Since words compose sentences, from which the
meaning of Scripture is to be collected, it is necessary
that the individual meaning of such words be ascer-
tained, before we proceed further to investigate the
sense of Holy Writ. As the same method and the
same principles of interpretation are common both to
the sacred volume and to the productions of uninspired
man, the signification of words in the Holy Scriptures
must be sought precisely in the same way in which the
meaning of words in other works usually is or ought to
be sought. And since no text of Scripture has more
than one meaning, we must endeavour to find out that
one true sense precisely in the same manner as we would
investigate the sense of any antient writer : and in that
sense, when so ascertained, we ought to acquiesce, un-
less, by applying the just rules of interpretation, it can
be shewn that the meaning of the passage has been
mistaken, and that another is the only just, true, and
critical sense of the place. The following general
rules will be found useful for this purpose.
1. Ascertain the notion affixed to a word by the persons in
general, by whom the language either is now or formerly was
spoken, and especially in the particular connection in which
such notion is affixed.
2. The meaning of a word used by any writer, is the mean-
ing affixed to it by those for whom he immediately wrote.
For there is a kind of natural compact between those who
write and those who speak a language ; by which they are mu-
tually bound to use words in a certain sense : he, therefore,
who uses such words in a different signification, in a manner
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160 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
violates that compact, and is in danger of leading men into
error, contrary to the design of God, " who will have all
men to be saved, and to come unto the knowledge of the
truth." (l Tim. ii. 4.)
3. The words of an author must not be so explained as to'
make them inconsistent with his known character, his known
sentiments, his known situation, and the known circumstances
under which he wrote.
4. Although the force of particular words can only be de-
rived from etymology, yet too much confidence must not be
placed in that frequently uncertain science.
5. The received signification of a word is to be retained,
uuless weighty and necessary reasons require that it should be
abandoned or neglected.
We shall be justified in rejecting the received meaning of a
word in the following cases, viz.
(1.) If such meaning clash with any doctrine clearly revealed in
the Scriptures.
(2.) If a certain passage require a different explanation from that
which it appears to present : as Mai. iv. 5, 6. compared with Luke i.
17. and Matt. xi. 14.
(3.) If the thing itself will not admit of a tropical or figurative
meaning being affixed to the word.
6. The idea conveyed by a word, does not always contain
the author's true meaning : for sometimes metaphors require
another sense, as in Matt. xvi. 6, 7. 12. Mark ix. 43—48.
and John iii. 5. The nature and application of Metaphors
are discussed in a subsequent section.
7. Where a word has several significations in common use,
that must be selected which best suits the passage in question :
for the clear meaning of a phrase in any part of Scripture
has great authority for determining its sense in any other part
where its signification is doubtful.
For instance, the word Blood, which in various accounts is very
significant in the Sacred Writings, denotes — our natural descent
from one common family, in Acts xvii. 26.; — death, in Heb. xii. 4. ;
the Sufferings and Death of Christ, considered as an atonement for
the souls of sinners, in Rom. v. 9. and Eph. i. 7. ; and also as the
*
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 161
procuring cause of our justification in Rom. v. 9., and of our sancti-
fication in Heb. ix. 14.
8. The distinctions between words, which are apparently
synonymous, should be carefully examined and considered.
In the 119th Psalm there are ten different words, pointing out
the word of God ; viz. Law, Way, Word, Statutes, Judgments,
Commandments, Precepts, Testimonies, Righteousness, and Truth
or Faithfulness. Now all these words, though usually considered as
synonymous, are not literally synonymous, but refer to some latent
and distinguishing properties of the Divine Word, whose manifold
excellencies and perfections are thus illustrated with much elegant
variety of diction.
9. The epithets introduced by the sacred writers are also to
be carefully weighed and considered, as all of them have either
a declarative or explanatory force, or serve to distinguish one
thing from another, or unite these two characters together.
10. General terms are used sometimes in their whole extent,
and sometimes in a restricted sense, and whether they are to
be understood in the one way or in the other, must depend
upon the scope, subject-matter, context, and parallel passages.
The word, live, in 1 Thess. iii. 8., it is evident both from the
subject-matter and the context, must be taken in a restricted sense,
and not as implying the apostle's natural life or existence.
Section III. — Analogy of Scripture or Parallel Passages.
I. Nature and importance of Parallel Passages.
Parallel Passages are those which bear some degree
of resemblance in sentiment, language, or idiom : and
the comparison of them is a most important help for
interpreting such parts of Scripture as may appear to
us obscure or uncertain : for, on almost every subject,
there will be found a multitude of phrases, that, when
diligently collated, will afford mutual illustration and
support to each other; the truth which is more ob-
162 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
scurely intimated in one place being expressed with
greater precision in others.
Parallelisms are either near, or remote : in the former
case the parallel passages are sought from the same
writer; in the latter from different writers. They are
further termed adequate, when they affect the whole
subject proposed in the text; and inadequate, when
they affect it only in part : but the most usual division
of the analogy of Scripture, or parallelisms, is into
verbal, or parallelisms of words, and real, or parallelisms
of things.
1. A Verbal Parallelism or Analogy is that in which,
on comparing two or more places together, the same
words and phrases, the same mode of argument, the
same method of construction, and the same rhetorical
figures, are respectively to be found.
2. A Real Parallelism or Analogy is, where the same
event or thing is related, the same doctrine is taught,
or the same subject is discussed. But besides these
two species of parallelisms, there is 3. a third, partaking
of the nature of both, and which is of equal importance
for understanding the Scriptures : This has been termed
a Parallelism of Members : it consists chiefly in a
certain equality, resemblance, or parallelism, between
the members of each period ; so that in two lines, or
members of the same period, things shall answer to
things, and words to words, as if fitted to each other
by a kind of rule or measure.
The nature of this kind of parallelism, which is the
grand characteristic of the poetical style of the He-
brews, has been already considered ; and its critical
uses have been illustrated. See pp. 144 — 147, supra.
A single example will suffice to shew the importance
of this help to the interpretation of the poetical parts
of Scripture.
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 163
Psal. lxxxiv. 5 — 7. is confessedly a difficult passage
of Scripture, but by considering it as an introverted
parallelism (the nature of which is denned in p. 146.),
Bishop Jebb has thrown much light upon those verses.
" Blessed is the man whose strength is in Thee :
The passengers in whose heart are the ways,
In the valley of Baca make it a spring ;
The rain also filleth the pools ;
They go from strength to strength ;
He shall appear before God in Zion.
(t The first and sixth lines are here considered, at once, as con-
structively parallel, and as affording a continuous sense : the inter-
mediate four lines may be accounted parenthetical; the second,
constructively parallel with the fifth ; and the third with the fourth.
The first line seems to contain the character of a confirmed pro-
ficient in religion, — his strength is in God ; the sixth line, to describe
his final beatification, — he shall appear before God in Zion. The
intermediate quatrain may be regarded as descriptive of the inter-
mediate course pursued by those who desire to be good and happy :
they are passengers ; but they know their destination, and they long
for it; at a distance from the temple, they are anxious to arrive
there ; the very highways to Jerusalem are in their heart. And
what is the consequence ? Affection smooths all difficulties : the
parched and sandy desert becomes a rich well-watered valley ;
and they cheerfully advance from strength to strength ; from one
degree of virtuous proficiency to another." (Sacred Literature,
pp. 55, 56.)
II. Rules for comparing Parallel Passages.
: 1. Ascertain the primary meaning of the passage under con-
sideration.
In 1 Cor. iv. 5. we read, Judge nothing before the time, until the
Lord come, who both will bring to light the hidden things of darkness,
and will make manifest the counsels of the hearts. Now here is a
parallelism of members, but the fundamental meaning is, that
God judges the counsels of men ; he therefore judges without respect
of persons, and with unerring impartiality. The Apostle's design
164< MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
was to shew that it is impossible for men to perceive and judge the
counsels of one another.
2. Although the Sacred Scriptures, primarily coming from
God, are perfectly consistent, and harmonize throughout ; yet,
as they were secondarily written by different authors, on
various topics, and in different styles, those books are in the
first instance to be compared, which were composed by the
same author, in the same language, and on a parallel subject.
By comparing Psal. xxxviii. 10. with 1 Sam. xiv. 26, 27. (in
which Jonathan, having taken some honey for his refreshment, is
is said to have had his eyes enlightened,) we shall readily apprehend
the force of the psalmist's complaint, that the light of his eyes was
gone from him ; for the eyes of a person in good health are so strong,
as to sparkle with the rays of light that fall upon them ; whereas,
when the constitution is worn by long sickness, or broken by grief,
the eyes lose their vigour and brilliancy, and in cases of incipient
blindness, the light gradually fails the eyes.
3. Whenever the mind is struck with any resemblance, in
the first place consider whether it is a true resemblance, and
whether the passages are sufficiently similar, that is, not only
whether the same word, but also the same thing, answers to-
gether, in order to form a safe judgment concerning it.
It often happens that one word has several distinct meanings, one
of which obtains in one place, and one in another place. When,
therefore, words of such various meanings present themselves, all
those passages where they occur are not to be immediately con-
sidered as parallel, unless they have a similar power. Thus, if any
one were to compare Jonah iv. 10. (where mention is made of the
gourd which came up in a night, and perished in a night, and
which in the original Hebrew is termed the son of a night,) with
1 Thess. v. 5. where Christians are called, not children of the night,
but children of the day, it would be a spurious parallel.
4. Where two parallel passages present themselves, the
clearer and more copious place must be selected to illustrate
one that is more briefly and obscurely expressed.
5. Other things being equal, a nearer parallel is preferable
to one that is more remote.
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. ] (35
6. No assistance is to be derived from similar passages the
sense of which is uncertain.
7. Collect all those similar passages, in which the same
forms of speech occur, and the same topics are proposed in a
different order of narration.
The method here indicated is the only effectual way
by which to ascertain parallel words and phrases, as
well as parallelisms of things : it will indeed require a
considerable portion of time and study, which every one
may not perhaps be able to give ; but individuals thus
circumstanced may advantageously facilitate their
researches by having recourse to editions of the Bible
with parallel references, and to concordances, the
most useful of which are specified in the Appendix.
Section IV. — Of the Subject- Matter, and Context.
I. Nature and importance of the subject-matter.
The topic of which an author is treating is termed
the Subject- Matter ; and this is of considerable im-
portance for determining the meaning of doubtful
words.
The Hebrew word -isn (Be-SHeR) literally signifies the skin,
by a metonymy, the flesh beneath the skin ; and by a synec-
doche it denotes every animal, especially man considered as
infirm or weak, as in Jer. xvii. 5. Cursed be the man that
trusteth in man, and maketh flesh his arm ; but that the word
flesh is to be understood of man only in Gen. vi. 12. will be
evident on the slightest inspection of the subject-matter. All
flesh had corrupted his way — that is, all men had wholly de-
parted from the rule of righteousness, or had made their way
of life abominable throughout the world.
II. Context defined.
Another most important assistance, for investigating
the meaning of words and phrases, is the consideration
166 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
of the Context, or the comparison of the preceding
and subsequent parts of a discourse : as this alone in
many instances can enable us to determine that signi-
fication which is best adapted to any word or passage.
There is a difference of opinion whether the address of Job's
wife, (Job ii. 9.) is to be understood in a good sense, as, Bless
(or ascribe glory to) God and die, or in a different signification,
Curse God and die, as it is rendered in our authorized version.
Circumstances shew that the last is the proper meaning ; be-
cause as yet Job had not sinned with his lips, and consequently
his wife had no ground for charging him with indulging a vain
opinion of his integrity.
1. The context of a discourse or book, in the Scrip-
tures, may comprise either one verse, a few verses,
entire periods or sections, entire chapters, or whole
books. Thus,
(1.) If 1 Cor. x. 16. be the passage under examination, the
preceding and subsequent parts of the epistle, which belong
to it, are the eighth, ninth, and tenth chapters.
(2.) If Isa. Ii. be the chapter in question, the reader must
not stop at the end of it, but continue his perusal to the 12th
verse of ch. 52.; for these together form one subject or argu-
ment of prediction, in which the prophet is announcing to his
countrymen the certainty of their deliverance and return from
the Babylonish captivity. This entire portion ought therefore
to be read at once, in order to apprehend fully the prophet's
meaning.
(5.) In like manner, the verses from v. 15. of ch. Hi. to the
end of ch. liii. form a new and entire section relative to the
sufferings of the Messiah. Here then is a wrong division of
chapters, to which no regard should be paid in examining the
context of a book. Ch. Ii. ought to include v. 12. of ch. lii.
and ch. lii. ought to commence at v; 13. and be continued to
the end of ch. liii.
(4.) In like manner, the first verse of the fourth chapter of
St. Paul's Epistle to the Colossians ought to be joined to the
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 167
third chapter : the slightest attention to this point will enable
a diligent student to add numerous other examples.
2. Sometimes a book of Scripture comprises only one
subject or argument, in which case the whole of it
must be referred to precedents and subsequents, and
ought to be considered together. Of this description
is Saint Paul's epistle to the Ephesians : and to this
head may be referred the Psalms, each of which being
separated from the other, and having no connexion with
the preceding or following, for the most part comprizes
a distinct and entire subject.
III. Hints for examining the Context.
1. Investigate each word of every passage.
2. If the meaning of a single verse is to be ascertained, the
five, six, or seven verses immediately preceding should first be
read with minute attention.
Sometimes a single passage will require a whole chapter, or several
of the preceding and following chapters, or even the entire book, to
be perused, and that not once or twice, but several times. The ad-
vantage of this practice will be very great : because, as the same '
thing is frequently stated more briefly and obscurely in the former
part of a book, which is more clearly and fully explained in the
subsequent portion, such a perusal will render every thing plain to
the meanest capacity. For instance, that otherwise difficult passage,
Rom. ix. 18. Therefore hath he mercy on whom he will have mercy,
and whom he will he hardeneth, will become perfectly clear by a close
examination of the context, beginning at verse 18. of chapter viii.
and reading to the end of the eleventh chapter ; this portion of the
epistle being most intimately connected.
3. A verse or passage must not be connected with a remote
context, unless the latter agree better with it than a nearer
context.
Thus Rom. ii. 16. although it makes a good sense if connected
with the preceding verse, makes a much better when joined with
verse 12. (the intermediate verses being read parenthetically as in
the authorized version) ; and this shews it to be the true and proper
context.
168 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
4. Examine whether the writer continues his discourse, lest
we suppose him to make a transition to another argument, when
in fact he is prosecuting the same topic.
Rom. v. 12. will furnish an illustration of this remark. From
that verse to the end of the chapter St. Paul produces a strong ar-
gument to prove, that as all men stood in need of the grace of God
in Christ to redeem them from their sins, so this grace has been
afforded equally to all, whether Jews or Gentiles. To perceive the
full force, therefore, of the apostle's conclusion, we must read the
continuation of his argument from verse 12. to the close of the
chapter.
5. The Parentheses which occur in the sacred writings
should be particularly regarded : but no parenthesis should be
interposed without sufficient reason.
Parentheses, being contrary to the genius and structure of the
Hebrew language, are, comparatively, of rare occurrence in the Old
Testament. But in the New Testament, they are frequent, espe-
cially in the writings of Saint Paid ; who, after making numerous
digressions, (all of them appropriate to, and illustrative of, his main
subject,) returns to the topic which he had begun to discuss.
Thus, in Rom. ii. verses 13, 14, and 15. are obviously paren-
thetical, because, the context evidently requires verses 12. and 16.
to be read together. In Rom. v., verses 12. 18, 19. evidently
form one continued sentence ; and all the intermediate verses are
undoubtedly to be read as a parenthesis, though they are not marked
as such in the authorized translation. 1 Cor. viii. 1. beginning
with the words, Knowledge imffeth up, &c. to the end of the first
clause in verse 4. is in like manner parenthetical. The connexion
therefore of the first with the fourth verse is this : — Now, as touch-
ing things offered unto idols, we know that we have all knowledge.
— We knoio that an idol is nothing, &c. 1 Cor. x. 29. latter clause,
and verse 30. are parenthetical ; as also are 2 Cor. ix. 9, 10. which
are so printed in our version. A still more signal instance of pa-
renthesis occurs in Eph. iii. where the first and fourteenth verses are
connected, the twelve intermediate verses (2. to 13.) being paren-
thetical; as also is 1 Tim. i. verses 3. to 17. inclusive.
6. No explanation must be admitted but that which suits
the context.
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 169
• 7. "Where no connexion exists with the preceding and sub-
sequent parts of a book, none should be sought.
This observation applies solely to the Proverbs of Solomon, and
chiefly to the tenth and following chapters; which form the second
part of that book, and are composed of sentences or proverbs, totally
distinct and unconnected, though each individual precept is preg-
nant with the most weighty instruction.
Section V. — Of the Scope.
I. The Scope defined.
A consideration of the Scope or design which the in-
spired author of any of the books of Scripture had in
view, essentially facilitates the study of the Bible : be-
cause, as every writer had some design in view, it is
natural to conclude that he would express himself in
terms adapted to his purpose. To be acquainted with
the scope, therefore, is to understand the chief part of
the book. The scope of an author is either general or
special; by the former, we understand the design which
he proposed to himself in writing his book ; by the
latter, we mean that design which he had in view, when
writing particular sections, or even smaller portions, of
his book or treatise.
II Hints for ascertaining the Scope.
The means, by which to ascertain the scope of a
particular section or passage, being nearly the same
with those which must be applied to the investigation
of the general scope of a book, we shall briefly consider
them together in the following observations.
1. When the scope of a whole book, or of any particular
portion of it, is expressly mentioned by the sacred writer, it
should be carefully observed.
The scope and end of the whole Bible collectively, is contained in
its manifold utility, which St. Paul expressly states in 2 Tim. iii. 16,
17. and also in Rom, xv. 4. In like manner, the author of Eccle-
I
170 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
siastes announces, at the beginning of his book, the subject he in-
tends to discuss, viz. to shew that all human affairs are vain,
uncertain, frail, and imperfect ; and, such being the case, he pro-
ceeds to inquire, What profit hath a man of all his labour which he
taketh under the sun ? (Eccl. i. 2, 3.) And towards the close of
the same book (ch. xii. 8.) he repeats the same subject, the truth of
which he had proved by experience. So, in the commencement of
the book of Proverbs, Solomon distinctly announces their scope
(ch. i. 1 — 4. 6.). St. John (xx. 31.) announces his object in writing
his Gospel to be that men might believe that Jesus is the Christ,
the Son of God, and that, believing, they might have life through
his name ; therefore, all those discourses of our Lord, which are re-
corded almost exclusively by this evangelist, are to be perused with
reference to this particular design.
2. The scope of the sacred writer may be ascertained from
the known occasion, upon which his book was written, and
also from history.
We know from history that many persons disseminated errors and
defended Judaism, during the time of the apostles ; who therefore
found it necessary to oppose and refute such errors. This was the
occasion of Saint Peter's second Epistle : and this circumstance
will enable us to ascertain the scope of many of the other apostolic
letters.
S. The express conclusion, added by the writer at the end of
an argument, demonstrates his general scope.
Thus, in Rom. iii. 28. , after a long discussion, Saint Paul adds
this conclusion : — Therefore we conclude, that a man is justified by
faith without the deeds of the law : Hence we perceive with what de-
sign the whole passage was written, and to which all the rest is to be
referred. The conclusions interspersed through the epistles may
easily be ascertained by means of the particles, "wherefore," " seeing
that," "therefore," "then,"&c. as well as by the circumstances
directly mentioned or referred to.
4. A knowledge of the time when a book was written,, and
also of the state of the church at that time, will indicate the
scope or intention of the author in writing such book.
When St. James wrote his epistle the Christians were suffering a
cruel persecution, in consequence of which many were not only de-
clining in faith, love, and a holy life, but also abused the grace of
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 171
God to licentiousness, boasting of a faith destitute of its appropriate
fruits ; viz. who boasted of a bare assent to the doctrines of the Gos-
pel, and boldly affirmed that this inoperative and dead faith was
alone sufficient to obtain salvation. (Chapter ii. verse 17. et sen,)
Hence we may easily perceive, that the apostle's scope was, not to
treat of the doctrine of justification ; but, the state of the church re-
quiring it, to correct those errors in doctrine, and those sinful prac-
tices, which had crept into the church, and particularly to expose that
fundamental error of a dead faith unproductive of good works. This
observation further shews the true way of reconciling the supposed
contradiction between the apostles Paul and James, concerning the
doctrine of salvation by faith.
Section VI. — Of the Analogy of Faith.
I. Analogy of Faith defined.
The Analogy of Faith may be defined to be the con-
stant and perpetual harmony of Scripture in the funda-
mental points of faith and practice, deduced from those
passages, in which the}' are discussed by the inspired
penmen, either directly or expressly, and in clear,
plain, and intelligible language. Or, more briefly, the
analogy of faith may be defined to be that proportion,
which the doctrines of the Gospel bear to each other,
or the close connexion between the truths of revealed
religion. It is one of the most important aids for as-
certaining the sense of Scripture. The Analogy of
Faith is an expression borrowed from Saint Paul's
Epistle to the Romans (xii. 6.) where he exhorts those
who prophesy in the church (that is, those who exercise
the office of authoritatively expounding the Scriptures,)
to prophesy according to the proportion, or, as the word
is in the original, the Analogy of Faith.
II. Hints for investigating the Analogy of Faith.
1. Whenever any doctrine is manifest, either from the whole
tenor of divine revelation, or from its scope, it must not be
weakened or set aside by a few obscure passages.
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172 MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
No truth is more certain in religion, or is more frequently asserted in
the Bible than this, viz. that God is good, not only to some individuals,
but also towards all men. (See Psal. exlv. 9. Ezek. xviii. 23. 32.
Johniii. 16. Tit. ii. 11, &c. &c.) If, therefore, any passages occur
which at first sight appear to contradict the goodness of God, as, for
instance, that He has created some persons that he might damn
them (as some have insinuated) ; in such case the very clear and cer-
tain doctrine relative to the goodness of God is not to be impugned,
much less set aside, by these obscure places, which, on the contrary,
ought to be illustrated by such passages as are more clear. Thus
Prov. xvi. 4. has, by several eminent writers, been supposed to refer
to the predestination of the elect and the reprobation of the wicked,
but without any foundation. The passage, however, may be more
correctly rendered, The Lord hath made all things to answer to them-
selves, or aptly to refer to one another, yea even the wicked, for the
evil day, that is, to be the executioner of evil to others : on which
account they are in Scripture termed the rod of Jehovah (Isa. x. 5.),
and his sword (Psal. xvii. 13.). But there is no necessity for reject-
ing the received version, the plain and obvious sense of which is that
there is nothing in the world which does not contribute to the glory
of God, and promote the accomplishment of his adorable designs.
2. No doctrine can belong to the analogy of faith, which is
founded on a single text.
Every essential principle of religion is delivered in more than one
place. Besides, single sentences are not to be detached from the
places where they stand, but must be taken in connexion with the
whole discourse.
From disregard of this rule, the temporary direction of the apostle
James (v. 14, 15.) has been perverted by the church of Rome, and
rendered a permanent institution, {by her miscalled a sacrament, for
it was never instituted by Jesus Christ,) from a mean of recovery, to
a charm, when recovery is desperate, for the salvation of the soul.
a. The whole system of revelation must be explained, so as
to be consistent with itself. — When two passages appear to
be contradictory, if the sense of the one can be clearly ascer-
tained, in such case that must regulate our interpretation of
the other.
4. No interpretation of Scripture can belong to the analogy
of faith, that contradicts any of those fundamental points of
doctrine or morality, which are frequently repeated in the
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 173
Scriptures, and which we every where find most urgently en-
forced.
5. An obscure, doubtful, ambiguous, or figurative text must
never be interpreted in such a sense as to make it contradict a
plain one.
In explaining the Scriptures, consistency of sense and principles
ought to be supported in all their several parts ; and if any one part
be so interpreted as to clash with another, such interpretation cannot
be justified. Nor can it be otherwise corrected than by considering
every doubtful or difficult text, first by itself, then with its context,
and then by comparing it with other passages of Scripture ; and
thus bringing what may seem obscure into a consistency with what
is plain and evident.
The doctrine of transubstantiation, inculcated by the church of
Rome, is founded on a strictly literal interpretation of figurative
expressions, "This is my body," &c. (Matt. xxvi. 26, &c.) and
(which has no relation to the supper), " Eat my flesh, drink my
Wood. (John vi. 51 — 58.) But independently of this, we may
further conclude that the sense put upon the words " This is my
body" by the church of Rome, cannot be the true one, being con-
trary to the express declaration of the New Testament history, from
which it is evident that our Lord is ascended into heaven, where he
is to continue " till the time of the restitution of all things ;" (Acts
iii. 21.) that is, till his second coming to judgment. How then can
his body be in ten thousand several places on earth at one and the
same time ? We may further add that, if the doctrine of transub-
stantiation be true, it will follow that our Saviour, when he instituted
the sacrament of the Lord's Supper, did actually eat his own flesh,
and drink his own blood : a conclusion this, so obviously contra-
dictory both to reason and to Scripture, that it is astonishing how
any sensible and religious man can credit such a tenet.
6. Such passages as are expressed with brevity are to be
expounded by those, where the same doctrines or duties are
expressed more largely and fully.
Even light variations will frequently serve for the purpose of re-
ciprocal illustration. Thus, the beatitudes, related in Luke vi.,
though delivered at another time and in a different place, are the
same with those delivered by Jesus Christ in his sermon on the
mount, and recorded in Matt. v. Being, however, epitomized by
the former evangelist, they may be explained by the latter.
I 3
174* MEANS FOR ASCERTAINING
7. In ascertaining the analogy of faith, the seat of a subject
must be consulted and considered.
By the seat of a subject we mean any place or passage in Scrip-
ture where any subject is treated, either professedly, or in subordina-
tion to another subject, or in which more especially it is regularly
discussed and grounded by the special appointment of the Holy
Spirit. This last has been termed its proper and principal seat, and
is that which must chiefly be regarded : for there is no article of
faith, necessary to be believed unto salvation, which is not clearly and
explicitly proposed in some part or other of the Scripture. The
doctrine of justification, for instance, is considered in Phil. iii. as in
its proper seat : and the epistle to the Galatians, and especially that
to the Romans are the principal seats of that momentous doctrine ;
and according to the tenor of these, particularly Rom. iii., all the
other passages of Scripture that treat of justification, should be
explained.
8. " Where several doctrines of equal importance are pro-
posed, and revealed with great clearness, we must be careful to
give to each its full and equal weight."
" Thus, that we are saved by the free grace of God, and through
faith in Christ, is a doctrine too plainly affirmed by the sacred
writers to be set aside by any contravening position. (Eph. ii. 8.)
But so, on the other hand, are the doctrines of repentance unto life,
and of obedience unto salvation. (Acts iii. 19. Matt. xix. 17.)
To set either of these truths at variance with the others, would be to
frustrate the declared purpose of the Gospel, and to make it of none
effect. Points thus clearly established, and from their very nature
indispensable, must be made to correspond with each other : and the
exposition, which best preserves them unimpaired and undiminished,
will in any case be a safe interpretation, and most probably the true
one. The analogy of faith will thus be kept entire, and will ap-
prove itself, in every respect, as becoming its Divine Author, and
worthy of all acceptation." (Bp. Vanmildert't. Bampton Lectures,
p. 294.)
It must, however, be ever borne in mind, that, valua-
ble as this aid is, it is to be used only in concurrence
with those which have been discussed and illustrated
in the preceding sections. But, by a due, attention to
THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE. 175
these principles, accompanied with humility and since-
rity, with a desire to know and obey the revealed will
of God, and above all, with fervent supplication to the
throne of Grace for a blessing on his labours, the dili-
gent inquirer after Scripture-truth may confidently
hope for success, and will be enabled to perceive the
design of every portion of holy writ, its harmony with
the rest, and the divine perfection of the whole.
Section VII. — On Commentators.
I. Nature and Classes of Commentators.
Commentators are writers of Books of Annotations on
Scripture : they have been divided into the following
classes, viz.
1. Wholly spiritual or 'figurative; — this class of expositors
proceed on the principle, that the Scriptures are every where
to be taken in the fullest sense of which they will admit; — a
principle, of all others the most unsafe and most calculated to
mislead the student.
2. Literal and Critical; — those, who apply themselves to
explain the mere letter of the Bible.
3. Wholly practical; — those who confine themselves to
moral and doctrinal observations : and
4. Those who unite critical, philological, and practical ob-
servations.
Expository writings may also be classed into Scho-
liasts, or writers of short explanatory notes, who parti-
cularly aim at brevity ; — Commentators, or authors of
a series of perpetual annotations, in which the train of
their thoughts, and the coherence of their expressions,
are pointed out; — and Paraphrasts, who expound a
sacred writer by rendering his whole discourse, as well
as every expression, in equivalent terms,
i 4
]76 THE SENSE OF SCRIPTURE.
II. Use of Commentators, and in what manner they
are to be consulted.
The use of Commentators is two-fold : first, that we
may acquire from them a method of interpreting the
Scriptures, correctly ; and 2. that we may understand
obscure and difficult passages. The best comment-
ators only should be consulted ; and in availing our-
selves of their labours the following hints will be found
useful :
1. We should take care that the reading of commentators
does not draw us away from studying the Scriptures for our-
selves, from investigating their real meaning, and meditating
on their important contents.
This would be to frustrate the very design for which commentaries
are written, namely, to facilitate our labours, to direct us aright
where we are in danger of falling into error, to remove doubts and
difficulties which we are ourselves unable to solve, to reconcile appa-
rently contradictory passages, and, in short, to elucidate whatever is
obscure or unintelligible to us. No commentators, therefore, should
be consulted until we have previously investigated the sacred writings
for ourselves, making use of every grammatical and historical help,
comparing the scope, context, parallel passages, the analogy of
faith, &c. ; and even then commentaries should be resorted to only
for the purpose of explaining what was not sufficiently clear or of
removing our doubts. This method of studying the sacred volume
will, unquestionably, prove a slow one ; but the student will proceed
with certainty ; and, if he have patience and resolution enough to
persevere in it, he will ultimately attain greater proficiency in the
knowledge of the Scriptures, than those who, disregarding this
method, shall have recourse wholly to assistances of other.kinds.
2. We should not inconsiderately assent to the interpretation
of any expositor or commentator, or yield a blind and servile
obedience to his authority.
5. Where it does not appear that either antient or modern
interpreters had more knowledge than ourselves respecting
particular passages ; and where they offer only conjectures, —
in such cases their expositions ought to be subjected to a strict
examination. If their reasons are then found to be valid3 we
Historical interpretation of scripture. 1 77
should give our assent to them : but, on the contrary, if they
prove to be false, improbable, and insufficient, they must be
altogether rejected.
4. Lastly, as there are some commentaries, which are either
wholly compiled from the previous labours of others, or contain
observations extracted from their writings, if any thing appear
confused or perplexed in such commentaries, the original
sources whence they were compiled must be referred to, and
diligently consulted.
Chapter II.
ON THE HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE.
!• Historical Interpretation defined.
Since it is not sufficient to know grammatically the
different expressions employed by writers, in order
that we may interpret antient works, it becomes neces-
sary that we superadd Historical Interpretation to our
grammatical or literal knowledge. By historical inter-
pretation, we are to understand, that we give to the
words of the sacred author that sense, which they bore
in the age when he lived, and which is agreeable to the
degree of knowledge he possessed, as well as conform-
able to the religion professed by him, and to the sacred
and civil rites or customs that obtained in the age when
he flourished. In investigating the historical interpret-
ation of the Scriptures, the following hints may be
found useful.
1. The books of the Old and New Testament are, each,
to be frequently and carefully read, and the subjects therein
treated are to be compared together, in order that we may
ascertain the meaning of what the authors thought and wrote.
2. It is also necessary that, in many instances, we lay aside
our more accurate knowledge of natural things, in order that
I 5
178 HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE.
we may fully enter into the meaning of different parts of the
sacred writings.
The antient Hebrews being altogether ignorant of, or imperfectly
acquainted with, many things, the nature of which is now fully ex-
plored and well known, it were absurd to apply our more perfect
knowledge to the explanation of things which are related according
to the limited degrees of knowledge they possessed. Hence it is
not necessary that we should attempt to illustrate the Mosaic
account of the creation according to the Copernican system of the
universe, which the experiments of philosophers have shown to be
the true one.
Z. The historical interpretation of the Scripture will, further,
be essentially promoted by an acquaintance with the history of
such antient nations or people, as did not possess a higher
degree of cultivation than the Hebrews or Jews.
A judicious comparison of the notions that obtained among antient,
and comparatively uncultivated nations, with those entertained by
the Hebrews or Jews, will, from their similitude, enable us to enter
more fully into the meaning of the sacred writers. Thus many
pleasing illustrations of patriarchal life and manners may be ob-
tained by comparing the writings of Homer and Hesiod with the
accounts given by Moses : such comparisons are to be found in the
best of the larger philological commentaries.
4. In order, however, that we may correctly explain the
manners, customs, or practices, referred to by the sacred writers
at different times, it is necessary that we should investigate the
laws, opinions, and principles of those nations among whom the
Hebrews resided for a long time, or with whom they held a
close intercourse, and from whom it is probable they received
some of them.
The Hebrews, from their long residence in Egypt, seem to have
derived some expressions and modes of thinking from their oppres-
sors. A single example will suffice to illustrate this remark. Under
the Jewish theocracy the judges are represented as holy persons,
and as sitting in the place of Jehovah. The Egyptians regarded
their sovereigns in this light. Hence it has been conjectured, that
the Israelites, just on their exit from Egypt, called their rulers
i^ods, not only in poetry, but also in the common language of their
HISTORICAL INTERPRETATION OP SCRIPTURE. 179
laws, (see Exod. xxi. 6.) where the word judges is, in the original
Hebrew, gods.
5. We should carefully distinguish between what the Scrip-
ture itself says, and what is only said in the Scripture, and also,
the times, places, and persons, when, where, and by whom
any thing is recorded as having been said or done.
In Mai. iii. 14. we meet with the following words : " It is in
vain to serve God, and what profit is it that we have kept his ordi-
nance?" And in 1 Cor. xv. 32. we meet with this maxim of pro-
fane men — " Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." But,
when we read these and similar passages, we must attend to the
characters introduced, and remember that the persons who spoke
thus were wicked men. Even those, whose piety is commended in
the sacred volume, did not always act in strict conformity to it.
Thus, when David vowed that he would utterly destroy Nabal's
house, we must conclude that he sinned in making that vow : and
the discourses of Job's friends, though in themselves extremely beau-
tiful and instructive, are not in every respect to be approved ; for we
are informed by the sacred historian, that God was wroth with
them, because they had not spoken of him the thing that was right.
(Jobxlii. 7.)
6. Lastly, in order to enter fully into the meaning of the
sacred writers, especially of the New Testament, it is neces-
sary that the reader in a manner identify himself with them,
and invest himself with their affections or feelings ; and also
familiarise himself with the sentiments, &c. of those to whom
the different books or epistles were addressed.
This canon is of considerable importance, as well in the investi-
gation of words and phrases, as in the interpretation of the sacred
volume, and particularly of the prayers and imprecations related or
contained therein. If the assistance, which may be derived from a
careful study of the affections and feelings of the inspired writers,
be disregarded or neglected, it will be scarcely possible to avoid
erroneous expositions of the Scriptures. Daily observation and
experience prove, how much of its energy and perspicuity familiar
discourse derives from the affections of the speakers : and also that
the same words, when pronounced under the influence of different
emotions, convey very different meanings,
16.
180 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
Chapter III.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OP
SCRIPTURE.
Figurative language had its rise in the first ages of
mankind : the scarcity of words occasioned them to be
used for various purposes : and thus figurative terms,
which constitute the beauty of language, arose from
its poverty ; and it is still the same in all uncivilised
nations. Figures, in general, may be described to be
that language, which is prompted either by the imagin-
ation or by the passions. They are commonly divided
into, 1. Tropes or Figures of Words, which consist in
the advantageous alteration of a word or sentence,
from its original and proper signification, to another
meaning ; and 2. Figures of Thought, which suppose
the words to be used in their literal and proper mean-
ing, and the figure to consist in the turn of the thought ;
as is the case in exclamations, apostrophes, and com-
parisons, where, though we vary the words that are
used, or translate them from one language into another,
we may nevertheless still preserve the same figure in
the thought. This distinction, however, is of no great
use, as nothing can be built upon it in practice: neither
is it always very clear. It is of little importance,
whether we give to some particular mode of expression
the name of a trope, or of a figure, provided we re-
member that figurative language always imports some
colouring of the imagination, or some emotion of
passion expressed in our style.
Disregarding, therefore, the technical distinctions,
which have been introduced by rhetorical writers, we
shall first offer some hints by which to ascertain and cor-
rectly interpret the tropes and figures occurring in the
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 181
sacred writings ; and in the following sections we shall
notice the principal of them, with a few illustrative ex-
amples.
Section I. — General Observations on the Interpretation of Tropes
and Figures.
In order to understand fully the figurative language
of the Scriptures, it is requisite, Jirst, to ascertain and
determine what is really figurative, lest we take that
to be literal which is figurative, as the disciples of
our Lord and the Jews frequently did, or lest we per-
vert the literal meaning of words by a figurative inter-
pretation ; and, secondly^ when we have ascertained
what is really figurative, to interpret it correctly, and
deliver its true sense. For this purpose the following
hints will be found useful in addition to a consideration
of historical circumstances, parallel passages, and the
context.
1. The literal meaning of words must be retained, more
in the historical books of Scripture, than in those which are
poetical.
We are not, therefore, to look for a figurative style in the his-
torical books : and still less are historical narratives to be changed
into allegories and parables, unless these are obviously apparent.
Those expositors, therefore, violate this rule, who allegorise the
history of the fall of man, and that of the prophet Jonah.
2. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if it be
either improper, or involve an impossibility.
The expressions in Jer. i. 1 8. are therefore necessarily to be under-
stood figuratively. So the literal sense of Isa. i. 25. is equally
inapplicable ; but in the following verse the prophet explains it in
the proper words.
5. The literal meaning of words is to be given up, if the
predicate, being literally taken, be contrary to the subject.
182 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
In Psal. xviii. 2. God is termed a rock, a fortress, a deliverer, a
buckler, a horn of salvation, and a high tower ; it is obvious that
these predicates are metaphorically spoken of the Almighty.
4. Where the literal meaning of words is contrary, either to
common sense, to the context, to parallel passages, or to the
scope of a passage, it must be given up.
To change day into night (Job xvii. 12.) is a moral impossibility,
contrary to common sense, and must be a figurative expression.
In Isa. i. 5, 6. the Jewish nation are described as being sorely
stricken or chastised, like a man mortally wounded, and destitute
both of medicine as well as of the means of cure. That this de-
scription is figurative, is evident from the context ; for in the two
following verses the prophet delineates the condition of the Jews in
literal terms.
It is not, however, sufficient to know whether an expres-
sion be figurative or not, but, when this point is ascertained,
another of equal importance presents itself; namely, to inter-
pret metaphorical expressions by corresponding and appropriate
terms. In order to accomplish this object, it is necessary,
5. That we inquire in what respects the thing compared,
and that with which it is compared, respectively agree, and also
in what respects they have any affinity or resemblance.
For, as a similitude is concealed in every metaphor, it is only
by diligent study that it can be elicited, by carefully observing the
points of agreement between the proper or literal and the figurative
meaning. For instance, the prophetic writers, and particularly
Ezekiel, very frequently charge the Israelites with having committed
adultery and played the harlot, and with deserting Jehovah, their
husband. From the slightest inspection of these passages, it is
evident that spiritual adultery, or idolatry, is intended. Now the
origin of this metaphor is to be sought from one and the same
notion, in which there is an agreement between adultery and the
worship paid by the Israelites to strange gods. That notion or
idea is unfaithfulness j by which, as a wife deceives her husband, so
they are represented as deceiving God, and as violating their fidelity
in forsaking him.
6. Lastly, in explaining the figurative language of Scripture,
care must be taken that we do not judge of the application of
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 183
characters from modern usage; because the inhabitants of the
East have very frequently attached a character to the idea
expressed, widely different from that which usually presents
itself to our views.
In Deut. xxxiii. 1 7. the glory of the tribe of Joseph is compared
to the firstling of a bullock; in like manner Amos (iv. 1.) compares
the noble women of Israel to the kine of Bashan, and Hosea com-
pares the Israelites to refractory kine that shake off the yoke. If
we take these metaphors according to their present sense, we shall
greatly err. The ox tribe of animals, whose greatest beauty and
strength lie in their horns, was held in very high honour among the
antient nations, and was much esteemed on account of its apt-
itude for agricultural labour: hence, in the East, it is not reckoned
disgraceful to be compared with these animals. In the com-
parison of the tribe of Joseph to the firstling of a bullock, the
point of resemblance is strength and power. In the comparison of
the matrons of Samaria to the kine of Bashan, the point of resem-
blance is luxury and wantonness, flowing from their abundance.
Section II. — On the Interpretation of the Metonymies occurring
in Scripture.
A Metonymy is a trope, by which we substitute
one appellation for another, as the cause for the effect,
the effect for the cause, the subject for the adjunct, or
the adjunct for the subject.
A Metonymy of the cause is used in Scripture, when the
person acting is put for the thing done, or the instrument by
which a thing is done is put for the thing effected, or when a
thing or action is put for the effect produced by that action.
A Metonymy of the effect occurs, when the effect is put for
the efficient cause.
A Metonymy of the subject is, when the subject is put for the
adjunct, that is, for some circumstance or appendage belong-
ing to the subject ; when the thing or place containing is put
for the thing contained or placed ; when the possessor is put
for the thing possessed ; when the object is put for the thing
184 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
conversant about it; or when the thing signified is put for
its sign.
A Metonymy of the adjunct is, when that which belongs to
any thing serves to represent the thing itself.
1. Metonymy of the Cause.
I. Frequently the person acting is put for the thing done.
Thus,
I . Christ is put for his doctrine in Rom. xvi. 9.
2. The Holy Spirit for his Effects and Operations, in 2 Cor.
iii. 6. Psalm li. 10. ; Influences, in Luke xi. 13. and 1 Thess. v.
1 9. ; a Divine Power, reigning in the soul of the renewed man, in
Luke i. 46. 47. compared with 1 Thess. v. 23. ; the Extraordinary
Gifts of the Spirit, in 2 Kings ii. 9. Dan. v. 12. ; and for revela-
tions, visions, or ecstasies, whether really from the Holy Spirit, or
pretended to be so, in Ezek. xxxvi. 1. 2 Thess. ii. 2. and Rev.
i. 10.
3. Parents or Ancestors are put for their Posterity; as in Gen.
ix. 27. Exod. v. 2. and very many other passages of holy writ.
4. The Writer or Author is put for his Book or Work : as in Luke
xvi. 29. xxiv. 27. Acts xv. 21. xxi. 21. and 2 Cor. iii. 15. in
which passages Moses and the Prophets respectively mean the Mosaic
and Prophetic writings.
II. Sometimes the cause or instrument is put for the thing
effected by it. Thus,
1. The mouth, the lips, and the tongue, are respectively put for
the speech, in Deut. xvii. 6. xix. 15. Matt, xviii. 16, &c.
2. The mouth is also put for commandment in Gen. xlv. 21.
(marginal rendering) (Heb. mouth). Numb. iii. 16. 39. xx. 24.
xxvii. 14. Deut. i. 26. 43. and in Prov. v. 3. the palate (marginal
rendering) is also put for speech.
3. The throat is also put for loud speaking, in Isa. Iviii. 1. Cry
aloud (Heb. with the throat).
4. The hand is ordinarily put for its writing, 1 Cor. xvi. 21.
Col. iv. 18.
5. The sword, famine, and pestilence, likewise respectively denote
the effects of those scourges, as in Ezek. vii. 15.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 185
2. Metonymy of the Effect.
III. Sometimes, on the contrary, the effect is put for the
cause.
Thus God is called Salvation, that is, the Author of it, Exod.xv. 2.,
our life and the length of our days, Deut xxx. 20., our strength,
Psal. xviii. 1. So Christ is termed Salvation, Isa. xlix. G. Luke ii.
30. Life, John xi. 25. and the Resurrection in the same place.
IV. Sometimes the subject is put for the adjunct, that is,
for some circumstance or appendage belonging to, or depend-
ing upon the subject. Thus,
The heart is frequently used for the will and affection, Deut. iv.
29. vi. 5, &c. ; and for the understanding, Deut. iv. 39. vi. 6.
Lukeii. 51, &c.
V. Sometimes the place or thing denotes that which is con-
tained in such place or thing.
The earth and the world are frequently put for the men that dwell
therein, as in Gen. vi. 11. Psal. xcvi. 13, &c. The Houses of
Israel and Levi denote their several families, in Exbd. ii. 1. and
Ezek. hi. 1.
VI. Sometimes the possessor of a thing is put for the thing
possessed.
Thus, Deut. ix. 1. To possess nations greater and mightier than
thyself, means to possess the countries of the Gentiles. See also
Psal. lxxix. 7. where Jacob means the land of the Israelites.
VII. Frequently the object is put for that which is convers-
ant about it.
Thus glory and strength are put for the celebration of the divine
glory and strength, in Psal. viii. 2. explained by Matt. xxi. 16. ;
see also Psal. xcvi. 7, 8.
VIII. Sometimes the thing signified is put for its sign.
So, the strength of God, in 1 Chron. xvi. 11. and Psal. cv. 4. is
the ark, which was a sign and symbol of the divine presence and
strength.
186 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
IX. When an action is said to be done, the meaning fre-
quently is, that it is declared, or permitted, or foretold, to be
done; as in Gen. xli. 3. Jer. iv. 10. Matt. xvi. 9, &c.
X. An action is said to be done, when the giving of an
occasion for it is only intended.
1 Kings xiv. 6. Jeroboam made Israel to sin, i. e. occasioned it by
his example and command. See Acts i. 18. Rom. xiv. 15. and
1 Cor. vii. 16.
4. Metonymy of the Adjunct, in which the Adjunct is put for the
Subject.
XI. Sometimes the accident, or that which is additional to
a thing, is put for its subject in kind.
The abstract is put for the concrete. So grey hairs (Heb. hoari-
ness or grey-headedness) in Gen. xlii. 38. denote, me, who am now
an old man and grey-headed ; abomination for an abominable thing,
in Gen. xlvi. 34. and Luke xvi. 15.
XII. Sometimes the thing contained is put for the thing
containing it, and a thing deposited in a place for the place
itself.
Thus Gen. xxviii. 22. means, this place, where I have erected a
pillar of stone, shall be God's house. Josh. xv. 19. Springs of
water denote some portion of land, where there may be springs.
Matt. ii. 11. Treasures are the cabinets or other vessels containing
them.
XIII. Time is likewise put for the things which are done or
happen in time, as in 1 Chron. xii. 52. John xii. 27.
XIV. In the Scriptures, things are sometimes named or de-
scribed according to appearances, or to the opinion formed of
them by men, and not as they are in their own nature.
Thus Hananiah, the opponent of Jeremiah, is called a prophet,
not because he was truly one, but was reputed to be one, Jer. xxviii.
1. 5. 10. In Ezek. xxi. 3. the righteous mean those who had the
semblance of piety, but really were not righteous. And in Luke
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 187
ii. 48. Joseph is called the Father of Christ, because he was reputed
so to be.
XV. Sometimes the action or affection, which is conversant
about any object, or placed upon it, is put for the object itself.
Thus, the senses are put for the objects perceived by them, as hear-
ing for doctrine or speech, in Isa. xxviii. 9. (marg. rend.) and
liii. 1. (Heb.) In Johnxii. 38. and Rom. x. ] 6. the Greek word aKo-q
translated report, literally means hearing, and so it is rendered in
Gal. iii. 2. 5. Hearing is also put for fame or rumour in Psal.
cxii. 7. (Heb.) Ezek. vii. 26. Obad. 1. Hab. iii. 2. (Heb.)
Matt. iv. 24. xiv. 1 . and xxiv. 6. Mark i. 28. and xiii. 7, &c.
The eye, in the original of Numb. xi. 7. Lev. xiii. 55. Prov. xxiii.
31. Ezek. i. 4. viii. 2. and x. 9. is put for colours which are seen
by the eye.
XVI. Sometimes the sign is put for the thing signified, as in
Gen.xlix. 10. Isa.xxii. 22. Matt. x. 34.
XVII. Lastly, the names of things are often put for the
things themselves, as in Psal. xx. 1. cxv. 1. Acts ii. 21. Rom.
x. 15, &c.
Section III. — On the Interpretation of Scripture Metaphors and
Allegories.
I. Nature and sources of Metaphors.
A metaphor is a trope, by which a word is diverted
from its proper and genuine signification to another
meaning, for the sake of comparison, or because there
is some analogy between the similitude and the thing
signified. Of all the figures of rhetoric, the metaphor
is that which is most frequently employed, not only in
the Scriptures, but likewise in every language ; for,
independently of the pleasure which it affords, it en-
riches the mind with tvoo ideas at the same time, the
truth and the similitude. To illustrate this definition :
— In Deut. xxxii. 42. we read, I will make mine arrows
188 ON THE INTERPRETATION OP THE
drunk with blood, and my sword shall devour Jlesh.
Here, the first metaphor is borrowed from excessive
and intemperate drinking, to intimate the very great
effusion of blood, and the exceeding greatness of the
ruin and destruction which would befall the disobedient
Israelites : the second metaphor is drawn from the vora-
cious appetite of an hungry beast, which in a lively
manner presents to the mind the impossibility of their
escaping the edge of the sword, when the wrath of God
should be provoked. The foundation of them consists
in a likeness or similitude between the thing from
which the metaphor is drawn, and that to which it is
applied. When this resemblance is exhibited in one or
in a ^ew expressions, it is termed a simple metaphor.
When it is pursued with a variety of expressions, or
there is a continued assemblage of metaphors, it is
called an allegory. When it is couched in a short
sentence, obscure and ambiguous, it is called a riddle.
If it be conveyed in a short saying only, it is a proverb ,°
and if the metaphorical representation be delivered in
the form of a history, it is sparable. When the resem-
blance is far-fetched, — as to see a voice, (Rev. i. 12.)
it is termed a catachresis. This last-mentioned species
of figure, however, is of less frequent occurrence in
the Bible than any of the preceding. Scripture Meta-
phors are variously derived from the works of nature :
— from the ordinary occupations and customs of life,
as well as from such arts as were at that time prac-
tised ; — from sacred topics, that is, the Religion of the
Hebrews, and things connected with it, and also from
their national History.
II. Nature of an Allegory.
The Allegory is another branch of the figurative
language of Scripture ; in which a foreign or distant
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 189
meaning is concealed under the literal sense of the
words. It differs from a metaphor, in that it is not
confined to a word, but extends to a thought, or even
to several thoughts. Of this species of figure Bishop
Lowth has distinguished three kinds, viz.
1. The Allegory properly so called, and which he
terms a continued metaphor ; — 2. The Parable, or
similitude, which is discussed in the following section ;
— and, 3. The Mystical Allegory, in which a double
meaning is couched under the same words, or when
the same prediction, according as it is differently inter-
preted, relates to different events, distant in time, and
distinct in their nature. This case of allegory is ex-
clusively derived from things sacred ; and, while in
those other forms of allegory the exterior or ostensible
imagery is fiction only, in the mystical allegory each
idea is equally agreeable to truth. As the mystical and
typical interpretation of Scripture is discussed in a sub-
sequent part of this volume, we shall at present con-
sider, aliegory, or continued metaphor properly and
strictly so called.
III. The following rules may assist us to determine
the meaning of an allegory.
1. Allegorical senses of Scripture are not to be sought for,
where the literal sense is plain and obvious ; nor ought the
point of comparison to be extended to all the circumstances
of an allegory.
2. The proper or literal meaning of the primary word must
be ascertained, before we attempt to explain an allegory.
These two rules are of the greatest importance : from inattention
to them, many ridiculous interpretations have been imposed on pas-
sages of Scripture, the proper moral sense of which has been either
greatly enervated, or entirely frittered away, by such misnamed spi-
ritual expositions,
3. The design of the whole allegory must be investigated.
190 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
For this purpose, the occasion that gave rise to it must be dili-
gently examined and considered, together with historical circum-
stances, as well as the nature of the thing spoken of, and also the
scope and context of the whole passage in which it occurs ; because
the scope and interpretation of an allegory are frequently pointed
out by some explanation that is subjoined.
4. We must not explain one part literally, and another part
figuratively.
Thus the whole of 1 Cor. iii. 9 — 13. is allegorical: a com-
parison is there instituted between the office of a teacher of religion,
and that of a builder. Hence a Christian congregation is termed
a building ; its ministers are the architects, some of whom lay the
foundation on which others build ; some erect a superstructure of
gold and silver; others of wood, hay, and stubble. The sense
concealed under the allegory is apparent: a Christian congregation
is instructed by teachers, some of whom communicate the first prin-
ciples, others impart further knowledge : some deliver good and
useful things (the truth) , while others deliver useless things (erro-
neous doctrines, such as at that time prevailed in the Corinthian
church). That day (the great day of judgment) will declare what
superstructure a man has raised ; that is, whether what he has taught
be good or bad. And as fire is the test of gold, silver, precious
stones, wood, hay, stubble, so the great day will be the test of every
man's work. Though the whole of this passage is obviously alle-
gorical, yet it is understood literally by the church of Rome, who has
erected upon it her doctrine of the fire of purgatory. How con-
trary this doctrine is to every rule of right interpretation, is too
plain to require any exposition.
Section IV. — Interpretation of Scripture Parables.
I. Nature of a parable.
The word parable is of various import in Scripture,
denoting a proverb or short saying, a thing darkly or
figuratively expressed, and a similitude or comparison.
Strictly speaking, a Parable is a similitude taken from
things natural, in order to instruct us in things spi-
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 191
ritual. This mode of instruction is of great antiquity,
and an admirable means of conveying moral lessons :
u by laying hold on the imagination, parable insinuates
itself into the affections ; and by the intercommunica-
tion of the faculties, the understanding is made to ap-
prehend the truth which was proposed to the fancy."
In a word, this kind of instruction seizes us by sur-
prise, and carries with it a force and conviction which
are almost irresistible. It is no wonder, therefore,
that parables were made the vehicle of national in-
struction in the most early times ; that the prophets,
especially Ezekiel, availed themselves of the same im-
pressive mode of conveying instruction or reproof; and
that our Lord, following the same example, also
adopted it for the same important purposes.
II. For the interpretation of a Parable, (to which
many of the rules belonging to the allegory may indeed
be applied,) the following hints will be found useful :
1. The first excellence of a parable is, that it turns upon an
image well known and applicable to the subject, the meaning
of which is clear and definite : for this circumstance will give
it that perspicuity which is essential to every species of alle-
gory.
How clearly this rule applies to the parables of our Lord, is ob-
vious to every reader of the New Testament. It may suffice to men-
tion his parable of the Ten Virgins (Matt. xxv. 1 — IS.), which is
a plain all usion to those things which were common at the Jewish
marriages in those days. In like manner, the parables of the lamp
(Luke viii. 16.), of the sower and the seed, of the tares, of the ?nus-
tard seed, of the leaven, of the net cast into the sea, all of which are
related in Matt. xiii. as well as of the householder that planted a
vineyard, and let it out to husbandmen (Matt. xxi. 33.), are all re-
presentations of usual and common occurrences, and such as the
generality of our Saviour's hearers were daily conversant with, and
they were therefore selected by him as being the most interesting
and affecting.
192 ON THE INTERPRETATION
2. Further, the image must be not only apt and familiar,
but must also be elegant and beautiful in itself; and all its
parts must be perspicuous and pertinent ; since it is the pur-
pose of a parable, and especially of a poetic parable, not only
to explain more perfectly some proposition, but frequently to
give it animation and splendour.
Of all these excellencies there cannot be more perfect examples
than the parables which have just been specified : to which we may
add the well known parables of Jotham (Judges ix. 7 — 15.), of
Nathan (2 Sam. xii. 1 — 4.), and of the woman of Tekoah. (2 Sam.
xiv. 4 — 7.)
3. As every parable has two senses, the literal or external,
and the mystical or internal sense, the literal sense must be
first explained, in order that the correspondence between it
and the mystical sense may be the more readily perceived. And
wherever words seem to be capable of different senses, par-
ticularly in the parables of Jesus Christ, we may with certainty
conclude that to be the true sense which lies most level to the
apprehensions of those to whom the parable was delivered.
4. It is not necessary, in the interpretation of parables, that
we should anxiously insist upon every single word ; nor ought
we to expect too curious an adaptation or accommodation of
it in every part to the spiritual meaning inculcated by it ; for
many circumstances are introduced into parables which are
merely ornamental, and designed to make the similitude more
pleasing and interesting.
Inattention to this obvious rule has led many expositors into the
most fanciful explanations : resemblances have been accumulated,
which are for the most part futile, or at best of little use, and mani-
festly not included in the scope of the parable. In the application
of this rule, the two following points are to be considered, viz.
(1.) Persons are not to be compared with persons, but things
with tilings ; part is not to be compared with part, but the whole of
the parable with itself. Thus, the similitude in Matt. xiii. 24, 25.
is, not with the men there mentioned, but with the seed and the
■pearl: and the construction is to be the same as in verses 31. and 33.
where the progress of the Gospel is compared to the grain of mus-
tard seed, and to leaven.
OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 193
(2.) In parables it is not necessary that all the actions of men,
mentioned in them, should be just actions, that is to say, morally
just and honest : for instance, the unjust steward (Luke xvi. l — 8.)
is not proposed either to justify his dishonesty, or as an example to us
in cheating his lord (for that is merely ornamental, and introduced to
fill up the story) ; but as an example of his care and prudence in
providing for the future.
5. Lastly, although in many of his parables Jesus Christ has
delineated the future state of the church, yet he intended that
they should convey some important moral precepts, of which
we should never lose sight in interpreting parables.
To mention only two instances: — The parable of the sower
(Matt. xiii. 3—24. Mark iv. 3 — 20. and Luke viii. 4 — 16.) has a
moral doctrine, for our Lord himself soon after subjoins the fol-
lowing important caution : Take heed how ye hear. Further, the
parable of the labourers in the vineyard (Matt. xx. 1—17.) besides
predicting the future reception of the Gospel, teaches us that no one
should despair of the divine mercy so long as he lives, and that God
will bestow upon the faithful a larger measure of blessedness than
they can venture to expect, and also that we should not be moved
with envy, if others enjoy a greater portion of gifts or talents than
are bestowed upon ourselves.
Section V. — On Scripture Proverbs. — Concluding Observations
on the Figurative Language of Scripture.
I. Nature of Proverbs.
Proverbs are concise and sententious common say-
ings, founded on a close observance of men and man-
ners. They were greatly in use among the inhabitants
of Palestine in common with other oriental nations:
and the teachers of mankind who had recourse to this
mode of instruction, in order to render it the more
agreeable, added to their precepts the graces of har-
mony ; and decorated them with metaphors, com-
K
194 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE
parisons, allusions, and other elegant embellishments of
style.
II. Different Kinds of Proverbs.
Proverbs are divided into two classes, viz. 1. Entire
Sentences ; and, 2. Proverbial Phrases, which by com-
mon usage are admitted into a sentence.
1. Examples of Entire Proverbial Sentences occur in Gen. x. 9.
and xxii. 14. 1 Sam. x. 12. and xxiv. 13. 2 Sam. v. 8. and
xx. 18. Ezek. xvi. 44. and xviii. 2. Luke iv. 23. John iv. 37.
and 2 Pet. ii. 22. ; in which passages the inspired writers expressly
state the sentences to have passed into proverbs.
2. Examples of Proverbial Phrases, which indeed cannot be cor-
rectly termed proverbs, but which have acquired their form and use,
are to be found in Deut. xxv. 4. 1 Kings xx. 11. 2 Chron. xxv. 9.
Job vi. 5. xiv. 19/and xxviii. 18. Psal. xlii. 7. and lxii. 9. The Book
of Proverbs likewise contains many similar sentences ; examples of
which may also be seen in the Book of Ecclesiastes, in some of the
Prophets, as well as in the New Testament.
III. Interpretation of the Proverbs in the New Testa-
ment.
The Proverbs occurring in the New Testament are
to be explained, partly by the aid of similar passages
from the Old Testament, and partly from the antient
writings of the Jews ; whence it appears how much
they were in use among that people, and that they
were applied by Christ and his apostles, agreeably to
common usage.
IV. Concluding Observations on the Figurative Lan-
guage of Scripture.
Besides the figures discussed in the preceding sec-
tions, there are many others dispersed throughout the
sacred Scriptures, the infinite superiority of which
over all uninspired compositions they admirably eluci-
date. Two or three of these, from their importance
and frequent occurrence, claim to be noticed in this
place.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE OF SCRIPTURE. 195
1. A Synecdoche is a trope in which, 1. The whole is put for
a part ; 2. A part is put for the whole ; 5. A certain number
for an uncertain one ; 4. A general name for a particular one ;
and, 5. Special words for general ones.
[i. ] The whole is sometimes put for a part :
As, the ivorld for the Rojiian empire, which was but a small though
very remarkable part of the world, in Acts xxiv. 5. and Rev. iii. ] 0.
The world for the earth, which is a part of it, 2 Pet. iii. 6. Rom. i. 8.
1 John v. ] 9.
[ii.] Sometimes the part is put for the whole.
Thus in Gen. i. 5. 8. 13. 19. 23. 31. the evening and morning,
being the principal parts of the day, are put for the entire day. - So
the soul comprehends the entire man, Acts xxvii. 37. Tree in Gen.
iii. 8. is in the original put for trees ; and man, in Gen. xlix. 6. for
men*
[iii.] A certain number for an uncertain number, as twice for
several times, in Psal. lxii. 11. Ten for many, in Gen. xxxi. 7.;
and seven for an indefinite number, in Gen. iv. 15. and very many
other passages of Scripture.
[iv.] A general name is put for a particular one,
As in Mark xvi. 15. where every creature means all mankind ; as
flesh also does in Gen. vi. 12. Psal. cxlv. 21. Isa. xl. 5, 6. lxvi. 23.
Matt. xxiv. 22. Luke iii. 6. and Rom. iii. 20.
[v.] Sometimes special words or particular names are put for such
as are general :
Thus, father is put for any ancestor in Psal. xxii. 4. ; father, for
grandfather, in 2 Sam. ix. 7. and Dan. v. 11. 18. ; father and ?no-
ther for all superiors in Exod. xx. 12.
2. An Irony is a figure, in which we speak one thing and de-
sign another, in order to give the greater force and vehemence
to our meaning. An irony is distingushed from the real senti-
ments of the speaker or writer, by the accent, the air, the ex-
travagance of the praise, the character of the perssn, or the
nature of the discourse.
Instances of irony may be seen in 1 Kings xviii. 27. 1 Kin^s
xxii. 15. Job xii. 2. and 1 Cor. iv. 8.
Under this figure we may include the Sarcasm, which may be de-
fined to be an irony in its superlative keenness and asperity. See
examples of this figure in Matt, xxvii. 29. and Mark xv. 32.
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196 ON THE SPIRITUAL
5. Hyperbole in its representation of things or objects, either
magnifies or diminishes them beyond or below their proper
limits : it is common in all languages, and is of frequent occur-
rence in the Scripture.
Thus, a great quantity or number is commonly expressed by the
sand of the sea, the dust of the earth, and the stars of heaven, Gen. xiii.
.16. xli. 49. Judges vii. 12. 1 Sam. xiii. 5. 1 Kings iv. 29.
2 Chron. i. 9. Jer. xv. 8. Heb xi. 12. In like manner we meet, in
Numb. xiii. 33. with smaller than grasshoppers, to denote extreme
diminutiveness : 2 Sam, i. 23. sivifter than eagles, to intimate extreme
celerity.
Chapter IV.
ON THE SPIRITUAL INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE.
It has already been ohservedinp. 155., that there
is a mystical or spiritual sense in the sacred writings.
Some injudicious expositors having unduly preferred
this to the literal sense, which is undoubtedly first in
point of nature as well as in order of signification ;
others have been induced to conclude that no such in-
terpretation is admissible. " A principle is not there-
fore to be rejected, because it has been abused ; since
human errors can never invalidate the truth of God."
The following Hints will be found useful for the
spiritual interpretation of Scripture.
In this department of sacred literature it may be con-
sidered as an axiom that the spiritual meaning of a
passage is there only to be sought, where it is evident,
from certain criteria, that such meaning was designed
by the Holy Spirit.
The criteria, by which to ascertain whether there
is a latent spiritual meaning in any passage of Scrip-
INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 19?
ture, are two-fold : either they are seated in the text
itself, or they are to be found in some other passages.
1. Where these criteria are seated in the text, vestiges of a
spiritual meaning are discernible, when the things, which are
affirmed concerning the person or thing immediately treated
of, are so august and illustrious that they cannot in any way
be applied to it, in the fullest sense of the words.
The writings of the prophets, especially those of Isaiah, abound
with instances of this kind. Thus, in the 14th, 40th, 41st, and
49th chapters of that evangelical prophet, the return of the Jews
from the Babylonish captivity is announced in the most lofty and
magnificent terms. If we compare this description with the ac-
counts actually given of their return to Palestine by Ezra and Ne-
hemiah, we shall not find any thing corresponding with the events
so long and so beautifully predicted by Isaiah. In this description,
therefore, of their deliverance from captivity, we must look beyond
it to that infinitely higher deliverance, which, in the fulness of time,
was accomplished by Jesus Christ.
2. Where the spiritual meaning of a text is latent, the Holy
Spirit (under whose direction the sacred penmen wrote) some-
times clearly and expressly asserts, that one thing or person
was divinely constituted or appointed to be a figure or symbol
of another thing or person : in which case the indisputable
testimony of eternal truth removes and cuts off every ground
of doubt and uncertainty.
For instance, if we compare Psalm ex. 4. with Heb. vii. 1. we
shall find that Melchisedec was a type of Messiah, the great high
priest and king. So Hagar and Sarah were types of the Jewish
and Christian churches. (Gal. iv. 22 — 24.)
3. Sometimes, however, the mystical sense is intimated by
the Holy Spirit in a more obscure manner : and without exclud-
ing the practice of sober and pious meditation, we are led by
various intimations (which require very diligent observation and
study) to the knowledge of the spiritual or mystical meaning.
This chiefly occurs in the following cases :
[i.] When, the antitype is proposed under figurative names taken
from the Old Testament.
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198 ON THE INTERPRETATION
Thus, in 1 Cor. v. 7. Christ is called the paschal lamb : — in
1 Cor. xv. 45. he is called the last Adam ; the first Adam, therefore,
was in some respect a type or figure of Christ.
[ii.] When, by a manifest allusion of words and phrases, the
Scripture refers one thing to another.
Thus, from Isa. ix. 4, which alludes to the victory obtained by
Gideon (Judges vii. 22.), we learn that this represents the victory
which Christ should obtain by the preaching of the Gospel, as Vi-
tringa has largely shewn on this passage.
[iii.] A passage is to be spiritually interpreted, when the arguments
of the inspired writers either plainly intimate it to have a spiritual
meaning, or such meaning is tacitly implied.
For instance, when St. Paul is arguing against the Jews from
the types of Sarah, Hagar, Melchisedec, &c. he supposes that in
these persons there were some things in which Christ and his church
were delineated, and that these things were admitted by his oppo-
nents : otherwise, his arguments would be inconclusive.
Chapter V.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES.
Prophecy, or the prediction of future events, is
justly considered as the highest evidence that can be
given of supernatural communion with the Deity.
The force of the argument from prophecy, for prov-
ing the divine inspiration of the sacred records has
already been exhibited; and the cavils of objectors
have been obviated. (See pp. 47 — 60. supra.) Difficul-
ties, it is readily admitted, do exist in understanding
the prophetic writings : but these are either owing to
our ignorance of history, and of the Scriptures, or be-
cause the prophecies themselves are yet unfulfilled.
The latter can only be understood when the events
foretold have actually been accomplished : but the
former class of difficulties may be removed in many, if
OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 199
not in all, cases ; and the knowledge, sense, and mean-
ing of the prophets may, in a considerable degree, be
attained by prayer, reading, and meditation, and by
comparing Scripture with Scripture, especially with
the writings of the New Testament, and particularly
with the book of the Revelation. With this view, the
following general rules will be found useful in investi-
gating, first, the sense and meaning of the prophecies,
and, secondly, their accomplishment.
I. Rules for ascertaining the sense of the Prophetic
Writings.
1. As not any Prophecy of Scripture is of self-interpretation
(2 Pet. i. 20.) or is its own interpreter, " the sense of the pro-
phecy is to be sought in the events of the world, and in the
harmony of the prophetic writings, rather than in the bare
terms of any single prediction."
In the consideration of this canon, the following circumstances
should be carefully attended to :
[i.] Consider well the times when the several prophets flourished,
in what place and under what kings they uttered their predictions,
the duration of their prophetic ministry, and their personal rank and
condition, and, lastly, whatever can be known respecting their life
and transactions.
[ii.] The situation of the particular places, of which the prophets
speak, must also be kept in mind, as well as that of the neighbour-
ing places ; there being in the prophetic writings frequent allusions
to the situation and antient names of places.
[iii.] As the prophets treat not only of past transactions and pre-
sent occurrences, but also foretell future events, in order to under-
stand them, we must diligently consult the histories of the following
ages, both sacred and profane, and carefully see whether we can
trace in them the fulfilment of any prophecy.
[iv.] The words and phrases of a prophecy must be explained,
where they are obscure ; if they be very intricate, every single word
should be expounded ; and, if the sense be involved in metaphorical
and emblematic expressions (as very frequently is the case), these
must be explained according to the principles already considered.
[v.] Similar prophecies of the same event must be carefully com -
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200 ON THE INTERPRETATION
pared, in order to elucidate more clearly the sense of the sacred
predictions.
For instance, after having ascertained the subject of the prophet's
discourse and the sense of the words, Isa. liii. 5. (He was wounded,
literally pierced through, for our transgressions,) may be compared
with Psal. xxii. 16. (They pierced my hands and my feet), and
with Zech. xii. 10. (They shall look on me ivhom they have pierced.)
In thus paralleling the prophecies, regard must be had to the predic-
tions of former prophets, which are sometimes repeated with abridg-
ment, or more distinctly explained by others ; and also to the
predictions of subsequent prophets, who sometimes repeat, with
greater clearness and precision, former prophecies, which had been
more obscurely announced.
2. In order to understand the prophets, great attention
should be paid to the prophetic style, which is highly figur-
ative, and particularly abounds in metaphorical and hyperbolical
expressions.
By images borrowed from the natural world, the prophets often
understand something in the world politic. Thus, the sun, moon,
stars, and heavenly bodies, denote kings, queens, rulers, and persons
in great power ; and the increase of splendour in those luminaries
denotes increase of prosperity, as in Isa. xxx. 26. andlx. 19. On
the other hand, their darkening, setting, or falling signifies a reverse
of fortune, or the entire destruction of the potentate or kingdom to
which they refer.
.5. As the greater part of the prophetic writings was first
composed in verse, and still retains much of the air and cast of
the original, an attention to the division of the lines, and to
that peculiarity of Hebrew poetry by which the sense of one
line or couplet so frequently corresponds with another, will
frequently lead to the meaning of many passages ; one line of a
couplet, or member of a sentence, being generally a comment-
ary on the other.
Of this rule we have an example in Isa. xxxiv. 6. :
The Lord hath a sacrifice in Bozrah,
And a great slaughter in the land of Idumea.
Here the metaphor in the first verse is expressed in the same terms
OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 201
in the next : the sacrifice in Bozrah means the great slaughter in the
land of Idumea, of which Bozrah was the capital.
4. Particular names are often put by the prophets for more
general ones, in order that they may place the thing repre-
sented, as it were, before the eyes of their hearers : but in such
passages they are not to be understood literally.
Thus, in Joel iii. 4., Tyre andSidon, and all the coasts of Palestine,
are put, by way of poetical description, for all the enemies of the
Jews.
5. It is usual with the prophets to express the same thing in
a great variety of expressions ; whence they abound in amplifi-
cations, each rising above the other in strength and beauty.
For instance, when describing drought or famine, they accumu-
late together numerous epithets, to represent the sorrow that would
accompany those calamities; on the other hand, when delineating
plenty, they pourtray, in a great variety of expressions, the joy of the
people possessed of abundance of grain.
6. The order of time is not always to be looked for in
the prophetic writings : for they frequently (particularly Jere-
miah and Ezekiel) resume topics of which they have formerly
treated, after other subjects have intervened, and again discuss
them.
7. The prophets often change both persons and tenses, some-
times speaking in their own persons, at other times represent-
ing God, his people, or their enemies, as respectively speaking,
and without noticing the change of persons ; sometimes taking
things past or present for things future, to denote the certainty
of the events.
Isa. ix. 6. liii. throughout, lxiii. throughout, Zech. ix. 9., and
Rev. xviii. 2., to cite no other passages, may be adduced as illustra-
tions of this remark.
8. When the prophets received a commission to declare any
thing, the message is sometimes expressed as if they had been
appointed to do it themselves.
Isa. vi. 9, 10. is merely a prediction of what the Jews would do :
for when the prophetic declaration was fulfilled, Jesus Christ quoted
the passage and explained its general sense in Matt. xiii. 15.
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202 ON THE INTERPRETATION
9. As symbolic actions and prophetic visions greatly resem-
ble parables, and were employed for the same purpose, viz.
more powerfully to instruct and engage the attention of the
people, they must be interpreted in the same manner as para-
bles. (For which, see pp. 192 — 194. supra.)
II. Observations on the accomplishment of Scrip-
ture Prophecies.
A prophecy is demonstrated to be fulfilled, when we
can prove from unimpeachable authority, that the event
has actually taken place, precisely according to the
manner in which it was foretold.
1. The same prophecies frequently have a double meaning,
and refer to different events, the one near, the other remote ;
the one temporal, the other spiritual, or perhaps eternal. The
prophets thus having several events in view, their expressions
may be partly applicable to one, and partly to another, and it
is not always easy to mark the transitions. What has not
been fulfilled in the first, we must apply to the second; and
what has already been fulfilled, may often be considered as
typical of what remains to be accomplished.
The following examples, out of many which might be offered,
will illustrate this rule :
[i.] The second psalm is primarily an inauguration hymn, com-
posed by David, the anointed of Jehovah, when crowned with
victory, and placed triumphant on the sacred hill of Sion. But, in
Acts iv. 25., the inspired apostles with one voice declare it to be
descriptive of the exaltation of the Messiah, and of the opposition
raised against the Gospel, both by Jews and Gentiles.
[ii.] Isa. xi. 6. — What is here said of the wolf dwelling with
the lamb, &c. is understood as having its first completion in the
reign of Hezekiah, when profound peace was enjoyed after the
troubles caused by Sennacherib ; but its second and full completion
is under the Gospel, whose power in changing the hearts, tempers,
and lives of the worst of men, is here foretold and described by a
singularly beautiful assemblage of images. Of this blessed power
there has, in every age of Christianity, been a cloud of witnesses.
Thus it is evident that many prophecies must be taken in a
double sense, in order to understand their full import; and as
OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES. 203
this twofold application of them was adopted by our Lord and
his apostles, it is a full authority for us to consider and apply
them in a similar way.
2. Predictions, denouncing judgments to come, do not in
themselves speak the absolute futurity of the event, but only
declare what is to be expected by the persons to whom they
are made, and what will certainly come to pass, unless God in
his mercy interpose between the threatening and the event.
Of these conditional comminatory predictions we have examples
in Jonah's preaching to the Ninevites (Jonah iii. 4 — 10.), and in
Isaiah's denunciation of death to Hezekiah. (Isa. xxxviii. 1.) See
also a similar instance in Jer. xxxviii. 14 — 23.
III. Observations on the Accomplishment of Pro-
phecies concerning the Messiah in particular.
1. Jesus Christ being the great subject and end of Scripture
revelation, we ought every where to search for prophecies
concerning him.
We have the united testimony of Christ (John v. 39. Luke
xxiv. 25 — 27. 44.) and of an inspired apostle (Acts x. 43.), that
He is the subject of Scripture prophecy. Whatever therefore is
emphatically and characteristically spoken of some other person, not
called by his own name, in the psalms or prophetical books, so that
each predicate can be fully demonstrated in no single subject of
that or any other time, must be taken and said of the Messiah.
