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MORAN&S MODERN TEXT-BOOKS

TARE AND McMURRY'S GEOGRAPHIES

A COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY

EDITED BY

1 '

JOHN C. SAUL, M.A.

AUTHORIZED BY THE ADVISORY BOARD OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

FOR USE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS, HlGH SCHOOLS, AND COLLEGIATE

INSTITUTES OF THE PROVINCE OF MANITOBA

TORONTO

MORANG & CO., LIMITED
1906

This edition rmist not be imported into nor circulated in the United
States of America or Great Britain

INTRODUCTORY NOTE

THE editor desires to acknowledge in the most cordial terms
assistance received in the preparation of this book from Mr. Alex-
ander Mclntyre, B.A., Vice-Principal of the Provincial Normal
School, Winnipeg; Mr. Eric Hamber, B.A., St. John's Boys'
School, Winnipeg; Mr. J. Harold Putman, B.A., Headmaster of
the Provincial Model School, Ottawa; Mr. L. J. Clark, B.A., Head
of the Department of Geography in the Harbord St. Collegiate Insti-
tute, Toronto; Mr. A. J. Pineo, B.A., Science Master in the High
School, Victoria ; and Mr. James Hannay, LL.D., of Fredericton.

TORONTO, July, 1906.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAET I. GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION
SECTION

I. THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS
II. LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD TIME .
III. WINDS AND RAIN
IV. OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
V. PEOPLES ...........

PAGE
1

8
18
33
51

PART II. NORTH AMERICA

SECTION

I. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA

SECTION

II. PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

SECTION

III. THE DOMINION OF CANADA

I. ONTARIO

II. QUEBEC

118

III. NOVA SCOTIA

129

IV. NEW BRUNSWICK

140

V. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

147

VI. BRITISH COLUMBIA

150

VII. YUKON . . . . . i . .

163

VIII. MANITOBA

166

IX. SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA ....

178

X. THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES ....

188

SECTION

IV. NEWFOUNDLAND . ..... ...

193

SECTION

V. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

199

I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES

201

II. THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES ....

205

III. THE SOUTHERN STATES

211

IV. THE CENTRAL STATES .

217

V. THE WESTERN STATES

223

VI. ALASKA . . . ... ...

229

VII. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

SECTION VI. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES

234

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART III. SOUTH AMERICA

PAGE

SECTION I.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

. 246

SECTION II.

CLIMATE .......

. 248

SKCTION III.

PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE ....

. 249

SECTION IV.

THE PEOPLE

. 252

SECTION V.

BRAZIL ........

253

SECTION VI.

ARGENTINA

. 256

SECTION VII.

URUGUAY AND PARAGUAY ....

. 258

SECTION VIII.

THE GUIANAS AND VENEZUELA .

. 259

SECTION IX.

TROPICAL ANDEAN COUNTRIES .

. 261

SECTION X.

CHILE ........

265

SECTION XI.

ISLANDS NEAR THE CONTINENT .

. 267

PART IV. EUROPE

SECTION I.

PHYSIOGRAPHY, CLIMATE, AND PEOPLE

. 269

SECTION II.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND .

. 279

SECTION III.

THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM

. 299

SECTION IV.

. 308

SECTION V.

SPAIN AND PORTUGAL

. 318

SECTION VI.

NORWAY, SWEDEN, AND DENMARK

. 325

SECTION VII.

. 333

SECTION VIII.

GERMAN EMPIRE

. 341

SECTION IX.

SWITZERLAND

. 354

SECTION X.

ITALY ........

. 359

SECTION XI.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

. 368

SECTION XII.

THE BALKAN PENINSULA ....

. 374

PART

V. ASIA, AFRICA, AUSTRALIA AND

ISLAND

GROUPS

SECTION I.

ASIA ........

. 381

I. SIZE AND POSITION ....

. 381

II. PHYSIOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

. 381

III. PLANTS AND ANIMALS .

. 383

IV. PEOPLE

. 385

V. TURKISH OR OTTOMAN EMPIRE

. 386

VI. ARABIA

. 390

VII. PERSIA

390

TABLE OF CONTENTS vii

SUCTION II.

PAGE

VIII.

AFGHANISTAN .......

. 392

IX.

RUSSIA IN ASIA

. 392

INDIA

. 393

CEYLON

. 400

XII.

INDO-CHINA AND TIIK MALAY PENINSULA .

. 401

XIII.

CHINESE EMPIRE

. 402

XIV.

KOREA

. 407

XV.

JAPAN

. 408

413

II.

CLIMATE .

. 413

III.

PLANTS AND ANIMALS .....

. 416

IV.

THE PEOPLE

. 417

EXPLORATION AND SETTLEMENT .

. 418

VI.

NORTHERN AFRICA

. 419

VII.

SOUTHERN AFRICA

. 428

VIII.

CENTRAL AFRICA . .

. 432

IX.

ISLANDS NEAR AFRICA

. 436

AUSTRALIA AND ISLAND GROUPS

. 438

AUSTRALIA

. 438

II.

ISLAND GROUPS ......

. 448

SECTION III.

PART VI. THE BRITISH EMPIRE

THE BRITISH EMPIKE 455

APPENDIXES

A. THE GREAT LAKES AND THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE .... 471

B. THE HUDSON BAY BASIN . .478

C. TABLES OF AREA, POPULATION, ETC . . 480

INDEX AND PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY . 49]

LIST OF MAPS

COLORED POLITICAL MAPS

NORTH AMERICA 77

DOMINION OF CANADA 78

ONTARIO 80

QUEBEC 99

NOVA SCOTIA AND PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND .... 108

NEW BRUNSWICK 117

BRITISH COLUMBIA 129

MANITOBA .... 145

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX. ALBERTA AND SASKATCHEWAN 152

X. RAILWAY MAP OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES . . 167

XI. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 171

XII. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 173

XIII. THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES 178

XIV. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE WEST INDIES . . . 205
XV. SOUTH AMERICA 219

XVI. EUROPE 236

XVII. ENGLAND AND WALES . 240

XVIII. SCOTLAND 245

XIX. IRELAND 247

XX. WESTERN EUROPE 265

XXI. CENTRAL EUROPE 293

XXII. ASIA 329

XXIII. AFRICA 361

XXIV. AUSTRALIA AND THE ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC .... 385

EELIEF MAPS

I. NORTH AMERICA 61

II. SOUTH AMERICA 214

III. EUROPE 229

IV. EURASIA 323

V. AUSTRALIA 379

viii

PART I
GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

I. THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS

Form and Size. The earth is a sphere having a circumference
of about twenty-five thousand miles and a diameter of nearly eight
thousand miles. It is slightly flattened at the poles, however, so
that the line extending through the centre, from pole to pole
called the earth's axis is a little shorter than that extending in
the opposite direction at the equator.

The earth is known to be round, not only because people have trav-
elled around it, but also because its shadow, as seen in an eclipse, is
always round. Show how it is true that a sphere is the only body that
will always cast a round shadow. Give another proof of the spherical
form of the earth.

Daily Motion. The earth is rapidly rotating, that is, turning on
one of its diameters, called the axis. When we glance out of the
window of a moving car, the objects we pass appear to be moving in
the direction opposite to that in which we are travelling. It seems
as though we were standing still. In a similar way the rotation of
the earth makes the sun appear to rise and set, and for a long time
people believed that it was the sun that moved, and not the earth.

In what direction must the earth rotate, since the sun appears to move
from east to west ? The period of time required for one rotation is called
a day. Since the circumference of the earth at the equator is about
twenty-five thousand miles, how far does a point on the equator move
in an hour ? In a minute ?

By rotating a globe or an apple in the sunlight show how day and
night are caused on the earth. Hold the sphere still ; what would be
true on opposite sides of the earth if it did not rotate at all? What
might be the effect upon life on the earth if the same side were always
toward the sun ?

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

FIG. 1.

Some of the Eskimos whose homes are in the frigid
north. The mothers carry the babies in fur
hoods on their backs.

Yearly Motion. There are other variations of our light and

heat besides those due to the earth's rotation. For instance, if we

could spend a summer with
the Eskimos in Greenland,
we should find weeks of
constant day, 1 and be able
to see at midnight as well
as at midday (Fig. 166).
Late in the summer, the sun
begins to set, and finally it
fails to appear even at noon.
Then it becomes bitterly
cold (Fig. 1).

On the other hand, in
Central America the sun
reappears every morning in
the year ; and every noon

it is almost directly overhead, while 'for a part of the year it is

exactly overhead. No snow and ice are seen, and the climate is so

warm, even during the winter, that

the inhabitants wear as few clothes

as possible. Indeed, some savages

in such hot countries wear almost

none (Fig. 2).

Even where each of us lives, the

period of daylight and the tempera-
ture are changing from week to

week. Describe these changes as

you yourself have observed them.
The causes of these changes are

indicated in Figure 3. There the

earth is represented on September 23

as receiving sunlight from pole to

pole. On December 21 the north

pole is shrouded in darkness, while

the south pole (which is shut off

from our view in the figure) is

within the light. On March 21 the sunlight again extends from pole

to pole; and on June 21 the north pole lies fully in the light, while
i Exactly at the north pole there are six months of day and six months of night,

FIG. 2.

Savages whose homes are in the tropical
zone. Contrast their dress with that
of the Eskimos (Fig. 1) .

THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS 3

the south pole is in darkness. In other words, the earth has a
yearly motion around the sun, called its revolution, and it is
the various positions that it takes with reference to the sun, while
on this journey, that cause our changing length of day and our
seasons.

Although the sun is ninety-three million miles from us, the
earth is moving at such a tremendous rate that it completes .one

FIG. 3.

To illustrate the revolution of the earth around the sun. The shaded portion represents
night. The end of the axis around which the earth rotates is the point where the lines
come together (the north pole). At what date is this pole turned toward the sun ?
Away from it ? Neither toward nor away from it? What portions of the earth do the
sun's rays reach at each of these times ?

journey around the sun, or one revolution, in almost exactly 365
days. This explains how we get our year. The almost circular
path that the earth follows in this revolution is called its orbit, and
the imaginary plane in which the earth's yearly path lies is called
the plane of its orbit. To understand this it is well to think of the
plane as a perfectly flat surface of great extent, and of the orbit as a

GENERAL GEOGUAPHY

curve marked upon it (Fig. 4). If a boat sails around an island,
the water surface represents the plane in which it travels.

The Attraction of Gravitation. In its revolution the earth is moving
at the rate of more than one and a half million miles per day. And at
the same time it is whirling or rotating rapidly on its axis, as already
explained.

As in the case of the earth's rotation, one might ask, Why are we not
swept from the earth by the wind ? The answer, as before, is that the
air, and everything else upon the earth, is drawn toward it and held in

place by the force of gravity,
so that all travel together in
the journey around the sun.
If the earth is revolving
at such a fearful speed, why
does not the earth itself fly
away into space ? As a stone
swinging round at the end
of a string flies off when the
string breaks, so it might
seem that the earth wpuld
fly away, since there appears
to be nothing holding it to
the sun.

But there is something to hold it. It is not a string nor a rope, to be
sure, but something far stronger. The sun is very much larger than the
earth, in fact over a million times as large, and attracts the earth to it, as
the force of gravity attracts men and houses to the earth. This attraction
of gravitation, which the sun exerts upon the earth, is what prevents the
latter from flying far off into space ; it holds the earth as firmly as the
string holds the stone.

Length of Day and Night; the Seasons. On September 23 the
sun's rays are vertical at the equator (Fig. 3), i.e. 'directly over
the heads of the people living along that line. Then the days and
nights are equal over all the earth. This time is called the autumnal
equinox (the latter from two words meaning equal and niylii}.

On December 21 the sun's rays are vertical at the Tropic of Cap-
ricorn, and all the region included in the Antarctic Circle is within
the light. That is the date for the beginning of winter in our
hemisphere and for our shortest day. After that, on March 21, the
sun's rays are again vertical at the equator. This time, called the
vernal equinox, is the beginning of our spring. Then our days grad-
ually lengthen until June 21, when the sun's rays are vertical over

FIG. 4.
To illustrate the earth in its orbit.

THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS

NORTH POLE

the Tropic of Cancer, and light up all the region within the Arctic
Circle. That is the beginning of our summer. This will be made
clearer by examining the following diagrams :

If, as in Figure 5,
the earth's axis were
perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit,
it is evident that

every place on its -)- SUN

surface would have
twelve hours day and
twelve hours night.
The regions about
the equator would
have, as now, the

SOUTH POLE FIG. 5.

Diagram to illustrate seasons.

hottest climate, while toward the poles it would grow gradually
colder. There would be no difference in temperature at any given
place throughout the year, and consequently none of the changes
which we call seasons.

Figure 6 represents the earth on June 21, with its axis tipped,
and the north pole inclined toward the sun. It will be seen that,

although the earth
rotates on its axis,
a considerable area
around the north

P^ e (f rom -^ t B")
remains continu-
ously in the light,
while an equal area
around the south

NORTH POLL

SOUTH POLE

SUN

D FIG. 6.

The position of the earth on June 21.

pole (from D to (7)
receives no light
from the sun. When the earth occupies this position with reference
to the sun, it is midsummer in the northern hemisphere, while in
the southern hemisphere it is midwinter.

If in Figure 5 T marks the position of Toronto, then it is clear
that one rotation gives an equal length of day and night, TM being
equal to MN\ but in Figure 6 the point T will be in sunlight for
a much greater part of the rotation, TM being now much greater
than MN, and the days will therefore be much longer than the nights.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

In Figure 7, which represents the position of the earth on Decem-

ber 21, the conditions are reversed.

NORTH POLE:
B

SUN-

SOUTH POLE

FIG. 7.
The position of the earth on December 21

North Pole

The point T is now out of sun-
light for a much
greater part of its
rotation than in sun-
light, MN being
greater than TM,
and the nights will
consequently be
much longer than
the days.

The Zones. The
sun gives heat as
well as light, and the direction of its rays determines the bounda-
ries of the zones. In Figure 8 the Torrid Zone marks that portion
of the earth's surface over which the sun's rays are vertical at some
time in every year. On that account it is very hot there. The
north frigid and south frigid zones mark the areas about the poles
that lie entirely in the light at one period and in the dark at
another. But the sun's rays
are always very slanting there,
so that the temperature is
always cold. The reason for
this can readily be seen by
examining Figure 9. If AB,
EG, CD, and DE represent
equal portions of the earth's
surface, it is evident that EG,
where the sun's rays fall more
perpendicularly, receives a
much greater number of rays
than AB, where the rays
strike the surface in a more
slanting direction. EG will
therefore receive much more
heat from the sun than AB.

Show the boundaries of the temperate zones, and explain why
these zones are called temperate. Compare the climate of the part
of the temperate zone in which you live with that of some other part
of the same zone with which you are familiar or about which you
have read.

A map of the zones. Make a drawing similar
to this.

THE EARTH S MOVEMENTS

THE MOON

The moon is a satellite of the earth, about 238,000 miles distant
from it, and accompanies it on its annual journey round the sun. It
is a sphere of about 2150 miles in diameter.

The Revolution of the Moon. Once every month, about sun-
down, the moon is seen as a thin-curved streak of light near the
western horizon. The fact that moon and sun now set almost together
shows them to be on the same side of the earth. About seven days
later the moon will be seen as a half circle high in the heavens, at
sundown, thus showing sun and moon to be at right angles to each
other. A week later the moon will appear as a complete circle on the
eastern horizon as the sun disappears below the western, thus show-
ing sun and moon

Sun's rays to be now on oppo-
site sides of the
earth. After the
lapse of seven days
more the moon will
rise as a half circle
at midnight, sun and
moon being again at
FIG. 9. right angles ; while

Diagram to illustrate the relative heating power of vertical a little more thai!
and oblique rays. seyen dayg ^ter the

sun and moon are

again together. Thus the moon has made one complete revolution
about the earth. The time required for the completion of this move-
ment from the sun back to the sun again is 29| days, and is called a
In iiar month.

The Moon's Phases. The moon, as we have seen, shows a con-
stantly changing appearance from a complete circle to a narrow
crescent. These different appearances are called phases, and are
owing to the fact that it is constantly changing its position with
reference to both sun and earth.

In Figure 9 A, the moon at a is between earth and sun. Its dark side
is then turned to the earth, and we receive no light from it. This is the
neic moon. About seven days later, when the moon has completed a quarter
of its revolution, and has reached position c, half of its illuminated face is
turned to the earth and it is seen as a half circle. It is then said to be in

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

first quarter, while at g it presents the same shape and is said to be in third
quarter. In passing from a to c it appears as a crescent, as at b.

When the moon has reached position e, half its revolution is performed,
and the whole of its illuminated side is turned to the earth and we see
what is termed full moon. As it passes from c to e it gcows from a half
circle to full moon. During that time it is said to be gibbous. From a to
e the moon has been growing in size, or tvaxing. From e to a it is gradually
diminishing in size, and is said to be waning.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) What is the earth's axis? (2) What was formerly
believed about the earth's movement? (3) In what direction does the earth
rotate ? (4) Tell about variations of light and heat, (a) among the Eskimos,
(ft) in Central America, (c) at your home. (5) What other motion besides rota-
tion has the earth ? (6) What determines the length of our year ? (7) Why do
we not notice the rapid movement of the earth ? (8) What prevents the earth

Moon

THIRD QUARTER

FIG. 9 A.
Diagram to illustrate phases of the moon.

from flying off into space ? (9) Tell about the direction of the sun's rays.
(10) On December 21. (11) March 21. (12) June 21. (13) Name the zones,
and give reasons for their boundaries. (14) In which zone do you live?

(15) What is the size of the moon? Compare its size with that of the earth.

(16) What is meant by phases of the moon ? (17) Explain the meaning of full
moon, gibbous moon, waxing moon, waning moon.

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find the north star. (2) Write out the observations
you have made about the moon. (3) Show by a globe, or a ball, how the two
movements of the earth, rotation and revolution, can be going on at the same
time. (4) How long is your day at present? Are the days growing longer or
shorter? (5) During which months do they grow longer? (6) During which
months shorter? (7) Find out why the earth is slTghtly flattened at the poles.
(8) What might be some of the effects if each rotation of the earth lasted longer
than twenty -four hours? (9) If much less? (10) At what time of day does your
shadow always point directly north? (11) Notice how your shadow changes with
the season in early morning. At noon. In the evening. (12) Tell about the direc-
jtion and length of a man's shadow at noon on December 21 at various points

THE EARTH'S MOVEMENTS 9

between the poles. (13) On June 21. (14) On September 23. (15) How long
is our longest night ? Our shortest? (16) Which zone experiences the slightest
change of seasons? Why? (17) What advantages and disadvantages do you see
in that fact for people living there? (18) Is it once or twice each year that the
vertical rays of the sun fall upon, any one place in the Torrid Zone? (19) Write
a story telling about some changes that you have noticed, in plants and animals,
which have been caused by the change in season. (20) Write a similar story
about similar changes about which you have read. (21) In which zone would you
prefer to live ? Give reasons for your choice.

II. LATITUDE, LONGITUDE, AND STANDARD TIME
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

Need of a Means for locating Places. In your study of geography
you have doubtless noticed that it has frequently been necessary to
refer to lines upon the earth, such as the Tropic of Cancer, the Equa-
tor, the Arctic Circle, etc., in order to locate certain places and the
boundaries of the zones. But these lines are far apart, and there are
many places between them to which reference must often be made.
For instance, suppose we wished to state on what part of the earth
London is situated ; how could it be done ? Of course, by taking a
long time, it would be possible to describe just where this city is ;
but cannot some more convenient way be devised?

The difficulty is much the same as that which arises in a large
NORTH city, where there are thousands of houses.

_JI_JL_JL_I i iLJl IL No one person knows who lives in most

I LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ LJ L of them, and if a stranger were looking

~ ~ i i rri i r

L -"-si 1 "- for a friend, he might have much trouble
in find; him

nndmg mm.

The Streets of a City. In this case
the problem may be solved in a simple
manner. A street running east and

"iTTrir 1 "!! II s1 ! I If west may be selected to divide the city
~i rHri r^i i |i* I ir-i'- into two parts (Fig. 10). Any place
. north of this street is spoken of as being

Mapofapart'ofacity.toiiius- on the north .side, and south of it as
trate the need of naming being on the south side. The streets to

the north and south are numbered from

this, as North 1st, North 2d, North 3d; and South 1st, South 2d,
South 3d, and so on. Then if a man says that he lives on North
4th Street, one knows immediately that he lives on the north side,
and that his house is on the fourth street from this central one.

But a city also, extends a long distance east and west, and we
need to know on what part of 4th Street this house is to be found.
To answer that question, another street running north and south,

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE 11

and crossing the east and west ones, may be selected to divide the
city into east and west parts. The streets on the two sides are num-
bered from this one, as East 1st, East 2d, West 1st, West 2d, etc.
(Fig. 10).

Then if a man lives on the corner of North 4th and East 3d
streets, one knows not only that his home is north of a certain line,
bat east of another line. If the blocks, or the space between any
two streets, are always the same, it will also be easy to tell the dis-
tance from each of the central streets to the house.

This plan is not necessary in small towns and villages, because the
people there know one another, and are able to direct strangers easily.
Few, if any, cities follow exactly the scheme here given ; but many have
a system of naming or numbering streets somewhat similar to this.

If you live in a large city, perhaps you can tell just how your streets
are named or numbered.

Distance North and South of the Equator (^Latitude'). Places
upon a globe are located in much the same manner. For example,
the equator, which extends around the earth midway between the
poles, corresponds to the dividing street running east and west.
The distance between the equator and the poles, on either side, is
divided into ninety parts (Fig. 11), corresponding, we might say, to
the blocks in a city. These, however, are each about sixty-nine
miles wide and are called degrees, marked with the sign .

In making maps people think of a line, or a circle, extending
around the earth sixty-nine miles north of the equator, and called a
circle of latitude. Any point upon it is one degree (1) north of the
equator, or 1 North Latitude (abbreviated to N. Lat.). Similar
lines are imagined 2, 3, and so on up to 90, or to the north pole.

Since all points on any one of these circles are the same distance
from the equator, and from the other circles of latitude, the lines
are parallel ; and on that account they are called parallel* of latitude.
See a globe.

The same plan is followed on the south side, places in that hemi-
sphere being in South Latitude (S. Lat.).

If one finds that a certain place is on the 8th, or the 50th,
or some other parallel north of the equator, he knows how far it
is north of the equator. Pelee Island, the most southerly point
in Canada, is on the 42d parallel, London, Ontario, on the 43d,
Fredericton on the 46th, and Winnipeg on the 50th. Knowing
this, it is easy to see that London is 1, or about 69 miles, farther

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

north than Pelee Island ; Fredericton is 3, or about 207 miles,
farther north than London ; while Winnipeg is 4, or about 275
miles, farther north than Fredericton.

From this it is evident that we
can easily find the latitude of a
given place by the help of these
parallels, for latitude is the distance
north or south of the equator. %

Of course there are no marks upon
the earth to show where these lines
run, but they are of great use on maps,
because they help us to locate places.
Small maps and globes caunot well
show the entire ninety parallels 011
each side of the equator, so that usu-
ally only every fifth or tenth one is
drawn. Examine the maps of Canada
and of England, to see which ones are
given. Near what parallel do you live ?

FIG. 11.

The globe, showing the two hemispheres
and some of the circles of latitude.

East and West Distances on the Earth (Longitude 1 }. But how about
distance east and west ? It is about twenty-five thousand miles around
the earth at the equator, and some means must be found for telling
on the map how far places are from each other in these directions.

Imaginary lines are used for this purpose, as before ; but this
time they extend north and south from pole to pole (Fig. 12), and
are called meridians, or lines of longitude. In the case of the city it
makes little difference what north and south street is chosen from
which to number the others. It is only necessary that a certain one
be agreed upon.

It is the same with these meridians. No one is especially impor-
tant, as the equator is, and consequently different nations have
selected different lines to begin from. In Great Britain the merid-
ian extending through Greenwich near London is chosen, in France
that through Paris, and in the United States the one passing through
Washington is sometimes used. But it is important that all people
agree on some one, so that all maps may be made alike. On that
account most countries begin their numbering with the meridian
which passes through Greenwich.

1 The ancients thought that the world extended farther in an east and west than in
a north and south direction. Therefore they called the east and west, or long direction,
longitude ; the north and south direction, latitude.

LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

In Greenwich is a building, called an observatory, in which there is a
telescope for the study of the sun, moon, and stars. As these heavenly
bodies are of great help in finding
the latitude and longitude of places,
Greenwich seemed a fitting place
from which to begin numbering the
meridians.

" /\T/ "***

Commencing with this meridian f J_T<?
as longitude, people measure off
degrees both east and west of it,
and think of lines as extending
north and south toward the poles,
as they do of circles of latitude
running parallel to the equator.

Thus there is a meridian 1 west, The earth, cut in halves along the Green-

,1 n "u:,,^l Q , n wich meridian, showing some of the

another 2 , a third 3 , etc. Going meridians . T h e meridian 20 is usually

eastward, they number 1, 2, 3 in considered the dividing line between
.1 the eastern and western hemispheres.

the same way.

Any place on the 3d meridian west of Greenwich is said to be in

3 West Longitude ( W. Long.) ; if on the 60th meridian, 60 W. Long.

Any place on the 20th meridian east of Greenwich is in 20 East

Longitude (E. Long.). St. John,
N.B., is 60 W. Long., while Vic-
toria is about 123 W. Long.

The 180th meridian is a continua-
tion, on the other side of the earth,
of the Greenwich or zero meridian
(Fig. 13), and the two together make
a complete circle. Hence we may
speak of circles of longitude as well
as circles of latitude. Why must the
meridian marked 180 E. Long, be the
same as the one marked 180 W.
Long. ? Which meridian passes near
Toronto ? Winnipeg ? Halifax ?

If a large map is made of a small
A view looking down on the north pole, P ,-, . , ,-, i c -i ,

to show how the meridians come to a P art of the earth > the Clrcles f latl '
point at the north pole. Notice that tude and longitude are too far apart
if the meridian were continued it to De o f muc h use> Therefore, it IS
would unite with the meridian 180. j j i j

customary to divide each degree into

sixty parts called minutes, just as each hour is divided into sixty parts.
Each minute of latitude and longitude is divided into sixty parts called

*" Longitude
FIG. 13.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

seconds, as each minute of time is divided into sixty seconds. The sign
for a degree is ; for a minute ' ; for a second ". Thus 60 degrees, 40 min-
utes, and 20 seconds north latitude is marked 60 40' 20" N. Lat. Exam-
ine some wall-map of a small section to tind these signs.

Knowing the latitude and longitude of any place, it can, by the
aid of a map, be as easily located as a house in a great city. For
instance, Winnipeg is about 50 N. Lat. and 97 W. Long. It is
therefore to the north and west of Toronto, which is about 43 N.
Lat. and 79 W. Long.

Find the latitude and longitude of some of the large cities on the map
of Canada. Notice also that only every tenth meridian is marked. Com-
pare this with the map of New Brunswick. Since this map represents a
smaller section, more meridians can be drawn upon it.

The circles of latitude are parallel to the equator and to each other, as
you can prove by measuring the distance between them on a globe. But
the meridians cannot be parallel on a globe, since they start from the poles
and spread farther and farther apart until the equator is reached. Exam-
ine some of the maps in this book to see that the meridians are not par-
allel, while the lines of latitude are.

You can see how this is by taking the peeling from an orange (Fig. 14).
The edges of each of the quarters spread far apart in the middle, or equa-
tor, but come together at the
ends, or poles, of the orange.

A degree of longitude is a
little over sixty-nine miles at
the equator; but it decreases
more and more as the poles are
approached, until at the poles
it is nothing, because all the
meridians meet there at one
point. Examine Figure 13, or,
better still, a globe, to see that
this must be true.

How a degree of latitude
happens to be slightly more than
69 miles is easily understood.
The length of a circle extending

around the earth through the poles is about 25,000 miles ; and this dis-
tance is thought of as being divided into 360 equal parts or degrees,
that being a number that is exactly divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and still
other numbers. Divide 25,000 by 360.

Keeping in mind the number 360, you can understand why the dis-
tance from the equator to either pole is 90, for that is one-fourth of the
entire distance. How many miles is 90 ?

FIG. 14.

An orange with a part of the peeling removed to
show how the lines converge toward the poles,
as the meridians converge on the globe.

STANDARD TIME

You can now find the width of the five zones (Fig. 8). The tropical
zone is bounded on the north by the Tropic of Cancer and on the south
by the Tropic of Capricorn, each of which is 23^ from the equator.
The Arctic and Antarctic circles are likewise 23-|- from the poles. Give
the width of each of the zones in degrees of latitude. In miles. What
is the greatest width of Canada in degrees of latitude ? In miles ? How
far is the southern extremity of Ontario from the Tropic of Cancer ? How
far is Vancouver from that tropic ?

STANDARD TIME

If you were to travel from Ottawa to Vancouver, you would find
on arriving that your watch was three hours too fast. The reason
is that the rotation of the earth, from west to east, causes the sun's
rays to fall upon the Atlantic coast more than three hours sooner
than upon the Pacific, so that when it is noon in Ottawa, it is about
nine o'clock in the morning at Vancouver.