Psal. xxii. and Isa. liii. may be adduced as an illustration of this
rule.
2. The interpretation of the word of prophecy, made by
Jesus Christ himself, and by his inspired apostles, is a rule and
key by which to interpret correctly the prophecies cited or
alluded to by them.
The prophecy (in Isa. viii. 14.) that the Messiah would prove a
stone of stumbling and a rock of offence, is more plainly repeated
by Simeon (Luke ii. 34.), and is shown to have been fulfilled by
St. Paul (Rom. ix. 32, 33.), and by St. Peter (1 Pet. ii. 8.); and
the sixteenth psalm is expressly applied to Jesus Christ by the latter
of these apostles. (Acts ii. 25 — 31.)
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204- OF SCRIPTURE PROPHECIES.
3. Where the prophets describe a golden age of felicity,
they clearly foretell Gospel times.
Many passages might be adduced from the prophetic writings in
confirmation of this rule. It will however suffice to adduce two
instances from Isaiah, ch. ix. 2 — 7., and xi. 1 — 9. In the former
of these passages, the peaceful kingdom of the Messiah is set forth,
its extent and duration ; and in the latter, the singular peace and
happiness which should then prevail, are delineated in imagery of
unequalled beauty and energy.
4. Things, foretold as universally or indefinitely to come to
pass under the Gospel, are to be understood, — as they respect
the duty, — of all persons; but, — as they respect the event, —
only of God's people.
The highly figurative expressions in Isa. ii. 4. xi. 6., and lxv. 25.
are to be understood of the nature, design, and tendency of the
Gospel, and what is the duty of all its professors, and what would
actually take place in the Christian world, if all who profess the
Christian doctrine did sincerely and cordially obey its dictates.
5. As the antient prophecies concerning the Messiah are of
two kinds, some of them relating to his first coming to suffer,
while the rest of them concern his second coming to advance
his kingdom, and restore the Jews; — in all these prophecies,
we must carefully distinguish between his first coming in hu-
miliation to accomplish his mediatorial work on the cross, and
his second coming in glory to judgment.
In studying the prophetic writings, the two follow-
ing cautions should uniformly be kept in view : viz.
1. That we do not apply passing events, as actually
fulfilling particular prophecies.
2. That we do not curiously pry beyond what is
expressly written, or describe, as fulfilled, prophecies
which are yet future. What the Bible hath declared,
that tue may without hesitation declare : beyond this
all is mere vague conjecture.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF TYPES. 205
Chapter VI.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF TYPES.
I. Nature of a Type, and its different species.
A type, in its primary and literal meaning, simply
denotes a rough draught, or less accurate model, from
which a more perfect image is made : but, in the
sacred or theological sense of the term, a type may
be defined to be a symbol of something future and
distant, or an example prepared and evidently designed
by God to prefigure that future thing. What is thus
prefigured is called the antitype.
In the examination of the sacred writings three
species of types present themselves to our notice, viz.
1. Legal Types, or those contained in the Mosaic
law. On comparing the history and economy of Moses
with the whole of the New Testament, it evidently
appears, that the ritual law was typical of the Messiah
and of Gospel blessings : and this point has been clearly
established by the great apostle of the Gentiles, in this
Epistle to the Hebrews.
2. Prophetical Types are those by which the divinely
inspired prophets prefigured or signified things either
present or future, by means of external symbols. Of
this description is the prophet Isaiah's going naked
(that is, without his prophetic garment,) and barefoot
(Isa. xx. 2.), to prefigure the fatal destruction of the
Egyptians and Ethiopians.
3. Historical Types are the characters, actions, and
fortunes of some eminent persons recorded in the Old
Testament, so ordered by Divine Providence as to be
exact prefigurations of the characters, actions, and
fortunes of future persons who should arise under the
Gospel dispensation.
206 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF TYPES.
Great caution is necessary in the interpretation of
types ; for unless we have the authority of the sacred
writers themselves for it, we cannot conclude with
certainty that this or that person or thing, which is
mentioned in the Old Testament, is a type of Christ
on account of the resemblance which we may perceive
between them : but we may admit it as probable.
II. Hints for the interpretation of Types.
1. There must be a fit application of the Type to the Anti-
type.
This canon is of great importance ; and inattention to it has led
fanciful expositors into the most unfounded interpretations of holy
writ. In further illustration of this rule, il may be remarked,
[i.] The type itself must in the first instance be explained accord-
ing to its literal sense ; and if any part of it appear to be obscure,
such obscurity must be removed : as in the history of Jonah, who
was swallowed by a great fish, and cast ashore on the third day.
[ii.j The analogy between the thing prefiguring and the thing pre-
figured must be soberly shown in all its parts.
2. There is often more in the type than in the antitype.
God designed one person or thing in the Old Testament to be a
type or shadow of things to come, not in all things, but only in respect
to some particular thing or things : hence we find many things in the
type, that are inapplicable to the antitype. The use of this canon
is shown in the epistle to the Hebrews, in which the ritual and sacri-
fices of the Old Testament are fairly accommodated to Jesus Christ
the antitype, although there are many things in that priesthood
which do not accord. Thus the priest was to offer sacrifice for his
own sins (Heb. v. 3.), which is in no respect applicable to Christ.
(Heb. vii. 27.)
5. Frequently there is more in the antitype than in the type.
The reason of this canon is the same as that of the preceding rule :
for, as no single type can express the life and particular actions of
Christ, there is necessarily more in the antitype than can be found
in the type itself; so that one type must signify one thing, and another
type another thing.
4. The wicked, as such, are not to be made types of Christ.
5. In types and antitypes, an enallage or change sometimes
ON DOCTRINAL INTERPRETATION. 207
takes place ; as when the thing prefigured assumes the name
of the type or figure ; and, on the contrary, when the type of
the thing represented assumes the name of the antitype.
Of the first kind of enallage we have examples in Ezek. xxxiv. 23.
xxxvii. 24, 25. and Hos. iii. 5. ; in which descriptions of Messiah's
kingdom he is styled David ; because as he was prefigured by David
in many respects, so he was to descend from him.
Of the second kind of enallage we have instances : — 1. Prophetical
Types, in which the name of a person or thing, properly agreeing
with the antitype, and for which the type was proposed, is given to
any one : as in Isa. vii. 3. and viii. 1 — 3. — 2. In Historical Types;
as, when hanging was called in the Old Testament the curse of the
Lord, because it was made a type of Christ, who was made a curse
for our sins, as St. Paul argues in Gal. iii. 13.
6. That we may not fall into extremes in the interpretation
of types, we must, in every instance, proceed cautiously, " with
fear and trembling," lest we imagine mysteries to exist where
none were ever intended.
No mystical or typical sense, therefore, ought to be put upon a
plain passage of Scripture, the meaning of which is obvious and
natural ; unless it be evident from some other part of Scripture that
the place is to be understood in a double sense. When St. Paul
says, (Gal. iii. 24. Col. ii. 17.) that the law was a schoolmaster to
bring men to Christ, and a shadow of things to come, we must instantly
acknowledge that the ceremonial law in general was a type of the
mysteries of the Gospel.
Chapter VII.
OX THE DOCTRINAL INTERPRETATION OF THE SCRIPTURES.
As the Holy Scriptures contain the revealed will of
God to man, they not only offer to our attention the
most interesting histories and characters for our instruc-
tion by example, and the most sublime prophecies for
the confirmation of our faith, but they likewise present,
to our serious study, doctrinal truths of the utmost im-
208 ON THE DOCTRINAL INTERPRETATION
portance. Some of these occur in the historical,
poetical, and prophetical parts of the Bible : but they
are chiefly to be found in the apostolic epistles, which,
though originally designed for the edification of par-
ticular Christian churches or individuals, are neverthe-
less of general application, and designed for the guid-
ance of the universal church in every age. For many of
the fundamental doctrines of Christianity are more
copiously treated in the epistles, which are not so par-
ticularly explained in the gospels : and as the authors
of the several epistles wrote under the same divine in-
spiration as the evangelists, the epistles and gospels
must be taken together, to complete the rule of Chris-
tian faith. The doctrinal interpretation, therefore, of
the sacred writings is of paramount consequence : as
by this means we are enabled to acquire a correct and
saving knowledge of the will of God concerning us.
In the prosecution of this important branch of sacred
literature, the following observations are offered to the
attention of the student :
1. The meaning of the sacred writings is not to be deter-
mined according to modern notions and systems : but we must
endeavour to carry ourselves back to the very times and places
in which they were written, and realize the ideas and modes of
thinking of the sacred writers.
This rule is of the utmost importance for understanding the
Scriptures ; but is too commonly neglected by commentators and
expositors, who, when applying themselves to the explanation of
the sacred writings, have a preconceived system of doctrine which
they seek in the Bible, and to which they refer every passage of
Scripture. Thus they rather draw the Scriptures to their system
of doctrine, than bring their doctrines to the standard of Scripture ;
a mode of interpretation which is altogether unjust, and utterly
useless in the attainment of truth. The only way by which to
understand the meaning of the sacred writers, and to distinguish
between true and false doctrines, is, to lay aside all preconceived
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 209
modern notions and systems, and to carry ourselves back to the
very times and places in which the prophets and apostles wrote. In
perusing the Bible, therefore, this rule must be most carefully at-
tended to : — It is only an unbiassed mind that can attain the true
and genuine sense of Scripture.
2. Acquire a knowledge of the author of the several books,
and of their respective dates when written, especially of the
epistles ; and also of the peculiar state of the churches, cities,
or persons to whom the latter were addressed.
Such knowledge is particularly useful: for it not only shews the
reason and propriety of the instructions given, but also explains why
various instructions were given concerning the same things. In
illustration of this rule we may instance circumcision and other cere-
monies, concerning which the apostle exhorts the Romans to receive
the weak, &c. about ceremonies and indifferent things (Rom. xiv.
throughout, and xv. 1 — 3.) : but when writing to the Galatiansand
Colossians, he utterly condemns the use of circumcision, &c. (Gal. v.
2 — 6. Col. ii. 8 — 23.) The reason of these apparently contra-
dictory commands is to be found in the difference of time when the
several epistles were written, and also in the peculiar state and cir-
cumstances of the Christian churches to whom the apostle wrote his
epistles.
5. In order to understand any doctrinal book or passage of*
Scripture, we must attend to the controversies which were
agitated at that time, and to which the sacred writers allude :
for a key to the apostolic epistles is not to be sought in the
modern controversies that divide Christians, and which were
not only unknown, but also were not in existence at that
time.
The controversies, which were discussed in the age of the apostles,
are to be ascertained, partly from their writings, partly from the ex-
isting monuments of the primitive Christians, and likewise from
some passages in the writings of the Rabbins. The most important
passages of this kind are to be found in almost all the larger com -
mentators.
4. The doctrinal books of Scripture, for instance, the
Epistles, are not to be perused in detached portions or sec-
tions; but they should be read through at once, with a close
210 ON THE DOCTRINAL INTERPRETATION
attention to the scope and tenor of the discourse, regardless
of the divisions into chapters and verses, precisely in the same
manner in which we would peruse the letters of Cicero, Pliny,
or other antient writers.
Want of attention to the general scope and design of the doctrinal
parts of Scripture, particularly of the Epistles, has been the source of
many and great errors : the reading, however, which is here recom-
mended, should not be cursory or casual, but frequent and diligent;
and the Epistles should be repeatedly perused, until we become
intimately acquainted with their contents. On the investigation of
the Scope, see pp. 169 — 171. supra.
5. Where any doctrine is to be deduced from the Scriptures,
it will be collected better, and with more precision, from those
places in which it is professedly discussed, than from those in
which it is noticed only incidentally, or by way of inference.
For instance, in the Epistles to the Romans and Galatians, the
doctrine of justification by faith is fully treated : and in those to the
Ephesians and Colossians, the calling of the Gentiles and the ab-
rogation of the ceremonial law are particularly illustrated. These
must therefore be diligently compared together, in order to deduce
those doctrines correctly.
6. Words and Phrases, which are of doubtful meaning,
must be diligently investigated, and carefully weighed and
explained.
7. Distinguish figurative expressions from such as are proper
and literal ; and \vhen easy and natural interpretations offer
themselves, avoid all those interpretations, which deduce asto-
nishing and incredible doctrines.
8. No doctrine is admissible, or can be established from the
Scriptures, that is either repugnant to them, or contrary to
reason, or to the analogy of faith.
The doctrine of transubstantiation may be adduced in illustration
of the preceding remarks, which the Romish Church has created in-
to a mystery, contrary to every rule of sound criticism j and has sup-
ported it by forced and unnatural interpretations of passages, which
in themselves are most easy to be understood. If, indeed, that
doctrine were to L a admitted, the evidence of our senses could no
longer be believed, and the consequence would be, that the arguments
OF THE SCRIPTURES. 211
for the truth of the Christian religion, arising from the miracles and
resurrection of Jesus Christ, would fall to the ground, and become
of no effect whatever.
9. In considering the doctrines of the Christian religion,
what is clear is not to be rendered obscure by a few dark pas-
sages : but, on the contrary, obscure passages are to be illus-
trated by such as are more clear.
This rule having been more fully stated in page 173., and sup-
ported by examples, it is not necessary here to cite additional in-
stances. The reader is therefore simply reminded, that the appli-
cation of it to the investigation of the doctrinal parts of Scripture is
of very considerable moment.
10. It is of great importance to the understanding of the
doctrinal books of the New Testament, to attend to and dis-
tinctly note the transitions of persons which frequently occur,
especially in Saint Paul's Epistles.
The pronouns I, We, and You, are used by the apostles in such a
variety of applications, that the understanding of their true meaning
is often a key to many difficult passages. Thus, by the pronoun /,
Saint Paul sometimes means himself: sometimes any Christian ;
sometimes a Jew ; and sometimes any man, &c. To discover these
transitions requires great attention to the apostle's scope and argu-
ment : and yet, if it be neglected or overlooked, it will cause the
reader greatly to mistake and misunderstand his meaning, and will
also render the sense very perplexed. Mr. Locke, and Dr. Mac-
knight, in their elaborate works on the Epistles, are particularly
useful in pointing out these various transitions of persons and
subjects.
11. No article of faith can be established from metaphors,
parables, or single obscure and figurative texts.
Instead of deriving our knowledge of Christianity from parables
and figurative passages ; an intimate acquaintance with the doctrines
of the Gospel is necessary, in order to be capable of interpreting them.
The beautiful parable of the man who fell among thieves (Luke x.
30 — 37.) is evidently intended to influence the Jews to be benevolent
and kind like the good Samaritan, and nothing more. And yet, re-
gardless of every principle of sound interpretation, that parable has
212 ON THE INTERPRETATION OF
by some writers been considered as a representation of Adam's fall,
and of man's recovery, through the interposition and love of Jesus
Christ !
Chapter VIII.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE MORAL PARTS OF SCRIPTURE.
The Moral Parts of Scripture are replete with the
most important instructions for the government of life.
They are to be interpreted precisely in the same man-
ner as all other moral writings ; regard being had to the
peculiar circumstances of the sacred writers, viz. the
age in which they wrote, the nation to which they be-
longed, their style, genius, &c. In the examination
of the moral parts of Scripture, the following more
particular rules will be found useful.
1 . Moral propositions or discourses are not to be urged too
far, but must be understood with a certain degree of latitude,
and with various limitations.
For want of attending to this canon, how many moral truths have
been pushed to an extent, which causes them altogether to fail of
the effect they were designed to produce ! It is not to be denied
that universal propositions may be offered : such are frequent in the
Scriptures as well as in profane writers, and also in common life ;
but it is in explaining the expressions by which they are conveyed,
that just limits ought to be applied, to prevent them from being
urged too far. The nature of the thing, and various other circum-
stances, will always afford a criterion by which to understand moral
propositions with the requisite limitations.
2. Principals include their accessaries, that is, whatever ap-
proaches or comes near to them, or has any tendency to them.
Thus, where any sin is forbidden, we must be careful not only
to avoid it, but also every thing of a similar nature, and whatever
may prove an occasion of it, or imply our consent to it in others :
and we must endeavour to dissuade or restrain others from it. Com-
THE MORAL PARTS OF SCRIPTURE. 213
pare Matt. v. 21—31. 1 Thess. v. 22. Jude 23. Ephes. v. 11.
1 Cor. viii. 13. Levit. xix. 17. James v. 19, 20. So, where any
duty is enjoined, all means and facilities, enabling either ourselves
or others to discharge it, according to our respective places, ca-
pacities, or opportunities, are likewise enjoined.
3. Negatives include affirmatives, and affirmatives include
negatives : — in other words, where any duty is enjoined, the
contrary sin is forbidden ; and where any sin is forbidden, the
contrary duty is enjoined.
Thus, in Deut. vi. 13., where we are commanded to serve God,
we are forbidden to serve any other. Therefore, in Matt. iv. 10. it
is said, him only shalt thou serve.
4. Negatives are binding at all times, but not affirmatives ;
that is, we must never do that which is forbidden, though
good may ultimately come from it. (Rom. iii. 8.) We must not
speak wickedly for God. (Job xiii. 7.)
5. When an action is either required or commended, or any
promise is annexed to its performance ; such action is supposed
to be done from proper motives and in a proper manner.
The giving of alms may be mentioned as an instance ; which, if
done from ostentatious motives, we are assured, is displeasing in the
sight of God. Compare Matt. vi. 1 — 4.
6. When the favour of God, or salvation, is promised to
any deed or duty, all the other duties of religion are supposed
to be rightly performed.
7. When a certain state or condition is pronounced blessed,
or any promise is annexed to it, a suitable disposition of mind
is supposed to prevail.
Thus, when the poor or afflicted are pronounced to be blessed, it
is because such persons, being poor and afflicted, are free from the
sins usually attendant on unsanctified prosperity, and because they
are, on the contrary, more humble and more obedient to God. If,
however, they be not the characters described (as unquestionably
there are many to whom the characters do not apply), the promise
in that case does not belong to them. Vice versa, when any state is
pronounced to be wretched, it is on account of the sins or vices
which generally attend it.
214 INTERPRETATION OF THE PROMISES
8. Some precepts of moral prudence are given in the Scrip-
tures, which nevertheless admit of exceptions, on account of
some duties of benevolence or piety that ought to prepon-
derate.
We may illustrate this rule by the often-repeated counsels of
Solomon respecting becoming surety for another. (See Prov. vi.
1, 2. xi. 15. xvii. 18. and xx. 16.) In these passages he does not
condemn suretyship, which, in many cases, is not only lawful, but,
in some instances, even an act of justice, prudence, and charity ; but
Solomon forbids his disciple to become surety rashly, without con-
sidering for whom, or how far he binds himself, or how he could
discharge the debt, if occasion should require it.
9. Lastly, as the moral sentences in the Scriptures arc
written in the very concise style peculiar to the Orientals,
many passages are in consequence necessarily obscure, and
therefore admit of various expositions.
In such cases, that interpretation which is most obvious to the
reader, will in general be sufficiently intelligible for all purposes of
practical edification, and beyond this we need not be anxiously so-
licitous, if we should fail in ascertaining the precise meaning of
every word in a proverb or moral sentence.
Chapter IX.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF THE PROMISES AND THREATEXIXGS OF
SCRIPTURE.
I. Distinction between Promises and Threatenings.
A promise, in the Scriptural sense of the term, is a
declaration or assurance of the divine will, in which
God signifies what particular blessings or good things
he will freely bestow, as well as the evils which he will
remove. The promises therefore differ from the threat-
enings of God, inasmuch as the former are declarations
concerning good, while the latter are denunciations of
AND THREATENINGS OF SCRIPTURE. 215
evil only : at the same time it is to be observed, that
promises seem to include threats, because, being in
their very nature conditional, they imply the bestovv-
ment of the blessing promised, only on the condition
being performed, which blessing is tacitly threatened
to be withheld on non-compliance with such condition.
Further, promises differ from the commands of God,
because the latter are significations of the divine will
concerning a duty enjoined to be performed, while pro-
mises relate to mercy to be received.
There are four classes of promises mentioned in the
Scriptures, particularly in the New Testament ; viz.
1. Promises relating to the Messiah ; 2. Promises relating
to the church ; 3. Promises of blessings, both temporal
and spiritual, to the pious ; and, 4. Promises encour-
aging to the exercise of the several graces and duties
that compose the Christian character. The two first
of these classes, indeed, are many of them predictions
as well as promises ; consequently the same observ-
ations will apply to them, as are stated for the interpret-
ation of Scripture prophecies : but in regard to those
promises which are directed to particular persons, or
to the performance of particular duties, the following
remarks are offered to the attention of the reader.
1. " We must receive God's promises in such wise as they
be generally set forth in the Holy Scripture." (Art. xvii.)
To us the promises of God are general and conditional : if, there-
fore, they be not fulfilled towards us, we may rest assured that the
fault does not rest with Him " who cannot lie," but with ourselves,
who have failed in complying with the conditions either tacitly or
expressly annexed to them.
2. Such promises as were made in one case, may be applied
in other cases of the same nature, consistently with the analogy
of faith.
216 INTERPRETATION OF THE PROMISES, ETC.
It is in promises as in commands ; they do not exclusively concern
those to whom they were first made; but, being inserted in the
Scriptures, they are made of public benefit : for, " whatsoever things
were written aforetime, were written for our use ; that we, through
patience and comfort of the Scriptures, might have hope." (Rom.
xv. 4.) Thus, what was spoken to Joshua (ch. i. 5.) on his going
up against the Canaanites, lest he should be discouraged in that
enterprise, is applied by St. Paul to the believing Hebrews (Heb.
xiii. 5. ), as a remedy against covetousness or inordinate cares con-
cerning the things of this life ; it being a very comprehensive pro-
mise that God will never fail us nor forsake us. But if we were
to apply the promises contained in Psal. xciv. 14. and Jer. xxxii. 40.
and John x. 28. as promises of indefectible grace to believers, we
should violate every rule of sober interpretation, as well as the
analogy of faith.
3. God has suited his promises to his precepts.
By his precepts we see what is our duty, and what should be the
scope of our endeavours ; and by his promises we see what is our
inability, what should be the matter or object of our prayers, and
where we may be supplied with that grace which will enable us to
discharge our duty. Compare Deut. x. 16. with Deut. xxx. 6.
Eccles. xii. 13. with Jer. xxxii. 40. Ezek. xviii. 31. with Ezek.
xxxvi. 37. and Rom. vi. 12. with v. 14.
4. Where any thing is promised in case of obedience, the
threatening of the contrary is implied in case of disobedience :
and where there is a threatening of any thing in case of dis-
obedience, a promise of the contrary is implied upon condition
of obedience.
In illustration of this remark, it will be sufficient to refer to, and
compare, Exod. xx. 7. with Psal. xv. 1 — 4. and xxiv. 3, 4. and
Exod, xx. 12. with Prov. xxx. 17.
5. God promises that he may perform what he promises,
but threatens that he may not fulfil his threatenings.
In other words, by his promises he encourages men to obedience,
that they may receive the reward of it : but, by his threatenings
he warns men, and deters them from sin, that they may not feel its
effects. See instances of this remark in Rev. ii. 5. and Rom. viii. 13.
ON THE READING OF SCRIPTURE. 217
Chapter X.
ON THE PRACTICAL READING OF SCRIPTURE.
The sense of Scripture having been explained and
ascertained, it only remains that we apply it to purposes
of practical utility ; which may be effected either by
deducing inferences from texts, or by practically apply-
ing the Scriptures to our personal edification and sal-
vation : for, if serious contemplation of the Scriptures
and practice be united together, our real knowledge of
the Bible must necessarily be increased, and will be
rendered progressively more delightful. This practical
reading may be prosecuted by every one with advantage :
for the application of Scripture which it recommends
is connected with our highest interest and happiness.
The simplest practical application of the word of
God will, unquestionably, prove the most beneficial ;
provided it be conducted with a due regard to those
moral qualifications which have already been stated
and enforced, as necessary to the right understanding
of the Scriptures. Should, however, any hints be
required, the following may, perhaps, be consulted
with advantage.
1. In reading the Scriptures, then, with a view to personal
application, we should be careful that it be done with a pure
intention.
He, however, who peruses the sacred volume, merely for the
purpose of amusing himself with the histories it contains, or of
beguiling time, or to tranquillize his conscience by the discharge of
a mere external duty, is deficient in the motive with which he per-
forms that duty, and cannot expect to derive from it either advantage
or comfort amid the trials of life. Neither will it suffice to read the
Scriptures with the mere design of becoming intimately acquainted
with sacred truths, unless such reading be accompanied with a de-
L
218 ON THE PRACTICAL
sire, that, through them, he maybe convinced of his self-love, ambi-
tion, or other faults, to which he may be peculiarly exposed, and
that by the assistance of divine grace, he may be enabled to eradi-
cate them from his mind.
2. In reading the Scriptures for this purpose, it will be advis-
able to select some appropriate lessons from its most useful
parts ; not being particularly solicitous about the exact con-
nexion or other critical niceties that may occur, (though at
other times, as ability and opportunity offer, these are highly
proper objects of inquiry,) but simply considering them in a
devotional or practical view.
After ascertaining, therefore, the plain and obvious meaning of
the lesson under examination, we should first consider the present
state of our minds, and carefully compare it with the passage in ques-
tion : next, we should inquire into the causes of those faults which
such perusal may have disclosed to us ; and should then look
around for suitable remedies to correct the faults we have thus
discovered.
3. In every practical reading and application of the Scrip-
tures to ourselves, our attention should be fixed on Jesus
Christ, both as a gift to be received by faith for salvation,
and also as an exemplary to be copied and imitated in our
lives.
We are not, however, to imitate him in all things. Some things
he did by his divine power, and in those we cannot imitate him :
other things he performed by his sovereign authority, in those we
must not imitate him : other things also he performed by virtue of
his office as a Mediator, and in these we may not, we cannot follow
him. But, in his early piety, his obedience to his reputed earthly
parents, his unwearied diligence in doing good, his humility, his
unblameable conduct, his self-denial, his contentment under low
circumstances, his frequency in private prayer, his affectionate
thankfulness, his compassion to the wretched, his holy and edifying
discourse, his free conversation, his patience, his readiness to forgive
injuries, his sorrow for the sins of others, his zeal for the worship of
God, his glorifying his heavenly Father, his impartiality in adminis-
tering reproof, his universal obedience, and his love and practice of
holiness, — in all these instances, Jesus Christ is the most perfect paU
tern for our imitation.
READING OF SCRIPTURE. 219
4. As every good example, recorded in the Scriptures, has
the force of a rule, so when we read therein of the failings as
well as of the sinful actions of men, we may see what is in
our own nature : for there are in us the seeds of the same sin,
and similar tendencies to its commission, which would bring
forth similar fruits, were it not for the preventing and renew-
ing grace of God. And as many of the persons, whose faults
are related in the volume of inspiration, were men of infinitely
more elevated piety than ourselves, we should learn from them
not only to "be not higk-minded, but fear" (Rom. xi. 20.) :
but further, to avoid being rash in censuring the conduct of
others.
The occasions of their declensions are likewise deserving of our
attention, as well as the temptations to which they were exposed,
and whether they did not neglect to watch over their thoughts,
words, and actions, or trust too much to their own strength (as in
the case of Peter's denial of Christ) ; what were the means that led
to their penitence and recovery, and how they demeaned themselves
after they had repented. By a due observation, therefore, of their
words and actions, and of the frame and temper of their minds, so far
as they are manifested by words and actions, we shall be better
enabled to judge of our real progress in religious knowledge, than
by those characters which are given of holy men in the Scriptures,
without such observation of the tenor of their lives, and the frame of
their minds.
5. In reading the promises and threatenings, the exhort-
ations and admonitions, and other parts of Scripture, we should
apply them to ourselves in such a manner, as if they had been
personally addressed to us.
For instance, are we reading any of the prophetic Sermons ? Let
us so read and consider them, and, as it were, identify ourselves with
the times and persons when and to whom such prophetic discourses
were delivered, as if they were our fellow-countrymen, fellow-citi-
zens, &c. whom Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and other prophets rebuke
in some chapters ; while in others they labour to convince them of
their sinful ways, and to convert them, or, in the event of their con-
tinuing disobedient, denounce the divine judgments against them.
So, in all the precepts of Christian virtue recorded in Matt. v. vi.
and vii. we should consider ourselves to be as nearly and particularly
L 2
220 ON THE PRACTICAL
concerned, as if we had personally heard them delivered by Jesus
Christ on the Mount. Independently, therefore, of the light which
will thus be thrown upon the prophetic or other portions of Scrip •
ture, much practical instruction will be efficiently obtained ; for, by
this mode of reading the Scriptures, the promises addressed to others
will encourage us, the denunciations against others will deter us
from the commission of sin, the exhortations delivered to others will
excite us to the diligent performance of our duty, and, finally, admo-
nitions to others will make us walk circumspectly.
6. The words of the passage selected for our private read-
ing, after its import has been ascertained, may beneficially
be summed up or comprised in very brief prayers or ejacu-
lations.
The advantage resulting from this simple method has been proved
by many, who have recommended it. If we pray over the sub-
stance of Scripture, with our Bible before us, it may impress the
memory and heart the more deeply. Should any references to the
Scriptures be required, in confirmation of this statement, we would
briefly notice that the following passages, among many others that
might be cited, will, by addressing them to God, and, by a slight
change also in the person, become admirable petitions for divine
teaching; viz. Col. i. 9, 10. — Eph. i. 17, 18, 19. — 1 Pet. ii. 1, 2.
— The hundred and nineteenth Psalm contains numerous similar
7. In the practical reading of the Scriptures, all things are
not to be applied at once, but gradually and successively ; and
this application must be made, not so much with the view
of supplying us with materials for talking, as with matter for
practice.
Finally, this practical reading and application must
be diligently continued through life ; and we may, with
the assistance of divine grace, reasonably hope for
success in it, if, to reading, we add constant prayer
and meditation on what we have read. With these we
are further to conjoin a perpetual comparison of the
sacred writings ; daily observation of what takes place
jn ourselves, as well as what we learn from the expe*
READING OF SCRIPTURE. 221
rience of others ; a strict and vigilant self-examination;
together with frequent conversation with men of learn-
ing and piety, who have made greater progress in
saving knowledge ; and, lastly, the diligent cultivation
of internal peace.
Other observations might be offered ; but the pre-
ceding hints, if duly considered and acted upon, will
make us " neither barren nor unfruitful in the know-
ledge of our Lord Jesus Christ." (2 Pet. i. 8.) And
if, to some of his readers, the author should appear
to have dilated too much on so obvious a topic, its im-
portance must be his apology. Whatever relates to the
confirmation of our faith, the improvement of our
morals, or the elevation of our affections, ought not to
be treated lightly or with indifference.
L 3
222
PART III.
A COMPENDIUM OF BIBLICAL GEOGRAPHY AND
ANTIQUITIES.
BOOK I. — A SKETCH OF THE GEOGRAPHY OF
THE HOLY LAND.
Chapter I.
HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.
Grotto at Nazareth, said to have been the House of Joseph and Mary.
This country has in different ages been called by
various Names, which have been derived either from
its inhabitants, or from the extraordinary circumstances
attached to it. Thus, in Jer. iv. 20. it is termed
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND. 223
generally the land: and hence, both in the Old and
New Testament, the original word, which is sometimes
rendered earth, land, or country, is by the context in
many places determined to mean the promised land of
Israel ; as in Josh. ii. S. Matt. v. 5. and Luke iv. 25.
But the country occupied by the Hebrews, Israelites,
and Jews, is in the sacred volume more particularly
called,
1. The Land of Canaan, from Canaan, the youngest
son of Ham, and grandson of Noah, who settled here
after the confusion of Babel, and divided the country
among his eleven children. (Gen. xi. 15. et seq.)
2. The Land of Promise, (Heb. xi. 9.) from the
promise made by Jehovah to Abraham, that his pos-
terity should possess it (Gen.xii. 7. and xiii. 15.) ; who
being termed Hebrews, this region was thence called
the Land of the Hebretos, (Gen. xl. 15.)
3. The Land of Israel, from the Israelites, or pos-
terity of Jacob, having settled themselves there. This
name is of most frequent occurrence in the Old Testa-
ment : it is also to be found in the New Testament (as
in Matt. ii. 20, 21.) Within this extent lay all the
provinces or countries visited by Jesus Christ, except
Egypt, and consequently almost all the places men-
tioned or referred to in the four Gospels. After the
separation of the ten tribes, that portion of the land
which belonged to the tribes of Judah and Benjamin,
who formed a separate kingdom, was distinguished by
the appellation of Judaea, or the land of Judah (Psal.
lxxvi. 1.); which name the whole country retained
during the existence of the second temple, and under
the dominion of the Romans.
4?. The Holy Land, which appellation is to this day
conferred on it by all Christians, as having been hal-
lowed by the presence, actions, miracles, discourses,
L 4
224 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
and sufferings of Jesus Christ. This name is also to be
found in the Old Testament (Zech. ii. 12.), and in the
Apocryphal books of Wisdom (xii. 3.), and 2 Maccabees
(i. 7.). The whole world was divided by the antient
Jews into two general parts, the land of Israel and the
land out of Israel, that is, all the countries inhabited by
the nations of the world, or the Gentiles : to this dis-
tinction there seems to be an allusion in Matt. vi. 32.
All the rest of the world, together with its inhabitants,
(Judaea excepted,) was accounted as profane, •polluted,
and unclean (see Isa. xxxv. 8. Hi. 1. with Joel iii. 17.
Amos vii. 7. and Acts x. 1.) ; but, though the whole
land of Israel was regarded as holy, as being the place
consecrated to the worship of God, and the inheritance
of his people, whence they are collectively styled saints
and a holy nation or people, (in Exod. xix. 6. Deut.
vii. 6. xiv. 2. xxvi. 19. xxxiii. 3. 2 Chron. vi. 41.
Psal. xxxiv. 9. 1. 5. 7. lxxix. 2. and cxlviii. 4. ) yet
the Jews imagined particular parts to be vested with
more than ordinary sanctity, according to their re-
spective situations. Thus the parts situated beyond
Jordan were considered to be less holy than those on
this side : walled towns were supposed to be more
clean and holy than other places, because no lepers
were admissible into them, and the dead were not
allowed to be buried there. Even the very dust of
the land of Israel was reputed to possess such a pe-
culiar degree of sanctity, that when the Jews returned
from any heathen country, they stopped at its borders,
and wiped the dust of it from their shoes, lest the
sacred inheritance should be polluted with it : nor
would they suffer even herbs to be brought to them
from the ground of their Gentile neighbours, lest they
should bring any of the mould with them, and thus
defile their pure land. To this notion our Lord un-
OF THE HOLY LAND. 225
questionably alluded when he commanded his disciples
to shake off the dust of their feet, (Matt. x. 14.) on
returning from any house or city that would neither
receive nor hear them; thereby intimating to them,
that when the Jews had rejected the Gospel, they were
no longer to be regarded as the people of God, but
were on a level with heathens and idolaters.
5. The appellation of Palestine, by which the whole
land appears to have been called in the days of Moses,
(Exod. xv. 14?.) is derived from the Philistines, a people
who migrated from Egypt, and, having expelled the
aboriginal inhabitants, settled on the borders of the
Mediterranean ; where they became so considerable as
to give their name to the whole country, though they
in fact possessed only a small part of it. The Philis-
tines were for a long time the most formidable enemies
of the children of Israel ; bat about the year of the
world 3841, (b. c. 159,) the illustrious Judas Maccabeus
subdued their country ; and about sixty-five years
afterwards Jannaeus burnt their city Gaza, and incor-
porated the remnant of the Philistines with such Jews
as he placed in their country.
The Boundaries of the land promised to Abraham
are, in Gen. xv. J 8., stated to be "from the river of
Egypt unto the great river, the river Euphrates/' Of
this tract, however, the Israelites were not immediately
put in possession : and although the limits of their
territories were extended under the reigns of David
and Solomon (2 Sam. viii. 3. et seg. 2 Chron. ix. 26.),
yet they did not always retain that tract. It lies far
within the temperate zone, and between 31 and 33
degrees of north latitude, and was bounded on the
west by the Mediterranean or Great Sea, as it is often
called in the Scriptures ; on the east by Arabia ; on
the south by the river of Egypt (supposed to be, not
l 5
226 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
the Nile, but the Sichor, Josh. xiii. 3.) and the Desert
of Sin or Beersheba, the southern shore of the Dead
Sea, and the river Arnon ; and on the north by the
chain of mountains termed Antilibanus, near which
stood the city of Dan : hence in the sacred writings we
frequently meet with the expression, "from Dan to
Beersheba" to denote the whole length of the land of
Israel.
The land of Canaan, previously to its occupation by
the Israelites, was possessed by the descendants of
Canaan, the youngest son of Ham and grandson of
Noah; who divided the country among his eleven
sons, each of whom was the head of a numerous clan
or tribe. (Gen. x. 15 — 19.) Here they resided up-
wards of seven centuries, and founded numerous re-
publics and kingdoms. In the days of Abraham, this
region was occupied by ten nations ; the Kenites, the
Kenizzites, and the Kadmonites, to the east of Jordan ;
and westward, the Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaims,
Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites, and the Jebusites
(Gen. xv. 18—21.) These latter in the days of
Moses were called the Hittites, Girgashites, Amorites,
Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites. (Deut.
vii. 1. Josh. iii. 10. xxiv. 11.) Besides these devoted
nations there were others, either settled in the land at
the arrival of the Israelites, or in its immediate environs,
with whom the latter had to maintain many severe
conflicts : they were six in number, viz. the Philistines,
already noticed; the Midianites, or descendants of
Midian, the fourth son of Abraham, by Keturah (Gen.
xxv. 2.) ; the Moabites and Ammonites, who sprang
from the incestuous offspring of Lot (Gen. xix.
30 — 38.) ; the Amalekites, who were descended from
Amalek, the son of Ham, and grandson of Noah ; and
the Edomites, or descendants of Esau or Edom.
OF THE HOLY LAND. 227
On the conquest of Canaan by the children of Israel,
Joshua divided it into twelve parts, which the twelve
tribes drew by lot. The tribe of Levi, indeed, pos-
sessed no lands: God assigned to the Levites, who
were appointed to minister in holy things without any
secular encumbrance, the tenths and first-fruits of the
estates of their brethren. Forty-eight cities were ap-
propriated to their residence, thence called Levitical
cities : these were dispersed among the twelve tribes,
and had their respective suburbs with land surrounding
them. Of these cities the Kohathites received twenty-
three, the Gershonites thirteen, and the Merarites
twelve ; and six of them, three on each side of Jordan,
were appointed to be cities of refuge, whither the in-
advertent man-slayer might flee, and find an asylum
from his pursuers, and be secured from the effects of
private revenge, until cleared by a legal process.
(Numb. xxxv. 6 — 15. Deut. xix. 4 — 10. Josh. xx.
7, 8.) In this division of the land into twelve portions,
the posterity of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons
of Joseph) had their portions as distinct tribes, in con-
sequence of Jacob having adopted them ; and these
two are reckoned instead of Joseph and Levi. The
tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of Manasseh, had
their portion beyond Jordan ; the rest settled on this
side of the river. Dan was reputed to be the furthest
city to the north of the Holy Land, as Beersheba was
to the south.
Another division of the Holy Land took place after
the death of Solomon, when ten tribes revolted from
Rehoboam, and erected themselves into a separate
kingdom under Jeroboam. This was called the king-
dom of Israel, and its metropolis was Samaria. The
other two tribes of Benjamin and Judah, continuing
faithful to Rehoboam, formed the kingdom of Judah,
l 6
228 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
whose capital was Jerusalem. But this division ceased
on the subversion of the kingdom of Israel by Shal-
maneser king of Assyria, after it had subsisted two
hundred and fifty-four years, from the year of the
world 3030 to 3283. (b.c. 717.)
In the time of Jesus Christ, the whole of this
country was divided into four separate regions, viz.
Judaea, Samaria, Galilee, and Peraea, or the country
beyond Jordan.
1. Judaea.
Of these regions, Judaea was the most distinguished,
comprising the territories which had formerly belonged
to the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and part of
the tribe of Dan. The southern part of it was called
Idumea, and it extended westward from the Dead Sea
to the Great (or Mediterranean) Sea. Its metropolis
was Jerusalem, of which a separate notice will be found
in a subsequent page : and of the other towns or vil-
lages of note contained in this region, the following are
the most remarkable.
(1.) Bethany, " the town of Mary and her sister
Martha," (John xi. 1.) was a small town or village
fifteen furlongs (about two miles) distant from Jeru-
salem (John xi. 18.) ; it derived its name from the dates
which grew there in great abundance. Here our
Saviour raised Lazarus from the dead, (John xi.) and
occasionally abode with his disciples. (Matt. xxi. 17.)
It is at present a small village.
(2.) Bethphage was a little village, on the western
declivity near the foot of the mount of Olives, from
which it is conjectured that the whole declivity and
part of the valley derived its name. It is situated be-
tween Bethany and Jerusalem, whence it is distant
about fifteen furlongs.
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OF THE HOLY LAND. 229
(3.) Emmaus, memorable for the very interesting con-
versation of Christ with two of his disciples after his
resurrection, is also a small village, distant sixty fur-
longs from Jerusalem. (Luke xxiv. 15.) It was sub-
sequently made a city and a Roman colony, and called
Nicopolis.
(4.) Bethlehem was a celebrated city, about six
miles south-west from Jerusalem : it was formerly called
Ephrath or Ephrata. (Gen. xxxv. 19. xlviii. 7. Mic. v. 2.)
It was a city in the time of Boaz, (Ruth iii. 11. iv. 1.)
and was fortified by Rehoboam. (2 Chron. xi. 6.) In
Matt. ii. 1. 5. it is called Bethlehem of Judaea, to dis-
tinguish it from another town of the same name situ-
ated in Lower Galilee, and mentioned in Josh. xix. 15.
In Luke ii. 1. it is called the city of David, because
David was born and educated there. (Compare John
vii. 42. and 1 Sam. xvi. 1. 18.) This city, though not
considerable for its extent or riches, is of great dig-
nity as the appointed birth-place of the Messiah.
(Matt. ii. 6. Luke ii. 6—15.)
(5.) Jericho was a celebrated city in the tribe of
Benjamin, of which frequent mention is made in the
New Testament, and in the time of our Saviour it
yielded only to Jerusalem for its size and the magnifi-
cence of its buildings : it is situated in a bottom, in that
vast plain which was named the great plain (which
shews the propriety of the expression going doxvnjrom
Jerusalem, Luke x. 30.) ; and is 150 furlongs, about
nineteen miles, distant from the capital of Judea. Je-
richo was one of the cities appropriated for the re-
sidence of the priests and Levites, 12,000 of whom
dwelt there ; and as the way thither from Jerusalem
was rocky and desert, it was greatly infested with
thieves : this circumstance marks the admirable pro-
priety with which our Lord made it the scene of his
230 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
beautiful parable of the good Samaritan, (Luke x.
30—37.)
(6.) Rama, Ramah, or Ramathaira, is a small town
in the tribe of Benjamin about six miles north of Jeru-
salem : it is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament.
(7.) Ephraim was a considerable city, eight miles
north of Jerusalem, and near a desert of the same name ;
whither Jesus Christ retired after he had raised La-
zarus from the dead. (John xi. 54.)
(8.) Joppa, called also Japha, and now universally
Jaffa, in antient times was the only place resorted to
as a sea-port in all Judea. It is a place of very great
antiquity ; and it appears from the Acts of the Apostles
(ix. x. xi.) that the Gospel was received here soon after
Christ's ascension. Here also St. Peter restored Dor-
cas to life (Acts ix. 40.) ; and hence it was that the pro-
phet Jonah, many centuries before, had embarked for
Nineveh. (Jonah i. 3.)
(9.) Lydda, which in later times was called Dios-
polis, and is now known by the name of Lyddo, was a
large village, and, according to Josephus, little inferior
to a city for its size. This place is celebrated in the
Acts of the Apostles for the miraculous cure of Eneas
by the Apostle Peter. (Acts ix. 32, 33.) — Between
Lydda and Joppa stood,
(10.) Arimathea, a small town to which Joseph
belonged, who begged the body of Jesus from Pilate
(Matt, xxvii. 57.) : it was about thirty-six or thirty-
seven miles distant from Jerusalem.
(11.) Azotus, or Ashdod, is situated between Gaza
and Jamnia or Jafnia, in a pleasant plain. Here the
ark of Jehovah triumphed over the Philistine idol
Dagon, (1 Sam. v. 2.) and Philip the evangelist was
found after he had baptized the Ethiopian eunuch.
(Acts viii. 40.) It is at present an inconsiderable place.
OF THE HOLY LAND. 231
(12.) Gaza was a very celebrated city of the Jews,
distant about 60 miles south-west from Jerusalem : it
was one of the five cities of the Philistines which fell
by lot to the tribe of Judah, (Josh. xv. 47.) and which
offered their golden emerods to the God of Israel for a
trespass offering. (1 Sam. vi. 17.) Its gates were car-
ried away by Samson, (Judg. xvi. 2.) and hither he was
conducted when taken by the Philistines, (v. 21.) great
numbers of whom perished when he pulled down the
house of their god Dagon (v. 30.) This antient town
was laid waste by Alexander, and so made desolate
agreeably to the prediction of Zephaniah (ii. 14.) con-
firmed by the statement of Strabo. After this event
a new and smaller town of the same name being built
nearer to the sea, the former, or old Gaza, fell to de-
cay : this last is the place meutioned by St. Luke
(Acts viii. 26.) as Gaza, 'which is called desert.
2. Samaria.
This division of the Holy Land derives its name from
the city of Samaria, and comprises the tract of country
which was originally occupied by the two tribes of
Ephraim and Manasseh within Jordan, lying exactly in
the middle between Judaea and Galilee ; so that it was
absolutely necessary for persons, who were desirous of
going expeditiously from Galilee to Jerusalem, to pass
through this country. This sufficiently explains the
remark of St. John (iv. 4.). The three chief places of
this division noticed in the Scriptures are, Samaria,
Sichem or Sechem, and Antipatris.
(1.) The city of Samaria, antiently the capital of
the kingdom of Israel, is very frequently mentioned in
the Old Testament : it was situated on a hill which de-
rived its name from Semer or Schemer, of whom it was
232 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
purchased by Omri king of Israel (b. c. 921), who made
it the seat of his government, and called it Samaria
(Heb. Shomeron) from its former owner. By his suc-
cessors it was greatly improved and fortified, and,
after resisting the repeated attacks of the kings of
Assyria, it was destroyed by Shalmaneser (b. c. 717),
who reduced it to a heap of stones. (Micah i. 6.
2 Kings xvii. 6.) Samaria seems to have arisen again
from its ruins during the reign of Alexander (b. c. 449),
after whose death it was subject to the Egyptian and
Syrian kings, until it was besieged, taken, and rased to
the ground by the high priest Hyrcanus. (b. c. 129
or 130.) It was afterwards wholly rebuilt, and con-
siderably enlarged by Herod surnamed the Great, who
gave it the name of Sebaste, and erected a temple
there in honour of the emperor Augustus.
(2.) Sychar, Sichem, or Shechem, which was about
forty miles distant from Jerusalem, became the metro-
polis of the Samaritans after the destruction of Sama-
ria by Hyrcanus. In the vicinity of this place is
Jacob's well, (John iv. 6.) memorable for our Saviour's
conversation with the Samaritan woman. It stands in
a delightful situation, and is at present called Napolose.
The remains of the sect of the Samaritans chiefly re-
side here.
(3.) Antipatris was a small town which stood in
the road from Jerusalem to Caesarea. It was formerly
called Capharsalma; but being rebuilt and beautified
by Herod the Great, it was by him named Antipatris,
in honour of his father Antipater. Hither St. Paul was
brought after his apprehension at Jerusalem. (Acts
xxiii. 31.)
3. Galilee.
This portion of the Holy Land is very frequently
mentioned in the New Testament : it exceeded Judaea
OF THE HOLY LAND. 233
in extent, but its limits probably varied at different
times. It comprised the country formerly occupied by
the tribes of Issachar, Zebulon, Naphtali, and Asher,
and part of the tribe of Dan ; and is divided by Jose-
phus into Upper and Lower Galilee.
Upper Galilee abounded in mountains ; and, from its
vicinity to the Gentiles who inhabited the cities of
Tyre and Sidon, it is called Galilee of the Gentiles
(Matt. iv. 15.) and the coasts of Tyre and Sidon,
(Mark vii. 31.) The principal city in this region was
Caesarea Philippi, anciently called Paneas by the Phoe-
nicians, from mount Paneas, at whose base it was
situated : it was enlarged and beautified by Philip the
Tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, who made it the
seat of his government, and changed its name to Caesa-
rea in honour of the emperor Tiberius ; it was also
called Caesarea Philippi, to distinguish it from the
other cities which bore the name of Caesarea. The
main road to Damascus, Tyre, and Sidon, lay through
this city.
Lower Galilee, which lay between the Mediterranean
Sea and the lake of Gennesareth, was situated in a rich
and fertile plain, and according to Josephus was very
populous, containing upwards of two hundred cities and
towns. This country was most honoured by our Saviour's
presence. The following are the principal cities of
Galilee which are mentioned in the New Testament.
(1.) Tiberias (John vi. 1 — 23. xxi. 1.), built by
Herod the Great, was so called in honour of the em-
peror Tiberius : it was situated in a plain near the lake
of Gennesareth, which is thence termed the lake or sea
of Tiberias, and is about ninety miles distant from Je-
rusalem.
(2.) Capernaum was situated on the coast of the
lake of Gennesareth, on the boaders of the tract occu-
234- HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
pied by the tribes of Zebulon and Naphtali. This place
is celebrated for the " many mighty works" and dis-
courses performed by our Saviour, which brought
a heavy woe upon the inhabitants for their infidelity.
( Matt. xi. 23.) At no great distance from this place
stood
(3, 4.) Chorazin and Bethsaida, two small cities
memorable for our Lord's discourses and miracles, and
involved in the same woe as Capernaum (Matt. xi. 21,
22.) ; and not far from these cities were the two vil-
lages of Dalmanutha and Magdala, where our Saviour
preached. (Mark viii. 10. Matt. xv. 39.)
(5.) Cana was situated to the west of Capernaum :
here Jesus Christ performed his first miracle of turning-
water into wine (John ii. 3 — 11.), and here he cured
the son of an officer belonging to Herod Antipas.
(John iv. 50.) It is called Cana of Galilee, to dis-
tinguish it from Cana or Kanah (Josh. xix. 28.) which
belonged to the tribe of Asher, and was situated in
the vicinity of Sidon. Cana is now a small village.
(6.) Nazareth is a small city, celebrated as having
been the place where our Saviour Avas educated, where
he preached, and whence he was called a Nazarene.
In the time of Christ it did not possess the best of cha-
racters. (John i. 46.) Nazareth stands on a hill, whence
the inhabitants would have precipitated him headlong.
(Luke iv. 29.) This place, is now greatly reduced.
Here are numerous reputed holy places to which pil-
grims are conducted. The vignette at the head of this
chapter represents the grotto at Nazareth, which is
said to have been the house of Joseph and Mary.
(7.) Nain was a small city or town, not far from
Capernaum : at the gates of which Jesus Christ raised
to life a widow's only son. (Luke vii. 11 — 15.) It de-
rived its name from its pleasant situation.
OF THE HOLY LAND. 235
(8.) C^sarea of Palestine, so called as being the
metropolis of Palestine and the residence of the Roman
proconsul, was formerly named the tower of Strato :
but its harbour being extremely incommodious, Herod
the Great erected a spacious mole, and greatly en-
larged and beautified the city, which he denominated
Caesarea in honour of the emperor Augustus his great
patron. It is very frequently mentioned in the New
Testament.
(9.) Ptolemais, antiently called Accho (Judg. i. 31.),
and now known by the name of Acre, is situate on
the shore of the Mediterranean Sea, on the confines
of Lower and Upper Galilee. Here Saint Paul rested
for one day on his journey from Ephesus to Jerusalem.
(Acts xxi. 7.)
4. Per^a.
This district comprised the six following provinces or
cantons, viz. Abilene, Trachonitis, Iturea, Gaulonitis,
Batanea, and Peraea, strictly so called, to which some
geographers have added Decapolis.
(1.) Abilene was the most northern of these pro-
vinces, being situated between the mountains of Li-
banus and Antilibanus, and deriving its name from the
city Abila. It is one of the four tetrarchies mentioned
by Saint Luke. (iii. 1.)
(2.) Trachonitis was bounded by the desert Arabia
on the east, Batanea on the west, Iturea on the south,
and the country of Damascus on the north. It
abounded with rocks, which afforded shelter to nu-
merous thieves and robbers.
(3.) Iturea antiently belonged to the half tribe of
Manasseh, who settled on the east of Jordan : it stood
to the east of Batanea and to the south of Trachonitis.
Of these two cantons Philip the son of Herod the
236 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
Great was tetrarch at the time John the Baptist com-
menced his ministry. (Luke iii. 1.) It derived its name
from Jetur the son of Ishmael, (1 Chron. i. 31.) and
was also called Auranitis from the city of Hauran.
(Ezek. xlvii. 16. 18.)
(4.) Gaulonitis was a tract on the east side of the
lake of Gennesareth and the river Jordan, which de-
rived its name from Gaulan or Golan the city of Og,
king of Bashan. (Josh. xx. 8.) This canton is not men-
tioned in the New Testament.
(5.) Batanea, the antient kingdom of Bashan, was
situated to the north-east of Gaulonitis : its limits are
not easy to be defined. It was part of the territory
given to Herod Antipas, and is not noticed in the New
Testament.
(6.) Perjea, in its restricted sense, includes the
southern part of the country beyond Jordan, lying
south of Iturea, east of Judea and Samaria ; and was
antiently possessed by the two tribes of Reuben and
Gad. Its principal place was the strong fortress of
Machaerus, erected for the purpose of checking the
predatory incursions of the Arabs. This fortress,
though not specified by name in the New Testament,
is memorable as the place where John the Baptist was
put to death. (Matt. xiv. 3—12.)
The canton of Decapolis (Matt. iv. 25. Mark v. 20.
and vii. 31.), which derives its name from the ten cities
it contained, was part of the region of Peraea. Con-
cerning its limits, and the names of its ten cities,
geographers are by no means agreed : among them,
however, we may safely reckon Gadara, where our
Saviour wrought some miracles, and perhaps Damascus,
chiefly celebrated for the conversion of Saint Paul,
which took place in its vicinity. From Gen. xiv. 15. it
appears to have been a city of great antiquity. Da-
OP THE HOLY LAND. 237
mascus is frequently mentioned in the Old Testament,
in some places as a noble and magnificent city, and in
others as a place full of pride, violence, and idolatry.
Of the whole country thus described, Jerusalem
was the metropolis during the reigns of David and
Solomon ; after the secession of the ten tribes, it was
the capital of the kingdom of Judah, but during the
time of Christ, and until the subversion of the Jewish
polity, it was the metropolis of Palestine.
Jerusalem is frequently styled in the Scriptures
the Holy City, (Isa. xlviii. 2. Dan. ix. 24. Nehem.xi. 1.
Matt. iv. 5. Rev. xi. 2.) because the Lord chose it out
of all the tribes of Israel to place his name there, his
temple and his worship (Deut. xii. 5. xiv. 23. xvi. 2.
xxvi. 2.) ; and to be the centre of union in religion and
government for all the tribes of the commonwealth of
Israel. It is held in the highest veneration by Chris-
tians for the miraculous and important transactions
which happened there, and also by the Mohammedans,
who to this day never call it by any other appellation
than El-Kods, or The Holy, sometimes adding the
epithet El-Sherif or The Noble. The original name
of the city was Salem, or Peace (Gen. xiv. 18.): the
import of Jerusalem is, the vision or inheritance of
peace ; and to this it is not improbable that our Saviour
alluded in his beautiful and pathetic lamentation over
the city. (Luke xix. 41.) It was also formerly called
Jebus from one of the sons of Canaan. (Josh, xviii.
28.) After its capture by Joshua (Josh, x.) it was
jointly inhabited both by Jews and Jebusites (Josh. xv.
63.) for about five hundred years, until the time of
David; who, having expelled the Jebusites, made it
his residence (2 Sam. v. 6 — 9.), and erected a noble
palace there, together with several other magnificent
238 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
buildings, whence it is sometimes styled the City of
David. (1 Chron. xi. 5.)
The name of the whole mountain, on the several
hills and hollows of which the city stood, was called
Moriah9 or Vision ; because it was high land and
could be seen afar off, especially from the south (Gen.
xxii. 2 — 4.) : but afterwards that name was appro-
priated to the most elevated part on which the temple
was "erected, and where Jehovah appeared to David.
(2 Chron. iii. 1. 2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 17.) This mountain
is a rocky lime-stone hill, steep of ascent on every side
except the north ; and is surrounded on the other sides
by a group of hills, in the form of an amphitheatre,
(Psal. cxxv. 2.) which situation rendered it secure from
the earthquakes, that appear to have been frequent in
the Holy Land (Psal. xlvi. 2, 3.) ; and have furnished
the prophets with many elegant allusions. On the east
stands the mount of Olives, fronting the temple, of
which it commanded a noble prospect, (Matt. xxiv.
2, 3. Luke xix. 37 — 41.) as it does to this day of the
whole city, over whose streets and walls the eye roves
as if in the survey of a model. This mountain, which
is frequently noticed in the evangelical history,
stretches from north to south, and is about a mile in
length. Between Olivet and the city lies the valley of
Kedron, through which flows the brook of that name
already noticed.
On the south side stood the mount of Corruption,
where Solomon, in his declining years, built temples
to Moloch, Chemosh, and Ashtaroth. (I Kings xi. 7.
2 Kings xxiii. 13.)
Towards the west, and without the walls of the city,
agreeably to the law of Moses, (Levit. iv.) lay mount
Calvary or Golgotha, that is, the place of a skull.
(Matt.xxvii. 33.)
OP THE HOLY LAND. 239
The southern quarter, originally "the city of David,"
built on mount Sion, Josephus calls the upper city :
and the house of Millo was what he calls the upper
market. In process of time the upper city spread
downwards into the winding hollow way, which he
calls the valley of the Cheesemongers (Tyropasum),
and composed the lower city, by him termed Acra.
The circumference of Jerusalem, at the time the
Jewish historian wrote, was thirty-three furlongs, or
nearly four miles and a half: and the wall of circum-
vallation, constructed by order of Titus, he states to
have been thirty-nine furlongs, or four miles eight hun-
dred and seventy-five paces.
During the time of our Saviour, Jerusalem was
adorned with numerous edifices, some of which are
mentioned or alluded to in the New Testament : but its
chief glory was the Temple, (described in a subsequent
page,) which magnificent and extensive structure oc-
cupied the northern and lower top of Sion, as we learn
from the Psalmist, (xlviii. 2.) Beautiful for situation,
the delight of the whole earth, is mount Sion. On her
north side is the city of the great king.
Next to the temple in point of splendour, was the
very superb palace of Herod, which is largely described
by Josephus ; it afterwards became the residence of
the Roman procurators, who for this purpose generally
claimed the royal palaces in those provinces which
were subject to kings. These dwellings of the Ro-
man procurators in the provinces were called prce-
toria : Herod's palace therefore was Pilate's praetorium
( Matt, xxvii. 27. | John xviii. 28.) : and in some part of
this edifice was the armoury or barracks of the Roman
soldiers that garrisoned Jerusalem, whither Jesus was
conducted and mocked by them. (Matt, xxvii. 27.
Mark xv. 16.) In the front of this palace was the
240 HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY
tribunal, where Pilate sat in a judicial capacity to hear
and determine weighty causes ; being a raised pavement
of Mosaic work, (>uSrorp«Tov, lilhostrolo)i,) the evangelist
informs us that in the Hebrew language it was on this ac-
count termed gabbatha, (Johnxix. 13.) i.e. an elevated
place. On a steep rock, adjoining the north-west corner
of the Temple, stood the Totver of Antonia^ a strong
citadel, in which a Roman legion was always quartered.
It overlooked the two outer courts of the temple, and
communicated with its cloisters by means of secret
passages, through which the military could descend
and quell any tumult that might arise during the
great festivals. This was the guard to which Pilate
alluded in Matt, xxviii. 65. The tower of Antonia
was thus named by Herod, in honour of his friend
Mark Antony : and this citadel is the castle into
which St. Paul was conducted (Actsxxi. 34, 35.), and
of which mention is made in Acts xxii. 24. As the
temple was a fortress that guarded the whole city of
Jerusalem, so the tower of Antonia was a guard that
entirely commanded the temple.
During the reigns of David and Solomon, Jerusalem
was the metropolis of the land of Israel ; but, after the
defection of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, it was the
capital of the kings of Judah, during whose govern-
ment it underwent various revolutions. It was cap-
tured four times without being demolished, viz. by
Shishak sovereign of Egypt, (2 Chron. xii.) from whose
ravages it never recovered its former splendour ; by
Antiochus Epiphanes, who treated the Jews with sin-
gular barbarity ; by Pompey the Great, who rendered
the Jews tributary to Rome ; and by Herod, with the
assistance of a Roman force under Sosius. It was first
entirely destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and again by
the emperor Titus, the repeated insurrections of the
OF THE HOLY LAND. 241
turbulent Jews having filled up the measure of their
iniquities, and drawn down upon them the implacable
vengeance of the Romans. Titus ineffectually endea-
voured to save the temple : it was involved in the same
ruin with the rest of the city, and, after it had been
reduced to ashes, the foundations of that sacred edifice
were ploughed up by the Roman soldiers. Thus liter-
ally was fulfilled the prediction of our Lord, that not
one stone should be left upon another that should not
be thrown down. (Matt. xxiv. 2.) On his return to
Rome, Titus was honoured with a triumph, and to
commemorate his conquest of Judaea, a triumphal arch
was erected, which is still in existence. Numerous
medals of Judaea vanquished were struck in honour of
the same event. The following representation of one
of these is given from the original very rare coin,
preserved in the cabinet of the British Museum.
It represents the conquered country as a desolate
female sitting under a tree, and affords an extraordinary
fulfilment of Isaiah's prediction (iii. 26.) delivered at
least eight hundred years before, as well as a striking
illustration of the Lamentations of Jeremiah (ch. i.
ver. 1.) How doth the city sit solitary ; that was
full of people ! How is she become as a widow ! she
that was great among the nations, princess among the
provinces, how is she become tributary !
M
242 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.
The emperor Adrian erected a city on part of the
former site of Jerusalem, which he called iElia Capi-
tolina : it was afterwards greatly enlarged and beauti-
fied by Constantine the Great, who restored its antient
name. During that emperor's reign, the Jews made
various efforts to rebuild their temple, which however
were always frustrated ; nor did better success attend
the attempt made a. d. 363 by the apostate emperor
Julian. An earthquake, a whirlwind, and a fiery erup-
tion, compelled the workmen to abandon their design.
From the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans
to the present time, that city has remained, for the
most part, in a state of ruin and desolation ; " and has
never been under the government of the Jews them-
selves, but oppressed and broken down by a succession
of foreign masters — the Romans, the Saracens, the
Franks, the Mamelukes, and last by the Turks, to
whom it is still subject. It is not therefore only in the
history of Josephus, and in other antient writers, that we
are to look for the accomplishment of our Lord's pre-
dictions : — we see them verified at this moment before
our eyes, in the desolate state of the once celebrated
city and temple of Jerusalem, and in the present con-
dition of the Jewish people, not collected together into
any one country, into one political society, and under
one form of government, but dispersed over every region
of the globe, and every where treated with contumely
and scorn." (Bp. Porteus.)
GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.
243
Mount Tabor, as seen from the Plain of Esdraelon.
Chapter II.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.
The surface of the Holy Land being diversified with
mountains and plains, its climate varies in different
places ; though in general it is more settled than in our
more western countries. Generally speaking, however,
the atmosphere is mild ; the summers are commonly
dry, and extremely hot : intensely hot days, however,
are frequently succeeded by intensely cold nights ; and
it is to these sudden vicissitudes, and their consequent
effects on the human frame, that Jacob refers, when he
says that in the day the drought consumed him, and the
frost by night. (Gen. xxxi. 40.) i
Six several seasons of the natural year are indicated
in Gen. viii. 22. viz. seed-time and harvest, cold and
heat, summer and vointer; and as agriculture constituted
the principal employment of the Jews, we are informed
by the rabbinical writers, that they adopted the same
m 2
24 4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
division of seasons, with reference to their rural work.
These divisions also exist among the Arabs to this day.
1. Seed-time comprised the latter half of the Jewish
month Tisri, the whole of Marchesvan, and the former
half of Kisleu or Chisleu, that is, from the beginning
of October to the beginning of December. During
this season the weather is various, very often misty,
cloudy, with mizzling or pouring rain.
2. Winter included the latter half of Chisleu, the
whole of Tebeth, and the former part of Shebeth, that
is, from the beginning of December to the beginning
of February. In this season, snows rarely fall, except
on the mountains, but they seldom continue a whole
day ; the ice is thin, and melts as soon as the sun
ascends above the horizon. As the season advances,
the north wind and the cold, especially on the lofty
mountains, which are now covered with snow, is in-
tensely severe, and sometimes even fatal : the cold is
frequently so piercing, that persons born in our climate
can scarcely endure it. The cold, however, varies in
the degree of its severity, according to the local situ-
ation of the country.
3. The cold season comprises the latter half of
Shebeth, the whole of Adar, and the former half of
Nisan, from the beginning of February to the beginning
of April. At the commencement of this season, the
weather is cold, but it gradually becomes warm and
even hot, particularly in the plain of Jericho. Thun-
der, lightning, and hail are frequent. Vegetable nature
now revives ; the almond tree blossoms, and the gar-
dens assume a delightful appearance. Barley is ripe
at Jericho, though but little wheat is in the ear.
4. The harvest includes the latter half of Nisan,
the whole of Jyar (or Zif ), and the former half of
Sivan, that is. from the beginning of April to the be-
OF THE HOLY LAND. 245
ginning of June. In the plain of Jericho the heat of
the sun is excessive, though in other parts of Palestine
the weather is most delightful ; and on the sea-coast the
heat is tempered by morning and evening breezes from
the sea.
5. The summer comprehends the latter half of
Sivan, the whole of Thammuz, and the former half of
Ab, that is, from the beginning of June to the begin-
ning of August. The heat of the weather increases,
and the nights are so warm that the inhabitants sleep
on their house-tops in the open ain
6. The hot season includes the latter half of Ab,
the whole of Elul, and the former half of Tisri, that is,
from the beginning of August to the beginning of
October. During the chief part of this season the heat
is intense, though less so at Jerusalem than in the plain
of Jericho : there is no cold, not even in the night, so
that travellers pass whole nights in the open air without
inconvenience. Lebanon is for the most part free from
snow, except in the caverns and denies where the sun
cannot penetrate.
During the hot season^ it is not uncommon in the
East Indies for persons to die suddenly, in consequence
of the extreme heat of the solar rays (whence the
necessity of being carried in a palanquin). This is now
commonly termed a coup-de-soleil, or stroke of the
sun. The son of the woman of Shunem appears to have
died in consequence of a coup-de-soleil (2 Kings iv.
19, 20.) ; and to this there is an allusion in Psalm
cxxi. 2.
Rain falls but rarely, except in autumn and spring ;
but its absence is partly supplied by the very copious
dews which fall during the night. The early or au-
tumnal rains and the latter or spring rains are abso-
lutely necessary to the support of vegetation, and were
m 3
246 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
consequently objects greatly desired by the Israelite.?
and Jews. The early rains generally fall about the
beginning of November, when they usually ploughed
their lands and sowed their corn ; and the latter rains
fall sometimes towards the middle and sometimes
towards the close of April ; that is, a short time before
they gathered in their harvest. These rains, however,
were always chilly (Ezra x. 9. and Songii. 11.), and
often preceded by whirlwinds (2 Kings iii. 16, 17.) that
raised such quantities of sand as to darken the sky, or,
in the words of the sacred historian, to make " the
heavens black with clouds and wind." (1 Kings xviii. 45.)
In the figurative language of the Scripture, these whirl-
winds are termed the command and the xuord of God
(Psal. cxlvii. 15. 18.): and as they are sometimes fatal
to travellers who are overwhelmed in the deserts, the
rapidity of their advance is elegantly employed by
Solomon to show the certainty as well as the sudden-
ness of that destruction which will befall the impenitently
wicked. (Prov. i. 27.) The rains descend in Palestine
with great violence ; and as whole villages in the east
are constructed only with palm-branches, mud, and
tiles baked in the sun, (perhaps corresponding to and
explanatory of the untempered mortar noticed in Ezek.
xiii. 11.) these rains not unfrequently dissolve the
cement, such as it is, and the houses fall to the ground.
To these effects our Lord probably alludes in Matt.vii.
25 — 27. Very small clouds are likewise the forerunners
of violent storms and hurricanes in the east as well as
in the west : they rise like a mans hand, ( 1 Kings xviii.
44.) until the whole sky becomes black with rain, which
descends in torrents. In our Lord's time, this pheno-
menon seems to have become a certain prognostic of
wet weather. See Luke xii. 54.
OF THE HOLY LAND. 247
In consequence of the paucity of showers in the
east, Water is an article of great importance to the
inhabitants. Hence, in Lot's estimation, it was a prin-
cipal recommendation of the plain of Jordan that it
was 'well watered every where (Gen. xiii. 10.) : and the
same advantage continued in later ages to be enjoyed
by the Israelites, whose country was intersected by
numerous brooks and streams.
Although rivers are frequently mentioned in the
sacred writings, yet, strictly speaking, the only river
in the Holy Land is the Jordan, which is sometimes
designated in Scripture as the river without any addi-
tion ; as also is the Nile^ (Gen. xli. 1. Exod. i. 22. ii. 5.
iv. 9. vii. 18. and viii. 3. 9. 11.), and, occasionally, the
Euphrates (as in Jer. ii. 18.) : in those cases, the tenor
of the discourse must determine which is the river ac-
tually intended by the sacred writers. The name of
river is also given to inconsiderable streams and rivu-
lets, as to the Kishon (Judges iv. 7. and v. 21.) and
the Arnon. (Deut. iii. 16.)
The principal river which waters Palestine is the
Jordan or Yar-Dan, i. e. the river of Dan, so called
because it takes its rise in the vicinity of the little city
of Dan. Its true source is in the lake Phiala near
Caesarea Philippi, at the foot of Antilibanus, whence it
passes under ground, and, emerging to the light from
a cave in the vicinity of Paneas, it flows due south
through the. centre of the country, intersecting the
lake Merom and the sea or lake of Galilee, and (it is
said) without mingling with its waters ; and it loses it-
self in the lake Asphaltites or the Dead Sea, into which
it rolls a considerable volume of deep water, and so
rapid as to prevent a strong, active, and expert swim-
mer from swimming across it. The course of the
Jordan is about one hundred miles ; its breadth and
m 4
248 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
depth are various. All travellers concur in stating
that its waters are turbid, from the rapidity with which
they flow.
Antiently, the Jordan overflowed its banks about the
time of barley-harvest (Josh. iii. 15. iv. 18. 1 Chron.
xii. 15. Jer. xlix. 19.), or the feast of the passover ;
when, the snows being dissolved on the mountains, the
torrents discharged themselves into its channel with
great impetuosity. Its banks are covered with various
kinds of bushes and shrubs, which afford an asylum for
wild animals now, as they did in the time of Jeremiah,
who alludes to them. (Jer. xlix. 19.)
The other remarkable streams or rivulets of Palestine
are the following : 1. The Arnon, which descends from
the mountains of the same name, and discharges itself
into the Dead Sea : — 2. The Sihor (the Belus of antient
geographers, at present called the Kardanah,) has its
source about four miles to the east of the heads of the
river Kishon. It waters the plains of Acre and Esdrae-
lon, and falls into the sea at the gulph of Keilah ; —
3. The brook Jabbok takes its rise in the same mountains,
and falls into the river Jordan : — 4. The Kanah, or
brook of reeds, springs from the mountains of Judah,
but only flows during the winter : it falls into the
Mediterranean Sea near Caesarea : — 5. The brook
Besor (1 Sam. xxx. 9.) falls into the same sea between
Gaza and Rhinocorura : — 6. The Kishon issues from
the mountains of Carmel, at the foot of which it forms
two streams ; one flows eastward into the sea of Gali-
lee, and the other, taking a westerly course through
the plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon, discharges itself into
the Mediterranean Sea. This is the stream noticed in
1 Kings xviii. 4-0.: — 7. Kedron, Kidron, or Cedrony
as it is variously termed (2 Sam. xv. 23. 1 Kings xv.
13. 2 Kings xxiii. 6. 12. 2 Chron. xxix. 16. Jer,
OF THE HOLY LAND. 249
xxxi. 40. John xviii. 1.), runs in the valley of Jeho-
shaphat, eastward of Jerusalem, between that city and
the mount of Olives ; except during the winter, or
after heavy rains, its channel is generally dry, but,
when swollen by torrents, it flows with great -impetu-
osity.
Of the Lakes mentioned in the Scriptures, two are
particularly worthy of notice; that of Gennesareth,
and the lake of Sodom, both of which are termed seas
agreeably to the Hebrew phraseology, which gives the
name of sea to any large body of water.
The Sea of Galilee, through which the Jordan flows,
was antiently called the Sea of Chinnereth (Numb.
xxxiv. 11.) or Cinneroth (Josh. xii. 3.), from its vicinity
to the town of that name ; afterwards Genesar (1 Mac.
xi. 67.), and in the time of Jesus Christ Genesareth or
Gennezareth (Luke v. 1.), from the neighbouring land
of the same name (Matt. xiv. 34. Mark xv. 53.);
and also the sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1. xxi. 1.), from
the contiguous city of Tiberias. The waters of this
lake are very sweet, and abound with fish : this cir-
cumstance marks the propriety of our Lord's parable
of the net cast into the sea (Matt. xiii. 47 — 49.), near
the shore. Pliny states this lake to be sixteen miles
in length by six miles in breadth. Dr. D. E. Clarke,
by whom it was visited rather more than twenty years
since, describes it as longer and finer than our Cum-
berland and Westmorland lakes, although it yields in
majesty to the stupendous features of Loch Lomond
in Scotland : like our Windermere, the lake of Genne-
zareth is often greatly agitated by winds. (Matt. viii.
23—27.)
The Lake or Sea of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, is
about 72 English miles in length, and nearly 19 in
breadth. It was antiently called in the Scriptures the
m 5
250 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
Sea of the Plain (Deut. iii. 17. iv. 49.), being situated in
a valley with a plain lying to the south of it ; the Salt
Sea (Deut. iii. 17. Josh. xv. 5.), from the extremely
saline, bitter, and nauseous taste of its waters ; the
Salt Sea eastward (Numb, xxxiv. 3.) and the East Sea.
(Ezek. xlvii. 18. Joel ii. 20.) By Josephus and other
writers it is called the lake Asphaltites, from the abun-
dance of bitumen found in it ; and also the Dead Sea,
from antient traditions, erroneously though generally
received, that no living creature can exist in its stag-
nant and sulphureous waters. Here formerly stood
the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, which, with three
other cities of the plain, were consumed by fire from
heaven : to this destruction there are numerous al-
lusions in the Scriptures.
Beside the preceding rivers and lakes, the Scriptures
mention several Fountains and Wells : of these the
most remarkable are the fountain or pool of Siloam
and Jacob's Well.
Siloam was a fountain under the walls of Jerusalem,
east, between the city and the brook Kedron : it is
supposed to be the same as the fountain En-Rogel, or
the Fuller's Fountain. (Josh. xv. 7. and xviii. 16.
2 Sam. xvii. 17. and 1 Kings i. 9.) " The spring issues
from a rock, and runs in a silent stream, according to
the testimony of Jeremiah."
Jacob's Well or fountain is situated at a small distance
from Sichem or Shechem, also called Sychar, and at
present Napolose : it was the residence of Jacob before
his sons slew the Shechemites. It has been visited by
pilgrims of all ages, but especially by Christians, to
whom it has become an object of veneration from the
memorable discourse of our Saviour with the woman
of Samaria. (John iv. 5—30.)
In our own time it is the custom for the oriental
OF THE HOLY LAND. 251
women, particularly those who are unmarried, to fetch
water from the wells, in the mornings and evenings ; at
which times they go forth adorned with their trinkets.
This will account for Rebecca's fetching water (Gen.
xxiv. 15.), and will farther prove that there was no im-
propriety in Abraham's servant presenting her with
more valuable jewels than those she had before on her
hands- (Gen. xxiv. 22— 47.)
Palestine is a mountainous country, especially that
part of it which is situated between the Mediter-
ranean or Great Sea and the river Jordan. The prin-
cipal Mountains, not already mentioned, are those of
Lebanon, Carmel, Tabor, the mountains of Israel and
of Gilead.
1. Lebanon, by the Greeks and Latins termed Libanus,
is a long chain of lime-stone mountains, extending from
the neighbourhood of Sidon on the west to the vicinity
of Damascus eastward, and forming the extreme north-
ern boundary of the Holy Land. It is divided into
two principal ridges or ranges parallel to each other,
the most westerly of which is known by the name of
Libanus, and the opposite or eastern ridge by the ap-
pellation of Anti-Libanus. These mountains may be
seen from a very considerable distance, and some part
or other of them is covered with snow throughout the
year. They are by no means barren, but are almost
all well cultivated and well peopled : their summits
are, in many parts, level, and form extensive plains, in
which are sown corn and all kinds of pulse. They are
watered by numerous springs, rivulets, and streams of
excellent water, which diffuse on all sides a freshness
and fertility even in the most elevated regions. To
these Solomon has a beautiful allusion. (Song iv. 15.)
Lebanon was antiently celebrated for its stately cedars,
which are now less numerous than in former times :
m 6
252 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
they grow among the snow near the highest part of
the mountain,, and are remarkable, as well for their
age and size, as for the frequent allusions made to
them in the Scriptures. ( See 1 Kings iv. 33. Psal.
lxxx. 10. and xcii. 12, &c. &c.)
Anti-Libanus or Anti-Lebanon is the more lofty
ridge of the two, and its summit is clad with almost
perpetual snow, which was carried to the neighbouring
towns for the purpose of cooling liquors (Prov. xxv. 13.
and perhaps Jer. xviii. 14.) ; a practice which has ob-
tained in the east to the present day.
2. Mount Carmel is a range of hills, about 1500 feet
in height, and extending six or eight miles nearly
north and south. It is situated about ten miles to the
south of Acre or Ptolemais, on the shore of the Medi-
terranean Sea. Its summits abound with oaks and
other trees ; and, among brambles, wild vines and olive
trees are still to be found. On the side next the sea
is a cave, to which some commentators have supposed
that the prophet Elijah desired Ahab to bring Baal's
prophets, when celestial fire descended on his sacrifice.
(1 Kings xviii. 19 — 4?0.) — There was another mount
Carmel, with a city of the same name, situated in the
tribe of Judah, and mentioned in Joshua xv. 55. 1 Sam.
xxv. 2. and 2 Sam. iii. 3.
3. Tabor or Thabor is a mountain of a conical form,
entirely detached from any neighbouring mountain, and
stands on one side of the great plain of Esdraelon : it
is entirely covered with green oaks, and other trees,
shrubs, and odoriferous plants. The prospects from
this mountain are singularly delightful and extensive ;
and on its eastern side there is a small height, which
by antient tradition is supposed to have been the scene
of our Lord's transfiguration. (Matt. xvii. 1—8. Mark
ix. 2—9.)
OF THE HOLY LAND. 253
4. The Mountains of Israel, also called the mountains
of Ephraim, were situated in the very centre of the
Holy Land, and opposite to the Mountains of Judah.
The soil of both is fertile, excepting those ridges of the
mountains of Israel which look towards the region of
the Jordan, and which are both rugged and difficult of
ascent, and also with the exception of the chain ex-
tending from the Mount of Olives near Jerusalem to
the plain of Jericho, which has always afforded lurking-
places to robbers. (Luke x. 30.) The most elevated
summit of this ridge, which appears to be the same
that was antiently called the rock of Rimmon (Judg.
xx. 45. 47. )> is at present known by the name of Qua-
rantania, and is supposed to have been the scene of
our Saviour's temptation. (Matt. iv. 8.) It is described
by Maundrel as situated in a mountainous desert, and
being a most miserably dry and barren place, consist-
ing of high rocky mountains, torn and disordered, as if
the earth had here suffered some great convulsion.
The Mountains of Ebal (sometimes written Gebal) and
Gerizim (Deut. xi. 29. xxvii. 4. 12. Josh. viii. 30—35.)
are situate, the former to the north, and the latter to
the south of Sichem or Napolose, whose streets run
parallel to the latter mountain, which overlooks the
town. In the mountains of Judah there are numerous
caves, some of a considerable size : the most remark-
able of these is the cave of Adullam, mentioned in
1 Sam.xxii. 1, 2.
5. The Mountains of Gilead are situated beyond the
Jordan, and extend from Hermon southward to Arabia
Petraea. The northern part of them, known by the
name of Bashan, was celebrated for its stately oaks,
and numerous herds of cattle pastured there, to which
there are many allusions in the Scriptures. (See, among
other passages, Deut. xxxii. 14. Psal. xxii. 12. and
254 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
lxvlii. 15. Isa. ii. 13. Ezek. xxxix. 18. Amos iv. 1.)
The middle part, in a stricter sense, was termed Gilead ;
and in the southern part, beyond Jordan, were the
the Mountains of Abarim, the northern limits of the
territory of Moab, which are conjectured to have
derived their name from the passes between the hills
of which they were formed. The most eminent among
these are Pisgah and Nebo, which form a continued
chain, and command a view of the whole land of Ca-
naan. (Deut. iii. 27- xxxii. 48 — 50. xxxiv. 1, 2, 3.)
From Mount Nebo Moses surveyed the promised land,
before he was gathered to his people. (Numb, xxvii.
12, 13.) The Hebrews frequently give the epithet of
everlasting to their mountains, because they are as old
as the earth itself. See, among other instances, Gen.
xlix. 26. and Deut. xxxiii. 15.
The mountains of Palestine were antiently places of
refuge to the inhabitants when defeated in war (Gen.
xiv. 10.) ; and modern travellers assure us that they
are still resorted to for the same purpose. The rocky
summits found on many of them appear to have been
not unfrequently employed as altars, on which sacri-
fices were offered to Jehovah (Judg. vi. 19 — 21. and
xiii. 15 — 20.) ; although they were afterwards converted
into places for idol worship, for which the prophets
Isaiah (lvii. 7.) and Ezekie! (xviii. 6.) severely reprove
their degenerate countrymen. And as many of the
mountains of Palestine were situated in desert places,
the shadow they project has furnished the prophet
Isaiah with a pleasing image of the security that shall
be enjoyed under the kingdom of Messiah, (xxxii. 2.)
Numerous Vallies are mentioned in Scripture : the
three most memorable of these are,
1. The Vale of Siddim, in which Abraham discom-
OF THE HOLY LAND. 255
fited Chedorlaomer and his confederate emirs or kings.
(Gen. xiv. 2— 10.)
2. The Valley of Elah, which lies about three miles
from Bethlehem on the road to Jaffa : it is celebrated
as the spot where David defeated and slew Goliath.
(1 Sam. xvii.) " Nothing has ever occurred to alter
the appearance of the country. The very brook
whence David chose him jive smooth stones has been
noticed by many a thirsty pilgrim, journeying from
Jaffa to Jerusalem ; all of whom must pass it in their
way."
3. The narrow Valley of Hinnom lies at the foot of
Mount Sion, and is memorable for the inhuman and
barbarous, as well as idolatrous worship, here paid to
Moloch ; to which idol parents sacrificed their smiling
offspring by making them pass through the fire.
(2 Kings xxiii. 10. 2Chron.xxviii. 3.) To drown the
lamentable shrieks of the children thus immolated,
musical instruments (in Hebrew termed Tuph) were
played ; whence the spot, where the victims were burnt,
was called Tophet. From the same circumstance Ge-
Hinnom (which in Hebrew denotes the Valley of Hin-
nom, and from which the Greek word Teswac, Gehenna,
is derived,) is sometimes used to denote hell or hell-fire.
The country of Judaea, being mountainous and
rocky, is full of Caverns ; to which the inhabitants
were accustomed to flee for shelter from the incursions
of their enemies. (Judg.vi. 2. lSam.xiii. 6. xiv. 11.)
Some of these caves were very capacious : that of
Engedi was so large, that David and six hundred men
concealed themselves in its sides ; and Saul entered the
mouth of the cave without perceiving that any one was
there.
Numerous fertile and level tracts are mentioned in
256 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
the sacred volume, under the title of Plains. Three
of these are particularly worthy of notice, viz.
1. The Plain of the Mediterranean Sea, which
reached from the river of Egypt to Mount Carmel.
2. The tract between Gaza and Joppa was simply
called the Plain : in this stood the five principal cities
of the Philistine satrapies, Ascalon, Gath, Gaza, Ekron
or Accaron, and Azotus or Ashdod.
3. The Plainof Jezreel or of Esdraelon, also called the
Great Plain (the Armageddon of the Apocalypse) : it
extends from Mount Carmel and the Mediterranean to
the place where the Jordan issues from the Sea of Ti-
berias, through the middle of the Holy Land. This
plain is inclosed on all sides by mountains, and is cul-
tivated.
Frequent mention is made in the Scriptures of Wil-
dernesses or Deserts, by which we usually though
erroneously understand desolate places, equally void
of cities and inhabitants : for the Hebrews gave the
name of desert or wilderness to all places that were not
cultivated, but which were chiefly appropriated to the
feeding of cattle, and in many of them trees and shrubs
grew wild. Some of them are mountainous and well
watered, while others are sterile sandy plains, either
destitute of water, or affording a very scanty supply
from the few springs that are occasionally to be found
in them ; yet even these afford a grateful though
meagre pasturage to camels, goats, and sheep. In this
latter description of deserts it is, that the weary travel-
ler is mocked by the distant appearance of white
vapours, which are not unlike those white mists we
often see hovering over the surface of a river in a sum-
mer evening, after a hot day. When beheld at a dis-
tance, they resemble an expanded lake ; but, upon a
nearer approach, the thirsty traveller perceives the
OF THE HOLY LAND. 257
deception. To this phenomenon the prophet Isaiah
alludes (xxxv. 7.); where, predicting the blessings of
the Redeemer's kingdom, he says, The glowing sand
shall become a pool, and the thirsty soil bubbling
springs.
The deserts of the Hebrews frequently derived their
appellations from the places to which they were conti-
guous. The most celebrated is the Great Desert,
called the Wilderness or Desert of Judea (Psal. lxiii.
title) ; which, commencing from Tekoah in the tribe of
Judah, (whence it is termed the wilderness of Tekoah,
2 Chron.xx. 20.) extends through Arabia Petraea to
the Persian Gulph. In this desert John the Baptist
abode till the day of his showing unto Israel (Luke
i. 80.) ; and here he first taught his countrymen. (Matt,
iii. 1. Mark i. 4. Johnx. 39.)
This country also produced some woods or forests
mentioned in holy writ, such as those of Hareth in the
tribe of Judah, to which David withdrew from Saul
(1 Sam. xxii. 5.) ; of Ephraim, where Absalom re-
ceived the due reward of his unnatural rebellion
(2 Sam. xviii. 6 — 9.) ; that of Lebanon, where Solomon
erected a sumptuous palace (1 Kings vii. 2.) ; the forest
of Bethel, supposed to have stood near the city of that
name (2 Kings ii. 24.) ; and the forest of oaks on the
hills of Bashan. (Zech. xi.2.)
The Fertility of the soil of the Holy Land, so
often mentioned in the sacred writings, (and especially
in Deut. viii. 7 — 9. xi. 10 — 12. Gen. xxvi. 12. and
Matt. xiii. 8.) is confirmed by the united testimonies of
antient writers, as well as by all modern travellers.
We are assured that, under a wise and beneficent
government, the produce of the Holy Land would
exceed all calculation. Its perennial harvest; the
salubrity of its air ; its limpid springs ; its rivers, lakes,
258 GEOGRAPHY OF THE HOLY LAND.
and matchless plains; its hills and vales — all these,
added to the serenity of its climate, prove this land to
be indeed " a field which the Lord hath blessed"
(Gen. xxvii. 28.) : " God hath given it of the dew of
heaven, and the fatness of the earth, and plenty of
corn and wine."
Such being the state of the Holy Land, at least of
that part of it which is properly cultivated, we can
readily account for the vast population it antiently
supported. Its present forlorn condition is satisfac-
torily explained by the depredations and vicissitudes
to which it has been exposed in every age : and so far
is this from contradicting the assertions of the sacred
writings, that it confirms their authority ; for, in the
event of the Israelites proving unfaithful to their cove-
nant-engagements with Jehovah, all these judgments
were predicted and denounced against them (Lev.
xxvi. 32. Deut. xxix. 22. et seq.); and the exact
accomplishment of these prophecies affords a per-
manent comment on the declaration of the royal
psalmist, that God " turneth a fruitful land into bar-
renness for the wickedness of them that dwell therein*"
(Psal. cvii. 34.)
259
BOOK II. —POLITICAL ANTIQUITIES OF
THE JEWS.
Chapter I.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT FROM THE PATRIARCHAL TIMES
TO THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY.
I. The earliest Form of Government of which we
read in Scripture was the Patriarchal; or that
exercised by the heads of families over their house-
holds without being responsible to any superior power.
Such was that exercised by Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
The patriarchal power was a sovereign dominion, so
that parents may be considered as the first kings, and
children the first subjects: they had the power of life
and death, of disinheriting their children, or of dis-
missing them from the paternal home without assign-
ing any reason.
II. On the departure of the Israelites from the land
of their oppressors, under the guidance of Moses,
Jehovah was pleased to institute a new form of govern-
ment, which has been rightly termed a Theocracy ;
the supreme legislative power being exclusively vested
in God or his oracle, who alone could enact or repeal
laws. Hence the judges and afterwards the kings
were merely temporal viceroys, or the first magistrates
in the state : their office was, to command the army in
war, to summon and preside in the senate or council
of princes and elders, and in the general assembly of
the congregation of Israel, and to propose public
260 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
matters to the deliberation of the former, and to the
ratification of the latter. During the life of Moses,
the chief magistracy was lodged in him :- but, his
strength being inadequate to determine all matters of
controversy between so numerous a nation, a council
of seventy princes or elders was instituted at his
request, to assist him with their advice, and to lighten
the burthen of government. (Exod. xviii. 13 — 26.)
III. On the death of Moses, the command of the
children of Israel was confided to Joshua, who had
been his minister (Exod. xxiv. 13. Josh. i. 1.) ; and
under whom the land of Canaan was subdued, and
divided agreeably to the divine injunctions : but, his
office ceasing with his life, the government of Israel
was committed to certain supreme magistrates termed
Judges. Their dignity was for life ; but their office
was not hereditary, neither was their succession con-
stant. Their authority was not inferior to that of
kings : it extended to peace and war. They decided
causes without appeal ; but they had no power to enact
new laws, or to impose new burthens upon the people.
They were protectors of the laws, defenders of religion,
and avengers of crimes, particularly of idolatry, which
was high treason against Jehovah their Sovereign.
IV. At length, the Israelites, weary of having God
for their sovereign, desired a king to be set over them.
(1 Sam. viii. 5.) Such a change in their government
Moses foresaw, and accordingly prescribed certain
laws for the direction of their future sovereigns, which
are related in Deut. xvii. 14—20.
Though the authority of the kings was in some
respects limited by stipulation, yet they exercised very
ample powers. They had the right of making peace
or war, and of life and death ; and they administered
justice either in person or by their judges. And
FROM THE PATRIARCHAL TIMES, ETC. 261
though they exercised great power in reforming eccle-
siastical abuses, yet this power was enjoyed by them
not as absolute sovereigns in their own right. They
were merely the viceroys of Jehovah, who was the
sole legislator of Israel : and, therefore, as the kings
could neither enact a new law nor repeal an old one,
the government continued to be a theocracy, as well
under their permanent administration, as we have seen
that it was under the occasional administration of the
judges. They were inaugurated to their high office
with great pomp, and were arrayed in royal apparel,
with a crown and sceptre. Their retinues were
numerous and splendid ; and the majesty of royalty
was studiously maintained. It was accounted the
highest possible honour to be admitted into the royal
presence, and above all to sit down in his presence.
The knowledge of this circumstance illustrates several
passages of Scripture, particularly Luke i. 19. Matt,
v. 8. xviii. 10. xx. 20 — 23. After the establishment
of royalty among the Jews, it appears to have been a
maxim in their law, that the kings person tvas invio-
lable, even though he might be tyrannical and unjust
(1 Sam. xxiv. 5 — 8.); a maxim which is necessary
not only to the security of the king, but also to the
welfare of the subject. On this principle, the Amale-
kite, who told David the improbable and untrue story
of his having put the mortally wounded Saul to death,
that he might not fall into the hands of the Philistines,
was, merely on this his own statement, ordered by
David to be instantly despatched, because he had laid
his hand on the Lord's Anointed. (2 Sam. i. 14.)
The eastern monarchs were never approached but
with presents of some kind or other, according to the
ability of the individuals, who accompanied them with
expressions of the profoundest reverence, prostrating
262 DIFFERENT FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
themselves to the ground ; and the same practice con-
tinues to this day. Thus Jacob instructed his sons to
carry a present to Joseph, when they went to buy
food of him as governor of Egypt. (Gen. xliii. 11. 26.)
In like manner the magi, who came from the east to
adore Jesus Christ, as king of the Jews, brought him
presents of gold, frankincense, and myrrh. (Matt. ii.
11.) Allusions to this practice occur in Gen. xxxii. 13.
1 Kings x. 2. 10. 25. 2 Kings v. 5.; see also 1 Sam.
ix. 7. and 2 Kings viii. 8. The prostrations were made,
with every demonstration of reverence, to the ground.
See an instance in 1 Sam. xxiv. 8.
Further, whenever the oriental sovereigns go abroad,
they are uniformly attended by a numerous and splendid
retinue : the Hebrew kings and their sons either rode
on asses or mules (2 Sam. xiii. 29. 1 Kings i. 33. 38.)
or in chariots, (1 Kings i. 5. 2 Kings ix. 21. x. 15.)
preceded or accompanied by their royal guards (who,
in 2 Sara. viii. 18. and xv. 18., are termed Cherethites
and Pelethites) ; as the oriental sovereigns do to this
day. Further, whenever the Asiatic monarchs entered
upon an expedition, or took a journey through desert
and untravelled countries, they sent harbingers before
them to prepare all things for their passage, and
pioneers to open the passes, level the ways, and remove
all impediments.
The revenues of the kings arose from various
sources : viz. 1. Voluntary Offerings, which were made
to them conformably to the oriental custom (1 Sam.
x. 27. xvi. 20.) ; — 2. The Produce of the Royal Flocks
(1 Sam.xxi. 7. 2 Sam. xiii. 23. 2 Chron. xxxii. 28, 29.),
and also of the royal demesnes over which certain
officers were appointed ; — 3. The Tenth Part of all the
produce of the fields and vineyards, the collection an d
management of which seem to have been confided to
FROM THE PATRIARCHAL TIMES, ETC. 263
the officers mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 7. and 1 Chron.
xxvii. 25. It is also probable from 1 Kings x. H. that
the Israelites likewise paid a tax in money ; — 4. A
portion of the spoil of conquered nations (2 Sam. viii.)
upon whom tributes or imposts were also laid (1 Kings
iv. 21. Psal. Ixxii. 10. compared with 1 Chron. xxvii.
25—31.); and, lastly, 5. The Customs paid to Solomon
by the foreign merchants who passed through his
dominions (1 Kings x. 15.), afforded a considerable
revenue to that monarch ; who, as the Mosaic laws did
not encourage foreign commerce, carried on a very
extensive and lucrative trade (1 Kings x. 22.), par-
ticularly in Egyptian horses and the byssus or fine linen
of Egypt. (1 Kings x. 28, 29.)
Besides the kings there were some inferior magis-
trates, who, though their origin may be traced to the
time of Moses, continued to retain some authority
after the establishment of the monarchy. Of this de-
scription were, 1. the Heads or Princes of Tribes who
appear to have watched over the interest of each
tribe ; they were twelve in number ; and, 2. The Heads
of Families, who are sometimes called Heads of Houses
of Fathers, and sometimes simply heads. These are
likewise the same persons who in Josh, xxiii. 2. and
xxiv. I. are called Elders. (Compare also Deut. xix.
12. and xxi. 1 — 9.) It does not appear in what man-
ner these heads or elders of families were chosen,
when any of them died. The princes of tribes do not
seem to have ceased with the commencement, at least,
of the monarchy: from 1 Chron. xvii. 16 — 22. it is
evident that they subsisted in the time of David ; and
they must have proved a powerful restraint upon the
power of the king.
V. The kingdom which had been founded by Saul,
and carried to its highest pitch of grandeur and power
264 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS
by David and Solomon, subsisted entire for the space
of 120 years ; until Rehoboam, the son and successor
of Solomon, refused to mitigate the burthens of his
subjects, when a division of the twelve tribes took
place : ten of which adhering to Jeroboam formed the
kingdom of Israel, while the tribes of Judah and Ben-
jamin, continuing faithful in their allegiance to Re-
hoboam, constituted the kingdom of Judah. The
Kingdom of Israel subsisted under various sovereigns
during a period of 264 or 271 years, according to some
chronologers ; its metropolis Samaria being captured
by Shalmaneser king of Assyria, b. c. 717 or 719, after
a siege of three years ; of the Israelites, whose num-
bers had been reduced by immense and repeated
slaughters, some of the lower sort were suffered to
remain in their native country ; but the nobles and
all the more opulent persons were carried into cap-
tivity beyond the Euphrates. The Kingdom of Judah
continued 388, or according to some chronologers,
404 years ; Jerusalem its capital being taken, the
temple burnt, and its sovereign Zedekiah being car-
ried captive to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar; the rest
of his subjects (with the exception of the poorer
classes who were left in Judaea) were likewise carried
into captivity beyond the Euphrates, where they and
their posterity remained seventy years, agreeably to
the divine predictions.
Chapter II.
POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS, FROM THEIR RETURN FROM THE
BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY, TO THE SUBVERSION OF THEIR CIVIL AND
ECCLESIASTICAL POLITY.
I. Political State of the Jews under the Maccabees
and the Sovereigns of the Herodian Family.
AFTER THEIR RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 265
After the return of the Jews from Babylon, they
obeyed the High Priests, from whom the supreme
authority subsequently passed into the hands of the
Maccabean Princes. Mattathias was the first of these
princes ; and was succeeded by his three valiant sons
Judas, Jonathan, and Simon, the last of whom was
succeeded by his son John Hyrcanus. The name
Maccabees is supposed to have been derived from the
four letters M. C. B. I., which are the initial letters of
the Hebrew words Mi Chamoka Baelim Jehovah, that
is, who among the gods is like unto thee, O Jehovah ?
(Exod. xv. 11.) which letters were displayed on their
standards. This illustrious house, whose princes
united the regal and pontifical dignity in their own
persons, administered the affairs of the Jews during
a period of one hundred and twenty-six years ; until,
disputes arising between Hyrcanus II. and his brother
Aristobulus, the latter was defeated by the Romans
under Pompey, who captured Jerusalem, and reduced
Judaea to a tributary province of the republic, (b. c. 59.)
Though Pompey continued Hyrcanus in the high-
priesthood, he bestowed the government of Judaea on
Antipater, an Idumaean by birth, who was a Jewish
proselyte, and the father of Herod surnamed the Great,
who was subsequently king of the Jews. Antipater
divided Judaea between his two sons Phasael and Herod,
giving to the former the government of Jerusalem, and
to the latter the province of Galilee ; which being at
that time greatly infested with robbers, Herod signal-
ised his courage by dispersing them, and shortly after
attacked Antigonus, the competitor of Hyrcanus in the
priesthood, who was supported by the Tyrians. In the
mean time, the Parthians having invaded Judaea, and
carried into captivity Hyrcanus the high priest and
Phasael the brother of Herod ; the latter fled to Rome,
266 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS
where Mark Antony, with the consent of the senate,
conferred on him the title of king of Judaea. By the
aid of the Roman arms Herod, a sanguinary and crafty
prince, kept possession of his dignity ; and after three
years of sanguinary and intestine war with the par-
tisans of Antigonus, he was confirmed in his kingdom
by Augustus.
Herod, misnamed the Great, by his will divided his
dominions among his three sons, Archelaus, Herod
Antipas, and Herod Philip.
To Archelaus he assigned Judssa, Samaria, and
Idumaea, with the regal dignity, subject to the appro-
bation of Augustus, who ratified his will as it respected
the territorial division, but conferred on Archelaus the
title of Ethnarch or chief of the nation, with a promise
of the regal dignity, if he should prove himself worthy
of it. His subsequent reign was turbulent ; and, after
repeated complaints against his tyranny and mal-ad-
ministration, he was deposed and banished by Augus-
tus, and his territories were annexed to the Roman
province of Syria.
Herod Antipas (or Antipater), another of Herod's
sons, received from his father the district of Galilee
and Peraea, with the title of Tetrarch. He is described
by Josephus as a crafty and incestuous prince, with
which character the narratives of the evangelists coin-
cide; for, having deserted his wife, the daughter of
Aretas king of Arabia, he forcibly took away and mar-
ried Herodias the wife of his brother Herod Philip, a
proud and cruel woman, to gratify whom he caused
John the Baptist to be beheaded (Matt. xiv. 3.
Mark vi. 17. Luke iii. 19.), who had provoked her
vengeance by his faithful reproof of their incestuous
nuptials. Some years afterwards, Herod aspiring to
AFTER THEIR RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 267
the regal dignity in Judaea was banished together with
his wife, first to Lyons in Gaul, and thence into Spain.
Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, Gaulonitis, and
Batanaea, is mentioned but once in the New Testa-
ment (Luke iii. 1.) : on his decease without issue, after
a reign of thirty-seven years, his territories were
annexed to the province of Syria.
Agrippa, or Herod Agrippa, was the son of Aristo-
bulus, and grandson of Herod the Great, and sustained
various reverses of fortune previously to his attaining
the royal dignity. He governed his dominions much
to the satisfaction of his subjects (for whose gratifi-
cation he put to death the apostle James, and meditated
that of St. Peter who was miraculously delivered,
(Acts xii. 2 — 17.) ; but being inflated with pride on
account of his increasing power and grandeur, he was
struck with a noisome and painful disease of which he
died at Caesarea in the manner related by St. Luke.
(Acts xii. 21—23.)
Agrippa junior, was the son of the preceding
Herod Agrippa : being only seventeen years of age at
the time of his father's death, he was judged to be
unequal to the task of governing the whole of his do-
minions. These were again placed under the direction
of a Roman procurator or governor, and Agrippa was
first king of Chalcis, and afterwards of Batanaea, Tra-
chonitis, and Abilene, to which other territories were
subsequently added. It was before this Agrippa and
his two sisters Berenice and Drusilla the wife of the
Roman governor Felix, that St. Paul delivered his mas-
terly defence. (Acts xxvi.)
II. Political State of the Jews under the Roman
Procurators.
The Jewish kingdom, which the Romans had created
in favour of Herod the Great, was of short duration ;
N 2
268 POLITICAL STATE OF THE JEWS
expiring on his death, by his division of his territories,
and by the dominions of Archelaus, which comprised
Samaria, Judaea, and Idumsea, being reduced to a
Roman province, annexed to Syria, and governed by
the Roman procurators. These officers not only had
the charge of collecting the imperial revenues, but
also had the power of life and death in capital causes :
and on account of their high dignity they are sometimes
called Governors. Though the Jews did not enjoy the
power of life and death, yet they continued to possess
a large share of civil and religious liberty ; and lived
pretty much after their own laws. Three of these pro-
curators are mentioned in the New Testament, viz.
Pilate, Felix, and Festus.
1. Tontius Pilate was sent to govern Judaea,
a. d. 26 or 27. He was a cruel and unjust governor ;
and dreading the extreme jealousy and suspicion of
Tiberius, he delivered up the Redeemer to be crucified,
contrary to the conviction of his better judgment, and
in the vain hope of conciliating the Jews whom he had
oppressed. After he had held his office for ten years,
having caused a number of innocent Samaritans to be
put to death, that injured people sent an embassy to
Vitellius, proconsul of Syria : by whom he was ordered
to Rome, to give an account of his mal-administration
to the emperor. But Tiberius being dead before he
arrived there, his successor Caligula banished him to
Gaul : where he is said to have committed suicide, about
the year of Christ 41.
2. On the death of king Herod Agrippa, Judaea being
again reduced to a Roman province, the government
of it was confided to Antonius Felix : he liberated
that country from banditti and impostors (the very
worthy deeds alluded to by Tertullus, Acts xxiv. 2.) ;
but he was in other respects a cruel and avaricious
AFTER THEIR RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 269
governor, incontinent, intemperate, and unjust. So
oppressive at length did his administration become,
that the Jews accused him before Nero, and he with
difficulty escaped condign punishment. His wife,
Drusilla (mentioned Acts xxiv. 24.), was the sister of
Agrippa junior, and had been married to Azizus king
of the Emesenes : Felix, having fallen desperately in
love with her, persuaded her to abandon her legitimate
husband and live with him. The knowledge of these
circumstances materially illustrates Acts xxiv. 25. and
shows with what singular propriety St. Paul reasoned
of righteousness, temperance, and a judgment to come.
On the resignation of Felix, the government of Judaea
was committed to
3. Portius Festus, before whom Paul defended
himself against the accusations of the Jews (Acts xxv.),
and appealed from his tribunal to that of Caesar. Find-
ing his province overrun with robbers and murderers,
Festus strenuously exerted himself in suppressing their
outrages. He died in Judaea about the year 62.
The situation of the Jews under the two last-men-
tioned procurators was truly deplorable. Distracted
by tumults, excited on various occasions, their country
was overrun with robbers that plundered all the villages
whose inhabitants refused to listen to their persuasions
to shake off the Roman yoke. Justice was sold to the
highest bidder ; and even the sacred office of high priest
was exposed to sale. But, of all the procurators, no
one abused his power more than Gessius Florus, a
cruel and sanguinary governor, and so extremely ava-
ricious that he shared with the robbers in their booty,
and allowed them to follow their nefarious practices
with impunity. Hence considerable numbers of the
wretched Jews, with their families, abandoned their
native country ; while those who remained, being
n 3
270 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
driven to desperation, took up arms against the Romans,
and thus commenced that war, which terminated in
the destruction of Judaea, and the talcing away of their
name and nation.
Chapter III.
COURTS OF JUDICATURE, LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, CRIMINAL LAW, AND
PUNISHMENTS OF THE JEWS.
Section I. — Jewish Courts of Judicature, and Legal Proceedings.
On the settlement of the Israelites in the land of
Canaan, Moses commanded them to appoint judges and
officers in all their gates throughout their tribes. (Deut.
xvi. 18.) The Priests and Levites, who from their being
devoted to the study of the law were consequently best
skilled in its various precepts, and old men, who were
eminent for their age and virtue, administered justice
to the people : in consequence of their age, the name
of Elders became attached to them. Many instances
of this kind occur in the New Testament : they were
also called Rulers. (Luke xii. 58. where ruler is syno-
nymous with judge.)
In the early ages of the world, the Gate of the City
was the seat of justice (Gen. xxiii. 10. Deut. xxi. 19.
xxv. 6, 7«), on which account, in the time of Moses,
the judges appear to have been termed the Elders of
the Gate. (Deut. xxii. 15. xxv. 7. Isa. xxix. 21.)
From these inferior tribunals, appeals lay to a higher
court, in cases of importance. (Deut. xvii. 8 — 12.)
But the highest and most eminent tribunal of the
Jews, after their return from the Babylonish captivity,
was the Sanhedrin or Great Council, so often men-
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 271
tioned in the New Testament. It consisted of seventy
or seventy-two members, under the chief presidency of
the high priest, under whom was a vice-president,
called the Father of the Council. These assessors com-
prised three descriptions of persons, viz. 1. The Chief
Priests, who were partly such priests as had executed
the Pontificate, and partly the princes or chiefs of the
twenty-four courses or classes of priests, who enjoyed
this honourable title ; — 2. The Elders, perhaps the
princes of tribes or heads of families ; — and 3. The
Scribes or men learned in the law. It does not appear
that all the elders and scribes were members of this
tribunal : most probably those only were assessors
who were either elected to the office, or nominated to
it by royal authority.
Besides the Sanhedrin, the Talmudical writers assert
that there were other smaller councils, each consisting
of twenty-three persons, who heard and determined
petty causes : two of these were at Jerusalem, and one
in every city containing one hundred and twenty inha-
bitants. Josephus is silent concerning these tribunals,
but they certainly appear to have existed in the time
of Jesus Christ ; who, by images taken from these two
courts, in a very striking manner represents the dif-
ferent degrees of future punishments, to which the
impenitently wicked will be doomed according to the
respective heinousness of their crimes. See Matt. v. 22.
These various tribunals had their inferior ministers
or officers, who are alluded to in Matt. v. 25.
It appears from Jer. xxi. 12. that causes were heard,
and judgment was executed in the morning; and at
first every one pleaded his own cause (1 Kings iii.
16 — 28.) ; though, in succeeding ages, the Jews seem
to have had advocates, for Tertullus was retained
against St. Paul. (Acts xxiv. 1, 2.)
n 4
272 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
On the day appointed for hearing the cause, the
parties appeared before the judges ; who, in criminal
cases, exhorted the culprit to confess his crime. (Josh,
vii. 19.) In matters of life and death, the evidence of
two or three credible witnesses was indispensable.
(Num. xxxv. 30. Deut. xvii. 6, 7. xix. 15.) All perjury
was most severely prohibited. (Exod. xx. 16. xxiii.
1 — 3.) Recourse was, in certain cases, had to the
sacred lot, called Urim and Thummim, in order to
discover the guilty party. (Josh. vii. 14 — 18. 1 Sam. xiv.
37—45.)
Sentences were only pronounced in the daytime, as
appears from Luke xxii. 66. Where persons had ren-
dered themselves obnoxious to the populace, it was usual
(and the same practice still obtains in the East) for them
to demand prompt justice on the supposed delinquents.
This circumstance illustrates Acts xxii. 28 — 36. As
soon as sentence of condemnation was pronounced against
a person, he was immediately dragged from the court
to the place of execution. Thus our Lord was instantly
hurried from the presence of Pilate to Calvary : a
similar instance of prompt execution occurred in the
case of Achan ; and the same practice obtains to this
day, both in Turkey and Persia. So zealous were the
Jews for the observance of their law, that they were
not ashamed themselves to be the executioners of it,
and to punish criminals with their own hands. In
stoning persons, the witnesses threw the first stones,
agreeably to the enactment of Moses. (Deut. xvii. 7.)
Thus the witnesses against the protomartyr Stephen,
after laying down their clothes at the feet of Saul,
stoned him (Acts vii. 58, 59.) : and to this custom
there is an allusion in John viii. 7. As there were no
public executioners in the more antient periods of the
Jewish history, it was not unusual for persons of dis-
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 273
tinguisbed rank themselves to put the sentence in exe-
cution upon offenders. See an instance in 1 Sam. xv. 33.
But in whatever manner the criminal was put to
death, according to the Talmudical writers, the Jews
always gave him some wine with incense in it, in order
to stupefy and intoxicate him. This custom is said to
have originated in the precept recorded in Prov. xxxi.
6., which sufficiently explains the reason why wine,
mingled with myrrh, was offered to Jesus Christ when
on the cross. (Mark xv. 23.)
Section II Roman Judicature, Manner of Trial, and Treatment
of Prisoners.
Wherever the Romans extended their power, they
also carried their laws ; and though, as we have al-
ready seen, they allowed their conquered subjects to
enjoy the free performance of their religious worship,
as well as the exercise of some inferior courts of judi-
cature, yet in all cases of a capital nature the tribunal
of the Roman prefect or president was the last resort.
Without his permission no person could be put to
death, at least in Judaea.
The Roman Law forbad any one, especially Roman
citizens, to be scourged or condemned, unheard and
without a trial. To this St. Paul alludes in Acts
xxii. 25. Neither could a Roman citizen be legally
bound, in order to be examined by scourging, or
by any other mode of torture, for the purpose of
obtaining a confession. When, therefore, the tribune,
Lysias, not knowing that the apostle enjoyed the
citizenship of Rome, had commanded that he should
be bound and examined with thongs, and was subse-
quently informed that he was a citizen, the sacred his-
n 5
274 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
torian relates that he was afraid, after he knew that he
was a Roman, and because he had bound him. (Acts
xxii. 29. ) Further, Roman citizens had the privilege
of appealing to the imperial tribunal : and this privi-
lege the same apostle exercised. (Acts xxv. 9 — 12.)
u The Roman method of fettering and confining
criminals was singular. One end of a chain, that was
of commodious length, was fixed about the right arm
of the prisoner, and the other end was fastened to the
left arm of a soldier. Thus a soldier was coupled to the
prisoner, and every where attended and guarded him.
This manner of confinement is frequently mentioned,
and there are many beautiful allusions to it in the
Roman writers. Thus was St. Paul confined. Fettered
in this manner, he delivered his apology before Festus,
king Agrippa, and Berenice." (Acts xxvi. 29.)
" Sometimes the prisoner was fastened to two sol-
diers, one on each side, wearing a chain both on his
right and left hand. St. Paul at first was thus con-
fined. When the tribune received him from the hands
of the Jews, he commanded him to be bound with two
chains. (Acts xxi. 33.) In this manner was Peter
fettered and confined by Herod Agrippa. The same
night Peter was sleeping between two soldiers, bound
with two chains. (Acts xii. 6.) If these soldiers, ap-
pointed to guard criminals, and to whom they were
chained, suffered the prisoner to escape, they were
punished with death (Acts xii. 19.) ; and the same
punishment appears to have awaited gaolers, who per-
mitted their prisoners to escape. (Acts xvi. 27.)
Though not strictly a Roman tribunal, yet as its sit-
tings were permitted by the Roman government, the
senate and court of Areopagus, at Athens, claims a
concise notice in this place. It took cognizance,
among other things, of matters of religion, the conse-
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 275
cration of new gods, erection of temples and altars,
and the introduction of new ceremonies into divine
worship. On this account, Saint Paul was brought
before the tribunal of the Areopagus, as a setter forth
of strange gods, because he preached unto the Athe-
nians Jesus and Avag-aa-iq (Anastasis) or the Resurrection.
(Acts xvii. 19.) Its sittings were held on the Apeioq Yiayoq,
{Areios Pagos, or Hill of Mars, whence its name was
derived,) which is situated in the midst of the city of
Athens.
Section III. — On the Criminal Law of the Jews.
I. Crimes against God. — The government of the
Israelites being a Theocracy, that is one, in which the
supreme legislative power was vested in the Almighty,
who was regarded as their king, it was to be expected
that, in a state confessedly religious, crimes against
the Supreme Majesty of Jehovah should occupy a
primary place in the statutes given by Moses to that
people. Accordingly,
1. Idolatry, that is, the worship of other gods, in the
Mosaic law occupies the first place in the list of crimes.
An Israelite therefore was guilty of idolatry,
(1.) When he actually worshipped other gods besides
Jehovah, the only true God. This crime is prohibited
in Exod. xx. 3.
(2.) By worshipping images, whether of the true God
under a visible form, to which the Israelites were but
too prone (Exod. xxxii. 4, 5. Judg. xvii. 3. xviii. 4 — 6.
14—17. 30, 31. vi. 25—33. viii. 24—27. 1 Kings xii.
26 — 31.), or of the images of the gods of the Gentiles,
of which we have so many instances in the sacred his-
tory. All image-worship whatever is expressly for*
n 6
276 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
bidden in Exod. xx. 4, 5. ; and a curse is denounced
against it in Deut. xxvii. 15.
(3.) By prostration before, or adoration of, such
images, or of any thing else revered as a god, such as
the sun, moon, and stars. (Exod. xx. 5. xxxiv. 14?.
Deut. iv. 19.) This prostration consisted in falling
down on the knees, and at the same time touching the
head with the forehead.
(4.) By having altars or groves dedicated to idols, or
images thereof; all which the Mosaic law required to
be utterly destroyed (Exod. xxxiv. 13. Deut. vii. 5.
xii. 3.) ; and the Israelites were prohibited, by Deut.
vii. 25, 26., from keeping, or even bringing into their
houses, the gold and silver that had been upon any
image, lest it should prove a snare, and lead them
astray.
(5.) By offering sacrifices to idols, which is forbidden
in Levit. xvii. 1 — 7«, especially human victims, which
is prohibited in Levit. xviii. 21. Deut. xii. 30. and
xviii. 10.
(6.) By eating of offerings made to idols, made by
other people, who invited them to their offering-feasts.
Though no special law was enacted against thus attend-
ing the festivals of their gods, it is evidently presup-
posed as unlawful in Exod. xxxiv. 15.
Idolatry was punished by stoning the guilty indi-
vidual. When a whole city became guilty of idolatry,
it was considered in a state of rebellion against the
government, and was treated according to the laws of
war. Its inhabitants, and all their cattle, were put to
death ; no spoil was made, but every thing which it
contained was burnt, together with the city itself; nor
was it ever allowed to be rebuilt. (Deut. xiii. 13—19.)
This law does not appear to have been particularly en-
forced : the Israelites (from their proneness to adopt
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 277
the then almost universally prevalent polytheism) in
most cases overlooked the crime of a city that became
notoriously idolatrous ; whence it happened, that idol-
atry was not confined to any one city, but soon over-
spread the whole nation. In this case, when the people,
as a people, brought guilt upon themselves by their
idolatry, God reserved to himself the infliction of the
punishments denounced against that national crime ;
which consisted in wars, famines, and other national
judgments. (Lev. xxvi. Deut. xxviii. xxix. xxxii.)
For the crime of seducing others to the worship of
strange gods, the appointed punishment was stoning to
death. (Deut. xiii. 2—12.) In order to prevent the
barbarous immolation of infants, Moses denounced the
punishment of stoning upon those who offered human
sacrifices ; which the bye-standers might instantly
execute upon the delinquent when caught in the act,
without any judicial inquiry whatever. (Levit. xx. 2.)
2. God being both the sovereign and the legislator
of the Israelites, Blasphemy (that is, the speaking in-
juriously of his name, his attributes, his government
and his revelation,) was not only a crime against Him,
but also against the state ; it was therefore punished
capitally by stoning. (Lev. xxiv. 10 — 14-.)
3. It appears from Deut. xviii. 20 — 22. that a False
Prophet was punished capitally, being stoned to death.
4. Divination, or the conjecturing of future events
from things supposed to presage them, is expressly
prohibited in Levit. xix. 26. 31. xx. 6. 23. 27. and
Deut. xviii. 9 — 12. The punishment of the party con-
sulting a diviner was reserved to God himself (Levit.
xx. 6.) ; but the diviner himself was to be stoned.
(Levit. xx. 27.)
5. Perjury is, by the Mosaic law, most peremptorily
278 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
prohibited as a most heinous sin against God, to whom
the punishment of it is left.
II. Crimes against Parents and Magistrates
constitute an important article of the criminal law of
the Hebrews.
1. In the form of government among that people,
we recognise much of the patriarchal spirit ; in conse-
quence of which fathers enjoyed great rights over their
families. The cursing of parents, — that, is, not only
the imprecation of evil on them, but probably also all
rude and reproachful language towards them, was
punished with death (Exod. xxi. 17. Levit. xx. 9.) ;
as likewise was the striking of them. (Exod. xxi. 15.)
An example of the crime of cursing a parent, which is
fully in point, is given by Jesus Christ in Matt. xv.
4—6., or Mark vii. 9 — 12. Both these crimes are in-
cluded in the case of the stubborn, rebellious, and
drunkard son ; whom his parents were unable to keep
in order, and who, when intoxicated, endangered the
lives of others. Such an irreclaimable offender was to
be punished with stoning. (Deut. xxi. 18 — 21.) Severe
as this law may seem, we have no instance recorded of
its being carried into effect ; but it must have had a
most salutary operation in the prevention of such
crimes.
2. Civil government being an ordinance of God,
provision is made in all well regulated states for re-
specting the persons of magistrates. All reproachful
words or curses, uttered against persons invested with
authority, are prohibited in Exod. xxii. 28. No punish-
ment, however, is specified ; probably it was left to the
discretion of the judge, and was different according to
the rank of the magistrate, and the extent of the crime.
III. The Crimes or Offences against Property,
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 2?9
mentioned by Moses, are theft, man-stealing, and the
denial of any thing taken in trust, or found.
1. On the crime of Theft, Moses imposed the punish-
ment of double (and in certain cases still higher) resti-
tution ; and if the thief were unable to make it, he was
ordered to be sold for a slave, and payment was to be
made to the injured party out of the purchase money,
(Exod. xxii. 1. 3.) The same practice obtains, accord-
ing to Chardin, among the Persians. If, however, a
thief, — after having denied, even upon oath, any theft
with which he was charged, — had the honesty or con-
science to retract his perjury, and to confess his guilt,
instead of double restitution, he had only to repay the
amount stolen, and one-Jifth more. (Levit. vi. 2. 5.)
In case of debt also, the creditor might seize the debt-
or's person and sell him, together with his wife and
children, if he had any. This is inferred from the
words of the statute, in Levit. xxv. 39. There is an
allusion to this custom in Job xxiv. 9. ; and a case in
point is related in 2 Kings iv. 1. This practice also
obtained among the Jews in the days of Nehemiah (v.
1 — 5.), and Jesus Christ refers to it in Matt, xviii. 25.
2. Man-stealing, that is, the seizing or stealing of
the person of a free-born Israelite, was absolutely and
irremissibly punished with death. (Exod. xxi. 16.
Deut. xxiv. 7.)
3. Where a person was judicially convicted of having
denied any thing committed to his trust, or found by him,
his punishment, as in the case of theft, was double
restitution. If the person accused of this crime had
sworn himself guiltless, and afterwards, from the im-
pulse of his conscience, acknowledged the commission
of perjury, he had only one fifth beyond the value of
the article denied to refund to its owner. (Levit. vi. 5.)
280 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
IV. Among the Crimes which may be committed
AGAINST THE PERSON,
1. Murder claims the first place. As this is a crime
of the most heinous nature, Moses has described four
accessary circumstances or marks, by which to distin-
guish it from simple homicide or manslaughter, viz.
(1.) When it proceeds from hatred 'or enmity. (Numb.
xxxv. 20, 21. Deut. xix. 11.) — (2.) When it proceeds
from thirst of blood, or a desire to satiate revenge with
the blood of another. (Numb. xxxv. 20.) — (3.) When
it is committed premeditatedly and deceitfully. (Exod.
xxi. 14.) — (4.) When a man lies in wait for another,
falls upon him, and slays him. (Deut. xix. 11.) — The
punishment of murder was death without all power of
redemption.
2. Homicide or Manslaughter is discriminated by the
following adjuncts or circumstances: — (1.) That it
takes place without hatred or enmity. (Numb. xxxv. 22.
Deut. xix. 4 — 6.) — (2.) Without thirst for revenge.
(Exod. xxi. 13. Numb. xxxv. 22.)— (3.) When it
happens by mistake. (Numb. xxxv. 11. 15.) — (4.) By
accident, or (as it is termed in the English law) chance-
medley. (Deut. xix. 5.) The punishment of homicide
was confinement to a city of refuge.
3. For other corporal injuries of various kinds,
different statutes were made, which shew the wisdom
and humanity of the Mosaic laws. See Exod. xxi.
18, 19. 22—27. and Levit. xxiv. 19—22.
4. Adultery and another nameless crime were both
punished with death. (Levit. xx. 10. xviii. 22, 23.
and xx. 13. 15, 16.)
V. Crimes of Malice were punished with equal
justice and severity.
Malicious informers were odious in the eye of the
law (Levit. xix. 16 — 18.) ; and the publication of false
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 281
reports, affecting the characters of others, is expressly
prohibited in Exod. xxiii. 1.; as also is all manner of
false witness, even though it were to favour a poor
man. But where a person was convicted of having
borne false testimony against an innocent man, he
suffered the very same punishment which attended the
crime of which he accused his innocent brother.
(Deut. xix. 16—21.)
Section IV. — On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures.
The Punishments, mentioned in the sacred writings,
are usually divided into two classes, — non-capital, and
capital.
I. The non-capital or inferior punishments were as
follow : —
1 . Scourging : this was the most common corporal
punishment under the Mosaic law. It is frequently
mentioned both in the Old and New Testaments ; and
in order that the legal number of forty stripes might
not be exceeded, it was inflicted with a scourge con-
sisting of three lashes, so that the party received only
thirteen blows, on forty stripes, save one.
2. Retaliation (Exod. xxi. 24?.), or returning like for
like, was the punishment of corporal injuries to another.
It is expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ in Matt. v.
38, 39.
3. Restitution of things stolen, and for various other
injuries done to the property of another person. (Exod.
xxi. 32, 33, 34. 36. xxii. 6. Levit. xxiv. 18.)
4. Compensation to an injured party, to induce him
to depart from his suit, was permitted, at least in one
case (Exod. xxi. 30.), but was forbidden in the case
of murder and homicide. (Num. xxxv. 31, 32.)
282 COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
5. Sin and Trespass Offerings were also in the nature
of punishments : the various cases for which they were
to be made, are specified in Levit. iv. 2. v. 1 . 4 — 7*
14, 15. vi. 1—7. and xix. 22.
6. Imprisonment, though not enjoined by Moses,
was practised both during the Jewish monarchy and
in the time of Christ. In Gen. xli. 14. Jer. xxxviii. 6.
Zech. ix. and Acts v. 18. there are allusions to inner
prisons or dungeons where those who were confined
therein were very harshly treated ; especially as the
antient gaolers (like those in the East to this day) had
a discretionary power to treat the prisoners just as they
pleased. To this painful situation of prisoners there
are allusions in Psal. lxxix. 11. and Jer. xxxvii.
16—20.
7. Banishment was not introduced among the Jews
until after the captivity. It also existed among the
Romans. St. John was banished to the isle of Patmos.
(Rev. i. 9.)
8. In the East, antiently, as well as in modern times,
prisoners were deprived of their eyes. See instances
in Judg. xvi. 21. and 2 Kings xxv. 7-
9. Plucking off the hair, with great violence, was
both a painful and ignominious ponishment. It is
alluded to in Neh. xiii. 25.
10. Excommunication, or exclusion from sacred
worship, was a civil as well as an ecclesiastical punish-
ment, which varied in the degrees of its severity. The
first (called Nidui) was simply casting out of the
synagogue (John ix. 22. xvi. 2. &c), and was in force
for thirty days, which might be shortened. In the
second, termed Cherem (or anathema), the excommun-
icated party was delivered over to Satan, and devoted
by a solemn curse. To this St. Paul alludes in 1 Cor.
v. 5. and Rom. ix. 2. The third degree was called
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 283
Sham-Atha, or Maran-Atha (i. e. the Lord cometh, or
may the Lord come) ; and intimated that the party had
nothing more to expect but the terrible day of judg-
ment. The effects of excommunication were dreadful :
the individuals against whom it was fulminated were
debarred of all social intercourse, and the privilege of
divine worship, and were subjected to various civil
disabilities.
II. Eleven different sorts of Capital Punishments
are mentioned in the Scriptures, viz.
1. Slaying xvith the sivord, which appears to have
been inflicted in any way in which the executioner
thought proper. This was the punishment of murder :
but in the case of homicide, if the next of kin (called
Goel, or the Blood-avenger, ) overtook and slew the un-
intentional man-slayer before he reached an asylum,
he was not considered to be guilty of blood. The
manslayer was therefore enjoined to flee to one of the
six cities of refuge, which if he reached he was imme-
diately protected ; and an inquiry was instituted
whether he had deliberately or accidentally caused his
neighbour's death. In the former case he was judi-
cially delivered to the goel, who might put him to
death in any way that he chose; in the latter, the homi-
cide continued to reside in the place of refuge until
the high priest's death : yet, if the goel found him
without the city or its suburbs, he might slay him
without being guilty of blood. (Numb. xxxv. 26, 27.)
There is a beautiful allusion to the goel in Heb. vi.
17, 18.
2. Stoning was denounced against idolaters, blas-
phemers, Sabbath -breakers, and other criminals men-
tioned in Levit. xx. 2. 27. xxiv. 14. Deut. xiii. 10. xvii.
5. xxi. 21. and xxii. 21. 24. The witnesses threw the
first stones, and the rest of the people followed. The
284? COURTS OF JUDICATURE,
frequent taking up of stones by the Jews against our
Saviour, mentioned in the New Testament, and also
the stoning of Stephen (Acts vii. 59.)> and of Paul
(Acts xiv. 19.), have been referred, erroneously, to this
punishment : it belonged to what was, in the later
times of the Jewish commonwealth, called the rebels
beating. It was often fatal, and was inflicted by the
populace on those, who had either transgressed, or were
supposed to have transgressed, any prohibition of the
scribes.
3. Burning alive was the punishment denounced
against certain criminals, mentioned in Levit. xx. 14?.
and xxi. 9. It is also mentioned in Gen. xxxviii. 24.
Jer. xxix. 22. and Dan. iii. 6.
The preceding are the only capital punishments de-
nounced in the Mosaic Law: in subsequent times
others were introduced among the Jews, as their inter-
course increased with foreign nations ; viz.
4. Beheading. It is mentioned in Gen. xl. 19. Matt,
xiv. 8—12. and Mark vi. 27.
5. Precipitation, or casting headlong from a window,
though rarely used, yet was practised on certain occa-
sions. See instances in 2 Kings ix. 30 — 33. and
2 Chron. xxv. 12.
6. Drowning is alluded to in Matt, xviii. 6., but we
have no proof that it was practised by the Jews.
7. Bruising or Pounding in a mortar is alluded to in
Prov. xxvii. 22. It is still in use among the Turks.
8. Dichotomy or cutting asunder was a punishment
inflicted in the countries contiguous to Judaea, (see
Dan. ii. 5. and iii. 29.) as it still is in Barbary and
Persia.
9. Beating to death was in use among the Greeks : it
was practised by Antiochus towards the Jews (2 Mace,
vi. 19. 28. 30.), and is referred to by St. Paul in Heb.
xi. 35. (Gr. in our version rendered tortured.)
LEGAL PROCEEDINGS, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 285
10. Exposing to tvild Beasts was a punishment
among the Medes and Persians (Dan. vi. 7. 12.
16 — 34.) ; from them it passed to the Romans who either
cast slaves and vile persons to wild beasts to be de-
voured by them, or sent armed men into the theatre to
fight with the animals. If they conquered, they had
their lives and liberty ; but if not, they fell a prey to
the beasts. To this latter usage St. Paul refers in
2 Tim. iv. 17. and 1 Cor. xv. 32.
11. Crucifixion was a punishment, which the an-
tients inflicted only upon the most notorious criminals
and malefactors ; and it included every idea and cir-
cumstance of lingering torture, odium, disgrace, and
public scandal. Hence St. Paul takes occasion to mag-
nify the exceeding great love of our Redeemer, in
that while xve tvere yet sinners Christ died for us, and,
for the joy that teas set before him, endured the cross,
despising the shame and ignominy attached to it. (Rom.
v. 8. Heb. xii. 2.) In this punishment, the cross was
made of two beams, either crossing at the top at right
angles, or in the middle of their length like an X.
Our Lord appears to have been crucified on a cross of
the former kind. The horror of crucifixion will be
evident, when it is considered that the person was per-
mitted to hang (the whole weight of his body being
borne up by his nailed hands and feet, and by the pro-
jecting piece in the middle of the cross,) until he
perished through agony and want of food. There are
instances of crucified persons living in this exquisite
torture several days. The rites of sepulture were
denied them. Their dead bodies were generally left
on the crosses on which they were first suspended, and
became a prey to every ravenous beast and carnivorous
bird. This mode of executing criminals obtained among
various antient nations, especially among the Romans,
286 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES
by whom it was inflicted chiefly on vile, worthless, and
incorrigible slaves. In reference to this, the apostle,
describing the condescension of Jesus, and his sub-
mission to this most opprobious death, represents him
as taking upon him the form of a servant (Phil. ii. 7, 8.),
and becoming obedient to death, even the death of the
cross. All the circumstances attending the crucifixion
of Jesus Christ, as related in the four gospels, agree
with the accounts given of this punishment by Greek
and Roman authors.*
Chapter IV.
JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES OF COMPUTING TIME, MENTIONED IN
THE SCRIPTURES.
A knowledge ofthe different divisions of time men-
tioned in the Scriptures will elucidate the meaning of a
multitude of passages with regard to seasons, circum-
stances, and ceremonies.
I. The Hebrews computed their Days from evening
to evening, according to the command of Moses.
(Lev. xxiii. 32.)
The Romans had two different computations of their
days, and two denominations for them. The one they
called the civil, the other the natural day : the first was
the same as ours ; the second, which was the vulgar
computation, began at six in the morning, and ended
at six in the evening. The civil day of the Jews varied
in length according to the seasons of the year. This
portico of time was, at first, divided into Jour parts
* For a full detail of these circumstances, which do not admit of
abridgement, see the author's larger Introduction, vol. iii. pp.150
—160.
OF COMPUTING TIME. 287
(Nehem. ix. 3.); which, though varying in length ac-
cording to the seasons, could nevertheless be easily
discerned from the position or appearance of the sun
in the horizon. Afterwards, the civil day was divided
into twelve hours, which were measured either from
the position of the sun, or from dials constructed for
that purpose.
II. These Hours were equal to each other, but un-
equal with respect to the different seasons of the year ;
thus the twelve hours of the longest day in summer
were much longer than those of the shortest day in
winter. The Jews computed their hours of the civil
day from six in the morning till six in the evening ;
thus their first hour corresponded with our seven
o'clock ; their second to our eight ; their third to our
nine, &c.
The night was originally divided into three parts or
watches (Psal. lxiii. 6. xc. 4. Lam. ii. 19. Judg. vii. 1 9.
Exod. xiv. 24.), which probably were of unequal length.
In the time of Jesus Christ, it was divided into four
watches, a fourth watch having been introduced among
the Jews from the Romans. The hour is frequently
used with great latitude in the Scriptures, and some-
times implies the space of time occupied by a whole
watch. (Matt. xxv. 13. xxvi. 40. Mark xiv. 37. Luke
xxii. 59. Rev. iii. 3.)
The Jews reckoned two evenings : the former began
at the ninth hour of the natural day, or three o'clock
in the afternoon ; and the latter at the eleventh hour.
Thus the paschal lamb was required to be sacrificed
between the evenings, (Exod. xii. 6. Lev. xxiii. 4.)
III. Seven nights and days constituted a Week ; six
of these were appropriated to labour and the ordinary
purposes of life, and the seventh day or Sabbath was ap-
pointed by God to be observed as a day of rest. Be-
288 JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES
sides weeks of days, the Jews had weeks of seven years,
(the seventh of which was called the sabbatical year,)
and weeks of seven times seven years, or of forty -nine
years, which were reckoned from one jubilee to
another. The fiftieth or jubilee year was celebrated
with singular festivity and solemnity.
IV. The Hebrews had their Months, which like those
of all other antient nations were lunar ones, being mea-
sured by the revolutions of the moon, and consisting
alternately of twenty-nine and thirty days. While
the Jews continued in the land of Canaan, the com-
mencement of their months and years was not settled
by any astronomical rules or calculations, but by the
phasis or actual appearance of the moon. As soon as
they saw the moon, they began the month : but since
their dispersion throughout all nations they have had
recourse to astronomical calculations and cycles, in
order to fix the beginning of their months and years.
Originally, the Jews had no particular names for
their months, but called them the first, second, &c.
In Exod. xiii. 4. the first month is termed Abib ; in
1 Kings vi. 1. the second is named Zif ; in 1 Kings viii.2.
the seventh is named Ethanim ; and the eighth, Bui, in
1 Kings vi. 38. : but concerning the origin of these ap-
pellations critics are by no means agreed. On their
return from the Babylonish captivity, they introduced
the names which they had found among the Chaldeans
and Persians, and some of which are mentioned in the
sacred writings.
V. The Jews had four sorts of years ; one for plants,
so called, because they paid tithe-fruits of the trees
which budded at that time ; another for beasts, in
which they paid tithes of the beasts that fell within the
year ; a third for sacred purposes, and the fourth was
civil and common to all the inhabitants of Palestine,
OF COMPUTING TIME. 289
The two last, as being most known, require briefly to
be noticed.
1. The Ecclesiastical or Sacred Year began in March,
or on the first day of the month Nisan, because at that
time they departed out of Egypt. From that month
they computed their feasts, and the prophets also occa-
sionally dated their oracles and visions. (See Zech.
vii. 1.) The following table presents the months of
the Jewish ecclesiastical year, compared with our
months :
1 . Nisan or Abib }
(Neh. ii. 1. C answering to part of March and April.
Esth. iii. 7.) )
2. Jyar or Zif - April and May.
3. Sivan (Esth. viii. 9.) - - May and June.
4. Thammuz - - June and July.
5. Ab - - July and August.
6. Elul (Neh. vi. 15.) - - August and September.
7. Tisri - - September and October.
8. Marchesvan - October and November.
,~ , .. . XT , • , \ > -- November and December.
(Zech. vn. 1. Neh. 1. 1.) J
10. Thebet - December and January.
11. Sebat (Zech. i. 7.) - - January and February.
12. Adar (Ezr. vi. 15. Esth. iii. 7.) - February and March.
2. The Civil Year commenced on the fifteenth of
our September, because it was an old tradition that the
world was created at that time. From this year the Jews
computed their jubilees, dated all contracts, and noted
the birth of children, and the reign of kings. The
annexed table exhibits the months of the Jewish civil
year with the corresponding months of our comput-
ation :
1. Tisri - corresponds with part of September and October.
2. Marchesvan - - October and November.
3. Chisleu or Kisleu - - November and December.
4. Thebet - - December and January.
5. Sebat - - January and February.
6. Adar - - February and March.
7. Nisan or Abib - - March and April.
8. Jyar or Zif - April and May,
290 MODES OF COMPUTING TIME.
9. Sivan - corresponds with part of May and June.
10. Thammuz - - - June and July.
11. Ab - - July and August.
12. Elul - - August and September,
Some of the preceding names are still in use in Persia.
As the Jewish years, being regulated by the phases
or appearances of the moon, were lunar years, consist-
ing of 354 days and eight hours, it became necessary
to accommodate them to solar years, in order that
their months, and consequently their festivals, might
always fall at the same season. For this purpose, the
Jews added a whole month to the year, as often as it
was necessary ; which occurred commonly once in
three years, and sometimes once in two years. This
intercalary month was added at the end of the ecclesi-
astical year after the month Adar, and was therefore
called Ve-Adar or the second Adar.
VI. In common with other nations, the Jews reckon-
ed any part of a period of time for the whole, as in
Exod. xvi. 35. Thus, a part of the day is used for the
whole, and part of a year for an entire year. An at-
tention to this circumstance will explain several appa-
rent contradictions in the sacred writings ; particularly
the account of our Lord's resurrection, in Matt.
xxvii. 63. and Mark viii. 31. three days after, with that
of his resurrection on the third day, according to Matt.
xvi. 21. and Luke ix. 22.
Besides the computation of years, the Hebrews first,
and the Jews afterwards, were accustomed to reckon
their time from some remarkable seras or epochas : as,
1. The Lives of the Patriarchs or other illustrious per-
sons (Gen.vii. 1. viii. 13.); — 2. From their Departure
out of Egypt, and the first institution of their polity,
(Exod. xix.l. xl.17. Numb. i. 1 ix. 1. xxxiii. 38.
1 Kings vi. 1.) ;__3. Afterwards, from the Building of
the Temple (1 Kings ix. 10. 2Chron.viii. 1.), and from
TRIBUTES, ETC. MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE. 2.01
the reigns of the kings of Judah and Israel; — 4. Then
from the commencement of the Babylonian Captivity.
(Ezek. i. 1. xxxiii. 21. xl. 1.) In process of time they
adopted,' and for 1000 years employed, 5. The sera of
the Seleucidse, which in the books of Maccabees is
called the sera of the Greeks ; in later times (1 Mace.
xiii.42. xiv. 27.) they computed according to the years
of the Maccabean princes ; and since the compilation
of their Talmud, they have reckoned their years from
the foundation of the world.
Chapter V.
ON THE TRIBUTES AND TAXES MENTIONED IK THE SCRIPTURES.
CONTRACTS HOW MADE.
I. Of Tributes and Taxes.
On their first departure out of Egypt, the Israelites
contributed, upon any extraordinary occasion, according
to their several ability : after the erection of the taber-
nacle, half a shekel was paid by every male of twenty
years and upwards (Exod. xxx. 13, 14-.), when the
census or sum of the jyeople was taken. On their return
from the Babylonian captivity an annual payment of the
third part of a shekel was made towards the temple-
worship and service (Neh. x. 32.) ; and in the time of
our Saviour two drachmae were paid by every Jew,
whether he resided in Palestine or elsewhere
While the Jews were in the height of their prospe-
rity, the Moabites and other neighbouring nations were
tributary to their sovereigns. Afterwards, however,
the Jews became tributaries to other nations. For a
short time they were freed from paying tribute under
o 2
292 TRIBUTES, ETC. MENTIONED IN SCRIPTURE.
the Maccabean Princes ; but, after they were conquered
by the Romans, they were subjected to the payment of
a capitation tax of a denarius, as well as various other
burthens, which they paid with great reluctance. This
will account for their hatred of the Publicans or Tax-
gatherers. In the provinces of the Roman empire, the
tributes were farmed by Roman knights, who had
under them inferior officers. Some of these are called
chief publicans (as Zaccheus), probably because they
were receivers-general for large districts ; others were
receivers for some particular post or place. Such was
Matthew, who is simply termed a publican.
II. Of Contracts and bargains of sale.
Among the Hebrews, and long before them among
the Canaanites, the purchase of any thing of conse-
quence was concluded and the price paid, at the gate
of the city, as the seat of judgment, before all who
went out and came in. (Gen. xxiii. 16 — 20. Ruth
iv. 1, 2.) In process of time, the joining or striking of
hands was introduced as a ratification of a bargain and
sale. This usage was not unknown in the days of Job
(xvii. 3.), and Solomon often alludes to it. (See Prov.
vi. 1. xi. 15. xvii. 18. xx. 16. xxii. 26. xxvii. 13.) The
earliest vestige of written instruments, sealed and deli-
vered for ratifying the disposal and transfer of pro-
perty, occurs in Jer. xxxii. 10 — 12., which the prophet
commanded Baruch to bury in an earthen vessel in
order to be preserved for production at a future period,
as evidence of the purchase. (14-, 15.) No mention is
expressly made of the manner in which deeds were
antiently cancelled. Some expositors have imagined,
that in Col. ii. 14. Saint Paul refers to the cancelling
of them by blotting or drawing a line across them, or
by striking them through with a nail ; but we have no
MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC. 293
information whatever from antiquity to authorise such
a conclusion.
Chapter VI.
OF THE MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, AND OTHER NATIONS,
MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.
I. Respecting the Military Discipline of the
Jews numerous particulars are incidentally dispersed
through the Sacred Writings, for ajull account of which
the reader is necessarily referred to the author's larger
work : from which the following leading circumstances
are selected.
The earliest wars, noticed in the sacred writings,
appear to have been nothing more than mere predatory
excursions, like those of the modern Bedouin Arabs.
The wars in which the Israelites were engaged, were of
two kinds, either such as were expressly enjoined by
divine command, or such as were voluntary and enter-
ed upon by the prince for revenging some national
affronts, and for the honour of his sovereignty. After
their departure from Egypt, the whole of the men,
from twenty years and upwards until the age of fifty
(when they might demand their discharge if they
chose), were liable to military service, the priests and
Levites not excepted. (Numb. i. 3. 22. 2 Sam. xxiii. 20.
1 Kings ii. 35.) Like the militia in some countries, they
were always ready to assemble at the shortest notice. If
the occasion were extremely urgent, affecting their
existence as a people, all were summoned to war : but
ordinarily, when there was no necessity for convoking
the whole of their forces, a selection was made. This
mode of choosing soldiers, to which there are numerous
allusions in the Scriptures, accounts for the rapid form-
294 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, FTC.
ation of the vast armies, of which we read in the Old
Testament. There were, however, certain exemptions
in favour of particular persons, which are specified in
Deut. xx. 5—8. and xxiv. 5. The officers, who were
placed at the head of the Hebrew forces, appear not to
have differed materially from those whom we find in
antient and modern armies. The most distinguished
was the Captain of the Host (2 Kings iv. 13.), who
possessed great power and influence, sometimes indeed
nearly equal to that of the sovereign. After the esta-
blishment of the monarchy, this officer, and also the
captains of thousands, hundreds, &c, received their
commissions from the sovereign (2 Sam. xviii. 1.
2 Chrou. xxv. 5.) ; who at first went to war in person
and fought on foot like the meanest of their soldiers,
until David being exposed to great danger, his people
would no longer allow him to lead them on to battle.
(2 Kings xxi. 17.) There were no horse in the Israel-
itish army before the time of Solomon ; nor, though
mention is made in Scripture of the military chariots
of other nations, does it appear that the Hebrews ever
used war chariots. Solomon, indeed, had a consider-
able number, but no military expedition is recorded,
in which he employed them. No information is given
us in the Scriptures concerning the order of encamp-
ment adopted by the Israelites after their settlement
in Canaan. During their sojourning in the wilder-
ness, the form of their camp, according to the account
given in Numb, ii., appears to have been quadran-
gular, having three tribes placed on each side, under
one general standard, so as to inclose the taber-
nacle, which stood in the centre. Between these
four great camps and the tabernacle were pitched
four smaller camps of the priests and Levites, who
were immediately in attendance upon it ; the camp of
MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.
295
Moses and of Aaron and his sons (who were the mi-
nistering priests, and had the charge of the sanctuary)
was on the east side of the tabernacle, where the
entrance was. The following diagram, which is re-
duced from the author's larger work, will give the
reader an idea of the beautiful order of the Israelitish
Encampment, which extorted from the mercenary
Balaam the exclamation related in Numb. xxiv. 2. 5, 6.
EAST.
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FIRST GRAND DIVISION.
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During the encampment of the Israelites in the
wilderness, Moses made various salutary enactments,
which are recorded in Deut. xxiii. 10 — 15. Antiently,
the Hebrews received no pay for their military service :
the Cherethites and Pelethites appear to have been
o 4
296 MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE JEWS, ETC.
the first stipendiary soldiers. During the monarchy,
however, both officers and privates were paid by the
sovereign, who rewarded them for distinguished achieve-
ments. (See 2 Sam. xviii 11. Jos. xv. 16. 1 Sam,
xviii. 25. 1 Chron. xi. 6.) At first every man pro-
vided his own arms ; but, after the establishment of
regal government, the sovereigns formed depots,
whence they supplied their troops. (2 Chron. xi. 12.
xxvi. 14, 15.) The defensive arms consisted of a
helmet, breast-plate, shield, military girdle, and greaves
or boots to protect the feet and legs from stakes which
were stuck into the ground to impede the march of a
hostile force. Their offensive arms were, the sword,
spear, or javelin, bows and arrows. The onset of battle
was very violent, and was made with a great shout.
(Numb, xxiii. 24. Exod. xxxii. 17. 1 Sam. xvii.
20. 52, &c.) When the victory was decided, the
bodies of the slain wore interred (1 Kings xi. 15.
2 Sam. ii. 32. 2 Mac. xii. 39.), but sometimes the re-
mains of the slain were treated with every possible
mark of indignity (1 Sam. xxxi. 9—12.) ; and various
cruelties were inflicted upon the unhappy captives,
from which not even women and children were ex-
empted. (2 Sam. iv. 12. Judg. i. 7. Lsai. iii. 17.
2 Kings viii. 12. Psal. cxxxvii. 9.)
On their return home, the victors were received
with every demonstration of joy. (Exod. xv. 1 — 21*
Judg. xi. 34. 1 Sam. xviii. 7, 8. 2 Chron. xx. 27, 28.)
Besides a share of the spoil and the honours of a
triumph, various rewards were bestowed on those war-
riors who had pre-eminently distinguished themselves :
allusions to them occur in 1 Sam. xvii. 25. 2 Sam. v. 8.
and xviii. 11. 1 Chron. xi. 6.
II. At the time the apostles and evangelists wrote,
Judaea was subject to the dominion of the Romans,
MENTIONED IN THE SCltlPTURES. 297
whose troops were stationed in different parts of the
country. Hence numerous allusions are made to the
Military Discipline of the Romans, in the New
Testament, particularly in the writings of Saint Paul.
See especially Eph. vi. 11—17., in which the various
parts of the armour of their heavy troops are distinctly
enumerated and beautifully applied to those moral and
spiritual weapons with which the true Christian ought
to be fortified.
The strictest subordination and obedience were ex-
acted of every Roman soldier, who was also inured to
great hardships, and was not allowed to marry. To
these circumstances there are allusions in Matt. viii.
8, 9. and 2 Tim. ii. 3, 4. ; and Rev. iii. 5. probably re-
fers to the practice of expunging from the muster-roll
the names of those who died or were cashiered for mis-
conduct. Upon those who pre-eminently distinguished
themselves were conferred rich and splendid crowns,
frequently of gold, to which there are allusions in
Rev. ii. 10. James i. 12. 1 Pet. v. 4. and 2 Tim. iv. 8.
But the highest military honour which any one could
receive, was a Triumph ; in which, besides great num-
bers of waggons full of the arms and the richest spoils
which had been taken from the vanquished foe, the
most illustrious captives — sovereigns not excepted —
were led in fetters before the victorious general's cha-
riot, through the streets of Rome, amidst the applause
of the assembled multitudes. After the triumphal pro-
cession was terminated, the unhappy captives were ge-
nerally imprisoned, and, if not put to death, were sold
for slaves. The knowledge of these circumstances
beautifully illustrates the allusions in 1 Cor. ii. 14 — 16.
and Col. ii. 15.
o 5
298
BOOK III. — SACRED ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEWS
AND OF OTHER NATIONS MENTIONED IN THE
SCRIPTURES.
Chapter I.
OF SACRED PLACES.
The Patriarchs, both before and after the flood, were
accustomed to worship Almighty God before altars, and
also upon mountains and in groves. (Gen. viii. 20. xii. 8.
xxi. 33. and xxii. 2.) In the wilderness, where the
Israelites themselves had no settled habitations, they
had by God's command a moving tabernacle ; and as
soon as they were fixed in the land of promise, God
appointed a temple to be built at Jerusalem, which
David intended, and his son Solomon performed : After
the first temple was destroyed, another was built in
the room of it (Ezra iii. 8.), which Christ himself owned
for his house of prayer. (Matt. xxi. 13.) There were
also places of worship called in Scripture High Places,
used promiscuously during the times of both the taber-
nacle and ternple until the captivity ; and, lastly, there
were Synagogues among the Jews, and other places,
used only for prayer, called Proseuchce or oratories,
which chiefly obtained after the captivity ; of these
various structures some account will be found in the
following sections.
Section I. — Of the Tabernacle.
Mention is made in the Old Testament of three dif-
ferent tabernacles previously to the erection of So-
OF SACRED PLACES. 299
lomon's temple. The Jirst, which Moses erected for
himself, is called the tabernacle of the congregation
(Exod. xxxiii. 7.) : here he gave audience, heard
causes, and inquired of Jehovah, and here also at first,
perhaps, the public offices of religion were solemnised.
The second tabernacle was that erected by Moses for
Jehovah, and at his express command, partly to be a
palace of his presence as the king of Israel (Exod. xl.
34-, 35.), and partly to be the medium of the most
solemn public worship, which the people were to pay
to him. (26 — 29.) This tabernacle was erected on
the first day of the first month in the second year after
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt. The third
public tabernacle was that erected by David in his own
city, for the reception of the ark, when he received it
from the house of Obed-edom. (2 Sam. vi. 7. 1 Chron.
xvi. 1.) Of the second of these tabernacles we are
now to treat; it was called the Tabernacle by way
of distinction, and was a moveable chapel, so con-
trived as to be taken to pieces and put together again
at pleasure for the convenience of carrying it from
place to place. The materials of this tabernacle were
provided by the people, who contributed each ac-
cording to his ability, as related in Exodus, ch. xxxv.
and xxxvi.