DOMINION OF CANADA

TIME MAP

FIG. 15.

Measuring from east to west, every place has a different time by
the sun, and some years ago each city had' its own sun or solar time.
But when railways were built, connecting many places, these differ-
ences became a source of constant annoyance to the traveller, for
his watch showed the time of only one place.

In order to avoid this trouble, our continent has been divided into
belts, in each of which the railways, and most of the towns, have
the same time. Since this time is the standard for all, these belts
are called the Standard Time Belts. The one in the extreme east,
which includes the Maritime Provinces, is called the Atlantic Time
Belt ; that next west of it, which includes Quebec and part of Onta-
rio, is called the Eastern Time Belt. What are the others? (Fig. 15.)

16 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

In travelling across the country from Ottawa to Vancouver, a
person starts with his watch set at the standard time for the Eastern
Time Belt. After a while he comes to a place where the time
changes one full hour; then he has Central Time. Going still
farther west to the Mountain Belt, the watch is again set back one
full hour ; what is done when the Pacific Belt is reached ? In this
way, only a few changes of the watch have to be made.

Our study of longitude helps us to understand what determines
the places for changing this time. When the sun is rising at a cer-
tain point on a meridian, it is rising at every other point on that
meridian. 1

The earth makes one complete rotation eA^ery 24 hours, so that
sunrise, noon, and sunset reach each of the 360 meridians in the
course of the day of 24 hours. Dividing 360 by 24 gives 15 ; that
is the number of meridians that the sunrise or sunset passes over in
a single hour. Therefore, if in one place, as at Ottawa, close to the
75th meridian, it is sunrise at six o'clock, it will be sunrise one hour
later at all points 15 west of this, or on the 90th meridian.

This explains what has determined the boundary lines of the
time belts. The time selected for the Eastern Belt is that of the
75th meridian ; for the Central Belt, that of the 90th meridian,
which is just one hour later. What meridian is selected for the
Mountain Belt? (Fig. 15.) For the Pacific Belt? Each of these
meridians runs through the middle of the belt whose time it fixes,
so that the eastern boundary of the Central Time Belt is halfway
between the 75th and 90th meridians, that is W. Long. 82^ ; and
the western boundary is halfway between the 90th and 105th merid-
ians, or 97|- W. Long.

In reality the railways do not change their time exactly according to
these boundaries, for oftentimes the meridians extend through very unim-
portant points, or even cross the railways far out in open country. Instead
of following the exact boundaries, they select well-known places, like
Rossland in British Columbia, or Spokane and Salt Lake City in the
United States, at which places the change is made from Mountain to
Pacific time ; or like Sault Ste. Marie, Sarnia, and Windsor in Ontario, or
Buffalo and Pittsburg in the United States, where the change is made
from Eastern to Central time. Therefore the boundaries which represent
the places where the railways actually change their time are somewhat
irregular, and not always on the proper meridian (Fig. 15).

1 This does not apply to the frigid zone, where the sun does not rise at all during
a part of the year, and where it does not set during another part of the year.

STANDARD TIME 17

You see that the object of these Time Belts is to save annoyance,
and that for most places the standard time is incorrect time.

QUESTIONS. (1) How may an east and west street be used in a city to locate
houses? (2) How may a north and south street be so used? (3) Make a plan
of a city snowing two central streets and others numbered from them. (4) What
corresponds to the central east and west street in locating places upon the globe?

(5) Into how many parts is the distance between the equator and each pole divided?

(6) What is each of them called? (7) What is meant by saying that a place is in
1 N. Lat.? (8) How far apart are the circles of latitude? (9) Why are these
circles called parallels? (10) What is S. Lat.? (11) What is a meridian?
(12) Why is it necessary to have them upon maps? (13) Which meridian is
most commonly chosen as zero? Why that one? (14) How high do the num-
bers of the meridians run ? (Fig. 13.) (15) What is meant by saying that a
place is in 3 E. Long.? In 90 W. Long.? (16) What is meant by circles of
longitude? (17) What subdivisions of a degree are there? Why are they
necessary? (18) Show that meridians are not parallel. (19) What is the length
of a degree of longitude at the equator ? (20) Show how a degree of latitude
happens to be about 69 miles. (21) P^xplain why the time is continually changing
as one goes west. As one goes east. (22) How has this caused annoyance in
travelling? (23) What remedy has been found? (24) What are the names of
the Standard Time Belts in Canada and the United States ? (25) W'hat is the dif-
ference in time between the belts? (26) Which meridians are used to fix the
boundaries? Why these? (27) Show the boundaries on the map (Fig. 15).
(28) Why is standard time really incorrect for most places?

SUGGESTIONS. (1) What is the latitude and longitude of Hamilton? Of
Ottawa ? Of Regina ? Of your nearest large city ? (2) Find some cities that are
on or near the 43d parallel of latitude. (3) What place is in 25 N. Lat. and 81
W. Long.? Near 46 N. Lat. and 74 AV. Long.? (4) Make a drawing showing
several of the meridians. (5) Find places that have nearly the same latitude as
your home. (6) Where and how much would you change your watch in travelling
from Victoria to Sydney? (7) What is the difference in time between Montreal
and Calgary? (8) Examine some railway time-tables to see how they indicate
the changes in time. (9) What is the difference where you live between Standard
Time and Solar Time? (10) Show on a globe or map where a ship would be in
the Atlantic when in zero latitude and longitude.

III. WINDS AND RAIN
WINDS

Review. Our previous study of geography has shown that very
regular winds blow over a considerable part of North America.
For example, the West Indies, Central America, and southern
Mexico receive their winds generally from the northeast, while on

FIG. 10.
To illustrate how the air moves in a room heated by a stove.

the western side of the continent, all the way from San Francisco
to Alaska, they blow quite regularly from a westerly quarter. On
the other hand, in the eastern part of Canada, the winds are irregu-
lar in direction, although prevailing from the west. Let us examine
into the causes of these movements of the atmosphere.

' Effect of a Stove. As a beginning of the inquiry, we will
consider the currents of air produced by a hot stove in a room
(Fig. 16). As the air near the stove is warmed, it expands and

WINDS AND BAIN 19

grows lighter. Then the cooler air settles down and flows in,
forcing upward that which has been warmed. The latter grows
cooler in contact with the cool ceiling and walls of the room ; and,
being made denser and heavier on that account, it again settles
toward the floor and then once more moves toward the stove. In
such a room you can easily observe how much warmer the air is
near the ceiling, where it has risen from the stove, than near the
floor at some distance from the stove.

Winds of the Earth. The greater winds of the earth may be
compared to this movement of air in a room, the torrid zone, warmed
by the sun's rays, taking
the place of the stove.
There, owing- to the tor-
rid heat, the atmosphere
becomes expanded and
light. The heavier air
to the north and south
flows in, pushing the
light air away and pro- FIG. 17.

ducing winds, known as Diagram to show, by arrows, the movement of the greater

winds of the earth,
the trade winds (P ig. 17),

which begin in the temperate zones, hundreds of miles away.

Since the heated air must escape somewhere, it rises far above
the surface, and then moves back in the same direction from which
it came, forming the return trades or anti-trade winds (Fig. 17).
The atmosphere extends many miles above the earth, so that there
is plenty of room for two winds blowing in opposite directions, one
above the other.

In Cuba, the Caribbean Sea, and elsewhere, where the trade winds
at the surface are blowing toward the southwest, one notices that the
clouds far up in the sky are steadily borne in the opposite direction by
the anti-trades. Also, when volcanoes in Central America have been in*
eruption, the ashes that were blown out from them have been carried
hundreds of miles in a direction opposite to that of the prevailing trade
winds at the surface.

Being cooled on account of its great height, the air of the anti-
trades slowly settles, some of it coming to the surface at about a
third of the distance to the poles. There it spreads out, a part con-
tinuing on toward the poles, a part returning to the equator as the
trade winds (Fig. 17).

20 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

As you see, the correspondence between these currents in the
atmosphere and those in the room is quite close. In both cases air
moves in toward a heated place, then up, then outward and down,
and once more inward toward the heated part. Make a drawing to
illustrate these four directions of movement of the air.

Effect of Rotation. There are differences, however, and one of them
is especially important. In the case of the room, the currents move
directly toward the stove ; then, after rising, directly away from it. If the
earth stood perfectly still, the trade winds would doubtless blow directly
toward the equator from the north and south and the others directly
away from it.

The daily rotation of the earth, from west to east, greatly interferes
with that movement. Because of rotation, the trade winds are turned,
or deflected, from their straight course toward the equator. Those in the
northern hemisphere are turned to their right, so that they come from the
northeast; and those in the southern hemisphere are turned toward their
left, and therefore come from the southeast.

The direction of the anti-trades is also changed toward the right in
the northern hemisphere, where they blow from the southwest, and
toward the left in the southern hemisphere, where they blow from the
northwest. Thus the anti-trades blow over the same route as the trade
winds, but in the opposite direction. We can only state the facts here,
for the explanation is far too difficult to give.

Wind Belts. Now we see why the West Indies, Central America,
and southern Mexico receive such regular winds from the northeast,
for they lie in the range of the trade winds just described. The
prevailing west winds of the Pacific coast are a part of the air of the
anti-trades that has settled to the surface and is moving on in a great
whirl around the poles. This region is known as the belt of prevail-
ing westerlies, because the air moves so steadily from a westerly
quarter.

If you watch the higher clouds you will find, in most parts of
Canada, that they are moving from the west toward the east ; and
the winds at the surface are also more often from the west than from
any other quarter. This section, including Canada and northern
United States, in which the prevailing winds are so nearly from the
west, is known as the region of prevailing westerlies.

What has been said about the winds of North America applies,
with some exceptions, to other parts of the world ; in other words,
there are several belts of regular winds extending around the earth.
Figure 20 shows these very clearly. Point out the belt of trade

WINDS AND EAIN

uinds north of the equator. Point out the prevailing westerlies.
Point out the two corresponding belts of wind on the south side of
the equator. Notice how much more definitely these are all shown
over the ocean than over the land.

Winds are much more steady on the ocean than on the land for sev-
eral reasons, the principal one being that the temperature of the water
does not change so quickly as that of the land. On land one place may
become much warmer than another not far away, and then winds blow
toward the warmer section. This often changes the direction of the regu-
lar winds.

So steady are the prevailing westerlies over the ocean, that, in the
southern hemisphere, where there is little land, they almost always blow
from the west. Indeed, it is said that vessels, choosing a course south of
Africa and Sputh America,
can sail around the world
with fair winds almost all
the way, if they go toward
the east; but if they sail
in the opposite direction, the
winds are against them.

All these belts of wind
owe their existence to the
differing temperatures of
the several zones ; and
since the sun, which is
the cause of these zones,
has shone for millions of
years, and will probably

TROPIC OF CAPRICOR

FIG. 18.

Diagram to show the position of the trade wind belts
and the belt of calms in summer. Compare with
Figure 19.

continue to shine for millions more, we may be certain that these
great winds are permanent winds. The currents of air in a room
cease when the stove grows cold ; but, for ages to come, the sun will
heat the torrid zone more than the temperate. Thus the trade winds
will be kept in motion day and night, winter and summer, as they
now are, and as they were when they helped Columbus on his ven-
turesome voyage across the Atlantic.

Belt of Calms and Belts of Horse Latitudes. Besides the four
belts of winds just mentioned there are three belts of calms and
light, variable winds. As the trade winds approach the central
line of the heated belt, or the heat equator, they travel more
slowly. Then, owing to expansion from heat, and to pressure
from the colder air behind, the air rises over a broad area to a

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

great height. In this belt of rising air, whatever winds are felt
are light and changeable, and calms often prevail ; hence the
name belt of calms, as shown in Figures 17 and 20. The width of

this belt is several hun-
dred miles.

Northern Mexico and
southern California are
situated in another belt of
light winds with frequent
calms. Here, however, as
stated before (p. 19), the
air of the anti-trades is
settling toward the earth,
a part to return as trade
winds to the belt of calms,
and a part to continue
onward as the prevailing
westerlies. This is known as the region of the horse latitudes. 1
Point out the belt on Figures 17 and 20. Show the corresponding
belfon the south side of the equator.

Effect of Revolution. The belt of most intense heat is not always in
exactly the same part of the earth, being north of the equator in June,
when the sun is vertical at the Tropic of Cancer, and south of it in Decem-
ber, when the sun's rays are vertical at the Tropic of Capricorn. This
causes all these belts to change their position somewhat, being farther
north in our summer than in our winter (Figs. 18 and 19). The effects
of this fact are very important, as we shall see.

FIG. 19.

Diagram to show the position of the belt of calms
and the trade winds in winter. Compare with
Figure 18.

RAIN

Causes for Rain. Knowing the wind belts that encircle the
earth, we have a key to the principal rain belts ; for winds are
the water carriers of the earth. Water which is evaporated
from the surface of the oceans and lands is borne along in the
air. As rain or snow it descends to the earth, abundantly along
most coasts, and, usually, less liberally toward the interior of the
continents.

1 Called horse latitudes because sailing vessels, carrying horses from New England
to the West Indies in the early days, were so delayed by the calms that the horses had
to be thrown overboard when the drinking water gave out.

WINDS AND RAIN

3 a

S I
PI

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

a I
-

- ~
fl o

WINDS AND BAIN 25

It is an important fact that there can be more water vapor in Avarm
than in cool air. Therefore, whenever air is cooled sufficiently, some of
the Avater vapor which it bears is condensed. For example, vapor con-
denses on an ice- water pitcher because the air next it is cooled ; and dew
forms on grass when the air near the ground grows cool in the evening.
In a like manner the vapor in our breath forms a little cloud when the
breath in winter is cooled by mixture with the cold outside air.

Rain is usually caused by the cooling of air which is rising to
higher levels and therefore expanding. When you open the valve
of a bicycle tire, the outrushing air expands and grows cool ; and
if you place your finger over the valve, you can feel the coolness.
In a similar way, when air rises above the surface of the earth it
expands because there is less air above to press upon it. Then it
grows cool ; and while doing so, some of its vapor may be condensed
to form clouds and raindrops. So whenever air from the damp
oceans is rising over highlands, or whenever it is being raised over
warm lands by the cooler air that pushes underneath, as in the belt
of calms, rainfall naturally results. Briefly, when air rises, it
expands and cools ; and then rain commonly follows.

On the other hand, air that is settling grows warmer, and instead
of giving up its vapor, it becomes dry and clear. This may again
be illustrated by reference to the bicycle ; for when air is pumped
into the tire, the pump becomes warm as the air is compressed. In
a like manner, air that is descending toward the earth's surface is
compressed and warmed because of the increasing pressure of the
atmosphere above. Since there can be more vapor in warm than in
cool air, when air flows down the mountain slopes, or descends from
high altitudes, as in the horse latitudes, clouds disappear and water is
evaporated from the ground. Briefly, when air descends, it becomes
denser and grows warmer ; then the sky is clear and the weather dry.

Rain Belts in North America. These facts have been well
illustrated in the rains of North America. The northeast trade
winds, having gathered a large amount of vapor from the Atlantic
Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and Gulf of Mexico, deposit it on the
windward slopes of the West Indies, southern Mexico, and Central
America (Fig. 22). The southwestern slopes of these islands,
however, receive a smaller quantity, and the western coast of Mexico
is therefore arid. The prevailing westerlies, having travelled a
long distance over the Pacific, likewise cause heavy rains along the
western coast of North America (Fig. 23). But the land farther

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

FIG. 22.

The rainy east coasts and arid west coasts of the trade
wind belts. Also the rainy belt of calms of South
America.

east grows more arid, be-
cause these winds also lose
their moisture in passing
over the land. Northern
Mexico and southwestern
United States, lying within
the horse latitudes, where
the air is descending, re-
ceive very little rain and
are arid (Fig. 23).

Other Rainy and Arid
Regions of Northern Hemi-
sphere. Other regions
lying within these belts
illustrate the same prin-
ciples. For example, note
(Fig. 22) what heavy
rains are brought to

northern South America by the northeast trade winds. The

Hawaiian Islands, also lying within their range, are kept moist by

them, especially on

the windward side

of the highlands,

just as in the West

Indies.

But the north-
east trade winds of

the Old World de-
posit little moisture,

as is clearly shown

by Figures 21 and

24. One reason

is that they blow

largely over land,

rather than over

water; it is mostly

level land, too.

Another very im- FIG. 23.

portant reason is The heavy rainfall where the prevailing westerlies blow over
,r ,, . the rising coast. What is the condition farther east?

tnat tne air IS mov- What is the case where the trade winds blow? Why?

WINDS AND RAIN

ing from a cooler to a warmer region and is therefore not forced to
give up its moisture. On the contrary, it can take more vapor and
is steadily evaporating water. Thus the trade winds are drying
winds on the land, and this accounts for the desert of Sahara and
other deserts. Europe is affected by the prevailing westerlies much
as western North America is. But its three southern peninsulas
lie partly within the horse latitudes, and their southern portions are
much affected by drought.

South of the Equator. South of the equator we find the south-
east trade winds causing heavy rains on the east coast of South
America (Fig. 22); then
proceeding across the con-
tinent, they cause other
heavy rains in the neigh-
borhood of the Andes; but
parts of Peru and Chile
on the western side of
the mountains are left
to suffer from drought
although within sight of
the greatest ocean in the
world. Australia, lying
in' the same belt of winds,
is similar. But this time
the loftiest highlands are
close to the east coast,
so that nearly all the
remainder of the country suffers for want of rain (Fig. 25).

Belt of Calms. The belt of calms is the most rainy of all the
belts (Figs. 22, 24, and 25), because its hot, moisture-laden air is
rising and cooling. After a clear night in that region, the sun
usually rises in a cloudless sky. As the morning advances and
the heat grows more intense, the damp air rises more rapidly ; then
small clouds appear and grow steadily until rain falls from them.
Showers occur practically every day, increasing in the afternoon.
When the sun sets and the air rises less actively, the clouds melt
away, the stars appear, and the night is as clear as before. The hot,
moist summer days of parts of Canada, with heavy thunder showers
in the afternoon and evening, illustrate the weather that is repeated
day after day in this belt of calms.

FIG. 24.

To illustrate the desert regions in the trade wind and
horse latitude belts of Africa. Also to show the
heavy rainfall in the belt of calms. Find the simi-
lar belts on Figures 22, 23, and 25.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

It is the heavy rain there that supplies the dampness necessary
for the dense jungles of the tropical forest of the Amazon Valley,
Central Africa, and the East Indies (Fig. 21).

Migration of Rain
Belts. The statement
has been already made
(p. 22) that the wind belts
shift northward in sum-
mer and southward in
winter. One of the most
important effects of this
change is upon the rain-
fall. In the torrid zone,
for example, many places
are within the belt of
calms during the summer
of their hemisphere, and
are swept by the drying
trades in their cooler
months, thus dividing the
year into wet and dry
seasons. The part of northern Africa lying between the Sahara
and the Sudan affords an instance of this (Figs. 26 and 27).

FIG. 25.

Showing the heavy rainfall on the east-facing coast of
Australia where the trade winds blow. Notice also
the arid interior and west coast. What is the con-
dition in the belt of calms ? What resemblance do
you see to Figure 23?

FIG. 26.
Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from December to February.

Eastern Canada and Northeastern United States. Thus far only
the regular wind and rain belts have been considered, and no expla-
nation has been made of the condition of variable winds in eastern

WINDS AND BAIN

Canada. We might expect that the west winds, so dry after passing
over the western highlands, would continue onward with the result
that our eastern provinces would have very little rainfall. But

FIG. 27.

Winds and rainfall in South America and Africa from June to August. Compare with
Figure 26 to see how the belts of heavy rain have migrated as the wind helts have shifted
with the change of season.

we know that abundant rains fall in this section (Fig. 28). We
know, also, that there are no very regular winds over this vast area ;
on the contrary, both winds and temperature are quite changeable.

FIG. 28.

A map to show the rainfall of Canada in inches ; that is, the number of inches of water
that would collect all over the surface in a year if all the rain remained where it
fell.

In any particular locality on one day it may be warm and pleasant,
with a south wind ; the next day a cool, dry wind blows from the
northwest ; after two or three days this gives place to a cloudy sky

30 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

and rain, brought on by south or east winds ; and then fair, cool
weather sets in, with northwest winds again.

Let us inquire into the cause of these changes. From time to time out
in the northwest there comes to be a place, or an area, of low pressure ;
that is, an area where the air is lighter than that over the surrounding
region. The air from the surrounding country, where the pressure is
greater, hurries toward the low-pressure area, even from hundreds of miles
away, causing winds which on the south side blow from the south, on the
east side from the east, etc. Toward the place where the pressure is low,
the air is flowing in from all sides, then rising. As it rises, the vapor

FIG. 29.

A section through a cyclonic storm to show the immense area of clouds and rain. A repre-
sents the Appalachian Mountains; M, the Mississippi River. The direction of the winds
is shown by the arrows.

condenses, forming clouds and rain, as in the belt of calms. Such an area
of low pressure, with its clouds and rain, is known as a cyclonic storm area
(Fig. 29) ; and it is during these storms that most of the rain of eastern
Canada and northeastern United States comes.

Instead of remaining in one place, the cyclonic storms steadily travel
onward, usually beginning in the northwest and always passing eastward.
The paths followed by the storm centres generally pass over the Great
Lakes, down the St. Lawrence Valley to the ocean. They move eastward
because the prevailing westerlies carry them along ; indeed, these great,
whirling, cyclonic storms are apparently eddies in the prevailing westerlies,
similar to the eddies in the current of a stream. The whirl in the northern
hemisphere is always in the direction opposite to the hands of a watch,
while in the southern it is with the hands. A knowledge of this law of
storms is very useful to navigators, as it enables them to locate storm
centres. When encountering a cyclonic storm in the northern hemisphere,
the captain should turn his back upon the wind, and veer off to the right
in order to get out of its track ; while in the southern hemisphere he should
veer to the left. The area of country upon which rain may be falling from
the clouds of one of these storms is sometimes very great, places fully a
thousand miles apart sometimes receiving rain at the same time (Fig. 29).
As the storm moves eastward, it grows clear on the western side, while the
cloudy and rainy parts appear farther and farther eastward.

The vapor is brought toward the storm centre from the Gulf and the
Atlantic Ocean, being carried by the winds for hundreds of miles. The
fact that there is no high mountain range extending across southern United

WINDS AND RAIN

States is of great importance. If there were such mountains, instead of
the low Appalachians and the open plains of the Mississippi Valley, the
winds could not carry their vapor so far, but would drop it on the coast
side, leaving the interior a desert.

Not only are rains caused by these storms, but hot spells and other
changes as well. Warm winds, blowing toward the low-pressure areas
from the south, are the cause of the winter thaws and the summer hot
spells in eastern Canada. It is during these hot spells that thunder
storms come ; also, in some places, come tornadoes, often called " cyclones,"
in which the winds blow so fiercely that houses are torn to pieces. These
are of frequent occurrence
in the Mississippi Valley,
but fortunately are rare in
this country.

After a low-pressure
area has passed eastward
and the storm is over, the
wind generally blows from
the west. This causes cool,
dry weather in summer, and
cold snaps in winter. Then
it is said that a cold wave
has come ; and this, sweep-
ing over the East, and even
far into the South, often
does great damage to fruit
trees and other delicate
plants.

FIG. 30.

A cyclonic storm in Europe which came from the ocean.
The heavy black line shows the course followed by
its centre. Notice how the winds blow toward the
centre.

Cyclonic Storms in Eu-
rope. Europe is also
largely under the influ-
ence of the prevailing
westerlies ; and cyclonic
storms often cross the
ocean and reach far into Eurasia (Fig. 30). There, as here, the ex-
tent of the country from which rain may be falling from the clouds
of one of these storms is sometimes very great. The weather like-
wise is made changeable by these storms. That is, in any particular
locality it may be warm and pleasant one day, stormy the next,
then clear and cool, or cold. Similar cyclonic storms develop in the
prevailing westerly belt of the southern hemisphere, where they
bring changes of weather to southern South America, Australia,
and the islands of the great Southern Ocean.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

Sea and Land Breezes ; Monsoons. There is one other great
source of disturbance of the regular wind belts of the earth and of
the rain belts that are dependent upon them. This is found in the
difference in temperature between land and water.

Land warms and cools much more quickly than water. The
land along the seashore on a hot summer morning soon becomes
warm, and the air above it is heated, as over a stove, so that it ex-
pands and grows light ; but that over the water remains cool, like
the sea itself. This cooler air then pushes in toward the shore ;
and thus a breeze from the sea, or a sea breeze, is created. In
summer, such a breeze is frequently felt at the seashore and along
the shores of large lakes, and it helps to make the temperature
agreeable. At night, the land cools more rapidly than the sea;
and then the cool air from the land moves out toward the sea,
forming a land breeze.

Likewise, in summer the continents as a whole become warmer
than the oceans ; in winter they become cooler. And in some parts

of the world these differ-
ences create winds on an
enormous scale. Such
winds exist in Mexico and
that part of the United
States bordering on the
Gulf of Mexico, but in
Asia they are far more
important.

The interior of that
continent is so far from
the ocean, that there are
naturally very great ex-
tremes of temperature.
During the winter, the
heavy air over the cold
land settles down as drying air, and presses outward beneath the
warmer air which lies over the ocean. This produces dry land
winds. In summer, on the other hand, the air over the cool water
crowds in, raises the hot air of the continent, and produces ocean
winds and rain. This is well illustrated in the southern part of
Asia. Heated by the nearly vertical rays of the sun during the
northern summer, the land there becomes warmer than the ocean.

FIG. 31.

The winds and rainfall during the summer monsoon
of India.

WINDS AND RAIN

FIG. 32.

Map of the winter monsoon winds and rainfall of
India. Compare with Figure 31, and notice espe-
cially how very light the rainfall is in one season
and how heavy it is in the opposite season.

Toward this heated area the cooler air from the Indian Ocean
crowds in, causing ocean winds.

This makes the summer winds opposite in direction to those of
winter, when the air from the cold lands of interior Asia is flowing
out toward the warmer
Indian Ocean (Fig. 32).
Winds of this kind, which
blow in opposite directions
in different seasons, are
better developed in India
than in any other part of
the earth, and it was there
that they received the
name monsoon winds. The
term monsoon is now
applied to inward-flowing
summer winds and out-
ward-flowing winter winds
of any large mass of land.

When the summer mon-
soons blow, the rainy season comes in India (Fig. 31). The rainfall
is especially heavy where the moisture-laden air ascends the steep
slope of the Himalayas. In one part of this district, opposite the
head of the Bay of Bengal, there is three times as much rain in
July alone as falls in well-watered portions of Canada during the
entire year. The winter monsoon, on the other hand, is so dry that
vegetation withers and the soil becomes parched and cracked, as in a
desert (Fig. 32).

While the north and south temperate zones are both called temperate,
and have many features in common, they are quite unlike in their winds.
In the northern hemisphere the broad continents become very hot in
summer and cold in winter. Since the temperature of the oceans remains
more uniform, the regular winds are greatly interfered with, as by the
monsoons. In the south temperate zone, on the other hand, there is little
land and a vast expanse of ocean. The temperature of the water changes
but little, and the narrow lands have their temperature largely determined
by winds from the oceans. In the south temperate zone, therefore, there
is little chance for monsoons.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Tell about the directions of the regular winds of
North America. (2) Describe the circulation of air in a room heated by a stove.
(3) Compare this circulation of air with that in the regular winds of the earth.

34 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

(4) What effect has rotation on the direction of these winds ? (5) What are the
names of the regular winds of North America, and over what sections of the
continent do they blow ? (6) Locate and describe the wind belts of the earth.
(7) What proofs have we that these are permanent winds ? (8) Tell about the
movement of air in the belt of calms. (9) In the horse latitudes. (10) What is
the effect of the earth's revolution on the location of all of these belts ? (11) Tell
about the causes of rain. (12) Show how the trade winds and westerlies affect
the rainfall of North America. (13) What about the rainfall in northern South
America and in the Hawaiian Islands? (14) How do you account for the Desert
of Sahara? (15) Tell about the rainfall in Eurbpe. (16) In South America, just
south of the equator, and in Australia. (17) In the belt of calms. (18) Show how
the migration of the wind belts affects rainfall, and give an example. (19) Tell
about the winds and rain in eastern Canada and northeastern United States.
(20) What about the cyclonic storms in Europe? (21) Give the cause of sea
and land breezes. (22) Of monsoons. Give example. (23) Why do monsoons
interfere with the regular winds much less in the southern than in the northern
hemisphere ?

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Estimate the number of barrels of water that falls on an
acre of ground, or upon a city block, in one year, where the rainfall is forty
inches. (2) How is a movement of air secured in your schoolroom in order to
ventilate it? (3) Make a drawing to show the direction of the regular winds
of the world. (4) Watch the higher clouds to see in what direction they are
moving. (5) Write an account of the change in the weather for five days in
succession, the wind direction and force; the clouds; rain; temperature; and,
if possible, the air pressure.