The tabernacle consisted, first, of a house or tent,
the form of which appears to have resembled that of
our modern tents, but much larger ; and, secondly, ot
an open court that surrounded it. Its constituent parts
are minutely described in Exod. xxv — xxx. and xxxvi
— xl., from which the following particulars have been
selected.
1. The tent itself was an oblong square 30 cubits in
length and ten in height and breadth : and the body of
it was composed of forty-eight boards or planks, each
o 6
300 OF SACRED PLACES.
of which was a cubit and a half wide and ten cubits
high, and its roof was a square frame of planks. The
inside of it was divided by a veil or hanging, made of
rich embroidered linen, which separated the Holy Place
from the Holy of Holies. In the former stood the altar
of incense overlaid with gold, the table of shewbread,
consisting of twelve loaves, and the great candlestick
of pure gold, containing seven branches : none of the
people were allowed to go into the holy place, but only
the priests. The Holy of Holies (so called because it
was the most sacred place of the tabernacle, into which
none went but the high priest,) contained in it the ark,
called the ark of the testimony (Exod. xxv. 22.) or the
ark of the covenant. (Josh. iv. 7.) This was a small
chest or coffer made of shittim wood, overlaid with
gold, into which were put the two tables of the law (as
well the broken ones, say the Jews as the whole,) with
the pot of manna, and Aaron's rod that budded.
(Heb. ix. 4.)
The lid or covering of this ark* was wholly of solid
gold, and called the mercy-seat : at the two ends of it
were two cherubim (or hieroglyphic figures, the form
of which it is impossible now to ascertain,) looking in-
wards towards each other, with wings expanded, which,
embracing the whole circumference of the mercy-seat,
met on each side in the middle. Here the Shechinah
or Divine Presence rested, both in the tabernacle and
temple, and was visibly seen in the appearance of a
cloud over it. (Lev. xvi. 2.) From this the divine
oracles were given out by an audible voice, as often
as Jehovah was consulted on behalf of his people.
(Exod. xxv. 22. Numb. vii. 89.) And hence it is that
God is so often said in Scripture, to dwell between the
cherubim. (2 Kings xix. 15. Psal. lxxx. 1.)
OF SACRED PLACES. 301
2. The Tabernacle was surrounded by an oblong
court, separated by curtains from the camp of Israel.
The priests and other sacred ministers alone were per-
mitted to enter it ; the people, who came to offer sa-
crifices, stopped at the entrance, opposite to which
stood the brazen altar for burnt offerings ; and nearly
in the centre of the court stood a capacious brazen
vessel, called the brazen laver, in which the priests
washed their hands and feet previously to performing
any of their sacred functions.
The tabernacle being so constructed as to be taken
to pieces and put together as occasion required, it ac-
companied the Israelites in all their progresses, until
they arrived in the land of Canaan. There it was set
up, first at Gilgal, and afterwards at Shiloh : on being
restored by the Philistines, who had taken it and de-
posited it in the temple of one of their idols, as related
in 1 Sam. iv. 10, 11. v. vi., it remained for twenty
years in the custody of Abinadab, of Gibeah, and after-
wards (for three months) in the house of Obededom,
whence David brought it with great solemnity into
that part of Jerusalem which was called the city of
David. (2 Sam. vi. 17. 1 Chron. xv. 25. xvi. 1.) Here
it remained until it was deposited in the temple of
Solomon, where (having been subsequently removed) it
was again replaced by order of the pious King Josiah.
(2 Chron. xxxv. 3.) It is supposed to have been con-
sumed in the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchad-
nezzar.
302
OF SACRED PLACES.
Section II. — Of the Temple.
Representation of the Golden Candlestick, from the Triumphal Arch of Titus
Two Temples are mentioned in the Scriptures, 1. That
of Solomon ; and 2. That erected after the Captivity.
I. The first temple is that which usually bears the
name of Solomon ; the materials for which were pro-
vided by David before his death, though the edifice
OF SACRED PLACES. SOS
was raised by his son. It stood on Mount Moriah, an
eminence of the mountainous ridge in the Scriptures
termed Mount Sion. (Psal. cxxxii. 13, 14-. ), which had
been purchased of Araunah or Oman, the Jebusite.
(2 Sam. xxiv. 23, 24-. 1 Chron. xxi. 25.) The plan and
whole model of this superb structure were formed after
that of the tabernacle, but of much larger dimensions.
It was dedicated by Solomon with great solemnity.
Various attempts have been made to describe the pro-
portions and several parts of this structure : but as no
two writers scarcely agree on this subject, a minute de-
scription of it is designedly omitted. It retained its
pristine splendour only thirty-three or thirty-four years,
when Shishak king of Egypt took Jerusalem, and car-
ried away the treasures of the temple ; and after under-
going subsequent profanations and pillages, this stu-
pendous building was finally plundered and burnt by
the Chaldeans under Nebuchadnezzar in the year of
the world 3416, or before Christ 584*. (2 Kings xxv.
13—15. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17—20.)
II. After the captivity the temple emerged from its
ruins, being rebuilt by Zerubbabel, but with vastly in-
ferior and diminished glory ; as appears from the tears
of the aged men who had beheld the former structure
in all its grandeur. (Ezra iii. 12.) The second temple
was profaned by order of Antiochus Epiphanes (a.m.
S837. b. c. 163); who caused the daily sacrifice to be
discontinued, and erected the image of Jupiter Olym-
pius on the altar of burnt offering. In this condition it
continued three years (1 Mace. i. 62.), when Judas
Maccabeus purified and repaired it, and restored the
sacrifices and true worship of Jehovah, (a.m. 3840.
B.C. 160.)
Some years before the birth of our Saviour, the re-
pairing or rather gradual rebuilding of this second tem-
ple, which had become decayed in the lapse of five
304 OF SACRED PLACES.
centuries, was undertaken by Herod the Great, who
for nine years employed eighteen thousand workmen
upon it, and spared no expence to render it equal, if
not superior, in magnitude, splendour, and beauty to
any thing among mankind. But though Herod accom-
plished his original design in the time above specified,
yet the Jews continued to ornament and enlarge it,
expending the sacred treasure in annexing additional
buildings to it ; so that they might with great propriety
assert that their temple had been forty and six years in
building. (John ii. 20.)
The second temple, originally built by Zerubbabel
after the captivity, and repaired by Herod, differed in
several respects from that erected by Solomon, although
they agreed in others.
The temple erected by Solomon was more splendid
and magnificent than the second temple, which was de-
ficient in five remarkable things that constituted the
chief glory of the first : these were the ark and mercy
seat, — the shechinah or manifestation of the divine pre-
sence in the holy of holies, — the sacred fire on the
altar, which had been first kindled from heaven, — the
urim and thummim, — and the spirit of prophecy. The
second temple, however, surpassed the first in glory,
being honoured by the frequent presence of our divine
Saviour, agreeably to the prediction of Haggai. (ii. 9.)
Both, however, were erected upon the same site, a very
hard rock, encompassed by a very frightful precipice ;
and the foundation was laid with incredible expense
and labour. The superstructure was not inferior to
this great work : the height of the temple wall, espe-
cially on the south side, was stupendous. In the lowest
places it was three hundred cubits, or four hundred
and fifty feet, and in some places even greater. This
most magnificent pile was constructed with hard white
stone of prodigious magnitude. Of its general disposi-
OF SACRED PLACES. 305
tion some idea may be formed from the plan annexed
to the Map which faces page 228.
The temple itself, strictly so called, (which com-
prised the portico, the sanctuary, and the holy of
holies,) formed only a small part of the sacred edifice
on Mount Moriah ; being surrounded by spacious
courts, making a square of half a mile in circumfer-
ence. It was entered through nine magnificent gates ;
one of which, called the Beautiful Gate in Acts iii. 2.,
was more splendid and costly than all the rest : it was
composed of Corinthian brass, the most precious metal
in antient times. The first or outer court was called the
Court of the Gentiles ; because they were not permitted
to advance any further, though they were allowed to
enter it. Markets were held here for the sale of
incense, salt, animals, and every other article necessary
for the Jewish sacrifices. Here also sat the money-
changers. (Matt. xxi. 12, 13. Mark xi. 15— 17.) This
court was surrounded by a range of porticoes or clois-
ters, one of which was called Solomon's Porch. (John
x. 23. Acts iii. 11.) The south-east corner of the roof
of this portico is supposed to have been the pinnacle,
whence Satan tempted Christ to precipitate himself.
(Matt. iv. 5.)
Within the court of the Gentiles stood the Court of
the Israelites divided into two parts or courts, the outer
one being appropriated to the women, and the inner
one to the men. The court of the women was separ-
ated from that of the Gentiles by a low stone wall or
partition, of elegant construction, on which stood pillars
at equal distances, with inscriptions in Greek and
Latin, importing that no alien should enter into the
holy place. To this wall Saint Paul most evidently
alludes in Eph. ii. 13, 14. In this court was the Trea-
sury, mentioned in Mark xii. 4-1. and John viii. 20.
306 OF SACRED PLACES.
From the court of the women, which was on higher
ground than that of the Gentiles, there was an ascent
of fifteen steps into the inner or men's court ; and so
called because it was appropriated to the worship of
the male Israelites. In these two courts, collectively
termed the court of the Israelites, were the people
praying, each apart by himself, for the pardon of his
sins, while Zechariah was offering incense within the
sanctuary. (Luke i. 10.)
Within the court of the Israelites was that of the
priests, who alone were permitted to enter it : thence
twelve steps ascended to the Temple strictly so called,
which consisted of three parts, viz. the Portico, the
outer Sanctuary, and the Holy Place.
1. In the Portico were suspended the splendid
votive offerings made by the piety of various indivi-
duals, which are alluded to in Luke xxi. 5. From this
porch
2. The Sanctuary or Holy Place was separated from
the holy of holies by a double veil, which is supposed
to have been the veil that was rent in twain at our Sa-
viour's crucifixion ; thus emblematically pointing out
that the separation between Jews and Gentiles was
abolished, and that the privilege of the high priest
was communicated to all mankind, who might thence-
forth have access to the throne of grace through the
one great Mediator, Jesus Christ. (Heb. x. 19 — 22.)
This corresponded with the Holy Place in the Ta-
bernacle. In it were placed the Golden Candlestick,
the Altar of Incense, and the Table of Shew Bread,
which consisted of twelve loaves, according to the
number of the tribes of Israel. In the Hebrew these
loaves are collectively termed Bread of the faces, be-
cause each loaf being square had as it were four faces
or sides. Various fanciful delineations have been given
OP SACRED PLACES.
307
of these articles : in the vignette at the head of this
section is represented the form of the Golden Candle-
stick as it was actually carried in the triumphal proces-
sion of the Roman General Titus ; and the following
engraving
exhibits the table of shew-bread, with two of the sacred
trumpets, as also carried in the same triumph. They
are copied from the plates in Reland's^ Treatise on
the Spoils of the Temple of Jerusalem*, the draw-
ings for which were made at Rome, upwards of a cen-
tury since, when the triumphal Arch of Titus (which
has been mentioned in p. 28. supra) was in a much
better state of preservation than it now is.
3. The Holy of Holies was twenty cubits square.
No person was ever admitted into it but the high
* De Spoliis Hierosolymitani in Arcu Titiano Roma? Conspicuis.
The first edition was printed at Utrecht, in 1716. 8vo. ; the second,
at in 1765. 8vo.
308 OF SACRED PLACES.
priest, who entered it once a year on the great day of
atonement. (Exod.xxx. 10. Levit. xvi.2. 15. 34. Heb.
ix.2-7.)
This most magnificent temple, for which the Jews
cherished the highest veneration, was utterly destroyed
by the Romans a.m. 4073, (a.d. 73.) on the same
day of the same month in which Solomon's temple had
been rased to the ground by the Babylonians.
Section III. — Of the High Places, Proseuchae, or Oratories of
the Jews.
I. The High Places, which are frequently men-
tioned in the Old Testament, were places appropriated
to divine worship, in groves, woods, or mountains, first
by the patriarchs, and afterwards by the heathen ido-
laters,'by whom they were made the scenes of the most
diabolical and impure rites. As the Canaanites,
among whom the Israelites lived, were eminently ad-
dicted to this idolatrous worship ; after a place had
been assigned for the worship of God, it became un-
lawful to offer sacrifices upon these high places, or any
where else but in the place God did choose. H^r.ce
it is that the conduct of the Israelites, both kings and
people, in offering sacrifices even after the erection of
the temple, is so frequently reprobated in the books of
Kings and Chronicles. They were indeed removed by
several pious kings, and particularly by Josiah, after
whose time they are not mentioned in sacred history.
II. Though public worship was forbidden to be of-
fered in any but the appointed place, yet mention
is made, in Scripture, of places built for private devotion,
and resorted to for that purpose only. These have been
termed Proseuchje or Oratories. From the proseucha
(so it should be rendered in Luke vi. 12.), where our
OF SACRED PLACES.
309
Lord spent a whole night in prayer, being erected on
a mountain, it is probable that these edifices were the
same as the High Places already noticed. The Jews,
who were resident in heathen countries, appear to have
erected them in sequestered retreats, commonly on the
banks of rivers or on the sea-shore. The proseucha
or oratory at Philippi, where the Lord opened the heart
of Lydia, that she attended unto the things which were
spoken by Paul, was by a river side. (Acts xvi. 13,
14.16.)
Section IV. — On the Synagogues of the Jews.
Form of a' Synagogue-Roll of the Pentateuch.
The Synagogues were buildings in which the Jews
assembled for prayer, reading and hearing the sacred
Scriptures, and other instructions. Though frequently
mentioned in the historical books of the New Testa-
ment, their origin is not very well known ; and many
learned men are of opinion that they are of recent in-
stitution. In the time of the Maccabees, synagogues
310 OF SACRED PLACES.
became so frequent, that they were to be found in al-
most every place in Judaea. Maimonides says, that
wherever any Jews were, they erected a synagogue.
Not fewer than four hundred and eighty are said to
have been erected in Jerusalem, previously to its cap-
ture and destruction by the Romans. In the evange-
lical history we find, that wherever the Jews resided,
they had one or more synagogues, constructed after
those at Jerusalem. It does not appear that the syna-
gogues had any peculiar form of structure : there
were, however, various officers whose business it was
to see that the duties of religion were decently per-
formed therein. These were, 1. The Rulers of the
Synagogue (Luke xiii. 14. Mark v. 22.), of whom
there appear to have been several : they regulated all
its concerns, and gave permission to persons to preach.
2. Next to the Ruler of the Synagogue was an officer,
whose province it was to offer up public prayers to
God for the whole congregation : hence he was called
Sheliach Zibbor, or the Angel of the Church, be-
cause, as their messenger he spoke to God for them.
Hence also, in Rev. ii. iii. the ministers of the Asiatic
churches are termed angels. 3. The Chazan appears
to have been a different officer from the Sheliach Zibbor,
and inferior to him in dignity. He seems to have been
the person, who in Luke iv. 20. is termed the Minis-
ter, and who had the charge of the sacred books.
The service performed in the synagogue consisted
of three parts, viz. prayer, reading the Scriptures, and
preaching, or exposition of the Scriptures.
1. The first part of the Synagogue service is
Prayer ; for which some learned men have thought
that the Jews had liturgies, in which are all the pre-
scribed forms of synagogue-worship. Though the
eighteen prayers, used by the modern Jews, are of
OF SACRED PLACES. 311
great antiquity, yet they cannot be referred to the
time of Jesus Christ.
2. For the more commodious reading of the
Scriptures the Law was divided into Paraschioth or
Sections, and the Prophets into Haphtorah or Por-
tions : of which a brief notice has already been given.
3. The third and last part of the synagogue-service
is, Exposition of the Scriptures and Preaching
to the people. The first was performed at the time
of reading them, and the other after the reading of
the law and the prophets. In Luke iv. 15 — 22. we
have an account of the service of the synagogue in
the time of Christ ; who appears to have taught the Jews
in both these ways. From this passage we learn that
when Jesus Christ came to Nazareth, his own city, he
was called out, as a member of that synagogue, to
read the haphtorah, that is, the section or lesson out of
the prophets for that day ; which appears to have been
the fifty-first haphtorah, and to have commenced with
the first verse of Isa. lxi. Further, he stood up (as it
was customary, at least, for the officiating minister to
do out of reverence for the word of God,) to read the
Scriptures; and unrolled the manuscript, (or opened
the volume, as it is^rendered in Luke iv. 17.) until he
came to the lesson appointed for that day ; which
having read, he rolled * it up again, (or closed the
booh, verse 20.) and gave it to the proper officer ; and
then he sat down and expounded it, agreeably to the
usage of the Jews. The vignette at the head of this
section will convey some idea of the manner in which
* The antient books being written on parchment or vellum, and
similar flexible materials, were rolled round a stick, and, if they
were very long, round two, from the extremities. This is the case
in the vignette inserted in page 309. Hence is derived the term
volume, or thing rolled up, from the Latin word volvo, to roll.
312 SACRED PERSONS.
the Synagogue Roils are unrolled. It is taken from
the original and very valuable manuscript in the
British Museum, which is described at length in
p. 97. supra.
Those who had been guilty of any notorious crime,
or were otherwise thought unworthy, were cast out
of these synagogues, that is, excommunicated, and ex-
cluded from partaking with the rest in the public
prayers and religious offices there performed ; so that
they were looked upon as mere Heathens, and shut
out from all benefit of the Jewish religion, which ex-
clusion was esteemed scandalous.
Chapter II.
SACRED PERSONS.
Section I Of the Jewish Church and its Members.
From their covenant relation to Almighty God, the
whole Jewish nation are in the Scriptures frequently
termed holy : and the Apostles being Jews by birth
(though they wrote in Greek), have often applied to
Christians the phraseology of the Old Testament, in or-
der to convey to them accurate ideas of the magnitude
of God's love to them in Christ.
The first members of the Jewish Church were the
immediate and lineal descendants of Abraham, Isaac,
and Jacob ; whom St. Paul (Phil. iii. 5.) terms Hebrews
of the Hebrews, as opposed to the Hellenists or those
Jews who lived among the Greeks and spoke their lan-
guage, and many of whom (as Timothy, Acts xvi. 1.) were
descended from parents, one of whom only was a Jew.
They did not, however, exclude such persons as were
SACRED PERSONS. 3] 3
willing to qualify themselves for participating in their
sacred rites. Hence they admitted Gentile converts to
Judaism, who are often termed strangers and sojourn-
ers or proselytes. The Libertines mentioned in
Acts vi. 9. were the descendants of the Liberii, or
those Jews, who, having been taken captive at different
times and carried into Italy, had subsequently ac-
quired their liberty. The devout men who feared God,
of whom we frequently read in the New Testament,
were Gentiles; who, though they did not qualify them-
selves for full communion with the Jewish church, had
nevertheless acquired a better knowledge of the Most
High, than the Pagan Theology furnished, and who in
some respects conformed to the Jewish religion. Of
this description was Cornelius the Centurion. (Acts x.)
All these persons, with the exception of the last
class, were members of the Jewish church, participated
in its worship, and regulated themselves by the law of
Moses (or at least professed to do so), and by the other
inspired Hebrew books, whence their sacred rites and
religious instruction were derived. No person, how-
ever, was allowed to partake of the sacred ordinances
until he had undergone the rite of circumcision : which
sacrament was enjoined to be observed on the eighth
day after the birth of a male child, who then received
a name. (Gen. xvii. 12. Luke i. 59. ii. 22.)
In the initiation of proselytes to the Jewish religion,
according to the rabbinical writers, the three following
observances were appointed, namely, circumcision,
baptism, and the offering of sacrifice.
All these rites, except circumcision, were performed
by the women, as well as the men, who became prose-
lytes : and it was a common notion among the Jews,
that every person who had duly performed them all
was to be considered as a new-born infant.
314 SACRED PERSONS.
Section II. — On the Ministers of the Temple, and other Eccle-
siastical or Sacred Persons.
On the establishment of the Jewish Commonwealth,
the tribe of Levi was specially devoted to the service
of God, instead of the first-born of the tribes of Israel,
and was disengaged from all secular labours. The
honour of the priesthood, however, was reserved to
the family of Aaron alone, the rest of the tribe being
employed in the inferior offices of the temple: so that
all the priests were Levites, but all the Levites were
not priests.
Originally, the Levites or tribe of Levi was divided
into the three families and orders of Gershonites,
KGhathites, and Merarites (1 Chron. vi. 16, &c), but
afterwards they were divided by David (1 Chron.
xxiii.) into four classes.
Their principal office was to wait upon the priests,
and be assisting to them in the service of the taber-
nacle, with its utensils, (which during the migrations
of the Israelites in the wilderness they alone were per-
mitted to carry and to set up when the camp rested,)
and afterwards in the service of the temple ; so that
they were properly the ministers and servants of the
priests, and obliged to obey their orders. (Numb. iii. 9.
1 Chron. xxiii. 28.) It was their duty to open, close,
and guard the temple, to cleanse the sacred vessels, to
have the charge of the sacred loaves, &c. &c Some of
them also sang psalms, while others played on instru-
ments, but all were divided into companies, over whom
a president was placed. The Levites had under them
persons called Netkinims, who performed various labo-
rious .services in the temple.
In order to enable the Levites to devote themselves
to that service, forty-eight cities were assigned to them
SACRED PERSONS. 315
for their residence on the division of the land of Ca-
naan ; thirteen of these were appropriated to the priests,
to which were added the tithes of corn, fruit, and cattle.
(Numb, xviii. 21 — 24.) The Levites, however, paid to
the priests a tenth part of all their tithes ; and as they
were possessed of no landed property, the tithes which
the priests received from them were considered as the
first fruits which they were to offer to God.
Next to the Levites, but superior to them in dignity,
were the ordinary Priests, who were chosen from the
family of Aaron exclusively. They served immedi-
ately at the altar, prepared the victims, and offered the
sacrifices. They kept up a perpetual fire on the altar
of the burnt-sacrifices, and also in the lamps of the
golden candlestick in the sanctuary; in short, per-
formed first in the tabernacle, and afterwards in the
temple, every thing directly connected with the service
of God. And, as the number and variety of their func-
tions required them to be well read in their law, in
order that they might be able to judge of the various
legal uncleannesses, &c. this circumstance caused them
to be consulted as interpreters of the law (Hos. iv. 6.
Mal.ii. 7, &c. Lev. xiii. 2. Numb. v. 14, 15.) as well
as judges of controversies. (Deut. xxi. 5. xvii. 8 — 13.)
In the time of war, their business was to carry the ark
of the covenant, to sound the holy trumpets, and ani-
mate the army to the performance of its duties. To
them also it belonged publicly to bless the people in
the name of the Lord.
The priests were divided by David into twenty-four
classes (1 Chron, xxiv. 7 — 18.) ; which order was re-
tained by Solomon (2 Chron. viii. 14.) ; and at the
revivals of the Jewish religion by the kings Hezekiah
and Josiah. (2 Chron. xxxi. 2. xxxv. 4, 5.) As, how-
ever, only four classes returned from the Babylonish
p 2
316 SACRED PERSONS.
captivity (Ezra ii. 36—39. Neh. vii. 39—42. xii, 1.),
these were again divided into twenty-four classes, each
of which was distinguished by its original appellation.
One of these classes went up to Jerusalem every week
to discharge the sacerdotal office, and succeeded one
another on the Sabbath-day, till they had all attended
in their turn. To each order was assigned a president
(1 Chron. xxiv. 6. 31. 2 Chron. xxxvi. 14-), whom some
critics suppose to be the same as the chief priests so
often mentioned in the New Testament. The prince
or prefect of each class appointed an entire family to
offer the daily sacrifices ; and at the close of the week
they all joined together in sacrificing. And as each
family consisted of a great number of priests, they
drew lots for the different offices which they were to
perform. It was by virtue of such lot that the office
of burning incense was assigned to Zacharias the father
of John the Baptist, when he went into the temple of the
Lord. (Luke i. 9.)
For the residence of the priests, thirteen of the
Levitical cities, already mentioned, were assigned,
around each of which they had three thousand cubits
of land : their maintenance was derived from tithes,
and various other offerings enumerated in Levit. vii. 6.
10. 33, 34. Deut. xviii. 3. Numb, xviii. 13. 15, 16.
Levit. xix. 23, 24. and Numb. xxxi. 28 — 41.
Over all the priests was placed the High Priest,
who enjoyed peculiar dignities and influence. He
alone could enter the Holy of Holies in the taber-
nacle, and afterwards in the temple : the supreme
administration of sacred things was confided to him ;
he was the final arbiter of all controversies ; in
later times he presided over the sanhedrin, and held
the next rank to the sovereign or prince. His au-
thority, therefore, was very great at all times, espe-
cially when he united the pontifical and regal dig-
SACRED PERSONS. 317
nities in his own person. In the Old Testament he
is sometimes called the priest by way of eminence
(Exod. xxix. 30. Neh. vii. 65.), and Sometimes the
head or chief of the high priests, because the appellation
of high priests was given to the heads of the sacerdotal
families or courses.
The pontifical dignity, in its first institution, was
held for life, provided the high priests were not guilty
of crimes that merited deposition. During this period
the high priesthood is supposed to have been elective.
The first high priest, after the return from the cap-
tivity, was Joshua the son of Josedek, of the family of
Eleazar ; whence the succession went into a private
Levitical family. The office was then filled by some
of the princes of the Maccabean family. According
to the law, it was or ought to have been held for life ;
but this was very ill obeyed under the Roman govern-
ment, especially during the time of our Saviour, and
in the latter yeats of the Jewish polity, when election
and the right of succession were totally disregarded.
The dignity, sanctity, and authority of the high priest
were then almost annihilated ; and this office was not
unfrequently sold to the highest bidder, to persons
who had neither age, learning, nor rank to recommend
them ; nay, even to individuals who were not- of the
sacerdotal race ; and sometimes the office was made
annual. The knowledge of this fact will explain the
circumstance of several high priests being in existence
at the same time, or rather of there being several
pontifical men, (Annas and Caiaphas, for instance,) who,
having once held the office, for a short time, seem to
have retained the original dignity attached to the
name.
The high priest, who was the chief man in Israel,
and appeared before God in behalf of the people in
p 3
318 SACRED PERSONS.
their sacred services, and who was appointed for sacri-
fice, for blessing, and for intercession, was a type of
Jesus Christ, that great high priest, who offered him-
self a sacrifice for sin, who blesses his people, and who
evermore liveth to make intercession for them. The
term priest is also applied to every true believer, who is
enabled to offer up himself a spiritual sacrifice accept-
able to God through Christ. (1 Pet. ii. 5. Rev. i. 6.)
Next to the Levites, priests, and high priests, the
Officers of the Synagogue may be mentioned here,
as being in some degree sacred persons ; since to them
was confided the superintendence of those places which
were set apart for prayer and instruction. Their
functions and powers have been stated in p. 310.
supra.
The Nazarites or Nazarenes (as the Hebrew
word Nazir implies) were persons separated from the
use of certain things, and sequestered or consecrated to
Jehovah. They are commonly regarded as sacred
persons : a notice of their institute will be found infra,
in page 335.
The Rechabites are by many writers considered as a
class of holy persons, who, like the Nazarites, separated
themselves from the rest of the Jews, in order that
they might lead a more pious life. But this is evi-
dently a mistake : for they were not Israelites or Jews,
but Kenites or Midianites, who used to live in tents,
and traverse the country in quest of pasture for their
cattle, as the Nabathaean Arabs antiently did, and as
the modern Arabians, and Crim-Tartars still do. Their
manner of living wajs not the result of a religious in-
stitute, but a mere civil ordinance grounded upon a
national custom. They derived their name from Jona-
dab the son of Rechab, a man of eminent zeal for the
pure worship of God against idolatry; who assisted
SACRED PERSONS. 319
king Jehu in destroying the house of Ahab and the
worshippers of Baal. (2 Kings x. 15, 16. 23.)
The Prophets were eminently distinguished among
the persons accounted holy by the Jews : they were
raised up by God in an extraordinary manner for the
performance of the most sacred functions. Originally
they were called Seers : they discovered things yet
future, declared the will of God, and announced their
divine messages, both to kings and people, with a con-
fidence and freedom that could only be produced by
the conviction that they were indeed authorised mes-
sengers of Jehovah. The gift of prophecy was not
always annexed to the priesthood : there were prophets
of all the tribes, and sometimes even among the Gen-
tiles. The office of a prophet was not confined to the
prediction of future events ; it was their province to
instruct the people, and they interpreted the law of
God: hence the words prophet and prophecy are, in
many passages of the Scriptures, synonymous with
interpreter or teacher, and interpretation or teaching.
They also had seminaries, termed Schools of the Pro-
phets, where religious truths or the divine laws were
particularly taught. It is unanimously agreed both by
Jews and Christians that Malachi was the last of the
prophets under the Old Testament dispensation : and
it is a remarkable fact, that so long as there were
prophets among the Jews, they were not divided by
sects or heresies., although they often fell into idolatry.
This circumstance may thus be accounted for. — As
the prophets received their communications of the
divine will immediately from God himself, there was
no alternative for the Jews : either the people must
obey the prophets, and receive their interpretations of
the law, or no longer acknowledge that God who
inspired them. When, however, the law of God came
p 4
320 SACRED THINGS.
to be explained by weak and fallible men, who seldom
agreed in their opinions, sects and parties were the
unavoidable result of such conflicting sentiments.
Chapter III.
SACRED THINGS.— ON THE SACRIFICES AND OTHER OFFERINGS OF
THE JEWS.
The offerings prescribed to the Israelites have been
divided into four classes, viz. Bloody Offerings, Un-
bloody Offerings, Drink Offerings, and Oblations of
different kinds.
I. Bloody Offerings were sacrifices properly and
strictly so called ; by which we may understand the
infliction of death on a living creature, generally by
the effusion of its blood in a way of religious worship,
and the presenting of this act to God as a supplication
for the pardon of sin, and as a supposed mean of com-
pensation for the insult and injury offered by sin to his
majesty and government. In all sacrifices of this class,
it was required that the victims should be clean, that is,
such as might be eaten. Of the bird tribe, the dove
was the most common offering ; of quadrupeds, oxen,
sheep, and goats were the only kinds destined for the
altar. Further, the victim was to be without blemish,
(Levit. xxii. 22.) and which had never borne the yoke.
Being found immaculate, it was led to the altar by the
person offering the sacrifice, who laid his hands upon
its head ; by which act he acknowledged the sacrifice
to be his own, and that he offered it as an atonement
for his own sins, by which he had forfeited his life to
the violated law of God. The animal being immolated,
SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 321
the blood was caught in a vessel, and partly sprinkled
round about upon the altar ; by which the atonement
was made. (Levit. i. 5 — 7.) The remainder of the
blood was poured out at the foot of the altar : pre-
viously to laying the sacrifice thereon, it was salted for
the fire. (Levit. ii. \3< Mark ix. 46.) At first sacri-
fices were offered at the door of the tabernacle ; but
after the erection of the temple it was not lawful to
offer them elsewhere. The Jewish Sacrifices were of
three kinds ; viz.
1. The Burnt-Offerings, or Holocausts, were free-
will offerings wholly devoted to God, according to the
primitive patriarchal usage. The man himself was to
bring them before the Lord, and they were offered in
the manner just described. The victim to be offered
was, according to the person's ability, a bullock
without blemish, or a male of the sheep or goats, or a
turtle-dove or pigeon. (Levit. i. 3. 10. 14.) If, how-
ever, he was too poor to bring either of these, he was
to offer a mincha or meat offering, of which an account
is given in page 323. It was a very expressive type
of the sacrifice of Christ, as nothing less than his com-
plete and full sacrifice could make atonement for the
sins of the world.
2. The Peace-Offerings (Levit. iii. 1.) were also
free-will offerings, in token of peace and reconciliation
between God and man : they were either eucharistical,
that is, offered as thanksgivings for blessings received,
or were offered for the impetration of mercies. These
offerings consisted either of animals, or of bread or
dough ; if the former, part of them was burnt upon
the altar, especially all the fat, as an offering to the
Lord ; and the remainder was to be eaten by the priest
and by the party offering. To this sacrifice of praise or
thanksgiving Saint Paul alludes in Heb. xiii. 15, 16.
p 5
322 SACRED THINGS.
In this kind of sacrifices the victims might be either
male or female, provided they were without blemish.
The same apostle has a fine allusion to them in Eph. ii.
14—19.
3. Sin-Offerings were offered for sins committed
either through ignorance or wilfully against knowledge,
and which were always punished unless they were ex-
piated. In general they consisted of a sin-offering to
God, and a burnt offering accompanied with restitution
of damage. (Levit. v. 2 — 19. vi. 1—7.)
4. The Trespass-Offerings were made, where the
party offering had just reason to doubt whether he had
violated the law of God or not. (Levit. v. 17, 18.)
They do not appear to have differed materially from
sin offerings. In both these kinds of sacrifices, the
person who offered them placed his hands on the vic-
tim's head (if a sin-offering), and confessed his sin over
it, and his trespass over the trespass-offering ; the ani-
mal was then considered as vicariously bearing the sins
of the person who brought it.
All these sacrifices were occasional, and had refer-
ence to individuals ; but there were others which were
national and regular, daily, weekly, monthly, and
annual.
The perpetual or Daily Sacrifice was a burnt-offer-
ing, consisting of two lambs, which were offered every
day, morning and evening, at the third and ninth hours.
(Exod. xxix. 38 — 40. Levit. vi. 9 — 18. Numb, xxviii.
1 — 8.) They were burnt as holocausts, but by a small
fire, that they might continue burning the longer.
With each of these victims was offered a bread-offering
and a drink-offering of strong wine. The morning
sacrifice, according to the Jews, made atonement for
the sins committed in the night, and the evening sacri-
fice expiated those committed during the day.
SACRIFICES, ETC. OF THE JEWS. 323
The Weekly Sacrifice on every Sabbath-day was
equal to the daily sacrifice, and was offered in addition
to it. (Numb, xxviii. 9, 10.)
The Monthly Sacrifice, on every new moon, or at
the beginning of each month, consisted of two young
bullocks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year old, to-
gether with a kid for a sin-offering, and a suitable
bread and drink offering. (Numb, xxviii. 11 — 14.)
The Yearly Sacrifices were thus offered on the great
annual festivals, which are noticed in the following
chapter; viz. 1. The paschal lamb at the passover,
which was celebrated at the commencement of the
Jewish sacred year ; 2. On the day of Pentecost, or
day of first-fruits ; 3. On the New Moon, or first day
of the seventh month, which was the commencement
of their civil year ; and, 4. On the day of expiation.
II. The Unbloody Sacrifices, or Meat Offerings,
were taken solely from the vegetable kingdom : they
could not, regularly, be presented as sin-offerings, un-
less the person who had sinned was so poor, that he
could not afford to bring two young pigeons, or two
turtle-doves. They were to be free from leaven or
honey, but to all of them it was necessary to add pure
salt, that is, saltpetre.
III. Drink-Offerings were an accompaniment to
both bloody and unbloody sacrifices : they were never
used separately; and consisted of wine, which appears
to have been partly poured upon the brow of the vic-
tim in order to consecrate it, and partly allotted to the
priests, who drank it with their portions of both these
kinds of offerings.
IV. Besides the preceding sacrifices, various other
oblations are mentioned in the sacred writings, which
have been divided into ordinary or common, voluntary
or free oblations, and such as were prescribed.
p 6
324; SACRED THINGS.
1. The Ordinary Oblations consisted, (1.) Of the
Shew-bread, which has been already noticed in p, 306.;
the loaves were placed hot, every Sabbath-day, by the
priests, upon the golden table in the sanctuary before
the Lord, when they removed the stale loaves which
had been exposed the whole of the preceding week;
and, (2.) Of Incense, which was composed of several
fragrant spices, prepared according to the commands
given in Exod. xxx. 34* — 36. It was offered twice,
daily, by the officiating priest upon a golden altar
(whereon no bloody sacrifice was to come), except on
the day of atonement, when it was offered by the high
priest. During this offering the people prayed, silent-
ly, without (Luke i. 10.); and to this solemn silence
St. John alludes in Rev. viii. 1.
2. The Voluntary or Free Oblations were the fruits
either of promises or of vows : bat the former were not
considered so strictly obligatory as the latter, of which
there were two kinds : (1.) The vow of consecration,
when any thing was devoted to God, either for sacrifice
or for the service of the temple, as wine, wood, salt,
&c. To this class of vows belonged the Corban,
reprobated by Jesus Christ, which the Pharisees car-
ried so far as to exonerate children from assisting their
indigent parents (Mark vii. 9—11. 13.); and, (2.) The
votv of engagement, when persons engaged to do some-
thing that was not in itself unlawful, as not to eat of
some particular meat, not to wear some particular
habits, not to drink wine, nor to cut their hair, &c.
3. The Prescribed Oblations were either First Fruits
or Tithes.
(I.) All the First Fruits, both of fruit and animals,
were consecrated to God (Exod. xxii. 29. Numb,
xviii. 12, 13. Deut. xxvi. 2. Neh. x. 35, 36.): and
the first fruits of sheep's wool were offered for the use
SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS, ETC. 325
of the Levites. (Deut. xviii. 4.) These first fruits
were offered from the feast of Pentecost until that of
dedication, because after that time the fruits were
neither so beautiful nor so good as before. Further,
the Jews were prohibited from gathering in the harvest
until they had offered to God the omer, that is, the new
sheaf, which was presented the day after the great day
of unleavened bread: neither were they allowed to
bake any bread made of new corn until they had offer-
ed the new loaves upon the altar on the day of pente-
cost ; without which all the corn was regarded as un-
clean and unholy. To this St. Paul alludes in Rom.
xi. 16.
(2.) Besides the first fruits, the Jews also paid the
tenths or tithes of all they possessed (Numb, xviii. 21.);
they were, in general, collected from all the fruits of
the earth, but chiefly of corn, wine, and oil, and were
rendered every year, except the sabbatical year.
Chapter IV.
SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS OBSERVED BY THE JEWS.
In order to perpetuate the memory of the numerous
wonders God had wrought in favour of his people,
Moses by the divine command instituted various festi-
vals, which they were obliged to observe : these sacred
seasons were either weekly, monthly, or annual, or
recurred after a certain number of years.
I. Every seventh day was appropriated to sacred
repose, and called the Sabbath ; although this name
is in some passages given to other festivals, as in Levit.
326 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS
xxv. 4., and sometimes it denotes a week, as in Matt,
xxviii. 1. Luke xxiv. 1. and Acts xx. 7. It was origi-
nally instituted to preserve the memory of the creation
of the world (Gen. ii. 3.) ; and when God gave the
Israelites rest in the land of Canaan, he commanded
the Sabbath to be statedly kept. (Exod. xx. 10, 11.
xvi. 23.) Accordingly it was observed with great so-
lemnity ; the Jews religiously abstaining from all ser-
vile work. (Exod. xx. 10. xxiii. 12, &c. &c.) It was
therefore unlawful to gather manna on that day (Exod.
xvi. 22 — 30.), to light a fire for culinary purposes, and
also to sow or reap. (Exod. xxxv. 3. Numb. xv. 32 — 36.
Exod. xxxiv. 21.) The services of the temple, how-
ever, might be performed without profaning the sab-
bath, such as preparing the sacrifices (Lev. vi. 8 — 13.
Numb, xxviii. 3 — 10. Matt. xii. 5.) ; and it was also
lawful to perform circumcision on that day. (John
vii. 23.) The sabbath commenced at sun -set, and
closed at the same time on the following day. (Matt,
viii. 16. Mark i. 32.) Whatever was necessary was
prepared on the latter part of the preceding day, that
is, of our Friday ; whence the day preceding the Sab-
bath is termed the preparation in Matt, xxvii. 62.
Mark xv. 42. Luke xxiii. 54. and John xix. 14. 31. 42.
We know not with certainty from the Mosaic writ-
ings what constituted the most antient worship of the
Israelites on the Sabbath-day. It is, however, evident
from the New Testament that the celebration of this
day chiefly consisted in the religious exercises which
were then performed : though there is no injunction
recorded, except that a burnt-offering of two lambs
should on that day be added to the morning and even-
ing sacrifices (Numb, xxviii. 9.) ; and that the shew-
bread should be changed. (Levit. xxiv. 8.) In the
OBSERVED BY THE JEWS, 327
synagogues, as we have already seen, the sacred writ-
ings were read and expounded, to which was sometimes
added a discourse or sermon by some doctor or eminent
teacher. (Luke iv. 16. Acts xiii. 15.)
Prayer also appears to have formed a part of their
sacred worship in the synagogue, and especially in the
temple (1 Sam. i. 9, 10. 1 Kings viii. 29, 30. 33. Psal.
xxviii. 2. Luke xviii. 10.) : the stated hours were at the
time of offering the morning and evening sacrifice, or
at the third and ninth hours (Acts ii. 15. and iii. 1.);
although it was the custom of the more devout Jews,
as David (Psal. Iv. 17.) and Daniel (vi. 10.) to pray
three times a day. Peter went up on the house-top to
pray. (Acts x. 9.)
II. The Jewish months being lunar were originally
calculated from the first appearance of the moon, on
which the Feast of the new moon, or beginning of
months (as the Hebrews termed it), was celebrated.
(Exod. xii. 2. Numb. x. 10. xxviii. 11. Isa. i. 13, 14.)
It seems to have been in use long before the time of
Moses, who by the divine command prescribed what
ceremonies were then to be observed. It was pro-
claimed with the sound of trumpets (Numb. x. 10.
Psal. lxxxi. 3.) ; and several additional sacrifices were
offered. (Numb, xxviii. 11—15.)
Besides the Sabbath, Moses instituted other festi-
vals : three of these, viz. the passover, the feast of
pentecost, and the feast of tabernacels, which are
usually denominated the Great Festivals, were distin-
guished from the Sabbath, and indeed from all other
holy days, by the circumstance of each of them lasting
seven (one for eight) successive days ; during which
the Jews were bound to rejoice before the Lord for all
their deliverances and mercies. (Deut.xvi. 11 — 15.)
All the males of the twelve tribes were bound to be
328 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS
present at these grand festivals (Exod. xxxiv. 23. Deut.
xvi. 16.) : and for their encouragement to attend they
were assured that " no man should desire their land"
during their absence (Exod. xxxiv. 24.) ; in other
words, that they should be secure from hostile inva-
sion during their attendance on religious worship: —
a manifest proof this of the divine origin of their reli-
gion, as well as of the power and particular providence
of God, in working thrice every year an especial mira-
cle for the protection of his people.
III. The first and most eminent of these festivals was
the Passover1, instituted the night before the Israelites'
departure from Egypt, for a perpetual memorial of
their signal deliverance, and of the favour which God
shewed them in passing over and sparing their first-
born, when he slew the first-born of the Egyptians.
(Exod. xii. 12—14. 29, 30—51.) This festival was also
called thejeast or the days of unleavened bread (Exod.
xxiii. 15. Mark xiv. 1. Acts xii. 3.) ; because it t was
unlawful to eat any other bread during the seven days
the feast lasted. The name was also by a metonymy
given to the lamb that was killed on the first day of this
feast (Ezra vi. 20. Matt.xxvi. 17.), whence the expres-
sions, to eat the passover (Mark xiv. 12, 14.), and to
sacrifice the passover. (1 Cor. v. 7.) Hence also St.
Paul calls Jesus Christ our passover (ibid.), that is, our
true paschal lamb. But the appellation, passover,
belongs more particularly to the second day of the
feast, viz. the fifteenth day of the month Nisan. It
was ordained to be celebrated on the anniversary of the
deliverance of the Israelites. This was an indispens-
able rite to be observed by every Israelite except in
particular cases, enumerated in Numb. ix. 1 — 13., on
pain of death ; and no uncircumcised person was
allowed to partake of the passover. In the later times
OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 329
of the Jewish Polity, the custom was introduced, of
liberating some criminals, in order to render this festi-
val the more interesting : and this custom had become
so strong that Pilate could not deviate from it, and
therefore reluctantly liberated Barabbas. (Matt, xxvii.
15. Luke xxiii. 17. John xviii. 39.) The particular rites,
with which this festival was to be celebrated, are speci-
fied in Exod. xii. The later Jews made some addition
to the rites prescribed by Moses respecting the paschal
sacrifice. They drank with it four cups of wine, of
which the third was called the cup of blessing (alluded
to in 1 Cor. x. 16. compared with Matt. xxvi. 27.) After
which they sang the hymn called the " Great Hallel,"
viz. Psalm cxiii — cxviii. Sometimes, when, after the
fourth cup, the guests felt disposed to repeat Psalms
cxx — cxxxvii., a fifth cup was also drunk. These
ceremonies appear to have been in part imitated by
Jesus Christ, in the institution of the Eucharist. The
paschal victim typified Jesus Christ, his sufferings, and
death : not a bone of it was to be broken ; a circum-
stance in which there was a remarkable correspondence
between the type and the antitype. (Exod. xii. 46*
John xix. 33. 36.)
IV. The second Great Festival was the Feast of
Pentecost, which was celebrated on the 50th day
after the first day of unleavened bread. It was a fes-
tival of thanksgiving for the harvest, which commenced
immediately after the passover. On this account two
loaves made of the new meal were offered before the
Lord as the first fruits : whence it is called the day of
the first fruits. The form of thanksgiving is given in
Deut. xxvi. 5 — 10.
V. The Feast of Tabernacles was instituted to com-
memorate the dwelling of the Israelites in tents while
they wandered in the desert. (Lev. xxiii. 34. 43.)
330 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS
Hence it is called by St. John the feast of tents
(ay.Tjvo'jtvjyici, skenopegia,John vii. 2.) It is likewise termed
the feast of ingatherings. (Exod. xxiii. 16. xxxiv. 22.)
Further, the design of this feast was, to return thanks to
God for the fruits of the vine, as well as of other trees,
which were gathered about this time, and also to im-
plore his blessing upon those of the ensuing year.
During the whole of the solemnity they were obliged
to dwell in tents, which antiently were pitched on the
flat terrace-like roofs of their houses. (Neh. viii. 16.)
Besides the ordinary daily sacrifices, there were several
extraordinary ones offered on this occasion, which are
detailed in Numb. xxix. One of the most remarkable
ceremonies performed at this feast, was the libation or
pouring out of water, drawn from the fountain or pool
of Siloam, upon the altar. As, according to the Jews
themselves, this water was an emblem of the Holy
Spirit, Jesus Christ manifestly alluded to it, when he
" cried, saying, If any man thirst, let him come unto me
and drink" (John vii. 37. 39.)
VI. To the three grand annual festivals above de-
scribed, Moses added two others, which were cele-
brated with great solemnity, though the presence of
every male Israelite was not absolutely required.
1. The first of these was the Feast of Trumpets,
and was held on the first and second days of the month
Tisri, which was the commencement of the civil year
of the Hebrews : this feast derives its name from the
blowing of trumpets in the temple with more than usual
solemnity. (Numb. xxix. 1. Levit. xxiii. 24.) On this
festival they abstained from all labour (Levit. xxiii. 25.),
and offered particular sacrifices to God, which are de-
scribed in Numb. xxix. 1—6.
2. The other feast alluded to, was the Fast or Feast
of Expiation, or Day of Atonement ; which day the
OBSERVED BY THE JEWS. 331
Jews observed as a most strict fast, abstaining from all
servile work, taking no food, and afflicting their souls.
(Levit. xxiii. 27 — 30.) Of all the sacrifices ordained
by the Mosaic law, the sacrifice of the atonement was
the most solemn and important : it was offered on the
tenth day of the month Tisri, by the high priest alone,
for the sins of the whole nation. On this day only, in
the course of the year, was the high priest permitted to
enter the sanctuary, and not even then without due
preparation, under pain of death ; all others being ex-
cluded from the tabernacle during the whole ceremony,
which prefigured the grand atonement to be made for
the sins of the whole world by Jesus Christ. The par-
ticulars incident to this solemnity are detailed in
Levit. xvi.
VII. Besides these various annual festivals, which were
instituted by divine command, the Jews in later times
introduced several other feast and fast days, of which
the following were the principal : —
1. The Feast o/Purim, or of Lots as the word signi-
fies, is celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of
the month Adar (or of Ve-Adar if it be an intercalary
year), in commemoration of the providential deliver-
ance of the Jews from the cruel machinations of Ha-
man, who had procured an edict from Artaxerxes to
extirpate them. (Esth. iii — ix.) On this occasion the
entire book of Esther is read in the synagogues of the
modern Jews, not out of a printed copy, but from a
roll which generally contains this book alone. All
Jews, of both sexes, and of every age, who are able to
attend, are required to come to this feast, and to join
in the reading, for the better preservation of the
memory of this important fact.
2. The Feast of Dedication, mentioned in John x.
22.,* was instituted by Judas Maccabeus, to commemo-
332 SACRED TIMES AND SEASONS, ETC.
rate the purification of the second temple, after it had
been profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes. (1 Mace. iv.
52 — 59.) It commenced on the 25th day of the month
Cisleu, and was solemnized throughout the country with
great rejoicings.
VIII. The preceding are the chief annual festivals
noticed in the sacred writings, that are particularly
deserving of attention : the Jews have various others
of more modern institution which are here designedly
omitted. We, therefore, proceed to notice those ex-
traordinary festivals which were only celebrated after
the recurrence of a certain number of years.
1. The first of these was the sabbatical Year : for
as the seventh day of the week was consecrated as a
day of rest to man and beast, so this gave rest to the
land : which, during its continuance, was to lie fallow,
and the " sabbath of the land," or its spontaneous
produce was dedicated to charitable uses, to be enjoyed
by the servants of the family, by the way -faring stran-
ger, and by the cattle. (Levit. xxv. 1 — 7. Exod. xxiii.
11.) This was also the year of release from personal
slavery (Exod. xxi. 2.), as well as of the remission of
debts. (Deut. xv. 1, 2.)
2. The Jubilee was a more solemn sabbatical year,
held every seventh sabbatical year, that is, at the end
of every forty-nine years, or the fiftieth current year.
(Levit. xxv. 8 — 10.) It commenced on the evening
of the day of atonement, and was proclaimed by the
sound of trumpet throughout the whole land. All
debts were to be cancelled ; all slaves or captives were
to be released. Even those who had voluntarily re-
linquished their freedom at the end of their six years'
service, and whose ears had been bored in token of
their perpetual servitude, were to be liberated at the
jubilee : for then they were to proclaim liberty through-
SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. 333
out all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof. (Levit.
xxv. 10.) Further, in this year all estates that had
been sold reverted to their original proprietors, or to
the families to which they had originally belonged;
thus provision was made, that no family should be
totally ruined, and doomed to perpetual poverty : for
the family estate could not be alienated for a longer
period than fifty years. The value and purchase-
money of estates, therefore, diminished in proportion to
the near approach of the jubilee. (Levit. xxv. 15.)
From this privilege, however, houses in walled towns
were excepted : these were to be redeemed within a
year, otherwise they belonged to the purchaser, not-
withstanding the jubilee, (v. 30.) During this year, as
well as in the sabbatical year, the ground also had its
rest, and was not cultivated.
Chapter V.
SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES. OF OATHS. NATURE AND
DIFFERENT SORTS OF VOWS.
I. Of Oaths. — The person who confirmed his
assertion by a voluntary oath pronounced the same
with his right hand elevated : but when an oath was
exacted, whether judicially or otherwise, the person
to whom it was put, answered by saying Amen, Amen,
(So let it be,) or, Thou hast said it. (Numb. v. 19 — 22.
Deut. xxvii. 15 — 26. Matt. xxvi. 64.) In the time of
Christ, the Jews were in the habit of swearing by the
altar, by Jerusalem, by themselves, &c. &c. : and be-
cause the sacred name of God was not mentioned in
such oaths, they considered them as imposing little, if
any deception. Such fraudulent conduct is severely
334 SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES.
censured by Jesus Christ in Matt. v. 33 — 37. and
xxiii. 16—22.
II. Nature and different kinds of Vows.
A Vow is a religious engagement or promise, volun-
tarily undertaken by a person towards Almighty God:
to render it valid, Moses requires that it be actually
uttered with the mouth and not merely in the heart
(Numb. xxx. 3. 7. 9. 13. Deut. xxiii. 24.); and in
Deut. xxiii. 18. he prohibits the offering of what is
acquired by impure means. Two sorts of Vows are
mentioned in the Old Testament ; viz.
1. The Cherem or irremissible Vow : it was the most
solemn of all, and was accompanied with a form of ex-
ecration. This vow is no where enjoined by Moses. The
species of cherem with which we are best acquainted was
the previous devotement to God of hostile cities, against
which they intended to proceed with extreme severity;
and that with a view the more to inflame the minds of
the people to war. In such cases, not only were all
the inhabitants put to death, but also, according as the
terms of the vow declared, no booty was made by any
Israelite ; the beasts were slain ; what would not burn,
as gold, silver, and other metals, was added to the
treasure of the sanctuary ; and every thing else, with
the whole city, burnt, and an imprecation pronounced
upon any attempt that should ever be made to re-
build it. Of this the history of Jericho (Josh. vi.
17—19. 21—24. and vii. 1. 12—26.) furnishes the
most remarkable example.
2. The common vows were divided into two sorts ;
viz. 1. Vows of dedication ; and, 2. Vows of self-inter-
diction or abstinence.
i. The Neder, or vow, in the stricter sense of the
word, was when a person engaged to do any thing, as,
for instance, to bring an offering to God ; or otherwise
OF OATHS. NATURE, ETC. OF VOWS. 335
to dedicate any thing unto him. Things vowed in this
way, were, 1 . Unclean beasts. These might be estimated
by the priest, and redeemed by the vower, by the ad-
dition of one-fifth to the value. (Lev. xxvii. 11 — 13.)
2. Clean beasts used for offerings. Here there was no
right of redemption ; nor could the beasts be exchanged
for others under the penalty of both being forfeited, and
belonging to the Lord. (Lev. xxvii. 9, 10.) — 3. Lands
and houses. These had the privilege of valuation and
redemption. (Lev. xxvii. 14 — 24.) — To these we have
to add, 4. The person of the votver himself, with the like
privi'oge. (Lev. xxvii. 1 — 8.)
ii. Vows of self-interdiction or self-denial were, when
f. person engaged to abstain from any wine, food, or any
other thing. To this class of vows may be referred the
Nazareate orNazariteship, the statutes respecting which
are related in Numb. vi. The Nazarites were required
to abstain from wine, fermented liquors, and every thing
made of grapes, to let their hair grow, and not to defile
themselves by touching the dead : and if any person had
accidentally expired in their presence, the Nazarites
of the second class were obliged to recommence their
Nazariteship.
Similar to the Nazareate was the vow frequently made
by devout Jews, on their recovery from sickness, or
deliverance from danger or distress ; who, for thirty
days before they offered sacrifices, abstained from wine,
and shaved the hair of their head. This usage illustrates
the conduct of St. Paul, as related in Acts xvii. 18.
III. The Purifications of the Jews were various,
and the objects of them were either persons or things
dedicated to divine worship. The Jews had two sorts
of washing ; one, — of the whole body, by immersion,
which was used by the priests at their consecration, and
by the proselytes at their initiation ; — the other, of the
336 SACRED OBLIGATIONS AND DUTIES.
hands or feet, called dipping or pouring of water, and
which was of daily use, not only for the hands and feet,
but also for the cups and other vessels used at their
meals. (Matt. xv. 2. Mark vii. 3, 4. John ii. 6.) To these
two modes of purification Jesus Christ seems to allude
in John xiii. 10.
IV. In the Mosaic law those persons are termed un-
clean whom others were obliged to avoid touching, or
even meeting, unless they chose to be themselves de-
filed, that is, cut off from all intercourse with their
brethren ; and who, besides, were bound to abstain from
frequenting the place where divine service and the
offering -feasts were held, under penalties still more
severe.
The duration and degrees of impurity were different
In some instances, by the use of certain ceremonies,
an unclean person became purified at sunset ; in others,
this did not take place until eight days after the physical
cause of defilement ceased. Lepers were obliged to
live in a detached situation, separate from other people,
and to keep themselves actually at a distance from them.
They were distinguished by a peculiar dress; and if any
person approached, they were bound to give him warn-
ing, by crying out, Unclean ! unclean ! Other polluted
persons, again, could not directly touch those that were
clean, without defiling them in like manner, and were
obliged to remain without the camp, that they might not
be in their way. (Numb. v. 1 — 4.) Eleven different
species of impurity are enumerated in the Levitical law,
to which the later Jews added many others. But the
severest of all was the Leprosy, an infectious disease of
slow and imperceptible progress, beginning very in-
sidiously and gently, until at length it became incurable,
and most offensively loathsome. The Mosaic statutes
respecting this malady are recorded in Levit. xiii. xiv.
CORRUPTIONS OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 337
Numb. v. 1 — 4>. and Deut. xxiv. 8, 9. The leprosy has
ever been considered as a lively emblem of that moral
taint or corruption of the nature of every man that
naturally is engendered of the offspring of Adam * ; -as
the sacrifices, which were to be offered by the healed
leper, prefigured that spotless Lamb of God that taketh
away the sin of the world.
Chapter VI.
ON THE CORRUPTIONS OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS.
I. On the Idolatry of the Jews. — II. Jewish Sects mentioned
in the New Testament. — III. Extreme Corruption of the Jewish
People at the time of Christ's Birth.
I. Idolatry of the Jews.
Idolatry is the superstitious worship of idols or false
gods. From Gen. vi. 5., compared with Rom. i. 23.,
there is every reason to believe that it was practised
before the flood ; and this conjecture is confirmed by
the apostle Jude (ver. 4.), who, describing the character
of certain men in his days that denied the only Lord
God, adds, in the eleventh verse of his epistle, Woe unto
them, for they are gone into the way of Cain ; whence it
may be inferred that Cain and his descendants were the
first who threw off the sense of a God, and worshipped
the creature instead of the Creator. The heavenly
bodies were the first objects of idolatrous worship, and
Mesopotamia and Chaldaea were the countries where it
chiefly prevailed after the deluge, whence it spread into
Canaan, Egypt, and other countries. Although Moses,
by the command and instruction of God, had given to
* Article IX. of the Confession of the Anglican church,
Q
338 ON THE CORRUPTIONS
the Israelites such a religion as no other nation pos-
sessed, and notwithstanding all his laws were directed
to preserve them from idolatry, yet, so wayward were
the Israelites, that, almost immediately after their de-
parture from Egypt, we find them worshipping idols.
(Exod. xxxii. 1. Psal. cvi. J 9, 20. Acts yii. 41— 4-3.)
Soon after their entrance into the land of Canaan, they
adopted various deities that were worshipped by the
Canaanites, and other neighbouring nations (Judges ii.
13. viii. 33.); for which base ingratitude they were
severely punished. And, after the division of the two
kingdoms, it is well known that, with the exception of
a few short intervals, both the sovereigns and people of
Israel were wholly given to idolatry : nor were the
people of Judah exempt from the worship of strange
gods, as the frequent reproofs of the prophets abun-
dantly testify. At length, however, become wiser by
the severe discipline they had received, the tribes,
that returned into their native country from the Baby-
lonian captivity, wholly renounced idolatry; and thence-
forth uniformly evinced the most deeply-rooted aversion
from all strange deities and foreign modes of worship.
This great reformation was accomplished by Ezra and
Nehemiah, and the eminent men who accompanied or
succeeded them ; but, in the progress of time, though
the exterior of piety was maintained, the " power of
godliness " was lost ; and we learn from the New Tes-
tament, that, during our Saviour's ministry, the Jews
were divided into various religious parties, which widely
differed in opinion, and pursued each other with the
fiercest animosity and with implacable hatred.
II. Of these Sects and their respective tenets, to
which there are frequent allusions in the New Tes-
tament, we are now to give a concise account.
OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 339
1. The sect of the Sadducees derived its name from
Sadok, a pupil of Antigonus Sochaeus, president of the
sanhedrin or great council ; who flourished about two
hundred and sixty years before the Christian aera. They
disregarded all the traditions and unwritten laws which
the Pharisees prized so highly, and professed to con-
sider the Scriptures as the only source and rule of the
Jewish religion. They denied the existence of angels
and spirits, considered the soul as dying with the body,
and consequently admitted of no future state of rewards
and punishments. The tenets of this sect, which was
small in point of numbers, were not so acceptable to the
people as those of the Pharisees.
2. The Pharisees are supposed to have appeared
not long after the Sadducees. They were the most
numerous, distinguished, and popular sect among the
Jews. They derived their name from the Hebrew word
Pharash, which signifies separated or set apart, because
they separated themselves from the rest of the Jews to
superiorstrictnessin religious observances. They boasted
that, from their accurate knowledge of religion, they
were the favourites of heaven; and thus, trusting in
themselves that they were righteous, despised others.
(Lukexi. 52. xviii. 9. 11.)
Though they professed to esteem the written books
of the Old Testament as the sources of the Jewish
religion, yet they also attributed great and equal au-
thority to traditional precepts, relating principally to
external rites. They held the soul to be immortal, and
the doctrine of the resurrection of the body ; but they
believed that all things were controlled by fate. They
rigidly interpreted the Mosaic Law, but not unfre-
quently violated its spirit by their traditional and phi-
losophical expositions. They were zealous in making
proselytes ; and their professed sanctity gave them
Q 2
340 ON THE CORRUPTIONS
great influence among the common people, especially
with the female part of the community. Their general
hypocrisy and profligacy are severely arraigned by
Jesus Christ.
3. The Essenes, who were the third principal sect
among the Jews, differed in many respects from the
Pharisees and Sadducees, both in doctrines and in
practice. They were divided into two classes : (1.) The
practical, who lived in society, and some of whom were
married, though it appears with much circumspection.
These dwelt in cities and their neighbourhoods, and
applied themselves to husbandry and other innocent
occupations. (2.) The contemplative Essenes, who were
also called Therapeutae or Physicians, from their appli-
cation principally to the cure of the diseases of the
soul, devoted themselves wholly to meditation, and
avoided living in great towns as unfavourable to a con-
templative life. But both classes were exceedingly ab-
stemious, exemplary in their moral deportment, averse
from profane swearing, and most rigid in their observ-
ance of the Sabbath. They held, among other tenets,
the immortality of the soul (though they denied the
resurrection of the body), the existence of angels, and
a state of future rewards and punishments. They be-
lieved every thing to be ordered by an eternal fatality
or chain of causes. Though they are not mentioned
in the New Testament, they are supposed to be re-
ferred to in Col. ii. 18. 21. 23. : and the contemplative
Essenes are supposed to have been intended by those,
who in Matt. xix. 12. are said to have made themselves
Eunuchs for the Kingdom of God's sake.
4. The Scribes and Lawyers, who are frequently
mentioned in the Gospels, are usually classed among
Jewish sects. The scribes had the charge of tran-
scribing the sacred books, of publicly interpreting the
OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS. 341
more difficult passages, and of deciding in cases which
grew out of the ceremonial law. They possessed great
influence as well as the Lawyers or private teachers of
the law.
5. The Samaritans are generally considered as a
Jewish sect : their origin and tenets have already been
noticed in pp. 91, 92.
6. The Herodians were a political faction, the par-
tisans of Herod, misnamed the Great, from whom they
derived their name, and with whom they co-operated
in all his political and time-serving schemes, to con-
ciliate the favour of the Romans.
7. The Galileans were the followers of Judas the
Gaulonite or Galilaean, whose tenets they embraced and
acted upon. They held that tribute was due to God
alone, and consequently ought not to be paid to the
Romans ; and that religious liberty and the authority
of the divine laws were to be defended by force of
arms. In other respects their doctrines appear to have
been the same as those of the Pharisees.
The Zealots, so often mentioned in Jewish history,
appear to have been the followers of this Judas : and it
has been supposed that the just men whom the Pha-
risees and Herodians sent to entangle Jesus in his con-
versation were members of this sect. (Matt. xxii. 15,
16. Mark xii. 13, 14. Luke xx. 20.)
8. The Sicarii, noticed in Acts xxi. 38., were
assassins, who derived their name from their using
poniards bent like the Roman sicce, which they con-
cealed under their garments, and privately stabbed the
objects of their malice.
III. The Corruption of the Jewish People, both
in religion and morals, in the time of Christ, sufficiently
appears from the censures of Jesus Christ, which are
to be found in the four Gospels. The evidence of the
Q 3
342 CORRUPTIONS OF RELIGION BY THE JEWS.
sacred writers is confirmed by the testimony of profane
writers, especially Josephus the Jewish Historian, from
whom we learn that the corruption and profligacy of
the chief priests and other distinguished leaders per-
vaded the priests, from whom the moral and religious
contamination had spread to the lowest classes of the
people who were immersed in ignorance and vice, and
cherished the most supercilious contempt and bitter
hatred towards the Gentiles. So great was their pro-
fligacy in the last period of their commonwealth, that
Josephus has recorded it as his opinion, that if the
Romans had delayed any longer to have come against
them, the city (Jerusalem) would either have been
swallowed up by an earthquake, overwhelmed by a
deluge, or destroyed by fire from heaven as Sodom
was : for that generation was far more enormously
wicked than those who suffered these calamities.*
* De Bell. Jud. lib. v. c.13. § 6.
343
BOOK IV. — DOMESTIC ANTIQUITIES OF THE
JEWS AND OTHER NATIONS, INCIDENTALLY
MENTIONED IN THE SCRIPTURES.
Chapter I.
ON THE DWELLINGS OF THE JEWS.
The earliest dwellings of mankind, after they began
to multiply, are supposed to have been caves : thus,
Lot and his daughters abode in a cave after the de-
struction of Sodom ; and both antient and modern tra-
vellers attest, that in some parts of the East caves have
been employed for the purposes of habitation. In suc-
ceeding ages they abode in tents (Gen. xviii. 4.) ; and,
in progress of time, houses were erected : those of the
rich were formed of stone or bricks, but the dwellings
of the poor were formed of wood, or more frequently
of mud (as they are to this day in various parts of the
East) ; a material which is but ill calculated to resist the
effects of the impetuous torrents, that descended from
the mountains of Palestine. Our Lord alludes to this
circumstance at the close of his sermon on the mount.
(Matt. vii. 26, 27.) In the East Indies also, nothing is
more common than for thieves to dig or break through
these mud-walls, while the unsuspecting inhabitants are
overcome by sleep, and to plunder them. To similar
depredations Jesus Christ appears to allude, when he
exhorts his disciples not to lay up their treasure where
thieves break through and steal. (Matt. vi. 19, 20.) In
the holes and chinks of these walls, serpents sometimes
concealed themselves. (Amos v. 19.)
Q 4
344
ON THE DWELLINGS
The following diagram will convey some idea of the
form of an oriental house.
As the style of Architecture and manners of the East
have remained unaltered, the description of a modern
oriental house will enable us to form a tolerably correct
notion of the structure of the Jewish houses. In the
East, the streets are usually narrow, the better to shade
them from the sun, and sometimes they have a range
of shops on each side. If, then, we enter a house from
the street A A, we shall pass through the outer porch
B, into a square court open to the weather. This
court, strewed with mats or carpets, is the usual place
for receiving large companies at nuptials, circumcisions,
and on other occasions. The banquet of Ahasuerus
was given in a court of the royal palace (Esth. i. 5.) ;
and in a court the multitude was assembled to hear the
discourse of Jesus Christ, mentioned in Luke v. 19.,
where it is termed to psa-ov (to meson), the midst. The
court is, for the most part, surrounded with a cloister^
OF THE JEWS. 345
over which is a gallery, C C C, with a balustrade or piece
of lattice or carved work going round it, to prevent
accidents : and from this cloister we are led into apart-
ments of the same length as the court. D is an inner
porch, at the entrance into the main building. The
gates were always shut, and a servant acted the part
of porter. (John xviii. 16,17. Acts xii. 13.) The
roofs were flat (as they still are), and were formed of
earth, spread evenly along, and rolled very hard, to
exclude the rain ; but upon this surface grass and
weeds grow freely : to which there is an allusion in
Psal. cxxix. 6. and Isa. xxxvii. 27. These roofs are
surrounded by a wall, breast high, to prevent persons
from falling through : such a defence or battlement
was required by Deut. xxii. 8. It was this parapet
which the men demolished, in order to let the paralytic
down into the court or area of the house. (Mark ii. 4.
Luke v. 19.) The back part of the house is allotted to
the women : in Arabic it is called the Harem, and in
the Old Testament the Palace. Menahem, king of
Israel, was assassinated in his harem or palace. (2 Kings
xv. 25.) The harem of Solomon was an inner and
separate building. (1 Kings vii. 8. 2 Chron. viii. 11.)
The furniture of the oriental dwellings, at least in
the earliest ages, was very simple : that of the poorer
classes consisted of but few articles, and those such as
were absolutely necessary. Instead of chairs, they sat
on mats or skins ; and the same articles, on which they
laid a mattress, served them instead of bedsteads, while
their upper garment served them for a covering.
(Exod. xxii. 25, 26. Deut. xxiv. 12.) This circum-
stance accounts for our Lord's commanding the para-
lytic to take up his bed and go unto his house. (Matt,
ix. 6.) The more opulent had (as those in the East
still have) fine carpets, couches, or divans, and sofas,
Q 5
346 ON THE DRESS
on which they sat, lay, and slept. (2 Kings iv. 10.
2 Sara. xvii. 28.) In later times their couches were
splendid, and the frames inlaid with ivory (Amos vi. 4.),
and the coverlids rich and perfumed. (Prov. vii. 16, 17.)
On these sofas, in the latter ages of the Jewish state,
(for before the time of Moses it appears to have been
the custom to sit at table (Gen. xliii. 33.), they univer-
sally reclined, when taking their meals (Amos vi. 4.
Luke vii. 36 — 38.) ; resting on their side with their
heads towards the table, so that their feet were acces-
sible to one who came behind the couch.
Chapter II.
ON THE DRESS OF THE JEWS.
In the early ages, the dress of mankind was very
simple. Skins of animals furnished the first materials,
which, as men increased in numbers and civilization,
were exchanged for more costly articles, made of wool
and flax, of which they manufactured woollen and
linen garments (Levit. xiii. 47. Prov. xxxi. 13.) : after-
wards, fine linen, and silk, dyed with purple, scarlet,
and crimson, became the usual apparel of the more
opulent. (2 Sam. i. 24. Prov. xxxi. 22. Luke xvi.
19.) In the more early ages, garments of various
colours were in great esteem : such was Joseph's robe,
of which his envious brethren stripped him, when they
resolved to sell him. (Gen. xxxvii. 23.) The daugh-
ters of kings wore richly embroidered vests. (Psal. xlv.
13, 14.) It appears that the Jewish garments were
worn pretty long; for it is mentioned as an aggravation
of the affront done to David's ambassadors by the king
OF THE JEWS. 347
of Ammon, that he cut off their garments in the middle
even to their buttocks, (2 Sam. x. 4.)
The most simple and antient garment was a tunic :
it was a piece of cloth, commonly linen, which en-
circled the whole body, was bound with a girdle, and
descended to the knees. Those, who are clothed with
a tunic merely, are sometimes said to be naked, as in
John xxi. 7. An under garment or shirt was worn
under the tunic. To prevent the latter from impeding
the person, girdles were worn round the loins, whence
various figurative expressions are derived in the Scrip-
tures to denote preparation, active employment, and
despatch. Sometimes also these girdles served as a
pouch to carry money and other necessary things.
(Matt. x. 9. Mark vi. 8.) Over the tunic was worn
an upper garment or mantle : it was a piece of cloth
nearly square, several feet in length and breadth, which
was wrapped round the body or tied over the shoulders.
The feet were protected from injury by sandals bound
round the feet : to loose and bind them on, was the
office of the lowest menial servants. The beard was con-
sidered a great ornament : to pluck or mar it in any
way was considered a great disgrace. (2 Sam. x. 4.) A
heavy head of hair was considered a great ornament
(2 Sam. xiv. 26.), as baldness was accounted a source
of contempt. (2 Kings ii. 23.) The hair was combed,
and set in order, and anointed, especially on festive
occasions. To this practice there are very numerous
allusions in the Scriptures. A sort of mitre, probably
similar to the modern turbans, was worn to defend the
head. A prodigious number of magnificent habits was,
antiently, regarded as a necessary part of the treasures
of the rich : and the practice of amassing them is al-
luded to in Job xxvii. 6. and Matt. vi. 19. It appears
Q 6
348 MARRIAGE CUSTOMS
from Psal. xlv. 8. that the wardrobes of the East were
plenteously perfumed with aromatics.
The dress of the women differed from that of the
men, chiefly in the quality of the materials, and in the
women wearing a veil. Rings, necklaces, pendants,
and other ornaments, still worn by the fair sex, formed
part of the apparel of the Jewish ladies : and, like the
oriental women of our time, they tinged their eyelids
with the powder of lead ore. Thus Jezebel did, who
in 2 Kings ix. 30. is said to have painted her face :
and Job's youngest daughter (xlii. 14.) had a name
(Keren-happuch, that is, the horn of pouk or lead ore,)
in reference to this practice.
Mirrors formed an important accompaniment to the
female wardrobe : antiently they were made of molten
brass polished, and were carried in the hand.
Chapter III.
MARRIAGE CUSTOMS OF THE JEWS.
Marriage was regarded by the Jews as a sacred ob-
ligation, and celibacy was accounted a great reproach.
Polygamy was tolerated but not authoritatively al-
lowed. The concubines, of whom we read, were se-
condary or inferior wives, whose children did not
inherit the father's property, except on failure of issue
by the primary or more honourable wives. Thus,
Sarah was Abraham's primary wife, by whom he had
Isaac, who was the heir of his wealth. But besides
her, he had two concubines, namely, Hagar and Ke-
turah ; by these he had other children whom he dis-
OF THE JEWS. 349
tinguished from Isaac ; for it is said he gave them gifts,
and sent them avoay while he yet lived. (Gen. xxv. 5, 6.)
No formalities appear to have been used by the
the Jews — at least none were enjoined to them by
Moses — in joining man and wife together. Mutual
consent, followed by consummation, was deemed suf-
ficient. The manner in which a daughter was de-
manded in marriage is described in the case of She-
chem, who asked Dinah the daughter of Jacob in
marriage (Gen. xxxiv. 6 — 12.) ; and the nature of the
contract, together with the mode of solemnising the mar-
riage, is described in Gen. xxiv. 50, 51. 57. 67. There
was indeed a previous espousal or betrothing, which
was a solemn promise of marriage, made by the man and
woman, each to the other, at such a distance of time as
they agreed upon. This was sometimes done by writing,
sometimes by the delivery of a piece of silver to the
bride in presence of witnesses, as a pledge of their
mutual engagements. After such espousals were made
(which was generally when the parties were young)
the woman continued with her parents several months,
if not some years (at least till she was arrived at the
age of twelve), before she was brought home, and her
marriage consummated. That it was the practice to
betroth the bride some time before the consummation of
the marriage is evident from Deut. xx. 7. Thus we
find that Samson's wife remained with her parents a
considerable time after espousals. (Judg. xiv. 8.) If,
during the time between the espousals and the mar-
riage, the bride was guilty of any criminal corre-
spondence with another person, contrary to the fidelity
she owed to her bridegroom, she was treated as an
adulteress. Among the Jews, and generally through-
out the East, marriage was considered as a sort of
purchase, which the man made of the woman he de-
350 BIRTH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN.
sired to marry ; and therefore in contracting marriages,
as the wife brought a portion to the husband, so the
husband was obliged to give her or her parents money
or presents in lieu of this portion. See instances in
Gen. xxxiv. 12. xxix. 18. 1 Sam. xviii. 25. The nup-
tial solemnity was celebrated with great festivity and
splendour. The parable of the ten virgins in Matt. xxv.
gives a good idea of the customs practised on these
occasions.