IV. OCEAN MOVEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF
TEMPERATURE

LIKE the air, the ocean water is in motion, its three principal
movements being wind waves, tides, and ocean currents.

WIND WAVES

Waves are formed by winds which blow over the surface of the Vater
and ruffle it, sometimes, during storms, causing it to rise and fall from
twenty to forty feet.

In the open ocean, waves are rarely very dangerous to large vessels ;
but upon the seashore they do great damage to vessels and even to the
coast itself, wearing away the rocks and dragging the fragments out to
sea. The constant beating of the waves is slowly eating the coast away.

TIDES

What the Tides Are. People living upon the seacoast are famil-
iar with the fact that the ocean water rises for about six hours and
then slowly falls for the same period. This rising and falling of the
water twice each day forms what is known as the tide. When it
is rising and advancing upon the land, it is called flood tide ;
when receding, ebb tide. For a long time men were puzzled to ex-
plain this ; it was called the breathing of the earth, and by certain
uncivilized races it is to this day thought to be caused by some great
animal.

The Cause of Tides. Every twelve hours and twenty-six min-
utes there is a high or flood tide. Twice this period is the time from
one rising of the moon until the next, and this fact long ago led peo-
ple to connect the tides with the moon. The full explanation of
how the moon produces this remarkable result would be too difficult
and would take too much space. Let us try, however, to make it
clear by means of an illustration : Suppose a man and a boy to join
hands and to whirl about. Each will move in a circle, but the boy's
circle will be larger than the man's, because he is so much lighter.
Each will feel a pull in his arms, and they must hold fast or they
will break apart.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

The moon and the earth whirl about in a similar manner, making
one turn a month ; but as the earth is eighty times as heavy as the
moon, the centre about which they circle is close to the earth's cen-
tre. It is, in fact, about 1000 miles inside the circumference of the
earth. Instead of clasping hands, they are held together by the
invisible bonds known as gravitation. See Page 4. The earth
attracts the moon and the moon attracts the earth. Thus the earth
is acted upon by two forces, an attraction or pulling toward the
moon, and a pulling away from the moon in consequence of the
circling. The pulling away is called the centrifugal force, and is
well illustrated in the tendency of all loose particles on the cir-
cumference of a rapidly revolving wheel to fly off.

The subject will be made clearer by an examination of Figure 32 A,
where NM represents the line about which the earth and moon circle
each month. The parallel lines between BG and CH represent the moon's
direct attraction, which does not raise the water at BC, but only causes it
to become lighter. NG and MH represent the angular attraction of the
moon, which draws the water from the points .A 7 " and M toward BC, caus-
ing it to heap up there in the
form of a tide. The heaping
up of the water at EF is due
to the centrifugal force, pro-
duced by the circling about
MN. As the earth also ro-
tates on its axis, in the direc-
tion indicated by the arrow,
every point on its surface is
brought in succession under
the moon each day. Conse-
quently every place will have

two high tides every twenty-four hours and fifty-two minutes. If the
earth did not rotate on its axis, there would be but two high tides a
month at any place : one when under the moon, and one when on the
opposite side. It is the earth's rotation on its axis that makes possible
two high tides daily.

Spring and Neap Tides. Not only does the moon attract the
earth, and thus raise a tide, but the sun in a feebler manner,
owing to its immense distance, does the same thing. When at new
and at full moon, as shown in Figure 32 B, the sun and moon are
exerting their attraction in the same straight line, the sun's tide is
added to the moon's, consequently at the points A and B a higher

FIG. 32 A.
Diagram to illustrate cause of the tides.

OCEAN MOVEMENTS

tide than usual is the result. This is known as the spring tide, and
may be denned as the highest high tide.

SUN

FIG. 32 B.
Diagram to illustrate spring tides.

When, as in Figure 32 C, the moon is in first or third quarter, and the
sun and moon are consequently exerting their attraction at right angles,
the tide-producing power of the sun is subtracted from the moon's, which
consequently does not raise as high a tide as usual, as shown at the points
A and B in the figure. This is known as a neap tide, and is the lowest
high tide.

The Height of the Tidal Wave. The tidal wave is only two or
three feet high upon headlands which project into the open ocean,

MOON

SUN

FIG. 32 C.
Diagram to illustrate neap tide.

or on oceanic islands ; but it rises a great deal higher in many bays.
There the wave is raised higher because the space that it occupies
becomes narrower near the head of the bay. In some such coast
waters, as in the Bay of Fundy, the tide reaches a height of sixty
feet or more.

The Importance of Tides. (1) Tides, by sweeping in and out

38 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

of river mouths, cleanse them by carrying the refuse matter so often
drained into them out to the open sea. (2) They are a great aid to
navigation, enabling ships at high tide to penetrate to a much greater
distance up tidal rivers' than would otherwise be possible. This is
well illustrated by the port of London, England, which can be
reached by large ships only during flood tide. Many of the towns
situated on the tidal rivers flowing into the Bay of Fundy are sea-
ports for only a few hours each day.

OCEAN CURRENTS

Cause of Ocean Currents. The winds which blow over the
ocean, forming waves, also drive the water before them. You may
do this in a small way by blowing on the surface of a pail of water.
This starts a current, or drift, of surface water in the direction that
the air is moving. Where the winds are steady, as in the trade
wind belts, or moderately steady, as in the prevailing westerlies,
there is a permanent drift of water, pushed along by the prevailing
winds. These form the great system of ocean currents (Fig. 36)
which have such an important influence on the earth.

The North Atlantic Eddy. In the eastern part of the Atlantic,
where the trade winds blow, the surface water drifts slowly in the
direction of the trade winds; that is, toward the belt of calms
(Fig. 20). It then drifts westward, as a great equatorial drift,
until the easternmost extremity of South America interferes with its
course. There the drift of water is divided, a part being turned
southward, while the greater portion proceeds northwestward.

The part that flows northward is deflected toward the right by
the effect of rotation, as the winds are (p. 18) ; and the part that
flows into the South Atlantic is turned to the left, also by the effect
of rotation. Therefore, the northern drift, instead of coming near
to the mainland of North America, keeps turning to the right, cross-
ing the Atlantic to Europe. It then passes southward, and finally
returns to the trade wind belt where it started, having made a com-
plete circuit (Figs. 33 and 36).

Coming from the equatorial region, this water is warm, and in it live
countless millions of animals and floating plants. Among the latter,
one of the most abundant is a seaweed, called Sargassitm, which is thrown
into the middle of this great eddy. There it has collected until it now

OCEAN MOVEMENTS

forms a " grassy " or " Sargasso " sea, hundreds of square miles in extent.
Since the "Sargasso" Sea lies directly between Spain and the West
Indies, Columbus was obliged to cross it on his first voyage of dis-
covery ; and his sailors, upon entering it, were much alarmed lest they
might run aground, or become so entangled in the weed that they could
not escape.

The Gulf Stream. A portion of the drift of water which moves
northward along the northern coast of South America enters the
Caribbean Sea and then passes into the Gulf of Mexico. This is a

FIG. 33.

A diagram to show the currents of the North Atlantic. In order to illustrate the currents
clearly it has seemed necessary to make them as if they were sharply bounded, like a
river in its channel. As a matter of fact, however, the boundaries of these great cur-
rents and drifts are so indefinite that, in crossing them, one would not be able to detect
the boundaries even by using the greatest care.

broad, deep, gently flowing current ; and it is so nearly surrounded
by the warm tropical lands that it grows even warmer than when it
entered the Caribbean. After swirling round the Gulf of Mexico,
it escapes between Cuba and Florida, after which it is known as the
G-ulf Stream (Fig. 33), because it comes from the Crulf of Mexico.
Being forced to pass out through so narrow an opening, its rate of
movement is much increased even to four or five miles per hour
as water in a hose is made to increase its speed by passing through

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

the nozzle. Measure on the map of North America the distance
from Key West to Havana.

Being turned to the right by the effect of the earth's rotation,
the Gulf Stream soon leaves the American coast and flows north-
eastward toward northern Europe. It broadens rapidly and joins
forces with the western part of the great Atlantic eddy. In

crossing the
prevailing
of north-

FIG. 34.

An Arctic whaling steamer imprisoned, off the coast of
Baffin Land, in the floe ice which is being carried
southward in the Labrador current.

Atlantic, the drift is pushed along by the
westerlies, so that it reaches the shores
ern Europe, and even enters the
Arctic Ocean. Some idea of its
volume may be gained from the
fact that it carries many times
as much water as all the riv-
ers of the world.
The Labrador Current.
After being cooled,
some of this water
settles to the bot-
tom and finds its
way back to the torrid
zone in the slow drift
of cold water which is
forever moving along
the ocean bottom from the frigid zone toward the equator. But
much of it returns at the surface, for there is a cold surface current,
called the Labrador current, passing southward along the northeast-
ern coast of North America (Figs. 33, 34, and 36).

The Labrador current flows down from among the islands of
North America, past the coast of Labrador, Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, and the New England States as far as Cape Cod. Like
all ocean currents in the northern hemisphere, it is turned toward
the right, that is, since it flows southward, toward the west. This
causes it to follow the coast very closely, keeping nearer the shore
than the Gulf Stream does.

Since there are two currents near together, a cold one from the north,
and a warm one from the south, a vessel sailing from St. John or Halifax
to England must cross both. During winter storms a ship often becomes
covered with snow and ice while in the cold Labrador current, but loses
this coating soon after entering the Gulf Stream.

Where the cold and warm currents come near together, a dense fog

OCEAN MOVEMENTS 41

is produced. You can doubtless explain why that is so. Sailors who
cross the Atlantic have learned to expect heavy fogs as they pass near the
coast of Newfoundland, which is one of the foggiest regions in the world.

The Currents in the North Pacific Ocean. In the Pacific Ocean,
as in the Atlantic (Fig. 36), the water drifts westward in the belt
of calms; then a broad, warm current swings to the right past
Japan, crossing the ocean toward Alaska, as the Gulf Stream crosses
the Atlantic toward Europe. This is called the Japanese current.
Continuing to turn to the right, this great ocean drift passes south-
ward to complete the vast eddy.

A small branch of the current turns northward along the Alaskan
coast. There is also a cold current between the Japanese current and the
coast of Asia, corresponding to the Labrador current in the Atlantic.

We see from what has been said, that, although the Gulf
Stream flows past the Southern States, the northeastern coast of
North America and of Asia are bathed by ocean currents from the
cold north. On the other hand, the northwestern coasts of Eu-
rope and North America are approached by warm drifts of water
from the south.

Eddies of the Southern Oceans. In the South Pacific, South
Atlantic, and Indian oceans, the same causes have produced eddies
similar to that of the North Pacific ; but here the earth's rotation
deflects the winds to the left, as we know, and the waters are moved
in the same direction. Some of the water at these eddies joins
the broad West Wind Drift of the distant southern ocean ; but
much of it turns northward until it once more reaches the trade
wind belt, thus completing the eddies (Fig. 36).

Effects of Ocean Currents in North America: Review. The cold
Labrador current greatly affects the temperature upon the land, for
winds blowing over it carry the chill far inland. This is one of the
reasons why the east winds of our Eastern provinces are so cool, and
why the coast is such an agreeable summer resort.

Since the Labrador current flows as far south as Cape Cod, the water
north of this promontory must be cooler than that south of it. As the
cold current leaves the Arctic region, it bears with it much sea ice which
has been frozen during the preceding winters (Fig. 34), and also gigantic
icebergs which have broken off from the Greenland glacier. It is upon
this drifting ice that the polar bear spends much of his time hunting for
seals, which live in great numbers in the ice-covered waters (Fig. 35).

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

The icebergs may be carried southward one or two thousand miles
before the air and water melt them away (see limit of icebergs on Fig.
36). Indeed, some icebergs float even as far south as the paths "followed
by vessels which cross the Atlantic. Since many bergs are larger than
the greatest building in the world, collision with one means shipwreck ;
therefore sailors need to use great caution, especially when the ship
is in the fog.

The cyclonic winds from the Gulf Stream greatly temper the
climate of eastern North America, while at the same time they bring
to us much vapor gathered from over these warm waters."

The warm currents of the Pacific Ocean render the southern
part of Alaska far warmer than southern Labrador, which is farther

FIG. 35.
Polar bear and seal on the floe ice of the Labrador current.

south ; and the prevailing westerlies bring an abundance of vapor
to the Pacific coast all the way from California to Alaska. Where
these winds blow, the winters are mild and the rain heavy ; but the
summers are cool and pleasant, because the ocean water, though
warm, does not become greatly heated. Notice on a globe that
southern British Columbia, with its pleasant climate, is about the
same distance from the equator as the island of Newfoundland, the
shores of which are bathed by the cold Labrador current.

Effects on Other Regions. The Gulf Stream drift is of special
benefit to the Old World. It has been estimated that its waters
carry one-half as much heat into the Arctic as reaches it from the

OCEAN MOVEMENTS

44 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

direct rays of the sun. When Nansen started on his famous jour-
ney toward the north pole, he entered the Arctic Ocean with this
current. Thus, since its warm water keeps that part of the Arctic
free from ice in summer, he was able to proceed much farther than
he otherwise could have gone. Owing to this warmth, Russia is
able to have a harbor on the very shores of the Arctic. Name it.
Westerly winds, warmed in passing over this drift, have made pos-
sible the great civilized nations of northern Europe, notably our own
mother-country.

Notice on a map how many large cities are*in that part of north-
ern Europe which is the same distance from the equator as desolate
Labrador. What a striking contrast these nations present to the
scattered savages of the latter dreary country, whose winds come
either from the land or over cold ocean water.

When the first settlers came to North America from France and
England they expected to find in the New World a climate like their
own in the same latitude. They were unprepared for the severe
winters which they actually found, and thus the first settlements on
the Canadian and New England coasts were failures.

Besides thus influencing so much of the earth, the Gulf Stream, like
other warm currents, has helped to form a great number of islands.
Where warm currents flow, the water is often warm enough for corals to
live; and, since the moving water brings to them an abundance of tiny
animals for food, colonies of corals flourish, and their skeletons gradually
form reefs. In this way the southern half of Florida, the Bahamas, the
Bermudas, and many of the islands in the South Pacific, were built.

The cold current on the northeast coast of Asia affects that
region much as the Labrador current affects northeastern North
America. Its winds chill the Siberian coast, and cause the harbors,
like that of Vladivostok, to be icebound in winter. This explains
the efforts made by Russia to hold the Chinese harbor at Port
Arthur, south of Korea that her commerce and warships might
not be shut up in winter.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

In general, it is true that the farther north we travel from the
equator, the colder it grows ; but this is by no means always the
case. If the earth were made of one solid, level substance, like
glass, the temperature would gradually decrease from the equator to

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

the poles. Then all points the same distance from the equator, as
all on the Tropic of Cancer, or all on the Arctic Circle, for instance,
would have the same temperature.

FIG. 37.

Isothermal chart of Canada for January. Why is it colder in the interior than on the
east coast? Why so warm on the west coast? Can you notice any influence of moun-
tains ?

But we have seen that there are several causes which interfere
with this regular decrease in temperature toward the poles. For
example, (1) high mountains have a cold climate, even though in the
torrid zone ; and, for the same reason, plateaus may be colder than
lowlands far north of them.

FIG. 38.

Isothermal chart of Canada for July. Notice the influence of the Rocky Mountains. Why
is it cooler on the west coast than on the east coast ? What makes the isotherms bend
southward from the Mackenzie to Ontario ?

Besides that, (2) land warms and cools much more rapidly than
water (p. 32), so that land becomes hotter in summer and colder in
winter than the ocean. Thus, in Manitoba, far from the coast, the

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

48 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

average temperature in January is below zero, while in July it is
about 65 (Figs. 37 and 38). In Halifax, on the coast, the average
in January is about 20, and in July not quite 70. On the west
coast, in British Columbia, where the winds are blowing from the
ocean, the average temperature for January is 35, and for July 60.

At Key West, Florida, which is surrounded by water, the average
temperature in January is about 70, and in July about 85. Where
the temperature changes so little, the climate is said to be equable.

The winds (3) greatly influence the temperature. Where they
blow from the ocean, they cause an equable climate, as in British
Columbia, near Victoria ; but where they blow from the land, they
are cool or cold in winter and warm in summer. This is true of the
eastern United States, where most of the winds blow from the land,
though some of the damp winds come from the ocean.

Another cause (4) for different temperatures at places equally
distant from the equator is found in the ocean currents. We have
just seen that the Gulf Stream drift warms the air, while the Lab-
rador current cools it, and thus by winds from these waters the
temperature is affected over a very wide area.

If, therefore, we were to draw a line across the continent, connect-
ing several points that have the same average temperature during
any one month-, or during the entire year, it would need to be a very
crooked one, with some parts reaching much farther north than
others. Such lines tell so much about temperature in so little space
that it is the custom to make maps to show them, as in Figures 37
and 38. Since the lines connect the places having the same tem-
perature, they are called isothermal lines or isotherms. (The first
part of the word means equal, and the latter part Jieat.~) A map or
chart showing the isotherms is called an isothermal chart (Figs. 37
and 38). Trace several of 4 the isotherms across Canada, and explain
why they bend as they do.

Note that on the western coast the isotherms extend northward
and southward almost parallel to the coast, since the prevailing
westerlies bring to the land the nearly uniform temperature of the
Pacific. There is only about 20 difference between winter and suniT
mer temperatures on the western coast of North America. But on
the eastern coast of the continent the difference between summer
and winter is much more marked, because, while some of the winds
are from the ocean, still more are from the land, which is cold in
winter and warm in summer.

DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE 49

Figures 39 and 40 show similar isotherms for the world. Ob-
serve how these bend toward the equator where they cross mountain
chains. Comparing these two figures, you will notice how the
winter isotherms of the north temperate zone bend toward the
equator over the continents, for reasons given in (2) above. Dur-
ing the summer, on the contrary, the isotherms curve poleward.
On what continent are these bends most striking ? Why ? Explain
the effect of the Gulf Stream drift as shown in Figure 40.

The reason is evident why the isotherms of the North Atlantic
are close together as they leave America, but spread apart like a fan
toward the Old World. On the American side the currents ap-
proach each other, one from the north bearing Arctic cold, the other
from the warm south. This causes great temperature contrasts be-
tween the northern and southern coasts of North America. On the
European side one part of the ocean drift passes northward, raising
the temperature and bending the isotherms far northward. The re-
mainder turns southward and, being somewhat cooler than the region
into which it enters, slightly lowers the temperature and bends the
isotherms southward. Thus the isotherms are spread apart.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. Waves and Tides. (1) Of what importance are the
waves? (2) How often does the tide rise and fall? (3) What causes it?

Ocean Currents. (4) Explain how winds help to produce ocean currents.
(5) Describe the drift of tropical waters in the Atlantic. (6) Trace the drift which
passes outside of the West Indies to the European coast. (7) Describe the Gulf
Stream. (8) Describe the Labrador current. (9) Trace the currents in the Xorth
Pacific. (10) What coasts mentioned are bathed by warm currents? By cold
currents? (11) Tell about the eddies in the southern oceans. (12) In what ways
is the Labrador current of importance? (13) What influence has it in North
America? (14) What is the influence of the Japanese current ? (15) Tell, about
the influence of the Gulf Stream on the Arctic Ocean. (16) On Europe. (17) On
the building of coral islands. (18) AVhat is the effect of the cold current flowing
along the northeast coast of Asia?

Distribution of Temperature. (19) What about the change in temperature
from equator to poles, if the earth were a round ball of glass ? (20) How is this
change interfered with? (21) What is an isothermal line? (22) An isothermal
chart? (23) Relate some facts about the isothermal lines for Canada. (24) About
those for the world.

SUGGESTIONS. (1) If your home is upon the seacoast, find out about the
high and low tides for several days in succession. (2) Xotice the relation between
the height and the time of high tide, on the one hand, and the changes in the
moon, on the other. (3) Does the goverament spend money near your home to
remove materials which the tidal currents have brought? (4) What course might
a vessel take in order to be carried from Europe to America and back again by
ocean currents? (5) What precautions do vessels take to avoid running into one

50 GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

another in dense fogs? (6) How do they try to avoid collisions with icebergs?
(7) Learn more about Nansen's voyage. (8) Which of the isothermal lines on
Figures 36 and 40 is nearest to your home? (9) What isotherm runs near Sault
Ste. Marie and Edmonton? Near Toronto and Calgary? Through southern
Ontario and northern British Columbia? (10) What isotherm extends through
southern Ontario and Alberta? (11) How about the distance of these points
from the equator? (12) Does the presence of a warm or cold current near a
country necessarily greatly affect the climate of that country? (13) Locate the
cold ocean currents of the world ; the warm currents. (14) Estimate the length
of the circumference of the great eddy in the North Pacific. (15) How does Fig-
ure 38 show the effect of the cold current on the northeastern coast of Russia?
(16) Why are the isotherms so much more nearly parallel in the southern hemi-
sphere than in the northern? (Figs. 39 and 40.) (17) Only about one-fourth
of the earth's surface rises above the water. What might be some of the effects
if the quantity of land were greatly increased? Jf it were greatly decreased?

V. PEOPLES

FIG. 41.
An African negro girl.

Divisions of Mankind. Man,

like plants and animals, varies
in different parts of the world.
He is influenced by his sur-
roundings, as they are, and in
the course of time has developed
differently in the various lands
of the earth. Concerning the
origin of the human race, and its
divisions, people hold different
views; but mankind in general
may be divided into four great
groups.

Ethiopians. Altogether
there are about one and one-
half billion human beings upon the earth, or two hundred and
fifty times the number in Canada. Of these the lowest are the
negroes (Figs. 41 and 42), or. Ethiopians, who number about
one hundred and seventy-five mil-
lion. This is often called the black
race. There are many subdivisions
of this group, but they are all
characterized by a deep brown or

black skin, short, black, woolly hair, v* n~MTi

broad, flat noses, and prominent V&Sfiiftt

cheek bones.

The home of the Ethiopians is
Africa, south of the Sahara desert
(Fig. 45), though many have been
transported to other lands as slaves,
and have there mingled more or less
with the other races. In their
original home the negroes are sav- FIG.

ages, or barbarians of low type. A native of New South Wales, Australia.

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

The native Australians (Fig. 42), the Papuans of New Guinea, the
Negritos of the Philippines, and the blacks on some other islands in that
part of the world resemble the negroes most closely, though differing from
them in some important respects. They are shorter, for example ; their
hair is less woolly, their noses straighter, and their lips less thick.

American Indians. A second great division of the human race
is that of the American Indians, often called the red race (pp. 85
87). It is the smallest of the four groups, numbering about
twenty-two million. These people, who in some respects resemble

the Mongolians, were in
possession of both North
and South America when
Columbus discovered
America. They are dis-
tinguished by a copper-
colored skin, prominent
cheek bones, black eyes,
and long, coarse, black
Lair (Fig. 75).

Mongolians. The third
division, the Mongolian or
yellow race, numbering
about five hundred and
forty million, are typically
Asiatic people, the greater
number being found in
Asia and the islands of the
Pacific (Fig. 45).

The Mongolians, typi-
cally represented by the
Chinese and Japanese
(Figs. 43 and 347), have a yellowish, or in some cases even a white
skin, prominent cheek bones, small oblique eyes, a small nose, and
long, coarse, black hair. In places, as on the more remote islands,
the Mongolians are uncivilized ; but the great majority may be
classed as civilized people, although their standard of civilization
differs from that of the white race.

Caucasians. By far the largest and most civilized of the four
divisions of mankind is the white or Caucasian race, which numbers
about seven hundred and seventy million. Their original home is

FIG. 43.
Japanese ladies.

PEOPLES,

not known. With the dawn of history the white peoples of Europe
were mostly barbarians; but civilization had begun to develop in
southern and western Asia and along the shores of the Mediterra-
nean Sea.

While for various reasons the Caucasians differ greatly in char-
acteristics, two main branches are recognized : (1) the fair type
(Fig. 299), with florid complexion, light brown, flaxen, or red hair,
blue or gray eyes, and height above the average ; (2) the dark type

FIG. 44.
A group of Indian Brahmins, who belong to the dark type of Caucasians.

(Fig. 44), with fair skin, dark brown and black hair, often wavy or
curly, and black eyes. In temperament both are active, enterpris-
ing, and imaginative, though the fair type is more stolid, the dark
type more emotional.

Distribution of Races For centuries these four great divisions

of the human race have been changing within themselves until there
are now many subdivisions of each group. By war and invasion
they have encroached upon one another, and have intermixed to
some extent. But the leaders are the whites, who, having learned
the use of ships in exploring distant lands, have spread with a
rapidity never seen, before. Also, being more advanced than the

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

PEOPLES

others, the white races have readily conquered the weaker people
and taken their lands from them. They now dominate the world
(Fig. 45), the only division that has held out against them being
the Mongolians, whose very numbers have in large measure served
to protect them.

Distribution of Religion. Every race has some form of religion,
Among savages it is little more than superstition. They are sur-
rounded by nature, which they do not understand. They seek a
cause, and, seeing none, are led to believe in spirits which they try
to comprehend. Some they suppose to be evil,
others good. Believing that these spirits have great
influence over their lives, they try to win favor with
them by offering sacrifices and worshipping them.

Such religion, if it may be so called, takes many
forms. Some races, as the negroes, believe in witchcraft ;
and among them the witch doctor is sometimes more
powerful than the ruler himself. To ward off evil influ-
ences charms are worn, gross rites are observed, and im-
ages or objects, called fetishes (Fig. 46), are worshipped
because they are believed to possess magic power. Among
these objects are included fire, the sun, the earthquake,
and many animals. So far as the idea of God is con-
cerned, if these people have any conception of Him, it
is of the crudest kind. The negroes, the Indians, the
Eskimos, and even our own ancestors a few thousand
years ago, had little more than this form of religion.

All people with such views as the preceding are
called heathens, and are often said to have no religion Fia ^

at all. From our point of view they have no true A fetish from
religion ; but they have something akin to it. Africa.

Among the semi-civilized and civilized races there are forms of
belief in which the conception of God is higher, and the idea of
future reward and punishment is taught. Of these religions five
call for special mention.

Buddhism, followed especially in eastern Asia, was established in
India five or six hundred years before the time of Christ as a result
of the work and teachings of Buddha (Fig. 47). But there are
many differences in the religious beliefs and customs of the Asiatic
people, and in consequence there are many sects. Brahminim is
one of the most common forms of belief, being especially followed in

GENERAL GEOGRAPHY

India. It would be difficult correctly to describe the religions of
the Asiatic people in a few words ; but idolatry, or the worship of
idols, is prevalent among them. Ancestor worship is common in
China ; and the doctrine of caste, in India, that is, the doctrine of
class distinction. Both of these doctrines, which are a part of their

religion, are opposed to
progress, as we shall see.
The Jewish religion,
still followed by many, up-
holds the worship of one
righteous God, as taught
in the Old Testament.
From this, two other re-
ligions have developed,
Mohammedanism and Chris-
tianity. The prophet Mo-
hammed lived about six
centuries after Christ, and
the Koran contains his
teachings. Mohammedans
deny the divinity of Christ.
This religion has been
spread by the sword with
wonderful rapidity, espe-
cially among the semi-
civilized people of Asia
and Africa. Many of its
followers became fanatics who, believing that they thus obtained
future happiness, willingly died if they could die killing a Chris-
tian.

The Christian religion, the common belief in America and most
of Europe, has spread slowly, but it now numbers about four hun-
dred and forty million followers. Its success, however, must not
be measured by numbers alone ; for Christians make up most of
the really civilized people of the world. It is no accident that
this is so, for Christianity has been one of the chief factors in
making civilization possible.

Religious belief has had much to do with inventions and the
growth of industry. The Chinese, for example, have long opposed
new inventions because their ancestor worship cultivated undue

FIG. 47.
A statue, or idol, of Buddha in India.

PEOPLES 57

reverence for past customs ; also they have been unwilling to dig
into the ground, for fear of disturbing the evil spirits that are sup-
posed to dwell there. Partly for such reasons, our study of geogra-
phy is chiefly concerned with Christian countries ; for there we find
the most varied and extensive uses of the earth in the service of man.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Tell about the Ethiopians ; their characteristics
and distribution. (2) Do the same for the American Indians. (3) Mongolians.
(4) Caucasians. (5) Give reasons for the greater advance of the Caucasians.
(6) Tell about the distribution of religion. (7) Give some facts about heathens ;
Buddhism and Brahminisrn ; Jewish religion ; Mohammedanism ; Christianity.

SUGGESTIONS. (1) What members of the divisions of mankind other than
whites have you seen in your own neighborhood? (2) What d iff erent national-
ities of whites ? (3) Find pictures illustrating human life in the various zones.
(4) Help to make a collection of pictures for the school, to illustrate the various
forms of shelter and clothing. Also find such pictures in this book. (5) Find
some one who has specimens of primitive implements, as Indian arrow-heads,
and examine them. (6) Find out something about the ways in which savage
races ornament their clothing and person.

North Pofe

I. PHYSIOGRAPHY OF NORTH AMERICA

A General View of the Continent. Suppose for a moment that
we were seated on the surface of the moon and were looking toward

that part of the earth upon
which we are now living,
what kind of a picture would
we see ? We would see
North and South America,
two immense blocks of land
connected by the narrow
Isthmus of Panama or Da-
rien, much the same as they
appear in Figure 48. Ob-
serve in this picture that
North America has a dis-
tinctly triangular shape. As
we look more closely we
will notice three great high-
lands bordering the west, the
southeast, and the northeast
sides of the continents.
These are known as the Rocky or Cordilleran, Appalachian, and
Laurentian plateaus. We may also observe that the triangle is
broken on the southeastern and northeastern sides by two great
arms of the Atlantic, that of the Gulf of Mexico and that of
Hudson Bay.

th Pole
FIG. 48.
North and South America.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

FIG. 49.

American continent.

Looking at the great solid mass of the North American continent,
we find it hard to believe that it has grown to its present shape and
size from what in the long
ago were simply three clus-
ters of islands separated
from each other by wide
seas. Let us try to picture
the history of this growth.
The Growth of the Con-
tinent. There are about
one hundred million per-
sons in North America at
the present time, although
a century ago there were
scarcely one-tenth of that
number. This wonderful
growth has been largely
due to the useful and valuable mineral products of the earth; to the
soil and climate which have allowed many different kinds of plants

and animals to thrive;
and to the rivers, water-
falls, lakes, and harbors
which have made manufac-
turing and shipping easy.
As it takes time to
build a house, and to pre-
pare the boards from trees,
the nails from iron ore,
and the bricks from clay,
so it takes time for the
formation of minerals and
rocks and for the building
of a continent. In fact,
millions of years have been
required for that work.

The story, telling how
North America was

FIG. 50.
The development of the North American continent.

is a very interesting one. It has been discovered by a careful study
of the rocks ; and although there are many questions that no man is
yet able to answer, we are prepared to tell a part of the story.

60 NORTH AMERICA

At one time the earth was probably a white-hot sphere like the
sun ; but in time the outside cooled to a crust of solid rock. The
interior, still heated, continued to shrink and grow smaller, as most
substances do when cooling. This caused the solid crust to settle
and wrinkle, much as the skin of an apple does when the fruit is dry-
ing. Water collecting in the depressions formed the oceans, while
between them, where the elevation of the earth's crust was greatest,
rocks appeared above the sea level. Thus North America and the
other continents were born.

In its babyhood, when the folds of the earth's crust began to break
through the surface of the waters, they did not appear as we now
behold them, in the form of a great united land, but as groups of
islands of various sizes, the greater mass occupying the region about
Hudson Bay (Fig. 49). If those who have made a careful study of
the growth of our continent are correct, what does Figure 49 mean ?
It means that about the northeastern portion of the present continent
the beginning of that continent made its appearance. Along the
lines where now lie the Rocky Mountains of the west and the Appa-
lachians of the east, stretches of islands alone showed where the
present great plateaus were to be placed. Figure 49 also shows that
at that distant day the great plains enclosed by the three great
mountain systems were still below the waters, and that the continent,
though but very incomplete, had laid down its great outlines. From
this time forward growth was steadily increasing. The original
group of islands rose higher and higher from the sea, and pushed
forward their shores so as to win more and more of the shallow sea
bottoms and convert them to dry land. Where was the Gulf Stream
all this time ? Is it not possible that it swept up what we now call
the Mississippi Valley, carrying its heated waters to the Arctic
Ocean at the north? If this were the case, is it any wonder that
immense quantities of limestone rocks are now found along this
great valley ?

As time passed, the continents took on more closely the form of
Figure 50. Here the Laurentian and Appalachian plateaus by blend-
ing with each other formed many of the features now peculiar to
eastern and northern America. The Rocky Mountain plateau became
wider and longer, but was still separated from the eastern mass by a
long and shallow sea. The continent continued to increase in size,
the dividing waters changed to shallow lakes separated by great
stretches of marshy lands; these lakes finally vanished, the southern

PHYSIOGRAPHY

FIG. 51.

The way the coal swamps appeared, so far as we can
tell from the fossils which have been preserved.

portion of the Mississippi Valley was built up, and the continent stood

out much the same as it does to-day.

The Coal Period. The slow upward growth of the continent

brought wide areas of sea first into the condition of shallows and

finally into dry land. When

the land first appeared

above the waters, it was low.

Indeed, much of it that has

since been raised into great

plateaus and mountain

chains was then in the

condition of broad plains.

As the climate of this

period was made very

moist by an abundance of

rainfall, extensive swamps

covering all the low-lying

grounds were filled with a dense mass of vegetation related to

the ferns and rushes that we now have (Figs. 51 and 52).

When the plants died, they fell into the swamp water, thus

making a woody matting which did not fully decay and which as

time went on completely filled the
swamp. Were this vegetation dug
up from the swamp bottom and dried,
it would have made fairly good fuel.
Indeed, it is now the custom in Ire-
land and other cool, moist lands to
remove material of this nature from
the bogs and dry it, forming peat, a
fuel used for cooking and heating
purposes in many homes.

As the crust of the earth shrunk
and wrinkled, the land was conse-
quently raised and lowered. Even

to-day the land is slowly moving in some places, and it was doing

the same thing when the continent was younger. As a result of

this raising and lowering of the earth crust, swamps which had been

receiving the dead vegetation of hundreds of years sank beneath the

sea, and were covered by the mud, sand, and gravel which were washed

from the shores, and which have since been hardened into rock.

FIG. 52.

Rock containing a fossil fern which
grew in the swamps of the coal
period.

NORTH AMERICA

After another long period, the sea bottom again came above the
waters, and the dense vegetation of the swamps returned, but this
time the plants grew with their roots in the ocean mud which had
buried the earlier swamp. After many more years the plains sank
again, and the swamp vegetation was covered as before. This hap-
pened in some districts many times, one series of vegetation, soil, and
rock being followed by another until many such
layers were formed (Fig. 53).

The woody material that gathered in the
swamps grew to be scores of feet in thickness, but
on being covered up it was pressed more tightly
together. As the number of layers increased,
causing the pressure to become very great, the
stored-up vegetation slowly changed to coal, mak-
ing beds that are often from six to a dozen feet in
thickness.

There are many varieties of coal. Some of the
poorer coals, known as lignite, are little better than
peat beds. Other coal, called anthracite, formed espe-
cially in portions of the Canadian Rockies and in
the mountains of Pennsylvania, has been changed so
greatly that it is as hard as some rocks, and is known
as hard coal. Most of the coal mined', although quite
like a mineral, and harder than lignite, is not so hard
as anthracite. This is called soft or bituminous coal,
and is found in Nova Scotia, in the Central States, and
in parts of western Canada.

FIG. 53.

All this time, and at other periods during the
upbuilding of our continent, iron, copper, gold,
silver, building-stone, and other materials needed now every day,
were also being slowly formed and preserved in the rocks, but we
cannot now tell their story.

The Plateaus and the Mountains. During the millions of years
that the continent was growing to its present form there were
rising in the northeast, east, and west, mountain systems and sur-
rounding plateaus that were to have a great influence upon our
climate, and therefore upon our crops, our animals, and ourselves.
After the coal period had drawn to a close, the period of plateau-
making and mountain-building began, and resulted in the elevation
of the Appalachian highlands, and afterward in the rearing of the
huge mass of the Cordilleras or Rockies. The Laurentian plateau

PHYSIOGRAPHY 63

was raised almost in the babyhood of the continent. This plateau,
no doubt, was as huge and as massive in its prime as are the Rockies
to-day. Since that time, the rains and the snows, the summers and
the winters, have helped to wear away so much of the former plateau
that what is left is but a shadow of what once was. From this
ancient plateau, however, have come the sands and the mud which
helped to build up the plains to the west and south.

The Appalachians, too, are very old and much worn. At present
these mountains are neither very high nor very rugged, though they
have some peaks which reach more than a mile above the sea. The
western mountains, being the youngest of the three great systems,
are less worn, are more rugged, and have peaks rising three miles
and more above the sea level. At the base of the Appalachians is a
narrow plateau supporting the mountains. This plateau is rarely
more than fourteen hundred feet in height, whereas the Cordilleras
tower above a broad plateau which
is itself more than a mile in height,
or as high as the mountain peaks
of the eastern highlands.

There is one mountain system
connected with our continent which
is- yet so new and so imperfectly
elevated that it gives rise to many
groups of islands, which we have FIG. 54.

called the West Indies. These A small picture of the West Indian region

islands are realiy the highest parts ^ STS.l tLSTlSS

of a fourth mountain chain. They rest on a lofty ridge rising from the

i L j i i_ ocean bottom.

seem to be separated only because

the foundations upon which they rest do not rise high enough to
reach above the water (Fig. 54). In time this system will, by con-
tinuous growth, lead to the rearing not only of the mountains them-
selves, but also of the broad fields of what are now sea bottoms
thus repeating the process of growth which has gone on in the older
regions of the continent.

The Plains or Lowlands between the Mountain Systems. What
has already been said will make it plain that the growth of this con-
tinent, as indeed of all the lands which deserve the name continent,
has been brought about by the development of mountain systems,
the continents being brought into existence either in the form of
sharp ridges or of broad plateaus, which grow upward as the ridges

NOETII AMERICA

arise. Our study of the great elevations of land has prepared the
way for an account of the greater troughs or valleys of the land
and of the rivers which occupy them.

Stretching from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico is one
of the greatest valleys in the world (Fig. 55). This great plain
owes its existence to the meeting of the inner slopes of the three
plateaus. The plain is divided into three immense basins, each with

its characteristic stream.
Emptying into the Gulf of
Mexico is the Mississippi,
which drains, by means of
the Missouri, Ohio, and a
score of other tributaries,
almost the whole of that
portion of the Great Plain
being within the borders
of the United States. The
northern portion of the
Great Plain is occupied in
the main by two river
basins, those of the Nelson
and Saskatchewan, which
include almost the whole
southern portion of western
Canada, or the country
drained by the north and
the south branches of the
Saskatchewan, the Sas-
katchewan proper, the Red,
and the great lakes of Manitoba. The remaining portion of central
Canada is largely in the basin of the great Mackenzie River, which
flows to the northwest and empties into the Arctic Ocean. Along its
course are many large lakes, while its tributaries, the Athabaska,
Peace, and Liard, are among the great streams of the continent.

Between the Laurentian highlands and the northern part of the
Appalachian plateau is situated the valley of the St. Lawrence.
The basin of this mighty river is the second in importance on
our continent. Like the Nelson and Mackenzie Rivers, the St.
Lawrence drains a great number of lakes and is one of the great-
est lake-fed rivers in the whole world. The conditions of the

FIG. 55.

Map of North America showing the extent of the
Great Plain and its relation to the North American
highlands.

PHYSIOGRAPHY

FIG. 5(i.

Relief map of North America.
(Modelled by E. E. Howell.)

NORTH AMERICA

St. Lawrence basin are somewhat peculiar and deserve attention.
On the north it is bounded by the Laurentian uplands, while on the
south there is no such high wall as we are accustomed to find on
either side of a large river valley. Again, the St. Lawrence is also
remarkable in the fact that its waters do not descend by a gentle

FIG. 57.
Profile of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes.

slope to its mouth, but find their way seaward by several great leaps
in rapids and falls which are separated by tiny stretches of nearly
level water (Fig. 57). It is characteristic of nearly all other great
streams that they have to struggle on their way to the sea with a
vast load of sediment brought down from the muddy streams by
which they are fed. Nearly all such material in the basin of the
St. Lawrence is caught by the many lakes of the stream and spread
out on the lake bottoms.

The remaining plains are those between the Appalachian and the
Atlantic and between the Cordilleras and the Pacific, in both of
which are many rivers, but none are deserving, in this general ac-
count of our continent, the same description given the four basins
already mentioned. On the whole, the rivers of the Pacific plain

FIG. 58.
A section across North America from Vancouver to Montreal.

or slope are a less conspicuous feature of the country than those on
the Atlantic side or those in the heart of the continent. The reason
for this appears to be that this western district has been for the
greater part of the time since it became firm land a field in which
little rain has fallen. As a result, few river valleys have been
formed, and those formed are, in consequence of the short distance
of their sources from the sea, the limited rainfall, and the impossi-
bility for several great streams to unite into one great river, but

PHYSIOGRAPHY

CHEAT CENTRAL H-MN APKUACHIAN PLMEAU

FIG. 59.
A section across the United States.

small compared to the giants occupying the balance of the conti-
nent. A careful study of Figures 58 and 59 will help you to under-
stand the relation of the highlands to the lowlands on our continent.

The Great Ice Age.
- Long after the
coal beds were
formed and the great
highlands and val-
leys laid, another
very important
event happened in
the preparation of
this continent as the
home of men. There
came upon the
northern portion of
our continent a vast
coat of ice, which
occupied nearly all
the present land sur-
face of Canada, a
large part of Alaska,
and about one-third
of the area of the

United States. Just
before this " impor-
tant change oc-
curred, there was a
warm climate as far north perhaps as central Greenland, a land now
so cold that only a few plants of the hardiest sort can maintain a
scanty growth. When the fields of ice began to move outward from

FIG. 60.

Map showing the extent of the Great Canadian Glacier. X,
Y, and Z are supposed to be the centres of three of the
glacial sources.

68 NORTH AMERICA

their northern sources (Fig. 60) and from the colder mountain tops
to the plains, all the animal and vegetable life which had occupied
the northern country was forced to retreat southward or perish from
the earth. It is probable that thousands of years were occupied
in the migration, for the ice must have pushed its way but slowly
in its conquest of the great region it came to possess and to change.
After a period of unknown length this ice sheet disappeared, and
with its disappearance, plants and animals came again to possess
the fields. As the ice was, when thickest, more than a mile in depth,
it must have taken a long time to depart. While it lay upon the
northern portion of our continent, it moved slowly from several cen-
tres (Fig. 60) toward the sea and the land, and its first effect was

FIG. 61.
Some hummocks in a moraine formed by the Great Glacier, near Ithaca, N.Y.

to sweep away all the soil which had previously covered the coun-
try. When this was done, the glaciers the name given the ice sheet
next attacked the harder underlying rocks, which it either ground
into rock flour or used as tools by which to gouge out the ground.

For a long time the ice front stretched across the continent
(Fig. 60). This front remained in this position for a long time be-
cause the southward movement of the ice was nearly balanced by the
waste due to the melting. As the mass of ice was constantly carry-
ing forward great quantities of rock which lay on its surface or was
embedded in the ice, and as the water resulting from the melting of
the ice formed many streams laden with sediment, a great portion
of this rubbish was dumped at the front, and an immense heap of
clay, sand, gravel, and boulders was left to show the extent of coun-
try actually covered by the ice. In many places this moraine, as it is
called, had reached the height of several hundred feet (Fig. 61).
When the ice sheet ceased to be well fed by the winter's snow, the
southern edge commenced a northern retreat, for here and there in

PHYSIOGRAPHY 69

the great central plain are to be found smaller moraines represent-
ing halting-places during the backward movement of the glacier.
What would cause this halting ? After many years the ice sheet
disappeared entirely from the land east of the Cordilleras, but the
country covered was more or less buried by a mass of material made
and deposited by the glacier, or by the streams to which the glacier
gave rise.

It was the glacier which gave rise to the great majority of the
lakes of the northern States and of Canada, and the way some of these
lakes were formed is as follows : The layer of clay and boulders, or
drift, as it is called, was heaped irregularly over the land. These
materials sometimes
partly filled valleys
and built up dams,
behind which ponds
and lakes collected
(Fig. 62). The FIG. 62.

glaciers also formed A and B, lakes formed by the moraine (7, blocking the valley

lakes by digging or

ploughing into the rocks. Even the Great Canadian Lakes did not
exist before the glaciers came. Their basins occupy broad river val-
leys which have been blocked up by tremendous dams or banks of
drifts and deepened by the ploughing or gouging of the ice sheet.

The glacier had also an important influence upon our manufactur-
ing, for its load of rock fragments often filled the ancient river valleys
and forced the new rivers to seek other courses which often lay
down steep slopes or across buried ledges on which the water
tumbled in a succession of rapids and waterfalls. The many lakes
along the river courses act as storehouses to keep the noisy falls
and rapids well supplied with the water power we are now using
to run our great mills and factories.

A third important influence of the glacier was upon the soil. In
most parts of the country the soil had been made by the decay of the
rocks, but in the regions covered by the ice this soil was swept away
and replaced by drifts brought by the ice. Most of the clays from
which bricks and pottery are made in Canada were also brought by
the glaciers. With the melting of the ice much water was produced.
This worked out or sifted a great deal of the clay, leaving behind
in some places extensive sand and gravel plains where the soil is not
very fertile. The beds of ground-up rock sometimes left a fertile

NORTH AMERICA

soil in places where the decay of the rocks would naturally have
caused a sterile soil. On the other hand, in some places, the ice
failed to grind the rock finely enough and therefore left pebbles and
boulders to cover the ground and annoy the farmer.

The Climate. All kinds of vegetation require a certain amount
of moisture and a certain amount of heat. The sun is the source of
heat, and the ocean the source of moisture. Winds are the carriers

of both. It is neces-
sary, therefore, that
the continent of
North America
should have its
mountain systems
so placed as to per-
mit the air laden
with moisture and
heat to reach the
farming lands
everywhere. Now,
we all know that
heat on the whole
decreases from the
equator to the poles
on the land and on
the water, but the
rate of the decrease

FIG. 63.

Map showing the winds and currents that affect North Amer-
ica. ABC, July line of temperature, 60; EFG, January
line of temperature, 50.

is not the same for these two substances. We know that when the
earth in the region of Winnipeg, Ottawa, and Montreal is favored
with a July sun and summer winds, the Atlantic Ocean at the same
distance from the equator is not nearly so warm. We also know
that the reverse is true of these regions in the month of January.
The reason for this is the fact that water is more slowly heated
and more slowly cooled than land. Figure 63 will help you to
understand what we have just mentioned.

As the winds are the carriers of heat and moisture from the ocean,
it follows that the location of the great highland regions of a conti-
nent may either retard or aid in the distribution of that carried.
The plateau of the Rockies, by stretching across the path of the
southwest or Pacific winds, causes a large portion of the western
part of the Great Plain to assume an arid or semiarid condition.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 71

When a more bountiful rainfall would be a decided advantage to
the region, it must not be forgotten that these Pacific winds pass
over the plains as warm winds, that have the effect of modifying very
materially the winter's climate of Alberta and western Saskatchewan
and the country corresponding to the south.

The absence of a mountain chain across the great central plain,
the presence of a large body of heated water at the south, and of the
cold Hudson Bay at the north permits the moisture-laden winds of
the Gulf of Mexico to extend far to the north, a feature of immense
value to the grain fields and pastures of the country about the inter-
national boundary between Canada and the United States. This
arrangement, however, does not prevent the cold winds of the north
from sweeping occasionally as far south as the mouth of the Missis-
sippi. The Pacific coast climate may be described by saying that in
the north the rains are abundant west of the mountains, but as we
go southward, we come to a climate where the summers are almost
rainless and where the winters are always mild. The Atlantic coast
climate may also be divided into two regions. The northern portion,
including the St. Lawrence Valley, is usually a region of abundant
summer rains and winter snows. The districts tying south of this
and north of the peninsula of Florida, being exposed to the moisture-
laden Atlantic winds, is a region of rainy summers and far from
rainless winters.

Thus, though our continent lies between two great oceans, it is
in its interior regions relatively little affected by this influence.
The effect of the Gulf of Mexico is felt upon all the central and
eastern parts of the Mississippi Valley and even by and into the
region of the Red River of the North and the Great Lakes. Outside
in the Atlantic and Pacific are great currents of warm and of cold
water, the effect of which may readily be seen by an examination of
the positions of these currents on Figure 63.

The Coast Line. We have already said that the land and sea
bottoms are not fixed, but that they often slowly rise or sink. Such
changes in the level of the land are even now in progress in many
places, though so slowly as to require years and even centuries to
notice them. The reason we find so many islands and peninsulas
along the northeastern coast is because this region has been lowered
so as to allow the sea to enter the valleys while the higher land
between extends above the water in the form of capes, peninsulas,
and islands. Labrador, Nova Scotia, and the scores of islands along

NORTH AMERICA

the northeastern coast owe their existence to the sinking. The
indented Pacific coast of Canada was produced in the same way.
By the sinking of the land many good harbors were made, the
best being where rivers enter the sea. This is the way the Gulf of
St. Lawrence was formed. It is also the way New York, San Fran-
cisco, as well as many other fine harbors of the east and west were
made. When the land in all the before-mentioned regions was
higher, the streams carved out broad valleys into which, when the
land sank, the sea entered. One reason for the absence of good
harbors along the Gulf of Mexico coast, and the United States coast

for many miles north of
Florida, is due to the
fact that the land in
these regions has been
rising out of the sea.
Just off these coasts is
a broad ocean-bottom
plain where the water
is shallow, while still
farther out, the bottom
slopes rapidly and the
ocean becomes very deep. If this sunken plain, called the conti-
nental shelf, should be raised, it would form a great level country
like that shown in Figure 64.

Size, Shape, and Position. North America is third in size among
the six continents of the earth. By reference to the tables in the
Appendix, find which are larger and which smaller.

After being changed in shape during millions of years, owing to
the rising and sinking of the land, it at present has the form of a
triangle with the broadest portion in the north. Draw the triangle.
Compare its shape with that of South America and Africa. The
northern part is so wide that Alaska extends to within fifty miles of
Asia ; but Labrador is over two thousand miles away from Europe.
The distance from Alaska to Asia is so short that the early ancestors
of the Indians and Eskimos probably first reached North America by
crossing over from Asia. On account of the greater distance across
the Atlantic, Europeans for a long time did not know that North
America existed ; but it is certain that the Norsemen from Nor-
way visited our shores nearly five hundred years before Columbus
discovered the continent.

FIG. <>4.

A part of the raised sea-bottom which forms the level
plain of Florida.

PHYSIOGRAPHY 73

Those portions of North America which are nearest to Asia and
Europe are very thinly populated. Farther south, where most of
the inhabitants live, the continents are spread farther apart, as you
will see by examining a globe. The broad Atlantic must be crossed
in passing from Europe to America, and this has helped in the indus-
trial development of the continent. At first, the colonists brought
even bricks, doors, and timber from England and France ; but
although the ocean is an excellent highway, it is expensive to send
goods such long distances. Therefore the settlers soon learned to
raise and make most of the articles that they needed for food, cloth-
ing, and shelter. Nevertheless, the ocean is such an excellent high-
way, that ships are able to sail across it in every direction, and bring
what we really need, or carry back such products as grain, cotton,
and tobacco, which Europeans desire.

The Pacific Ocean is much wider than the Atlantic, and therefore
much more difficult to cross. Although the shores of Asia which face
North America are densely settled, until recently there has been very
little commerce with the inhabitants of that continent because they were
not very progressive. Now, however, that the Japanese have adopted the
methods of modern civilization, and China is being opened up, a large
trade has been developed.

South America is also easily reached by water, and there is much trade
with the various countries of that continent. Although South America is
joined to North America by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, there is at
present no railway connecting the two continents, though one is being
planned. This isthmus is a great barrier to ocean commerce between
eastern and western North America and between eastern Canada and the
United States and Asia. It is very narrow, and in places only two or three
hundred feet high ; yet, because it is there, ships must travel thousands of
miles around South America. A railway crosses it, and a ship canal is
now being constructed under the direction of the government of the United
States. Of what advantage will this canal be?

Summary. We see, therefore, that our continent, as we now
know it, has not been here from the beginning ; instead of that,
thousands upon thousands of years have been required to prepare it
for us. Ocean bottoms have been lifted into mountains, plateaus,
and valleys ; coal beds, building stones, and valuable minerals have
been formed ; a mighty glacier has swept over the country, grinding
rock into powder and causing lakes, water-routes, falls, and rapids ;
the coast has been sinking here and rising there, producing fine
harbors in some places and greatly increasing the boundaries of th^

74 NORTH AMERICA

plains in others ; and finally, the greater portion of the continent has
been planned so well with relation to the heat of the sun and the
ocean moisture as to permit of a vast farming country to be worked
successfully.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Why should we know our own continent?

(2) What was the condition of North America in early times? (3) Name and
locate our great highland regions. (4) Describe each of them. (5) What is
coal made from ? Tell how it was formed. (6) What proofs are there of this
formation? (7) What is peat? (8) In what order were the mountains built up?
(9) Why are there so many mines found in mountainous regions? (10) Mention
in what ways the mountains control the great valleys of the Mississippi, Nelson,
Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie. (11) What differences would follow if the moun-
tain ranges extended east and west? (12) Describe the corning of the Great
Glacier. (13) Tell about its withdrawal. (14) How far did the Great Glacier
extend southward? (15) How were moraines made? (16) In what directions
did the ice move ? How do you know ? (17) How did the Glacier assist in the
formation of lakes? (18) Tell how the ice helped to make and to distribute
the soil. (19) Of what use are falls and rapids? (20) How were these made?
(21) Why are there so many harbors along the northeastern coast of America,
and so few along the Gulf of Mexico coast? (22) Name some of these harbors.

(23) How does North America compare in size with the other continents?

(24) How far is the mainland from Asia? From Europe? (25) Make a map
of North America showing as many of the physical features mentioned in the
chapter as you can.

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Make a collection of different kinds of coal. (2) Ex-
amine some pieces of soft coal closely to see if you can discover plant remains.

(3) Observe some peat. (4) Learn what you can about coal mining. (5) Ex-
amine layers of rock in your neighborhood to see if they are horizontal or tilted.
See if they contain fossils. (6) Make a map showing the extent of the Great
Glacier. (7) What signs of the Glacier, if any, can you find in your neighbor-
hood? (8) Name several cities that have grown up around the harbors of North
America. (9) Draw an outline map of the northeastern coast and another of the
southern coast, to see how they differ. (10) How many days long is the voyage,
on a fast steamer, from Montreal to Liverpool? (11) How long is the journey
from Vancouver to Yokohama? From San Francisco to Manila?

II. PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

THE climate of a region is one of the most important facts con-
cerning it ; for where temperature and rainfall are favorable, plants
usually grow luxuriantly. And since plants furnish animals with
food, where vegetation is luxuriant, animal life may be abundant.

Since North America extends far north and south, and possesses
lofty mountain ranges and enclosed plateaus, it has a great variety
of climate, and, therefore, a
great variety of plant and
animal life.

Plants of the North. The
northern part of the continent
is bitterly cold. In that re-
gion there is a vast area where
the soil is always frozen, ex-
cept at the very surface, which
thaws out for a few weeks in
summer. On account of the
frost, trees such as we are
familiar with cannot grow.
Their roots are unable to pen-
etrate the frozen subsoil and
to find the necessary plant
food. There are some wil-
lows, birches, and a few other plants with woody tissue, bark,
leaves, and fruit ; but instead of towering scores of feet into the air,
they creep along the surface like vines, and rise but an inch or two
above ground. Only by thus hugging the earth can they escape the
fierce blasts of winter and find protection beneath the snow.

A few grasses and small flowering plants grow rapidly, produce
flowers, even close by the edge of snowbanks (Fig. 65), and then
pass away, all within the few short weeks of summer. Some of
these plants produce berries, which after ripening are preserved by
the snows ; thus, when the birds arrive in the spring, they find food
ready for them.

FIG. 65.

Arctic poppies growing on the edge of a
snowbank.

NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 6(i.
Walrus on the Arctic floe ice.

Animals of the North. The summer development of insects is
rapid, like the growth of plants. As the snow melts and the surface
thaws, the ground becomes wet and swampy, and countless millions

of insects appear. Among
them the most common is,
apparently, the mosquito.
There are few parts of the
world where this creature is
a worse pest than on the bar-
ren lands of North America
and the tundras of Europe
and Asia, as these treeless,
frozen lands are called.

Few large land animals
are able to thrive in so cold
a climate and where there
is such an absence of plant
food. The reindeer, or cari-
bou, the musk-ox, polar bear,
white fox, and Arctic hare
are the largest four-footed land animals (Fig. 67) ; and the crow,
sparrow, and ptarmigan are the most common land birds.

The ptarmigan changes its plumage to white in winter, and other
animals of the Arctic, such as the fox, polar bear, baby seal, and hare,
are also white. This serves to conceal them, in that land of snow and
ice, so that they may hide from their enemies, or steal upon their prey
unawares.

The tiny white fox feeds upon birds and other animal food ; but the
other land animals, except the polar bear, live upon plants, such as ber-
ries, grass, and moss. The caribou finds a kind of plant, called " rein-
deer moss," which grows upon rocks that rise above the deep winter
snows. If it were not for this, the reindeer Avould not be able to live
through the long winter. Often, also, lie paws through the snow to find
this moss.

While some animals live upon the land in the Arctic regions,
many more have their homes in the sea, because there, except at the
very surface, the temperature never descends below the freezing
point. Therefore there is plenty of animal life of all sizes, from
the very tiniest forms to the whale, the largest animal in the world.
During the winter the surface of the sea freezes over ; and then

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

Some of the animals of the North. The great auk had such small wings that it
could not fly. It was killed in great numbers by sailors, and has been com-
pletely exterminated.