Marriage was dissolved among the Jews by divorce
as well as by death. Our Saviour tells us, that Moses
suffered this only because of the hardness of their
heart, but from the beginning it was not so (Matt.
xix. 8.) ; meaning that they were accustomed to this
abuse ; and to prevent greater evils, such as murders,
adulteries, &c. he permitted it; and he expressly
limited the permission of divorce to the single case of
adultery. (Matt. v. 31, 32.) Nor was this limitation
unnecessary : for at that time it was common for the
Jews to dissolve this sacred union upon very slight and
trivial pretences.
Chapter IV.
BIRTH, EDUCATION, ETC. OF CHILDREN.
In the East, child-birth is to this day an event of but
little difficulty, and mothers were originally the only
assistants of their daughters, any further aid being
deemed unnecessary ; though midvvives were some-
times employed. (Exod. i. 19. Gen. xxxv. 17- xxxviii.
28.) The birth of a son was celebrated as a festival,
which was solemnised in succeeding years with re*
ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, ETC. 351
newed demonstrations of joy, especially those of sove-
reign princes. (Gen. xl. 20. Job i. 4. Matt. xiv. 6.)
The birth of a son or daughter rendered the mother
ceremonially unclean for a certain period.
On the eighth day after its birth the son was cir-
cumcised and received a name. Thejirst-born son
enjoyed peculiar privileges. He received a double
portion of the estate : he was the high priest of the
whole family ; and he enjoyed an authority over those
who were younger, similar to that possessed by a father.
The sons remained till the fifth year in the care of the
women ; after which the father took charge of them and
instructed them or caused them to be instructed in the
arts and duties of life, and in the law of Moses. (Deut.
vi. 20 — 25. xi. 19.) The daughters rarely went out un-
less sent for a specific purpose. Where there were no
children, adoption — or the taking of a stranger into
a family, in order to make him a part of it, acknow-
ledging him as a son and heir to the estate, — was
practised. The elder Hebrews, indeed, do not appear
to have had recourse to adoption, because Moses is
silent concerning it in his laws. It was however com-
mon in the time of Jesus Christ; and St, Paul has
many beautiful allusions to it in his epistles.
Chapter V.
ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES, AND THE CUSTOMS RELATING TO
THEM, MENTIONED OR ALLUDED TO IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.
Slavery is of very remote antiquity. It existed be-
fore the flood (Gen. ix. 25.) : and when Moses gave
his laws to the Jews, finding it already established,
352 ON THE CONDITION OF SLAVES,
though he could not abolish it, yet he enacted various
salutary laws and regulations.
Slaves were acquired in various ways, viz. 1. By
Captivity (Gen. xiv. 14. Deut. xx. 14. xxi. 10, 11.) ;
2. By Debt, when persons, being poor, were sold for
payment of their debts (2 Kings iv. 1. Matt, xviii. 25.) ;
3. By committing a Theft, without the power of
making restitution (Exod. xxii. 2, 3. Neh. v. 4, 5.) ;
and, 4. By Birth, when persons were born of married
slaves. These are termed born in the house (Gen. xiv.
14. xv. 3. xvii. 23. xxi. 10.), home-born (Jer. ii. 14.),
and the sons or children of handmaids. (Psal. Ixxxvi.
16. cxvi. 16.)
Slaves received both food and clothing, for the
most part of the meanest quality, but whatever pro-
perty they acquired belonged to their lords : hence
they are said to be worth double the value of a hired
servant. (Deut. xv. 18.) They formed marriages at
the will of their master, but their children were slaves,
who, though they could not call him a father (Gal. iv. 6.
Rom. viii. 15.), yet they v/ere attached and faithful to him
as to a father, on which account the patriarchs trusted
them with arms. (Gen. xiv. 14. xxxii. 6. xxxiii. 1.)
Their duty was to execute their lord's commands, and
they were for the most part employed in tending
cattle or in rural affairs : and though the lot of some
of them was sufficiently hard, yet under a mild and
humane master, it was tolerable. (Jobxiii. 13.) When
the eastern people have no male issue they frequently
(as in Barbary) marry their daughters to their slaves:
so Sheshan did, who gave his daughter to his Egyptian
servant [slave] Jarha. (See 1 Chron. ii. 34, 35.) Va-
rious regulations were made by Moses to ensure the
humane treatment of slaves ; among which the three
following are particularly worthy of notice : 1. He-
AND CUSTOMS RELATING TO THEM, ETC. 353
brew slaves were to continue in slavery only till the
year of jubilee, when they might return to liberty, and
their masters could not detain them against their wills.
If they were desirous of continuing with their master,
they were to be brought to the judges, before whom
they were to make a declaration that for this time they
disclaimed the privilege of this law ; and had their ears
bored through with an awl against the door-posts of
their master's house, after which they had no longer
any power of recovering their liberty until the next
year of jubilee, after forty-nine years. (Exod. xxi.
5, 6.) 2. If a Hebrew by birth was sold to a stranger
or alien dwelling in the vicinity of the land of Israel,
his relations were to redeem him, and such slave was to
make good the purchase-money if he were able, paying
in proportion to the number of years that remained,
until the year of jubilee. (Lev. xxv. 47 — 55.) 3. Lastly,
if a slave of another nation fled to the Hebrews,
he was to be received hospitably, and on no account
to be given up to his master. (Deut. xxiii. 15, 16.)
Although Moses inculcated the duty of humane
treatment towards slaves, and enforced his statutes by
various strong sanctions, yet it appears from Jer. xxxiv.
8 — 22. that their condition was sometimes very
wretched ; and, in later times, among the Greeks and
Romans it was, for the most part, truly miserable.
Being for the most part captives taken in war, they
were bought and sold like beasts of burthen; and were
at the mercy of their owners who had an absolute right
over their lives, and who branded them, in order to
mark their property. To the practice of buying,
purchasing, and branding slaves, St. Paul has several
fine allusions. See particularly 1 Cor. vi. 20. vii. 23.
and Gal. vi. 17. The confinement of slaves in mines
appears to be referred to in Matt. viii. 12. and xxii. 13.
354 DOMESTIC CUSTOMS
and crucifixion was a punishment almost exclusively
reserved for them : whence St. Paul takes occasion to
illustrate the love of Christ for fallen man, who for
the joy that was set before him endured the cross,
despising the shame and ignominy of such a death.
Chapter VI.
DOMESTIC CUSTOMS AND USAGES OF THE JEWS.
Various are the modes of address and politeness,
which custom has established in different nations. The
ordinary formulae of salutation were — The Lord be
with, thee ! — The Lord bless thee ! — and Blessed be
thou of the Lord! but the most common salutation was
Peace, (that is, may all manner of prosperity) be with
thee! (Ruthii. 4. Judg. xix. 20. 1 Sam. xxv. 6. 2 Sam.
xx. 9. Psal. cxxix. 8.) In the later period of the Jewish
polity, much time appears to have been spent in the
rigid observance of these ceremonious forms : which
are alluded to in Matt. x. 12. See also 2 Kings iv. 29.
Respect was shown to persons on meeting, by the
salutation of Peace be with you! and laying the right
hand upon the bosom : but if the person addressed
was of the highest rank, they bowed to the earth.
Thus Jacob bowed to the ground seven times until he
came near to his brother Esau. (Gen. xxxiii. 3.) Some-
times they kissed the hem of the person's garment, and
even the dust on which he had to tread. (Zech. viii. 23.
Luke viii. 44. Acts x* 26. Psal. lxxii. 9.) Near re-
lations and intimate acquaintances kissed each other's
hands, head, neck, beard (which on such occasions
only could be touched without affront), or shoulders.
AND USAGES OF THE JEWS. 355
(Gen. xxxiii. 4. xlv. 14. 2 Sam. xx. 9. Luke xv. 20.
Acts xx. 17.)
Whenever the common people approached their
prince, or any person of superior rank, it was customary
for them to prostrate themselves before them. The
allusions to this practice, in the Old and New Testa-
ments are very numerous ; as well as to the making of
presents to superiors. (See particularly Matt. ii. 11.)
When any person visited another, he stood at the
gate and knocked, or called aloud, until the person on
whom he called admitted him. (2 Kings v. 9 — 12.
Acts x. 17. xii. 13. 16.) Visitors were always re-
ceived and dismissed with great respect. On their
arrival water was brought to wash their feet and hands
(Gen. xviii. 4. xix. 2.), after which the guests were
anointed with oil. David alludes to this in Psal. xxiii.
5. and Solomon, in Prov. xxvii. 9. The same practice
obtained in our Saviour's time. (Luke vii. 44, 45.)
The Jews rose early, about the dawn of day, when
they breakfasted. They dined about eleven in the
forenoon, and supped at five in the afternoon. Their
food consisted principally of bread, milk, rice, vege-
tables, honey, and sometimes of locusts, except at the
appointed festivals, or when they offered their feast-
offerings ; at these times they ate animal food, of which
they appear to have been very fond. (Numb. xi. 4.)
But they were prohibited from eating the flesh of
certain animals, as well as with people of another
religion. The pottage which Jacob had prepared, and
which was so tempting to Esau as to make him sell his
birthright, shews the simplicity of the ordinary diet of
the patriarchs. Isaac in his old age longed for savoury
meat, which was accordingly prepared for him (Gen.
xxvii. 4. 17.); but this was an unusual thing. The
feast with which Abraham entertained the three angels
356 DOMESTIC CUSTOMS, ETC. OF THE JEWS.
was a calf, new cakes baked on the hearth, together
with butter (ghee) and milk. (Gen. xviii. 6, 7.) We
may form a correct idea of their ordinary food by
the articles which were presented to David on va-
rious occasions by Abigail (1 Sam. xxv. 18.), by
Ziba (2 Sam. xvi. 1.), and by Barzillai. (2 Sam. xvii.
28, 29.) Their ordinary beverage was water, which
was drawn from the public wells and fountains, (John
iv. 6, 7.) and which was to be refused to no one. (John
vi. 9. Matt. xxv. 35.) Wine of different sorts, which
was preserved in skins, was also drunk by the Jews,
after their settlement in the land of Canaan. Red wine
seems to have been the most esteemed. (Prov. xxiii.
31. Rev. xiv. 20. xix. 3. 18.) The women did not
appear at table in entertainments with the men. This
would have been then, as it is at this day throughout
the East, an indecency. Thus Vashti the Queen made
a feast for the women in the royal house, which belonged
to Ahasuerus, (Esther i. 9.) while the Persian monarch
was feasting his nobles.
The Hebrews antiently sat at table as we do now ;
afterwards, they imitated the Persians and Chaldeans,
who reclined on table-beds while eating ; some traces
of these are nevertheless observed in the Proverbs
(xxiii. 1.), in Amos (vi. 4. 7«)> Ezekiel (xxiii. 47.), and
Tobit (ii. 4.) ; but this use was not general. We see
expressions in the sacred authors of those times, which
prove that they also sat at table. At Ahasuerus's
banquet, (Esth. i. 6.) the company lay on beds, and at
that which Esther gave the king and Haman. (Esth.
vii. 8.) Our Saviour in like manner reclined at table,
when Mary Magdalen anointed his feet with perfume
(Matt. xxvi. 7.), and when John, at the last supper,
rested his head on his bosom. (John xiii. 25.)
357
When persons journied, they provided themselves
with every necessary : women and rich men frequently
travelled on asses or camels, which carried not only
their merchandize, but also their household goods and
chattels. The Jews often travelled in caravans or
companies (as the inhabitants of the East do to this
day), especially when they went up to Jerusalem at the
three great annual festivals. The company, among
which Joseph and Mary supposed Jesus to have been
on their return from the passover, when he was twelve
years old (Luke ii. 42 — 44.), was one of these
caravans.
In the East, antiently, as well as in modern times,
there were no inns, in which the traveller could meet
with refreshment. Hence hospitality was deemed a
sacred duty incumbent upon every one. The sacred
writings exhibit several instances of hospitality exer-
cised by the patriarchs. (Gen. xviii. 2, 3, &c.xix. 1 — 3.)
St. Paul and St. Peter frequently enforce the sacred
duty of hospitality.
Chapter VII.
ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE HEBREWS.
Section I. — Agriculture and Horticulture of the Jews.
Agriculture, including sheep husbandry, was the
principal occupation of the patriarchs and their fami-
lies : and in succeeding ages the greatest men, as
Moses, David, and others, did not disdain to follow,
husbandry, however mean that occupation may be
accounted in modern times. All the Mosaic statutes,
358 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC.
indeed, were admirably calculated to encourage agri-
culture, as the chief basis of national prosperity, and
also to preserve the Israelites detached from the sur-
rounding idolatrous nations.
Although the Scriptures do not furnish us with any
details respecting the state of agriculture in Judaea, yet
we may collect from various passages many interesting
hints that will enable us to form a tolerably correct
idea of the high state of its cultivation. With the use
of manures, the Jews were unquestionably acquainted.
Salt, either by itself, or mixed in the dunghill in order
to promote putrefaction, is specially mentioned as one
article of manure (Matt. v. 13. Luke xiv. 34?, 35.): and
as the river Jordan annually overflowed its banks, the
mud deposited when its waters subsided must have
served as a valuable irrigation and top-dressing, parti-
cularly to the pasture lands. It is probable that after
the waters had thus subsided seed was sown on the wet
soft ground ; in allusion to which, Solomon says, Cast
thy bread (corn or seed) upon the waters : for thou shalt
Jlnd it again, with increase, after many days. (Eccles.
xi. 1.) And Isaiah, promising a time of peace and
plenty, says — Blessed are ye that sow beside all waters,
and send Jbrth thither the feet of the ox and the ass
(Isa. xxxii. 20.)
The method of managing the ground, and preparing
it for the seed, was much the same with the practice
of the present times; for Jeremiah speaks of plough-
ing up the fallow ground (Jer. iv. 3.), and Isaiah of
harrowing, or breaking up the clods (Isa. xxviii. 24.) ;
but Moses, for wise reasons doubtless, gave a positive
injunction, that they should not sow their fields with
mingled seed.
The kinds of grain sowed by the Jews were fitches,
cummin, wheat, barley, and rice (Isa. xxviii. 25.) : there
OF THE HEBREWS. 359
were three months between their sowing and their first
reaping, and four months to their full harvest : their
barley-harvest was at the passover, and their wheat-
harvest at the Pentecost. The reapers made use of
sickles, and according to the present custom they filled
their hands with the corn, and those that bound up the
sheaves their bosom : there was a person set over the
reapers (Ruth ii. 5.) to see that they did their work,
that they had provision proper for them, and to pay
them their wages : the Chaldees call him Rab, the
master, the ruler, or governor of the reapers. Women
were employed in reaping as well as the men. The
poor were allowed the liberty of gleaning, though the
land-owners were not bound to admit them immediately
into the field as soon as the reapers had cut down the
corn and bound it up in sheaves, but when it was car-
ried off: they might choose also among the poor, whom
they thought most worthy, or most necessitous. The
conclusion of the harvest, or carrying home the last
load, was with the Jews a season of joyous festivity,
and was celebrated with a harvest-feast. (Psal. cxxvi.
Isa. ix. 3. xvi. 9, 10.) The corn, being cut, and carried
in waggons or carts, (Numb. vii. 3 — 8. Isa. v. 8. xxviii.
27, 28. Amos ii. 13.) was either laid up in stacks (Exod.
xxii. 6.) or barns (Matt. vi. 26. xiii. 30. Luke xiii. ]8.
24.) ; and, when threshed out, was stored in granaries
or garners. (Psal. xliv. 13. Matt. iii. 12.) David had
storehouses in the fields, in the cities, and in the villages,
and in the castles. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25.)
After the grain was carried into the barn, the
next concern was to thresh or beat the corn out of the
ear, which process was performed in various ways.
Sometimes it was done by horses (Isa. xxviii. 28.), and
by oxen, that trod out the corn with their hoofs shod
with brass. (Mic. iv. 12, 13.) This mode of threshing
360 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC.
is expressly referred to by Hosea (x. 11.), and in the
prohibition of Moses against muzzling the ox that tread-
eth out the corn (Deut. xxv. 4.), and it obtains in India to
this day. Other modes of threshing are mentioned in
Isa. xxviii. 28. Judg. vi. 11. and 1 Chron. xxi. 20.
When the corn was thus threshed, it was dried either in
the sun, or by a fire, or in a furnace. This is called
parched corn (Levit. xxiii. 14. 1 Sam. xvii. 17. and
xxv. 18.), and was sometimes used in this manner for
food without any farther preparation; but, generally,
the parching or drying it was in order to make it more
fit for grinding. This process was performed either in
mortars or mills, both of which are mentioned in Numb.
xi. 8. : but mills were chiefly employed for this pur-
pose ; and they were deemed of such use and necessity,
that the Israelites were strictly forbidden to take the
nether or upper mill-stone in pledge ; the reason of
which is added, because this was taking a man's life in
pledge (Deut. xxiv. 6.), intimating that while the mill
ceases to grind, people are in danger of being starved.
The grinding at mills was accounted an inferior sort
of work, and therefore prisoners and captives were
generally put to it. To this work Samson was set,
while he was in the prison-house. (Judg. xvi. 21.)
There hand-mills were usually kept, by which prisoners
earned their living. The expression in Isa. xlvii. 2.
— Take the mill-stones and grind meal — is part of the
description of a slave ; but for the most part the women-
servants were employed in this drudgery, as is evident
from Matt. xxiv. 1. This was in use not only among
the Jews but also among the Egyptians and Chaldeans,
as appears from Exod. xi. 5. and Lam. v. 13. The
various processes of agriculture have furnished the
sacred writers with numerous beautiful allusions. Pa-
lestine abounded with generous wine ; and in some
OF THE HEBREWS. 361
districts the grapes were of superior quality. The
canton allotted to Judah was celebrated on this account.
In this district were the vales of Sorek and of Eshcol ■
and the cluster, which the Hebrew spies carried from
this last place, was so large as to be carried on a staff
between two of them (Numb. xiii. 23.); Lebanon
(Hos. xiv. 7.), and Helbon (Ezek. xxvii. 18.), were
likewise celebrated for their exquisite wines. Grapes
were also dried into raisins. (1 Sam. xxv. 18. 2 Sam.
xvi.l.)
The antient Hebrews were very fond of gardens,
which are frequently mentioned in the sacred writings ;
and derive their appellations from the prevalence of
certain trees, as the garden of nuts and of pomegranates.
(Sol. Song. vi. 11. iv. 13.) Besides these and other
fruits, which were common in Judaea, (as dates,
figs, &c.) they had regular plantations of olives, the
oil expressed from which furnished a profitable article
of commerce with the Tyrians (Ezek. xxvii. 17. com-
pared with 1 Kings v. 11.) : and among the judgments
with which God threatened the Israelites for their sins,
it was denounced, that though they had olive trees
through all their coasts, yet they should not anoint
themselves with the oil, for the olive should cast her
fruit. (Deut. xxvii i. 40.)
Section II. — On the Arts and Sciences of the Jews.
Of the arts practised by the Hebrews, in the earlier
periods of their history, we have but few notices in the
sacred writings. From the mention of utensils, orna-
ments, and other things, which imply some knowledge
of the arts, in the book of Genesis, it is evident that
considerable progress must have been made in the time
362 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC.
of Noah : and it is scarcely credible that the Hebrews
could have resided four hundred years in Egypt, with-
out acquiring some knowledge of those arts, which
their masters are allowed to have possessed. Soon
after the death of Joshua, a place was expressly allotted
to artificers : for, in the genealogy of the tribe of
Judah, delivered in 1 Chron. iv. 14., we read of a place
called the Valley of Craftsmen, and (ver. 21. 23.) of a
family of workmen of fine linen, and another of potters:
and when Jerusalem was taken by Nebuchadnezzar,
the enemy carried away all the craftsmen and smiths.
(2 Kings xxiv. 14.) But as a proof that their skill in
manufactures and trade therein could not be very ex-
tensive, we find that the prophet Ezekiel, (chap, xxvii.)
in describing the affluence of the goods which came to
Tyre, mentions nothing as being brought thither from
Judaea, except wheat, oil, grapes, and balm, which
were all the natural product of their ground. From
Prov. xxxi. 13. it appears that the mistresses of families
usually made the clothing for their husbands, their
children, and themselves.
Their knowledge in liberal arts does not seem to
have greatly exceeded their skill in mechanics. They
knew but little of astronomy and the motions of the
heavenly bodies. Solomon indeed was a noble pattern
of knowledge and wisdom. His skill in natural philo-
sophy is sufficiently indicated, when we are told, that
he spake of trees from the cedar tree that is in Lebanon,
even to the hyssop that springeth out of the wall ; he
spake also of beasts, and of fowls, and of creeping things ,
and of fishes. (1 Kings iv. 33.) His books of Proverbs
and Ecclesiastes abundantly inform us what skill he
had in ethics, economics, and politics : but as the
wonderful talents with which he was endued were the
immediate gift of God, and in compliance with his
OF THE HEBREWS. 363
special request for divine wisdom (2Chron. i, 7 — 13. )}
so singular an instance is no rule, by which we ought
to judge of the genius of the whole nation.
Nor did building or architecture attain much perfec-
tion prior to the reign of the accomplished Solomon.
We read, indeed, before the Israelites came into the
land of Canaan, that Bezaleel and Aholiab (who were
employed in the construction of the tabernacle) ex-
celled in all manner of workmanship (Exod. xxxv.
30 — 35.), but we are there told, that they had their
skill by inspiration from God, and it does not appear
that they had any successors ; for in the days of Solo-
mon, when they were at rest from all their enemies,
and at full freedom to follow out improvements of every
kind, yet they had no professed artists that could un-
dertake the work of the temple, so that Solomon was
obliged to send to Hiram, king of Tyre, for a skilful
artist (2Chron.vii. 13, 14<.), by whose direction the
model of the temple, and all the curious furniture of it,
was both designed and finished. But, after the Jews
were under the influence or power of the Romans,
there is no doubt that a better taste prevailed among
them. Herod, at least, must have employed some
architects of distinguished abilities to repair and beau-
tify the temple, and render it the superb structure
which the description of Josephus shows that it must
have been.
We read nothing of the art of writing in Scripture,
before the copy of the law was given by God to Moses,
which was written (that is, engraven,) on two tables of
stone by the finger of God (Exod. xxxi. 18.), and this
is called the writing of God. (Exod. xxxii. 16.) It is
therefore probable that God himself was the first who
taught letters to Moses, who communicated the know-
ledge of them to the Israelites, and they to the other
r 2
364 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC.
eastern nations. Engraving or sculpture seems, there-
fore, to be the most antient way of writing, of which we
have another very early instance in Exod. xxxix. 30.
where we are told, that " Holiness to the Lord" was
written on a golden plate, and worn on the high priest's
head. And we find that the names of the twelve
tribes were commanded to be written on twelve rods.
(Numb. xvii. 2.) Afterwards they made use of broad
rushes or flags for writing on, which grew in great
abundance in Egypt, and are noticed by the prophet
Isaiah, when foretelling the confusion of that country.
(Isa. xix. 6, 7.)
The other eastern nations made use chiefly of parch-
ment, being the thin skins of animals carefully dressed.
The best was made at Pergamos, whence it was called
Charta Pergamena. It is probable that the Jews
learned the use of it from them, and that this is what
is meant by a roll (Ezra vi. 2.), and a roll of a book
(Jer. xxxvi. 2.), and a scroll rolled together (Isa. xxxiv.
4.) : for it could not be thin and weak paper, but parch-
ment, which is of some consistency, that was capable
of being thus rolled up. St. Paul is the only person
who makes express mention of parchment. ( 2 Tim. iv.
13.) In Job xix. 24. and in Jer. xvii. 1. there is men-
tion made of pens of iron, with which they probably
made the letters, when they engraved on stone or other
hard substances : but for softer materials they, in all
probability, made use of quills or reeds ; for we are
told of some in the tribe of Zebulun who handled the
pen of the writer. (Judg. v. 14.) David alludes to the
pen of a ready writer (Psal.xlv. i.), and Baruch, as we
are told, wrote the words of Jeremiah with ink in a book.
(Jer. xxxvi. 18.)
Of the poetry and music of the Hebrews we have
more ample information.
OP THE HEBREWS. 365
The genius of their Poetry having been al-
ready discussed in pages 143 — 148., it is sufficient
here to remark, that the effusions of the inspired
Hebrew muse infinitely surpass in grandeur, sub-
limity, beauty, and pathos, all the most celebrated
productions of Greece and Rome. Not to repeat
unnecessarily the observations already offered on
this topic, we may here briefly remark, that the
eucharistic song of Moses, composed on the deliver-
ance of the Israelites and their miraculous passage of
the Red Sea (Exod. xv. 1 — 19.), is an admirable hymn,
full of strong and lively images. The song of Deborah
and Barak (Judg. v.), and that of Hannah, the mother
of Samuel (1 Sam. ii. 1.), have many excellent flights,
and some noble and sublime raptures. David's lament-
ation on the death of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. i. 19
— 27«) is an incomparable elegy. The gratulatory hymn
(Isa. xii.) and Hezekiah's song of praise (Isa. xxviii.) are
worthy of every one's attention. The prayer of Ha-
bakkuk (iii.) contains a sublime description of the
divine majesty. Besides these single hymns we have
the book of Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Canticles,
and Lamentations ; all of which are composed by dif-
ferent poets, according to the usage of those times.
The Psalms are a great storehouse of heavenly devo-
tion, full of affecting and sublime thoughts, and with a
variety of expressions admirably calculated to excite
a thankful remembrance of God's mercies, and for
moving the passions of joy and grief, indignation and
hatred. They consist mostly of pious and affectionate
prayers, holy meditations, and exalted strains of praise
and thanksgiving, intermingled with sublime descrip-
tions, and most beautiful allusions.
Their sacred songs were accompanied with Music,
the nature of which it is now as difficult to determine
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366 ON THE OCCUPATIONS, ARTS, ETC.
as it is to ascertain with precision the various musical
instruments which were in use among them, without
entering into details and conjectures which are incon-
sistent with the plan of this volume. Referring the
reader, therefore, to the author's larger work, in which
he has attempted to collect the most probable accounts,
he will only remark in this place, that, if any conclusions
may be drawn concerning the Hebrew music from its
effects, the sacred history has recorded several exam-
ples of the power and charms of music to sweeten the
temper, to compose and allay the passions of the mind,
to revive the drooping spirits, and to dissipate melan-
choly. It had this effect on Saul, when David played
to him on his harp. (1 Sam. xvi. 16. 23.) And when
Elisha was desired by Jehoshaphat to tell him what his
success against the king of Moab would be, the pro-
phet required a minstrel to be brought unto him ; and
when he played, it is said, that the hand of the Lord
came upon him (2 Kings hi, 15.), not that the gift of
prophecy was the natural effect of music, but the
meaning is, that music disposed the organs, the hu-
mours, and, in short, the whole mind and spirit of the
prophet to receive these supernatural impressions.
But music was not exclusively confined to religious
worship. From Gen. xxxi. 27. Isa. v. 2. and xxiv. 8.
it appears that music was employed on all solemn occa-
sions of entertaining their friends, and also at other
entertainments. That music and dancing were used
among the Jews at their feasts in latter ages, may be
inferred from the parable of the prodigal son. (Luke
xv. 25.) Further, dancing was also an ordinary conco-
mitant of music among the Jews ; sometimes it was
used on a religious account. Thus Miriam with her
women glorified God (after the deliverance from the
Egyptians) in dances as well as songs (Exod. xv. 20. ),
OF THE HEBREWS. 367
and David danced after the ark. (2 Sam. ii. 16.) It was
a thing common at the Jewish feasts (Judg. xxi. 19.21.),
and in public triumphs (Judg. xi. 34.), and at all sea-
sons of mirth and rejoicing. (Psal. xxx.ll. Jer. xxxi.
4.13. Luke xv. 25.) The idolatrous Jews made it a
part of their worship which they paid to the golden
calf. (Exod. xxxii. 19.) The Amalekites danced after
their victory at Ziklag (I Sam. xxx. 16.), and Job
makes it part of the character of the prosperous wicked,
(that is, of those who, placing all their happiness in the
enjoyments of sense, forget God and religion,) that
their children dance. (Job xxi. 11.) The dancing of
the profligate Herodias's daughter pleased Herod so
highly, that he promised to give her whatever she
asked, and accordingly, at her desire, and in compli-
ment to her, he commanded John the Baptist to be be-
headed in prison. (Matt. xiv. 6, 7, 8.)
The diseases to which the human frame is subject
would naturally lead man to try to alleviate or to re-
move them. Hence sprang the art of Medicine. An-
tiently, it is said to have been the practice to expose
the sick on the sides of frequented ways, in order that
those persons who passed along, inquiring into the
nature of their complaint, might communicate the
knowledge of such remedies as had been beneficial to
themselves under similar circumstances. The healing
art was unquestionably cultivated ; but there is reason
to think that the knowledge of the Jews was very
limited, and that it extended little beyond the curing
of a green wound, or the binding up of fractures. In
the case of internal disorders, it does not appear to
have been customary to call in the aid of a physician.
These maladies were regarded as the immediate effect
of the divine anger, and inflicted by evil spirits, as the
executioners of his vengeance ; and this was the reason
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368 OCCUPATIONS, ETC. OF THE HEBREWS.
why religious people had generally recourse to God
only, or to his prophets (see 2 Kings xx. 7.), while the
irreligious resorted to false gods, and charms or en-
chantments. (2 Kings i. 2. Jer. viii. 17.)
Various diseases are mentioned in the sacred writings,
as cancers, consumption, dropsy, epilepsy, fevers, gan-
grenes, hemorrhoids, or piles, leprosy (concerning
which see p. 336. supra), lunacy, palsy, &c. The disease
of Saul appears to have been a true melancholy mad-
ness ; that of Nebuchadnezzar, a hypochondriacal mad-
ness ; that of Job, an incurable elephantiasis, in which
the skin becomes uneven and wrinkled with many fur-
rows, like that of an elephant, whence it takes its
name.
Lastly, in the New Testament we meet with nume-
rous cases of what are termed Demoniacal Possession.
Some eminent writers have supposed that the demo-
niacs, or persons who were possessed by evil spirits,
were only lunatics. But it is evident that the persons,
who in the New Testament are said to be possessed xvith
devils (more correctly with demons), cannot mean only
persons afflicted with some strange disease : for they
are evidently here, as in other places, — particularly in
Luke iv. 33 — 36. 41. — distinguished from the diseased.
Further, Christ's speaking on various occasions to these
evil spirits, as distinct from the persons possessed by
them, — his commanding them and asking them ques-
tions, and receiving answers from them, or not suffering
them to speak, — and several circumstances relating
to the terrible preternatural effects which they had
upon the possessed, and to the manner of Christ's
evoking them, — particularly their requesting and ob-
taining permission to enter the herd of swine (Matt,
viii. 31, 32.), and precipitating them into the sea; —
all these circumstances can never be accounted for by
ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, ETC. $B9
any distemper whatever. Nor is it any reasonable ob-
jection, that we do not read of such frequent possessions
before or since the appearance of our Redeemer upon
earth. It seems, indeed, to have been ordered by a
special providence that they should have been per-
mitted to have then been more common ; in order that
He, who came to destroy the works of the Devil, might
the more remarkably and visibly triumph over him ;
and that the machinations and devices of Satan might
be more openly defeated, at a time when their
power was at its highest, both in the souls and bodies
of men ; and also, that plain facts might be a sensible
confutation of the Sadducean error, which denied the
existence of angels or spirits (Acts xxiii. 8.), and pre-
vailed among the principal men both for rank and
learning in those days. The cases of the demoniacs ex-
pelled by the apostles were cases of real possessions :
and it is a well known fact, that, in the second century
of the Christian aera, the apologists for the persecuted
believers in the faith of Christ appealed to their
ejection of evil spirits as a proof of the divine origin of
their religion. Hence it is evident that the demoniacs
were not merely insane or epileptic patients, but per-
sons really and truly vexed and convulsed by unclean
demons.
Chapter VIII
ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, TO THEATRICAL PERFORMANCES, AND
TO THE GRECIAN GAMES, IN THE NEW TESTAMENT.
I. Theatrical performances were in great request
among the Greeks and Romans, and this will account
for so many theatres being erected in Judaea, soon after
that country became subject to the Roman power.
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370 ALLUSIONS TO THE THEATRES, ETC.
The Epistles of St. Paul, being addressed to Gentiles,
abound with elegant allusions drawn from the theatre.
Thus, in 1 Cor. vii. 29—31. he refers to the person-
ification of the woes of others, which was common on
the stage, while the heart continued unaffected with
them, and also to the rapid shifting of the scenes. In
1 Cor. iv. 9. he alludes to the barbarous practice then
common in the Roman amphitheatre, where the bes-
tiarii, who in the morning combated with wild beasts,
had armour with which to defend themselves, and to
slay their antagonists : but the last, those who were ex-
posed at noon, were naked and unarmed, and set forth
(as our version renders it) to certain and cruel death.
II. But the most splendid and renowned solemnities
were the Olympic Games, solemnized every fifth year,
in the presence of a cloud of witnesses or spectators,
assembled from almost every part of the then known
world. The exercises at these games consisted prin-
cipally in running, wrestling, and the chariot race.
The candidates were to be freemen and Greeks, of
unimpeachable character ; and they were subjected to
a long and severe regimen. On the day appointed, the
names of the candidates were called over by the
heralds: and on a given signal, those who engaged
in the foot-race, rushed forward towards the goal, in
the presence of the assembled multitude, and especially
of the Hellanodics, persons venerable for their years
and character, who were appointed judges of the games,
and whose province it was to distribute chaplets com-
posed of the fading sprigs of the wild olive, and palm-
branches, which were conspicuously exposed to the
view of the candidates. The knowledge of these cir-
cumstances throws much light and beauty on those
animating exhortations of St. Paul, in Heb. xii. 1 — 3,
12» 13. Phil. iii. 12—14. 2 Tim. iv. 7, 8. and 1 Cor. iiu
JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. 371
24, 25. In the two following verses, he alludes to the
practice of those who engaged in boxing, as well as to
the previous discipline to which all candidates were
subjected.
Chapter IX.
JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD. FUNERAL RITES.
By the law of Moses a dead body conveyed a legal
pollution to every thing that touched it, — even to the
very house and furniture, — which continued seven
days. (Numb. xix. 14, 15, 16.) And this was the rea-
son why the priests, on account of their daily minis-
trations in holy things, were forbidden to assist at any
funerals but those of their nearest relatives ; nay, the
very dead bones, though they had lain ever so long in
the grave, if digged up, conveyed a pollution to any
who touched them ; and this was the reason why Josiah
caused the bones of the false priests to be burnt upon
the altar at Bethel (2 Chron. xxxiv. 5.), to the intent
that these altars, being thus polluted, might be had in
the greater detestation.
When the principle of life was extinguished, the first
funeral office among the Jews was to close the eyes of
the deceased. This was done by the nearest of kin.
Thus, it was promised to Jacob, when he took his
journey into Egypt, that Joseph should put his hands
upon his eyes. (Gen. xlvi. 4.) The next office was the
ablution of the corpse. Thus, when Tabitha died, it
is said, that they 'washed her body> and laid it in an
upper chamber. (Acts ix. 37.) This rite was common
both to the Greeks and Romans. In Egypt, it is still
the custom to wash the dead body several times with
R 6
372 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD.
rain water. Loud lamentations attended the decease of
persons, especially those who were greatly beloved,
not only as soon as they had expired (Gen. 1. 1.
Matt. ix. 23. Mark v. 38.); but especially at the time
of interment. (Gen. 1. 10, 11.) In later times, the Jews
hired persons, whose profession it was to superintend
and conduct these funeral lamentations (Jer. ix. 17.
xvi. 6, 7. Jer. xlviii. 36, 37. Ezek. xxiv. 16—18.
Amos v. 16.) : and in the time of Christ, minstrels and
mourners were hired for this purpose. (Matt. ix. 23.
Mark v. 38.)
After the corpse had been washed it was embalmed
in costly spices and aromatic drugs, after which it was
closely swathed in linen rollers, probably resembling
those of the Egyptian mummies now to be seen in the
British Museum. So Nicodemus made preparation
for the embalming of Jesus Christ (John xix. 39, 40.);
and Lazarus appears to have been swathed in a similar
way, when raised to life again by the omnipotent voice
of Jesus Christ. (John xi. 44.) At the funerals of
some Jewish monarchs, great piles of aromatics were
set on fire, in which were consumed their bowels,
armour, and other things. (2 Chron. xvi. 14. Jer.
xxxiv. 5.)
The Jews shewed great regard for the burial of their
dead. To be deprived of interment, was deemed one
of the greatest dishonours and calamities that could befall
any person. (Psal. Ixxix. 2. Jer. xxii. 19. xxxvi. 30.)
Their burial-places were in gardens, fields, and the sides
of mountains : and over the rich and great were erected
splendid monuments. To this practice Jesus Christ
alludes in Matt, xxiii. 7. From Isa. lxv. 4. and Mark
v. 5. it should seem that some tombs had cupolas over
them which afforded shelter, similar to those which
FUNERAL RITES. 373
modern travellers in the East have seen and described.
Family-sepulchres were in gardens. (John xix. 41.)
A funeral feast commonly succeeded the Jewish
burials. Thus after Abner's funeral was solemnised,
the people came to David to eat meat with him, though
they could not persuade him to do so. (2 Sam. iii. 35.)
He was the chief mourner, and probably had invited
them to this banquet. Of this Jeremiah speaks (xvi. 7.)>
where he calls it the cup of consolation , which they
drank for their father or their mother ; and accordingly
the place where this funeral entertainment was made
is called in the next verse the house of feasting. Hosea
calls it the bread of mourners. (Hos. ix. 4.)
The usual tokens of mourning, by which the Jews
expressed their grief and concern for the death of their
friends and relations, were, the rending of their gar-
ments, putting on sack-cloth, sprinkling dust upon their
heads, wearing mourning apparel, and covering the
face and head. (Gen. xxxvii. 34. 2 Sam. xiv. 2. xix. 4.)
Antiently, there was a peculiar space of time allotted
for lamenting the deceased, which they called the days
of mourning. (Gen. xxvii. 41. and 1. 4.) Thus the
Egyptians, who had a great regard for the patriarch
Jacob, lamented his death threescore and ten days.
(Gen. 1. 3.) The Israelites wept for Moses in the
plains of Moab thirty days. (Deut. xxxiv. 8.) After-
wards among the Jews the funeral mourning was
generally confined to seven days. Thus, besides the
mourning for Jacob in Egypt, Joseph and his com-
pany set apart seven days to mourn for his father,
when they approached the Jordan with his corpse.
(Gen. 1. 10.) No particular period has been record-
ed, during which widows mourned for their husbands.
Bathsheba is said, generally, to have mourned for
Uriah (2 Sam. xi. 26.) ; but her mourning could
3 74 JEWISH MODE OF TREATING THE DEAD.
neither be long nor very sincere. The Jews paid
a greater or less degree of honour to their kings
after their death, according to the merits of their
actions when they were alive. On the death of any
prince, who had in anyway distinguished himself, they
used to make lamentations or mournful songs for them.
From an expression in 2 Chron. xxxv. 25. Behold, they
are written in the Lamentations, we may infer that they
had certain collections of this kind of composition.
The author of the book of Samuel has preserved those
which David composed on occasion of the death of
Saul and Jonathan, of Abner and Absalom ; but we
have no remains of the mournful elegy composed by
Jeremiah upon the immature death of Josiah, the
exemplary king of Judah.
375
PART IV.
ON THE ANALYSIS OF SCRIPTURE.
BOOK I. — ANALYSIS OF THE OLD TESTAMENT.
Chapter L
ON THE PENTATEUCH,
The Pentateuch, by which title the five first books ol*
Moses are distinguished, is a word of Greek original,
Il£j/TaT£v%os (Pentateuchos) from irevrs (penie) five,
and Ttv%oq (teuchos) a book or volume, which liter-
ally signifies the five instruments or books ; by the
Jews it is termed Chometz, a word synonymous with
Pentateuch, and also, more generally, the Law, or the
Law of Moses, because it contains the ecclesiastical
and political ordinances issued by God to the Israel-
ites. The Pentateuch forms, to this day, but one roll
or volume in the Jewish manuscripts, being divided
only into larger and smaller sections. This collective
designation of the books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus,
Numbers, and Deuteronomy, is of very considerable
antiquity, though we have no certain information when
it was first introduced. As, however, the names of
these books are evidently derived from the Greek, and
as the five books of Moses are expressly mentioned by
Josephus, who wrote only a few years after our Sa-
376 ON THE PENTATEUCH.
viour's ascension, we have every reason to believe that
the appellation of Pentateuch was prefixed to the
Septuagint version by the Alexandrian translators.
Section I. — On the Book of Genesis.
The first book of the Pentateuch, which is called
Genesis (rENE2I2), derives its appellation from the
title it bears in the Greek Septuagint Version, BIBA02
rENE2Eft2 (Biblos Geneseos) ; which signifies the Book
of the Generation or Production, because it commences
with the history of the generation or production of all
things. Different opinions have been entertained con-
cerning the time when Moses wrote it (for it is indis-
putably his production): but the most probable conjec-
ture is that, which places it after the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt, and the promulgation of the law.
It comprises the history of about 2369 years according
to the vulgar computation of time, or of 3619 years ac-
cording to the larger computation of Dr. Hales ; and
may be divided into four parts, viz.
Part I. The Origin of the World, (ch. i. ii.)
Part II. The History of the former World, (ch.
iii — vii.)
Part III. The General History of Mankind after
the Deluge, (ch. viii — xi.)
Part IV. The particular History of the Patriarchs,
(ch. xii— 1.)
Section II.— Of the Book of Exodus.
The title of this book is derived from the Septuagint
version, and is significant of the principal transaction
which it records, namely, the ES0A02 {Exodos), Ex-
ON THE PENTATEUCH. 377
odus, or departure of the Israelites from Egypt. It com-
prises a history of the events that took place during
the period of 145 years, from the year of the world
2369 to 2514 inclusive, from the death of Joseph to
the erection of the tabernacle. Though the time when
it was written by Moses cannot be precisely deter-
mined, yet, since it is a history of matters of fact, it
must have been written after the giving of the law and
the erection of the tabernacle. This book shows the
accomplishment of the divine promises made to Abra-
ham, of the increase of his posterity, and their depart-
ure from Egypt after suffering great affliction. It
contains
I. An Account of the Oppression of the Israelites,
and the transactions previously to their departure out
of Egypt, (ch. i — xi.)
II. The Narrative of the Exodus or Departure of
the Israelites, (ch. xii, xiii.)
III. Transactions subsequent to their Exodus, (ch.
xiv — xviii.)
IV. The Promulgation of the Law on Mount Sinai,
(ch. xix — xl.)
In ch. xxxii — xxxiv. are related the idolatry of the Israel-
ites, the breaking of the two tables of the law, the divine
chastisement of the Hebrews, and the renewal of the tables of
the covenant.
Section III. — On the Book of Leviticus.
Leviticus (by the Septuagint styled AETITIKON,
Levitikon,) derives its name from the circumstance of
its containing the Laws concerning the religion of the
Israelites. It is cited as the production of Moses in se-
veral books of Scripture; and is of great use in explain-
378 ON THE PENTATEUCH.
ing many passages of the New Testament, especially
the Epistle to the Hebrews which would otherwise be
inexplicable. The enactments it contains may be re-
ferred to the four following heads, viz.
I. The Laws concerning Sacrifices, in which the
different kinds of sacrifices are enumerated, together
with their concomitant rites, (ch. i — vii.)
II. The Institution of the Priesthood, in which the
consecration of Aaron and his sons to the sacred office
is related, together with the punishment of Nadab and
Abihu. (ch. viii — x.)
III. The Laws concerning Purifications both of the
people and the priests, (ch. xi — xxii. )
IV. The Laws concerning the sacred Festivals,
Vows, Things devoted, and Tithes.
Chap. xxvi. contains various prophetic promises and threat-
enings which have signally been fulfilled among the Jews.
(Compare v. 22. with Numb. xxi. 6. 2 Kings ii. 24. and xvii. 25.
with Ezek. v. 17.) The preservation of the Jews to this day
as a distinct people is a living comment on v. 44.
Section IV. — On the Book of Numbers.
This fourth book of Moses was entitled API0MOI
(Arithmoi), and by the Latin translators it was termed
Numeric Numbers, whence our English title is derived ;
because it contains an account of the numbering of
the children of Israel (related in chapters i — iii. and
xxvi.) It appears from xxxvi. 13. to have been
written by Moses in the plains of Moab. Besides,
the numeration and marshalling of the Israelites for
their journey, several laws, in addition to those de-
livered in Exodus and Leviticus, and likewise several
remarkable events, are recorded in this book. It
contains a history of the Israelites, from the beginning
ON THE PENTATEUCH. 379
of the second month of the second year after their
departure from Egypt to the beginning of the eleventh
month of the fortieth year of their journeyings — that
is, a period of thirty-eight years and nine or ten
months. (Compare Numb. i. 1. and xxxvi. 13. with
Deut. i. 3.) Most of the transactions here recorded
took place in the second and thirty-eighth years : " the
dates of the facts related in the middle of the book
cannot be precisely ascertained." This book may be
divided into four parts ; viz.
Part I. The Census of the Israelites, and the mar-
shalling of them into a regular camp, " each tribe by
itself under its own captain or chief, distinguished by
his own peculiar standard, and occupying an assigned
place with reference to the tabernacle.'' (Numb. i. ii.)
The sacred census of the Levites, the designation of
them to the sacred office, and the appointment of them
to various services in the tabernacle, are related in
Numb. iii. and iv.
Part II. The Institution of various Legal Cere-
monies, (ch. v — x.)
Part III. The History of their Journey from Mount
Sinai to the Land of Moab, which may be described
and distinguished by their eight remarkable murmurings
in the way ; every one of which was visited with severe
chastisement, (ch. xi — xxi.)
Part IV. A History of the Transactions which took
place in the plains of Moab. (ch. xxii— xxxvi.)
Section V. — On the Book of Deuteronomy.
This fifth book of Moses derives its name from
the title (AETTEPONOMION, D enter onomion) prefixed
to it by the translators of the Septuagint version,
which is a compound term, signifying the second
380 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
law, or the latv repeated ; because it contains a
repetition of the law of God, given by Moses to
the Israelites. From a comparison of Deut. i. 5.
with xxiv. 1. it appears to have been written by
Moses in the plains of Moab, a short time before his
death : and this circumstance will account for that
affectionate earnestness with which he addresses the
Israelites. The period of time comprised in this book
is five lunar weeks, or, according to some chronologers,
about two months, viz. from the first day of the
eleventh month of the fortieth year after the exodus
of Israel from Egypt, to the eleventh day of the twelfth
month of the same year, a. m. 2553. b. c. 1451. This
book comprises four parts ; viz.
Part I. A Repetition of the History related in the
preceding Books, (ch. i — iv.)
Part II. A Repetition of the Moral, Ceremonial, and
Judicial Law. (ch. v — xxvi.)
Part III. The Confirmation of the Law. (ch. xxvil
— xxx.)
Part IV. The Personal History of Moses, (ch. xxxi
— xxxiii.)
The 34th chapter (which relates the death of Moses) has
most probably been detached from the Book of Joshua : for
Moses could not record his own death.
Chapter II.
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
This division of the sacred writings comprises twelve
books, viz. from Joshua to Esther inclusive : the first
seven of these books are, by the Jews, called the former
prophets, probably because they treat of the more
antient periods of Jewish history, and because they
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 38]
are most justly supposed to be written by prophetical
men. The events recorded in these books occupy a
period of almost one thousand years, which commences
at the death of Moses, and terminates with the great
national reform effected by Nehemiah, after the return
of the Jews from the Babylonish captivity.
Section I. — On the Book of Joshua.
The book of Joshua, which in all the copies of the
Old Testament immediately follows the Pentateuch,
is thus denominated, because it contains a narration of
the achievements of Joshua the son of Nun, who had
been the minister of Moses, and succeeded him in the
command of the children of Israel. It has always
been received by the Jews as a part of their canon of
Scripture.
This book of Joshua comprises the history of about
seventeen years, or, according to some chronologers,
of twenty-seven or thirty years : it relates,
I. The History of the Occupation of Canaan by the
Israelites, (ch. i — xii.)
II. The Division of the Conquered Land. (ch. xiii
— xxii.)
III. The Assembling of the People, the Dying
Address and Counsels of Joshua, his Death, and
Burial, &c. (ch. xxiii. xxiv.)
Section II. — On the Book of Judges.
The book of Judges derives its name from its con-
taining the history of the Israelites, from the death of
Joshua to the time of Eli, under the administration of
thirteen Judges, and consequently before the establish-
382 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
ment of the regal government. It is supposed to have
been written by the prophet Samuel : in it are related,
I. The State of the Israelites after the Death of
Joshua, until they began to turn aside from serving
the Lord. (ch. i — iii.)
II. The History of the Oppressions of the Israelites,
and their Deliverances by the Judges, (ch. iv — xvi.)
III. An Account of the Introduction of Idolatry
among the Israelites, and the consequent corruption
of religion and manners among them; for which God
gave them up into the hands of their enemies, (ch. xvii
— xxi.)
Section III. — On the Book of Ruth.
The book of Ruth is generally considered as an
Appendix to that of Judges, and an introduction to
that of Samuel : it is therefore placed, and with great
propriety, between the books of Judges and Samuel. It
relates, with equal beauty and simplicity, the histor}'
of a Moabitish damsel, who renounced idolatry and by
marriage was ingrafted among the Israelites. David
was descended from her. The adoption of Ruth, a
heathen converted to Judaism, into the line of Christ,
has generally been considered as a pre-intimation of
the admission of the Gentiles into the church. A
further design of this book is, to evidence the care of
Divine Providence over those who sincerely fear God,
in raising the pious Ruth from a state of the deepest
adversity to that of the highest prosperity.
Section IV. — On the Two Books of Samuel.
In the Jewish canon of Scripture these two books
form but one, termed in Hebrew the Book of Samuel,
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 383
probably because the greater part of the first book was
written by that prophet, whose history and transactions
it relates. According to the Talmudical writers, the
first twenty-four chapters of the first book of Samuel
were written by the prophet whose name they bear ;
and the remainder of that book, together with the
whole of the second book, was committed to writing by
the prophets Gad and Nathan, agreeably to the prac-
tice of the prophets who wrote memoirs of the transac-
tions of their respective times.
The first book of Samuel contains the history of
the Jewish church and polity, from the birth of Sa-
muel, during the judicature of Eli, to the death of Saul
the first king of Israel ; a period of nearly eighty years,
viz. from the year of the world 2869 to 2949. It com-
prises,
I. The Transactions under the Judicature of Eli.
(ch. i — iv.)
II. The History of the Israelites during the Judica-
ture of Samuel, (ch. v — xiii.)
III. The History of Saul and the Transactions of his
Reign, (ch. xiv — xxxi.)
The second book of Samuel contains the history of
David, the second king of Israel, during a period of
nearly forty years, viz. from the year of the world
2948 to 2988 ; and, by recording the translation of the
kingdom from the tribe of Benjamin to that of Judah,
it relates the partial accomplishment of the prediction
delivered in Gen. xlix. 10. This book consists of three
principal divisions, relating the triumphs and the trou-
bles of David, and his transactions subsequent to his
recovery of the throne, whence he was driven for a
short time by the rebellion of his son Absalom.
I. The Triumphs of David, (ch. i — x.)
384 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
II. The Troubles of David, and their cause, toge-
ther with his repentance, and subsequent recovery of
the divine favour, (ch. xi— xxiv.)
III. David's Restoration to his Throne, and subse-
quent transactions, (ch. xx — xxiv.)
The two books of Samuel are of very considerable
importance for illustrating the book of Psalms, to which
they may be considered as a key.
Section V. — On the Two Books of Kings.
The two books of Kings are closely connected with
those of Samuel. The origin and gradual increase of
the united kingdom of Israel, under Saul and his suc-
cessor David, having been described in the latter, the
books now under consideration relate its height of
glory under Solomon, its division into two kingdoms
under his son and successor Rehoboam, the causes of
that division, and the consequent decline of the two
kingdoms of Israel and Judah, until their final subver-
sion ; the ten tribes being carried captive into Assyria
by Shalmanezer, and Judah and Benjamin to Babylon
by Nebuchadnezzar. In the Jewish canon these books
constitute but one volume, termed Melakim or Kings,
having been divided at some unknown period into two
parts for the convenience of reading. In the Septua-
gint and Vulgate copies they are termed the third and
fourth book of Kings ; they are generally ascribed to
Ezra.
The first book of kings embraces a period of one
hundred and twenty-six years, from the anointing of
Solomon and his admission as a partner in the throne
with David, a.m. 2989, to the death of Jehoshaphat,
a.m. 3115.
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 385
The first book of Kings may be divided into two
principal parts, containing, J. The history of the undi-
vided kingdom under Solomon ; and, 2. The history of
the divided kingdom under Rehoboam and his succes-
sors, and Jeroboam and his successors.
Part I. The History of Solomon's reign (ch. i — x.),
contains a narrative of,
1. The latter days of David; the inauguration of Solomon
as his associate in the kingdom, and his designation to be his
successor, (ch. i. ii. 1 — 1 1 .)
2. The Reign of Solomon from the death of David to his de-
dication of the temple, (ii. 12 — 46. iii — viii.)
5. The Transactions during the remainder of Solomon's
reign, (ix — xi.)
Part II. The History of the two Kingdoms of Israel,
(ch. xi — xxii.)
1. The accession of Rehoboam, and division of the two king-
doms, (ch. xi.)
2. The reigns of Rehoboam king of Judah, and of Jeroboam I.
king of Israel, (xii — xiv.)
5. The reigns of Abijam and Asa kings of Judah, and the
contemporary reigns of Nadab, Baasha, Elah, Zimri, Omri,
and the commencement of Ahab's reign, (xv. xvi.)
4. The reign of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, and of his con-
temporaries Ahab and Ahaziah (in part), during which the pro-
phet Elisha flourished, (xvii — xxii.)
The second book of kings continues the con-
temporary history of the two kingdoms of Israel and
Judah, from the death of Jehoshaphat, a.m. 3115, to
the destruction of the city and temple of Jerusalem by
Nebuchadnezzar, a.m. 34-16, a period of three hundred
years. The three last verses of the preceding book
have been improperly disjoined from this. The history
of the two kingdoms is interwoven in this book, which
may be divided into two parts, viz.
s
386 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
Part I. The contemporary History of the King-
doms of Israel and Judah, to the end of the former,
(ch. i — xvii.)
Part II. The History of the decline and fall of the
kingdom of Judah. (ch. xviii — xxv.)
Section VI. — On the Two Books of Chronicles.
The Jews comprise the two books of Chronicles in
one book, which they call Dibre Hajamim, that is,
The Words of Days, probably from the circumstance
of their being compiled out of diaries or annals, in
which were recorded the various events related in these
books. In the Septuagint version they are termed
napaX£t7roju.£vwv (Paralipomenon), or of Things omitted ;
because many things which were omitted in the former
part of the sacred history are here not only supplied,
but some narrations also are enlarged, while others are
added. The appellation of Chronicles was given to
these books by Jerome, because they contain an ab-
stract, in order of time, of the whole of the sacred his-
tory, to the time when they were written.
These books were evidently compiled from others,
which were written at different times, some before and
others after the Babylonish captivity : the period of
time, contained in these books, is about 3468 years.
They may be divided into four parts, viz.
Part I. Genealogical Tables from Adam to the time
of Ezra. (1 Chron. i — ix.)
Part II. The Histories of Saul and David. (1 Chron.
ix. 35 — 44. x — xxix.)
Part III. The History of the United Kingdom of
Israel and Judah under Solomon. (1 Chron. xxix.
23—30. 2 Chron. i— ix.)
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 387
Part IV. The History of the Kingdom of Judah, from
the secession of the ten tribes, under Jeroboam, to its
termination by Nebuchadnezzar. (2 Chron. x — xxxvi.)
As the books of Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles, relate
the same histories, they should each be constantly read
and collated together ; not only for the purpose of
obtaining a more comprehensive view of Jewish history,
but also in order to illustrate or amend from one book
what may appear to be obscure in either of the others.
Section VII. — On the Book of Ezra.
The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were antiently
reckoned by the Jews as one volume, and were divided
by them into the first and second books of Ezra. The
same division is recognised by the Greek and Latin
churches ; but the third book, assigned to Ezra, and
received as canonical by the Greek church, is the
same, in substance, as the book which properly bears
his name, but interpolated. And the fourth book,
which has been attributed to him, is a manifest
forgery, in which the marks of falsehood are plainly
discernible, and which was never unanimously received
as canonical either by the Greek or by the Latin
church, although some of the fathers have cited it, and
the Latin church has borrowed some words out of it.
It is not now extant in Greek, and never was extant in
Hebrew. Ezra is generally admitted to have been the
author of the book which bears his name : every page,
indeed, of the book proves that the writer of it was
personally present at the transactions which he has
recorded.
The book of Ezra harmonises most strictly with the
prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah, which it mate-
s 2
388 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
rially elucidates. (Compare Ezra v. with Hagg. i. 12.
and Zech. iii.iv.) It evinces the paternal care of the
Almighty over his chosen people, and consists of two
parts, viz.
I. A Narrative of events from the return of the Jews
under Zerubbabel to the rebuilding of the temple,
(ch. i — vi.)
II. The Arrival of Ezra at Jerusalem, and the Re-
formation made there by him. (vii — x.)
The zeal and piety of Ezra appear, in this book, in a
most conspicuous point of view: his memory has always
been held in the highest reverence by the Jews.
Section VIII. — On the Book of Nehemiah.
Some eminent fathers of the Christian church have
ascribed this book to Ezra: but that Nehemiah, whose
name it bears, and who was cup-bearer to Artaxerxes
Longimanus, was the author of it, there cannot be any
reasonable doubt : the whole of it being written in his
name, and, what is very unusual when compared with
the preceding sacred historians, being written in the
first person. His book contains,
I. An Account of Nehemiah's departure from
Shushan, with a royal commission to rebuild the wails
of Jerusalem, and his first arrival there, (ch. i. ii.
1-11.)
II. An Account of the building of the walls, notwith-
standing the obstacles interposed by Sanballat. (ch. ii.
12—20. iii— vii.4.)
III. The first reformation accomplished by Nehe-
miah. (ch. vii— xii.)
IV. The second reformation accomplished by Nehe-
miah on his second return to Jerusalem, and his cor-
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS. 389
rection of the abuses which had crept in during his
absence, (xiii.)
The administration of this pious man and excellent
governor lasted about thirty-six years, to the year of
the world 3574? according to some chronologers, but
Dr. Prideaux has with more probability fixed it to the
year 3595. The Scripture history closes with the book
of Nehemiah.
Section IX. — On the Book of Esther.
This book, which derives its name from the Jew-
ish captive whose history it chiefly relates, is by the
Jews termed Megilloth Esther, or the volume of Esther.
The history it contains comes in between the sixth and
seventh chapters of Ezra : its authenticity was ques-
tioned by some of the fathers, in consequence of the
name of God being omitted throughout, but it has
always been received as canonical by the Jews. The
book consists of two parts, detailing,
I. The Promotion of Esther to the throne of Persia ;
and the essential service rendered to the king by Mor-
decai, in detecting a plot against his life. (ch.i. ii.)
II. The advancement of Haman ; his designs against
the Jews, and their frustration, and the advancement of
Mordecai. (ch. iii — x.)
In our copies the book of Esther terminates with the
third verse of the tenth chapter : but, in the Greek
and Vulgate Bibles, there are ten more verses annexed
to it, together with six additional chapters, which the
Greek and Romish churches account to be canonical.
As, however, they are not extant in Hebrew, they are
expunged from the sacred canon by Protestants, and
are supposed to have been compiled by some Helle-
nistic Jew.
s 3
390 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS.
Chapter III.
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS.
Though some of the Sacred Writings, which pre-
sent themselves to our notice in the present chapter,
are anterior in point of date to the Historical Books,
yet they are usually classed by themselves under the
title of the Poetical Books ; because they are almost
wholly composed in Hebrew verse. This appellation
is of considerable antiquity. The Poetical Books are
five in number, viz. Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Eccle-
siastes, and the Canticles or Song of Solomon : in the
Jewish canon of Scripture they are classed among the
Hagiographa, or Holy Writings ; and in our Bibles
they are placed between the Historical and Prophetical
Books.
Section I. — On the Book of Job.
This book has derived its title from the venerable
patriarch Job, whose prosperity, afflictions, and re-
storation from the deepest adversity, are here recorded,
together with his exemplary and unequalled patience
under all his calamities. Some critics have doubted,
or affected to doubt, the existence of such a character
as Job ; but that point is satisfactorily determined by
the prophet Ezekiel (xiv. 14.) and the apostle James
(v. 11.), both of whom mention him as a real character.
The length of his life places him in the patriarchal
times : and Dr. Hales, besides other evidences which
cannot here be detailed, has rendered it highly pro-
bable that he lived about 184 years before the time of
Abraham. He dwelt in Uz or Idumaea.
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 391
Among the conflicting opinions which have been ad-
vanced respecting the author of this book, the most
probable is that of Archbishop Magee, who supposes it
to have been originally written by Job, and subsequently
transcribed by Moses; who having applied it to the use
of the Jews, and given it the sanction of his authority, it
thenceforth became enrolled among their sacred writ-
ings. It has been quoted by almost every Hebrew
writer from the age of Moses to that of Malachi. In
its form, this poem approximates to the Mekama or phi-
losophical discourses of the Arabian Poets.
Nothing, perhaps, has contributed more to render
the poem of Job obscure, than the common division
into chapters and verses ; by which, not only the unity
of the general subject, but frequently that of a single
paragraph or clause, is broken.
The poem may be divided into six parts ; viz. The
Jirst of these contains the exordium or narrative part,
which is written in prose (ch. i. ii.) ; the second com-
prises the first debate or dialogue of Job and his friends
(iii — xiv.) ; the third includes the second series of debate
or controversy (xv — xxi.) ; the fourth comprehends the
third series of controversy (xxii — xxxi.) ; in the fifth
part Elihu sums up the argument (xxxii — xxxvii.); and
in the sixth part Jehovah determines the controversy ;
Job humbles himself, is accepted, and restored to
health and prosperity, (xxviii — xlii.)
Independently of the important instruction and
benefit which may be derived from a devout perusal of
the book of Job, this divine poem is of no small value,
as transmitting to us a faithful delineation of the pa-
triarchal doctrines of religion, and particularly the ex-
istence of a God, who is the rewarder of them that
diligently seek him, and a day of future resurrection,
judgment, and of final retribution,
s 4
392 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS,
Section II. — On the Book of Psalms.
This book is entitled in the Hebrew Sepher Tehillim,
that is, the Booh of Hymns or Praises j because the
praises of God constitute their chief subject-matter :
and as they were set, not only to be sung with the voice,
but also to be accompanied with musical instruments,
the Septuagint version designates them B*#\o,- ^aXfA.av
{Biblos Psalmon), the Booh of Psalms, by which name
they are cited in Luke xx. 42. ; and this appellation is
retained in our Bibles. The right of the book of Psalms
to a place in the sacred canon has never been dis-
puted : they are frequently alluded to in the Old Tes-
tament, and are often cited by our Lord and his
apostles as the work of the Holy Spirit. They are ge-
nerally termed the Psalms of David, that Hebrew
monarch being their chief author. Many of them bear
his name, and were composed on occasion of remark-
able circumstances in his life, his dangers, his afflictions,
and his deliverances. Many of them, however, are
strictly prophetical of the Messiah, of whom David was
an eminent type: but others were composed during
the reign of Solomon, or during and subsequent to the
captivity. We have no information when these divine
poems were collected into a volume. The Psalms of
Degrees, or Odes of Ascension, as Bishop Lowth terms
them, are supposed to have derived this name from
their being sung, when the people came up either to
worship in Jerusalem, at the annual festivals, or per-
haps from the Babylonish captivity. The word " Selah,"
which is found in many of the psalms, appears to have
been inserted in order to point out something worthy
of most attentive observation.
For a Table of those Psalms which are strictly pro-
phetical of the Messiah, see pp. 137, 138. supra.
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 393
The book of Psalms being composed in Hebrew verse,
must generally be studied according to the laws of He-
brew poetry, which have been noticed in pp. 144; — 148. :
and this the English reader will find little difficulty in
accomplishing, in our admirably faithful authorized
version. Attention to the following hints will also
enable him to enter into their force and meaning.
1. Investigate the Argument of each psalm.
This is sometimes intimated in the prefixed title : but as
these inscriptions are not always genuine, it will be preferable,
in every case, to deduce the argument from a diligent and
attentive reading of the psalm itself, and then to form our
opinion concerning the correctness of the title, if there be any.
2. With this view, examine the Historical Origin of
the psalm, or the circumstances that led the sacred
poet to compose it.
Much advantage and assistance may be derived from study-
ing the psalms chronologically, and comparing them with the
historical books of the Old Testament, particularly those which
treat of the Israelites and Jews, from the origin of their mo-
narchy to their return from the Babylonish captivity.
3. Attend to the Structure of the psalms.
The psalms, being principally designed for the national wor-
ship of the Jews, are adapted to choral singing : attention to
this circumstance will enable us better to enter into their spirit
and meaning.
For a Table of the Psalms adapted to private reading
or devotion, see the Appendix, No. IV.
Section III. — On the Book of Proverbs.
The book of Proverbs has always been ascribed to
Solomon, whose name it bears, though, from the tre-
s 5
394 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS.
quent repetition of the same sentences, as well as from
some variations in style which have been discovered,
doubts have been entertained whether he really was the
author of every maxim it comprizes. As it is no where
said that Solomon himself made a collection of proverbs
and sentences, the general opinion is, that several per-
sons made a collection of them : Hezekiah, among
others, as mentioned in the twenty -fifth chapter : Agur,
Isaiah, and Ezra, might have done the same. This book
is frequently cited by the apostles : its scope is to in-
struct men in the deepest mysteries of true wisdom and
understanding, the height and perfection of which is,
the true knowledge of the divine will, and the sincere
fear of the Lord. (Prov. i. 2 — 7. ix. 10.) It may be di-
vided into five parts, viz.
Part I. In the proem or exordium, containing the
first nine chapters, the teacher gives his pupil a series
of admonitions, directions, cautions, and excitements
to the study of wisdom.
Part II. extends from chapter x. to xxii. 16. and
consists of what may be strictly and properly called pro-
verbs,— namely, unconnected sentences, expressed with
much neatness and simplicity.
Part III. reaches from chapter xxii. 17. to xxv. in-
clusive : in this part the tutor drops the sententious
style, and addresses his pupil as present, to whom he
gives renewed and connected admonitions to the study
of wisdom.
The proverbs contained in
Part IV. are supposed to have been selected from
some larger collection of Solomon " by the men of
Hezekiah," — that is, by the prophets whom he em-
ployed to restore the service and writings of the Jewish
church. (2 Chron. xxxi. 20, 21.) This part, like the
second, consists of detached unconnected sentences,
ON THE POETICAL BOOKS. 395
and extends from chapter xxv. to xxix. Some of the
proverbs, which Solomon had introduced into the for-
mer part of the book, are here repeated.
Part V. comprises chapters xxx. and xxxi. In the
former are included the wise observations and instruc-
tions delivered by Agur the son of Jakeh to his pupils
Ithiel and Ucal. The thirty-first chapter contains the
precepts which were given to Lemuel by his mother,
who is supposed by some to have been a Jewish woman
married to some neighbouring prince, and who appears
to have been most ardently desirous to guard him
against vice, to establish him in the principles of justice,
and to unite him to a wife of the best qualities. Of
Agur we know nothing ; nor have any of the com-
mentators offered so much as a plausible conjecture re-
specting him.
Section IV On the Book of Ecclesiastes.
The title of this book in our Bibles is derived from
the Septuagint version, EvocAvjc-jar^ (Ecclesiastes), sig-
nifying a preacher, or one who harangues a public con-
gregation. In Hebrew it is termed, from the initial
words, Dibre Coheleth, u the Words of the Preacher ;"
by whom may be intended, either the person assembling
the people, or he who addresses them when convened.
Although this book does not bear the name of Solomon,
it is evident from several passages that he was the
author of it. Compare ch. i. 12. 16. ii. 4 — 9. and xii.
9, 10. Its scope is explicitly announced in ch. i. 2.
and xii. 13., viz. to demonstrate the vanity of all
earthly objects, and to draw off men from the pu rsuit
of them, as an apparent good, to the fear of God, and
communion with him, as to the highest and only per-
s 6
396 ON THE POETICAL BOOKS.
manent good in this life, and to show that men must
seek for happiness beyond the grave. It consists of
two parts ; viz.
Part I. The Vanity of all earthly conditions, occu-
pations, and pleasures, (ch. i— vi. 9.)
Part II. The Nature, Excellence, and Beneficial
Effects of true Religion, (ch. vi — xii. 7.)
The Conclusion, (ch. xii. 8 — 14.)
Section V. — On the Song of Solomon.
This book has always been reputed to be the pro-
duction of the Hebrew monarch. Concerning its struc-
ture, there is great difference of opinion among critics,
whose various hypotheses are discussed in the author's
larger work. The most probable opinion is that which
refers it to the idyls of the Arabian Poets. Dr. John
Mason Good makes them to be twelve in number ; viz.
IDYL 1 CHAP. i. 1 — 8.
2 i. 9. — ii. 7.
5 ii. 8 — 17.
4 - - - - iii. 1—5.
5 iii. 6. — iv. 7.
6 -^ iv. 8.— v. 1.
7 v. 2. — vi. 10.
8 vi. 11—15.
9 vii. 1—9.
10 vii. 10. — viii. '4.
11 - - - - viii. 5 — 7.
12 viii. 8 — 14.
This poem was composed on occasion of Solomon's
marriage. That it is a mystical poem or allegory, all
sound interpreters are agreed ; though some expo-
sitors, who have not entered sufficiently into the spirit
and meaning of Oriental poesy, have caused particular
OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, ETC. 397
passages to be considered as coarse and indelicate, which,
in the original, are altogether the reverse ; while others
have so confounded the literal and allegorical senses as
to give neither, distinctly or completely. At the same
time, they have applied the figures to such a variety of
objects, as to leave the reader still to seek the right,
and, by their minute dissection of the allegory, they
have not only destroyed its consistency and beauty,
but have also exposed the poem to the unmerited ridi-
cule of profane minds. Much, unquestionably, has
been done, by later writers, towards elucidating the
language and allusions of the Song of Songs by the aid
of Oriental literature and manners : but, after all the
labours of learned men, there will perhaps be found
many expressions which are very difficult to us, both
as to the literal meaning, and the spiritual instruction
intended to be conveyed by them ; and some de-
scriptions must not be judged by modern notions of
delicacy. But the grand outlines, soberly interpreted,
in the obvious meaning of the allegory, so accord with
the affections and experience of the sincere Christian,
" that he will hardly ever read and meditate upon them,
in a spirit of humble devotion, without feeling a con-
viction that no other poem of the same kind, extant in
the world, could, without most manifest violence, be so
explained as to describe the state of his heart at dif-
ferent times, and to excite admiring, adoring, grateful
love to God our Saviour, as this does." (Scott's Pref.
to Sol. Song.)
Chapter IV.
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS, AND THEIR WRITINGS.
We now enter on the fourth or prophetical part of
the Old Testament, according to the division which is
398 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON THE PROPHETS,
generally adopted, but which (as we have already seen
in page 109. supra,) forms the second division, accord-
ing to the Jewish classification of the sacred volume.
This portion of the Scriptures is termed prophetical,
because it chiefly consists of predictions of future
events ; though many historical and doctrinal passages
are interspersed through the writings of the Prophets,
as there also are many predictions of future events
scattered through those books, which are more strictly
historical. The authors of these books are, by way of
eminence, termed Prophets, that is, divinely inspired
persons, who were raised up among the Israelites to
be the ministers of God's dispensations. The prophets
are usually reckoned among sacred persons. See
p. 319. supra; and some observations on the inter-
pretation of Scripture Prophecy, especially the predic-
tions relative to the Messiah, will be found in pp.
198—204. supra.
The prophetical books are sixteen in number, (the
Lamentations of Jeremiah being usually considered as
an appendix to his predictions) ; and in all modern
editions of the Bible they are usually divided into two
classes; viz. 1. The Greater Prophets, comprising the
writings of Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel ; who
were thus designated from the size of their books, not
because they possessed greater authority than the
others. 2. The Minor Prophets, comprising the
writings of Hosea, Joel, Amos, Jonah, Obadiah, Micah,
Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah,
and Malachi. These books were antiently written in
one volume by the Jews, lest any of them should be
lost, some of their writings being very short.
Much of the obscurity which hangs over the pro-
phetic writings, may be removed by perusing them in
the order of time in which they were probably written ;
and though the precise time in which some of the
AND THEIR WRITINGS.
399
prophets delivered their predictions, cannot perhaps
be traced in every instance, yet the following arrange-
ment of the prophets in their supposed order of time,
(according to the tables of Blair, Archbishop Newcome,
and other eminent critics, with a few variations,) will,
we think, be found sufficiently correct for the right
understanding of their predictions.
Jonah,
Before
Christ.
Jehu, and Jehoahaz, ac-
cording to Bishop Lloyd ;
Between 856
and 784.
the Second, according to
Blair.
Amos,
Between 810
and 785.
Uzziah, ch. i. 1.
Jeroboam the Second, i
ch. i. 1.
Hosea,
Between 810 Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, the
and 725. third year of Hezekiah.
Jeroboam the Second,
ch. i. 1.
Isaiah,
Tj„t „ olrJ Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and
IT740 81°l Hezekiah, chap. i. L and
ana/*y. perhaps Manasseh.
Joel,
*Srf Uzziah, or possibly Ma-
later. 1 nassen-
i
Micah,
Between 758
and 699.
Jotham, Ahaz, and Heze-
kiah, ch. i. 1.
Pekah and Hosea. 1
Nahum,
Between 720 Probably towards the close
and 698. | of Hezekiah's reign.
1
!
Zephaniah
Between 640 In the reign of Josiah,
and 609. | ch. i. 1.
Jeremiah,
Between 628 In the thirteenth year
and 586. | of Josiah.
Kabakkuk
Between 612! Probably in the reign of
and 598. | Jehoiakim.
Daniel,
Beat.rde534606i DurinS a11 the caPtivit>'-
Obadiah,
'Between the taking of Jeru-
Between 588 salem by Nebuchadnezzar,
and 583. 1 and the destruction of the
1 Edomites by him.
Ezekiel,
Between 5951 During part of the cap-
and 536. | tivity.
Haggai,
About 520
to 518.
After the return from
Babylon.
Zechariah
From 520 to
518,or longer
1
JMalachi,
Between 436
and 397.
400 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED
According to tbjs table, the times when the prophets
flourished may be referred to three periods ; viz. 1 . Before
the Babylonian Captivity ; — 2. Near to and during
that event; — and, 3. After the return of the Jews from
Babylon. And if, in these three periods, we parallel
the prophetical writings with the historical books written
during the same times, they will materially illustrate
each other.
Chapter V.
OS THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN
CAPTIVITY.
Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Jonah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 856 784.
This Book is, by the Hebrews called Sepher Jonah,
or the Book of Jonah, from its author Jonah, the son
of Amittai, who was a native of Gath-Hepher in Galilee.
(Jon. i. I. with Josh. xix. 13.) He is supposed to have
prophesied to the ten tribes, according to Bishop
Lloyd, towards the close of Jehu's reign, or in the
beginning of Jehoahaz's reign ; though other chrono-
logers place him under Joash and Jeroboam II. about
forty years later. The scope of this book is to show,
by the very striking example of the Ninevites, the divine
forbearance and long-suffering towards sinners, who
are spared on their sincere repentance.
The book of Jonah consists of two parts ; viz.
Part I. His first mission to Nineveh, and his attempt
to flee to Tarshish, and its frustration, together with
his delivery from the stomach of the great fish which
had swallowed him. (ch. i. ii.)
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 401
Part II. His second mission, and its happy result to
the Ninevites, who, in consequence of the prophet's
preaching, repented in dust and ashes (iii.) ; and the
discontent of Jonah, who, dreading to be thought a
false prophet, repined at the divine mercy in sparing
the Ninevites, whose destruction he seems to have ex-
pected, (iv.)
The time of Jonah's continuance in the belly of the
fish was a type of our Lord's continuance in the grave.
(Luke xi. 30.)
Section II. — On the Book of the Prophet Amos.
BEFORE CHRIST, 810 785.
Amos, the third of the minor prophets, is supposed
to have been a native of Tekoah, a small town in the
kingdom of Judah, situate about four leagues to the
south of Jerusalem. He prophesied during the reigns
of Uzziah, king of Judah, and of Jeroboam son of Joash.
His prophecy consists of four parts, viz.
Part I. The Judgments of God denounced against
the neighbouring Gentile nations ; as
The Syrians (ch. i. 1—5.), which see fulfilled in 2 Kings xvi.
9.; the Philistines (i. 6 — 8.), recorded as accomplished in
in 2Kingsxviii. 8. Jer. xlvii. 1. 5. and 2 Chron.xxvi. 6.; the
Tyrians (i. 9, 10.); the Edomites (i. 11, 12. compared with
Jer. xxv. 9. 21. xxvii. 3. 6. and 1 Mace. v. 5.); the Ammonites
(16—15.); and theMoabites. (ii. 1 — 3.)
Part II. The Divine Judgments denounced against
Judah and Israel, (ch. ii. 4. ix. 1 — 10.)
Part HI. Consolatory Promises to the Church,
describing her Restoration by the Messiah, (ch. ix.
11—15.)
402 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED
Section III. — On the Book of the Prophet Hosea.
BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 725.
Hosea, of whose family we have no certain inform-
ation, prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham,
and Ahaz, and in the third year of Hezekiah, kings of
Judah, and during the reign of Jeroboam II. king of
Israel ; and it is most probable that he was an Israelite,
who lived in the kingdom of Samaria or of the ten tribes,
as his predictions are chiefly directed against their
wickedness and idolatry. But, with the severest de-
nunciations of vengeance, he blends promises of mercy.
The prophecy of Hosea contains fourteen chapters,
which may be divided into five sections or discourses,
exclusive of the title in ch. i. 1. viz.
Discourse I. Under the figure of the supposed in-
fidelity of the prophet's wife is represented the spiritual
infidelity of the Israelites, a remnant of whom, it is
promised, shall be saved (ch. i. 2 — 11.), and they are
exhorted to forsake idolatry, (ii. 1— 11.) Promises are
then introduced, on the general conversion of the twelve
tribes to Christianity ; and the gracious purposes of
Jehovah towards the ten tribes, or the kingdom of
Israel in particular, are represented under the figure
of the prophet taking back his wife on her amendment,
(ii. 11— 23. iii.)
Discourse II. A reproof of the bloodshed and ido-
latry of the Israelites, against which the inhabitants of
Judah are exhorted to take warning ; interspersed with
promises of pardon, (ch. iv — vi. 1 — 3.)
Discourse III. The prophet's exhortations to re-
pentance proving ineffectual, God complains by him of
their obstinate iniquity and idolatry (ch. vi. 4 — 11. vii.
1 — 10.), and denounces that Israel will be carried into
captivity into Assyria by Sennacherib, notwithstanding
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 403
their reliance on Egypt for assistance, (vii. 11 — 16.
viii.)
Discourse IV. The captivity and dispersion of Israel
is further threatened (ch. ix, x.) ; the Israelites are re-
proved for their idolatry, yet they shall not be utterly
destroyed, and their return to their own country is
foretold, (xi.) Renewed denunciations are made on
account of their idolatry, (xii, xiii. 1 — 8.)
Discourse V. After a terrible denunciation of di-
vine punishment, intermixed with promises of restora-
tion from captivity (ch. xiii. 9 — 16.), the prophet exhorts
the Israelites to repentance, and furnishes them with a
beautiful form of prayer adapted to their situation
(xiv. 1 — 3.) ; and foretells their reformation from
idolatry, together with the subsequent restoration of
all the tribes from their dispersed state, and their con-
version to the Gospel. (4 — 9.)
Section IV. — On the Book of the Prophet Isaiah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 810 — 749.
Though fifth in the order of time, the writings of
the prophet Isaiah are placed first in order of the pro-
phetical books, principally on account of the sublimity
and importance of his predictions, and partly also be-
cause the book, which bears his name, is larger than
all the twelve minor prophets put together.
Concerning his family and descent, nothing certain
has been recorded, except what he himself tells us
(i. 1.), viz. that he was the son of Amos, and discharged
the prophetic office in the days of Uzziah, Jotham,
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Concerning the
time or manner of his death nothing certain is known.
Besides the predictions ascribed to him, it appears
404; ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED
from 1 Chron. xxvi. 22. that Isaiah wrote an account
of the Acts of Uzziah, king of Judah : this has long
since perished. Of all the prophets, none have so
clearly predicted the circumstances relative to the
advent, sufferings, atoning death, and resurrection of
the Messiah, as Isaiah ; who has from this circumstance
been styled the Evangelical Prophet. His predic-
tions (yet unfulfilled) of the ultimate triumph and ex-
tension of the Redeemer's kingdom are unrivalled for
the splendour of their imagery, and the beauty and
sublimity of their language.
Part I. contains a general Description of the State
and Condition of the Jews, in the several periods of
their history ; the promulgation and success of the
Gospel, and the coming of Messiah to judgment,
(ch. i — v.) The predictions in this section were de-
livered during the reign of Uzziah king of Judah.
Part II. comprises the predictions delivered in the
reigns of Jotham and Ahaz. (ch. vi — xii.)
Part. III. contains various predictions against the
Babylonians, Assyrians, Philistines, and other nations
with whom the Jews had any intercourse, (ch. xiii —
xxiv.)
Part IV. contains a Prophecy of the great calami-
ties that should befall the people of God, His merciful
preservation of a remnant of them, and of their restor-
ation to their country, of their conversion to the Gos-
pel, and the destruction of Antichrist, (ch. xxiv —
xxxiii.)
Part. V. comprises the historical part of the pro-
phecy of Isaiah, (ch. xxxvi — xxxix.)
Part VI. (ch. xl— Ixvi.) comprises a series of pro-
phecies, delivered, in all probability, towards the close
of Hezekiah's reign.
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 405
This portion of Isaiah's predictions constitutes the
most elegant part of the sacred writings of the Old
Testament. The chief subject is the restoration of the
church, which is pursued with the greatest regularity.
But, as the subject of this very beautiful series of pro-
phecies is chiefly of the consolatory kind, they are intro-
duced with a promise of the restoration of the kingdom,
and the return from the Babylonian captivity, through
the merciful interposition of God. At the same time,
this redemption from Babylon is employed as an image
to shadow out a redemption of an infinitely higher and
more important nature. The prophet connects these
two events together, scarcely ever treating of the
former without throwing in some intimations of the
latter ; and sometimes he is so fully possessed with the
glories of the future more remote kingdom of the Mes-
siah, that he seems to leave the immediate subject of
his commission almost out of the question.
Section V. — On the Book of the Prophet Joel.
before christ, 810 — 660, or later.
Concerning the family, condition, and pursuits of this
prophet, nothing certain is known ; but from internal
evidence, we are authorised to place him in the reign
of Uzziah. Consequently he was contemporary with
Amos and Hosea, if indeed he did not prophecy before
Amos. His book consists of three chapters, which
may be divided into three discourses or parts, viz.
Part I. is an Exhortation, both to the priests and to
the people, to repent, by reason of the famine brought
upon them by the palmer-worm, &c. in consequence of
their sins (ch. i. 1 — 20.); and is followed by a denunci-
406 ON THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED
ation of still greater calamities, if they continued im-
penitent, (ii. 1 — 11.)
Part II. An Exhortation to keep a public and
solemn fast (ch. ii. 12 — 17-)j with a promise of removing
the calamities of the Jews on their repentance (18 —
26.), and of the Effusion of the Holy Spirit. (27 — 32.
Compare Acts ii. 17 — 21.)
Part III. predicts the general Conversion and Re-
turn of the Jews, and the destruction of their oppo-
nents, together with the glorious state of the church
that is to follow, (ch. iii.)
Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Micah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 758 699.
Micah, the third of the minor prophets, was a native
of Moras thi, a small town in the southern part of the
territory of Judah ; and, as we learn from the com-
mencement of his predictions, prophesied in the reigns
of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of that country ;
consequently he was contemporary with Isaiah, Joel,
Hosea, and Amos. His book contains seven chapters,
forming three parts ; viz.
Introduction or title, i. 1.
Part I. comprises the prophecies delivered in the
reign of Jotham king of Judah (with whom Pekah king
of Israel was contemporary), in which the divine judg-
ments are denounced against both Israel and Judah for
their sins. (ch. i. 2 — 16.)
Part II. contains the predictions delivered in the
reigns of Ahaz king of Judah (with whom his son He-
zekiah was associated in the government during the
BEFORE THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 407
latter part of his life), and of Pekah king of Israel, who
was also contemporary with him. (ii — iv. 8.)
Part III. includes the prophecies delivered by
Micah during the reign of Hezekiah king of Judah,the
first six years of whose government were contemporary
with the greater part of the reign of Hoshea, the last
king of Israel, (iv. 9 — 13. v — vii.)
Chap. v. contains an eminent prediction of the place
of the Messiah's Nativity, as well as of his kingdom
and conquests.
Section VII. — On the Book of the Prophet Nahum.
BEFORE CHRIST, 720 698.
Nahum, a native of Elkosh or Elkosha, a village in
Galilee, is generally supposed to have lived between
the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities, about 715
years before the Christian sera. The repentance of
the Ninevites in consequence of Jonah's preaching
being of short duration, Nahum was commissioned to
denounce the final and inevitable ruin of Nineveh and
the Assyrian empire by the Chaldeans, and to comfort
his countrymen in the certainty of their destruction.
His prophecy is one entire poem, which, opening
with a sublime description of the justice and power of
God tempered with long-suffering (ch. i. 1 — 8.) fore-
tells the destruction of Sennacherib's forces, and the
subversion of the Assyrian empire (9 — 12.), together
with the deliverance of Hezekiah and the death of Sen-
nacherib. (13—15.) The destruction of Nineveh is
then predicted, and described with singular minuteness,
(ii. iii.)
4-08 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND
Section VIII. — On the Book of the Prophet Zephaniah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 640 609.
This prophet, who was " the son of Cushi, the son
of Gedaliah, the son of Amariah, the son of Hizkiah,"
(i. 1.) is supposed to have discharged the prophetic
office before the eighteenth year of Josiah ; that is,
before this prince had reformed the abuses and cor-
ruptions of his dominions. His prophecy, which con-
sists of three chapters, may be divided into four
sections ; viz.
Sect. I. A denunciation against Judah for their
idolatry, (ch. i.)
Sect. II. Repentance the only means to avert the
divine vengeance, (ch. ii. 1 — 3.)
Sect. III. Prophecies against the Philistines (ch. ii.
4 — 7.), Moabites and Ammonites (8 — 11.), Ethiopia
(12.), and Nineveh. (13—15.)
Sect. IV. The captivity of the Jews by the Baby-
lonians foretold (ch. iii. 1 — 7.)> together with their
future restoration and the ultimate prosperous state of
the church. (8—20.)
Chapter VI.
OF THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND DURING THE
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITT.
Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Jeremiah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 628 586.
The prophet Jeremiah was of the sacerdotal race,
being (as he himself records) one of the priests that
dwelt at Anathoth (i. 1.) in the land of Benjamin, a
DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 409
€ity appropriated out of that tribe to the use of the
priests, the sons of Aaron (Josh. xxi. 18), and situate,
as we learn from Jerome, about three Roman miles
north of Jerusalem. He appears to have been very-
young when called to the prophetic office, in the dis-
charge of which he received much ill treatment from
the Jews: he prophesied about forty-two years, and,
followed the remnant of the Jews on their retiring into
Egypt, where he is said to have been put to death by
his profligate countrymen. His predictions, which
are levelled against the crimes of the Jews, are not
arranged in the chronological order in which they were
originally delivered. The cause of their transposition
it is now impossible to ascertain. The late Rev. Dr.
Blayney, to whom we are indebted for a learned version
of, and commentary on, the writings of this prophet,
has endeavoured, with great judgment, to restore their
proper order by transposing the chapters wherever it
appeared to be necessary. According to his arrange-
ment, the predictions of Jeremiah are to be placed in
the following order, viz.
Section I. The prophecies delivered in the reign of
Josiah, containing chapters i — xii. inclusive.
Section II. The prophecies delivered in the reign
of Jehoiakim, comprising chapters xiii — xx. xxii, xxiii.
xxxv, xxxvi. xlv — xlviii. and xlix. 1 — 33.
Section III. The prophecies delivered in the reign
of Zedekiah, including chapters xxi. xxiv. xxvii — xxxiv.
xxxvii — xxxix. xlix. 34 — 39. and 1, li.
Section IV. The prophecies delivered under the
government of Gedaliah, from the taking of Jerusalem
to the retreat of the people into Egypt, and the pro-
phecies of Jeremiah delivered to the Jews in that
country ; comprehending chapters xl — xliv. inclusive*
T
410 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND
In ch. xxiii. 5, 6. is foretold the mediatorial kingdom
of the Messiah, who is called the Lord our Right-
eousness. Again, in Jer. xxxi. 31 — 36. and xxxiii. 8.
the efficacy of Christ's atonement, the spiritual charac-
ter of the new covenant, and the inward efficacy of the
Gospel, are most clearly and emphatically described.
Compare Saint Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, ch. viii.
8 — 13. and x. 16. et seq.
Section II. — On the Lamentations of Jeremiah.
That Jeremiah was the author of the Elegies or
Lamentations which bear his name is evident, not only
from a very antient and almost uninterrupted tradition,
but also from the argument and style of the book,
which corresponds exactly with those of his prophecies.
This book consists of five chapters, forming as many
pathetic elegies, in the four first of which the prophet
bewails the various calamities of his country: the
fifth elegy is an epilogue to the four preceding. Dr.
Blayney considers it as a memorial representing, in the
name of the whole body of Jewish exiles, the numerous
calamities under which they groaned ; and humbly
supplicating God to commiserate their wretchedness,
and to restore them to his favour, and to their antient
prosperity.
Section III. — On the Book of the Prophet Habakkuk.
BEFORE CHRIST, 612 598.
Concerning this prophet we have no certain inform-
ation : he exercised the prophetic office most pro-
bably in the reign of Jehoiakim, and consequently was
DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 411
contemporary with Jeremiah. His book consists of
two parts. In
Part I. which is in the form of a dialogue between
God and the prophet, the Babylonish captivity is
announced ; with a promise, however, of deliverance,
and the ultimate destruction of the Babylonian empire.
Part II. contains the prayer or psalm of Habakkuk,
in which he implores God to hasten the deliverance of
his people, (iii.)
Section IV. — On the Book of the Prophet Daniel.
BEFORE CHRIST, 606 534.
Daniel, the fourth of the greater prophets, if not of
royal birth (as the Jews affirm), was of noble descent,
and was carried captive to Babylon at an early age, in
the fourth year of Jehoiachin king of Judah, in the
year 606 before the Christian aera, and seven years be-
fore the deportation of Ezekiel. Having been instruct-
ed in the language and literature of the Chaldaeans, he
afterwards held a very distinguished office in the Baby-
lonian empire. (Dan, i. 1 — 4.) He was contemporary
with Ezekiel, who mentions his extraordinary piety and
wisdom (Ezek. xiv. 14, 20.), and the latter even at that
time seems to have become proverbial. (Ezek. xxviii. 3.)
Daniel lived in great credit with the Babylonian
monarchs ; and his uncommon merit procured him the
same regard from Darius and Cyrus, the two first
sovereigns of Persia, He lived throughout the cap-
tivity, but it does not appear that he returned to his
own country when Cyrus permitted the Jews to revisit
their native land. The time of his death is not cer-
tainly known. Although the name of Daniel is not
prefixed to his book, the many passages in which he
t 2
412 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED NEAR TO AND
speaks in the first person sufficiently prove that he was
the author. His writings may be divided into two parts ;
viz.
Part I. comprises the historical portion of this
book : it contains a narrative of the circumstances that
led to Daniel's elevation, (ch. i — vi.)
Part II. comprises various prophecies and visions of
things future, until the advent and death of the
Messiah, and the ultimate conversion of the Jews and
Gentiles to the faith of the Gospel, (ch. vii — xii.)
This is an amazing series of prophecy, extending
through many successive ages from the first establish-
ment of the Persian empire, upwards of 530 years be-
fore Christ, to the general resurrection ! " What a
proof does it afford of a Divine Providence, and of a
Divine Revelation ! for who could thus declare the
things that shall be, with their times and seasons, but
He only who hath them in his power . whose dominion
is over all, and whose kingdom endureth from gener-
ation to generation !"
Section V. — On the Book of the Prophet Obadiah.
BEFORE CHRIST, 588 583.
The time when this prophet flourished is uncertain :
Archbishop Newcome places it, with great probability,
between the taking of Jerusalem (which happened in
the year 587 before Christ) and the destruction of
Idumsea by Nebuchadnezzar, which took place a very
few years after. Consequently he was partly con-
temporary with Jeremiah, one of whose predictions in-
cludes the greater part of Obadiah's book. (Com-
pare Obad. 1—9. with Jer. xlix. 14, 15, 16. 7. 9, 10.)
DURING THE BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY. 413
His writings, which consist of only one chapter, unfold
a very interesting scene of prophecy, in two parts ; viz.
Part I. is minatory, and denounces the destruction
of Edom for their pride and carnal security (1 — 9.),
and for their cruel insults and enmity to the Jews,
after the capture of their city. (10 — 16.)
Part II. is consolatory, and foretells the restoration
of the Jews (17.), their victory over their enemies, and
their flourishing state in consequence. (18 — 21.)
Section VI. — On the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel.
BEFORE CHRIST, 595 536.
Ezekiel, whose name imports the strength of God,
was the son of Buzi, of the sacerdotal race, and one of
the captives carried by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon,
with Jehoiachin king of Judah : it does not appear
that he had prophesied before he came into Mesopota-
mia. The principal scene of his predictions was some
place on the river Chebar, which flows into the Eu-
phrates about two hundred miles to the north of Baby-
lon, where the prophet resided; though he was, occasion-
ally, conveyed in vision to Jerusalem. He commenced
his prophetic ministry in the thirtieth year of his age, ac-
cording to general accounts; or rather, as Calmet thinks,
in the thirtieth year after the covenant was renewed with
God in the reign of Josiah, which answers to the fifth
year of Ezekiel's and Jehoiachin's captivity (Ezek. i. 1.
xl. 1.), the aera whence he dates his predictions ; and
he continued to prophesy about twenty or twenty-one
years. The events of his life, after his call to the pro-
phetic office, are interwoven with the detail which he
has himself given of his predictions: but the manner
of its termination is no where ascertained. His pro-
t 3
414- PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE
phecies have always been acknowledged to be cano-
nical, nor was it ever disputed that he was their
author : they form in our Bibles forty-eight chapters,
and, as he is extremely punctual in dating them, we
have little or no difficulty in arranging them in chro-
nological order. They may be divided into four parts ;
viz.
Part I. Ezekiel's call to the Prophetic Office
(ch. i. 1. to the first part of verse 28.), his commission,,
instructions, and encouragements for executing it.
(i. 28. latter clause, ii, iii. 1 — 21.)
Part II. Denunciations against the Jewish People,
(ch. iii. 22 — 27. iv — xxiv.)
Part III. comprises Ezekiel's Prophecies against
various neighbouring nations, enemies to the Jews,
(ch. xxv — xxxii.)
Part IV. contains a series of exhortations and con-
solatory promises to the Jews, of future deliverance
under Cyrus, but principally of their final restoration
and conversion under the kingdom of Messiah,
(ch. xxxiii — xlvi.)
Chapter VII.
OP THE PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED AFTER THE RETURN OF THE
JEWS FROM BABYLON.
Section I. — On the Book of the Prophet Haggai.
BEFORE CHRIST, 520 518.
Nothing is certainly known concerning the tribe or
birth-place of Haggai, the tenth in order of the minor
prophets, but the first of the three who were commis-
sioned to make known the divine will to the Jews after
their return from captivity. The Jews having for
RETURN OF THE JEWS FROM BABYLON. 415
fourteen years discontinued the rebuilding of the temple,
this prophet was commissioned to encourage them in
their work, in consequence of the edict issued by
Cyrus in their favour. Accordingly the work was
resumed, and completed in a few years. His pro-
phecy comprises three distinct prophecies or dis-
courses ; viz.
Discourse I. contains a severe reproof of the people, espe-
cially of their governor and high-priest, for their delay in
rebuilding the temple, which neglect was the cause of the
unfruitful seasons, and other marks of the divine displeasure,
with which they had been visited, (i. 1— 11.) The obedience
of the governors and people to the prophet's message is then
related. (12—15.)
Discourse II. The prophet comforts the aged men, who
when young had beheld the splendour of the first temple, and
now wept for the diminished magnificence of the second tem-
ple, by foretelling that its glory should be greater than that of
the first, (ii. 1 — 9.) This prediction was accomplished by Jesus
Christ honouring it with his presence and preaching. Haggai
then predicts a fruitful harvest, as a reward for carrying on the
building. (10—19.)
Discourse III. The prophet foretells the setting up of
Messiah's kingdom under the name of Zerubbabel. (ii. 20 — 25.)
Section II. — On the Book of the Prophet Zechariah.
BEFORE CHRIST, .520 518.
Although the names of Zechariah's father and grand-
father are specified (Zech. i. 1.), it is not known from
what tribe or family this prophet was descended, nor
where he was born ; but that he was one of the cap-
tives who returned to Jerusalem in consequence of the
decree of Cyrus, is unquestionable. As he opened his
prophetic commission in the eighth month of the second
t 4
416 PROPHETS WHO FLOURISHED, ETC.
year of Darius the son of Hystaspes, that is, about the
year 520 before the Christian aera, it is evident that
he was contemporary with Haggai, and his authority
was equally effectual in promoting the building of the
temple.
The prophecy of Zechariah consists of two parts ; viz.
Part I. concerns the events which were then taking
place, viz. the restoration of the temple, interspersing
predictions relative to the advent of the Messiah,
(ch. i— vi.) These predictions were delivered in the
second year of the reign of Darius, king of Persia.
Part II. comprises prophecies relative to more re-
mote events, particularly the coming of Jesus Christ,
and the war of the Romans against the Jews, (vii — xiv.)
These prophecies were announced in the fourth year of
Darius's reign.
Section III. — On the Book of the Prophet Malachu
BEFORE CHRIST, 436 397.
Malachi, the last of the minor prophets, delivered
his predictions while Nehemiah was governor of Ju-
daea, more particularly after his second coming from
the Persian court ; and he appears to have contributed
the weight of his exhortations to the restoration of the
Jewish polity, and the final reform established by that
pious and excellent governor. The people having
relapsed into irreligion, the prophet was commissioned
to reprove both priests and people. His writings,
which consist of four chapters, comprise two prophetic
discourses ; viz.
Discourse I. reproves the Jews for their irreverence to God
their benefactor, and denounces divine judgments against them,
(ch. i, ii.)
ON THE APOCRYPHA. 417
Discourse II. foretells the coming of Christ, and his har-
binger John the Baptist, to purify the sons of Levi, the priests,
and to smite the land with a curse, unless they all repented,
(iii. iv.)
Chapter VIIL
ON THE APOCRYPHA.
Besides the Scriptures of the Old Testament, which
are universally acknowledged to be genuine and in-
spired writings, both by the Jewish and Christian
churches, there are several other writings, partly histo-
rical, partly ethical, and partly poetical, which are
usually printed at the end of the Old Testament in the
larger editions of the English Bible, under the appella-
tion of the " Apocrypha" — that is, books not ad-
mitted into the sacred canon, being either spurious, or
at least not acknowledged to be divine. These books
are deservedly rejected by all Protestants from the
canon of Scripture, because they never were recognised
as canonical by the Jewish or Christian churches ; be-
cause they contain many things which are fabulous and
contradictory to historical truth, as well as to the ca-
nonical Scriptures ; and also because they contain
passages which are false, absurd, and incredible. These
human productions were first enrolled among the
divinely inspired writings by the assembly of popish
prelates and others, who were convened in what is
called the council of Trent.
I. The first book of Esdras is only extant in
Greek, and is so called because the events related in it
occurred before the Babylonian captivity. It is chiefly
historical, and gives an account of the return of the
t 5
418 ON THE APOCRYPHA.
Jews from the Babylonish captivity, the building of the
temple, and the re-establishment of divine worship.
II. The second book of Esdras is supposed to
have been originally written in Greek, though at pre-
sent it is only extant in Latin, of which there is an
Arabic version, differing very materially from it, and
having many interpolations. The author of this book
is unknown ; but the allusions to Jesus Christ, and to
the phraseology of the New Testament, prove it to be
the composition of some Jewish Christian. It abounds
with absurd rabbinical tales and fables.
III. Concerning the author of the book of Tobit, or
the time when he flourished, we have no authentic
information. It professes to relate the history of
Tobit and his family, who were carried into captivity
to Nineveh by Shalmanezer : but it contains so many
rabbinical fables, and allusions to the Babylonian de-
monology, that many learned men consider it as an in-
genious and amusing fiction, calculated to form a pious
temper, and to teach the most important duties. The
simplicity of its narrative, and the pious and moral
lessons it inculcates, have imparted to it an interest,
which has rendered it one of the most popular of the
apocryphal writings.
IV. The book of Judith professes to relate the
defeat of the Assyrians by the Jews, through the in-
strumentality of their countrywoman Judith, whose
genealogy is recorded in the eighth chapter ; but so
many geographical, historical, and chronological diffi-
culties attend this book, that the most eminent critics
have considered it rather as a drama or parable than a
real history. The author is utterly unknown. This
book was originally written in Chaldee, and translated
into Latin.
ON THE APOCRYPHA. 419
V. " The rest of the chapters of the book of
Esther, which are found neither in the Hebrew nor in
the Chaldee," were originally written in Greek, whence
they were translated into Latin, and formed part of the
Italic or old Latin version in use before the time of
Jerome. Being there annexed to the canonical book,
they passed without censure, but were rejected by
Jerome in his version, because he confined himself to
the Hebrew Scriptures, and these chapters never were
extant in the Hebrew language. They are evidently
the production of an Hellenistic Jew, but are consi-
dered both by Jerome and Grotius as a work of pure
fiction, which was annexed to the canonical book of
Esther by way of embellishment.
VI. "The Wisdom of Solomon" is commonly
ascribed to that Hebrew monarch, either because the
author imitated his sententious manner of writing, or
because he sometimes speaks in his name, the better to
recommend his moral precepts. It is, however, certain
that Solomon was not the author, for it was never ex-
tant in Hebrew, nor received into the Hebrew canon,
nor is the style like that of Solomon. This book has
always been admired for its elegance and for the admir-
able moral tendency of its precepts. It consists of two
parts : the first contains a description or encomium of
wisdom, (ch. i — x.) The second part, comprising the
rest of the book, treats on a variety of topics widely
differing from the subject of the first ; viz. reflections
on the history and conduct of the Israelites during
their journey ings in the wilderness, and their sub-
sequent proneness to idolatry.
VII. Although the ''Wisdom of Jesus the Son,
of Sirach," or Ecclesiasticus, has sometimes been
considered as the production of Solomon, yet the style
and other internal evidences prove that it could not
16
420 ON THE APOCRYPHA.
possibly have been written by the Hebrew monarch.
Respecting the author of Ecclesiasticus we have no in-
formation beyond what this book itself imparts ; viz.
that it was written by a person of the name of Jesus
the son of Sirach, who had travelled in pursuit of know-
ledge. This man being deeply conversant with the Old
Testament, and having collected many things from the
prophets, blended them, as well as the sentences
ascribed to Solomon, with the result of his own observ-
ation, and thus endeavoured to produce a work of in-
struction that might be useful to his countrymen. This
book was written in Hebrew, or rather the Syro-Chal-
daic dialect then in use in Judaea, and was translated
by his grandson into Greek, for the use of the Alex-
andrian Jews, who were ignorant of the language of
Judaea. The translator himself is supposed to have
been a son of Sirach, as well as his grandfather, the
author. The book was probably written about the
year 232 b. c, when the author might be seventy
years of age ; and it was translated about sixty years
after.
This book has met with general and deserved esteem
in the Western church, and was introduced into the
public service by the venerable reformers and com-
pilers of our national liturgy.
It commences with an exhortation to the pursuit of
wisdom : this is followed by numerous moral sentences
or maxims, arranged in a less desultory manner than
the proverbs of Solomon, as far as the forty-fourth
chapter, at which the author begins his eulogy of the
patriarchs, prophets, and celebrated men among the
Jews, to the end of the fiftieth chapter. And the book
concludes with a prayer.
VIII. It is alike uncertain by whom, or in what lan-
guage, the book of Baruch was written ; and whether
ON THE APOCRYPHA. 421
it contains any matters historically true, or whether the
whole is a fiction. The principal subject of the book
is an epistle, pretended to be sent by Jehoiakim and
the captive Jews in Babylon, to their brethren in Judah
and Jerusalem. The last chapter contains an epistle
which falsely bears the name of Jeremiah.
IX. "The song of the three children" is
placed in the Greek version of Daniel, and also in the
Vulgate Latin version, between the twenty-third and
twenty-fourth verses of the third chapter. It does not
appear to have ever been extant in Hebrew, and
although it has always been admired for the piety of its
sentiments, it was never admitted to be canonical, until
it was recognised by the council of Trent.
X. The history of Susanna is evidently the
work of some Hellenistic Jew ; and in the Vulgate ver-
sion it forms the thirteenth chapter of the book of
Daniel. Some modern critics consider it to be both
spurious and fabulous.
XI. " The History of the Destruction of Bel and
the Dragon" was always rejected by the Jewish
church ; it is not extant either in the Hebrew or the
Chaldee language. Jerome gives it no better title than
that of the Fable of Bel and the Dragon ; nor has it ob-
tained more credit with posterity, except with the
fathers of the council of Trent, who determined it to
be a part of the canonical Scriptures. The design of
this fiction is to render idolatry ridiculous, and to exalt
the true God ; but the author has destroyed the illusion
of his fiction by transporting to Babylon the worship of
animals, which was never practised in that country.
XII. " The Prayer of Manasses, king of Judah,
when he was holden captive in Babylon," though not
unworthy of the occasion on which it is pretended to
have been composed, was never recognised as canon-
422 ON THE APOCRYPHA.
ical. It is rejected as spurious even by the church of.
Rome.
XIII. The two books of Maccabees are thus deno-
minated, because they relate the patriotic and gallant
exploits of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren : they
are both admitted into the canon of Scripture by the
church of Rome.
1. The first book contains the history of the Jews,
from the beginning of the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes
to the death of Simon, a period of about thirty-four
years. It was originally written in the Syro-Chaldaic
language, and was most probably composed in the time
of John Hyrcanus, when the wars of the Maccabees
were terminated, either by Hyrcanus himself, or by
some persons employed by him. From the Syro-Chal-
daic it was translated into Greek, and thence into Latin.
Our English version is made from the Greek. The
first book of Maccabees is a most valuable historical
monument.
2. The second book of Maccabees is very inferior
to the preceding, and consists of several pieces com-
piled by an unknown author : it must therefore be read
with great caution. It contains the history of about
fifteen years, from the execution of the commission of
Heliodorus, who was sent by Seleucus to bring away
the treasures of the temple, to the victory obtained by
Judas Maccabeus over Nicanor, that is, from the year
of the world 3828 to 3843. Two antient translations
of this book are extant, one in Syriac, the other in
Latin : the version in our Bibles was executed from
the Greek.
4.23
BOOK II. — ANALYSIS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT-
Chapter I.
ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
Section I. — On the Name and Number of the Canonical Gospels.
The word ETAITEAION (Eitangelion), which we
translate Gospel, among Greek profane writers sig-
nifies any good tidings *, and corresponds exactly
with our English word Gospel, which is derived from
the Saxon words 30b, God or good, and rfel, tvord
or tiding, and denotes God's word or good tidings.
In the New Testament this term is confined to the
glad tidings of the actual coming of the Messiah,
and is even opposed to the prophecies concerning
Christ. (Matt. xi. 5. Rom. i. 1, 2.) Hence ecclesi-
astical writers gave the appellation of Gospels to
the lives of Christ — that is, to those sacred histories
in which are recorded the " good tidings of great joy
to all people," of the advent of the Messiah, toge-
ther with all its joyful circumstances ; and hence the
authors of those histories have acquired the title of
evangelists. Besides this general title, the sacred
writers use the term Gospel, with a variety of epithets,
derived from the nature of its contents. See instances
in Eph. i. 13. vi. 15. Rom. i. 1. 3. and 2 Cor. v. 19.
The Gospels which have been transmitted to us are
four in number: and we learn from ecclesiastical
* From cv (eu) good, and ayyeXia (angelia) a message or tidings.
424 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
history, that four, and four only, were ever received by
the Christian church as the genuine and inspired
writings of the evangelists. And it is a considerable
advantage that a history of such importance as that of
Jesus Christ has been recorded by the pens of separate
and independent writers ; for, by the contradictions,
whether real or apparent, which are visible in these
accounts, (but which admit of easy solution by any
attentive reader,) they have incontestably proved that
they did not unite with a view of imposing a fabulous
narrative on mankind. And in all matters of conse-
quence, whether doctrinal or historical, there is such a
manifest agreement between them as is to be found in
no other writings whatever.
Section II. — On the Gospel by Saint Matthew.
Matthew, surnamed Levi, was the son of Alpheus,
but not of that Alpheus or Cleopas who was the father
of James mentioned in Matt. x. 3. He was a native
of Galilee, but of what city in that country, or of what
tribe of the people of Israel, we are not informed.
Before his conversion to Christianity, he was a publican
or tax-gatherer, under the Romans, and collected the
customs of all goods exported or imported at Caper-
naum, a maritime town on the sea of Galilee, and also
received the tribute paid by all passengers who went by
water. While employed " at the receipt of custom,"
Jesus called him to be a witness of his words and
works, thus conferring upon him the honourable office
of an apostle. From that time he continued with Jesus
Christ, a familiar attendant on his person, a spectator
of his public and private conduct, a hearer of his dis-
courses, a witness of his miracles, and an evidence of
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 425
his resurrection. After our Saviour's ascension, Mat-
thew continued at Jerusalem with the other apostles,
and with them, on the day of Pentecost, was endowed
with the gift of the Holy Spirit. How long he remained
in Judaea after that event, or where he died, we have
no authentic accounts. He is generally allowed to
have written first of all the evangelists, though a con-
siderable opinion exists as to the language in which and
the time when his Gospel was composed. Some critics
think that its original language was Hebrew ; others,
Greek ; while a third class decide in favour of a
Hebrew and Greek original. The reasons on which these
several opinions are founded are detailed in the author's
larger Introduction, which do not admit of abridg-
ment : the most probable is that, which determines that
Matthew wrote a Hebrew Gospel for the Hebrew
Christians, about the year 37, and afterwards a Greek
Gospel about the year 61. The present Greek Gospel
has every internal mark of being an original writing :
and the disappearance of the Hebrew Gospel is suffi-
ciently accounted for, not only by the prevalence of
the Greek language but also by the fact that it was
so corrupted by the Ebionites (a sect contemporary
with St. John), as to lose all its authority in the church.
The authenticity of his Gospel was never doubted.
The voice of antiquity accords in testifying that
St. Matthew wrote his Gospel in Judaea for the Jewish
nation, while the church consisted wholly of the cir-
cumcision, that is, of Jewish and Samaritan believers,
but principally Jewish ; and that he wrote it primarily
for their use, with a view to confirm those who believed,
and to convert those who believed not, we have, be-
sides historical facts, very strong presumptions from
the book itself. Every circumstance is carefully pointed
out, which might conciliate the faith of that nation ;
426 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
and every unnecessary expression is avoided, that
might in any way tend to obstruct it. The Gospel of
St. Matthew consists of four parts ; viz.
Part I. treats on the Infancy of Jesus Christ,
(ch. i, ii.)
Part II. records the Discourses and Actions of
John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ, preparatory to
our Saviour's commencing his public ministry, (ch.iii,
iv. 1—11.)
Part III. relates the Discourses and Actions of
Christ in Galilee, by which he demonstrated that he
was the Messiah, (ch.iv. 12. — xx. 16.)
Part IV. contains the Transactions relative to the
passion and resurrection of Christ, (ch. xx. 17. — xxviii.)
Section III. — On the Gospel by Saint Mark.
This evangelist, whose Hebrew name was John, was
nephew to Barnabas (Col. iv. 10.), and the son of Mary,
a pious woman of Jerusalem, at whose house the
apostles and first Christians often assembled. (Acts xii.
12.) He is supposed to have adopted the surname
of Mark, when he left Judaea to preach the Gos-
pel in foreign countries. The consent of antiquity
attests that he wrote his Gospel in Greek, under the
inspection of the apostle Peter, at Rome, and between
the years 60 and 63. It may be divided into three
parts ; viz.
Part I. The Transactions from the Baptism of Christ
to his entering on the more public part of his Ministry,
(ch.i. 1—13.)
Part II. The Discourses and Actions of Jesus Christ
to his going up to Jerusalem to the fourth and last
Passover, (ch. i. 14 x.)
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 427
Part III. The Passion, Death, and Resurrection of
Christ, (ch. xi — xiv.)
Section IV. — On the Gospel by Saint Luke.
St. Luke was descended from Gentile parents, and
in his youth had embraced Judaism, from which he
was converted to Christianity. He was for the most
part the companion of the apostle Paul : and as no
antient writer has mentioned his suffering martyrdom,
it is probable that he died a natural death. The
genuineness and authenticity of his Gospel and of the
Acts of the Apostles were never doubted. The Gospel
appears to have been written about the year 63 or 64 :
it was written for Gentile Christians, and the events
which he has recorded are classed, after the manner of
some antient profane writers, instead of being disposed
in chronological order, as St. Matthew has related them.
The Gospel of St. Luke may be divided into five classes
or sections ; viz.
Class I. contains the narrative of the birth of Christ,
together with all the circumstances that preceded, at-
tended, and followed it. (ch. i, ii. 1 — 40.)
Class II. comprises the particulars relative to our
Saviour's infancy and youth, (ch.ii. 41 — 52.)
Class III. includes the preaching of John, and the
baptism of Jesus Christ, whose genealogy is annexed,
(ch. iii.)
Class IV. comprehends the discourses, miracles,
and actions of Jesus Christ, during the whole of
his ministry, (ch. iv — ix. 50.) This appears evident :
for after Saint Luke had related his temptation
in the wilderness (ch. iv. 1—13.), he immediately
adds, that Christ returned to Galilee (14.), and men-
428 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
tions Nazareth (16.), Capernaum (31.), and the lake of
Gennesareth (v. 1.) ; and then he proceeds as far as
ix. 50. to relate our Saviour's transactions in Galilee.
Class V. begins with chap. ix. 51., and contains an
account of our Saviour's last journey to Jerusalem.
Consequently this class comprises every thing relative
to his passion, death, resurrection, and ascension, (ix.
51—62. x— xxiv.)
Section V. — On the Gospel by Saint John.
Saint John, the evangelist and apostle, was the son
of Zebedee, a fisherman of the town of Bethsaida, on
the sea of Galilee, and the younger brother of James
the elder. His mother's name was Salome. He was
eminently the object of our Lord's regard and confi-
dence ; and was, on various occasions, admitted to free
and intimate intercourse with him, so that he was
characterised as " the disciple whom Jesus loved."
(John xiii. 23.) Hence we find him present at several
scenes, to which most of the other disciples were not
admitted. He died a natural death about the year
100. He wrote his Gospel in Greek, most probably
about the year 97 : it has been universally received as
genuine : indeed, besides the uninterrupted testimony
of Christian antiquity, the circumstantiality of its de-
tails prove that his book was written by an eye-witness
of the transactions it records.
The general design of Saint John, in common with
the rest of the evangelists, is, as he himself assures us,
to prove that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God,
and that believing we may have life through his name.
(xx. 31.) But, besides this, we are informed by antient
writers, that there were two especial motives that in-
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 429
duced Saint John to compose his Gospel. One was, to
supply those important events in our Saviour's life
which had been omitted by the other evange-
lists ; the other motive was, that he might refute the
heresies of Cerinthus and the Nicolaitans, who had at-
tempted to corrupt the Christian doctrine. Of the
Nicolaitans nothing certain is known : but concerning
the tenets of the Cerinthians, the following particulars
(taken from the author's larger Introduction) are ne-
cessary to be known in order to understand the design
of the evangelist in composing his Gospel.
Cerinthus was by birth a Jew who lived at the close
of the first century: having studied literature and
philosophy at Alexandria, he attempted at length to
form a new and singular system of doctrine and disci-
pline, by a monstrous combination of the doctrines of
Jesus Christ with the opinions and errors of the Jews
and Gnostics. From the latter he borrowed their
Pleroma or fulness, their JEons or spirits, their De-
miurgus or creator of the visible world, &c. and so
modified and tempered these fictions as to give them an
air of Judaism, which must have considerably favoured
the progress of his heresy. He taught that the most
high God was utterly unknown before the appearance of
Christ, and dwelt in a remote heaven called ITAHPftMA
(Pleroma) with the chief spirits or aeons — That this su-
preme God first generated an only begotten son, MONO-
TENH2 (Monogenes), who again begat the word, AOrOS
(Logos), or which was inferior to the first-born — That
Christ was a still lower aeon, though far superior to some
others — That there were two higher aeons distinct from
Christ; one called ZQH (Zoe), or life, and the other
*02 (Phos), or the light — That from the aeons again
proceeded inferior orders of spirits, and particularly
one Demiurgus, who created this visible world out of
430 ON THE HISTORICAL BOOKS
eternal matter — That this Demiurgus was ignorant of
the supreme God, and much lower than the aeons,
which were wholly invisible — That he was, however,
the peculiar God and protector of the Israelites, and
sent Moses to them, whose laws were to be of per-
petual obligation — That Jesus was a mere man of the
most illustrious sanctity and justice, the real son of
Joseph and Mary — That the i£on Christ descended
upon him in the form of a dove when he was baptized,
revealed to him the unknown Father, and empowered
him to work miracles — That the iEon, light, en-
tered John the Baptist in the same manner, and there-
fore that John was in some respects preferable to Christ
— That Jesus, after his union with Christ, opposed
himself with vigour to the God of the Jews, at whose
instigation he was seized and crucified by the Hebrew
chiefs, and that when Jesus was taken captive and
came to suffer, Christ ascended up on high, so that the
man Jesus alone was subjected to the pains of an igno-
minious death — That Christ will one day return upon
earth, and renewing his former union with the man
Jesus, will reign in Palestine a thousand years, during
which his disciples will enjoy the most exquisite sensual
delights.
Bearing these dogmas in mind, we shall find that
Saint John's Gospel is divided into three parts ; viz.
Part I. contains doctrines laid down in opposition
to those of Cerinthus. (John i. 2 — 18.)
Part II. delivers the proofs of those doctrines in an
historical manner, (i. 19. — xx. 29.)
Part III. is a conclusion or appendix giving an
account of the person of the writer, and of his design
in writing his Gospel, (xx. 30, 31. xxi.)
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 431
Section VI. — On the Acts of the Apostles.
The Book of the Acts of the Apostles forms the
fifth and last of the historical books of the New Testa-
ment, and connects the Gospels with the Epistles ;
being an useful postscript to the former, and a proper
Introduction to the latter. That Saint Luke was the
author of the Acts of the Apostles is evident both
from the introduction and from the unanimous testi-
monies of the early Christians. Both are inscribed to
Theophilus ; and in the very first verse of the Acts
there is a reference made to his Gospel, which he calls
" the former Treatise" On this account Dr. Benson
and some other critics have conjectured that Saint
Luke wrote the Gospels and Acts in one book, and
divided it into two parts. From the frequent use of
the first person plural, it is clear that he was present at
most of the transactions he relates. To the genuine-
ness and authenticity of this book, which was written
about the year 63, all the Christain Fathers bear un-
animous testimony.
The Acts of the Apostles may be divided into three
principal parts ; viz.
Part I. contains the Rise and Progress of the mother
church at Jerusalem from the time of our Saviour's
ascension to the first Jewish persecution, (ch. i — viii.)
Part II. comprises the Dispersion of the Disciples
— the propagation of Christianity among the Samari-
tans — the conversion of Saint Paul, and the foundation
of a Christian church at Antioch. (ch. viii. 5. xii.)
Part III. describes the conversion of the more re-
mote Gentiles, by Barnabas and Paul, and, after their
i separation, by Paul and his associates, among whom
was Luke himself during the latter part of Paul's la-
bours, (ch. xiii — xxviii.)
432 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
The Acts of the Apostles afford abundant evidence
of the truth and divine original of the Christian religion ;
for we learn from this book, that the Gospel was not
indebted for its success to deceit or fraud, but it was
wholly the result of the mighty power of God, and the
excellence and efficacy of the saving truths which it
contains. The general and particular doctrines, com-
prised in the Acts of the Apostles, are perfectly in
unison with the glorious truths revealed in the Gospels,
and illustrated in the apostolic Epistles ; and are ad-
mirably suited to the state of the persons, whether Jews
or Gentiles, to whom they were addressed. And the
evidences which the apostles gave of their doctrine, in
their appeals to prophecies and miracles, and the various
gifts of the Spirit, were so numerous and so strong, and
at the same time so widely adapted to every class of
persons, that the truth of the religion which they attest
cannot be reasonably disputed.
In perusing this very interesting portion of sacred
history, it will be desirable constantly to refer to the
accompanying map of the Travels of the Apostles, par-
ticularly those of Saint Paul.
Chapter II.
ON THE EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS OF THE NEW TESTA-
MENT, PARTICULARLY THOSE OF SAINT PAUL.
Section I. — A Brief Account of the Apostle Paul. — Nature of
the Epistolary Writings of the New Testament.
I. A Brief Account of Saint Paul.
Saul, also called Paul, (by which name this illus-
trious apostle was generally known after his preaching
u
7 Y-
;■/»>.:
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 433
among the Gentiles, especially among the Greeks and
Romans,) was a Hebrew of the Hebrews, a descendant
of the patriarch Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin, and
a native of Tarsus, then the chief city of Cilicia. By-
birth he was a citizen of Rome, a distinguished honour
and privilege, which had been conferred on some of his
ancestors for services rendered to the commonwealth
during the wars. His father was a Pharisee, and he
himself was educated in the most rigid principles of that
sect ; but he was also early initiated into Greek liter-
ature at Tarsus: and his parents completed his education
by having him taught the art of tent-making, in con-
formity with the custom of the Jews at that time. It
appears from Acts xxiii. 16 — 22. and Rom. xvi. 7. 11.
21. that his sister's son and some others of his relations
were Christians, and had embraced the Gospel before
his conversion : but Saul himself was an inveterate
enemy of the Christian name and faith, until his con-
version in a.d. 35, on the road to Damascus, whither
he was going with letters of commission from the high
priest and elders, or sanhedrin, to the synagogue of the
Jews at Damascus, empowering him to bring to Jeru-
salem any Christians, whether men or women, whom he
might find there.
Shortly after his baptism, and the descent of the Holy
Spirit upon him, Saul went into Arabia (Gal. i. 17.) ;
and during his residence in that country he was fully
instructed, as we may reasonably think, by divine reve-
lation, and by diligent study of the Old Testament, in
the doctrines and duties of the Gospel. Three years
after his conversion, he returned to Damascus, a.d. 38
(Gal. i. 18.), and boldly preached the Gospel to the
Jews, who rejecting his testimony, as an apostate, con-
spired to kill him ; but, the plot being communicated to
Saul, he escaped from Damascus privately by night,
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434 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
and went up to Jerusalem for the first time since his
conversion. After some hesitation on the part of the
Christians in that city, he was acknowledged to be a
disciple. He remained at Jerusalem only fifteen days,
during which his boldness in preaching the Gospel so
irritated the Hellenistic Jews, that they conspired against
him ; " 'which 'when the brethren knew, they brought him
down to Ccesarea-Philippi, and sent him forthto Tarsus"
(Acts ix. 28—30.)
From that time (a.d. 39) to the year 58, the
apostle preached the Gospel in various parts of Asia
Minor and in Greece with great energy and success ;
but, being rescued from a tumultuous assembly of
Jews who would have put him to death at Jerusalem
(Acts xxi, xxii.), he was sent to Csesareaby the tribune
Lysias, who directed the Jewish council to accuse him
before Felix the Roman procurator. By this officer
he was detained in prison two years ; and, his cause
being heard before Festus the successor of Felix, the
apostle appealed to the imperial tribunal, and was
sent to Rome, (Acts xxiv — xxviii.) a.d. 60. Here
he was confined two years, from a. d. 61 to 63. As
Saint Luke has not continued Saint Paul's history be-
yond his first imprisonment at Rome, we have no au-
thentic record of his subsequent travels and labours
from the spring of a. d. 63, when he was released, to
the time of his martyrdom. This is said to have taken
place by decapitation, June 29. a. d. 66, at Aquae
Salvia?, three miles from Rome. Fourteen epistles are
extant bearing the name of this distinguished " apostle
of Jesus Christ," whose life and labours have justly
been considered as an irrefragable proof of the truth
of the Christian revelation.
II. Nature and Design of the Epistolary Writings of
the New Testament.
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 4-35
The Epistles, or letters addressed to various Chris-
tian communities, and also to individuals, by the
apostles Paul, James, Peter, and John, form the second
principal division of the New Testament. These wri-
tings abundantly confirm all the material facts related
in the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles. The parti-
culars of our Saviour's life and death are often referred
to in them, as grounded upon the undoubted testimony
of eye-witnesses, and as being the foundation of the
Christian religion. The speedy propagation of the
Christian faith, recorded in the Acts, is confirmed be-
yond all contradiction by innumerable passages in the
Epistles, written to the churches already planted ; and
the miraculous gifts, with which the apostles were en-
dued, are often appealed to in the same writings, as
an undeniable evidence of the divine mission of the
apostles.
Though all the essential doctrines and precepts of
the Christian religion were unquestionably taught by
our Saviour himself, and are contained in the Gospels,
yet it is evident to any person who attentively studies
the Epistles, that they are to be considered as com-
mentaries on the doctrines of the Gospel, addressed to
particular Christian societies or persons, in order to
explain and apply those doctrines more fully, to con-
fute some growing errors, to compose differences and
schisms, to reform abuses and corruptions, to excite
the Christians to holiness, and to encourage them
against persecutions. And since these Epistles were
written (as we have already shown) under divine inspir-
ation, and have uniformly been received by the
Christian church as the productions of inspired writers,
it consequently follows, (notwithstanding some writers
have insinuated that they are not of equal authority
with the Gospels, while others would reject them alto-
u 2
436 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
gether,) that what the apostles have delivered in these
Epistles, as necessary to be believed or done by Chris-
tians, must be as necessary to be believed and practised
in order to salvation, as the doctrines and precepts
delivered by Jesus Christ himself, and recorded in the
Gospels ; because, in writing these Epistles, the sacred
penmen were the servants, apostles, ambassadors, and
ministers of Christ, and stewards of the mysteries of
God, and their doctrines and precepts are the will, the
mind, the truth, and the commandments of God him-
self. On account of the fuller displays of evangelical
truth contained in this portion of the sacred volume,
the Epistles have by some divines been termed the
doctrinal books of the New Testament.
The Epistles contained in the New Testament are
twenty-one in number, and are generally divided into
two classes ; viz. the fourteen Epistles of Saint Paul,
and the seven Catholic or general Epistles, written by
the apostles James, Peter, John, and Jude : the reason
of this appellation will be found in Chapter IV. Sect. I.
page 453., infra.
The general plan on which the Epistles are written,
is, Jirst, to discuss and decide the controversy, or to
refute the erroneous notions, which had arisen in the
church, or among the persons to whom they are ad-
dressed, and which was the occasion of their being
written ; and, secondly, to recommend the observance
of those duties, which would be necessary, and of abso-
lute importance to the Christian church in every age,
consideration being chiefly given to those particular
graces or virtues of the Christian character, which the
disputes that occasioned the Epistles might tempt
them to neglect.
The observations on the doctrinal interpretation of
Scripture, in pp. 207 — 21 1 ., will be found useful in study.
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 437
ing the Epistles. A Table of the times, when they
were most probably composed, will be found in the
Appendix, No. II.
Section II. — On the Epistle to the Romans.
The Epistle to the Romans, though seventh in order
of time, is placed first of all the apostolical letters,
either from the pre-eminence of Rome, as being the
mistress of the world, or because it is the longest and
most comprehensive of all Saint Paul's Epistles. Va-
rious years have been assigned for its date : but the
most probable date is that which refers this Epistle to
the end of 57, or the beginning of 58 ; at which time
Saint Paul was at Corinth.
Christianity is generally supposed to have been first
planted at Rome by some of those " strangers of
Rome, Jews, and proselytes," (Acts ii. 10.) who heard
Peter preach, and were converted at Jerusalem on the
day of Pentecost.
The occasion of writing this Epistle may be easily
collected from the Epistle itself. It appears that Saint
Paul, who had been made acquainted with all the cir*
cumstances of the Christians at Rome by Aquila and
Priscilla (Rom. xvi. 3.), and by other Jews who had
been expelled from Rome by the decree of Claudius
(Acts xviii. 2.), was very desirous of seeing them, that
he might impart some spiritual gift ; but, being pre-
vented from visiting them, as he had purposed, in his
journey into Spain, he availed himself of the opportu-
nity that presented itself to him by the departure of
Phcebe to Rome, to send them an Epistle. Finding,
however, that the church was composed partly of
Heathens who had embraced the Gospel, and partly of
u 3
438 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
Jews who, with many remaining prejudices, believed in
Jesus as the Messiah ; and finding also that many con-
tentions arose from the Gentile converts claiming
equal privileges with the Hebrew Christians (which
claims the latter absolutely refused to admit unless
the Gentile converts were circumcised), he wrote this
Epistle to compose these differences, and to strengthen
the faith of the Roman Christians against the insinu-
ations of false teachers ; being apprehensive lest his
involuntary absence from Rome should be turned by
the latter to the prejudice of the Gospel.
This Epistle consists of four parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1 — 13.)
Part II. contains the Doctrinal Part of the Epistle
concerning justification, (i. 16 — 32. ii — xi.)
Part III. comprises the Hortatory or Practical Part
of the Epistle (ch. xii — xv. 1 — 14.), in which the apos-
tle exhorts Christian believers to dedicate themselves
to God, and how they should demean themselves to
one another.
Part IV. The Conclusion, in which Saint Paul ex-
cuses himself, partly for his boldness in thus writing to
the Romans (xv. 14 — 21.), and partly for not having
hitherto come to them (22.), but promises to visit them,
recommending himself to their prayers (23 — 33.) ; and
sends various salutations to the brethren at Rome,
(xvi.)
In perusing this Epistle, it will be desirable to read,
at least, the eleven first chapters, at once, uninterrupt-
edly ; as every sentence, especially in the argument-
ative part, bears an intimate relation to, and is dependent
upon, the whole discourse, and cannot be understood
unless we comprehend the scope of the whole. Fur-
ther, in order to enter fully into its spirit, we must
enter into the spirit of a Jew in those times, and endea-
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 439
vour to realise in our own minds his utter aversion from
the Gentiles, his valuing and exalting himself upon his
relation to God and to Abraham, and also upon his
law, pompous worship, circumcision, &c. as if the
Jews were the only people in the world who had any
right to the favour of God.
Section III. — On the First Epistle to the Corinthians.
This Epistle was written from Ephesus about the
year 57 : its genuineness was never disputed.
Christianity was first planted at Corinth by St. Paul
himself, who resided here a year and six months, be-
tween the years 51 and 53. The church consisted
partly of Jews, and partly of Gentiles, but chiefly of
the latter ; whence the apostle had to combat, some-
times with Jewish superstition, and sometimes with
Heathen licentiousness. On Saint Paul's departure
from Corinth, he was succeeded by Apollos, f an elo-
quent man, and mighty in the Scriptures," who
preached the Gospel with great success. (Acts xviii.
24? — 28.) Aquila and Sosthenes were also eminent
teachers in this church, (xviii. 3.; 1 Cor. i. 1.) But,
shortly after Saint Paul quitted this church, its peace
was disturbed by the intrusion of false teachers, who
made great pretensions to eloquence, wisdom, and
knowledge of their Christian liberty, and thus under-
mined his influence, and the credit of his ministry.
Hence two parties were formed, one of which contended
strenuously for the observance of Jewish ceremonies,
while the other, misinterpreting the true nature of
Christian liberty, indulged in excesses which were
contrary to the design and spirit of the Gospel. One
party boasted that they were the followers of Paul;
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440 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
and another, that they were the followers of A polios.
To correct these and other abuses, and also to answer
some queries which the Christians at Corinth had pro-
posed to the apostle, was the design of this Epistle,
which divides itself into three parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction (ch. i. 1 — 9.), in which
Saint Paul expresses his satisfaction at all the good he
knew of them, particularly at their having received the
gifts of the Holy Spirit for the confirmation of the
Gospel.
Part II. contains the Treatise or Discussion of
various particulars adapted to the state of the Corinth-
ian church ; which may be commodiously arranged into
two sections.
Sect, 1. contains a reproof of the corruptions and abuses
which disgraced the church, (i. 10. — vi. 1 — 20.)
Sect. 2. contains an answer to the questions which the
Corinthian church had proposed to the apostle, (vii — xv.)
Part III. contains the conclusion, comprising
directions relative to the contributions for the saints
at Jerusalem, promises that the apostle would shortly
visit them, and salutations to various members of the
church at Corinth, (xvi.)
Section IV. — On the Second Epistle to the Corinthians.
This Epistle was written from Macedonia, most pro-
bably from Philippi, and within a year after the pre-
ceding Epistle, that is, early in the year 58 : its ge-
nuineness was never doubted. Compelled to vindicate
his apostolic character, Saint Paul here furnishes us
with many interesting details respecting his personal
history and sufferings for the name and faith of Christ.
He commends the faithful members of the church at
OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 441
Corinth, for their obedience to his injunctions con-
tained in his former Epistle, and particularly for ex-
communicating an incestuous person ; and excites them
to finish their contributions for their poor brethren in
Judaea.
This Epistle consists of three parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.)
Part II. The Apologetic Discourse of Saint Paul ;
in which,
1. He justifies himself from the imputations of the false
teacher and his adherents, by showing his sincerity and inte-
grity in the discharge of his ministry ; and that he acted not
from worldly interest, but from true love for them, and a tender
concern for their spiritual welfare, (i. 5 — 24. ii — vii.)
2. He exhorts them to a liberal contribution for their poor
brethren in Judea. (viii, ix.)
5. He resumes his apology; justifying himself from the
charges and insinuations of the false teacher and his followers;
in order to detach the Corinthians from them, and to re-estab-
lish himself and his authority, (x — xiii. 10.)
Part III. The Conclusion, (xiii. 11—14-.)
Section V. — On the Epistle to the Galatians.
The Epistle to the Galatians, among whom Christianity
had been planted by Saint Paul himself, was most pro-
bably written from Corinth about the latter end of the
year 52 or early in 53. The apostle's design in writing
it was, first, to assert his apostolical character and
authority, and the doctrine which he taught, in op-
position to the erroneous tenets of a judaising teacher;
and, secondly, to confirm the Galatian churches in the
faith of Christ, especially with respect to the important
point of justification by faith alone ; to expose the
errors which had been disseminated among them, by
u 5
442 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
demonstrating to them the true nature and use of the
moral and ceremonial law ; and to revive those princi-
ples of Christianity which he had taught when he first
preached the Gospel to them.
This Epistle is written with great energy and force of
language, and affords a fine specimen of Saint Paul's
skill in conducting an argument. It consists of three
parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1—5.)
Part II. The Treatise or Discussion of the subjects
which had occasioned this Epistle; in which the apostle
first vindicates his doctrine and authority (ch. i. 6 — 24.
ii,); and then disputes against the advocates for cir-
cumcision (iii — v. 9.) and gives the Galatian Christians
various instructions for their conduct, (v. 10 — 26. vi.
1-10.)
Part III. The Conclusion, which is a summary of
the topics discussed in this Epistle, terminates with an
apostolic benediction, (vi. 11 — 18.)
Section VI — On the Epistle to the Ephesians.
Ephesus was the metropolis of the proconsular Asia,
distinguished for the magnificent temple of Diana, there
erected, as well as for the accomplishments, luxury,
and lasciviousness of its inhabitants. Christianity was
first planted here, about a. d. 54, by Saint Paul ; who
wrote this Epistle (the genuineness of which is undisput-
ed) about the year 61, during the early part of his
imprisonment at Rome. In this animated epistle he
shows the grand design of the Gospel, and exhorts his
converts against those evil practices and customs to
which they had been addicted when Heathens (ch. i — iii.),
and which, as believers in Christ, they had renounced.
OP THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 44 3
He then urges them to walk in a manner becoming
their profession, in the faithful discharge both of the
general and common duties of religion, and of the
special duties of particular relations (iv, v. 1 — 9.),
and encourages them to war the spiritual warfare, and
concludes with his apostolic benediction, (vi. 10 — 24?.)
Section VII. — On the Epistle to the Philippians.
This Epistle was written to the Philippians towards
the close of St. Paul's first imprisonment at Rome,
about the end of the year 62 or early in 63 : its ge-
nuineness was never questioned. Its scope is to confirm
them in the faith of the Gospel (ch. i. 1 — 20.), and to
encourage them to walk in a manner becoming their
holy profession, (i. 21 — 30. ii.) He then cautions them
against those judaising teachers who preached Christ
through envy and strife (iii, iv. 1.); and concludes
with various exhortations, at the same time testifying his
gratitude to them for their Christian bounty to him
during his imprisonment, (iv. 2 — 23.)
Section VIII. — On the Epistle to the Colossians.
This Epistle bears so close a resemblance to that ad-
dressed to the Ephesians, that they ought to be read
together, in order to be fully understood. It is not
known by whom Christianity was first planted at Co-
lossae : from internal evidence we are enabled to refer
its date to the year 62. No doubt was ever entertained
respecting its genuineness.
The scope of the epistle to the Colossians is, first,
to show, in opposition to the errors of some judaising
teachers, that all hope of man's redemption is founded
u 6
44?4 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
on Christ our Redeemer, in whom alone all complete
fulness, perfections, and sufficiency, are centered (ch. i.
ii. 1—7-) ; secondly, to caution the Colossians against
the insinuations of judaising teachers, and also against
philosophical speculations and deceits, and human tra-
ditions, as inconsistent with Christ and his fulness for
our salvation (ii. 8 — 23.) ; and to excite the Colossians,
by the most persuasive arguments, to a temper and
conduct worthy of their sacred character, (iii, iv. 1—6.)
The Epistle concludes with matters chiefly of a private
nature, except the directions for reading it in the church
of Laodicea, as well as in that of Colossae. (iv. 7 — 18.)
The Epistles/row Laodicea, mentioned in ch. iv. 16.,
which some have supposed to have been an epistle to
the church at Laodicea, was most probably the Epistle
to the Ephesians ; Laodicea being within the circuit of
the Ephesian church.
Section IX. — On the First Epistle to the Thessalonians.
Thessalonica was a large and populous city and
seaport of Macedonia, the capital of one of the four
districts into which the Romans divided that country
after its conquest by Paul us JEmylius. Besides being
the seat of the proconsul of Macedonia, Thessalonica
was commodiously situated for commerce, which was
carried on by its inhabitants to a considerable extent :
the Jews were very numerous here. Christianity was
first planted here by St. Paul, a. d. 50. The first
Epistle to the Thessalonians was the earliest of all that
apostle's writings : its date is referred to the year 5%
and its genuineness has never been questioned.
St. Paul, having heard a favourable report of the
stedfastness of the Thessalonians in the faith of Christ,
wrote this Epistle to confirm them in that faith, and to
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 445
animate them to a holy conversation, becoming the
dignity of their high and holy calling. With this
view, after a short introduction (ch. i. 1 — 4.), he pro-
ceeds to show the divine origin of the Christian reve-
lation by the four following arguments; viz.
I. The miracles wrought by the first preachers of
the Gospel, in attestation of their divine commission,
(i. 5—10.)
II. That their character, behaviour, and views, evi-
denced its truth, (ii. iii.)
III. That the first preachers of the Gospel delivered
to their disciples, from the very beginning, precepts of
the greatest strictness and holiness ; so that, by the
sanctity of its precepts, the Gospel is shown to be a
scheme of religion, every way worthy of the true God,
and highly beneficial to mankind, (iv. 1 — 12.) The
practical directions introduced in this part of the
Epistle were admirably suited to the state of the Thes-
salonian church.
IV. That Jesus Christ, the Author of our religion, was
declared to be the Son of God and the Judge of the world
by his resurrection from the dead ; and that, by the
same miracle, his own promise, and the predictions of
his apostles concerning his return from Heaven to
reward the righteous and punish the wicked — espe-
cially those who obey not the Gospel — are rendered
absolutely certain, (iv. 13 — 18. v. 1 — 11.)
The Epistle concludes with various practical advices
and instructions, (v. 12 — 28.)
Section X. — On the Second Epistle to the Thessalonians.
This Epistle was evidently written soon after the first
(a. d. 52) : its scope principally is, to rectify a mis-
446 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
take of the Thessalonians, who, from misunderstanding
a passage in his former letter, imagined that the day
of judgment was at hand. This Epistle consists of five
parts ; viz.
Part I. The Inscription, (i. 1, 2.)
Part II. Saint Paul's Thanksgiving and Prayer for
them. (i. 3—12.)
Part III. The Rectification of their Mistake, and the
Doctrine concerning the man of sin. (ii.)
Part IV. Various Advices relative to Christian
virtues, particularly,
i. To Prayer, with a prayer for the Thessalonians.
(iv. 1—5.)
ii. To correct the disorderly, (iv. 6 — 16.)
Part V. The Conclusion, (iv. 17, 18.)
Section XI. — On the First Epistle to Timothy.
Timothy, to whom this Epistle was addressed, was a
native of Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, in Asia Minor.
His father was a Greek, but his mother was a Jewess
(Acts xvi. 1.), and, as well as his grandmother Lois, a
person of excellent character. (2 Tim. i. 5.) The
pious care they took of his education soon appeared
to have the desired success; for we are assured by
Saint Paul, that, from his childhood, Timothy was well
acquainted with the Holy Scriptures. (2 Tim. iii. 15.)
It is generally supposed that he was converted to the
Christian faith during the first visit made by Paul and
Barnabas to Lystra. (Acts xiv.) From the time of his
conversion, Timothy made such proficiency in the
knowledge of the Gospel, and was so remarkable for
the sanctity of his manners, as well as for his zeal in
the cause of Christ, that he attracted the esteem of all
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 447
the brethren in those parts. According!}-, when the
apostle came from Antioch in Syria to Lystra the
second time, they commended Timothy so highly to
him, that Saint Paul selected him to be the compa-
nion of his travels, having previously circumcised him
(Acts xvi. 1 — 3.), and ordained him in a solemn manner
by imposition of hands (1 Tim. iv. 14. 2 Tim. i. 6.),
though at that time he probably was not more than
twenty years of age. (1 Tim. iv. 12.) From this
period, frequent mention is made of Timothy, as the
attendant of Saint Paul in his various journeys, assist-
ing him in preaching the Gospel, and in conveying his
instructions to the churches.
The date of this Epistle has been much disputed,
some writers placing it so early as the year 56, and
others so late as the year 64. The latter is considered
the most probable. This Epistle has always been ac-
knowledged to be the undisputed production of Saint
Paul.
Timothy having been left at Ephesus, to regulate
the affairs of the church in that city, Saint Paul wrote
this Epistle chiefly to instruct him in the choice of
proper officers in the church, as well as in the exercise
of a regular ministry. Another and very important
part of the apostle's design was to caution this young
evangelist against the influence of those false teachers,
who, by their subtle distinctions and endless contro-
versies, had corrupted the purity and simplicity of the
Gospel ; to press upon him, in all his preaching, a con-
stant regard to the interests of practical religion ; and
to animate him to the greatest diligence, fidelity, and
zeal, in the discharge of his office. The Epistle, there-
fore, consists of three parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.)
448 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
Part II. Instructions to Timothy how to behave in
the administration of the church at Ephesus. (ii — vi. 19.)
Part III. The Conclusion, (vi. 20, 21.)
Section XII. — On the Second Epistle to Timothy.
This Epistle was written during Saint Paul's second
imprisonment, and not long before his martyrdom,
most probably in the month of July or August,
a. d. 65.
The immediate design of Saint Paul, in writing this
Epistle to Timothy, was to apprise him of the circum-
stances that had befallen him during his second impri-
sonment at Rome, and to request him to come to him
before the ensuing winter. But, being uncertain whe-
ther he should live so long, he gave him in this letter a
variety of advices, charges, and encouragements for
the faithful discharge of his ministerial functions, with
the solemnity and affection of a dying parent ; in order
that, if he should be put to death before Timothy's ar-
rival, the loss might in some measure be compensated
to him by the instructions contained in this admirable
Epistle. With this view he exhorts him to stir up the
gift which had been conferred upon him (2 Tim.
i. 2 — 5.) ; not to be ashamed of the testimony of the
Lord, nor of Paul's sufferings (6 — 16.) ; to hold fast
the form of sound words, and to guard inviolable that
good deposit of Gospel doctrine (i. 13, 14.), which he
was to commit to faithful men who should be able to
teach others (ii. 1, 2.); to animate him to endure, with
fortitude, persecutions for the sake of the Gospel
(ii. 3 — 13.) ; to suppress and avoid logomachies (14.
23.) ; to approve himself a faithful minister of the
word (15 — 22.) ; and to forewarn him of the perils of
the last days, in consequence of wicked hypocritical
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 449
seducers and enemies of the truth, who even then were
beginning to rise in the church. These Saint Paul
admonishes Timothy to flee, giving him various
cautions against them, (iii.)
This Epistle affords a beautiful instance of the con-
solations which the Gospel imparts to all that truly
believe it. " Imagine,'' says a learned commentator
of the 18th century (Dr. Benson): — " Imagine a pious
father, under sentence of death for his piety and bene-
volence to mankind, writing to a dutiful and affection-
ate son, that he might see and embrace him again
before he left the world ; particularly that he might
leave with him his dying commands, and charge him
to live and suffer as he had done : — And you will have
the frame of the apostle's mind, during the writing of
this whole Epistle." (Pref. to 2 Tim. p. 517.)
Section XIII On the Epistle to Titus.
Titus was a Greek, and one of St. Paul's early con-
verts, who attended him and Barnabas to the first
council at Jerusalem, a. d. 49, and afterwards on his
ensuing circuit. (Tit. i. 4. Gal. ii. 1 — 3. Acts xv. 2.)
Subsequently, he was confidentially employed by the
apostle on various occasions ; and, as appears from this
Epistle, was specially appointed by him to regulate the
Christian churches in that island. Whether Titus ever
quitted Crete, we know not ; neither have we any cer-
tain information concerning the time, place, or manner
of his death ; but, according to antient ecclesiastical
tradition, he lived to the age of ninety-four years, and
died and was buried in that island.
This Epistle, the genuineness of which was never
questioned, is supposed to have been written after St.
Paul's liberation from his first imprisonment, a. d. 64.
450 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS
Titus having been left in Crete to settle the churches
in the several cities of that island according to the apos-
tolical plan, Saint Paul wrote this Epistle to him, that he
might discharge his ministry among the Cretans with
the greater success, and to give him particular in-
structions concerning his behaviour towards the ju-
daising teachers, who endeavoured to pervert the faith
and disturb the peace of the Christian church. The
Epistle, therefore, consists of three parts.
Part I. The inscription, (ch. i. 1 — 4.)
Part II. Instructions to Titus. 1. Concerning the
ordination of elders, that is, of bishops and deacons
(i. 5 — 16.) — 2. To accommodate his exhortations to
the respective ages, sexes, and circumstances of those
whom he was commissioned to instruct ; and, to give
the greater weight to his instructions, he admonishes
him to be an example of what he taught, (ii.) — 3. To
inculcate obedience to the civil magistrate, in oppo-
sition to the Jews and judaising teachers, who, being
averse from all civil governors, except such as were of
their own nation, were apt to imbue Gentile Christians
with a like seditious spirit, as if it were an indignity
for the people of God to obey an idolatrous magistrate ;
and also to enforce gentleness to all men. (iii. 1 — 7.) —
4. To enforce good works, avoid foolish questions,
and to shun heretics, (iii. 8 — 11.)
Part III. An invitation to Titus, to come to the
apostle at Nicopolis, together with various directions,
(iii. 12—15.)
Section XIV. — On the Epistle to Philemon.
Philemon was an inhabitant of Colossae, most pro-
bably a converted Gentile, and, it should seem, an
opulent and benevolent Christian. As it is evident
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, ETC. 451
from the Epistle itself that St. Paul was under confine-
ment when he wrote it, and as he expresses (verse 22.)
his expectation of being shortly released, it is probable
that it was written during his first imprisonment at
Rome, towards the end of a. d. 62, or early in 63 ; and
was sent, together with the Epistles to the Ephesians
and Colossians, by Tychicus and Onesimus. Though
some, formerly, questioned the genuineness of this
Epistle, the attestations it has received from the earliest
antiquity are deemed sufficient to establish that point.
The design of this short but beautiful and persuasive
letter is, to recommend Onesimus, formerly the run-
away slave of Philemon (but now a Christian convert),
to his master, and induce him to receive him again into
his house. Whether Philemon pardoned or punished
Onesimus, we have no information.
Section XV. — On the Epistle to the Hebrews.
The Hebrews, to whom this Epistle is addressed,
were Jewish Christians resident in Palestine : and,
though considerable difference of opinion exists con-
cerning its author, yet the similarity of its style and
expressions to that of St. Paul's other Epistles proves
that it was written by him in Greek, and not in Hebrew
as some eminent critics have supposed. The absence
of his name is accounted for by the consideration that
he withheld it lest he should give umbrage to the
Jews. This Epistle was written from Rome, not
long before he left Italy ; viz. at the end of a. d. 62, or
early in 63.
The occasion of writing this Epistle will be suffi-
ciently apparent from an attentive review of its con-
tents. The Jews did every thing in their power to
452 EPISTOLARY OR DOCTRINAL WRITINGS, ETC.
withdraw their brethren, who had been converted, from
the Christian faith : to specious arguments drawn from
the excellency of the Jewish religion, they added others
more cogent : namely, persecution and menaces. The
object of the apostle, therefore, in writing this letter, is
to show the deity of Jesus Christ, and the excellency
of his Gospel, when compared with the institutions of
Moses ; to prevent the Hebrews or Jewish converts
from relapsing into those rites and ceremonies which
were now abolished; and to point out their total in-
sufficiency, as means of reconciliation and atonement.
The reasonings are interspersed with numerous solemn
and affectionate warnings and exhortations, addressed
to different descriptions of persons. At length St. Paul
shows the nature, efficacy, and triumph of faith, by
which all the saints in former ages had been accepted
by God, and enabled to obey, suffer, and perform ex-
ploits, in defence of their holy religion ; from which he
takes occasion to exhort them to steadfastness and per-
severance in the true faith.
The Epistle to the Hebrews consists of three parts ;
viz.
Part I. demonstrates the Deity of Christ by the ex-
plicit declarations of Scripture concerning his supe-
riority to angels, to Moses, to Aaron, and the whole
Jewish priesthood, and the typical nature of the Mo-
saic ritual, (ch. i — x. 18.)
Part II. comprehends the Application of the pre-
ceding arguments and proofs, (x.19 — 39. to xiii. 1 — 19.)
in which the Hebrews are exhorted to steadfastness in
the faith of Christ, and are encouraged by the ex-
amples of believers in former ages. (ch. x. 19 — 39.
to xiii. 1 — 19.)
Part III. The conclusion, containing a prayer for
the Hebrews, and apostolical salutations, (ch. xiii. 20
—25.)
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 45S
Chapter III.
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
Section I. — On the Genuineness and Authenticity of the Catholic
Epistles.
The Epistles of Saint Paul are followed in the canon
of the New Testament by Seven Epistles, bearing the
names of the apostles James, Peter, Jude, and John.