78 NORTH AMERICA

many of the sea animals migrate southward. Even the huge walrus
(Fig. 66) moves clumsily toward a more favorable climate. The
birds go farthest, especially the geese, ducks, and gulls, which fly to
a more southern climate, to spend the winter where their food is not
covered by ice.

Sea birds exist by hundreds of thousands (Fig. 67), building their
nests upon rocky cliffs in immense numbers. Indeed, they are so numer-
ous that, when suddenly frightened, as by the firing of a gun, they rise in
a dense cloud that obscures the sun. Then, with their cries they produce
a din that is almost deafening. In the water, seals and walruses live, the
former being so valuable for their oil and skins that men go on long
voyages to obtain them. The oil comes from a layer of fat, or " blubber,"
just beneath the skin, that serves to keep out the cold.

The seal is the most common of the Arctic sea animals, and is the
principal food of the Eskimo and the polar bear. The bear, protected
from observation by his white color, stealthily creeps upon his prey,
asleep upon the ice ; or he patiently watches until his victim swims
within reach, and then seizes him with his powerful claws.

Plants and Animals in Western United States and Northern
Mexico. A large area in western United States and Mexico has
a very slight rainfall, although its temperature is agreeable. In
some places, as near the Pacific coast and upon the mountain tops
and high plateaus, there is rain enough for forests to thrive ; but in
most portions of this region the climate is so dry that there are no
trees whatsoever. Indeed, some parts are desolate in the extreme
and almost devoid of life, both plant and animal ; in other words,
they are true deserts.

One common plant is the bunch grass, so called because it grows in
little tufts or bunches. The sage bush, a plant with a pale green leaf,
named because of its sagelike odor, is found throughout most of this arid
region. Other common plants are the mesquite, the century plant with
its sharp-pointed leaves, and the cactus with its numerous thorns. In
favorable spots, especially in the warm Southwest, the mesquite grows to
large size ; and the cactus, which in the North is always low and repre-
sented by only a few kinds, in the Southwest, as in Arizona, grows in
great variety and, in some cases, even to the height of trees.

On account of the extreme dryness of the climate, these plants have
a severe struggle for existence, and adopt peculiar means for protecting
themselves. For example, the cactus, unlike other plants, has no leaves.
It thus exposes little surface to the air for evaporation. In its great,
fleshy stem it stores water to us,e through the long, dry seasons, while

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

FIG. G8.

Some of the animals of the plateaus and mountains of the western United States.
A number of these animals are found in British Columbia.

NOBTU AMERICA

spines protect it from animals in search of food. The mesquite also pro-
tects itself by spines, and in addition has such large roots that the part of
the plant under ground is greater than that above. The roots of this
plant are an important source of wood for fuel. Some of these plants, as
mesquite, are so bitter that they are not eaten by animals.

Animals eat few of the arid land
plants except the grasses, which were
once the food of the buffalo, or bison
(Fig. 72), and are now the support of
cattle and sheep. The cowardly prairie
wolf, or coyote, and the graceful ante-
lope and the rabbits upon which it
feeds, are the most abundant (Fig. 68).
Among the rabbits is the long-legged
jack rabbit, which leaps across the
plains with astonishing speed, with its
huge ears thrown back so far that they
do not retard its progress.

The fierce puma, or mountain lion,
still lives among the mountains, and
also the ugly cinnamon and grizzly
bears (Fig. 68), though the latter are
now rare and difficult to find. Deer
and elk inhabit the forest-covered moun-
tains; and among the higher peaks a
few mountain goats and sheep still live on the more inaccessible
rocky crags (Fig. 68). The sheep have huge horns much prized by
hunters.

Plants and Animals of the Tropical Zone. Contrast the life in
the frozen North with that in Central America and southern Mexico.
In these regions, which are situated in the torrid zone, the tempera-
ture is always warm ; and the rainfall, especially on the eastern
coast, is so heavy that all the conditions are favorable for dense
vegetation.

Indeed, the tangle of growth in the forests is often so great that it is
practically impossible to pass through without hewing one's way. Besides
trees and underbrush, there are quantities of ferns, vines, and flowers,
many of which hang from the trees with their roots in the air instead of
in the ground. They are able to live in this way on account of the damp
air. Among the trees are the valuable rosewood, mahogany, ebony, and

FIG. i).

Giant cactus in the desert of south-
western Arizona.

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

FIG. 70.
A few of the animals of the tropical forests.

82 NORTH AMERICA

rubber tree; and among the /flowers are the beautiful orchids. On account
of the continual warmth and moisture, many plants, like the banana for
instance, bear fruit throughout the year.

In the midst of such luxuriant vegetation, animal life is wonder-
fully varied and abundant. There are the tapir, monkey, and jaguar
(Fig. 70) ; brilliantly colored birds, such as parrots, paroquets, and
humming birds ; and millions of insects. Scorpions and centipedes
abound, and ants exist in countless numbers, some in the ground,
others in decayed vegetation. Serpents, some of them poisonous,
are common in the forests ; and in the rivers are fish and alligators,
the latter being found as far north as Florida and Louisiana.

Plants, Animals, and Birds in the Temperate Part of North Amer-
ica. Between the frigid and torrid zones, and both east and west
of the arid region, is an area of moderate rainfall and temperature
where the vegetation and animals differ from those of the other
sections. Beginning in the warm South and passing northward, we
find that both animals and plants grow less numerous and less varied
until, near the arctic zone, they- become scarce and few in kind.
The pines and oaks give place to the spruce, balsam fir, and maple ;
then these gradually become stunted and disappear, and beyond this
the barrens are reached.

The wild animal life in the temperate portion of Canada is very
varied. The moose and the woodland caribou may be found in the
wooded regions all over Canada, while the Virginia deer is common
in the forests of Ontario, Quebec, and New Brunswick. The mule-
deer, the prong-horned antelope, and the American elk, or wapiti,
make their home west of the Great Lakes. The mountain lion and
the wolverine are common in British Columbia. The wild cat and
lynx roam the forests everywhere. Bears, wolves, and foxes of
various species may be found in all parts of Canada. The smaller
animals, such as the marten, weasel, ermine, mink, otter, muskrat,
rabbit, squirrel, etc., abound ; while the beaver is still found, although
in diminished numbers. In British Columbia the Rocky Moun-
tain goat and the big-horn sheep, although constantly hunted, are
steadily increasing. The greater number of these animals are
protected by provincial laws, which prohibit shooting except at
certain seasons, and then only in small numbers. In northern
United States, with few exceptions, the animals are the same as in
Canada.

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

Other animals of Canada and the United States. With the exception of the musk
ox, all of these animals are found in the temperate parts.

NORTH AMERICA

The bird life of Canada is quite as abundant as the animal life,
there being over six hundred varieties of birds found in the coun-
try. Wild fowl abound everywhere. This is due largely to the
fact that more than one-half of the fresh water of the world is in
the Dominion of Canada, and here the wild fowl gather to build their
nests and rear their young. The coasts also swarm with waterfowl
of all kinds.

Formerly the prairies of the Great Central Plain were the grazing
place for immense herds of buffalo, or bison. The bison, however, were
slaughtered, thousands upon thousands, for their hides and tongues

alone, and their bones left
to whiten upon the plains.
The result is that the bi-
son is almost extinct, only
a few herds, such as those
at Banff and at Winnipeg
(Fig. 72) and in the Yel-
lowstone National Park,
being still preserved.

A slow change has
been in progress in this
temperate section, which,
when first discovered,
was clothed in forests
and luxuriant prairie
grass, and inhabited by Indians and wild beasts. The white man
has come into possession of the land and has cleared the forests and
ploughed the prairies, so that, where trees stood and Indians hunted
the bison and other game, there are now fertile farms and thriving
cities.

Our crops and domesticated animals well illustrate how man has
learned to make use of nature for his needs. Every one of our cultivated
plants was once a wild plant; and each of our domesticated animals has
been tamed from the wild state. Most of these have come from Europe
and Asia; but America has added some to the list. Among plants in
common use, the Indian corn, or maize, the tobacco, tomato, pumpkin, and
potato were unknown to the Old World until America was discovered.
The same is true of the turkey ; and perhaps, in a hundred years or
so, the bison may be included among the domesticated animals, for on
some of the cattle ranches of the West a few small herds are being
carefully reared.

Buffalo from the herd at Winnipeg.

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

PEOPLES

Eskimos. America was inhabited for thousands of years before
it was discovered by white men. To the natives in the southern
part Columbus gave the name Indians, supposing he had reached
India. Those in the Far North, who subsist on meat, are called
Eskimos, a word meaning flesh-eaters.

To-day, in some places, the Eskimos (Fig. 73) live in very nearly
the same condition as formerly, their climate being so severe that
white men have not settled among
them nor interfered with their cus-
toms. They still roam about in
summer, living in skin tents, or
tuples, and in the winter erecting
snow and ice huts, or igloos. Their
struggle is a hard one, for they not
only have to battle against cold,
but also to obtain their food amid
great difficulties. In this they
are aided by their dogs, doubtless
domesticated wolves, which, like
their masters, are able to subsist
upon a meat diet and withstand
the severe Arctic cold. Every Es-
kimo man has his team of dogs to
draw his sledge over the frozen sea.

Indians. Indians were origi-
nally scattered over most of the country south of the Arctic Circle.
This is indicated by the places that bear Indian names, as Canada,
Toronto, Winnipeg, Ottawa, Erie, Huron, Illinois, Dakota, Pueblo,
and Sioux City. Some of the tribes were true savages ; others, not
so savage, may be classed as barbarians. They raised " Indian
corn " and tobacco, baked pottery, used tools and weapons made of
stone, and lived in villages.

In Mexico and Central America the aborigines were more civil-
ized. Much of that region is arid ; but the Indians raised crops by
irrigation, and built fortresses of stone and sun-dried brick (Fig. 74).
These were erected partly as. homes for protection from surrounding
savages, and partly as storehouses for grain.

FIG. 73.
An Eskimo family.

86 NORTH AMERICA

The most noted among these Indians were the Aztecs, who occu-
pied the city of Mexico and some of the neighboring country. They
had government and religion much better developed than the bar-
barous and savage tribes. They mined gold and silver, and manu-
factured the metals into various articles ; they wove blankets, and
ornamented their pottery and their buildings in an artistic manner.
Living the quiet life of the farmer, the Aztecs preferred peace to
war, and a settled home to the nomadic life of the hunter.

The pueblo of Taos in New Mexico. Notice the ladders leading to the roofs upon which are

the house entrances.

While some tribes thus approached a state of civilization, the Indians,
as a race, never became a powerful people. For this there are several
reasons. Instead of forming one great confederacy and living at peace
with one another, they were divided into many tribes. Each tribe had
a certain area over which it could roam and hunt ; but if it encroached
upon its neighbors, war followed. Under these circumstances it was diffi-
cult for one tribe to advance to a much higher state of civilization than
the others.

The level nature of the country rendered this difficulty all the greater.
Had the surface of North America been very mountainous, some tribes
might have been so protected by surrounding mountain walls as to dare to
devote themselves to other work than war. Then they might gradually
have collected wealth and developed important industries ; but the vast
Great Central plain, and the extensive plains and low mountains of the
eastern part of the continent, allowed little protection. If any one tribe
had built good homes on these plains and collected treasures within them,
the neighboring Indians would have felt that a special invitation had been
extended to attack them. The Aztecs were continually in danger from

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES

this cause. However, the fact that they were partly protected by moun-
tains and deserts, was one of the reasons why they were more civilized
than the Indians of the northeast.

Another serious obstacle to the advancement of the Indians was the
fact that they possessed no domestic animals for use in agriculture. The
horse, cow, ass, sheep, goat, and hog were unknown to them ; and without
these farm work becomes the worst of drudgery, because every product
must be raised by hand.

Again, although there was much game, the supply was never sufficient
to support a dense population for a long period. Even the scattered
Indian population was obliged to wander about in search of it. This
prevented them from living quietly and finding time for improvement.
All these facts worked against the ad-
vancement of the Indians ; but they
proved of great advantage to the whites,
making it far easier than it would other-
wise have been for them to obtain pos-
session of America.

FIG. 75.

Indian woman carrying her baby, or
papoose.

There are at the present time in
Canada about one hundred ^thousand
Indians, scattered from the Atlantic
to the Pacific. Some of the tribes
are nomadic, but the greater number
of the Indians have made treaties
with the Dominion government and
are settled in reservations set aside
for their use. The Indians have
always in Canada been very kindly treated by the government, so
there has been very little trouble in dealing with them.

The Spaniards. The astonishment of Europe was great when
it was proved that there were vast territories on this side of the
Atlantic. America was pictured as containing all sorts of treasures,
and European nations vied with one another in fitting out expeditions
to take possession of them.

The Spaniards naturally led, for they were then one of the most
powerful nations of Europe, and had sent out Columbus as their
representative. Leaving Palos in Spain on his first voyage, he was
carried south west ward by the winds to one of the West Indies, a
point much farther south than Spain itself.

The section reached by the Spaniards had a climate similar to
that of their own country, and they easily made themselves at home
there, and soon came into possession of most of South America,

NORTH AMERICA

Central America, Mexico, and southwestern United States. They
had one advantage over the English and French, who settled far-
ther north: the portion of the continent that they discovered is so
narrow that they easily crossed it, and thus enjoyed the privilege
of exploring the Pacific coast also. It was because of this fact
that the Spanish race settled the western coast as far north as San
Francisco.

The French. The French began their settlements in a very dif-
ferent quarter, being first attracted to America by the excellent
fishing on the Newfoundland banks. Soon the fur trade with the
Indians proved profitable, and the French took possession of Nova
Scotia and the region along the St. Lawrence River and the Great
Lakes. Port Royal, Quebec, and Montreal were founded, and forts
built to protect the settlers from the Indians and the English.

The value of the fur trade, and a desire to convert the Indians
to Christianity, led the French far into the interior of the continent,
both to the west and northward. Making their way southward to
the mouth of that river, they took possession of the whole Missis-
sippi Valley, and called it Louisiana, in honor of their great king,
Louis XIV. In order to hold this vast territory, they established
a chain of trading posts and forts from the Gulf of Mexico to the
Gulf of St. Lawrence. Other explorers made their way north as
far as Hudson Bay, and laid claim to that territory in the name of
their king.

The English. The Spanish and French left only a narrow strip
along the Atlantic coast for other nations. Among those who at-
tempted settlements were
the Dutch in New York
and the Swedes in Dela-
ware. But the English,
settling at various points
along the coast, soon ob-
tained the lead. They
captured New York City
(then called New Amster-
dam) from the Dutch, and
extended their settlements
along most of the coast
from Florida to Nova Sco-
tia. In addition, they laid

FIG. 7G.

Map showing the claims of France, England, and Spain
upon the territory of central North America in 17(50.

100I.ongi tude West 90 from Greenwich 80

FIG. 77.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) What oceans touch the coast of North America? (2) Lo-
cate the highlands and watersheds of the continent. Point out the largest rivers.
Locate on an outline map the highlands and rivers. (3) Compare the area of
the large river basins. (4) Compare the eastern with the western highlands.
(5) Trace the boundaries of the central plain and estimate its extent. (6) Lo-
cate the great lakes of the continent. Compare the area of the lakes in Canada
with the area of those in the United States. (7) Name and locate each of the
large peninsulas, islands, gulfs, bays, and seas. (8) Compare the eastern with
the western coast of North America. (9) Locate and give the boundaries of
each of the political divisions. (10) Name and locate the largest cities. Com-
pare the advantages in the situation of each.

PLANTS, ANIMALS, AND PEOPLES 89

claim to and explored the northern interior of the continent, moving
inland from the fur-trading posts on Hudson Bay.

In several respects the portion that fell to the English seemed
much less desirable than that held by the Spanish and French
(Fig. 76) ; yet the English-speaking race has managed, not only to
retain this, but to add to it most of the possessions of the other two.
At the present time, the control of the entire continent, with the
exception of Mexico, Central America, and a few small islands, is in
the hands of the English-speaking race.

By the treaty of Paris in 1763 the whole of Canada owned by the
French was handed over to Great Britain. Soon after, the Thirteen Col-
onies rebelled against the mother country and, after obtaining their free-
dom, formed the United States of America. In 1803 the United States
purchased from the French Louisiana, which included a large part of the
Mississippi Valley. In 1821 Mexico secured her independence, but in
1848 was compelled to cede a portion of her territory to the United States.
In 1867 the Dominion of Canada was formed, and shortly after enlarged
by the addition of the Hudson Bay Territories, British Columbia, and
Prince Edward Island. In the same year, 1867, the United States pur-
chased Alaska from the Russians for the sum of $7,200 ; 000.

Negroes. While the Indians of the East were being killed in
war and driven westward, negroes were being brought from Africa.
There are now fully eight million blacks in the United States, which
is about one-tenth of its entire population, and thirty times the
number of Indians. Before and during the American Civil War
quite a number of negroes took refuge in Canada, settling for the
most part near the border in Ontario.

Slavery was first introduced into America by the Spaniards, who made
slaves of the Indians, and afterward imported negroes from Africa. The
first negro slaves in the British colonies were brought to Virginia in 1619,
but their number increased very slowly until the close of that century.
The demand for cheap labor was partly supplied by criminals sent over
from England, and by other immigrants who gave their services for a few
years in payment for their passage across the sea. Many of these were
men and women of good character, who became excellent citizens.

Negro slaves were brought to all the colonies, but they soon proved
a much more profitable investment in the South than in the North. In
the NCAV England states the farms were small, the products were numer-
ous, and their cultivation required considerable skill. Moreover, the
climate was severe for natives of tropical Africa. On the other hand, the
Southern climate was well suited to them ; and the simple routine work

upon the great tobacco, cotton, sugar, and rice plantations was such as
they could easily perform. Accordingly, the number of negroes increased
in the South, while slavery gradually disappeared from the North.

Immigrants to America. Both Europe and Asia have poured
forth a stream of immigrants into America, more especially into the
United States, but latterly into Canada as well. The increase in
population of the United States from a little over three millions in
1785 to nearly eighty millions at present is due largely to this steady
stream from abroad. Nearly every foreign language is represented,
and upon the streets of the larger cities in Canada and the United
States may be heard the languages of most of the civilized peoples of
the world. The greater number of the immigrants into America
have come from the British Isles and from the nations of northern
Europe. More recently there has been a large influx of settlers from
southern Europe. In Canada these peoples have for the most part
settled in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta.

REVIEW QUESTIONS. (1) Of what importance is climate? (2) Why are
there no large trees in the cold North ? (3) Describe the vegetation there. (4) Tell
about the animals that live on the land. (5) Why are there more animals in the
sea? (6) What kinds live there? (7) How do arid land plants protect them-
selves? (8) Tell what you can about the animals living in the arid lands.
(9) Why should there be more life in the tropical zone? (10) Xame some of the
animals living there. (11) What can you say of the plants of the moist temperate
zone? (12) Of the animals? (13) Of the bison? (14) What cultivated plants
and domesticated animals has North America supplied?

(15) Describe the difficulties that the Eskimos encounter. (16) Give some
examples of Indian names. (17) Describe the life of tne different kinds of In-
dians. (18) What causes prevented the Indians from becoming more civilized ?
(19) Give a reason why the Aztecs were able to advance. (20) What advantage
did their location in southern North America give the Spaniards? (21) How did
the Spaniards treat the Indians? (22) What attracted the French to America 1
Where did they settle? (23) What other nations settled in the East? (24) What
has been the fate of the Spaniards in America? (25) Why have the English-
speaking people come into possession of the greater part of the continent ?
(26) Tell about the beginnings of slavery in America; why was it more suc-
cessful in the South than in the North? (27) Where do our immigrants come
from?

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Examine some century and cactus plants. (2) Find some
furniture made of mahogany or other tropical wood. (3) Visit a greenhouse to
see orchids. (4) Collect pictures of native plants, animals, and birds of North
America. (5) Collect samples of different American woods. (6) What have you
read about the bison? About Indians? Write a story about each. (7) Do you
know any of the negro melodies that were sung on the plantations?

III. THE DOMINION OF CANADA

The Countries of North America. The continent of North America
is under the control of various nations. The Dominion of Canada
is a colony of Great Britain, as are also Newfoundland, Labrador,
British Honduras, and a number of the islands of the West Indies.
Greenland is a Danish colony. The United States, Mexico, and the
six Central American Republics Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras,
Guatemala, San Salvador, and Panama are independent nations.
Alaska belongs to the United States, as do Porto Rico and the
Hawaiian Islands. The islands of the West Indies, not controlled
by Great Britain and by the United States, are either independent
or are owned by one or other of the European powers.

The Provinces of Canada. The Dominion of Canada was formed
in 1867 by the union of the four provinces of Ontario, Quebec, New
Brunswick, and Nova Scotia. Soon after, the Hudson Bay Territory
was acquired by the Dominion, and from this was carved, in 1870,
the province of Manitoba, and in 1905 the provinces of Alberta
and Saskatchewan. In 1871 British Columbia joined the confed-
eration, and in 1873 Prince Edward Island threw in her lot with
the Dominion. There are now in Canada nine provinces, one
organized district, Yukon, and the unorganized North- West Terri-
tories. Locate each of these provinces and districts on the map
of Canada (Fig. 78).

Although Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, yet
the provinces are closely connected with one another by means of one or
more lines of railway. When the Dominion was formed in 1867, it was
agreed that a railway should be constructed between the maritime and
the upper provinces. This was undertaken at once, and the Intercolonial
Railway, owned by the Dominion Government, now connects Halifax and
Montreal. Similarly, it was agreed with British Columbia, in 1871, that a
line of railway should be built to connect that province with Ontario and
Quebec. The Canadian Pacific Railway, completed in 1885, now joins
Vancouver and Montreal, and in addition a short line of the same railway,
running for a portion of the distance through the United States, connects
Montreal and St. John. Both the Canadian Pacific and the Grand Trunk
Railways have many branches throughout Ontario and Quebec. The

92 NORTH AMERICA

Canadian Northern Railway, in addition to branches in Ontario and
Quebec, extends from Port Arthur to points in western Alberta, and will
ultimately push its way through to the Pacific coast. A new line, the
Grand Trunk Pacific, is now in course of construction, and will, when com-
pleted, extend from Moncton, New Brunswick, to Prince Rupert, British
Columbia. A portion of this line is being built by the Dominion Govern-
ment. A line of steamers, owned and operated by the Dominion Govern-
ment, plies between Prince Edward Island and the mainland. Trace these
lines of railway on the map (Figs. 78 and 167).

Government of Canada. The Dominion of Canada is so large and
so different in the various parts that in order to study it in detail
we must divide it into sections. The provincial and district boun-
daries will serve as a means of thus dividing the country, and these
divisions will be taken up in order, beginning with the province of
Ontario. But, as the Dominion of Canada is a federation, there is
one matter that concerns all the provinces that cannot be treated
under any one section, and must be taken up at this point. This is
the question of government.

Canada, being a colony of Great Britain, owes allegiance to Edward VII,
King of Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the Seas. But in all matters of importance, particularly taxation and
expenditure, Canada is self-governing, and only in questions that concern
the interests of the British Empire as a whole does the home government
claim any control over the Dominion. The sovereign is represented in
Canada by the Governor-General, who is appointed by and holds office
during the pleasure of the Imperial Government.

While each province has complete control over its own local affairs, it
has representation in the Senate and the House of Commons, the two bodies
that make up the Parliament of Canada. The members of the Senate are
appointed for life by the Governor-General. Each Senator must possess
property to the value of $ 4000, and must reside in the province he repre-
sents. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people,
each province being divided into electoral divisions for the purpose. The
representation of Quebec is fixed at 65, and each of the other provinces
is represented in the same ratio to their population as 65 bears to the
population of Quebec. An election for members of the House of Commons
must be held at least every five years, although Parliament may be dis-
solved at any time. All laws before going into force must be passed by
both the House of Commons and the Senate, and must receive the assent
of the Governor-General.

The business of Parliament, and practically the government of the coun-
try, is in the hands of the Cabinet, or Executive Council, of which the head is
the Prime Minister, or Premier. The members of the Cabinet may be chosen

120 110

DOMINION OF CANADA
AND NEWFOUNDLAND

Cities with over 500.000: . .
Cities with over 200.000:. .

Cities with 50,000 to 200,000: Hamilton

Cities with 25.000 to 50,000: London

ler places: -. . Port Arthur

Capitals with less than 25,000: Regina

Capitals of Countries : O Capitals of Provinces :

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace in detail the boundaries of Canada. (2) Locate the
highlands and watersheds of the country. Trace the boundaries of the principal river
basins. Compare the length of the rivers in each basin. (3) Draw an outline map of
Canada, showing the prominent physical features and locating the principal rivers.
(4) Trace the course of the River St. Lawrence from Lake Superior to the Gulf of St.

Lawrence. (5) Point out the large lakes of the country. Compare their areas. (6) Lo-
cate the capes, bays, and islands along the coast. (7) Compare the eastern with the
western coast. (8) Locate the most important lumbering, mining, and agricultural
districts. (9) Trace the boundaries of each of the Provinces. Compare their areas.
Point out the capital of each. (10) Name and locate' the large cities in Canada.

ONTARIO

either from the House of Commons or the Senate, and represent the politi-
cal party that at the time happens to have a majority in the House of
Commons. Each Cabinet minister usually presides over one of the depart-
ments of the public service, such as Railways, Public Works, Militia, Post
Office, Customs, etc. Generally the Cabinet includes some members who do
not have charge of a department, and are called Ministers icithout portfolio.
The seat of the federal government of Canada is at Ottawa, where are
the stately Houses of Parliament (Fig. 79), the Departmental Buildings,
and the residence of the Governor-General.

FIG. 79.
The Parliament Buildings, Ottawa.

I. ONTARIO

Physiography and Climate. 1 As might be expected, the province
of Ontario, stretching as it does from James Bay to Lake Erie,
exhibits a wide variety of soil and climate. In past ages, as is
shown by the fossils embedded in soil and rock, the extreme eastern
part of the province was covered by the waters of the ocean, while a
portion of the southern part was once the bed of a great fresh-water
lake. The whole northern and central part was covered by great
glaciers, which eroded thousands of basins that are now the beds of
fresh-water lakes. These numberless inland lakes vary in size from
a few acres to several square miles, and are usually very deep.
When the glacier retreated the land was left covered with glacial drift,
and in some places with great boulders. Locate on the map the prin-
cipal lakes of the province. Note particularly the Muskoka district.

Generally speaking, the southern and eastern parts of the province are
fertile, while the northern and western parts are rocky and often barren.

1 A complete description of the St. Lawrence River system is given in Appendix, A,

94 NORTH AMERICA

The southern peninsula formed by Lakes Huron, St. Clair, Erie, and On-
tario is so fertile that it is sometimes called the " garden of Canada." It
is possible to find here whole townships having scarcely a single acre of
waste land. A broad strip of fertile land stretches along the north shore
of Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence. North some distance from Lake
Ontario, extending from the county of Froiitenac to Lake Simcoe, there
is a rocky country. The greater part of the Ottawa valley is extremely
fertile, but in some parts the boulders of the glacial drift are numerous.
There is much good soil around Georgian Bay and Lake Simcoe. North
of a line stretching from Georgian Bay to the Upper Ottawa the fertile
soil is in patches. This northern part of the province now called New
Ontario was long thought to be of little value except for its lumber and
minerals or for hunting and fishing. Much of it has recently been sur-
veyed, and we now know that there is enough fertile land to support at
least a million people.

Several fertile areas are now being rapidly settled around Lake Temis-
caming and in the Rainy River district. Recent experiments show that
some grains and many vegetables will mature even north of the Height of
Land, and as this region has large fertile areas, many people will yet find
homes there.

The rainfall of Ontario is abundant and for the most part evenly
distributed. Extended droughts sometimes occur in southern On-
tario during July and August, but their area is limited. It is ex-
pected that the reforesting of parts of the drought area will give a
more even distribution of rainfall.

The winter climate, especially of northern and eastern Ontario,
is somewhat severe, but the snowfall is abundant and furnishes an
adequate protection to plant life. In southern Ontario the winters
are usually mild. The counties along Lake Erie frequently have
open weather even in January and seldom have more than six or
eight inches of snow.

AGRICULTURE

Grain-growing. From early in the nineteenth century until the
close of the third quarter the principal crop of Ontario for export
was wheat. But the opening of vast areas in western Canada, the
United States, and South America so reduced the price of wheat, and
conditions otherwise have so changed that the farmers have turned
to stock-raising and dairying, very much to their own advantage.
To-day many farmers who formerly grew hundreds of bushels of
wheat are buying their own flour. Still grain-growing forms one of

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Point out and name the lakes and rivers that form the boun-
daries of Ontario. (2) Compare the areas of the Great lakes. Show how these Lakes
are connected. Compare their shore lines. (3) Name and locate the principal islands
in the Great Lakes. (4) Trace the more important canals. (5) Point out the prom-
inent physical features. Compare the northern with the southern section of the Prov-

Capitals: County Seats: Other Places

Cities with over 100,000!
Cities with 25,000 to 100,000:

Cities with 10,000 to 25,000: Windsor

Cities with 5,000 to 10,000: Sarnla

Cities with 2,500 to 5,000: Trenton

Smaller Places: Welland

JJOBTH WESTERN

ONTARIO. -

-.,'.. ,,( Miloa

80.

ince. Name and locate the larger rivers. (6) Name and locate the principal lakes in
the interior. Compare their areas. (7) Trace the lines of railway in the Province,
naming the important places on each line. (8) Locate the principal" lumbering, agricul-
tural, and mineral regions. (9) Name and locate the principal cities and towns. (10)
Draw an outline map of the Province, filling in the counties.