For many centuries, these Epistles have been generally
termed Catholic or General Epistles, because they are
not addressed to the believers of some particular chy
or country, or to individuals, as Saint Paul's Epistles
were, but to Christians in general or to Christians of
several countries.
Although the authenticity of the Epistle of James,
the second of Peter, the Epistle of Jude, and the
second and third Epistles of John, was questioned by
some antient fathers, as well as by some modern writers,
yet we have every reason to believe that they are the
genuine and authentic productions of the inspired writers
whose names they bear. The claims to authenticity of
these disputed Epistles are briefly noticed in the follow-
ing sections. Indeed, the antient Christians had such
good opportunities for examining this subject, they
exercised so much caution in guarding against im-
position, and so well founded was their judgment con-
cerning the books of the New Testament, that no
writing which they pronounced genuine has yet been
proved spurious ; nor have we at this day the least rea-
son to believe any book to be genuine which they re-
jected.
Section II. — On the General Epistle of James.
James, the author of this Epistle, was the son of
Alpheus orCleophas; and is by St. Paul termed the
454 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
" Brother" or near relation of our Lord (Gal. i. 18, J 9.),
and is also generally termed " the Less," partly to
distinguish him from the other James, and probably
also because he was lower in stature. That he was an
apostle, is evident from various passages in the New
Testament, though it does not appear when his de-
signation to this office took place. He was honoured
by Jesus Christ with a separate interview soon after his
resurrection. (1 Cor. xv. 7.) He was distinguished as
one of the apostles of the circumcision (Acts i. 13.) ;
and soon after the death of Stephen, a. d. 34, he
seems to have been appointed president or bishop of
the Christian church at Jerusalem, to have dwelt in
that city, and to have presided at the council of the
apostles, which was convened there a. d. 49. On ac-
count of his distinguished piety and sanctity, he was
surnamed M the Just." He is said to have been stoned
to death by the Jews, a. d. 62; and most learned men
agree in placing his Epistle in the year 61. Though its
authenticity has been doubted by some critics, we have
every reason to believe it genuine, because it is cited
by two of the apostolic fathers (those who immediately
succeeded the apostles of Jesus Christ), and by several
succeeding writers. But the most decisive proof of its
canonical authority is, that the Epistle of Saint James
is inserted in the Syriac version of the New Testament,
executed at the close of the first or early in the second
century, in which the second Epistle of Peter, the
second and third of John, the Epistle of Jude, and the
Book of Revelation are omitted.
The persons to whom this Epistle is addressed were
Hebrew Christians, who were in danger of falling into
the sins which abounded among the Jews of that time.
The apostle, therefore, cautions them against those sins,
and comforts them under the persecutions to which
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 455
they were exposed ; and in the course of his Epistle he
takes occasion in chap. ii. 14—26. to rectify the notions
of the Hebrew Christians concerning the doctrine of
justification by faith. For as they were not to be justi-
fied by the latv, but by the method proposed in the
Gospel, and that method was said to be by faith, with-
out the works of the latv ; they, some of them, weakly,
and others, perhaps, wilfully, perverted that discovery;
and were for understanding, by faith, a bare assent to
the truth of the Gospel, without that living, fruitful,
and evangelical faith, which « worketh by love," and is
required of all that would be saved.
The Epistle of Saint James divides itself into three
parts, exclusive of the Introduction (ch. i. l.); viz.
Part I. contains Exhortations to patience, humility,
and suitable dispositions for receiving the word of God
aright, (ch. i. 2—27.)
Part II. censures and condemns various sinful prac-
tices and erroneous notions ; and here their mistaken
notions of justification by faith without works are cor-
rected and illustrated by the examples of Abraham and
Rahab. (ii— v. 1—6.)
Part III. comprises various Exhortations and Cau-
tions, (v. 7—20.)
Section III — On the First General Epistle of Peter.
Simon, surnamed Cephas or Peter, which appellation
signifies a stone or rock, was the son of Jonas or Jonah,
and was born at Bethsaida, on the coast of the sea of
Galilee. He had a brother, called Andrew, and they
jointly pursued the occupation of fishermen on that
lake. These two brothers were hearers of John the
Baptist ; from whose express testimony, and their own
personal conversation with Jesus Christ, they were fully
456 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
convinced that he was the Messiah (John i. 35 — 4>2.) ;
and from this time it is probable that they had frequent
intercourse with our Saviour, and were witnesses of
some of the miracles wrought by him, particularly that
performed at Cana in Galilee. (John ii. 1, 2.) Both
Peter and Andrew seem to have followed their trade,
until Jesus Christ called them to "follow him," and
promised to make them both " fishers of men."
(Matt. iv. 18, 19. Mark i. 17. Luke v. 10.) From
this time they became his companions, and when he
completed the number of his apostles, they were in-
cluded among them. Peter, in particular, was honour-
ed with his master's intimacy, together with James and
John : he is frequently mentioned in the gospels, and
in the former part of the Acts of the Apostles. We
know nothing of his personal history after the apostolic
council related in Acts xv., which is the last place
where he is mentioned by Luke ; until, many years
afterwards, ecclesiastical history informs us that he
received the crown of martyrdom at Rome, a. d. 63,
during the Neronian persecution ; being crucified with
his head downwards. The genuineness and authen-
ticity of his first Epistle were never disputed : it was
addressed to the same persecuted Hebrew Christians to
whom Saint James and Saint Paul respectively wrote
their letters. Its design is partly to support them
under their afflictions and trials, and also to instruct
them how to behave under persecution : and, as their
character and conduct were liable to be aspersed and
misrepresented by their enemies, they are exhorted to
lead a holy life, that they might stop the mouths of
their enemies, put their calumniators to shame, and
win others over to their religion, by their holy and
Christian conversation.
The Epistle may be conveniently divided into four
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 457
sections, exclusive of the introduction and conclu-
sion.
The Introduction, (ch. i. 1, 2.)
Section I. contains an exhortation to the Jewish
Christians to persevere steadfastly in the faith, and to
maintain a holy conversation, amid all their sufferings
and persecutions, (i. 3 — 25. ii. 1 — 10.)
Section II. comprises exhortations, 1. To a holy
conversation in general, (ii. 11, 12.) 2. To a parti-
cular discharge of their several duties, as dutiful sub-
jects to their sovereign (13 — 15.), who at this time was
the ferocious Nero; as servants to their masters (16 —
25.) ; and as husbands to their wives, (iii. 1 — 13.)
Section III. contains an exhortation to patience,
submission, and to holiness of life, enforced, by con-
sidering the example of Christ (iii. 14 — 18.), and
various other examples and affecting considerations,
(iii. 19— 22. iv. 1—19.)
Section IV. Directions to the ministers of the
churches, and the people, how to behave towards each
other, (v. 1 — 11.)
The Conclusion, (v. 12 14.)
Section IV. — On the Second General Epistle of Peter.
Though some doubts have been entertained respect-
ing the authenticity of this Epistle, which has been re-
ceived as the genuine production of St. Peter ever since
the fourth century, except by the Syrian church, in
which it is read as an excellent book, though not of
canonical authority ; yet we have the most satisfactory
evidence of its genuineness and authenticity. It is
cited or alluded to by three apostolic fathers, and by
another writer of the second century : and though no
458 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
writer in the third century appears to have cited it,
yet ever since the fourth century it has been recog-
nised as a genuine and canonical epistle. It was also
addressed to Hebrew Christians under persecution,
and a short time before the apostle's martyrdom, most
probably early in the year 65. This Epistle consists of
three parts ; viz.
Part I. The Introduction, (ch.i. 1,2.)
Part II. Having stated the blessings to which God
had called them, the apostle exhorts the Christians,
who had received these precious gifts, to endeavour to
improve in the most substantial graces and virtues,
(i. 3 — 21. ii.) He then guards them against scoffers
and impostors, who, he foretells, would ridicule their
expectation of Christ's coming, (iii. 1 — 14.)
Part III. The Conclusion, in which the apostle de-
clares the agreement of his doctrine with that of
St. Paul (iii. 15, 16.), and repeats the sum of the Epistle,
(iii. 17, 18.)
Section V. — On the First General Epistle of Saint John.
The canonical authority of this Epistle, which ap-
pears to have been written a. d. 68 or 69, was never
questioned : independently of historical or external
testimony, we have the strongest internal evidence that
this Epistle was written by the apostle John, in the very
close analogy of its sentiments and expressions to those
of his Gospel. Artless simplicity and benevolence,
blended with singular modesty and candour, together
with a wonderful sublimity of sentiment, are the cha-
racteristics of this Epistle, which is justly considered
a catholic epistle ; it being written for the use of Chris-
tians of every denomination and of every country, and
designed to guard them against erroneous and licen-
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 459
tious tenets, and to animate them to communion with
God and a holy life. This Epistle consists of six sec-
tions, besides the conclusion, which is a recapitulation
of the whole.
Sect. l. asserts the true divinity and humanity of Christ, in
opposition to the false teachers, and urges the union of faith
and holiness of life as absolutely necessary to enable Christians
to enjoy communion with God. (ch. i.-l — 7.)
Sect. 2. shows that all have sinned, and explains the doc-
trine of Christ's propitiation, (i. 8 — 10. ii. 1, 2.) Whence the
apostle takes occasion to illustrate the marks of true faith, viz.
Obeying his commandments, and sincere love of the brethren ;
and shows that the love of the world is inconsistent with the
love of God. (ii. 3 — 17.)
Sect. 3. asserts Jesus to be the same person with Christ,
in opposition to the false teachers who denied it. (ii. 18 29.)
Sect. 4. On the privileges of true believers, and their con-
sequent happiness and duties, and the marks by which they
are known to be " the sons of God." (iii.)
Sect. 5. contains criteria by which to distinguish Antichrist
and false Christians, with an exhortation to brotherly love, (iv.)
Sect. 6. shows the connexion between faith in Christ, the
being born of God, love to God and his children, obedience to
his commandments, and victory over the world ; and that
Jesus Christ is truly the Son of God, able to save us, and to
hear the prayers we make for ourselves and others, (v. 1 — 16.)
The conclusion, which is a summary of the preceding
treatise, shows that a sinful life is inconsistent with true Chris-
tianity ; asserts the divinity of Christ; and cautions believers
against idolatry, (v. 17 — 21.)
The preceding is an outline of this admirable Epistle;
which being designed to promote right principles of
doctrine and practical piety in conduct, abounds, more
than any book of the New Testament, with criteria by
which Christians may soberly examine themselves whether
they be in the faith. (2 Cor. xiii. 5.)
x 2
460 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES.
Considerable discussion has taken place respecting
the genuineness of the clause in 1 John v. 7, 8., which
runs thus : " in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the
Holy Ghost, and these three are one. And there are
three that bear witness in earth." Of the evidence for
and against this passage the author has given a copious
abstract in the fourth volume of his larger Introduction,
which does not admit of abridgment. The humble
reader of the Bible, however, need not entertain any
apprehension lest any of the proofs of the true and
proper deity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ
should be weakened. Much as has been written on
this topic, the question cannot yet be considered as
decided, while it is known that many hundred manu-
scripts of the New Testament still remain uncollated.
Even, should it ultimately appear that the disputed
clause is spurious, its absence will not diminish the
weight of irresistible evidence, which other undis-
puted passages of holy writ afford to the doctrine of
the Trinity. " The proofs of our Lord's true and
proper Godhead remain unshaken — deduced from the
prophetic descriptions of the Messiah's person in the
Old Testament — from the ascription to him of the
attributes, the works, and the homage, which are pecu-
liar to the Deity — and from those numerous and im-
portant relations, which he is affirmed in Scripture to
sustain towards his holy and universal church, and
towards each of its true members." *
Section VI. — On the Second and Third Epistles of Saint John.
Although some doubts were, in the fourth century,
entertained respecting the canonical authority of these
* Eclectic Review, vol. v. part i. p. 249.
ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES. 461
Epistles, yet that point has long been considered as
determined by the fact that these Epistles have been
cited by Christian writers of the third century, as well
as by many in the ages immediately following. The
similarity of style also attests that they are the produc-
tions of the same author as the first epistle of St. John,
who probably wrote them about a. d. 68 or 69.
The second epistle is addressed to an eminent
Christian matron, the Lady Electa, whom the apostle
commends for her virtuous and religious education of
her children ; and who is exhorted to abide in the doc-
trine of Christ, to persevere in the truth, and carefully
to avoid the delusions of false teachers. But chiefly the
apostle beseeches this Christian matron to practise the
great and indispensable commandment of Christian love
and charity.
The third epistle of St. John is addressed to a
converted Gentile, a respectable member of some Chris-
tian church, called Gaius or Caius : most probably
Gaius of Corinth (1 Cor. i. 14.), whom St. Paul calls his
" host, and the host of the whole church." (Rom. xvi.
23.) The scope of this Epistle is to commend his
steadfastness in the faith, and his general hospitality,
especially to the ministers of Christ ; to caution him
against the ambitious and turbulent practices of Dio-
trephes, and to recommend Demetrius to his friend-
ship ; referring what he further had to say to a per-
sonal interview.
Section VII. — On the General Epistle of Jude.
Jude or Judas, who was surnamed Thaddeus and
Lebbeus, and was also called the brother of our Lord
(Matt. xiii. 55.), was the son of Alpheus, brother of
x 3
462 ON THE CATHOLIC EPISTLES,
James the Less, and one of the twelve apostles. We
are not informed when or how he was called to the
apostleship ; and there is scarcely any mention of him
in the New Testament, except in the different cata-
logues of the twelve apostles. Although the epistle,
which bears his name, was rejected in the early ages of
Christianity by some persons, we have satisfactory
evidences of its authenticity : for it is found in all the
antient catalogues of the sacred writings of the New
Testament : it is asserted to be genuine by Christian
fathers of the third and following centuries ; and
independently of this external evidence, the genuine-
ness of the Epistle of St. Jude is confirmed by the
subjects discussed in it, which are in every respect
worthy of an apostle of Jesus Christ. There is great
similarity between this Epistle and the second chapter
of St. Peter's second Epistle. Jude addressed his
letter to all who had embraced the Gospel : its design
is to guard them against the false teachers who had
begun to insinuate themselves into the Christian church;
and to contend with the utmost earnestness and zeal
for the true faith, against the dangerous tenets which
they disseminated, resolving the whole of Christianity
into a speculative belief and outward profession of the
Gospel. And having thus cancelled the obligations of
morality and personal holiness, they taught their dis-
ciples to live in all manner of licentiousness, and at the
same time flattered them with the hope of divine
favour, and of obtaining eternal life. The vile charac-
ters of these seducers are further shown, and their
sentence is denounced ; and the Epistle concludes
with warnings, admonitions, and counsels to believers,
how to persevere in faith and godliness themselves,
and to rescue others from the snares of the false
teachers.
REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. 463
Chapter IV.
ON THE REVELATION OF ST. JOHN THE DIVINE.
It is a remarkable circumstance, that the authenti-
city of this book was very generally, if not universally,
acknowledged during the two first centuries, and yet in
the third century it began to be questioned. This
seems to have been occasioned by some absurd notions
concerning the Millenium, which a few well-meaning
but fanciful expositors grounded on this book ; which
notions their opponents injudiciously and presumptu-
ously endeavoured to discredit, by denying the autho-
rity of the book itself. So little, however, has this
portion of holy writ suffered from the ordeal of criticism
to which it has in consequence been subjected, that
(as Sir Isaac Newton has long since remarked) there is
no other book of the New Testament so strongly
attested, or commented upon so early, as the Apoca-
lypse or Revelation of Saint John : for, besides the
strong internal evidence afforded by the similarity of
its style to that of the apostle's other writings, we have
an unbroken series of external or historical testimony,
from the apostolic age, downwards. The revelations con-
tained in this book were made to Saint John during
his exile in the isle of Patmos, towards the end of Do-
mitian's reign, though the book containing them could
not have been published until after his release on the
emperor's death in the year 96, and after his return to
Ephesus. The year 96 or 97 may, therefore, be con-
sidered as its true date. The scope of this book is
two-fold : Jlrst, generally to make known to the apos-
tle 1* the things which are" (i. 19.), that is, the then
present state of the Christian churches in Asia ; and,
secondly and principally, to reveal to him " the things
x 4
464 ON THE REVELATION OF
which shall be hereafter," or the constitution and fate-
of the Christian church, through its several periods of
propagation, corruption, and amendment, from its be-
ginning to its consummation in glory. The Apoca-
lypse, therefore, consists of two principal divisions or
parts ; viz.
After the title of the book (ch. i. 1 — 3.),
Part I. contains the " things which are — " that is,
the then present state of the church : it includes the
Epistles to the seven Asiatic Churches of Ephesus,
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, and
Laodicea. (i. 9 — 20. ii, iii.) These churches, in the
Lydian or Proconsular Asia, are supposed to have been
planted by the apostle Paul and his assistants during
their ministry. They lie nearly in an amphitheatre,
and are addressed according to their geographical
positions, as may be seen on reference to our Map of
the Travels of the Apostles. These seven Epistles
contain excellent precepts and exhortations, commend-
ations, and reproofs, promises and threatenings, which
are calculated to afford instruction to the Universal
Church of Christ at all times.
Part II. contains a Prophecy of <{ the things which
shall be hereafter" or the future state of the church
through succeeding ages, from the time when the
apostle beheld the apocalyptic visions to the grand
consummation of all things, (ch. iv — xxii.)
Although many parts of the Apocalypse are neces-
sarily obscure to us, because they contain predictions
of events still future, yet enough is sufficiently clear to
convey to us the most important religious instruction.
The Revelation of St. John is to us precisely what the
prophecies of the Old Testament were to the Jews, nor
is it in any degree more inexplicable. " No prophe-
cies in the Revelation can be more clouded with
ST. JOHN THE DIVINE. 465
obscurity, than that a child should be born of a pure
virgin — that a mortal should not see corruption — that
a person despised and numbered among malefactors
should be established for ever on the throne of David.
Yet still the pious Jetv preserved his faith entire
amidst all these wonderful, and, in appearance, contra-
dictory intimations. He looked into the holy books in
which they were contained with reverence, and with
an eye of patient expectation < waited for the consol-
ation of Israel.' We, in the same manner, look up to
these prophecies of the Apocalypse, for the full con-
summation of the great scheme of the Gospel ; when
Christianity shall finally prevail over all the corrup-
tions of the world, and be universally established in its
utmost purity." *
* Gilpin's Exposition of the New Testament, vol. ii. p. 428.
x 5
467
APPENDIX
No. I.
TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND MONEY, MENTIONED IN THE
BIBLE.
Chiefly extracted from Dr. Arbuthnot's Tables of Antient Coins, Weights,
and Measures.
1. Jewish weights reduced to English troy iveight.
The gerah, one-twentieth of a shekel -
Bekah, half a shekel -
The shekel
The maneh, 60 shekels -
The talent, 50 maneh or 3000 shekels -
lbs.
oz.
pen.
gr.
0
0
0
12
0
0
5
0
0
0
10
0
2
6
0
0
25
0
0
0
2. Scripture measures of length reduced to English measure.
Eng. feet. inch.
Adigit 0 0.912
4_|_Apalm 0 3_64S
12 1 3 1 A span .... 0 10.944
24 1 6 1 3 1 A cubit !
<).;
96 1 24 1 6 1_2 | A fathom 7 3-552
144 I 36 I 12 I 6 I 1.5 | Ezekiel's reed . . . -10 11.328
192 1 48 1 16 1 8 1 2 1 1.3 | An Arabian pole - .14 7.104
1920 I 480 I 160 I 80 J 20 J 13.3 | 10 | A schcenus or.measuring line 145 11.04
3. The long Scripture measures.
A cubit ---...
400 I A stadium or furlong -
2000 I 5 I A sabbath day's journey
_4000 I _10 I 2 I An eastern mile
12000 1 30 I 6 I 3 I A parasang
"960001 240 J 48 J 24 J 8| A day's journey
Eng. miles
paces, feet.
- 0
0 1.824
. 0
145 4.6
- 0
729 3.0
1
403 1.0
4
153 3.0
- 33
172 4.0
x 6
468 APPENDIX.
4. Scripture measures of capacity for liquids, reduced to English wine
measure.
Gal. pints.
A Caph --------
1.3 | A log
573 J 4 1 A cab - i
_16_| 12 1 3 1 Ahin
32 J 24 J 6 | 2 | A seah
96 | 72 | 18 | 6 1 3 | Abathorephah -
960 f720 | 180 | 60 | 20 | 10 | A kor or coros, chomer or homer
0
0.625
0
0.833
0
3.333
1
2
2
4
7
4
75
5
5. Scripture measures of capacity for things dry, reduced to English corn
measure.
A gachal ...-._.
~20| A cab
36 | 1.8 | An omer or gomer -
T20| 6 IS.Sl^seah -
_360| 18 | 10 J 3|Anephah
J1800| 90 J 50 | 15 | 5 | A letech
3600 1 180 | 100 | 30| 10 |2| A chomer, homer, kor, or coros 32 0 1
Pecks.
gal. pints.
- 0
0
0.1416
0
0
2.8333
- 0
0
5.1
1
0
1
- 3
0
3
- 16
0
0
6. Jeiuish money reduced to the English standard.
£ s. d.
A gerah 0 0 1.2687
10 1 A bekah - - - - - - 0 1 1.6875
20 1 2 1 ^shekel 0 2 3.375
1200 | 120 | 50 | A maneh, ormina Hebraica - - 5 14 0.75
'60000 | 6000 | 3000 | 60 | A talent 342 3 9
A solidus aureus, or sextula, was worth - - - - 0 12 0.5
A siclus aureus, or gold shekel, was worth - - - 1 16 6
A talent of gold was worth' ----- -5475 0 0
In the preceding table, silver is valued at 5s. and gold at £4 per oz.
7. Roman money, mentioned in the New Testament, reduced to the
English standard.
A mite, (Ae3-t«v or A<r<rot.£ioi>) -
A farthing (KoS««vt'<jj) about - - - -
A penny or denarius (A*jv«f<ov) -
A pound or mina -----
£
s.
d.
far.
0
0
0
Of
0
0
0
H
0
0
7
2
3
2
6
0
APPENDIX.
469
No. II.
A TABLE
OF THE ORDER AND DATES OF THE BOOKS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT,
AND OF THE PLACES WHERE THEY ARE SUPPOSED TO HAVE BEEN
WRITTEN.
Matthew (Hebrew)")
— (Greek) j
Mark ...
Luke (Gospel) 7
(Acts of the Apostles)!
John
I. THE HISTORICAL BOOKS.
PLACES.
Judffia j
Rome
Greece
Ephesus
A. D.
- 37 or 38
61
between 60 and 63
63 or 6*
97 or 98
EPISTLES.
1 Thessalonians
2 Thessalonians
Galatians
1 Corinthians
Romans
2 Corinthians
Ephesians
Philippians -
Colossians :
Philemon
Hebrews
1 Timothy
Titus
2 Timothy -
II. THE EPISTLES OF PAUL.
PLACES.
Corinth
Corinth
Corinth
Ephesus
Corinth
(" Macedonia ?
(. (perhaps from Philippi) $
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
C Italy 1
i (perhaps from Rome) J
Macedonia
Macedonia
Rome
A. D.
52
52
("At the close of 52
(.or early in 53
56
("About the end of 57
(.or the beginning of 58
' 58
61
("Before the end of 62
(.or the beginning of 63
62
("About the end of 62
(.or early in 63
j" A bout the end of 62
(or early in , 63
64
64.
65
III. THE CATHOLIC OR GENERAL EPISTLES.
EPISTLES.
James
1 Peter
2 Peter
1 John
2 and 3 John
Jude
PLACES.
Judaea
Home
Rome
C Unknown 1
(. (perhaps Ephesus)J
Ephesus
Unknown
about the beginning of 65
(" 68
(.or early in 69
\ 68
or early in 69
64 or 65
The Revelation of St. Join)
Ephesus
96 or 97
470 APPENDIX.
No. III.
A TABLE
OF THE PSALMS, CLASSED ACCORDING TO THEIR SEVERAL SUBJECTS,
AND ADAPTED TO THE PURPOSES OF PRIVATE DEVOTION.
I. Prayers.
1. Prayers for pardon of sin, Psal. vi. xxv. xxxviii. li. cxxx.
Psalms styled penitential, vi. xxxii. xxxviii. li. cii. cxxx.
cxliii.
2. Prayers, composed when the Psalmist was deprived of an
opportunity of the public exercise of religion, Psal. xlii, xliii.
lxiii. lxxxiv.
5. Prayers, in which the Psalmist seems extremely dejected,
though not totally deprived of consolation, under his afflictions,
Psal. xiii. xxii. lxix. lxxvii. lxxxviii. cxliii.
4. Prayers, in which the Psalmist asks help of God, in consi-
deration of his own integrity, and the uprightness of his cause,
Psal. vii. xvii. xxvi. xxxv.
5. Prayers, expressing the firmest trust and confidence in
God under afflictions, Psal. Hi. xvi. xxvii. xxxi. liv. lvi, lvii. lxi,
Ixii. lxxi. lxxxvi.
6. Prayers, composed when the people of God were under
affliction or persecution, Psal. xliv. lx. lxxiv. lxxix. lxxx.
lxxxiii. lxxxix. xciv. cii. cxxiii. cxxxvii.
7. The following are likewise prayers in time of trouble and
affliction, Psal. iv, v. xi. xxviii. xli. lv. lix. Ixiv. lxx. cix. cxx.
cxl, cxli, cxlii.
8. Prayers of intercession, Psal. xx. lxvii. cxxii. cxxxii. cxliv.
II. Psalms of Thanksgiving.
1. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to particular per-
sons, Psal. ix. xviii. xxi. xxx. xxxiv. xl. lxxv. ciii. cviii. cxvi.
cxviii. cxxxviii. cxliv.
2. Thanksgivings for mercies vouchsafed to the Israelites in
general, Psal. xlvi. xlviii. lxv, lxvi. lxviii. lxxvi. lxxxi. lxxxv.
xcviii. cv, cxxiv. cxxvi. cxxix. cxxxv, cxxxvi. cxlix.
III. Psalms of Praise and Adoration, displaying the Attributes
of God.
1. General acknowledgments of God's goodness and mercy,
and particularly his care and protection of good men, Psal.
xxiii. xxxiv. xxxvi. xci. c. ciii. cvii. cxvii. cxxi. cxlv, cxlvi.
APPENDIX. 471
2. Psalms displaying the power, majesty, glory, and other
attributes of the Divine Being, Psal. viii. xix. xxiv. xxix. xxxiii.
xlv"* l*Jxv> jxvi- lxxvi> Ixxvii. xciii. xcv, xcvi, xcvii. xcix. civ.
cxi. cxiii, cxiv, cxv. cxxxiv. cxxxix. cxlvii. cxlviii. cl.
IV. Instructive Psalms.
1. The different characters of good and bad men,— the hap-
piness of the one, and the misery of the other, — are repre-
sented in the following psalms : i. v. vii. ix, x, xi, xii. xiv, xv.
xvii. xxiv, xxv. xxxii. xxxiv. xxxvi, xxxvii. I. lii, liii. Iviii.
lxxiii. lxxv. lxxxiv.xci, xcii. xciv. cxii. cxix. cxxi. cxxv. cxxvii,
cxxviii. cxxxiii.
2. The excellence of God's laws, Psal. xix. cxix.
3. The vanity of human life, Psal. xxxix. xlix. xc.
4. Advice to magistrates, Psal. lxxxii. ci.
5. The virtue of humility, Psal. cxxxi.
V. Psalms more eminently and directly Prophetical.
Psal. ii. xvi. xxii. xl. xlv. Ixviii. lxxii. Ixxxvii. ex. cxviii.
VI. Historical Psalms.
Psal. lxxviii. cv, cvi.
No. IV.
A TABLE,
OR LIST, OF SELECT CHAPTERS OF THE HOLY SCRIPTURES,
Forming an Epitome of the Bible, and adapted to Family, or Private Beading.
*** The following arrangement of Chapters from the Sacred Scriptures
is not offered with a view to supersede a regular and orderly perusal of
the word of God. Having devoted a considerable portion of his life
to the preparation of his larger "Introduction to the Study and Know-
ledge of the entire ' Boh, Scri] lures," the author trusts that he shall
be acquitted of such mi intention. The present selection of chapters
is offered, in consequence (fa wish which he has often heard ex-
pressed, that some list were extant, which should in a short compass
present the most important portions if the sacred volume to the
attention of individuals possessing but little leisure to make a selection
for themselves, and who were desirous of becoming acquainted with
4-72 APPENDIX.
the leading facts, doctrines, and precepts of the Bible. The author
will rejoice if his attempt shall lead any one to a more frequent and
attentive study of that holy volume. To any of his readers, who
may be desirous of perusing the entire Scriptures in chronological
order, {and tvho may be able to purchase them,) he can ivith con-
fidence recommend the Rev. George Toivnsend' 's four volumes on tlie
Harmony of the Old and Neiv Testaments, which arc noticed in
the next article of this Appendix.
Part I. — A Selection of Chapters, forming a Series of the Sacred
History of the Old Testament.
GENESIS.
Section
1. An Account of the Origin of the World and of the six
days' Creation, (chap, i, n. 1 — 6.)
2. A more particular Account of the Creation of Man.
The Garden of Eden described. — The Formation of
Woman and Institution of Marriage, (chap. n. 7 — 24.)
5. The Fall of Man. The first Promise of the Redeemer.
Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise, (chap. n.
25. in.)
4. The Birth of Cain and Abel. Murder of Abel. History
of other descendants of Adam to Lamech. (chap, iv.)
5. Genealogy of the Patriarchs from Adam to Noah.
(chap, v.)
6. The Increase of Wickedness in the World. The Deluge
threatened. Noah commanded to prepare the Ark.
(chap, vi.)
7. Noah and his Family enter the Ark. Account of the
Destruction of the former World by the Deluge,
(chap, vn.)
8. The Waters subside. Noah and his Family quit the
Ark. History of the Renovation of the World, (chap.
VIII.)
9. The Covenant of God with Noah. His intoxication.
(chap, ix.)
10. The erection of the Tower of Babel attempted. The
confusion of Tongues, and the dispersion of Mankind,
(chap, xi.)
11. The call of Abraham. He goes into Egypt, (chap, xn.)
12. Abraham and Lot return from Egypt and separate.
(chap, xin.)
13. Abraham blessed by Melchizedek, King of Salem, (chap.
xiv.)
14. God renews his promises to Abraham, (chap, xvn.)
15. Three Angels visit Abraham. His Intercession for
Sodom and Gomorrah, (chap, xviii.)
APPENDIX. 473
Section
16. The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, (chap. xix.
1—26.)
17. Abraham commanded to sacrifice his only Son, Isaac.
He prepares to obey, and receives the divine bene-
diction, (chap. xxn. 1 — 19.)
18. Isaac marries Rebekah. (chap, xxiv.)
1 9. The Birth of Esau and Jacob. Esau despises his birth-
right, (chap. xxv. 20 — 34.)
20. The Promise of God to Isaac, (chap. xxvi. 1 — 6.)
21. Jacob surreptitiously obtains Isaac's Blessing, (chap.
xxvii. 1 — 40.)
22. Esau menaces Jacob. The marriage of Esau. Jacob's
vision at Bethel, and his vow. (chap, xxvii. 41 — 46.
xxviii.)
23. Jacob entertained by Laban. His marriage, (chap, xxix.)
24. Joseph sold into Egypt, (chap, xxxvu.)
25. The Imprisonment of Joseph by Potiphar. (chap.
xxxix.)
26. Joseph, in prison, interprets the dreams of Pharaoh's
chief Baker and chief Butler, (chap, xl.)
27. The deliverance of Joseph. — His advancement in the
court of Pharaoh, (chap, xli.)
28. The first Journey of Joseph's Brethren into Egypt, to
buy corn. (chap, xlii.)
29. Jacob persuaded to send Benjamin into Egypt. Joseph
entertains his Brethren, (chap, xliii.)
30. Joseph makes himself known to his Brethren, (chap.
xliv, xlv.)
31. Jacob settles in Egypt with his family, (chap, xlvi.)
32. Joseph presents certain of his Brethren unto Pharaoh.
— His administration in Egypt, (chap, xlvii. 1 — 26.)
33. Jacob's last days. — He is visited by Joseph, whose
children he blesses, (chap, xlvii. 27 — 31. xlviii.)
34. Jacob's Prophetic Benediction of his Children, (chap.
xlix.)
55. The Burial of Jacob. Death and Burial of Joseph,
(chap, l.)
EXODUS.
36. The oppression of the Children of Israel by Rameses
Miamoun, the King who knew neither Joseph nor his
services, (chap, i.)
37. The Birth and Preservation of Moses. His flight into
Midian. (chap, n.)
38. God appears unto Moses, and calls him to be the deliverer
of the Israelites, (chap, in, iv.)
474 APPENDIX.
Section
39. Moses and Aaron apply to Pharaoh, in the name of God,
and on behalf of the Israelites, (chap, v.)
40. God renews his promise of deliverance to the Israelites.
(chap. vi. 1 — 12.)
41. The interview of Moses with Pharaoh. — The first plague.
(chap, vii.i
42. Pharaoh hardens his heart. The second, third, and
fourth plagues, (chap, vm.)
45. The fifth, sixth, and seventh plagues, (chap, ix.)
44. The eighth and ninth plagues, (chap, x.)
45. The Death of the First Born threatened, (chap, xi.)
46. The Institution of the Passover. The Departure of Israel
from Egypt, (chap, xn.)
47. The Israelites' miraculous passage of the Red Sea.
Pharaoh and his army drowned, (chap, xiv.)
48. The Song of Moses, for the deliverance of the Israelites.
The bitter waters of Marah sweetened, (chap, xv.)
49. The Israelites miraculously fed in the Desert, (chap.
XVI.)
50. Their murmurs at Rephidim. — Water miraculously
given them from the rock at Horeb. (chap, xvn.)
51. The Arrival of Moses' wife and children with Jethro.
The counsel given by the latter to Moses, (chap, xvm.)
52. The preparation of the Israelites for renewing their
covenant with God. (chap, xix.)
55. The Promulgation of the Moral Law. (chap, xx.)
54. Moses called to ascend Mount Sinai. The Covenant
ratified, (chap, xxiv.)
55. The People request Aaron to make the Golden Calf. —
The Punishment of the Idolaters, (chap, xxxn.)
56. Moses removes his tent from the camp. The people
mourn, (chap, xxxin.)
57. The Tables of the Law renewed. Various instructions
given to Moses, (chap, xxxiv.)
NUMBERS.
58. Moses despatches Spies into the Land of Canaan, (chap.
XIII.)
59. The Murmurs of the people. Joshua's attempt to pacify
them. (chap, xiv.)
60. The Rebellion and Punishment of Korah, Dathan, and
Abiram, and their associates, (chap, xvi.)
DEUTERONOMY.
61. Discourse of Moses to the Israelites, relating the events
that took place in the wilderness from their leaving
Mount Horeb, until their arrival at Kadesh. (chap. I.)
APPENDIX. 475
Section
62. Renewal of the Covenant with the People of Israel.
(chap, xxix.)
63. Promises of Pardon to the Penitent. Good and Evil set
before them, (chap xxx.)
64. Joshua appointed to be the successor of Moses. A solemn
charge given to him. (chap. xxxi. 1 — 27.)
65. The people convened to hear the prophetical and his-
torical Ode of Moses, (chap. xxxi. 28 — 30. xxxn.
66. Moses' Prophetic Blessing of the twelve Tribes. , Their
peculiar felicity and privilege in having the Lord for
their God and Protector, (chap, xxxiii.)
67. The Death and Burial of Moses, (chap, xxxi v.)
JOSHUA.
68. The Call and Appointment of Joshua to be Captain-
General of the people of God. (chap, i.)
69. The Miraculous Passage of the Israelites over Jordan,
and the setting up of twelve memorial stones, (chap.
Ill, IV.)
70. Joshua, stricken in years, gives his first charge to the
people of Israel, (chap, xxiii.)
71. Joshua's second charge to the Israelites, (chap, xxiv.)
72. The people chastised for their sins. Judges raised up.
Their administration, (chap, n.)
1 SAMUEL.
73. The Birth of Samuel, (chap, i.)
74. The Hymn of Hannah. Depraved Conduct of Eli's Sons.
(chap, ii.)
75. The call of Samuel, and his establishment in the Pro-
phetic Office, (chap, in.)
76. The Israelites demand a king. (chap, vin.)
77. Saul anointed king. (chap, ix, x.)
78. Saul rejected by God. (chap, xin.)
79. The anointing of David to be king over Israel, (chap, xvi.)
80. David's Combat and Victory over Goliath, (chap. xvn.
1—54.)
81. Saul's Life in David's Power, in the cave at Engedi, who
magnanimously spares it. (chap, xxiv.)
82. David spares the Life of Saul a second time. (chap, xxvi.)
83. The suicide of Saul, after his total discomfiture by the
Philistines, (chap, xxxi.)
4-76 APPENDIX.
2 SAMUEL.
Section
84. David anointed king over Israel. His victories.
(chap, v.)
85. The Bringing up of the Ark to Jerusalem, and the Divine
Promises made to him. (chap, vi, vn.)
86. The Sin and Repentance of David, (chap, xi, xn.)
87. David's Psalm of Praise, on a general review of the
mercies of his life, and the many deliverances he had
experienced, (chap, xxn.)
1 KINGS.
88. The Death ofDavid, and Accession of Solomon, (chap, u.)
89. The commencement of Solomon's Reign, (chap, in.)
90. The Dedication of the Temple, and the Sublime Prayer
of Solomon on that occasion, (chap, vm.)
91. Divine Vision to Solomon. His Opulence and Com-
merce, (chap, ix.)
92. The death of Solomon, and accession of Rehoboam.
(chap, xi.)
95. The Revolt of the Ten Tribes under Jeroboam, who
forms the kingdom of Israel, (chap, xn.)
94. The Reigns of Rehoboam king of Judah, and of Jero-
boam king of Israel, (chap, xiv.)
95. The Reign of Ahab, against whom Elijah prophesieth.
Miracles wrought by the Prophet, (chap, xvn.)
96. The Prophets of Baal slain, (chap, xvin.)
97. Elijah's Flight to Horeb. Transactions there, (chap, xix.)
2 KINGS.
98. The translation of Elijah, (chap, n.)
99. Miracles wrought by his successor, Elisha. (chap, iv.)
100. The Healing of Naaman, and punishment of Gehazi.
(chap, v.)
101. Miracle wrought by Elisha. The Syrian army smitten
with blindness, (chap, vi.)
102. Hoshea, the last king of Israel, dethroned by Shal-
maneser, and the Israelites carried captive into Assyria,
(chap, xvi.)
103. The reign of Hezekiah. His danger from Sennacherib's
besieging Jerusalem, (chap. xvn=)
104. The deliverance of Hezekiah. (chap, xix.)
105. The pious reign of Josiah. (chap, xxn, xxni. 1 — 50.)
i06. The reigns of Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim, Jehoiachin, and
Zedekiah, the last kings of Judah. (chap. xxm.
51 — 37. XXiv.)
APPENDIX. 477
Section
107. Rebellion of Zedekiah against Nebuchadnezzar. Jeru-
salem taken; the temple burnt; and the Jews carried
into captivity to Babylon, (chap, xxv.)
EZRA.
108. Edict of Cyrus, permitting the Jews to return into Judasa
and rebuild the temple, (chap, i.)
109. The building of the second temple commenced, but hin-
dered by the Samaritans, (chap, in, iv.)
110. Edict of Darius in favour of the Jews. The temple
finished and dedicated, (chap, v, vi.)
ESTHER.
111. Haman, prime minister of Ahasuerus, from motives of
hatred towards Mordecai, forms a plan to massacre the
Jews throughout Persia, (chap, in.)
112. Esther, the niece of Mordecai, apprises the king of
Haman's sanguinary design, (chap, vn.)
113. The Advancement of Mordecai. The deliverance of the
Jews. (chap, viii, ix, x.)
EZRA.
114. Ezra the priest returns to Jerusalem with a commission
from Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia, in favour
of the Jews. (chap, vn.)
NEHEMIAH.
115. Departure ofNehemiah for Jerusalem, with a royal com-
mission, in favour of the Jews. (chap, u.)
1 16. Jerusalem and the Temple being rebuilt, Ezra and Nehe-
miah convene the people, to hear the law read. (chap.
VIII.)
Part II. — A Selection of Chapters, forming a Series of the
Gospel History.
Section
1. The Birth of John the Baptist and of Jesus Christ an-
nounced. {Luke I. 1 — 56.)
2. John the Baptist born. The prophetic hymn of Zecharias.
(Luke I. 57—80.)
.". The Nativity and Infancy of Jesus Christ. (Luke u.)
4. The Arrival of the Wise Men from the East to adore
Jesus Christ. (Matt, n.)
5. TheMinistryof John the Baptist. — TheBaptism ofChrist.
(Luke in.)
6. The Temptation of Jesus Christ. He begiuneth to preach.
(Matt. iv. 1—17.)
478 APPENDIX.
Section
6.* Christ preacheth at Nazareth. — Various Miracles
wrought by Christ. {Luke iv. 14 — 44.)
7. Testimony of John the Baptist to Jesus Christ. {John i.)
8. Christ's Miracle at Cana in Galilee. {John n )
9. His Conversation with Nicodemus. {John in.)
10. His Discourse with the Woman of Samaria. {John iv.)
11. Peter, James, John, and Matthew become Christ's stated
disciples. {Luke v.)
12. Jesus Christ heals a Paralytic at the Pool of Bethesda.
{John v.)
15. The twelve Apostles appointed. {Luke vi.)
14. Christ's Sermon on the Mount. {Matt, v — vn.)
§ l. Who only are truly happy. The duty of Chris-
tians to be exemplary. {Matt. v. 1 — 16.)
§ 2. The design of Christ's coming ; viz. to ratify the
divine law (v. 17 — 20.), which had been much im-
paired by the traditions of the Pharisees. I. In
respect of its extent: this is exemplified in what
concerns Murder (21 — 26.); Adultery (27 — 50.);
Divorce (51, 32.); Oaths {53 — 57.); Retaliation
(38 — 42.); the Love of our Neighbour (45 — 48.) —
2. In respect of motive : where the end is ap-
plause, the virtue is destroyed. This is exemplified
in Almsgiving (vi. 1 — 4.); Prayer (5 — 15.); and
Fasting. (16—18.)
§ 5. Heavenly Mindedness enforced by various con-
siderations, (vi. 1 9 — 54.)
§ 4. Cautions against rash judgments of others (vn.
1 — 5.); various admonitions (6 — 14.); warnings
against false teachers, who are commonly known
by their actions (15 — 20.); the wisdom of adding
practice to knowledge, and the insignificancy of the
latter without the former. (21 — 29.)
15. Jesus Christ heals the Centurion's Servant, and restores
to life the Widow's Son at Nain. {Luke vn. 1 — 17.)
16. Christ's Reply to the inquiry of John the Baptist's Dis-
ciples, and his discourse to the people concerning John.
{Luke vn. 18 — 55.)
17. Christ pardons a woman who had been a sinner. {Luke
vn. 56—50.)
18. The parable of the Sower. — Who are Christ's Disciples.
{Luke vni. 1—21.)
1 9. Christ stills a tempest by his command, and heals a de-
moniac at Gadara. {Luke vni. 22 — 59.)
20. Christ cures an issue of blood, and raises the daughter of
Jairus to life. {iAike vm. 40 — 56.)
21. Christ heals a paralytic and two blind men. {Matt, ix.)
APPENDIX. 479
Section
22. The Mission of the Apostles. Five thousand men miracu-
lously fed. (Luke ix, 1 — 27.)
25. Christ feedeth five thousand men. Peter's confession.
(John vi.)
24. Christ performs various miracles. (Matt, xv.)
25. Christ foretells his death and resurrection. (Matt, xvi.)
26. The Transfiguration of Jesus Christ, and the miracle which
followed it. (Matt, xvn.)
27. The Mission of the Seventy Disciples. (Luke x. 1 — 24.)
28. The Parable of the benevolent Samaritan. Christ visits
Martha and Mary. (Luke x. 25 — 42.)
29. Jesus goes to Jerusalem to the Feast of Tabernacles.
(John vn.)
30. Jesus Christ teaches in the Temple. (John vm.)
31. Christ heals a man who had been born blind. (John ix.)
.32. Instructions concerning Prayer. The Scribes and Phari-
sees reproved. (Luke xi.)
55. Cautions against hypocrisy. The Care of Divine Provi-
dence. (Luke xii. 1 — 54.)
34. Admonition to be prepared for Death. (Lukexn. 55 — 48.)
55. Christ reproacheth the people for not knowing the time
of Messiah's coming. Common reason sufficient to teach
men repentance. (Luke xn. 49 — 59.)
56. Design of God's Judgments. An infirm woman healed.
Parable of the Mustard-seed, which prophetically repre-
sents the spread of the Gospel. (Luke xui. l — 20.)
57. Christ's Journey to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of
Dedication. His lamentation over the judicial blindness
of Jerusalem. (Luke xui. 22 — 55.)
38. A dropsical man healed on the Sabbath-day. The parable
of the great Supper. (Luke xiv. 1 — 24.)
59. Courage and perseverance shown to be requisite in a true
Christian. The unprofitableness of an unsound Chris-
tian. (Luke xiv. 25 — 55.)
40. Christ illustrates the joy of the angels in heaven over
repenting Sinners, by the Parables, 1. Of the lost sheep
(Luke xv. 1 — 7.) ; 2. Of the lost piece of money (8 — 10.);
and, 5. Of the Prodigal Son. (11—52.)
41. Parable of the Unjust Steward. The Piiarisees reproved
for their hypocrisy and covetousness. (Luke xvi. 1 — 18.)
The Parable of the rich man and Lazarus. (Luke xvi.
19—51.)
43. The duty of not giving offence. Ten Lepers healed.
(Luke xvn. 1 — 19.)
44. Christ discourses concerning his second coming. (Luke
xvn. 20 — 57.)
J45. Encouragement to perseverance in prayer, illustrated by
the parable of the Importunate Widow. — Parable of
480 APPENDIX.
Section
the Pharisee and Publican, or Tax-gatherer. {Luke xvm.
1—14.)
46. Christ encourages young children to be brought to hiin ;
again foretells his death ; and cures a blind man near
Jericho. {Luke xvm. 15 — 42.)
47. Parable of the Labourers in the vineyard. — Humility
inculcated. Two blind men receive their sight.
{Matt, xx.)
48. The Resurrection of Lazarus. {John xi. 41 — 44.)
49. Account of the different effects produced by this miracle
on the Jews. {John xi. 45 — 57. xn. 1 — 11.)
50. The Conversion of Zaccheus. {Luke xix. 1 — 10^)
51. Parable of the nobleman going into a distant country to
receive a kingdom. {Luke xix. 1 1 — 28.)
52. Christ's lowly yet triumphal entry into Jerusalem. He
weeps over her impending calamities, and expels the
traders out of the temple, where he teaches the people.
{Luke xix. 29 — 48.)
55. Christ confutes the chief priests, scribes, and elders,
1: By a question concerning the baptism of John
{Luke xx. 1 — 8.) ; 2. By the Parable of the labourers
in the vineyard (9 — 19.); and, 3. By showing the law-
fulness of paying tribute unto Caesar. (20 — 26.)
54. The Sadducees and Scribes severally confuted. The
Charity of a poor widow commended. {Luke xx.
27 — 47. xxi. 1 — 4.)
55. Christ discourses on the destruction of the temple ; and
enforces the duty of watchfulness. {Luke xxi. 5 — 58.)
56. Christ's Prophetic Discourse concerning the destruction
of Jerusalem, and the end of the World. {Matt, xxiv.)
57. Parables of the Ten Virgins and of the Talents. The
last Judgment described. {Matt, xxv.)
58. Christ washes his apostles' feet ; predicts the treachery
of Judas, and Peter's denial. {John xm.)
59. Christ celebrates the passover; institutes the Lord's
Supper; and again warns Peter that he would deny
him. {Luke xxn. 1 — 58.)
60. Christ's last discourse with his disciples. {John xiv — xvr.)
61. Christ's last prayer for his disciples, and for all, who in
future ages should believe in him. {John xvn.)
62. Judas betrays Jesus ; who retires to the garden of Geth-
semane. Peter's denial of Christ, who is arraigned
before Pilate. {John xvm.)
63. Christ condemned and crucified. {Luke xxin.)
64. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ. {Matt. xxvm. 1 — 15.)-
6 5. Christ appears to two disciples on their way to Emmaus
{Luke xxiv. 13 — 35.); and also to the assembled
disciples. (36 — 48.) The Ascension of Christ. (49 — 55.)
APPENDIX. 481
THE ACTS OF THE APOSTLES.
Section
66. The transactions before and after Christ's ascension into
heaven. — Matthias elected an apostle, (chap, i )
67. The Descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Apostles on the
day of Pentecost, and Peter's discourse to the people
in consequence of it. (chap, n.)
68. Peter and John heal a lame man. — Peter's discourse to
the people, (ch. in.)
69. A great multitude converted by the preaching of Peter. —
The apostles are put in prison, and released, (chap. iv.
1—32.)
70. Unanimity of the first Christians ; — their charity. — Hypo-
crisy and punishment of Ananias and Sapphira. (chap.iv.
3,5—37. v. 1— 11.)
71. The apostles, being imprisoned, are released by an angel. —
Gamaliel's counsel concerning them. (chap. v. 12 — 42.)
72. Seven persons chosen to superintend the distribution of
alms. (chap. vi. 1 — 8.)
73. Stephen falsely accused: — His discourse. — He is con-
demned and stoned, (chap. vi. 9 — 15. to vin. 1. first
clause of the verse.)
74. Persecution of the Christians at Jerusalem. — A church
planted at Samaria, (chap. vm. 1. and at that time,
&C. 2—25.)
75. Conversion of the Ethiopian Eunuch, (chap. vin. 26 — 40.)
76. Conversion, baptism, and first preaching of Saint Paul.
(chap. ix. 1 — 31.)
77. Peter heals iEneas, and raises Dorcas to life. (chap. ix.
52 — 45.)
78. Peter instructed by a vision concerning the calling of the
Gentiles. — The conversion of Cornelius and his family,
(chap, x, xr. 1 — 18.)
79. The first Gentile Church founded at Antioch. (chap. xi.
19—50.)
80. The apostle James put to death by Herod Agrippa. — His
miserable death, (chap, xn.)
81. The planting of several churches in the isle of Cyprus,
at Perga in Pamphylia, and Antioch in Pisidia. (chap.
XIII.)
82. The gospel preached at Iconium, Lystra, and Derbe.
— Paul returns to Antioch. (ch. xiv.)
85. Discussion of the question by the apostles at Jerusalem,
concerning the necessity of circumcision and observing
the law. — Their letter to the churches on this subject.
(chap. xv. 1 — 55.)
84. Paul's second departure from Antioch. — He preaches
the gospel in various countries, particularly at Philippi
Y
482 APPENDIX.
Section
in Macedonia. — The conversion of the Philippian
Gaoler, (chap. xv. 36 — 41. xvi.)
85. The journies and apostolical labours of Paul and his
associates at Thessalonica, Berea, and Athens. — His
masterly apology before the court of the Areopagites.
(chap, xvii.)
86. Paul's journey to Corinth, and thence to Antioch.
(chap, xviii. 1 — 22.)
87. Paul's third departure from Antioch. — Consequences of
his preaching at Ephesus. (chap, xviii. 23 — 28. xix.)
88. The labours of Paul in Greece and Asia Minor. — His
journey towards Jerusalem, (chap, xx.)
89. On his arrival at Jerusalem Paul relates the fruits of his
ministry, (chap, xxi.)
90. The Jews demand the death of Paul, who pleads his
privilege as a Roman Citizen, (chap, xxn.)
91. Paul pleads his cause before the council. — A conspiracy
is formed against his life. — He is sent to Csesarea.
(chap, xxiii.)
92. Paul, accused before Felix, pleads his own cause. — Effects
of his preaching upon the conscience of Felix, (chap.
XXIV.)
93. Paul pleads his cause before Festus, the successor of
Felix. — His innocence admitted by the Roman Go-
vernor, (chap, xxv.)
94. Paul's defence before king Agrippa. (ch. xxvi.)
95. Narrative of Paul's Voyage from Caesarea. — He is ship-
wrecked on the isle of Malta, (chap, xxvu.)
96. His voyage from Malta to Rome, where he preaches the
Gospel to the Jews, and resides for two years, (chap.
XXVIII.)
Part III. — Select Chapters taken from the Apostolic Epistles.
Section
1. The blessed consequences of our Justification by Jesus
Christ. (Rom. v.)
2. Eulogium and Description of Charity, (l Cor. xin.)
3. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ. — Victory over death
and sin. (l Cor. xv.)
4. A Future Life — The love of Christ. (2 Cor. v.)
5. Spiritual blessings in Christ Jesus. (Eph. i.)
6. Various Duties of the Christian Life. {Eph. iv — vi.)
7. Exhortations to Christian Holiness. (Phil, iv.)
8. The excellence of Godliness, (l Tim. vi.)
APPENDIX. 483
Section
9, The supreme Deity and Dignity of Jesus Christ, his su-
periority to angels, and our duty in consequence. (Heb.
I, II. 1—4.)
10. Exhortations to perseverance. (Heb. xn.)
11. Exhortations and Cautions. (James v.)
12. Exhortation to steadfastness in the faith of Christ, from a
consideration of the peculiar blessings and privileges
cpnferred by Christ, (l Pet. i, it. 1 — 10.)
2 3. Exhortation to various civil and relative duties, (l Pel.
ii. 11 — 25. in. 1—15.)
14. The hope and conduct of a Christian. (2 Pet. i.)
15. The second advent of Christ. (2 Pet. in.)
16. The Love of God opposed to that of the world, (l John
m.)
17. Exhortation to Brotherly Love, (l John iv.)
No. V.
A SELECT LIST OF THE MOST USEFUL AND EASILY PROCURABLE
BOOKS, FOR FACILITATING THE STUDY OF THE BIBLE.
%* This List is selected from the copious catalogue, with Biblio-
graphical Notices, contained in the author's larger Intro-
duction, but with the addition of some valuable Treatises on
Sacred Literature, which have been published or imported
since the fifth edition of that ivorh appeared. These are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk, and to these chiefly (for want of
room) are short bibliographical notices annexed. Genuini;
Editions alone are specified, with the current prices for
which they are sold in boards, or sheets, or stitched. Second-
hand copies, bound, may frequently be obtained in good con-
dition, for the price of new books.
The Anglo-American Publications are regularly imported by
Mr. Miller, Bridge-Street, Blackfriars ; and those printed
on the European Continent, by Messrs. Treuttel, Wurtz,
Treuttel, and Richter, Soho-Square, and by Messrs.
Howell and Stewart, High Holborn.
Section I. — Editions of the Holy Scriptures and Versions thereof.
§ 1 . — Hebrew Bibles.
Biblia Hebraica. Accesserunt Novum Testamentum Graecuia
et Libri Graece scripti, qui Apocryphi vocantur: cum Intcr-
Y 2
484 APPENDIX.
lineari Versione Latina, cura et studio Benedicti Aria
Montani. Antverpiae, 1572 or 1584. folio. Price, about
4/. 4s.
Biblia Hebraica, or the Hebrew Scriptures of the Old Tes-
tament, without points, after the text of Kennicott, with the
chief various readings, selected from his collation of Hebrew
manuscripts from that of De Rossi, and from the antient ver-
sions ; accompanied with English notes, critical, philological,
and explanatory, selected from the most approved antient and
modern English and foreign biblical critics. By B. Booth-
royd. Pontefract and London, 1816. 2 vols. 4to. Price
3l. 3s.
Biblia Hebraica, secundum Editionem Everardi Vander
Hooght, denuo recognita et emendata a Juda D'Allemand-.
Londini, 1822. 8vo. Price 1/. 5s., on large paper l/. 11*. 6d.
Victorini Bythneri Lyra Davidis Regis, sive Analysis Criti-
co-PracticaPsalmorum : qua Voces Ebraeae explicantur, ac Con-
sensus Textus sacri, cum Paraphrasi Chaldaica ac Septuaginta
Virorum Interpretatione Grseca, monstratur. Londini, 1650.
1664. 1679. 4to. Tiguri, 1664. 1670. 8vo. Glasguae (in
iEdibus Academicis) et Londini, 1825. 8vo.
Bythneri Lyra Prophetica has long been held in high estimation
as the most valuable help to the critical and grammatical study of
the Book of Psalms. The Glasgow reprint is very beautiful. The
price of any of the Editions of Bythner is from 18s. to 11. 4s.
Jacobi Robertsoni Clavis Pentateuchi : sive Analysis Om-
nium Vocum Hebraicarum suo ordine in Pentateucho Moseos
occurrentium, una cum versione Latina et Anglica ; Notis cri-
ticis et philologicis adjectis ; edidit Josephus Kinghorn, qui
notas suas et ultimas Auctoris doctissimi Animadversiones ad-
jecit. Norviciet Londini, 1824. 8vo. Price 1/. 8s.
The first edition of this valuable aid in studying the Hebrew
Pentateuch appeared at Edinburgh, in 1770. The reprint at Nor-
wich is very neatly executed : only five hundred copies of it were
struck off.
§ 2. — Editions of the Greek Testament.
Novum Testaraentum Graece. Recognovit atque insigniores
Lectionum Varietates et Argumentorum Notationes adjecit
Geo. Christian. Knappius. Londini, 1824. Crown 8vo.
Price 12s.
A very commodious edition : it is printed from Dr. Knappe's
second edition, published at Halle, in 1813, in 2 vols. 8vo. His
third edition appeared also at Halle, in 1824, in 2 vols. 8vo.
Novum Testamentum. Textum Graecum Griesbachii et
Knappii denuo recognovit, Delectu Varietatum Lectionis
APPENDIX. 485
Testimoniis confirmatarum, Adnotatione cum critica turn
Exegetica, et Indicibus Historico et Geographico, Vocum
Graecarum infrequentiorum, et Subsidiorum Criticorum Ex-
egeticorumque, instruxit Johannes Severinus Vater. Halis
Saxonum, 1824. 8vo. Price, about 165.
Of the various critical editions which of late years have been given
to the public this is not only one of the neatest but the cheapest.
See an account of its plan in the Universal Review, vol. ii. pp. 683,
*>84.
* 'H KAINH AIA0HKH. Novum Testamentum Graece. Textui,
ante Griesbachium vulgo recepto, additur Lectionum Va-
riantium earum praecipue, qua? a Griesbachio potiores cen-
sentur, Delectus. Basileae, 1825. 2 tomis 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.
This very neat edition may occasionally be met with. The text
is reprinted from an edition of the Greek Testament, edited at Basle
by Andrew Birr, in 1749; who added a copious selection of Pa-
rallel Passages. The preface to the present edition is signed with
the initial letters J. H. Whoever the editor may be, he has in many
passages improved the punctuation, as well as the selection of parallel
texts. Those various readings of Griesbach's which affect the sense
are retained ; and the editor has sometimes successfully vindicated
the ordinary Greek text against the proposed alterations of that critic.
The Epistle of Jude is placed immediately after St. Peter's second
Epistle, on account of the similarity of its subject. The passages
cited from the Old Testament are exhibited in a very distinct form.
* Novum Testamentum Greece, ex recensione Griesbachii,
nova Latina versione illustratum, Indice brevi praecipuae Lec-
tionum et Interpretationem Diversitatis instructum, edidit
Henricus Augustus Schott. Editio tertia, Lipsiae, 1825. 8vo.
Price 18*. or 1/.
The first edition appeared at Leipsic in 1805, the second in 18 1 1 ;
both in 8vo. The text is that of Griesbach : under it are printed
the most important various readings and brief critical remarks.
This edition, it is understood, is in great request in Germany. The
Latin Version in the third edition has been corrected throughout, so
that it may almost be considered as a new Translation.
* 'H KAINH AIA0HKH. The New Testament ; with English
Notes, Critical, Philological, and Explanatory. [By the Rev.
Edward Valpy, B.D.] A New Edition. London, 1826. 3 vols.
8vo. Price 2L 5s.
The former edition of this Greek Testament appeared in 1816,
in 3 vols. 8vo. with Latin notes; and the plan, on which it was
executed, received the highest commendations from those who were
competent to appreciate its value. In this new edition, the work is
greatly improved. The text is that of the editio princeps, at the
foot of which are exhibited the principal various readings ; and
Y 3
486 APPENDIX.
below these are placed copious critical, philological, and explanatory
notes, in English, selected with great care from Raphelius, Kypke,
Palairet, Schleusner, Rosenmiiller, and other distinguished foreign
critics. Ample use has been made of the late much respected Bi-
shop Middleton's admirable Treatise on the Doctrine of the Greek
Article. Verbal criticism is also introduced, together with observ-
ations on the Greek Idiom from Vigerus, on the Ellipses from Bos,
and on the Particles from Hoogeveen. As the notes on the Gospel
of Saint Matthew are full and copious, there was less necessity in
many instances, especially in the parallel passages, for the same ex-
tended mode of illustration : but a frequent reference is made from
one to the other ; and thus the student is induced to consult and to
compare the whole body of annotations, and is further enabled to
lix more durably on his mind the result and fruit of his industry and
research. Two well executed Maps of Judaea adapted to the Gospel
History and of the Travels of the Apostles (both copied by permis-
sion! from the Maps illustrating the author's larger Introduction),
with Greek and English Indexes, contribute to enhance the utility
of this edition, which, after a minute examination, the author of the
present manual considers as the most valuable of any that has yet
been published, with critical and philological apparatus, especially
for students who wish to purchase only one edition of the Greek
Testament,
■ § 3. — Polyglott Bible.
Biblia Sacra Quadrilinguia Veteris Testamenti Hebraici, cum
Versione e regione positis, utpote versione Graeca LXX Inter-
pretura ex codice manuscripto Alexandrino, a J. Ern. Grabio
primum evulgata — Item versione Latina Sebast. Schimidii no-
viter revisa et textui Hebreeo accuratiusaccommodata, etGer-
manica beati Lutheri, ex ultima beati viri revisione et editione
2 544-45 expressa, adjectis textui Hebrseo Notis Masorethicis
et Graeca? Versioni Lectionibus Codicis Vaticani ; notis philo-
logicis et exegeticis aliis, ut et summariis capitum ac locis pa-
rallelis locupletissimis ornata. Accurante M. Christ. Reineccio.
Lipsiae, 1750, 5 tomis, folio.
The comparative cheapness of this neatly and accurately printed
work renders it a valuable substitute for the large and expensive
Polyglotts, 1. Of Cardinal Ximenes (commonly termed the Com-
plutensian Polyglott), printed in the years 1514, 1515, 1517, in six
vols, folio ; — 2. Of the Polyglott printed at Antwerp in 1569-72,
in 8 vols, folio ; — 3. Of M. Le Jay's Polyglott, printed at Paris in
1628-45, in 10 vols, folio ;— and, 4. Of the magnificent Polyglott,
edited by Bishop Walton and others, in 1657, in 6 vols, folio.
Copies of these are found in most Public Libraries. Dr. Adam
Clarke, who in his Bibliographical Dictionary states that he has-
read over the whole of the Hebrew and Chaldee Text of Reinec-
eius's Polyglott, with the exception of part of the Pentateuch, pro-
nounces it to be one of the most correct extant. Price, about
6/. 6s.
APPENDIX. 487
§ 4. — Versions, Antient and Modern.
'H UaKaic Akki&tjktj Kara rovs EfiSofJLTjKOUra. Vetus Tes-
tamentum ex Versione Septuaginta Interpretum secundum
Exemplar Vaticanum Romae editum, accuratissime denuo re-
cognitum ; una cum scholiis ejusdem editionis, variis Manu-
scriptorum Codicum Veterumque Exemplarium Lectionibus,
necnon fragmentis versionum Aquilae, Symmachi, et Theodo-
tionis. Summa cura edidit Lambertus Bos. Franequerae.
1709. 4to. 1/. 16*. to 2l. 2s., or more, according to its con-
dition.
An elegant and accurate edition, which is deservedly esteemed.
The preface of the editor, Professor Bos, contains a critical disquisi-
tion on the Septuagint Version, and its utility in sacred criticism,
together with an account of the preceding principal editions. Bos's
text was reprinted at Amsterdam in two 8vo. vols, under the edito-
rial care of David Mill. It contains some various readings from
some MSS. at Leyden, which, however, are of no great critical
value.
CH Tla\atu Aio&tjktj Kara rovs EfiBo/xrjKoyra. VetUS Testa-
mentum ex Versione Septuaginta Interpretum, olim ad fidem
Codicis MS. Alexandrini summo studio et incredibili diligentia
expressum, emendatum et suppletum a Joanne Ernesti Grabio,
S.T.P. Nunc vero exeinplaris Vatican! aliorumque MSS. Codd.
Lectionibus var. nee non criticis dissertationibus illustratum
insigniterque locupletatum, summa cura edidit Joannes Jaco-
bus Breitinger. Tiguri Helvetiorum. 1730-1-2. 4 tomis,
4to. Price, about 6l. 6s.
This is a correct reprint of Dr. Grabe's edition, to which the
various readings of the Roman or Vatican edition are added at the
foot of the page. The beauty of its typography and paper, and its
critical value, concur to render it highly valuable. Michaelis pro-
nounces it to be the best edition of the Septuagint ever printed ; that
is, up to his time.
Vetus Testamentum ex Versione Septuaginta Interpretum,
juxta Exemplar Vaticanum, ex Editione Holmesii et Lamberti
Bos. Londini, in ./Edibus Valpianis. 1819. 8vo.
This elegantly executed volume is very correctly printed, and
(which cannot but recommend it to students in preference to the in-
correct Cambridge and Amsterdam reprints of the Vatican text)
its price is so reasonable, as to place it within the reach of almost
every one. (1/. Ss.)
* Biblia Sacra Vulgatae Editionis Sixti Quinti Pont. Max.
jussu recognita atque edita Romae ex Typographia Apostolica
Vaticana MDXCII1. Editio nova, auctoritate summi pontificis
Y 4-
488 APPENDIX.
Leonis XII. excusa. Francofurti ad Moenum, 1826. Royal svo.
Price 1/. Is.
A beautiful and correct edition. Various other editions of the
Latin Vulgate may be met with, the price of which varies from 12s.
to three or four guineas, according to their rarity and condition.
Biblia Sacra Latine versa : Vetus Testamentum ab Imma-
nuale Tremellio et Francisco Junio : Novum Testamentum a
Theodoro Beza. Various editions in folio and 12mo. 10s. 6d.
to 1/. is.
This Translation is justly esteemed by all the Protestant churches
for its general fidelity, simplicity, and perspicuity.
The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments:
translated out of the original Tongues : and with the former
Translations diligently compared and revised. Oxford, at the
Clarendon Press, 1821. 8vo. 10*. 6d. in sheets.
Any Edition of the authorised version, with marginal references,
will suffice : but the Oxford minion 8vo. is here specified, as being
one of the most commodious and correct editions that has ever been
printed. The medium 8vo. Bible, which issued from the press of
His Majesty's Printers in 1814, is a most beautiful book: it sells for
1 4s. in sheets.
Section II Harmonies of the Old and New Testament.
The Old Testament, arranged in historical and chronological
order, (on the basis of Lightfoot's Chronicle,) in such manner,
that the books, chapters, psalms, prophecies, &c. may be read
as one connected history, in the very words of the authorised
translation. By the Rev. George Townsend, M. A. London,
1821. Second Edition, 1826. In two very large volumes,
8vo. price 2/.
The New Testament, arranged in Chronological and Histo-
rical Order, in such manner that the Gospels, the Epistles, and
the Acts, may be read as one connected History. The Gos-
pels on the basis of the Harmonies of Lightfoot, Doddridge,
Pilkington, Newcome, and Michaelis — the Account of the
Resurrection, on the Authorities of West, Townson, and
Cranfield. The Epistles are inserted in their places, and
divided according to the Apostles' Arguments. With copious
Notes on many of the principal Subjects of- Theology. By the
Rev. George Townsend, M. A. London, 1825. In two very
large volumes, 8vo. price 2/.
The Harmonies of the four Gospels, by Dr. Doddridge and
Dr. Macknight, are noticed in a subsequent page among the
Commentators on the Scriptures.
APPENDIX. 489
The Apostolical History, containing the Acts, Labours, Tra-
vels, Sermons, Discourses, Miracles, Successes, and Sufferings
of the Holy Apostles from Christ's Ascension to the Destruc-
tion of Jerusalem. Also a narration of the particular times
and occasions upon which the Apostolical Epistles were written,
together with a brief analytical Paraphrase of them. By
Samuel Cradock, B. D. London, 1672. folio.
This author, an eminent non-conformist divine, also wrote " A
plain and brief Exposition of the Revelation," now superseded by
later and better works ; " The Old Testament History methodized,"
in folio, and the " Harmony of the Four Evangelists," both super-
seded by later works. " Cradock's three volumes are very valuable :
the two last on the New Testament are much better than the first
on the Old. His extracts in the margin from Hammond, Eight-
foot, and Grotius, are very judicious ; and I think, on the whole, I
never read any one author, that assisted me more in what relates to
the New Testament." (Dr. Doddridge.) The book is by no
means dear, which to students is a great advantage. Price, about Is.
The Life of the Apostle Paul, as related in Scripture; but
in which his Epistles are inserted in that part of the History
to which they are supposed respectively to belong; with select
Notes, critical and explanatory, and relating to persons and
places, and a Map of the countries in which the Apostle tra-
velled. By Joseph Gurney Be van. London, 1807. 8vo.
price 8s.
The narrative of Saint Paul's life is studiously related in the very
words of Scripture, having only such additional matter as is neces-
sary to introduce or connect the several parts. Attention, however,
has been paid to the task of selecting, from different parts of the
New Testament, such passages as belong to the regular chain of the
history. The notes are principally selected from the best critics and
commentators, and those which are geographical are the most con-
spicuous, and stamp a real value on the work ; which (though
designed for young persons of his own religious communion*) may
be studied with advantage by those of every other class of Christians,
especially those who have not many commentators within their reach,
"without danger of finding any thing introduced which can give the
smallest bias towards any principle that is not really and truly Chris*
dan." (British Critic, O. S., vol. xxxiii. p. 477.)
Section III. — Sacred Philology; or, the Criticism and Interpret-
ation of the Scriptures.
§ 1. Introductions to the Study of the Holy Scriptures.
Briani Waltoni Prolegomena in Biblia Polyglotta. Prse-
fotus est J. A. Dathe, Lipsia?, 1 777. Svo. Price* 10s. 6ch
* The Society of Friends.
Y 5
490 APPENDIX.
Bishop Marsh has truly characterised these Prolegomena, as- con-
taining an inestimable treasure of oriental literature.
An Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the
Holy Scriptures. By Thomas Hartwell Horne, M.A. Fifth
Edition, corrected. Illustrated with numerous Maps and Fac-
similes of Biblical Manuscripts. London, 1825. 4 vols. 8vo.
Price 5l. 5s.
The present little Manual is a concise Analysis of this work, which
contains nearly three thousand closely printed pages, and which has
cost the author the labour of more than twenty years, besides an ex-
pense of many hundred pounds, for the books which he has procured
and consulted for it.
The first of the four volumes, into which this " Introduction' :
is divided, comprises a copious examination of the Evidences for
the Genuineness, Authenticity, Credibility, and Inspiration of the
Holy Scriptures ; including specific replies to the various objections
of antient and modern sceptics ; which objections the author was.
called upon, from the press, to examine and refute. The second
volume treats on the Literary History, Criticism, and Interpretation
of the Bible, in all their various details. The third volume con-
tains a copious Digest of Biblical Geography and Antiquities, drawn
from the best sources, antient and modern : and in the fourth
volume is given a Series of Historical, Biographical, and Critical
Prefaces to the several Books of the Old and New Testament; in
which their Genuineness, Authenticity, Date, Contents, and Style
are minutely investigated. This volume terminates with a Diction-
ary of the Symbolical Language of Scripture, a Bibliographical
Index, a General Index of Matters, and an Index of the Principal
Texts illustrated. Throughout the work references have been made
to such approved writers as have best illustrated particular subjects,
and critical notices of their works have been subjoined.
The repeated and unprincipled attempts made to pirate this
" Introduction" will perhaps justify the author, in the estimation of
candid readers, for thus minutely describing his own work; which,
he has the satisfaction of knowing, has been adopted as a Text Book
in our British Universities, and other Seminaries of Theological
Learning, as also in various Colleges and Academical Institutions
in North America.
An Introduction to the New Testament, by John David
Michaelis, late Professor in the University of Gottingen.
Translated from the fourth edition of the German by Herbert
Marsh, D.D. [now Bishop of Peterborough.] C vols. 8vo. Cam-
bridge, 1802. 2d edit. 1818. Price 5l. 5s.
* Introductio in Libros Canonicos Veteris Foederis, usibus
academicis accommodata a Fouerio Ackermann. Vienna?.
1825. 8vo. Price 9s.
This is a new edition of Jahn's learned " Introductio in Libros
Sacros Veteris Foederis, in Compendium redacta," which appeared
APPENDIX. 491
at Vienna in 1804, in 8vo., and in 1806 was put into the list of
books prohibited by the Pope to be read by Romanists. Professor
Ackermann states that he has changed the text of Jahn in very
many chapters, but has retained his order and his words wherever
he could. The editor introduces this work to the notice of his
readers by a profession of his profound submission to the Romish
church. The advanced student will find it a valuable book of
reference. Price, about 10s. 6d. ; and of Jahn's Introduction, 14s.
to 16s.
Essai d'une Introduction Critique au Nouveau Testament,
par J.E. Cellerier, fils. Geneve, 1823. 8vo.
Partly a translation, and partly an analysis of Professor Hug's
very valuable German Introduction to the New Testament, printed
at Fribourg in Brisgau, 1821. 2 vols. 8vo. 2d edition. — A trans-
lation of the entire work of Hug, by the Rev. Dr. Wait, of Cam-
bridge, was announced as nearly ready for publication while this
sheet was passing through the press.
A Course of Lectures, containing a Description and syste-
matic Arrangement of the several Branches of Divinity, accom-
panied with an Account both of the principal Authors, and of
the Progress which has been made at different Periods, in
Theological Learning. By Herbert Marsh, D. D. [Bishop of
Peterborough.] Parts I — VII. London, 1810 — 1823. 8vo.
Dissertations, qui peuvent servir de Prolegomenes de l'Ecri-
ture Sainte. Par Augustin Calmet. Paris, 1720. 5 tomes,
4to. Price 2/. 2s.
These curious and elaborate dissertations were originally prefixed
by Calmet to the different books of Scripture, and published in his
commentary : in this 4to. edition, Calmet has collected them with
considerable additions.
§ 2. Treatises on the Literary History, Criticism, and Translations
of the Bible.
Illustrations of Biblical Literature, exhibiting the History
and F'ate of the Sacred Writings, from the earliest Period to
the present Century ; including Biographical Notices of Trans-
lators and other eminent Biblical Scholars. By the Rev. James
Townley, D.D. London, 1821. 3 vols. 8vo. Price 2/. 2s.
Horae Biblicae; being a connected Series of miscellaneous
Notes on the original Text, early Versions, and printed Edi-
tions of the Old and New Testament. By Charles Butler,
Esq. London, 1807. 2 vols. Royal 8vo. Price 1/. 1*.
The first edition of this judicious manual of Biblical Criticism
was privately printed in 1797 for the author's friends. It has since
been repeatedly printed in royal 8vo. with an additional volume,
treating on the books accounted sacred by the Mohammedans, Hin-
Y 6
492 APPENDIX.
doos, Parsees, Chinese, and Scandinavians. In 1810 M. Boulard
published a French translation of this work, from the edition printed
at Oxford in 1799.
A History of the principal Translations of the Bible. By
John Lewis, M. A. London, 1739. 8vo. Price 1 8s.
The first edition of this valuable work, to which all succeeding
writers on the English versions of the Scriptures are indebted, was
prefixed to Mr. Lewis's folio edition of the venerable John Wick-
liffe's English version of the New Testament. It was reprinted
in 1818, at London, with some unimportant additions, in one
volume, 8vo. Price 8s.
A List of Editions of the Bible, and Parts thereof in English,
from the year MDV. to MDCCCXX. With an Appendix,
containing Specimens of Translations and Bibliographical
Descriptions. By the Rev. Henry Cotton, D. C. L. Oxford,
at the Clarendon Press, 1821. 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.
Though the author of this unassuming but very interesting
" List" modestly terms it " an Appendix" to the latter part of
Lewis's work, it will be found a very useful publication to those
who may not be possessed of Lewis's History. It is evidently
the result of deep research, and is drawn up with great care. The
notes, which are not numerous, are strictly bibliographical, and con-
tain much valuable information to the collectors of rare books : while
considerable additional interest is imparted to the work by the
s-pecimens of early translations which will be found in the appendix.
A Vindication of our authorised Translation and Translators
of the Bible, and of preceding English Versions authoritatively
commended to the Notice of those Translators, &c. By the
Rev. H.J. Todd, M. A. London, 1819. 8vo.
Ludovici Cappelli Critica Sacra ; sive de Variis, quae in
Sacris Veteris Testamenti Libris occurrunt, Lectionibus Libri
sex. Parisiis, 1650. Folio. Price 18s. Halae, 1775-1786.
•5 vols. 8vo. Price 1/. 4s.
Jo. Gottlob Carpzovii Critica Sacra Veteris Testamenti.
Lipsiae, 1738. 4 to.
" A very useful work, replete with information on the subject of
Hebrew Criticism. " (Bp. Marsh.)
Salomonis Glassii Philologia Sacra ; qua totius S. S. Veteris
et Novi Testamenti Scripturae turn Stylus et Litteratura, turn
Sensus et Genuinae Interpretationis Ratio et Doctrina, libris
quinque expenditur ac traditur. Lipsiae, 1725. 4to. Best
Edition, price 18s.
An " inestimable and immortal work, than which none can be
more useful for the interpretation of Scripture, as it throws an
uncommon degree of light upon the language and phraseology of
the inspired writers.'' (Mosheim's Eccl. Hist, vol. v. p. 29G.)
APPENDIX. 493
Johannis Leusdenii de Dialectis N. T., singulatim de
ejus Hebraismis Libellus singularis, editus ab Joh. Frider.
Fischero. Accessit Joh. Vorstii Commentariolus de Adagiis
N. T. Hebraicis. Lipsias, 1792. 8vo. Price, about 9*.
De Sacra Poesi Hebraeorum Praelectiones Academical.
Auctore Roberto Lowth, nuper Episcopo Londinensi. Oxonii,
1821. 8vo. Price 16*.
The first edition of Bishop Lowth's Lectures appeared in 1753 :
that of 1821 may be considered as the best; as it includes, besides
the additions of Michaelis, the further observations of Rosen -
muller (whose edition appeared at Leipsic in 1815), Richter, and
Weiss.
Lectures on the Sacred Poetry of the Hebrews : translated
from the Latin of the Right Rev. Robert Lowth, D.D., Bishop
of London, by G. Gregory. To which are added the prin-
cipal Notes of Professor Michaelis, and Notes by the Trans-
lator and others. London, 1787. 2 vols. 8vo. ; 1816. 2 vols.
8vo. Price 18*.
Sacred Literature; comprising a Review of the Principles
of Composition, laid down by the late Robert Lowth, D.D.
Lord Bishop of London, in his Preelections and Isaiah, and an
Application of the Principles so reviewed to the Illustration of
the New Testament. By John Jebb, A.M. [Now D.D. and
Bishop of Limerick.] London, 1820. 8vo. Price 12*.
Vorstii (Johannis) De Hebraismis Novi Testamenti Com-
mentarius. Edidit notisque instruxit Johannes Fridericus
Fischerus. Lipsiae, 1778. 8vo. Price, about 14*.
Wetstenii (Johannis Jacobi) Prolegomena ad Testamenti
Graeci editionem accuratissimam, e vetustissimis codicibus
denuo procurandam : in quibus agitur de codicibus maim-
scriptis Novi Testamenti, Scriptoribus qui Novo Testa-
mento usi sunt, versionibus veteribus. editionibus prioribus, et
claris interpretibus ; et proponuntur animadversiones et cau-
tiones, ad examen variarum lectionem Novi Testamenti.
Amstelaedami, 17-50. 4to. Price, about \0s.6d. or 12*.
A Vindication of the Authenticity of the Narratives con-
tained in the first Two Chapters of the Gospels of St. Matthew
and St. Luke ; being an Investigation of Objections urged by
the Unitarian Editors of the improved Version of the New
Testament : with an Appendix containing Strictures on. the
Variations between the First and Fourth Editions of that Work.
By a Layman. London, 1822. 8vo. Price 12*.
In this very elaborate work, the authenticity of Matt. i. and ii.
and Luke i. and ii. are most satisfactorily vindicated from the ob-
jections of the Editors of the Unitarian Version of the New Testa-
ment ; whose disingenuous alterations in successive editions of that
work are exposed in the Appendix.
494 APPENDIX,
§ 3. Lexicons and Grammars to the original Languages of Scripture.
i. Hebrew and Chaldee Grammars and Lexicons.
(1.) With Points.
A Series of Lectures on the Hebrew Language ; so arranged
as to form a complete and easy System of Hebrew Grammar,
and adapted to the use of Learners as well as of others
who have made some Progress in the Language. By the Rev.
Samuel Lee, A. M. and Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. London, 1827. 8vo.
The following are the principal circumstances in which this gram-
mar is stated to differ from every preceding work of the same kind ;
viz. 1. In the manner in which the system of vowel points is de-
veloped ; — and, 2. In the mode in which the nouns and verbs are
exhibited, so as to avoid that perplexity which is presented to learners
in many Hebrew grammars. In the syntax, the character of the,
language is investigated according to the analogy discoverable within
itself; and the conclusions, to which the author arrives, are confirmed
by appeals to the Arabian grammarians. The enallages of gender
and number, which have caused so much perplexity to students in the
grammars that have been formed after the system of the celebrated
Buxtorf, are here set aside : and principles are laid down, by which
it is shown that, according to the genius of the Shemitic dialects,
those rules are groundless, which make it necessary to call in these
anomalies to our aid. To the syntax is appended a short essay on
the use of the Hebrew accents, showing in what way they are to be
understood as a commentary on the bearing of the context. The
whole is divided into twenty lectures.
A Hebrew Grammar, with the principal Rules compiled from
some of the most considerable Hebrew Grammars. By Tho-
mas Yeates. London, 1812. 1825. 8vo. Price 4s.
A Hebrew Lexicon to the Books of the Old Testament : in-
cluding the Geographical Names and Chaldaic Words in
Daniel, Ezra, &c. By D. Wilhelm Gesenius, Doctor and Pro-
fessor of Theology at the University of Halle. Translated
from the German by Christopher Leo, formerly Teacher of
Hebrew and German in the University of Cambridge, and late
Professor of German at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
In two parts royal 4to. Part I. Cambridge, at the University
Press. Price 1/. 4s.
A Hebrew and English Lexicon to the Old Testament, in-
cluding the Biblical Chaldee, from the German Works of Prof.
W. Gesenius. By Josiah W. Gibbs, A.M. Andover (North
America), 1824. Royal 8vo. London, 1827. 8vo. Price l/. 4s.
This is, strictly speaking, a new Hebrew and English Lexicon.
Its basis is the German abridgment or smaller Hebrew Lexicon
APPENDIX. 495
of Prof. Gesenius, which was published at Leipsic in 1815, in
8vo. ; but Mr. Gibbs has throughout consulted the Thesaurus or
larger Lexicon (of which Mr. Leo's work is a translation), and he
has also made some corrections from Gesenius's later philological
works, especially his (German) Commentary on the Prophecy of
Isaiah, which was published in 1820-21. Still further to improve
his Lexicon, Mr. Gibbs has not only corrected many errors and
oversights which had crept into the original works of Gesenius, but
has also commodiously broken the articles into paragraphs : making
each signification of a word to commence a new paragraph. The
London reprint was edited, with great care, by the Rev. Lancelot
Sharpe, M. A.; and in order to ensure the greater correctness, the
Hebrew words are printed from the second edition of Gesenius's
" Neues Hebraisches Handworterbuch," which appeared at Leipsic,
in 1825. This reprint is very neatly executed.
Elements of the Chaldee Language ; intended as a Supple-
ment to the Hebrew Grammar, and as a General Introduction
to the Aramean Dialects, By the Rev. W. Harris, LL.D,
London, 1822. 8vo.
(2.) Without Points.
Elements of Hebrew Grammar; to which is prefixed a Dis-
sertation on the two modes of reading, with or without points.
By Charles Wilson, Professor of Hebrew at the University of
Saint Andrew's. London, 1782. Fourth edition, 1810. 8vo.
Price 10*. 6d.
An Hebrew and English Lexicon without Points ; in which
the Hebrew and Chaldee Words of the Old Testament are ex-
plained in their reading and derived Senses ; the Derivative
Words are ranged under their respective Primitives ; and the
meanings assigned to each authorized by passages of Scripture,
and frequently illustrated and confirmed by citations from va-
rious authors. By John Parkhurst, M.A. London, 1825.
Royal 8vo. Price 18*.
To this learned and excellent work is prefixed a Methodical He-
brew Grammar without points, as also a short Chaldee Grammar.
ii. Grammars and Lexicons to the Greek Testament, and to the
Septuagint Version.
* A Greek Grammar of the New Testament ; translated from
the German of George Benedict Winer, Professor of Theology
at Erlangen. By Moses Stuart, Professor of Sacred Literature
in the Theol. Seminary, Andover, and Edward Robinson, As-
sistant Instructor in the same Department. Andover (North
America), 1825. Large 8vo. Price 10*. 6d. or 11*.
This is a translation of Winer's Grammatik des Neutestament-
lichen Sprachidioms, which was published at Leipsic in 1822. The
4-96 APPENDIX.
work of Winer was designed to exhibit the application of the same-
principles to the grammatical structure of the language of the New
Testament, as are developed in the publications of Planck and
Wahl, which are noticed in the next page, " It is as yet the
only treatise of the kind; and, like most of the author's other
works, bears marks of haste both in the conception and execu-
tion. It contains many observations of great value. The general
plan, and the internal arrangement and classification are good ; and
"the principles are, for the most part, correctly stated, and happily
illustrated. On some points he has carried his views too far, and on
some few he is probably erroneous. We look upon the work as one
which will impart new and important views to the students of this
country, and serve to stimulate them to more extensive inquiry."
(North American Review, July 1826, vol. xxiii. p. 107.) The
Anglo-American translators have greatly increased the. value of this
Grammar of the Greek Testament, by the addition of numerous
learned notes.
Remarks on the Uses of the Definitive Article in the Greek
Text of the New Testament : containing many new Proofs of
the Divinity of Christ, from Passages which are wrongly trans-
lated in the common English Version. By Granville Sharp.
Durham and London, 1803. 12mo. Price 7s. 6d.
Six Letters to Granville Sharp, Esq. respecting his Remarks
on the Uses of the Definitive Article in the Greek Text of the
New Testament. By Christopher Wordsworth, [now D. D.]
London, 1802. 8vo. Price 4s. 6d.
The Doctrine of the Greek Article applied to the Criticism
and Illustration of the New Testament. By T. F. Middleton,
D.D. [late Bishop of Calcutta.] London, 1808. 8vo. Price
l/. Is.
A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament : in
which the Words and Phrases occurring in those sacred books
are distinctly explained ; and the meanings assigned to each
authorised by references to passages of Scripture, and fre-
quently illustrated and confirmed by Citations from the Old
Testament and from the Greek writers. By John Paf.khurst,
M. A. 4to. and 8vo.
The first edition of this admirable work appeared in 1 769 ; the
second (which is considered as the best) in 1794, both in quarto ; and
numerous subsequent well executed editions in royal 8vo. have en-
abled the students of the Greek Testament to avail themselves of the
valuable stores of philology which Mr. Parkhurst has provided for
them. A new edition of this Lexicon, carefully revised and corrected
by the Rev. H. J. Rose, is announced as nearly ready for publi-
cation. To the work is prefixed a plain and easy Greek Grammar,
adapted to the use of learners, and those who understand no other
language than English. Price about 1/. lis. 6d.
Novum Lexicon Grseco-Latinum in Novum Testamentum,
congessit et variis observationibus philologicis illustravit Jo-
APPENDIX. 497
hannes Friedericus Schleusner. Lipsiae, 1819. 4 parts in
2 vols. 8vo. Glasguae, 1824. 4to., and also in 2 vols. 8vo.
This is the fourth and hest edition of an invaluable work : the first
appeared at Leipsic in 1791 ; the second in 1801 ; and the third in
1808. An elegant reprint of this Lexicon was executed at the Uni-
versity press, Edinburgh, in 1814, in two vols. 8vo. : the German
quotations introduced by Schleusner are in this edition translated
into English by the editors, Messrs. Smith, Strauchon, and Dicken-
son. Another reprint of this Lexicon issued from the Glasgow press
in 1817, also in two volumes 8vo. The fourth Leipsic edition con-
tains many additional words and new observations which are inter-
spersed through the work. The Preface contains a severe philippic
against the two reprints just noticed. The Glasgow editions of 1 824
are elegantly printed. The quarto copies sell for 3/. 13s. 6d. ; and
those in 8vo. for 3/. 3s. As some of Schleusner's interpretations are
not quite correct in point of doctrine, the cautious use of his Lexi-
con will be found most beneficial to students who have made consi-
derable progress in the study of sacred literature.
Clavis Philologica Novi Testamenti, auctore M. Christ.
Abraham Wahl, Verb. Div. apud Schneebergenses Ministro.
Lipsiae, 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. Price \l. Is. to \l. 5s.
This truly valuable Greek and Latin Lexicon to the New Testament
is expressly designed for those who cannot afford to purchase Schleus-
ner's Lexicon. It is founded on the philological principles first deve-
loped by Professor Planck, in his elaborate dissertation " De Vera
Naturdatque Indole Orationis Greecce Novi Testamenti," published at
Gottingen in 1810. '; It was the object of the author to bring into a
moderate compass the results of the latest and most extended inves-
tigations into both the philology and interpretation of the sacred
volume ; so that they might be made universally accessible, and be
adapted to the daily convenience, and habitual use, of every student.
The work was intended to embrace simply the results, without the
processes, of investigation ; with references to authorities, sufficient
to verify those results, should the student wish to prosecute his in-
quiries further. That such is the plan best suited to the purpose
which the author had in view, there can be little doubt ; nor can we
hesitate to say, that he has successfully accomplished that purpose.
The object of a lexicon is not a commentary, — not the exhibition of
a system of theology : it is designed simply as an instrument in the
hands of the student, by which he is to aid himself in ascertaining
the sense of a writer, and making out, practically, if not formally, a
commentary for himself. To do this fully, he must of course go
back to the same sources of information from which the Lexicon it-
self was drawn. In a work of this kind, moreover, a great deal of
the merit must necessarily depend on the power, which the writer
may possess, of condensing his thoughts, and expressing them in
terms at once concise and perspicuous. In this respect, we think
that a high rank must be assigned to Wahl ; and that he is far re-
moved both from the diffuseness of Parkhurst, and from that prolix-
ity and unnecessary copiousness for which Schleusner is distinguish.
498 APPENDIX.
ed." (North American Review for July, 1826, vol. xxiii. pp. 106,
107.)
* A Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament,
from the Clavis Philologica of Christ. Abraham Wahl. By
Edward Robinson, A.M. Asssistant Instructor in the Depart-
ment of Sacred Literature, Theol. Sem. Andover. Andover,
[Massachussetts] 1825. royal 8vo. Price ll. 1 6s. or 2/.
Though modestly announced as a translation from Wahl's Clavis,
this is in fact a new Lexicon to the New Testament composed with
with great care and accuracy. The texts cited by Wahl have all
been examined and verified : where any important remark or illustra-
tration could be derived from Schleusner or from other sources, Mr.
Robinson has carefully introduced it. His work is beautifully and
correctly printed : and the student who can afford to purchase it, in
addition to Mr. Parkhurst's valuable Lexicon, will possess a treasure
of sacred criticism. For an account of Mr. Robinson's Lexicon,
and of its superiority to that of Schleusner, for students, see the
Christian Remembrancer for June, 1826, pp. 326 — 330.
Novus Thesaurus Philologico-Criticus : sive Lexicon in
LXX, et Reliquos Interpretes Grascos, ac Scriptores Apocry-
phos Veteris Testamenti. Post Bielium et alios Viros Doctos
congessit, et edidit J. Fried. Schleusner. Lipsiae, 1820, 1821.
5 parts or vols. 8vo. Glasguae et Londini, 1822, in three very
thick vols. 8vo. Price 4l. 4s.
In this edition many typographical errors, particularly in the
Greek and Hebrew quotations, have been corrected ; and the refer-
ences to the chapters and verses, which in the foreign edition are
very inaccurate, have been carefully amended. Professor Schleus-
ner's German explanations of particular words uniformly have
English translations attached to them ; and to the third volume there
is appended an Index of all the Hebrew words occurring in the
work ; together with a collation of verses and chapters, as set out
respectively in the editions of the Greek Septuagint, superintended
by Wechel and Bos. This Appendix, which nearly fills three
hundred pages, is not to be found in the Leipsic edition.
A useful substitute for this work of Schleusner's (the price of
which may place it above the reach of some students) will be found
in tho Rev. Greville Ewing's Greek Grammar, and Greek and
English Lexicon. Glasgow and London, 1827. 8vo. ; the third
and much improved edition of this lexicon (which first appeared in
1801) was announced while this sheet was passing through the
press.
§ 4. — Commentators, Interpreters, and Paraphrasts of the
Scriptures.
i. Treatises on the Interpretation of Scripture.
* Hermeneutica Biblica Generalis usibus Academicis accom-
modata ab Altmanno Arigler. Viennae, 1815. 8vo. Price,
about 9*.
APPENDIX. 499
Enchiridion Hermeneuticae Generalis Tabularum Vetera
et Novi Foederis. Auctore Johanne Jahn. Vienna?, 1812,
Price, about 8s.
Appendix Hermeneutica?, sen Exercitationes Exegeticae,
Auctore Johanne Jahn. Fasciculi II. Viennas, 18 13-15,
8vo. Price about 8*.
Ernesti (Jo. Aug.) Institutio Interprets Novi Testamenti.
8vo. Lipsiae, 1761, 1809. 8vo. Price, from 7s. to 9s,
The edition of 1809 is generally considered as the best of Ernesti's
admirable little manual ; but the prefatory remarks and some of the
notes of Dr. Ammon must be read with great caution, as they are too
frequently destitute of those primary and indispensable character-
istics of a good interpreter, sobriety and discretion. Two volumes
of Supplementary Remarks, by Professor Morus, entitled Acroases-
super Hermeneutica Novi Testamenti, were published at Leipsic
between 1795 and 1797, in 8vo. : they relate only to part of Er-
nesti's volume, and they contain much valuable matter respecting
the criticism and interpretation of the New Testament, clothed in
elegant Latinity.
Elements of Interpretation, translated from the Latin of
J. A. Ernesti, accompanied with Notes. By Moses Stuart,
Professor of Sacred Literature in the Theological Seminary at
Andover. Andover (Massachussetts), 1822. 12mo. Price
about 7*.
A translation of the preceding article. The work of Ernesti, in
passing through the hands of its translator, has undergone some alter-
ations. Some things have been omitted ; notes have been added
where the subject appeared to require further elucidation ; and
copious extracts are translated from Morus's Acroases, as well as
from Beck's Monogrammata Hermeneutices Novi Testamenti, and
Keill's Elementa Hermeneutices Novi Testamenti.
Tubretini (Joan. Alphonsi) De Sacrae Scripturae Interpre-
tandag methodo, Tractatus bipartitus. Trajecti Thuriorum,
1728. Small 8vo. Francofurti ad Viadrum, 1776. 8vo. Price
from 4s. 6d. to 8*.
The edition of 1776 is considered to be the best : it professes to
be " restitutas et auctus," by William Abraham Teller, some of
whose remarks are certainly valuable ; but others convey doctrinal
interpretations which Turretini (or Turretin, as he is most usually
termed,) held in utter abhorrence. The edition of 1728 is, therefore,
to be preferred.
An Inquiry into the General Principles of Scripture Inter-
pretation, in Eight Sermons preached before the University of
Oxford in the year 18H, as the Lecture founded by the late
Rev. John Bampton, M. A. By the Rev.William Vanmildert,
D.D. [now Bishop of Durham.] Oxford, 1815. 8vo. Price
I0s.6d,
500 APPENDIX.
* The Bampton Lectures for the year 1824, Being an At-
tempt to trace the History and to ascertain the Limits of the
Secondary and Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture. By
J. J. Conybeare, M.A. Oxford, 1824. 8vo. Price, 10s. 6d.
* The State of the Protestant Religion in Germany; in a
Series of Discourses preached before the University of Cam-
bridge, by the Rev. Hugh James Rose, M.A. Cambridge,
1825. 8vo.
These discourses are noticed here, on account of the just and
accurate representation which they contain of the unsound and per-
nicious system of interpretation adopted by many modern expositors
and biblical critics in Germany ; who have applied to the interpret-
ation of the sacred volume an excess of philological speculation,
which would not be endured if applied to the explanation of a clas-
sic author. The accuracy of Mr. Rose's statements the writer of
these pages can attest, from actual perusal of many of the comment-
aries and other publications which he holds up to deserved censure.
His statements are also corroborated by the details which Mr. Hal-
dane has produced in his u Second Review of the Conduct of the
Directors of the British and Foreign Bible Society" (chap, ii.), as
well as by the details which have appeared at various times in the
course of the last six or seven years in the " Archives du Chris-
tianisme," and other French theological journals. The Latin
biblical treatises of the writers in question are, therefore, (with one
exception) designedly excluded from the present list. The best of
their philological observations, divested of their heterodox interpre-
tations, will be found in Mr. Bloomfield's valuable Synopsis, which
is noticed in a subsequent page.
ii. Commentators on the Scriptures.
Matthsei Poli Synopsis Criticorum, aliorumque S. S. Inter-
pretum, et Commentatorum, summo studio et fide adornata.
Ultrajecti, 1684, best edition. 5 tomis, folio. Price 6/. 1 6s, 6d.
to 7 1. 1 7s. 6d.
I
On this elaborate work the learned author spent ten years. It
consolidates, with great skill and conciseness, all the labours of the
commentators and critics, which are collected in the great work
edited by Bishop Pearson and others, in 1660, in 9 vols, folio, and
commonly termed the " Critici Sacri." Besides condensing their
observations into one continued comment, the author has inserted
many valuable additions from various other eminent biblical writers,
together with many important remarks and corrections of his own.
This synopsis first appeared at London, between the years 1669 and
1674, in 5 vols, folio, which may be met with for a less sum than
the edition just noticed. The Frankfort edition of 1712, in 5 vols,
folio, is said to be very incorrect; and the quarto edition of 1694,
also in 5 vols., though somewhat better, is also very inaccurate.
APPENDIX. 501
Jo. Aug. Dathii Libri Veteris Testamenti, ex Recensione
Textus Hebraei et Versionum Antiquarum, Latine versi, aotis
philologicis et criticis illustrati. 8vo. 6 vols. Halae, 1773-
1789. Price from 2/. 105. to 3l.
This work is in high repute on the Continent, where it was pub-
lished at different times, in six volumes or parts, most of which have
been several times reprinted with improvements. It forms an
honourable exception to the great mass of recent German comment-
ators on the Scriptures, who have written in Latin, and have en-
deavoured to fritter away the meaning and application of the Prophetic
Psalms ; the reality and application of which Dathe has most ably
vindicated. He was professor of oriental literature at Leipsic, and
" never published any part until he had repeatedly explained it in his
public lectures, and convinced himself that no difficulties remained,
but such as could not be removed. In this manner was produced
his translation, which may be considered as a perpetual commentary :
the difficult and obscure passages being explained and illustrated by
notes placed at the bottom of the page." (Aikin's Biographical
Dictionary, vol. x. Supplement, p. 306.)
The Holy Bible, according to the Authorized Version, with
Notes explanatory and practical ; taken principally from the
most eminent Writers of the United Church of England and
Ireland ; together with appropriate Introductions, Tables, In-
dexes, Maps, and Plans, prepared and arranged by the Rev.
G. D'Oyly, B.D. [now D.D.], and the Rev. Richard Mant,
D.D. [now Bishop of Down and Connor.] Oxford and Lon-
don, 1817; Cambridge, 1822; Oxford, 1826. 3 vols. 4to.
Price 5l. 15s. 6d. in boards, or 5l. 5s. bound.
The many thousand copies of this very valuable commentary, which
have been circulated, sufficiently attest the estimation in which it is
deservedly held. Although the editors profess to communicate only
the results of the critical inquiries of learned men, without giving a
detailed exposition of the inquiries themselves, yet, from constant
reference to their commentary, the writer of these pages is enabled
to state that these results are selected with great industry and judg-
ment ; so that the reader, who may consult this work on difficult
passages, will rarely, if ever, be disappointed. Of the labour attending
this publication some idea may be formed, when it is stated that the
works of upwards of one hundred and sixty authors have been con-
sulted for it, amounting to several hundred volumes. On the fun-
damental articles of Christian verity, the Deity and atonement of
Jesus Christ, the personality and offices of the Holy Spirit, &c, this
work may be pronounced to be a library of divinity. The maps
and engravings, though only outlines, are executed with much spirit.
A copious index of matters, and a concordance, together with a
geographical index, are subjoined.
The Holy Bible, containing the Old and New Testaments;
with original notes, practical observations, and copious mar-
502 APPENDIX.
ginal references. By Thomas Scott, Rector of Aston Sand-
ford. London, 1822. 6 vols. 4to. The fifth and best edition,
with the author's last corrections. Price 8/. 8*.
The first edition of this much esteemed work appeared about 30
years since in three volumes, and it has been very materially improved
in succeeding editions. Though it professes to be a practical com-
mentary principally, the author has, without any parade of learning,
introduced many very valuable critical elucidations of the sacred
text. The marginal references are very copious, and, what is of
more importance, very appropriate. The marginal renderings (which
appear in the larger editions of the authorized version) have all been
collated with the original Hebrew : in one instance (on Numb. vi. 2.)
an erratum has been corrected, that has been perpetuated in every
other edition, from the first, which was published under the authority
of King James I. in 1611, to the present time. This little circum-
stance, which to the mere English reader is of little moment, is here
noticed, to show with what minute attention Mr. Scott prepared the
last edition of his commentary. The writer of these pages (who does
not view all topics precisely in the same point of view) deems it an
act of bare justice to state, that he has never consulted it in vain,
on difficult passages of the Scriptures. While occupied in consider-
ing the various objections of modern infidels, to which he has replied
in detail in the first volume of his larger Introduction, he thought out
every answer (if he may be allowed the expression) for himself;
referring only to commentaries in questions of more than ordinary
difficulty. And in every instance, especially on the Pentateuch, he
found in Mr. Scott's commentary brief but solid refutations of alleged
contradictions, which he could find in no other similar work in the
English language.
The Cottage Bible and Family Expositor; containing the
authorized Translation of the Old and New Testaments, with
Practical Reflections and short Explanatory Notes, calculated
to elucidate difficult and obscure Passages. By Thomas Wil-
liams. Vols. I. II. London, 1825, 1826. 8vo.
This unassuming but useful commentary on the Holy Scriptures
is still in progress : though professedly designed for persons and
families in the humbler walks of life, it is not unworthy the attention
of students of a higher class, who may not be able to purchase more
bulky or more expensive commentaries ; and on this account it is
here noticed. The work is dedicated by permission to the learned
and venerable Bishop of Salisbury. The first volume contains the
whole of the Historical Books, and also the Book of Job : the
second volume comprises the rest of the Old Testament. The New
Testament will form a third volume. The following is the plan of
publication. The authorized Version is neatly and clearly printed.
Long chapters are broken into paragraphs of a suitable length, re-
gulated by the subject-matter of them ; and the genealogies, enu-
merations of the tribes, and certain ceremonial laws of the Jews,
wliich are not suitable for reading in families or schools, are printed
APPENDIX. 503
in a smaller type, and are so distinguished that they may be omitted
in reading, without difficulty or confusion. To each chapter is
given a concise practical exposition, together with brief critical
notes (in which are interwoven the principal marginal renderings
and references) on difficult and obscure passages, especially such as
have been alleged to be contradictory. The editor has carefully in-
dicated the sources whence he has drawn his annotations ; — a
practice which, it were to be wished, had been followed by the
anonymous compilers of some commentaries now circulating in
numbers, who have contrived to comprehend the most valuable re-
marks of others without any acknowledgment of the authors to
whose labours they are indebted. Mr. Williams has also paid a laud-
able attention to those passages against which objections have been
taken by modern sceptics; for which portion of his work he is well
qualified by his former very useful publications in reply to the cavils
and objections of Paine and other infidels of the last century. A
concise Introduction is prefixed, vindicating the divine authority of
the Holy Scriptures, and the learning and fidelity of the venerable
translators of our authorized English version.
Should more extended commentaries be required than those here
specified, the reader is referred to the labours of Dr. A. Clarke, Dr.
Booth ro yd, and others, which are enumerated in the Appendix to
Vol. II. of the author's larger Introduction.
A Paraphrase and Commentary on the New Testament : to
which is added a Chronology of the New Testament, and an
Alphabetical Table of Places mentioned in the New Testa-
ment. By Daniel Whitby, D.D. London, 1761. 2 vols
folio. 1822. 2 vols. Royal 4to. Price 2l. \2s. 6d.
Divines of every denomination concur in pronouncing Dr.
Whitby's commentary to be, upon the whole, the best upon the New
Testament that is extant in the English language. It is inserted in
almost every list of books that we have seen recommended to stu-
dents, and it is here noticed on account of the very valuable dissert-
ations on various subjects which it contains, and which are referred
to by most modern commentators. This commentary first appeared
in 1 70S, and has since been frequently printed with Bp. Patrick's
Paraphrase and Commentary on the Historical and Poetical Books,
and Mr. Lowth's Paraphrase, &c. on the Prophetical Books, of the
Old Testament. The two last-mentioned works would have been
inserted in the present list, but that the most valuable of their anno-
tations are included in Dr. D'Oyly's and Bp. Mant's Commentary
already noticed.
Expository Notes, with Practical Observations on the New
Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ; wherein the
Sacred Text is at large recited, the Sense explained, &c. &c.
By William Burkitt, M.A. late Vicar and Lecturer of Dedham
in Essex. 4to. London, 1814. Price \L Is.
The first edition of this deservedly popular work was printed
early in the last century ; and its practical utility has caused it to be
several times reprinted in folio, besides the above-noticed edition in
504 APPENDIX.
4to. It does not profess to discuss critical questions, but is very-
useful for the inferences it deduces from the sacred text. The Rev.
Dr. Glasse published an edition of this work, a few years since, in
two volumes, 4to. ; which were soon afterwards followed by an
abridgment in one thick volume, 8vo. for the use of the poor.
The FamilyExpositor; or, a Paraphrase and Version of the
New Testament, with Critical Notes, and a Practical Improve-
ment of each Section. By Philip Doddridge, D. D. Lon-
don, 6 vols. 8vo. Various editions, price 5l. 5s. •
There are also editions in six and in four volumes quarto, which
sell for 41, 14s. 6d. or 51. 5s. according to their condition.
The late venerable Bishop of Durham (Dr. Barrington), ad-
dressing his clergy on the choice of books, characterises this masterly
work in the following terms : — " In reading the New Testament, I
recommend Doddridge's Family Expositor, as an impartial inter-
preter and faithful monitor. Other expositions and commentaries
might be mentioned greatly to the honour of their respective authors,
for their several excellencies ; such as elegance of exposition, acute-
ness of illustration, and copiousness of erudition : but I know of no
expositor who unites so many advantages as Doddridge; whether
you regard the fidelity of his version, the fulness and perspicuity of
his composition, the utility of his general and historical information,
the impartiality of his doctrinal comments, or, lastly, the piety and
pastoral earnestness of his moral and religious applications. He has
made, as he professes to have done, ample use of the commentators
that preceded him ; and in the explanation of grammatical diffi-
culties he has profited much more from the philological writers on
the Greek Testament than could almost have been expected in so
multifarious an undertaking as the Family Expositor. Indeed, for
all the most valuable purposes of a Commentary on the New Testa-
ment the Family Expositor cannot fall too early into the hands of
those intended for holy orders." (Sermons and Tracts, p. 150.)
This admirable commentary is in the list of books recommended by
Bishops Watson and Tomline, and almost every other theological
tutor.
The Harmony of the Four Gospels ; in which the natural
order of each is preserved, with a paraphrase and notes. By
J. Macknight, D.D. 4to. 2 vols. 1756; 2d edit. 176.5,- 2 vols.
8vo. Various editions. Price of the 4to. copies, 2/. 2s.,
and of the 8vo. 1/. Is.
A New Literal Translation, from the original Greek, of all
the apostolical Epistles ; with a Commentary, and Notes
philological, critical, explanatory, and practical. To which is
added, a History of the Life of the Apostle Paul. By James
Macknight, D.D. 4 vols. 4to. 1795. Price 10/. 105. — 8vo.
with the Greek Text, 6 vols. 2d edition, with the Life of the
Author, price 5l. 5s. Without the Greek Text, in 5 vols. 4to.
price 51. 5s. ; and 4 vols. 8vo. 2/. 8s.
The Four Gospels translated from the Greek; with pre-
liminary Dissertations and Notes. By George Campbell, D. D.
APPENDIX. 505
F. R. S. Edinburgh ; Principal of Marischal College, Aberdeen.
4to. 2 vols. London, 1790; Svo. 2 vols. Edinburgh, 1807
3d edit. London, in 5 vols. 8vo. Price from l/. \6s. to 2/. 2s.
Annotations on the Four Gospels and the Acts of the
Apostles. Compiled and abridged for the use of Students. [By
the Rev. Mr. Elsley.] 2d edition, London, 1812. 5 vols. 8vo.
and various subsequent editions. Price 1/. 4s.
Annotations on the Epistles, being a continuation of Mr.
Elsley's Annotations on the Gospels and Acts, and principally
designed for the use of Candidates for Holy Orders. By the
Rev. James Slade, M. A. London, 1816. 2 vols. 8vo. and
various subsequent editions. Price 16s.
Recensio Synoptica Annotations Sacrae, being a Critical
Digest and Synoptical Arrangement of the most important
Annotations on the New Testament, Exegetical, Philological,
and Doctrinal : carefully collected and condensed, from the
.best Commentators, both Antient and Modern, and so digested
as to form one consistent Body of Annotation, in which each
Portion is systematically attributed to its respective Author,
and the foreign Matter translated into English ; the whole
accompanied with a copious Body of original Annotations.
By the Rev. S. T. Bloomfield, M.A. Parti. London,
1826. 5 vols. 8vo. Price 2/. 2s.
For a full view of the contents of this valuable and compre-
hensive Digest of Sacred Criticism the writer of these pages
must refer to the Christian Remembrancer for December, 1826,
and to the Quarterly Theological Review for September, 1S26.
" It would be impossible to convey to our Readers an adequate
idea of the mass of information which the learned author has brought
to bear upon the numerous passages which he has undertaken to
illustrate ; and we can safely say, that in the portion of the New
Testament which this part of the work embraces — the four Gospels
— the enquirer will find very few of which Mr. Bloomfield has not
given a complete and satisfactory exposition." (Quarterly Theological
Review, Sept. 1826.)
A Second Part is announced, also in three volumes, Svo. which
will contain annotations on the remaining books of the New Testa-
ment. It is a distinguishing feature of this work that it omits all
those illustrations which are to be found in the valuable Family
Bible of Dr. D'Oyly and Bishop Mant, in the Commentaries of
Dr. Adam Clarke and Mr. Hewlett, in the Annotations of Messrs.
Elsley and Slade, and in the larger Introduction of the Author of
the present volume.
The Apocalypse, or Revelation of St. John, translated, with
Notes critical and explanatory. To which is prefixed a Dis-
sertation on the divine Origin of the Book, in answer to the
Objections of the late Professor Michaelis; with a biographical
chart of writers in the early Christian Church, who appear to
z
506 APPENDIX.
have afforded Evidence in favour of the Apocalypse. By John
Chappel Woodhouse, D. D. London, 1806. Royal 8vo.
Price 18*.
" This," said the late Bishop Hurd, " is the best book of the
kind I have seen. It owes its superiority to two things, — the
author's understanding, for the most part, the apocalyptic symbols
in a spiritual, not a literal sense : Secondly, to the care he has taken
to fix the precise import of those symbols, from the use made of
them by the old prophetical and other writers of the Old and New
Testament. Still many difficulties remain, and will remain to the
time of the end." (Manuscript note of the late Bishop Hurd, on a
blank leaf of a presentation copy of this ivork, in the library of Hartle-
bury. See Gentleman's Magazine, vol. lxxviii. part. ii. p. 702.)
After such commendation any further observation is unnecessary.
The text of the Apocalypse is handsomely printed in three columns,
containing the text of Griesbach's second edition of the New Testa-
ment, Dr. W.'s own translation from it, and the authorised version,
from which he never departs but when the sense requires it. The
reader who is desirous of seeing analyses of this most excellent work
may consult the British Critic, (O. S. ) vol. xxix. pp. 190 — 200. ;
and the Eclectic Review, (O. S.) vol. ii. partii. pp. 914 — 922.
A Paraphrase and Notes on the Revelation of St. John.
By Moses Lowman. 4to. 2d edit. London, 1745. 8vo. 4th edit.
London, 1807. Price 10s. 6d. to 12*.
Bishops Watson and Tomline include this work in their respective
lists : Dr Doddridge has said of it, that he '* has received more
satisfaction from it, with respect to many difficulties" in the book
of Revelation, than he " ever found elsewhere, or expected to have
found at all." (Works, vol. ii. Leeds edit. p. 37.)
Numerous translations of detached books of the Old and New
Testament have at various times been published by Archbishop
Newcome, Bishop Lowth, the Rev. Dr. Blayney, Dr. J. M. Good,
and other eminent critics and philologers, for accounts of which the
author is necessarily obliged to refer to his larger Introduction.
The Scripture Testimonies to the Divinity of our Lord and
Saviour Jesus Christ, collected and illustrated b}7 the Rev-
George Holden, M. A. London, 1820. 8vo. Price 10*. 6d.
The Scripture Testimony to the Messiah : an Inquiry, with
a View to a satisfactory Determination of the Doctrine taught
in the Holy Scriptures, concerning the Person of Christ. By
John Pye Smith, D.D. London, 1818-1821. 5 vols. 8vo.
Price 1/. 14*.
Both these truly valuable works were published in defence of
that cardinal doctrine of the Christian revelation, — the supreme
Deity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ : but they claim a dis-
tinct notice in this place, on account of the very numerous philolo-
gical and critical explanations of important passages of Scripture,
which they contain. From frequently consulting them, the writer
APPENDIX. 507
of these pages can, with confidence, state that they are works, of
which the student will never regret the purchase : each contains
most valuable matter peculiar to itself; and, together, they form the
most elaborate defence and proof of the deity of Jesus Christ extant
in our language.
The unrefuted and unanswerable Discourses and Dissertations on
the Atonement, by Archbishop Magee, would have been included
in this list, but for the circumstance of their extreme rarity and
consequent high price, occasioned by their having been out of print
for many years.
§ 5. — Concordances, Dictionaries, and Common-place Books of the
Bible.
The Hebrew Concordance adapted to the English Bible;
disposed after the method of Buxtorf. By John Taylor, [D. D.]
of Norwich. London, 1754. 2 vols, folio.
Abrahami Trommii Concordantiae Graecas Versionis video
dictae lxx. Interpretum. Amstelaedami et Trajecti ad Rhenum.
1718. 2 vols, folio. Price 2/. 12*. 6d. to 5l. 13s. 6d.
Novi Testamenti Graeci Jesu Christr Tameion, aliis Con-
cordantiae, ita concinnatum, ut et loca reperiendi, et vocum
veras significationes ; et significationum diversitates per colla-
tionem investigandi, ducis instar esse possit. Opera Erasmi
Schmidii, Graec. Lat. et Math em. Prof. Accedit nova prae-
fatio Ernesti Salomonis Cypriani. Lipsiae, 1717. folio. Lon-
dini, 1819. 2 vols. 8vo. Price 1/. U.
A Complete Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old
and New Testament; or, a Dictionary and Alphabetical Index
to the Bible. In two Parts. By Alexander Cbuden, M. A.
London, 1825. 4to. 1/. 1*. besides various other editions.
A new Concordance to the Holy Scriptures of the Old and
New Testament ; or, a Dictionary and Alphabetical Index to
the Bible, together with the various Significations of the prin-
cipal Words, by which the true Meaning of many Passages is
shown. By the Rev. John Butterwoeth. London, 1767 •
1785; 1816. 8vo. Price 12*. to 15a'.
Calmet's Dictionary of the Holy Bible, Historical, Critical,
Geographical, and Etymological : wherein are explained the
Proper Names in the Old and New Testaments ; the Natural
Productions, Animals, Vegetables, Minerals, Stones, Gems, &c. ;
the Antiquities, Habits, Buildings, and other Curiosities of the
Jews ; with a Chronological History of the Bible, Jewish Ca-
lendar, Tables of the Hebrew Coins, Weights, Measures, &c.
&c. Fourth Edition, revised, corrected, and augmented 'with
an extensive series of plates, explanatory, illustrative, and orna-
mental, under the direction of C.Taylor. London, 1825.
5 vols. 4to. Price 9/. 9*.
z 2
508 APPENDIX.
A Theological, Biblical, and Ecclesiastical Dictionary ; serv-
ing as a general note-book to illustrate the Old and New
Testament, as a guide to the Practices and Opinions of all
Sects and Religions, and as a Cyclopaedia of Religious Know-
ledge. By John Robinson, D. D. London, 1815. 8vo. Price
1/. 8s.
A System of Revealed Religion, digested under proper
heads, and composed on the express words of Scripture ; con-
taining all that the Sacred Records reveal with respect to
Doctrine and Deity. By John Warden, M. A. London, 1769.
4to. 1819. 2 vols. 8vo. Price 1/. Is.
Christian Institutes, or the Sincere Word of God collected
out of the Old and New Testaments, digested under proper
heads, and delivered in the very words of Scripture. By
Francis Gastrell, D. D. Bishop of Chester. 12mo. various
editions. Price 5s. 6d.
§ 6. — Connexions of Sacred and Profane History ; Treatises on
Biblical Antiquities, and on other Historical Circumstances of
the Bible.
The Sacred and Profane History of the World, connected
from the Creation of the World to the dissolution of the Assy-
rian Empire. By S. Shuckford, M. A. 8vo. 4 vols. London,
1745, best edition. This well known and valuable work has
been several times reprinted. Price 1/. 7s. to 1/. 10s.
The Old and New Testament connected in the History of
the Jews, and neighbouring Nations, from the Declension of
the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah to the Time of Christ. By
Humphrey Prideaux, D.D. 8vo. 4 vols. London, 1749. 10th
edit, reprinted in 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1817. Price 1/. 7s. to
1/. 105.
A History of the Holy Bible, from the beginning of the
World to the Establishment of Christianity ; with Answers to
Infidel Objections, Dissertations on the most remarkable Pas-
sages and most important Doctrines, and a Connection of the
Profane with the Sacred Writings. By the Rev. Thomas
Stackhouse, A. M. The whole corrected and improved by
the Right Rev. George Gleig, LL.D. one of the Bishops of
the Scotch Episcopal Church. London, 1817. 5 vols. 4to.
The best edition of a well known and valuable work : it was pub-
lished at 41. 14s. 6cl., but may frequently be met with for about 31. 3s.
Scripture Chronology ; or, an Account of Time from the
Creation of the World to the Destruction of Jerusalem. By
Arthur Bedford. London, 1730. Folio. Price 1/. Is.
A New Analysis of Chronology, in which an attempt is made
to explain the History and Antiquities of the primitive Nations
APPENDIX. 509
of the World, and the Prophecies relating to them, on prin*
ciples tending to remove the imperfection and discordance of
preceding systems. By the Rev. William Hales, D. D. 4to.
3 vols, in four parts. London, 1809 — 1812. Price 8/. 8*.
The title of this work very inadequately describes its multifarious
contents. Besides treating on Sacred Chronology, it contains a trea-
sure of most valuable elucidations of the Holy Scriptures. This
work is now becoming scarce.
Dissertations on the Prophecies which have been remarkably
fulfilled, and at this time are fulfilling in the World. By
Thomas Newton, D. D. Bishop of Bristol. London, 1759 or
1766, 5 vols. 8vo. Price \l. 4s. ; or 1817, 2 vols. 8vo. 18s.
History the Interpreter of Prophecy. By the Rev. Henry
Kett, B.D. London, 1817. 2 vols. 8vo. Price 14s.
A Key to the Prophecies : or, a Concise View of the Pre-
dictions contained in the Old and New Testaments. By the
Rev. David Simpson, M. A. London, 1816. 8vo. Price 9s.
The Natural History of the Bible : or, a Description of all
the Quadrupeds, Birds, Fishes, Reptiles, and Insects, Trees,
Plants, Flowers, Gems, and Precious Stones, mentioned in the
sacred Scriptures. Collected from the best Authorities, and
alphabetically arranged by Thaddeus Mason Harris, D. D.
Boston (Massachusetts), 1820. 8vo. Reprinted at London,
1824. 8vo. Price 9s. An abridgment in 12mo. with plates,
London, 1825. Price 8s.
Moses and Aaron : or, the Civil and Ecclesiastical Rites used
by the antient Hebrews. By Thomas Godwin. London, 1641.
4to. Price 4s.
Jewish Antiquities ; or, a course of Lectures on the three first
Books of Godwin's Moses and Aaron. By David Jennings,
D. D. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1766. Price 185.; or 182.3,
2 vols. 8vo. Price 14s.
The Antiquities of the Jews carefully compiled from au-
thentic sources, and their customs illustrated by modern
Travels. By W. Brown, D. D. London, 1820. 2 vols. 8vo.
Price 1/. 4s.
Illustrations of the Holy Scripture, in three Parts. By the
Rev. George Paxton. Edinburgh, 1825. Second edition,
5 vols. 8vo. Price \l. \6s.
Observations on divers Passages of Scripture, placing many
of them in a light altogether new, by means of circum-
stances mentioned in Books of Voyages and Travels into the
East. By the Rev. Thomas Harmer. London, 1816. 4 vols.
8vo. best edition. Price 2/. 8s.
Oriental Customs ; or, an Illustration of the Sacred Scrip-
tures, by an Explanatory Application of the Customs and Man-
z 3
510 APPENDIX.
ners of the Eastern Nations. By the Rev. S. Burder, A.M.
Sixth edition. 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. Price l/. 4s.
This is an useful abridgment of Harmer's Observations, with
many valuahle additions from recent voyagers and travellers, arranged
in the order of the Books, Chapters, and Verses of the Bible.
Oriental Literature, applied to the Illustration of the Sacred
Scriptures; especially with reference to Antiquities, Traditions,
and Manners, collected from the most celebrated writers and
travellers, both antient and modem, designed as a Sequel to
Oriental Customs. By the Rev. Samuel Burder, A. M. Lon-
don, 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. Price 1/. 45.
Sacred Geography : being a Geographical and Historical
Account of Places mentioned in the Holy Scriptures. By
Edward Wells, D. D. Oxford, 1819. 2 vols. 8vo. besides va-
rious other editions. Price 1 5s.
The preceding catalogue has been framed on a principle of
selection, which should comprise one or more works on the
most important topics of Sacred Literature, both critical and
Practical, as well as Geographical and Historical, and of various
prices ; whence students may (with the advice of experienced
tutors) choose such as are best adapted to their immediate
wants. As every one may not have the means of procuring
the whole of the books above enumerated, the author sub-
joins the following
LIST,
Comprising the most necessary works upon the Holy Scrip-
tures, which he trusts will be found sufficient for all ordi-
nary purposes of study.
D'Allemand's Edition of the Hebrew Bible.
Rev. E. Valpy's Edition of the Greek Testament, with Notes.
In 5 vols. 8vo.
Vetus Testamentum Graecum (Valpy's Edition). 8vo.
Holy Bible, with marginal renderings and references. 8vo.
Rev. Geo. Townsend's Harmony of the Old Testament. 2 vols.
8vo.
Harmony of the New Testament. 2 vols.
8vo.
Introduction to the Critical Study and Knowledge of the Holy
Scriptures. By the author of this volume. 4 vols. 8vo.
Professor Lee's Lectures on the Hebrew Language. 8vo. ; or,
Mr. Yeates's Hebrew Grammar. 8vo.
APPENDIX. 511
Gibbs's Hebrew and English Lexicon. 8vo.; or,
Parkhurst's Hebrew and English Lexicon. 8vo.
Greek Lexicon to the New Testament, edited by
the Rev. H. J. Rose.
Winer's Greek Grammar of the New Testament. 8vo.
Robinson's Greek and English Lexicon to the New Testament.
8vo. ; or,
Wahl's Clavis Philologica Novi Testamenti.
Dr. D'Oyly's and Bp. Mant's Commentary on the Bible. 5 vols.
4to.
Bp. Home's Commentary on the Psalms. 2 vols. 8vo.
Rev. Messrs. Elsley's and Slade's Annotations on the New
Testament. 5 vols. 8vo.
Rev. S. T. Bloomfield's Recensio Synoptica Annotationis Sa-
crae, &c. vols, i — iii. 8vo.
Rev. Dr. Doddridge's Family Expositor. 6 vols. 8vo.
Rev. Dr. Robinson's Biblical and Ecclesiastical Dictionary. 8vo.
Dr. Harris's Natural History of the Bible. 8vo.
Rev. Geo. Holden's Testimonies to the Deity of Christ. 8vo.
Rev. Dr. J. P. Smith's Scripture Testimony to the Messiah.
5 vols. 8vo.
Rev. J. Butterworth's Concordance. 8vo.
Bp. Gastrell's Christian Institutes, 12mo. ; or,
Mr. Warden's System of Revealed Religion. 2 vols. 8vo.
Bp. Newton's Dissertations on the Prophecies. 2 vols. 8vo.
z 4
512 APPENDIX.
No. VI.
A CONCISE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS
MENTIONED IN THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS.
I. Old Testament History.
Before
Christ.
The Creation of the World 4004
Noah born r 2948
Peleg (son of Heber). — Division of the earth into fami-
lies and languages 2247
Abraham born 1996
Call of Abraham 1921
Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar, born 1910
Destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and the cities of the
plain 1898
Covenant with Abraham renewed 1898
Birth of Isaac 1871
Isaac marries Rebekah 1856
Jacob marries Leah and Rachel 1759
Joseph sold into Egypt 1728
Jacob and his family go into Egypt 1706
Death of Jacob 1689
Death of Joseph 1635
A Revolution in Egypt. — The Israelites persecuted 1577
Birth of Moses , 1571
The Exodus from Egypt 1491
The Delivery of the Law 1490
The death of Moses; the entrance of the Israelites into
the promised land, under Joshua 1451
The Administration of the Elders and Judges, after the
death of Joshua 1443, &c.
Saul appointed and consecrated king 1095
The accession of David to the throne 1055
The reign of Solomon alone 1014
The dedication of the temple 1004
Accession of Rehoboam, and the secession of the ten
tribes under Jeroboam 975
APPENDIX.
513
Kings of Israel for 264 Years.
Before
Christ
Jeroboam 1 975
Nadab 954
Baasha 955
Elah , 930
Zimri conspires against
Elah, and reigns seven
days at Tirza.
Omri 929
Ahab 918
Ahaziah, 897
Jehoram or Joram 896
Jehu 884
Jehoahaz 856
Joash 859
Jeroboam II 823
An interregnum of eleven
years begins 784
Zachariah son of Jero-
boam '. 775
Shallum reigned one
month 772
And slain by Menahem... 770
Pekahiah 760
Pekah 758
Anarchy for nine years... 738
Hoshea < 729
End of the kingdom of
Israel, after it had sub-
sisted two hundred and
fifty-four years.
Kings of Judah for 588 Years.
Before
Christ
Rehoboam 975
Jerusalem taken by Shi-
shak king of Egypt. The
Temple plundered 971
Abijah 958
Asa.... 955
Jehoshaphat 914
Joram 889
Ahaziah 885
Athaliah 884
Amaziah 858
Uzziah or Azariah 809
Uzziah.
Jotham 757
Ahaz 741
Hezekiah ?. 726
Kings of Judah alone.
Before
Christ
Manasseh 697
Amon , 642
Josiah.,, 640
z 5
514 APPENDIX.
Before
Christ
Jehoahaz, son of Josiah 609
Jehoiakim 608
Jeconiah, Coniah, or Jehoiakim, son of Jehoiakim 599
Zedekiah, uncle of Jeconiah, originally named Mattaniah 597
Zedelciah revolts against the Chaldaeans ► 590
The siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. — Zedekiah's
Flight. — He is deprived of sight. — Jerusalem taken, and
the temple burnt 588
Beginning of the seventy years' captivity. — The destruction
of the kingdom of Judah, after it had subsisted four
hundred and sixty-eight years from the commencement
of David's reign; and three hundred and eighty-eight
years from the separation between Judah and the ten
tribes.
Daniel's three companions cast into the fiery furnace 560
Nebuchadnezzar's death.
Evil-Merodach succeeds him ; reigns but one year.
Belshazzar his son succeeds him 559
Cyrus liberates the Persians, and takes the title of king... 558
Belshazzar's impious feast; his death 556
Darius the Mede succeeds Belshazzar.
Daniel's prophecy of the seventy weeks. (Dan. ix, x.).... 555
Daniel cast into the lion's den 552
Cyrus sets the Jews at liberty, and permits their return
into Judaea 547
The Jews, returning from captivity, renew the sacrifices
in the temple 546
Darius, otherwise Ahasuerus, acknowledged king of the
Persians 521
Haggai the prophet 520
Zechariah begins to prophesy ,.. 519
Darius allows the Jews to rebuild their temple 518
Here, properly, end the seventy years of captivity foretold
by Jeremiah, which began a.m. 3416.
The dedication of the temple of Jerusalem, rebuilt by
Zerubbabel 515
Haman vows the destruction of the Jews, and procures
from Ahasuerus an order for their extermination 508
Esther obtains a revocation of this decree
Haman hung on the gallows he had prepared for Mordecai.
The Jews punish their enemies at Shushan, and throughout
*he Persian empire. 508
Xerxes succeeds Darius 485
Xerxes dies ; Artaxerxes succeeds him 475
He sends Ezra to Jerusalem (Ezravii. 1. 7, 8.) 467
Ezra reforms abuses among the Jews 466
APPENDIX, 515
Before
rv i- • Christ
Dedication of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah 454
Nehemiah renews the covenant of Israel with the Lord... 45?
Nehemiah returns to king Artaxerxes 441
Nehemiah comes a second time into Judaea, and reforms
abuses 459
Zechariah prophesies under his government ; also Malachi,
whom several have confounded with Ezra.
II. New Testament History.
From the Birth of Jesus Christ to the Completion of the
Canon of the New Testament.
Y. of
J. c.
The birth of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, the 4th
year before a. d 1
The circumcision of Jesus Christ , 1
Wise men come to worship Jesus Christ.
Purification of the holy virgin. — Jesus presented in the
temple.
Flight into Egypt.
Massacre of the innocents at Bethlehem.
Herod dies.
Archelaus appointed king of Judaea by his will.
Return of Jesus Christ out of Egypt : he goes to dwell at
Nazareth.
Archelaus banished to Vienne in Gaul 9
Jesus Christ, at twelve years of age, goes into the temple of
Jerusalem 12
John the Baptist begins to preach 32
Jesus Christ baptized by John the Baptist 55
Jesus goes into the desert.
The second passover of our Saviour's public ministry...... 34
Our Saviour's sermon on the mount.
Mission of the apostles into several parts of Judea 35
John the Baptist slain by order of Herod, at the instigation
of Herodias.
Lazarus falls sick and dies 36
Jesus comes to Jerusalem to be present at his third and
last passover ; —
Institutes the Lord's supper; is betrayed and crucified. —
His resurrection and appearance to many. — Ascension
into Heaven, and the miraculous effusion of the Holy
Spirit.
z 6
516 APPENDIX.
Y. ot
J. C.
Seven deacons chosen ; 37
Stephen martyred.
Saul persecutes the church.
Conversion of Saul 38
Paul a prisoner at Rome 64
Paul set at liberty 66
Paul's second imprisonment at Rome 68
Paul and Peter put to death, there 69
The Emperor Vespasian enters Judaea 70
Jerusalem taken by Titus, and the temple burnt 73
John banished to Patmos 95
John liberated 99
John writes his Gospel and Revelation 100
INDEX.
Abilene, 235.
Agriculture of the Jews, 357 — 36 1 .
Alexandrian Manuscript, 104 — 106.
Allegory, Nature of, 188, 189. ; Interpretation of, 189, 190.
Amos, Book of, 401.
Analogy of Scripture, 161 — 165.; of Faith, 169. Hints for in-
vestigating it, 169 — 175.
Anglo-Saxon Version, 122.
Antipatris, 232.
Apocrypha, import of, 417. Analysis of the Apocryphal Books,
417—422.
Apostles and Evangelists, credibility of, 13 — 16.
Archelaus, 266.
Architecture of the Jews, 363.
Areopagus, 274.
Arimathea, 230.
Armenian Version, 1 20.
Arts and Sciences of the Jews, 361 — 369.
Atonement, fast of, 330, 331.
Authenticity of the Old and New Testaments, 4 — 9.
Azotus or Ashdod, 230.
B
Baruch, apocryphal book of, 420.
Batanea, 236.
Bel and the Dragon, history of the destruction of, 419.
Bethany, 228.
Bethlehem, 229.
Bethphage, 228.
Bethsaida, 234.
Bloody Offerings, 320.
Burial, Rites of, 372 — 374.
Burnt Offerings, 321.
Caesarea, 235.
Cana, 234.
518 INDEX.
Candlestick, Golden, 302. 307.
Capernaum, 233.
Carmel, Mount, 252.
Catholic Epistles, Genuineness and Authenticity of, 453. Analyses
of them, 453—462.
Caverns of the Holy Land, 255.
Chaldee Paraphrases, 113, 114.
Chapters and Verses, Origin of, 111, 112.
Children, Birth, Education, &c. of, 350, 351.
Chorazin, 234.
Christianity, propagation of, 17. 55. Gibbon's alleged causes of its
success, refuted, 55, 56. Its rejection by Jews and Gentiles
accounted for, 57, 58. Its blessed effects upon mankind, 75—
79. Its superiority over all other religions, a proof of its divine
-origin, 79 — 82.
Chronicles, two Books of, 386, 387.
Chronological Table of the principal Epochs in the History of the
Old and New Testaments, 512—516.
Climate of the Holy Land, 243.
Codex Alexandrinus, 104 — 106. Vaticanus, 107. Cantabrigien-
sis, ibid.
Cognate Languages, account of, 95, 96.
Colossians, Epistle to, 443.
Commentators, different classes of, 175. Hints on the best mode
of consulting them , 176, 177.
Context, use and study of, 165 — 169.
Contracts, how made, 292.
Corinthians, first Epistle to, 439, 440. Second Epistle to them,
440, 441.
Corruption of Religion among the Jews, 337 — 342.
Credibility of the Old Testament, 12, 13. ; and of the New, 13—
17. Testimonies thereto from Natural and Civil History, 17 — 23. ;
and from Profane Writers, 23 — 25. Confirmed by Antient
Coins, Medals, and Marbles, 26 — 29. Credibility of Miracles,
33—36.
Criminal Law of the Jews, 275 — 281.
Crucifixion, 285.
D
Daniel, Book of, 411, 412.
Dead, treatment of, 371, 372.
Dead Sea, 249, 250.
Decapolis, 236.
Dedication, feast of, 331, 332.
Deluge, attested by Natural and Civil History, 19 — 21.
Demoniacal Possessions, reality of, 368, 369.
Deserts of the Holy Land, 256, 257.
Deuteronomy, Book of, 379, 380.
Diseases mentioned in Scripture, 367 — 369.
Divisions of the Bible, 108—111.
Divorce, 350.
INDEX. 519
Doctrinal Interpretation of Scripture, 207 — 211.
Doctrine of the Patriarchal, Mosaic, and Christian Religions, sum-
mary of, 61 — 66. Objections of Unbelievers to, refuted, 67 — 74.
Dress of the Jews, 346—348.
Drink Offerings, 323.
Dwellings of the Jews, account of, 343 — 346.
E
Ecclesiastes, Book of, 395, 396.
Ecclesiasticus, Book of, 419, 420.
Egyptian Versions, 119.
Emmaus, 229.
Encampments of the Jews, form of, 294, 295.
English Translations of the Bible, 130—133.
Ephesians, Epistle to, 442.
Ephraim, 230.
Epistolary Writings of the New Testament, remarks on, 435, 436.
Analyses of, 437 — 462.
Esdras, first and second Books of, 417, 418.
Essenes, sect of, 340.
Esther, Book of, 389. Rest of the chapters of the Book of Esther,
419.
Ethiopic Version, 120.
Exodus, Book of, 376, 377.
Expiation, fast of, 330, 331.
Ezekiel, Book of, 413, 414.
Ezra, Book of, 387, 388.
Felix, account of, 266, 267.
Festus, account of, 267.
Fertility of the Holy Land, 257, 258.
Figurative Language of Scripture, Interpretation of, 180 — 196.
First Fruits, 324, 325.
Food and Entertainments of the Jews, 355 — 357.
Funeral Rites of the Jews, 373, 374.
Furniture of the Jews, 345, 346.
Galatians, Epistle to, 441, 442.
Galilaeans, sect of, 341.
Galilee, topography of, 232—235. ; Sea of, 249.
Gardens of the Jews, 361.
Gaulonitis, 236.
Gaza, 231.
Genesis, Book of, 376.
Genuineness of the Old and New Testaments, 4 — 9.
Gibbon (Mr.), objections of, refuted, 55t 56.
Gospel, import of, 423. Summary of its Doctrines and Precepts,
64—66. Objection of Unbelievers to it, refuted, 67 — 73. Num-
520 INDEX.
ber of the Canonical Gospels, 423, 424. Analyses of them,
424—430.
Gothic Version, notice of, 121.
Government, form of, to the ' Babylonish Captivity, 259 — 264. ;
after that Captivity, t o the end of the Jewish Polity, 264 — 270.
Greek Language of New Testament, account of, 93 — 95.
Grinding at Mills, 360.
H
Habakkuk, Book of, 410, 41 1.
Haggai, Book of, 414,415.
Happiness of mankind, promoted by the Scriptures, 15 — 79.
Harmony of Scripture, 75. Uses of Harmonies, 148 — -150.
Hebraisms, 94, 95.
Hebrew Language, account of, 88 — 91.
Hebrews, Epistle to, 451, 452.
Herod the Great, 265, 266.
Antipas, 266.
Agrippa, Senior and Junior, 267.
Herodians, Sect of, 341.
High Places, 308.
High Priests, account of, 316 — 318.
Historical Books, Analyses of, S8 1—389.
Historical Interpretation of Scripture, 177 — 179.
Holy Land, Names of, 222 — 225. Boundaries, 225. Antient
Inhabitants, 226. Divisions, 226 — 236. Physical Geography,
243—258.
Hosea, Book of, 402, 403.
Houses of the Jews, 343 — 346.
Hyperbole, 197.
I
Idolatry of the Jews, 337, 338.
Infidelity, unprofitableness of, 82. Infidels more credulous than
Christians, 83, 84.
Inspiration, defined, 29. Criteria of, 30. Internal Evidences of,
60—73.
Interpretation of Scripture, Subsidiary Means of, 151—177. His-
torical Interpretation, 178 — 180. Interpretation of the figurative
Language of Scripture, 181 — 195.
Irony, 196.
Isaiah, Book of, 403—405.
Ituraea, 235.
J
Jacob's Well, 250.
James, Epistle of, 453 — 455.
Jeremiah, Analysis of the Book of, 408 — 410. Lamentations of,
410.
Jericho, 229.
Jerusalem, Description of, 237 — 241.
Jewish Church and its Members, 312, 313.
INDEX. 521
Jews, Infidelity of, accounted for, 57. Political State of, to the
Babylonish Captivity, 259—264. And after that time to their
destruction, as a Nation, 264 — 270. Corruptions of Religion
among, 337 — 342. Domestic Antiquities of, 343—374.
Job, Book of, 390, 391.
Joel, Book of, 405, 406.
John (St.), Account of, 428. Design and Analysis of his Gospel,
428—430. Of his first Epistle, 458— 460. Of his second and
third Epistles, 460, 461. And of his Revelation, 463—465.
Jonah, Book of, 400, 401 .
Joppa, 230.
Jordan (River), 247, 248.
Joshua, Book of, 381.
Jubilee, Year of, 332, 338.
Judsea, topographical account of, 228 — 231.
Jude, Epistle of, 461, 462.
Judges, powers of, 260.
Judges, Book of, 381, 382.
Judicature, Jewish Courts of, 270 — 273. Roman Courts of,
273—275.
Judith, Book of, 418.
K
Kings (Israelitish), 'powers and revenues of, 260 — 263. Dura-
tion of the monarchies of Israel and Judah, 263, 264.
Kings, two Books of, 384—386.
Languages (Original) of Scripture, account of, 88 — 96.
Latin Versions, 120, 121.
Latinisms, 95.
Lawyers, 340.
Lebanon, Mount, 251, 252.
Legal Proceedings, 270—273.
Leprosy, 336.
Levites, account of, 314.
Leviticus, Book of, 377, S78.
Libertines, 313.
Luke (St.), Gospel of, 427, 428. Acts of the Apostles written by
him, 431, 432.
Lydda, 230.
M v
Maccabees, 265. Apocryphal books of, 422.
Malachi, Book of, 416.
Man, creation and fall of, 18.
Manasses, apocryphal prayer of, 421.
Manuscripts (Hebrew) of the Old Testament, account of, 96 — 99.
Observations on Greek Manuscripts, 100 — 104. Manuscripts of
522 INDEX.
the Old and New Testaments, 104 — 108. Recensions or
families of Manuscripts, 101 — 103.
Mark (St.), Gospel of, 426.
Marriage Customs of the Jews, 348 — 350.
Masora, notice of, 1 10.
Matthew (St.), Account of, and of his Gospel, 424 — 426.
Measures, table of, 467, 468.
Meat Offerings, 323.
Medicine, state of, among the Jews, 367, 368.
Metaphors, interpretation of, 187, 188.
Metonymy, nature of, 183. Interpretation of Metonymies, 184 — 187.
Micah, Book of, 406, 407.
Military Affairs of the Jews and other Nations, 293 — 297.
Miracle, denned, 30. Evidence of, 31. Design, 32. Credi-
bility, 33 — 36. Criteria of, 36. Examination of some of the
Old Testament Miracles, 37, 38. ; and of the New Testament
Miracles, 38 — 42. ; particularly of Christ's Resurrection, 43 —
46. Comparison of Scripture Miracles with those ascribed to
Heathens, 47.
Mohammedism, prevalence of, no objection to prophecy, 58.
Money, tables of, 468.
Moral Parts of Scripture, Interpretation" of, 212 — 214.
Morality of the Patriarchal Religion, 62. Of the Jewish Code, 63.
Of the Gospel, 65, 66. Objections of Unbelievers to the Mo-
rality of the Bible, refuted, 70 — 74.
Moses, Credibility of, as a writer, 13. Summary of the Doctrine
and Morals taught by him, 62 — 64.
Mountains of Palestine, 251 — 254.
Music of the Jews, 365—367.
N
Nahum, Book of, 407, 408.
Nain, 234.
Nazareate, vow of, 335.
Nazareth, 234.
Nazarites, 318. 335.
Nehemiah, Book of, 388.
New Moon, feast of, 327.
New Testament, Genuineness and Authenticity of, 7 — 9. Its un-
corrupted Preservation, 10 — 12. Credibility, 15 — 17. Confirmed
by profane Writers, 23 — 25. And by antient Coins, Medals, and
Marbles, 26 — 29. Why written in Greek, 93. Account of its
style and idioms, 94. Analyses of the several Books of, 423 —
465. Table of their dates, 469.
Numbers, Book of, 378, 379.
O
Oaths, 333.
Obadiah, Book of, 412.
Oblations, voluntary and prescribed, 324.
Old Testament, Genuineness and Authenticity of, 4 — 7. Its un-
INDEX. 523
corrupted Preservation, 9—11. Its Credibility, 12, 13. Con-
firmed by natural and civil History, 17 — 23. And by Antient
Coins, &c. 26. See Manuscripts, Versions.
Olympic Games, allusions to, 371.
Origen's Biblical Labours, notice of, 116.
P
Palestine and the Philistines, 225.
Parables, nature of, 190. Interpretation of, 191 — 193.
Parallel Passages, use of, for interpreting Scripture, 161 — 165.
Nature of Parallelism, especially the poetical parallelism, 144 —
147.
Parentheses, importance of, 169.
Passover, Feast of, 328, 329.
Patriarchal Religion, summary of, 61, 62. Government, 259.
Paul (St.), brief account of, 432—434. Analysis of his Epistles,
437—452.
Peace Offerings, 321.
Pentateuch, observations on, 375. Analysis of the several Books
of, 376 — 380.
Pentecost, feast of, 329.
Pera?a, Topography of, 235, 236.
Persian Version, 120.
Peter (St.), first Epistle of, 455—457.. Second Epistle of, 457, 458.
Pharisees, sect of, 339, 340.
Philemon, Epistle to, 450, 451.
Philippians, Epistle to, 443.
Pilate, account of, 266.
Plains of the Holy Land, 256.
Poetry of the Hebrews, nature and species of, 143 — 148^ 365.
Analyses of the poetical books, 390 — 397.
Practical reading of Scripture, 217 — 221.
Prayer, 327.
Preservation (uncorrupted) of Old and New Testaments, 9 — 12.
A proof of their divine origin, 75.
Priests, account of, 315.
Prisoners, treatment of, among the Romans, 273, 274.
Promises and Threatenings of Scripture, interpretation of, 214 — 216.
Prophets, account of, 3 19 . General observations on, and on their
writings, 397, 398. Table of, 399. Analyses of the prophetical
books, 400 — 416.
Prophecy, defined, 47. Difference between the pretended predic-
tions of heathen oracles, and the Scripture prophecies, 48.
Use and intent of Prophecy, 49. Prophecies relating to the Jews,
ibid. 50 — 52. To the nations or empires neighbouring to them,
53. Prophecies directly announcing the Messiah, 54. Prophecies
by Jesus Christ and his apostles, 55. Objections to prophecy
refuted, 57 — 60. Rules for ascertaining the sense of the pro-
phetic writings, 200 — 202. On the accomplishment of Scrip-
ture prophecy, 203, 204. Particularly respecting the Messiah,
204, 205.
524 INDEX.
Proselytes, 313.
Proseuchae or Oratories of the Jews, 308, 309.
Proverbs of Scripture, interpretation of, 193,194.
Proverbs, Book of, 393—395.
Psalms, Book of, 392, 393. Table of, according to their subjects,
470, 471.
Ptolemais, 235.
Publicans, 292.
Punishments mentioned in Scripture, 281 — 286.
Purifications of the Jews, 335, 336.
Purim, Feast of, 331.
a
Quotations from the Old Testament in the New, 135, 136.
Tables thereof, 137 — 143.
R
Rama, 231.
Rechabites, notice of, 318.
Resurrection, evidences of the truth of, 43 — 46.
Revelation (Divine), necessity of, 1—4.
Revelation of St. John, analysis of the Book of, 463 — 465.
Rivers of the Holy Land, 247.
Roman Mode of computing Time, 286. Allusions to the Roman
Discipline, 297.
Romans, Epistle to, analysis of, 437—439.
Ruth, Book of, 382.
S
Sabbath, how solemnised 325 — 327.
Sabbatical Year, 332.
Sacred Obligations and Duties, 333—.
Sacred Persons, 312. a 19.
Sacred Places, 298 — 312.
Sacred Times and Seasons, 325 — 333.
Sacrifices of the Jews, 320 — 323.
Sadducees, sect of, 339.
Salutations, form of, 354.
Samaria, Topography of, 231. Notice of the City of Samaria,
231, 232.
Samaritans and Samaritan Pentateuch, account of, 91, 92. 341.
Samuel, Two Books of, 382—384.
Sciences of the Jews, 361 — 369.
Sclavonic Version, 122.
Scope defined, 169. Hints for ascertaining it, 169, 170.
Scribes, 340.
Scriptures, genuineness and authenticity of, 1 — 9. Their uncor-
rupted Preservation, 9 — 12. 75. Credibility, 12 — 29. Inspir-
ation, 30. External proofs of: — Miracles, 30 — 47. And
Prophecy, 47 — 60. Internal Evidences of, 60 — 82. Inability
to answer all objections, no just cause for rejecting them, 83.
INDEX. 525
Moral Qualifications for reading them, 86, 87. Literary His-
tory and Criticism of, 88—150. Interpretation of Scripture,
151 — 216. Practical Reading of Scripture, 218 — 221. Table
of Select Chapters of, 471—483. Select List of Books facili-
tating the study of, 51 J .
Seas of the Holy Land, 249, 250.
Seasons of the Holy Land, 243 — 246.
Sects of the Jews, 338 — 34 1 .
Sense of Scripture, how to be ascertained, 154—161.
Septuagint Version, history of, 115 — 118.
Shew-bread, Table of, 307. 324.
Sicarii, 341.
Siloam, fountain of, 250.
Sin Offerings, 322.
Slaves, condition of, 351 — 354.
Solomon, Proverbs of, 393 — 395. Apocryphal Book of, 419.
Song of Solomon, analysis of, 396, 397.
Song of the three Children, 421.
Spiritual Interpretation of Scripture, 196 — 198.
Subject-matter, 165.
Susanna, apocryphal Book of, 421.
Sychar, Sichem, or Shechem, 232.
Synagogues of the Jews, and the mode of worship there, 309 — 312.
Synecdoche, 196.
Syriac Versions, 118, 119.
Syriasms, 95.
Tabernacle, account of, 298—301.
Tabernacles, feast of, 329, 330.
Tabor, Mount, 254.
Targums, notice of, 113,11 4.
Temple of Jerusalem ; the first, 302, 303. The second, 303—808.
Testament. See Old and New Testament.
Theatrical Performances, allusions to, in the New Testament,
369, 370.
Theocracy, 259, 260.
Thessalonians, first Epistle to, 444. Second Epistle to, 445, 446.
Tiberias, 233. Sea of, 249.
Time, computation of, 286 — 290.
Timothy, first Epistle to, 446—448. Second Epistle to, 448, 449.
Tithes, '325.
Titus, Epistle to, 449, 450.
Tobit, Book of, 418.
Trachonitis, 235.
Trespass Offerings, 322.
Tropes and Figures, interpretation of, 181 — 183.
Tributes and faxes, 291, 292.
Trumpets, feast of, 330.
Types, interpretation of, 205 — 207.
526 INDEX.
u
Unbloody Sacrifices, 323.
Unclean, who were deemed so, 336.
Vallies of Palestine, 254, 255.
Various Readings, Origin, and Nature of, 134, 135.
Vatican Manuscript, 106, 107.
Verses, origin of, 111,112.
Versions, Antient, of the Scriptures, 113. Chaldee, 1 13, 1 1 4. Greek,
115— US. Oriental, 118— 120. Western, 120— 122. Use of
Antient Versions, 122, 123. Modern Versions, 123. Modern
Latin Versions, 123 — 126. Tables of Versions in the Modern
Languages of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, 127 — 129.
Visits of the Jews, 355.
Vowel Points, account of, 89 — 91.
Vows, different kinds of, 334, 335.
Vulgate Latin Version, 120, 121.
W
Weights and Measures, table of, 467, 468.
Wisdom of Solomon, apocryphal Book of, 419. ; and of Jesus the
son of Sirach, 419, 420.
Writing, art of, among the Jews, 363, 364.
Y
Year, sacred and civil, of the Jews, 289, 290.
Z
Zealots, 341.
Zechariah, Book of, 415, 416.
THE END
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