ONTARIO 95

the leading industries of Ontario, although very much less grain than
formerly is exported. The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley,
rye, and buckwheat, while timothy, clover, and peas are extensively
grown for feeding purposes. Alfalfa is also an important croD.
There are many large flour mills throughout the province, but these
do not depend upon the local supply of wheat.

The immense grain elevators at Port Arthur and Fort William
are used for handling the grain crops of the Canadian West (Fig. 81).

FIG. 81.
The Canadian Northern Elevator at Port Arthur.

Stock-raising. For more than half a century Ontario farmers
have been rearing fine herds of cattle, both for the home market and
for export to other countries. These herds are kept up to a high
standard by the importation of choice animals from Great Britain
and Holland. Wellington, Wentworth, Middlesex, and York coun-
ties are the centres for the production of cattle, but every part of
older Ontario has some share in the trade.

Cattle that are well fed from birth are ready for the market, either for
home use or for export, at from two to two and a half years of age. They
are fed during the summer only on grass, and in the winter are given
straw, roots, and corn, with usually some grain. Export cattle are gener-
ally fattened as much as possible on grass, as it is much cheaper to feed
them in the field than in the stable, and they are shipped from Montreal
to Liverpool and other British ports in July and August. Those cattle
slaughtered in Canada furnish hides which supply us with leather for heavy
boots and shoes, harness, saddles, belting, carriage tops, bookbindings, and
chair and couch coverings. The hides must first be tanned, or put through
a process that will remove the hair and make the hide tough and smooth.

96 NORTH AMERICA

They are put into great vats containing tannic acid, which is an extract
from the bark of the oak or the hemlock. As the Georgian Bay and the
Ottawa River districts have immense forests of hemlock, it is here that the
large tanneries are located. MEAFOKD, PEXETAXG, BRACEBRIDGE, and
REXFREW are among the most important.

Sheep-raising is a very profitable branch of stock-farming, es-
pecially on land that is dry and rolling, or of a somewhat gravelly
soil. The sheep require little attention, give quick returns, and a
large part of their food consists of weeds and other rough food that
would otherwise be wasted. Their flesh makes very dainty and
healthful food, and their wool is used for clothing and many other
purposes. Most of the mutton is used at home, although a large
trade in shipping lambs to the United States markets is carried on in
the fall of the year. About 6,000,000 pounds of wool is produced
annually, of which part is exported. There are many fine flocks of
sheep in Ontario, and the young stock are eagerly sought after in
other parts of Canada and abroad.

For the most part we buy our fine cloth and dress goods from Great
Britain or Germany and use our wool for making coarser kinds. The
principal factories are : RENFREW, ALMOXTE, and CARLETOX PLACE in the
Ottawa Valley ; CORNWALL on the St. Lawrence ; BERLIX and WATERLOO
on the Grand River; TILSOXBURG and SIMCOE near Lake Erie; WING-
HAM, WALKERTOX, MEAFORD, MITCHELL, and ORILLIA.

Ontario is noted for its horses. The heavy draft breeds, the
Clydesdale and the Shire, are the most popular with the farmer, but
many fine carriage and- roadster horses are also bred. The counties
of York, Ontario, Wellington, Perth, Huron, Kent, Middlesex, and
Oxford are centres of the horse-breeding industry.

Dairying. Ontario has about 1200 cheese factories and 300
creameries, which produce an annual product worth in the neighbor-
hood of $15,000,000. Besides these there are thousands of home
butter dairies with six to twenty cows. Both the Dominion and
Ontario governments have been very active in educating the people
in the science of butter- and cheese-making. The dairy schools at
KINGSTON, STRA.THROY, and GUELPH (Fig. 82) are models. Travel-
ling dairy schools have also done much to educate the people in the
proper handling of milk and in making butter on the farm. Ontario
now exports annually three times the butter and cheese exported by
the whole of the United States. Almost every part of the province has

ONTARIO

FIG. 82.
Making butter at the Model Farm, Guelph.

cheese factories; but LONDON, WOODSTOCK, INGERSOLL, BRANTFORD,
and LISTOWEL in western Ontario and OTTAWA, PERTH, BROCKVILLE,
KINGSTON, BELLEVILLE, and PETERBOROUGH in eastern Ontario are
the most important centres.
Hog-raising and Pork-
packing. Closely con-
nected with dairying is
the raising of hogs. The
part of the milk not used
in making butter or cheese
is a most valuable and
even necessary food for
young pigs. The hog in-
dustry of Ontario has
grown rapidly. Canada
exports annually more
than $12,000,000 worth of
bacon to Great Britain,
and the greater part of this comes from Ontario. Every part of
the province produces some pork, but the older settled portions
have most interest in the export trade.

The curing of hams and bacon for export requires so much skill that
it must be done by experts. Extensive factories have been established at
HAMILTON, LONDON, INGERSOLL, KINCARDINE, OWEN SOUND, TORONTO,
PETERBOROUGH, BROCKVILLE, and other centres. Each of these take
thousands of hogs from the surrounding fanners.

Poultry, Eggs, and Honey. Nothing better illustrates the changed
conditions of farming than the increased attention given to rearing
poultry. The early settlers of Ontario kept poultry only to supply
themselves with eggs and to add an uncertain revenue for household
expenses ; the modern farmer in many cases counts as certainly upon
a fixed revenue from dressed poultry and eggs as from fat cattle or
cheese. Improved methods of fattening and cold storage during export
are largely responsible for the increased business in this department.
The annual product of Ontario is worth not less than $4,000,000.

Because of the plentiful supply of white clover and other flowers,
southern Ontario is especially adapted for bee culture. This work
requires much skill and intelligence, and is yearly becoming more
popular. The annual crop is about 8,000,000 pounds.

NORTH AMERICA

Fruit-raising. The whole southern peninsula of Ontario between
Lakes Erie and Huron is admirably adapted for fruit-growing. The
soil is suitable and easily drained, while the immense amount of water
in Lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario tempers the climate at critical
periods when a few degrees of frost would prove ruinous. The
industry is rapidly increasing, the apple crop alone at the present
time being estimated at 50,000,000 bushels annually. The apple
region embraces the whole of southern Ontario, including the district
around Georgian Bay, but the regions east of Lake Huron and north
of Lake Ontario are worthy of special notice. Some fruit has been
successfully grown in Muskoka. The Ottawa Valley produces all
kinds of small fruits, including grapes and hardy varieties of apples.

FIG. 83.
Fruit farm near Grimsby.

Nearly every farmer in southern Ontario grows some fruit, but certain
districts are rapidly being given over wholly to fruit culture. The Niagara
peninsula, embracing parts of Lincoln, Welland, and Wentworth counties,
contains the most extensive orchards (Fig. 83). Besides the ordinary
hardy fruits this region produces immense crops of grapes, peaches, and
small fruits. The best peach orchards are found in the strip of land
lying along the south shore of Lake Ontario. The Essex peninsula is
very similar and produces an abundance of fruit of all kinds.

Pelee Island contains the most extensive vineyards in Canada, the
product being largely used for making wine. The total area under vines
in Ontario is 15,000 acres.

ONTARIO

Closely connected with the fruit business is the canning industry.
Dozens of canning factories are located along the northern shores of
Lakes Ontario and Erie. In addition to the fruits already mentioned,
large quantities of tomatoes, peas, and corn are put up in this way
both for home consumption and for export. This industry is grow-
ing rapidly and promises to become of very great importance.

Tobacco. The climate of most parts of Ontario is too severe
for the raising of the tobacco plant, but about 3,000,000 pounds are
produced annually in the counties of Essex and Kent in western
Ontario, where the soil and climate are fairly suitable. The country
throughout this district is very flat. This tobacco is not equal to
that grown in warmer countries where the conditions are entirely
favorable (page 207), but the quality is very fair indeed. Most of
the product of the Ontario tobacco crop is manufactured into the
finished article within the province.

Sugar. The people of Canada pay every year for sugar and
molasses over $ 6,000,000. Of this amount Ontario pays very nearly
one-half. Every form of sugar, whether made from sugar-cane,
sugar-beets, or the sugar -maple, comes from the sweet sap of a plant
or tree. The cane sugar used in Canada comes largely from the
Indies and from the
United States. It is
brought in as raw
sugar, that is, it is not
wholly cleaned from
impurities and must
be refined. This pro-
cess gives us granu-
lated sugar. When
sugar is made from
beets, the juice is ex-
tracted and treated in
the same way as the
juice of the sugar-
cane. In a single year Canada paid to Germany nearly $4,000,000
for sugar and molasses made from beets. As experiments showed that
Ontario soil would produce sugar-beets of high quality, the legislature
offered a bounty for the manufacture of beet sugar. Expensive fac-
tories were built at BERLIN (Fig. 84), WALLACEBURG, Dresden, and
Wiarton, but the last two of these are not now in operation.

FIG. 84.
Beet sugar factory at Berlin.

.100

N OUT II AMERICA

The early settlers of Ontario used no sugar except what they
made from the sap of the maple trees. Even yet Ontario produces
a large amount of this sugar.

LUMBERING

This was the pioneer industry of Ontario. The early settlers,
while clearing their 'farms, eked out a living by the sale of pine
logs and square timber. Gradually the lumbering area has moved

northward, and
many districts
where it was once
the main business
cannot now boast
of a saw-mill. The
province of Onta-
rio, however, still
possesses the finest
pine areas in the
world, and derives
a very considerable
part of her revenue
by selling to lum-
bermen for a stated
term of years the
privilege of cutting
upon these areas all trees that exceed a fixed diameter. Besides a
large cash payment, the lumbermen pay to the Government a yearly
ground rent and a tax upon every thousand feet of lumber cut.
The land in the end reverts to the province. By recent legislative
enactment the exportation of logs cut upon government land either
for lumber or pulp is prohibited. This regulation secures to Ontario
the manufacture of the logs and thus gives employment to many
workmen.

The best lumber regions are now along the Upper Ottawa, north
of Georgian Bay and west of Lake Superior. From the Height of
Land to James Bay is almost one continuous spruce forest. This
spruce is yearly becoming of more importance owing to the demand
for spruce-pulp from which paper is made (Fig. 86). Already
extensive pulp mills have been established at SAULT STE. MARIE,

FIG. 85.
Lumber mills at Ottawa.

ONTARIO

101

STURGEON FALLS, OTTAWA, and HAWKESBURY, while others are
being erected in the country near Lake of the Woods.

Ontario sends enormous quantities of lumber to Britain, United
States, France, Argentina, Brazil, China, and Japan. Every year
sees an increase in the export of manufactured lumber in the form of
doors, sashes, blinds, and even wooden houses ready to be put together.

Winter is the busy season in the lumber woods. It is often necessary
to work when the temperature is far below zero. The swamps, which are
numerous and in summer almost impassable, are then frozen over. At
that season, also, the snows have levelled over the boulders and fallen trees
so that heavy sleds,
loaded with logs, may
be drawn through
the woods.

Usually fifty men
or more are neces-
sary to a logging-
camp. With axes
in hand they go
through the woods
cutting all the trees
that are large and
sound enough for
good lumber. These
are cut down, the
limbs chopped off,
and the logs dragged
by horses or rolled
to the banks of the
nearest stream. When the snow melts in the spring, the cutting is over and
another busy season begins. The logs that are ready are whirled away by
the stream current, now swollen by the melting snows, but frequently even
the flood of water is not sufficient to carry them. To provide against
that difficulty, dams are placed across the stream or at the outlet of lakes
to store water for use when needed. Immense numbers of logs are floated
or "driven" down-stream, forming what the lumbermen call a "log-drive."

When the logs are to be made into pulp for paper, such as newspaper
or wrapping paper, they are first cut into lengths of about two feet and
the bark peeled off. These short pieces are then placed in a steel enclo-
sure and forced against an enormous grindstone. The pulp thus ground
off is carried away by water, run through a sieve, deposited on a wide belt,
and compressed into thin sheets between hot steel rollers. When dry it
is paper. Pulp is also made by the help of chemicals. When a finer
quality of paper is required, rags are mixed with wood-pulp.

FIG. SG.
A pile of pulp logs.

102

NORTH AMERICA

MINING

Although Ontario is preeminently an agricultural country its
mining interests bid fair to become very important, and already
give employment to 10,000 men. Its most serious lack in econo-
mic minerals is coal. Up to the present this lack has seriously
interfered with the development of rich deposits of excellent iron.
Iron occurs in southern Ontario in small quantities in the form of

bog-iron ore. This
is easily smelted,
and the early set-
tlers actually made
use of it in the
county of Norfolk.
The magnetic ores
are not so easily
smelted, and by far
the greater part of
the iron in Ontario
is of this kind.
There are consider-
able deposits in
Frontenac, Hast-
ings, Renfrew, and
Haliburton. Extensive deposits also occur along the north shores
of Lake Huron. At the present time the province has several fur-
naces producing a pig-iron from domestic ore, although some ore
from the United States is also used. Some furnaces use charcoal
and others coke made from Pennsylvania coal. The chief iron
works are at HAMILTON, DESERONTO, MIDLAND, and SAULT STE.
MARIE (Fig. 87). The Canadian and Ontario governments give
bounties on every ton of iron manufactured.

Iron is the most useful of all the metals. It exists in many minerals
and rocks, the red and yellow colors of many soils being due to it. As
water slowly seeps through the rocks it dissolves iron much as it would
dissolve salt or sugar if these substances were there. In some places the
water has brought this dissolved iron and deposited it in beds or veins of
iron ore, and it is these that are now being mined. Sometimes the beds
lie very deep, and again they are so near the surface that the iron ore is
dug out of great open pits, as stone is taken from quarries. In appearance

FIG. 87.
Iron works at Sault Ste. Marie.

ONTARIO

103

iron ore is sometimes a hard, black mineral, sometimes a soft, loose, yellow-
ish or reddish brown earth. It is not iron at all any more than wheat is
flour ; it is only the iron ore mineral out of which iron may be made by a
great deal of work.

Two materials, coke and limestone, are used with iron ore to reduce it to
the metal. The coke is made from bituminous coal, and the limestone is
obtained in quarries. To obtain the coke the soft coal is placed in stone
or brick furnaces, called coke ovens, built in such a manner that very little
air can reach the coal, which is then set on fire. Many of the gases that
form a part of the coal are thus either burned or driven out. So little air
is let into the ovens that not all the substances in the coal are burnt.
The part left is a very light porous coke which can then be burnt and
made to furnish intense heat if supplied with plenty of air.

The coke, iron ore, and limestone are all placed together in a high,
towerlike structure, called a blast furnace, so named because a blast of air
is forced through it to produce a strong draft while the coke is burning.
Such intense heat melts the ore and limestone, and the iron being heavier
sinks to the bottom of the fiery hot liquid. The limestone, and those
elements of the ore that are not iron, rise to the surface, forming slag,
a worthless substance that is drawn off through an opening in the furnace
and thrown away. Through a lower opening the iron is run off into
trenches made of sand on a sand floor. There is one main trench with
numerous side branches, and
each of these has still smaller
branches connected with it
(Fig. 88). When the molten
iron cools, the little bars of
iron, called pig iron, are found
to be attached to a larger one.
These rough bars are then
broken off and shipped away
to be made into thousands
of different articles.

Some iron goods, such as
stoves, car wheels, and the
iron parts of school desks,
are nothing more than this
pig iron melted and cast in
moulds into the shape that is desired. This is cast iron, which contains
one part of carbon to twenty of pure iron, and is so brittle that it breaks
xinder a heavy blow. Other materials, such as knife blades, boiler plates,
rails for railways, edged tools, and watchsprings, are made of steel. Steel
contains only a very small amount of carbon, and has been toughened by
an expensive process of rolling and hammering. Wrought iron, a third
kind, is almost pure iron, and is used where it is necessary for the metal
to bend and yet be tough, as in iron wire, horseshoes, bolts. The moulder

FIG.

Molten iron running out of a blast furnace into
trenches, where it cools to form pig iron.

104 NORTH AMERICA

works with cast iron ; the blacksmith with wrought iron and steel ; the tool
maker arid cutler with steel only.

Nickel. Ontario has the greatest nickel deposits in the world. Penn-
sylvania and Norway have limited quantities, and France has a rich mine
at New Caledonia. Outside of this Ontario must supply the world, and the
metal is yearly coming into more general use, as a valuable alloy to mix
with steel, where lightness combined with great strength is required.
With the Ontario nickel is mixed copper of almost equal value. The
SUDBURY nickel mines are practically inexhaustible. Cobalt is found
exclusively in northern Ontario.

Silver. The north shore of Lake Superior was formerly the great
silver-mining district of Ontario. Recent discoveries in the Temiscaming
district show that the whole northern region is very rich in silver. Indeed,
it is expected that this section will soon be the great silver-producing dis-
trict of the world. The Ontario government have recently determined to
hold back large blocks of this land to be mined for the benefit of the province.

Gold is mined to a limited extent in Hastings County and around the
Lake of the Woods. The deposits are in the form of quartz, which must
be crushed before the gold can be extracted.

Graphite of a good quality is mined in Renfrew County. Some mica
is taken out in the Ottawa Valley, and finds a ready sale in the United
States. Recently a stone, called corundum, has been discovered in Hast-
ings and Haliburton. The corundum is the next hardest substance to
diamond, and is used as a substitute for emery wheels in polishing and
grinding metals. The corundum is much harder than emery, and supe-
rior to it for grinding purposes. In many of the large saw-mills of
Ontario the steel saws are sharpened on corundum wheels driven by
machinery. One man can, in this way, do the work that used to require
six men.

Southern Ontario has none of the minerals found in other parts of the
province. It has, however, three mineral products of great importance,
salt, petroleum, and natural gas.

Salt is found east of Lake Huron, in the neighborhood of Goderich
and Seaforth. When in the earth salt is hard, somewhat like coal, and
must be obtained in one of two ways. In one case a small hole is bored
to it, and water allowed to run down and dissolve it, then the brine is
pumped up and the water is evaporated by heat until only the salt is left.
In the other case a shaft is sunk and the salt broken off in lumps and
hoisted to the surface. In Ontario the salt is pumped to the surface in
the form of brine.

Petroleum means " rock-oil," a name which suggests its origin. It is
found by going into the earth from 400 to 1500 feet or more. The crude
petroleum is black like tar. It yields coal oil, benzine, naphtha, vase-
line, dyes, and wax for candles. Sometimes the petroleum flows out when
a hole is bored. Usually it must be pumped. The chief centres are
at PETROLEA (Fig. 89), OIL CITY, and BOTHWELL.

105

FIG. 89.

Scene at Petrolea, showing oil tanks and derricks
used in boring for oil.

Natural Gas is found in Welland and in Essex at a depth of about one
thousand feet. It is used as fuel for houses and factories, and for lighting
purposes. In one case it has been used continuously since 1894 to burn lime.

Peat. Eastern Ontario has several deposits of excellent peat.' Ex-
periments are now being made with this fuel and some of it has been put
on the market. The peat is
dried until it contains only
between 10 and 12 per cent
of water and then made into
cylindrical cakes by hy-
draulic pressure. This fuel
is clean, easily handled, gives
off a pleasant odor, and is
said to contain more than
50 per cent as much heat as
anthracite coal.

Glass. Three other min-
eral products are worthy of
note, glass, pottery, and
bricks. Glass is made at
HAMILTON and other places.
The principal substance in
its manufacture is sand melted and mixed with soda. The molten glass
is fashioned by glass-blowers into such useful articles as lamp chimneys,
fruit jars, and druggists' bottles.

Pottery, such as stone jugs, butter jars, and glazed crocks, is made of
clay found near BRANTFORD.

Bricks and drain tiles are made in almost every part of the province,
but the clay near TORONTO, at MILTON, and at BEAMSVILLE is of a superior
quality, and is used in making pressed bricks of high grade. Very fine
white bricks are made of the clays found near LONDON and PETERBOROUGH.

MANUFACTURING

Many of the manufactures of Ontario have already been named
in connection with the agricultural, timber, and mineral resources.
Factories are scattered all over the province ; indeed there is
scarcely a village that has not one or more manufacturing establish-
ments. The most important manufactures are agricultural imple-
ments, heavy machinery of all kinds, musical instruments, furniture,
pulp- wood, paper, cotton and woollen goods, coal-oil, salt, flour,
cheese, butter, leather, boots, bricks, soap, etc. The province
possesses unrivalled water-power, and in addition the transmission of
electrical power from Niagara Falls will do much to cheapen the cost
of manufacture and so encourage the growth of new industries.

106

NORTH AMERICA

FISHING

The fisheries of the Great Lakes and inland waters of Ontario
are among the best of any fresh-water fisheries in the world. About
3000 people earn their living in the fisheries. As yet only the Great
Lakes and the most easily accessible of the inland lakes have had
their resources developed. As settlement spreads, many of the north-
ern lakes will prove to be well stocked with fish. The government

encourages the industry by
prohibiting the taking of
fish during the spawning
season and also by restock-
ing the waters with certain
kinds of fish.

The fish of Ontario are
mostly for home consumption,
but some of the best are ex-
ported to American cities.
The three most important
kinds are the lake trout, found
chiefly in Georgian Bay ; the
whitefish, occurring most plen-
tifully in Lake Superior (Fig. 90) ; and the herring, which is really not a
herring, but a species of whitefish found chiefly in Lake Huron. Sturgeon
and whitefish are very plentiful in the Lake of the Woods. Many of
the rivers all over the province, especially those running into Lake Supe-
rior on the north, are stocked with the speckled trout, the most beautiful
and gamiest fish in the world. Bass are also plentiful in the interior
streams.

HUNTING AND TRAPPING

Northern. Ontario offers a good field for the hunter who merely
wishes good sport or for the trapper who wishes to make a living.
Deer are plentiful as far south as Muskoka and the Upper Ottawa.
Farther north are moose. Hudson Bay trappers traverse the north
country almost exactly as they did 200 years ago. Bears, foxes, mink,
and other fur-bearing animals are found there. Wolves are common
in the unsettled northern parts, and the provincial Government pays
a bounty of $15 on every wolf's head. The wolves are very destruc-
tive to the deer, especially in the late winter, when the former are
famished and the latter are unable to run owing to the deep snow.

FIG. 90.
A catch of whitefish on Lake Superior.

ONTARIO

107

So famous are the hunting grounds of northern Ontario that sports-
men come there from all parts of the United States. They pay for and
secure special licenses from the provincial game warden, but they are
allowed to take away with them only a limited amount of game.

TRANSPORTATION

Waterways. Scarcely any part of America enjoys a more com-
plete system of railways and waterways. The Great Lakes 1 furnish
a natural highway of untold value. The St. Mary and Welland
canals make the system complete from Lake Superior to Lake
Ontario. The rapids of the St. Lawrence are passable for boats
on the down trip, and excellent canals have been constructed for
the return trip. The Rideau Canal from Kingston to Ottawa is
shallow, but moves a considerable amount of freight in boats of
light draught. The Trent Valley Canal is being completed and
will connect Georgian Bay and the Bay of Quinte, opening up a
rich country around Peterboro and using the natural chain of lakes
and rivers whenever possible. The hydraulic lift-lock on this canal
has a lift of sixty -five feet, and is, at present, the only one of its
kind on the continent. The Ottawa is navigable from Montreal to
Ottawa city with the aid of a short canal. Several vessels ply on
the navigable stretches of the Upper Ottawa. Steamboats have
been running for some time on the Muskoka Lakes, and recently
some have been put on Lake Temiscaming. See Appendix A.

Canada has spent upon her inland waters no less a sum than
$100,000,000. Nearly all of this amount has been spent upon the Great
Lakes and St. Lawrence system. Since Confederation the total revenue
from the canals has been about $12,000,000 collected as tolls. The
Welland Canal alone has cost about $25,000,000. It was opened for
traffic in 1829 and at first was navigable only for boats drawing about

THE ST. LAWRENCE LAKES

LENGTH

AVERAGE
WIDTH

AREA

HEIGHT ABOVE SKA

Name of Lake

Miles

Square Miles

Feet

Superior ....

420

31,420

602.75

Michigan ....

350

26,000

578.75

Huron

270

23,780

576.75

St. Clair ....

360

570.75

Erie . . .

250

10,030

566.75

Ontario ....

190

7,330

240

108

NORTH AMERICA

four feet of water. It was enlarged in. 1845 and again in 1850. Later
it was so changed as to make it almost wholly a new canal. The St.
Lawrence Canals were opened for traffic in 1848.

The Murray Canal, about six or eight miles in length, was built at
a cost of $1,250,000 to enable vessels to pass from the Bay of Quinte
directly west to Lake Ontario.

The Trent Valley Canal, which promises to be one of the most im-
portant of the waterways, has already cost over $4,000,000. Sault Ste.
Marie Canal was built in 1895 at a cost of about $4,000,000, in order that
Canadians might have a waterway wholly upon their own soil (Fig. 91).

FIG. 91.
Lock on the St. Mary's River at Sault Ste. Marie.

It is so much superior to the one on the American side that its annual
tonnage is yearly increasing.

Closely connected with ocean and river navigation is the protection of
vessels during dark nights and stormy weather. Dangerous rocks, sand-
bars, and shoals must be marked out, and proper signals given. The
Dominion Government maintain in the province of Ontario alone 203
lighthouses having 267 lamps and 187 keepers. These lighthouses arc
placed at intervals from Cornwall to Port Arthur on Lake Superior. There
are also a few along the Ottawa River. Sometimes the lighthouses are on
the shore, sometimes on an island near the main channel of the river.
The keeper either lives in the lighthouse or has his home beside it. At
the present time many of the lighthouses are being equipped with acety-

ONTARIO 109

lene gas. Once every year a supply ship of the Dominion Government
visits each lighthouse and leaves with the keepel- such things as are neces-
sary. Besides lighthouses there are fog-horns, fog- whistles, gas-buoys, and-
bell-buoys to mark the dangerous places or to guide the helmsman through
a safe passage. Lake Erie is the most dangerous of the Great Lakes
because it is very shallow and storms arise with little warning.

Railways. Ontario has 7000 miles of railroad. This gives the
southern part of the province good shipping facilities. The Ontario
Government is now building a line from North Bay to open up the
fertile districts west of Lake Temiscaming. This road will, in all
probability, be extended to James Bay.

The projected Grand Trunk Pacific will cross northern Ontario
and open up vast latent resources. Lumber, spruce, and perhaps
some minerals are there in abundance. Branch lines will be built
from places already settled to meet the new road, and in this way the
whole northern country will be opened up for settlement.

The first railway in Ontario was the Northern from Toronto to Brad-
ford. The first sod was turned by Lady Elgin in 1850, and in 1853 the
road was opened for traffic. The Grand Trunk Railway was commenced
in 1852 and opened for traffic between
Montreal and Toronto in 1856. The
main line of the Great Western Rail-
way from Niagara Falls to Windsor
was opened in 1854, and the follow-
ing year the suspension bridge was
completed. The first survey of the
Canadian Pacific Railway was made
in 1871, the first sod turned in 1881,
and the road completed in 1885. FlG ,._>

There have been railways built in ^^ to ^ Grand Trunk Rai)way
Ontario by scores of different com- tunnel under the St. Clair River,

panics, but at the present time these

lines, with the exception of a few, are operated by either the Grand Trunk
or the Canadian Pacific. One of these roads and often both of them have
access to every place of importance in the province.

The Ottawa and Parry Sound runs from Ottawa to Parry Sound and
opens up a country but little developed. The Kingston and Pembroke con-
nects Kingston and Renfrew, and passes through a region rich in minerals.

The Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, and the Wabash railways
connect various points in the southern part of the province. The Toronto,
Hamilton, and Buffalo have a line from Buffalo to Waterford by way of
Hamilton. The Canadian Northern will have shortly a line, known as the
James Bay Railway, in operation from Toronto to Sudbury.

110 NORTH AMERICA

Electric Railways. The first street railways in Canada were
operated in Toronto and Montreal in 1861. These were rude affairs,
consisting of tram-cars running on light rails and drawn by a single
horse. In time these were much improved and every city of impor-
tance had its street railway. The first city in Ontario to use electric
cars was Ottawa, where they were successfully operated in 1890.
The pioneer road in western Ontario was the Metropolitan, running
north from Toronto on Yonge Street.

At the present time Ontario has about 500 miles of electric railway,
and this amount is rapidly increasing. The electric railway is being
extended from every large city into the surrounding country. Lines now
radiate from Toronto in all directions. A line runs east from Hamilton
almost to St. Catharines through the great fruit belt. Another line runs
from St. Catharines to Niagara and makes connections with an American
road for Buffalo. Gait and Berlin, Brantford and Paris, and Woodstock
and Ingersoll are also connected by electric lines. Many roads are being
projected through the rural districts, and this method of transportation,
both for passengers and freight, will no doubt become more and more
. popular.

CITIES

TORONTO, the first city in size and the capital of Ontario, has
had a rapid growth, especially during the last quarter century. It
is situated on Toronto Bay, having as a breakwater a series of islands,
which form one of the most pleasing features of the city's park sys-
tem. The city contains the Legislative Buildings for Ontario
(Fig. 97), and in addition is the seat of many educational institutions.
Of these the first in importance is Toronto University, with its affili-
ated colleges, Victoria, Trinity, Knox, St. Michaels, and the Medical
College. All of these colleges have handsome buildings of their
own. McMaster is an independent university under Baptist control.
Upper Canada and St. Andrew's colleges are important boys' schools,
and there are many schools for girls. One of the provincial Normal
Schools is situated here, and the school buildings, both public and
high, are worthy of special note. The City Hall is one of the finest
municipal buildings on the continent. The churches are numerous
and beautiful. As a city of parks and residences, Toronto is unsur-
passed in Canada.

Toronto has many factories, especially of the sort that manufacture
clothing and light articles such as boots and shoes, trunks, jewellery, tin-
ware, and soap. There are also several factories for the manufacture of
such heavy articles as engines, farm machinery, pianos, furniture, elevators,

ONTARIO

111

FIG. 93.

City Hall, Toronto.

windmills, and stoves. It is, however, preeminently a city of wholesale
warehouses. It is a distributing centre for the whole of western and
northern Ontario, and has also a large
trade with the West. Its splendid
railway and steamboat connections
make it a centre for the distribution
of foods, especially fruit, meat, and
dairy produce. These travelling
facilities, together with its cool sum-
mer climate and its proximity to the
Muskoka Lakes, make it a favorite
stopping-place for tourists.

OTTAWA, the second city in
Ontario, owes its importance to its
being the seat of the Federal gov-
ernment and to the lumber trade.
Its situation is beautiful and its
natural advantages many. The
view from Parliament Hill, with
the Ottawa hundreds of feet below
and the Laurentian Mountains in the distance, is one of never-failing
interest. The main Parliament Building, with the several depart-
mental buildings, form an imposing group. The excellent water-
power from the Chaudiere lights the city, runs its street cars, and

drives its sawmills and fac-
tories. From May to No-
vember the big mills run
night and day. Lumber
piles, thirty feet high, cover
acres and acres, and repre-
sent millions of dollars. It
is the seat of the University
of Ottawa and of one of the
provincial Normal Schools.
Rideau Hall, the official
residence of the Governor-
General, is situated in a
beautiful park at the ex-
treme east of the city. Ottawa is rapidly becoming a railway centre,
and it has steamboat connection with Montreal by the Ottawa River
and with Kingston by the Rideau Canal.

FIG. 94.
Ontario Normal College, Hamilton.

112 NORTH AMERICA

HAMILTON, the third city of Ontario, is a solid, progressive city
with a picturesque situation on the mountain side at the head of
Lake Ontario. It has a large local trade in grain, fruit, and meat.
It is especially noted for its manufacture of heavy machinery, agri-
cultural implements, iron, glass, steel bridges, stoves, cotton, cloth-
ing, etc. Besides a smelting works where pig iron is made, it also
contains a rolling-mill where the pig iron is made into wrought iron.
Hamilton is now using electrical energy developed at Niagara Falls.
Ontario Normal College is located there.

LONDON is situated at the union of the north and south branches
of the river Thames, in the heart of a rich agricultural district. On
the branches of the Thames the current is sufficiently rapid to afford
considerable water-power. Its central position on the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways and connections with other lines
have greatly contributed to its growth and given it command of the
distribution of trade for southwest Ontario. The city has extensive
manufactures of stoves and stove furnishings, confectionery, cigars,
malt liquors, machinery, railway cars, carriages, etc. It is the seat
of one of the provincial Normal Schools, of the Western University
with its theological and medical colleges, and of two large hospitals.

Brantford, named after the famous Indian chief, Brant, is situated on
the Grand River, in the centre of a rich agricultural country. Its chief
industry is the manufacture of farm implements. It also manufactures
woollen goods, paper, nails, malleable iron, etc., and stands third in the
Dominion in the export of manufactured articles. Owing to its beautiful
location, fine buildings, and early history, Brantford is one of the most
interesting of the Canadian cities. Its chief buildings are the Carnegie
Library, the Home for Widows and Orphans, and the provincial Institute
for the Blind.

Kingston enjoys a fine situation on Lake Ontario and is a shipping
point of some importance. The chief industries are the manufacture of
cotton and of locomotive engines. Queen's University and the Royal
Military College give the city more than local fame, while the School of
Mines in connection with the University is an institution of national
importance. The Eastern Ontario Dairy School is doing much to educate
the surrounding district in a great industry. Just outside the city proper
is a large penitentiary under control of the Dominion Government.

Windsor, opposite Detroit on the Detroit River, has a large local trade
and some shipping. Near it is the town of Walkerville, containing one
of the largest distilleries in Canada. From Windsor the through railway
trains for Chicago are ferried over to Detroit.

St. Thomas, the first town founded in the Talbot Settlement, 1810, is

ONTARIO H3

frequently called the " Railroad City." This title it owes to the fact that
the Canada Southern Division of the Michigan Central Railway has its
shops, employing 400 to 500 hands, there, and to the fact that all the rail-
ways passing across southern Ontario intersect there. In addition to the
railway interests, St. Thomas has several large foundries and factories of
various kinds. It is also the seat of Alma Ladies' College.

Guelph, founded by John Gait in 1827, is located on the river Speed,
from which it derives its water-power. Guelph owes its chief importance
to the fact that it is surrounded by excellent grazing and farming lands.
Its chief trade is, therefore, in farm produce and livestock. Near it are
the Provincial Model Farm, the Agricultural College, the Macdonald
Institute, the Consolidated School, Massey Library, and the Biological
Building. The city has also extensive manufactures, as furniture, stoves,
carriages, organs, pianos, and flour.

Stratford is situated in the centre of a fine agricultural district. The
city itself has large manufacturing interests, such as the making of fur-
niture, clothing, agricultural implements, flour, woollen goods, and iron
bridges. It is also a railroad centre, and the Grand Trunk Railway
repair shops, employing nearly 1000 hands, are situated there.

Chatham, originally a French settlement, has developed into a prosperous
manufacturing and distributing centre. It is situated on the Grand River
in the midst of a very fertile district. Hence, one of the industries is the
trade in garden truck, such as beans, tobacco, sugar-beets, corn, etc. Large
quantities of lumber are manufactured into carriages, wagons, office fixtures.
Chatham is, too, the best poultry market in Canada. Close at hand is the
famous battle-field where the Indian chief, Tecumseh, fell during the War
of 1812.

Belleville is a quiet but prosperous city on Lie Bay of Quinte.
Its chief exports are grain, lumber, and cheese. It is favorably known
for its rolling mills. Albert College is situated there, and also the pro-
vincial Institute for the Deaf and Dumb.

St. Catharines, on the Welland Canal, four miles from Lake Ontario,
is situated in the heart of the Niagara fruit district. The mineral springs
and the healthful situation of the town make it a popular health resort.
The Welland Canal gives ample water-power for the industries, which are
principally flour-milling, paper-making, and the manufacture of edged tools.

Niagara Falls was formed in 1904 by the union of Niagara Falls
(Clifton) and Niagara Falls South (Drummondville). It has excellent
communication with the United States by means of the new bridges across
the Niagara River. The development of electrical energy by means of
the water-power from the Falls has resulted in the establishment of many
industrial enterprises. The city is a favorite resort for tourists both in
the summer and the winter season.

Woodstock, the " Industrial City," is beautifully situated on the Thames
River in the centre of an excellent farming country. Both the Grand
Trunk and Canadian Pacific railways touch at Woodstock. Among the

114 NORTH AMERICA

more important manufactures are agricultural implements, organs, wagons,
furniture, stoves, etc. The city presents a substantial and prosperous
appearance, the public buildings being especially tine. The Young Men's
College is situated here.

Peterborough is situated in the centre of a district which is a popular
resort for the hunter, the fisher, and the summer tourist. The Otonabee
River, down which pours the water of a large number of beautiful lakes,
gives the city its most valuable asset by furnishing the electric power by
which most of the factories are operated, and to which its industrial
progress is mainly owing. The city possesses many extensive manufac-
turing establishments, the output of which consists chiefly of electrical
machinery and supplies, cereals, woollen goods, steam-boilers, mining and
hydraulic machinery, agricultural implements, pork-packing products,
lumber, canoes, and binder twine.

TOWNS

In no part of the world can there be found cleaner, neater, or
more progressive towns than in the province of Ontario. A town
may have as few as a thousand people or it may have as many as
10,000. It has more municipal power and privileges than an incor-
porated village, and less than an incorporated city.

Ontario towns usually include three classes of people. There are those
who are engaged in some productive industry, as the making of cottons
and woollens in CORNWALL or the manufacture of saws and other steel
goods in GALT ; there are the grocers, butchers, dry-goods merchants, and
professional men who supply the people with food and clothing and look
after their other wants ; there are those who have retired from active busi-
ness and are living in the town because of its educational, social, or other
advantages.

Some towns owe their importance largely to their water-power,
which gives them a great advantage as manufacturing centres.
GANANOQUE on the St. Lawrence, PARIS on the Grand River, SAULT
STE. MARIE on the St. Mary River, and STURGEON FALLS on the
Sturgeon River are good examples. Others have become important
places because of their situation along a river or lake in the neigh-
borhood of great timber areas. Saw-mills are built to cut the lum-
ber, and other industries grow up around that of lumbering, as at
ARNPRIOR, RENFREW, and HAWKESBURY on the Ottawa, and
KENORA (Rat Portage) on Lake of the Woods. Other towns have
become important centres because of their good harbors, such as
PORT HOPE, COBOURG, OWEN SOUND, GODERICH, COLLINGWOOD,

ONTARIO

115

PORT ARTHUR, and FORT WILLIAM. Sometimes a town has grown
almost wholly with the growth of a railroad. Its importance is
increased by its position as a junction or by the establishment of
car-shops. CARLETON PLACE, near Ottawa, and TORONTO JUNC-
TION, near Toronto, are examples of this.

By far the greater number of Ontario towns, however, owe their
importance to two or more of the causes stated above and also to the
fact that they are situated in the heart of a rich agricultural coun-
try, and hence form the distributing point for all kinds of supplies to
the farmers, and the centre for the collection and export of the farm
produce. Such towns may have some important manufactures, but
their chief importance is due to local trade. BROCKVILLE, LINDSAY,
STRATHROY, and ORANGEVILLE are familiar examples. A few
towns, such as SUDBURY and PETROLEA, owe their importance
wholly to their mineral wealth. COBALT, NEW LISKEARD, and
HAILEYBURY are important mining and agricultural centres. Other
important towns are BARRIE, ORILLIA, NAPANEE, DESERONTO,
PERTH, BERLIN, SOUTHAMPTON, and KINCARDINE.

SUMMER RESORTS AND TOURIST ROUTES

Ontario is becoming more and more a favorite spot for tourists.
Each succeeding year brings an increased number of visitors who
desire rest and change of
scene. These tourists bring
into the country a large
amount of money, all of
which is distributed among
Ontario farmers, mer-
chants, and transportation
companies.

The MUSKOKA LAKES are
reached after a few hours'
run from Toronto. Nature
here has grouped every form
of beauty to set forth a series
of enchanting surprises for
the visitor. Lakes large and small cover about one-third of the land area.
These are studded with innumerable islands clothed with evergreens or
with clumps of maple and beech, and with shores fringed with paper
birch and silver poplar. The summer tourist may buy or rent an. island

FIG. 95.
A scene in Georgian Bay.

116 NORTH AMERICA

of any size, from an acre to a thousand acres. He may camp in a tent,
build a summer cottage, or board in one of the luxurious hotels on Lakes
Ilosseau, Joseph, or Muskoka.

In addition to Muskoka every town and village on Georgian Bay (Fig.
95) is a summer resort; KILLARNEY, PARRY SOUND, COLLINGWOOD, OWEN
SOUND, MEAFORD, WIARTON, GODERIOH, and SARNIA all have attractions
and good accommodation for tourists.

PORT DOVER, PORT STANLEY, and PORT COLBORNE on Lake Erie all
have large summer populations. CRYSTAL BEACH on Lake Erie is a fav-
orite resort for people from Buffalo; GRIMSBY, on Lake Ontario, draws
many people from Brantford, Hamilton, Toronto, and more distant places.
NIAGARA FALLS always attracts many visitors during the summer.
WHITBY, PORT HOPE, and COBOURG have a local importance as summer
resorts and offer special attractions to visitors fond of yachting. The Bay

FIG. 96.
View in the Lake of the Thousand Islands.

of Quinte towns BRIGHTON, BELLEVILLE, TRENTON, and PICTON have
safe harbors, beautiful scenery, regular steamboat connections, and good
summer fishing.

Perhaps no summer resorts in the province are more popular than
those of the THOUSAND ISLANDS between Kingston and Brockville.
Every island is beautifully clothed with trees. The swift flowing of
crystal clear rivers seems like bands of silver woven about the numerous
islands. Many islands are yet unoccupied and many have cottages on
them, some simple and plain, some gorgeously decked out with trim-
mings, and some stately and grand in cut brown stone (Fig. 96).

The UPPER OTTAWA, the beautiful chain of lakes north of PETER-
BOROUGH, CALEDONIA SPRINGS, PRESTON, and KENORA (Rat Portage),
are also favorite summer resorts.

GOVERNMENT

In common with the other provinces of Canada, Ontario has com-
plete control of its own local affairs. At the head of the government

ONTARIO

117

FIG. 97.
The provincial Parliament Buildings, Toronto.

of the province is the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed for a term of five
years by the Governor-General in Council. The Lieutenant-Governor
is the representative of the Sovereign in the province in the same
way that the Governor-
General represents him in
the Dominion. The Legis-
lative Assembly consists of
ninety-four members,
elected by the people of
the province for a term not
exceeding four years. For
the purpose of the election
of the members of the
Legislative Assembly, the
province is divided into
electoral districts, each dis-
trict returning one mem-
ber. The Cabinet or Executive Council, at the head of which is the
Premier, is chosen from the party having the majority in the Legis-
lative Assembly, and is responsible to that body for all its actions.
If the Cabinet cannot command a majority in the Assembly it is
compelled to resign and to give place to a Cabinet that can secure a
majority. All bills before becoming law must be passed by the

Legislative Assembly, and
must receive the assent of
the Lieutenant-Governor.
The seat of government
is at Toronto, where are
the magnificent Parlia-
ment buildings (Fig- 97).
Ontario elects ninety-two
members of the House of
Commons, and is repre-
sented in the Senate by
twenty-four members.
There is also in the prov-
ince a complete system of
municipal government for cities, towns, villages, and rural districts.
As is the case with all the provinces, Ontario has entire charge of its
educational affairs.

FIG. 5.8.
University College, Toronto.

118

NORTH AMERICA

II. QUEBEC

Physiography. The St. Lawrence River cuts through the prov-
ince of Quebec, and it is no exaggeration to say that this is the
greatest river in the world. Other rivers may have greater length
or more width ; some may have more rapids and some richer valleys;
no other river has so many attractions. Its islands, its lake ex-
pansion, its commerce, its mountain banks, its tributaries, its fisheries,
its cities, its lumber rafts, its summer resorts, and its historical
associations all unite to make every mile of its course a panorama
of varying colors and changing interest. See Appendix A.

Quebec, north
of the St. Law-
rence, is generally
rough and dotted
with thousands of
lakes. The Lau-
rentian plateau
stretches along the
north shore of the
river and compara-
tively close to it.
The tributaries
coming from the
Height of Land
have therefore to
break through this
plateau in a succession of cascades and waterfalls. The Shawinigan
Falls (Fig. 100) on the St. Maurice, and the Montmorency Falls
on the river of the same name, seven miles below Quebec, are the
most famous. The Montmorency makes a sheer leap of 275 feet,
dropping in a beautiful, thin white veil. The Saguenay River is
grand and even gloomy. For miles the rocks rise precipitously
1200 feet (Fig. 101). None of the northern tributaries of the St.
Lawrence are navigable except the Ottawa and the Saguenay, but
all furnish great water-power and a highway for logs.

The Appalachian Mountains skirt the eastern townships on the
south and under the name of Notre Dame Mountains extend in a
northeasterly direction across to Gaspe. Between the mountains

FIG. 100.
Shawinigan Falls on the St. Maurice River.

FIG.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of Quebec. (2) Locate the highlands
of the Province. (3) Trace the course of the River St. Lawrence, pointing out its lake
expansions and locating the islands. (4) Point out the more important tributaries of
the St. Lawrence and trace the course of each. Name and trace the tributaries of the
Ottawa River. (5) Locate the canals of the Province, giving the reason for the position

Greenwich T3

each. (6) Point out the larger lakes in the interior. Compare their areas. (7) Lo-
ite the principal mineral, agricultural, and lumbering districts. (8) Trace the lines of
ilway, naming the principal cities and towns on each line. (9) Name and locate the
rger cities and towns. (10) Draw a map of the Province, filling in as much detail as

QUEBEC

at the extreme south of the province lies a gently rolling country
drained by the Richelieu, Yamaska, St. Francis, and Chaudiere
rivers. This is the most fertile section of Quebec. Near the inter-
national boundary are the roman-
tic lakes Memphremagog and Me-
g antic, the head waters of the St.
Francis and the Chaudiere.

Beautiful as are the many streams
and mountains back from the St. Law-
rence, they cannot compare in mag-
nificence with the mighty river itself.
From the top of Mount Royal at
Montreal and from the cliff at Quebec
the view is unsurpassed. The eye

can take in a vast sweep of fertile Trinity

country, and the river, like a broad

zone of silver, stretches as far as the sight can reach. Below Quebec the

broad estuary river mouth is much like the ocean. The tides rise several

feet and leave the boats stranded high and dry, making it possible to load

or unload them from carts drawn alongside.

SOIL AND CLIMATE

Almost everywhere south of the St. Lawrence, except in Gaspe,
but especially between the Richelieu and Chaudiere rivers, the soil is
fertile. A great deal of northern Quebec is barren. Along the
north shore, as far east as the island of Orleans, there is a fertile
strip of land. The Ottawa Valley has a large district that awaits
only railway communication to become a prosperous settlement. The
region around Lake St. John has good soil, and is now easily reached
by railroad from Quebec. The island of Montreal is very fertile, as
is also a considerable area to the north.

A drought in Quebec is almost unknown, and this explains the
rapid growth of vegetation. Even in the rough northern districts a
very thin layer of soil will produce an abundant crop.

The prevailing winds are either northeast or southwest, that is,
up or down the St. Lawrence. In general the climate is more ex-
treme than that of Ontario, which is modified by the Great Lakes.
The winters are long and the snowfall everywhere sufficiently abun-
dant to protect vegetation. From December to April the ports of
Montreal and Quebec are closed by ice. The lower St. Lawrence is

120 NORTH AMERICA

subject to more severe summer storms than Ontario. Violent down-
pours of rain occur with very little warning.

Although the eastern part of the province touches salt water, its climate
is not thereby much softened, because the cold Labrador Current comes
through the Strait of Belle Isle. Then, too, the winds that blow over the
Gulf are chilled by the many icebergs in the open sea beyond Newfound-
land. The waters of the St. Lawrence are rather cold for bathing, but
otherwise the summer climate of the lower St. Lawrence is delightful.

AGRICULTURE

As in Ontario, one of the great industries is the cultivation of the
soil. In southern Quebec the same grains are produced as in Ontario,
but more flax and tobacco are cultivated. The tobacco crop alone
exceeds 4,000,000 pounds a year. Maize is also grown extensively.
The north shore of the St. Lawrence below Montreal is one immense
hay farm, and much of this is baled and exported. Dairying is an
important business, and Quebec is second only to Ontario in this
branch of farming. The exports of cheese and butter are large and
constantly increasing. The Provincial Dairy School at COMPTON
is much to do with the interest taken in this industry.

The eastern townships are the best farming districts. Thorough-
bred cattle and sheep are important sources of revenue. The never
failing springs of fresh water add very much to the dairying industry
in this region. Stock raised here for export brings the owner a
greater return than in western Ontario, because of the difference in
freight rates to Montreal.

Along the Lower St. Lawrence the habitant is often half-farmer
and half-fisherman. He works on his farm, which is usually rocky,
when wind and tide do not permit the more attractive occupation
of fishing.

In the eastern townships and to a considerable extent throughout
the whole province, the making of maple sugar is a typical industry.
At the present time the eastern townships have the most modern
evaporators and produce sugar and syrup of the finest quality.
Some farmers tap 2000 or more trees and get a yearly return of
$300 to $400. About 20,000,000 pounds of maple sugar is produced
annually in Quebec.

The trees are tapped the latter part of March, and the sugar season
lasts from twenty to thirty days. A hole an inch in diameter and one

QUEBEC 121

and one-half or two inches deep is bored into the sugar-maple. A small
metal spike is driven into the wood above the hole, and on this is hung a
tin pail into which the sap runs. It is an interesting sight to see a maple
grove with a glittering tin bucket on the south side of every tree. Early
in the season the sap runs only during the day, when the sun is shining.
The boiling down or evaporation is usually done in shallow metal pans,
each holding twenty gallons or more and heated by a sort of furnace.
The syrup is put into tins holding a gallon or a half-gallon, and sometimes
into wooden casks or hogsheads. The farmer gets sixty cents to one dollar
a gallon for syrup and eight to twelve cents a pound for sugar.

In the neighborhood of Montreal are many profitable truck farms.
Montreal Island is famous for its plums and apples, the Fameuse, a
species of snow apple, being worthy of special note. Some fruit is
raised along the St. Lawrence, even down to Orleans Island, but the
finest and most extensive apple orchards are in the eastern townships.

LUMBERING

Quebec was the first region in America to export lumber and
timber to Europe. The province still maintains a foremost place and
receives from foreign countries more than -$12,000,000 annually for
wood products. This is more than double the value of the export
of fish and minerals put
together.

The forest products
sent from the port of Que-
bec embrace many varieties
of wood and every form of
its manufacture. Some-
times huge trees of oak
or pine are squared and
sent in lengths of thirty FlG - 102<

to eighty feet. Planks, Log jam on the s

boards, laths, shingles, pickets, barrel staves, hoops, match blocks,
telegraph poles, cedar posts, railway ties, are some of the varieties.
More pine and spruce are exported than any other varieties. Cedar
is the chief material used for shingles. Birch, oak, elm, and hem-
lock are sent in lesser quantities.

The bulk of the timber product is exported to Great Britain
and the United States, but there is considerable trade with France,

122

NORTH AMERICA

Germany, Spain, Brazil, Argentina, South Africa, the West Indies,
Japan, and China.

The French are good woodmen. Hardy and industrious, but fond of
excitement and company, they are more attracted by a life in the lumber-
camp than by the cultivation of the soil. As expert raftsmen and river
drivers they are unequalled. More than two centuries of experience on
the swift currents of the Upper Ottawa and the St. Maurice have made
them as much at home on a log or a raft as an Indian is in a bark canoe.
Every stream tributary to the St. Lawrence furnishes some logs, but the
regions drained by the Upper Ottawa, the St. Maurice, and Lake St. John

are most important. The
immense rafts are taken
down to Quebec and
there broken up for ship-
ment. See page 101.

Every year the pulp
industry is being ex-
tended, and as the
spruce forests are al-
most boundless, its
possibilities are great.
Pulp mills are estab-
FlG - 103 - lished at HULL, on the

Pulp works at Grand Mere. Ottawa, Oil the St.

Maurice (Fig. 103), on the Saguenay, and at other points. South
of the St. Lawrence are great areas of hardwood forests that will
yet prove of great value for manufacturing purposes. As in
Ontario the best lumbering areas are on lands leased by the Pro-
vincial Government.

MINING

While Quebec does not compare in mineral wealth with some of
the other provinces, yet there are quite a number of minerals found
and somewhat extensive operations are carried on.

Iron. The bog-iron ores near Three Rivers attracted the attention of
Governor Frontenac in the seventeenth century, and he reported to the
king of France in favor of establishing smelting furnaces. A smelter was
actually established in 1637 and continued in operation for more than two
hundred years. Larger furnaces were then erected, and are yet in opera-
tion. The bog-iron ore is rather widely distributed around the St. Maurice

QUEBEC 123

on the north and the St. Francis on the south. Smelters are in operation
at DRUMMOXDVILLE and at RADXOR. A considerable supply of ore is now
procured from Lac la Tortue by dredging. The product of these furnaces
is largely used for making car wheels. See page 102.

Quebec has extensive deposits of magnetic ore in the neighborhood of
Hull on the Ottawa and in the eastern townships. These might be profit-
ably smelted with cheap coal but not with charcoal. Some years ago a
charcoal smelter was operated at Hull, but the venture did not prove
profitable. The discovery of some process by which the ore can be
smelted by electricity may yet make the Ottawa district a centre for the
manufacture of iron and steel.

Asbestos. Quebec has the finest deposits of asbestos known to exist
in America. Asbestos is a peculiar mineral rock capable of being crushed
and spun or woven like wool. Its economic value consists in its being fire-
proof. It can thus be used for ropes, firemen's coats, lining for fire-proof
curtains, and packing for steam-pipes. It is also crushed and used for
plaster and paint. The most important deposits are in the counties of
Richmond and Megantic. It is taken from open mines sometimes a hun-
dred feet deep.

Copper is found in the eastern townships. It is shipped to the United
States to be smelted. The ore also yields a small percentage of silver.
Copper is valuable in many ways. It is one of the metals used to
make bronze and also brass ; but of late years the wide introduction of
electricity has created a new and even greater demand for this metal.
Since copper is a substance which transmits electricity with much less
resistance than other common metals, it is the best material for trolley
wires, the wire of long-distance telephones, electric bells in houses, etc.

'Gold is found chiefly in the valley of the Chaudiere in the beds of
ancient river gravels. It occurs mostly as coarse nuggets. Those de-
posits are sometimes covered with a glacial drift to a depth of more than
a hundred feet.

The region of the Gatineau and Lievre rivers produces a fine quality
of mica and some plumbago. Good slate is mined in the eastern town-
ships. Building stone of great variety is everywhere abundant. Peat is
plentiful along the St. Lawrence both above and below Montreal. Petro-
leum is found in Gaspe", but so far the borings do not show that it is in
paying quantities.

FISHING

The fisheries of Quebec yield between $2,000,000 and $3,000,000
annually. Besides the fresh-water fisheries of the St. Lawrence and
its tributaries those of the Gulf are easily reached by the people of
Quebec. The cod is the most important, and it is worthy of note
that the finest cod in the world are cured on Gaspe coast. The cod
fishery in Quebec is mostly carried on in open boats manned by two

124 NORTH AMEEICA

men who fish with hook and line. These small boats often venture
out fifteen or twenty miles.

Cod are greedy feeders but particular about bait. Caplin, a small fish
like a sardine, mackerel, clams, and squid, a species of cephalopod, are
used. It is said that the bait used in the cod-fishery costs one-fourth the
value of the cod. Every part of the cod is of use. The tongues are good
food, the liver gives cod-liver oil, and the air-bladders furnish isinglass,
while the bones make a valuable fertilizer. Codfish are sold either fresh
or salt. In order to salt or cure them they are split open and cleaned,
soaked in barrels of brine, and then dried upon racks raised two or three
feet about the wharf. Sometimes the bones are removed, the skin stripped
off, and the flesh torn into shreds and packed into boxes as boneless cod.
Cod fishing from open boats is dangerous because the men must venture
out in small flat-bottomed boats called dories to take the fish off the
trawls. While they are busy a storm may rise or a heavy fog come up
and prevent their return.

Mackerel are obtained in spring and summer. They swim together in
such numbers in schools, as fishermen say that they make a great
commotion in the water. When the fishermen sight a " school," they
spring into their great seine boats, drop a large seine or net into the
water, and endeavor to draw it around the school. Then the seine is
hauled in, forming a pocket and entrapping the fish. In this pocket
enough fish are sometimes caught to fill hundreds of barrels. Some are
sold fresh, and others are salted and sold as salt mackerel.

Lobster fishing is carried on close to the coast. A lobster-trap,
something like a huge round wicker basket, is weighted with stone and
lowered to the bottom, where the lobster lives, crawling around among the
rocks and seaweed. A fish-head for bait is inside the trap, and the lob-
ster crawls in to get it ; he is so stupid that he rarely finds his way out.
When lobsters are caught, they have a beautiful green color. It is only
after they have been scalded by being plunged in boiling water that they
become red.

The salmon and herring fisheries are also very important, Quebec pos-
sessing some of the finest salmon streams in the world.

To encourage the development of the fisheries the Dominion Govern-
ment pays a bounty of $160,000 a year to fishermen. Some 8000 fisher-
men of Quebec province share in this bounty, and although they average
only $4 or $5 each, yet this small amount will buy a barrel of flour for
the fisherman's family. The fish are exported chiefly to Spain, Italy, the
West Indies, and the United States.

MANUFACTURING

Quebec has many manufactures of the first importance, the prod-
ucts, however, being largely for consumption in Canada. Water-

QUEBEC

125

power, of which the province has an abundance, is being used more
and more, and this is making up for the lack of cheap coal, which in
the past has somewhat
hindered manufactur-
ing enterprise. Many
of the leading manu-
factures have already
been noted, particu-
larly butter, cheese,
maple sugar, lumber
products, pulp, and ma-
chinery. In addition
there are extensive
cotton (Fig. 104) and
woollen mills, sugar
refineries, tanneries,
and boot and shoe
factories. The manu-
facture of india rubber, furs, and hats gives employment to a large
number of people.

FIG. 104.
Cotton mill below Montmorency Falls.

Although Quebec has not one-half as many miles of railway as
Ontario, yet the distribution of population is such that every part of
the province is well supplied. The principal lines are the Inter-
colonial Railway, connecting Montreal with Halifax and Sydney,
the Canadian Pacific, and the Grand Trunk. Montreal and Quebec
have direct water communication with all parts of the world.
Steamboats ply on the principal rivers, both for passenger and
freight service. A line of steamships plies regularly, during the
summer months, between Montreal and Toronto. The magnificent
series of canals along the St. Lawrence, constructed by the Dominion
Government for the purpose of overcoming obstructions to naviga-
tion, have made the river accessible to vessels of even heavy draft.

SUMMER RESORTS

Quebec is so rich in historical associations and possesses such
picturesque and varied scenery, that during the summer months
it is a constant resort for tourists. The cities of MONTREAL and
QUEBEC, the falls of the Montmorency, the Saguenay, and the

126

NOETH AMERICA

habitants themselves are sources of never failing pleasure to the
stream of visitors. The south shore of the St. Lawrence has a
number of famous summer resorts, of which RIVIERE DU LOUP,
METIS, CACUNA, and RIMOUSKI are. the chief. MURRAY BAY and
TADOUSSAC on the north shore have many summer visitors, quite a
number of whom have permanent cottages there.

SPORTING

Quebec is the paradise of the sportsman, and many visitors are
every year attracted to one part of the province or another by the
hunting and the fishing. The province has some of the most noted
salmon streams in the world, and the fishing everywhere is excellent.
Game of all kinds abounds in the northern and eastern sections of
the country.

CITIES AND TOWNS

MONTREAL, situated on Montreal Island, just below the junction
of the Ottawa and the St. Lawrence, is the commercial metropolis
and the largest city in Canada. It extends from the river bank to
Mount Royal, around the base of which are many beautiful residences,

one of the striking fea-
tures of Montreal; The
city is interesting from the
historical standpoint, many

Im ~ iHt^O^^ *V $ relics of the French occu-

pation still remaining, one
of the most noted being
the Chateau de Ramezay,
once the home of the gov-
ernors of Canada. Many
beautiful monuments also
adorn the city, that to
Maisonneuve, the founder
of Montreal, being the
most conspicuous. Montreal contains some beautiful churches, such
as the parish church of Notre Dame, which seats 15,000 people,
the Cathedral of St. James, an almost exact reproduction on a small
scale of St. Peter's at Rome, Christ Church Cathedral, and many
others. Here also is situated McGill University, with its magnificent
buildings of Arts, Science, and Medicine; McGill Normal School;
Laval University, and Bishop's College Medical School. There are

FIG. 105.
Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal.

QUEBEC

127

also many theological colleges, convent schools, and institutions for
the Deaf and Dumb and for the Blind. Montreal is particularly
noted for its hospitals, the most important being the Royal Victoria
(Fig. 105), Montreal General, Hotel Dieu, Notre Dame, and Grey
Nuns'. Owing to its historical associations, the beauty of its situa-
tion, and its interesting surroundings, Montreal is visited each year
by thousands of tourists. More than one-half of the population is
French Canadian.

Montreal has direct steamship communication with European ports, with
Quebec, Ottawa, and with ports on Lake Ontario and on the upper lakes, and
is the chief port of entry for Canadian exports and imports. The abundant
water-power supplied by the rapids above Montreal gives the city a good
opportunity to develop manufactures. These are principally cotton,
woollens, sugar, clothing, boots and shoes, paints, furs, nails, tobacco, and
rubber goods. Montreal is also the headquarters for the Canadian Pacific
and Grand Trunk Railways. The car-shops and general offices of these
railways give
employment to
thousands of
men. Here also
is the western
terminus of the
Intercolonial
Railway. WEST-
MOUNT and ST.
HEXRI are im-
portant suburbs
of Montreal.

FIG. 106.
The city of Quebec from Point Levis.

QUEBEC,
founded by
Champlain in

1608, is the oldest city in Canada and one of the oldest in America.
It has an unrivalled situation on the plateau known as Cape Diamond
(Fig. 106). The St. Charles River banks the city on the east and the
Plains of Abraham on the west, while the broad St. Lawrence gives
a grand outlook on the south. The city is rich in historical memo-
ries, and many buildings are yet standing which link the French
regime with the twentieth century. Laval University and Normal
School are situated here. An electric railway runs east along the
north shore to the beautiful Falls of Montmorency. Chateau Fronte-
nac has the finest outlook of any hotel in America. The city is a
favorite resort for tourists.

128

NORTH AMERICA

Quebec is connected with Montreal by a branch line of the Canadian
Pacific Railway, and with Lake St. John by the Quebec and Lake St. John
Railway. The Intercolonial Railway touches at Levis immediately across
the river. In addition to its shipping trade, the city is a great lumbering
and manufacturing centre. The principal manufactures are leather, boots
and shoes, furs, soap, and tobacco.

Hull, situated immediately opposite Ottawa, shares with that city in
the Chaudiere water-power. The principal manufacturing establishments
are lumber mills, paper mills, pulp mills, tub and pail factories, and match

factories. The city
also has a pork-pack-
ing business and ex-
tensive stone, lime,
and cement works.

Sherbrooke, on the
St. Francis River,
is the chief town of
the " Eastern Town-
ships" (Fig. 107).
It has good water-
power, and manu-
factures woollens
and machinery. The
town also has a
large local trade
with the surround-
ing agricultural dis-
trict.

Three Rivers, at the mouth of the St. Maurice, which here joins the
St. Lawrence by three mouths, has a large lumber trade. Near by are the
Radnor iron forges. Three Rivers was the first place in Canada to smelt
iron. The town has also a large shoe factory.

St. Hyacinthe, on the Yamaska, is the seat of the Government experi-
mental dairy school. It also has manufactures of paper, leather, boots
and shoes, woollens, and agricultural machinery.

Levis is opposite Quebec city, with which it is now connected by means
of a bridge across the St. Lawrence. The town has a large shipping trade.
Sorel is situated on Lake St. Peter, at the mouth of the Richelieu
River on the site of an old fort, built in 1665. It has extensive factories
for engines, mill machinery, stoves, ploughs, and leather. Some ship-
building is done.

GOVERNMENT

Quebec is governed by a Lieutenant- Governor appointed by the
Governor-General in Council, a Legislative Council of twenty-four
members appointed for life by the government of the day, and a

FIG. 107.
The city of Sherbrooke.

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j c%* 1*3

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C " 3 O

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*-* '^^^ ^^^ **
__- | iO . I s * -. O

-_2^-^-g2;

Jtl^i^si

nl^.c g ?^^

g P-- o i d o
2 u J3 S e- 1-1
O - o> ** u-=^'-^

P-^5i S.8F-.
S 8-3 a ^gS

O"'" - I ?5 !2

- ;'3 -I .= = a

NOVA SCOTIA 129

Legislative Assembly of seventy-three members, elected for a term
of not more than five years by the people. The Executive Council,
or Cabinet, of eight members is chosen from the party having the
majority in the Legislative Assembly. Both the French and the
English language are used in the debates in both houses. Quebec
is represented in the House of Commons by sixty-five members and
in the Senate by twenty-four members. There is a complete muni-
cipal system, the provinces being divided into parishes or townships
for that purpose.

III. NOVA SCOTIA

Physiography and Coast-line. The peninsula of Nova Scotia is
divided into two parts almost equal in area by a ridge running
through the whole length of the province. The one-half faces' the
Atlantic, and the other slopes toward the interior waters. The
first half may be said to be rocky and barren, and the second for
the most part fertile. The barren strip along the Atlantic coast
is about twenty-one miles wide and interspersed with numerous
lakes and streams. The country is a paradise for sportsmen, moose,
caribou, and fur-bearing animals being plentiful, while the number-
less lakes and streams are full of trout.

On the side facing the inner waters of the Bay of Fundy the
country wears a different aspect. There continuous hills, clothed
with beech, maple, and other hardwoods, run in ranges in the general
direction of the coast-line, with an elevation of from five hundred to
seven hundred feet.

Along the north shore of the Minas Basin are the Cobequid
Mountains, which continue all along the northern half of the penin-
sula to the Straits of Canso. These mountains are nowhere higher
than 1200 feet. The northern slope of this watershed is very
fertile.

Around the Basin of Minas and Chignecto Bay are the fertile
marsh lands formed by the tides which here range from thirty-eight
to sixty feet in height and penetrate far up the numerous short
rivers (Fig. 109). When the tide is out, the river channels are
dry, and a view of an amazing area of mud flats covered with a red
fertilizing slime is afforded. Then may be seen the remarkable spec-
tacle of boats lying high and dry, which a few hours before were
afloat in twenty or thirty feet of water.

130 NORTH AMERICA

The coast-line of Nova Scotia facing the Atlantic is in general
low, but extremely rugged and rocky, and studded with many
islands. It abounds with excellent harbors, many of them capable
of receiving the largest vessels afloat. Of these Halifax Harbor
is the best known, but Lunenburg, Shelburne, and Canso are almost
equally good. The coast on the Bay of Fundy is less rugged,
and contains few harbors, those of Annapolis and Digby being
the best.

Annapolis Basin is an arm of the sea, of great beauty, rendered
historic by being the scene of the settlement in 1605 of de Monts

FIG. 109.
Diked lands at Grand Pre on the Avon River, the home of " Evangeline."

and Champlain. It is five miles wide, bordered by a high rocky
ridge, North Mountain, which forms an admirable protection from
the north winds.

Farther up the Bay of Fundy the Basin of Minas opens up,
marked on its southern shore by two grand headlands, Cape Splitt
and Cape Blomidon. This beautiful sheet of water extends sixty
miles into the land, with an extreme breadth of twenty miles. All
along its northern shore runs the range of the Cobequid Mountains,
clothed to their summits with beech and maple. On the southern
shore are the rich diked lands of Grand Pre, made famous by Long-
fellow's poem of "Evangeline." Near here is the mouth of the
Avon, a river up which a tidal wave, thirty-eight feet high, sweeps
far into the country.

The Bay of Fundy is noted for its tides, which are higher than in any
other part of the world. This is due to its funnel shape, the tide increas-
ing in height as the bay becomes narrower. In Digby and St. John the
extreme height of the tides does not exceed twenty-seven feet, while near
Truro and Hillsborough the rise and fall of the tide is fully sixty feet.

NOVA SCOTIA 131

The upper extremity of the Bay of Fundy is known as Chignecto
Channel, which forks into two bays, Chepody Bay in New Bruns-
wick, and Cumberland Basin washing the coast of Nova Scotia.
The Chignecto isthmus is narrowest at the head of this bay, but the
prodigious tides render impossible the construction of a canal to
connect with Northumberland Strait.

The north coast of Nova Scotia, on Northumberland Strait, con-
sists of a low shore, deeply indented by a number of good harbors,
as Pugwash and Wallace, but the finest harbor is Pictou. Here the
largest vessels resort to ship coal from the adjacent coal mines. At
the eastern end of the peninsula are two large bays, Chedabucto and
St. Greorge^s, connected by the Strait of Canso, a deep lane of water
between the peninsula of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. It is 14
miles long, | of a mile wide, and nowhere less than 90 feet deep.
Both its shores are bold, and the scenery exceedingly beautiful.
The island of Cape Breton is very irregular, both in surface and
coast-line. In many places the ocean reaches into the heart of the
island.

Sable Island, about 200 miles from Halifax, is a low-lying,
sandy island, very dangerous to navigation. A wireless telegraphy
station has recently been erected there.

CLIMATE

The climate of Nova Scotia partakes of the general characteristics
of the eastern coast of North America, but it is more temperate than
that of the adjoining mainland in consequence of its being sur-
rounded by water. No part of the province is more than thirty
miles from the sea, hence the climate is moist and the rainfall
abundant. The winter begins in December and lasts until March,
and the mean temperature of that season is 23 degrees. The sum-
mers are hot and vegetation is rapid, the mean temperature being 61
degrees.

Maize, a crop requiring a high summer temperature with abun-
dant sunlight, is grown successfully in the interior. The autumn
lingers long and is the most delightful season of the year. The
climate is very favorable to health, and the inhabitants are long-
lived. In the southern portion of the province the winters are
milder and the snowfall is less. There sheep are pastured out all
winter.

132

The greatest drawback to the coast is the fog, generated by the Gulf
Stream, which often in summer sweeps in from the sea, along the Atlantic
coast and the shores of the Bay of Funcly. It never extends more than a
few miles inland.

FISHING

Living within
the sound of the sea
and near a coast in-
dented with many
good harbors, Nova
Scotians naturally
turn to the ocean
for one means of
subsistence. The
fisheries, therefore,
especially of cod
and lobsters, form
one of the most
important indus-
tries of the prov-
ince.
Four centuries ago Basque and French fishermen cast their lines

in these waters. At the present time the fisheries of the province

employ upward of 17,000 boats and give employment to fully 30,000

men. The annual value exceeds 7,000,000. Many of the fishing

vessels are of large size,

ranging as high as 80

tons. Cod and lobsters

constitute about two- Hi^.^ ttf B f '. *< . .

thirds of the catch, but $&- 4*^

^^^^^MMk^LJ ''

mackerel, herring, had-
dock, halibut, and sal-
mon are also taken in
large numbers. The
fish caught are ex-
ported to Great Brit-
ain, the United States,
the British West Indies, Brazil, Cuba, Germany, Italy, and other
countries. Along the shores there are over 250 lobster canneries

FIG. no.

Herring Cove, a fishing village near Halifax.

FIG. 111.

Harbor of Lunenburg, showing fleet of fishing vessels.
These are all engaged in the deep-sea fishery.

NOVA SCOTIA 133

that ship their products to the coast cities of the United States and
to various European markets. Besides the canned product, great
numbers of these fish are also exported alive in tanks. Clams found
along the coast live buried in the mud flats, which are exposed to
view at low tide. At such times boys and men dig these shell-fish
out much as a farmer digs potatoes from a hill.

MINING

Minerals. Nova Scotia abounds in valuable minerals, and these
must always prove one of its principal sources of wealth. It is the
only province in the Dominion where coal, iron, and gold are found
near together. These, combined with her large timber areas and un-
limited water-power, provide the most favorable conditions possible
for manufactures. The chief minerals mined are coal, iron, gold, and
gypsum. Deposits of manganese, copper, antimony, and lead also
exist and are worked to some extent.

The province abounds in excellent building stone. The free-
stone of Wallace on the north coast has long been noted for its
excellence and has been used in many fine buildings.

Coal. The Nova Scotia coal is all bituminous, or soft, and is of excel-
lent quality both for domestic and steam purposes. The output, which
has doubled in ten years, was 5,000,000 tons in 1904. Of this Quebec took
about one-third.

There are three large coal fields in the province : CUMBERLAND, PICTOU,
and SYDNEY, with a combined area of 700 square miles.

The Cumberland field has an area of 430 squares miles, the chief mines
being at SPRINGHILL and JOGGIXS. From the former the Intercolonial ob-
tains its supply ; at the latter is seen the most remarkable example in the
world of fossil forests of the carboniferous age. The fossil tree trunks
have been turned to coal, while the roots are buried in the rocks below.
The action of the tide exposes new fossil trees from year to year. The
Pictou coal-field has an area of only 35 square miles, but the aggregate
thickness of the seams is over 100 feet. NEW GLASGOW is the chief mining
centre, while Pictou is the shipping port. From this port a cargo has
recently been shipped to Norway in competition with the Scottish and
Welsh collieries. The Sydney coal-field in Cape Breton extends along the
Atlantic shore for 32 miles, and covers an area of 250 square miles. The
largest mines are at GLACE BAY, 18 miles from Sydney. A newer coal-field
is that on the western shore of Cape Breton Island, in the vicinity of
Inverness and Mabou.

When the coal seam crops out in a valley, it is quarried from the seam
in much the same way as stone is quarried from a hillside ; but when

134

NORTH AMERICA

the coal lies far below the surface, shafts have to be sunk to it. From the
sides of such a shaft, tunnels are dug into the beds, and from these the
coal is removed. Usually there are several beds of coal with thick layers
of rock between them, and the shaft extends downward through them all,
with tunnels reaching out from it at each level of the mineral.

The workmen break the coal with the aid of steam drills and picks.
After the coal is broken loose, it is placed in small cars drawn to the shaft
by horses or by electricity, and then hoisted to the surface by steam.
The horses are kept underground for mouths, being fed and allowed to
sleep in stables cut out of solid coal. The miners are now largely
foreigners, and in a single mine one may hear several different languages
spoken.

Iron. Valuable iron ores are found in many places in Nova Scotia and
the Island of Cape Breton. These minerals exist in large quantities in
, _ . . .. . . tin 1 coal districts, mid

the

manufacture
iron and steel
carried on in
GLASGOW, in LOXDOX-
DEREY, and in SYDNEY
(Fig. 112). Many of
the Nova Scotia ores
are of high quality,
and this industry gives
promise of attaining
immense proportions
in the near future.
The new iron and steel
works at Sydney, and
at Sydney Mines, on
the opposite side of the
harbor, have absorbed
an immense amount
of capital, and give
employment to many
hundreds of men.

Gold. Gold mining has been carried on in Nova Scotia for upwards
of forty years. Gold has been found in the quartz rocks in thirty-five
different places. The metal is extracted from the quartz by means of
stamping mills, and the business, although on a small scale, yields good
profit. Over $17,000,000 worth of gold has been obtained so far from
the rocks of Nova Scotia.

Gypsum. Gypsum is found in very large quantities in many parts
of the province. The largest deposits are in the Island of Cape Breton
and in the region of the Basin of Minas. The annual product is 100,000
tons, most of which is exported to the United States.

FIG. 112.

The outside of a blast furnace at Sydney, Cape Breton. The
round towers are the furnaces; the tall, slender towers
the chimneys. The ore, coal, and limestone are elevated,
and then carried on cars over the tracks running to the top
of the furnaces.

Nor A SCOTIA

Gypsum in the raw state is used as a fertilizer. When heated in
kilns to drive off the water it is known as plaster of Paris, so called be-
cause the preparation of it centred originally around several Parisian
suburbs. It is used in the arts to obtain copies of statuary, and for inside
plaster work in houses. Imitation marble can also be made from it.
Stucco is plaster of Paris mixed with a strong solution of glue.

AGRICULTURE

Nova Scotia contains a large area of excellent land, and farming
operations are carried on to a greater or less extent by residents of
all of its rural districts. The diked lands of the province, commonly
called " marshes, " are of inexhaustible fertility, and have been pro-
ducing crops for more than
two centuries. Much of
the upland, especially that
along the Gulf shore, is of
excellent quality, and there
are large areas of intervale
land on all the streams.
All the fruits, vegetables,
and cereals of the temper-
. ate zone grow in Nova
Scotia. Fruit growing, es-
pecially the cultivation of NHHHHHE
apples, is extensively car-
ried on in the Annapolis Apple orchard in the Annapol:

Valley, about half a million barrels being exported annually, chiefly
to Great Britain, from this district alone. (Fig. 113.) Peaches,
plums, cherries, strawberries, and tomatoes give large yields with lit-
tle attention. Considerable quantities of these are regularly shipped
to New York, Boston, and other cities on the United States seaboard.
The leading crops of the farm are hay, oats, buckwheat, potatoes,
and turnips. Wheat is not cultivated to any great extent. Stock
raising and dairying are of growing importance.

LUMBERING

About one-third of the area of Nova Scotia is still covered with
forest. The prevailing woods are spruce, fir, hackmatack or black
larch, hemlock, birch, beech, maple, and ash. Formerly the white
pine was very abundant, but it has mostly disappeared, owing to

136 NORTH AMERICA

improvident cutting. There is still an abundance of spruce, and the
export of spruce deals now forms a large item in the commerce of
the province.

Before the advent of iron and steel ships a great deal of shipbuilding
was done in Nova Scotia. Yarmouth, Hautsport, Windsor, and other places
every year built many fine vessels, which carried the fame of the province
all over the world. This business has been destroyed in consequence of
the competition of steamers and steel ships, and the shipbuilding of the
province has fallen to small proportions, being confined to schooners and
other small vessels for the coasting trade. Even yet, however, vessels from
Halifax and Yarmouth may be met with in every great seaport in the
world.

MANUFACTURING

The principal manufacturing industry of Nova Scotia is the mak-
ing of iron and steel, which are produced at SYDNEY, Cape Breton.
Two companies are operating in that vicinity, and iron and steel are

View of the iron and steel works near New Glasgow.

being exported from the province as a result of their efforts. There
are also iron works at FERRONA and at LONDONDERRY, near Truro,
and steel plants at NEW GLASGOW. (Fig. 114.) There is little
doubt that the manufacture of iron and steel will become in time the
leading industry of the province, in consequence of the ore and the
coal being found near each other. The other manufacturing indus-
tries of the province include wood-working, the making of boots and
shoes, sugar refining, the manufacture of ropes and twines, biscuits,
carriages, cottons, woollens, grindstones, and agricultural imple-
ments. There are extensive car works at Amherst.

TRANSPORTATION

Nova Scotia has upward of 1000 miles of railway, the principal
line being the Intercolonial, which connects Halifax and Sydney
with Quebec and Montreal. The Dominion Atlantic is the next in

NOVA SCOTIA

137

importance, and connects Halifax with Annapolis and Yarmouth.
All the principal towns in the province now have railway communi-
cation. Lines of steamships run from Halifax to the West Indies
and also to the United Kingdom and the United States. There is
an excellent steamship
service between Digby
and St. John, Pictou
and Charlottetown,
Sydney and St. John's,
Yarmouth and Boston,
and between the At-
lantic ports of Nova
Scotia.

SUMMER RESORTS

Nova Scotia is
justly famous as a re-
sort for tourists, not
only on account of its
invigorating climate
and its scenic gran-
deur, but by reason of
its many thrilling his-
torical associations.
It is a land of waters,
and affords the most
varied means of rec-
reation, such as boating, yachting, bathing, fishing, and hunting,
besides the many charming excursions by water or rail, to its many
points of interest.

The most attractive region in Nova Scotia is \mdoubtedly Evangeline's
Land, on the south shore of the restless Basin of Minas, in which the chief
places of interest from the tourist's standpoint are WOLFVILLE and GRAND
PKE, while farther up the basin is KINGSPORT, famous for its shipbuilding.
Just opposite, on the north shore, is the beautiful town of PAKKSBOKO,
near which is SOUTH JOGGINS, with its exposed fossil forests, interesting
not alone to the geologist but to the general tourist as well.

DIGBY, opposite DIGBY GUT, on Annapolis Basin, famous for cherries
and herring, is a busy place during the tourist season, and has steamboat
connection with St. John. Farther up the basin is ANNAPOLIS, ancient,

FIG. 115.
The dry dock at Halifax.

138 NORTH AMERICA

yet beautiful. At the head of navigation, on the Annapolis River, is
BRIDGETOWN. Twenty-one miles south of Sydney is the historic LOUIS-
BURG, with its ruined fort.

BRIDGEWATER, on the beautiful La Have River, thirteen miles from its
mouth, CHESTER, on Mali one Bay, noted for its lobsters, WEYMOUTH, on Ste.
Mary's Bay, MIDDLETOX, LAWREXCETOWX, KEXTviLLE,and CoLDBRooK,and
many others, are growing in favor as summer resorts. Find these on the map.

For the sportsman Nova Scotia offers many attractions. The forests
of the interior are full of game and are easily reached. The chief sport-
ing regions of the province are : the Tusket region, accessible from Yar-
mouth ; the Annapolis region ; the Gaspereau region, easily reached from
Wolfville; the Cumberland region, reached from Parrsboro or Kingsport;
the Halifax region, and the Cape Breton region.

CITIES AND TOWNS

HALIFAX, the largest city, is the capital and the business centre
of the province. Fully one-half of the exports and imports of the
province pass through the city. Halifax was formerly the chief
British naval station for North America and is very strongly
fortified. A garrison of Canadian troops is maintained there at
the expense of the Dominion government. The harbor, which
is free from ice all the year round, is one of the finest havens in the
world ; it is fourteen miles long, with nowhere less than forty feet
of water. The city has a beautiful situation and is solidly built.
The Provincial Government Buildings are situated here, as are also
Dalhousie University and the Institutions for the Blind and for
the Deaf and Dumb. DARTMOUTH is prettily situated on Halifax
harbor opposite the capital city.

SYDNEY, in Cape Breton, has risen to importance recently in
consequence of the establishment there of extensive steel works.
Immense deposits of coal exist in its vicinity. On the opposite
side of its very commodious harbor is NORTH SYDNEY, a very im-
portant shipping port.

YARMOUTH is a progressive town at the entrance of the Bay of
Fundy. Formerly it was a great shipbuilding centre and devoted
exclusively to maritime pursuits. With little back country to sup-
port the town, the people yet thrive by shipbuilding and the carry-
ing trade. The lakes in the rear are beautiful, and the region is a
sportsman's resort.

TRURO lies at the head of the Basin of Minas and is the centre of a
wealthy agricultural district. The provincial Normal School is situated

NOVA SCOTIA

139

here. NEW GLASGOW is the centre of a large iron and coal industry.
SPRIXGHILL has risen into importance in consequence of the coal mines in
its vicinity. WIXDSOR, on the Avon, is a shipping port, has important
manufactures, and is the seat of King's College, founded in 1790. A
fleet of large ships is kept busy carrying the gypsum mined near by to
New York and Philadelphia. When the tide is in, Windsor harbor is
capacious, but when it is out the ships are left high and dry. AMHERST
is a manufacturing town in the centre of a rich agricultural district, and
within a few miles of the Cumberland coal-fields. PICTOU, with a splendid
harbor, is the shipping port for New Glasgow and other coal mines.
LUNEXBURG is engaged largely in the fishing and lumbering industry, and
has a large trade with the West Indies. AXTIGOXISH, a thriving town,
whose inhabitants are nearly all highland Scottish, exports cattle, butter,
and other farm products. It is the seat of St. Francis Xavier College.
MULGRAVE, on Canso Strait, has a railway-ferry to Cape Breton. LOUIS-
BURG, CANSO, and PARRSBORO are important seaport towns. GLACE BAY
and SYDNEY MIXES in Cape Breton, and W T ESTVILLE and STELLARTOX in
Pictou county, owe their prosperity to the coal mines in their vicinities.
WOLFVILLE is the seat of Acadia University. AXXAPOLIS, formerly Port
Royal, is interesting as the oldest town in the province.

GOVERNMENT

The government of
Nova Scotia consists of
a Lieutenant-governor,
appointed by the Do-
minion Government, a
Legislative Council of
twenty members, ap-
pointed for life by the
government of the daj%
and a Legislative As-
sembly of thirty-eight
members, elected by
the people. The Cabi-
net or Executive Council
consists of eight mem-

FIG. 11(>.
Provincial Government Buildings, Halifax.

bers, and must be able to obtain the support of a majority in the pop-
ular chamber. Nova Scotia is represented in the House of Commons
by eighteen members and in the Senate by ten members.

Every division sending a representative to the provincial Legis-
lative Assembly is a municipality possessing local self-government.

140 NORTH AMERICA

IV. NEW BRUNSWICK

Physiography and Coast Line. New Brunswick resembles in its
topographical features the adjoining portions of Quebec and New
England. It is a rolling country of no great elevation, and its loftiest
hills do not exceed 2800 feet in height. The highest hills are in the
northern and northwestern sections of the province, and are an
extension of the Appalachian system. The scenery is picturesque
and varied, and a large portion of the centre of the province consists
of one vast forest. The general level is low, and a very considerable
portion of the province does not rise more than 200 feet above sea
level. The coast along the Bay of Fundy is not high, but it is rocky
and bold. On the Bay of Chaleur and the Gulf of St. Lawrence the
shore is less rugged. The Bay of Chaleur itself is without a rock,
reef, or shoal to hinder navigation.

Few countries are so well watered as New Brunswick. Lakes are
numerous and there are many rivers and streams, some of them of large
size. The St. John River, which rises in the state of Maine, is about 450
miles in length, and empties into the Bay of Fundy. For 80 miles of
its course, the St. John forms the boundary between Canada and the
United States. At Grand Falls, 225 miles from its mouth, the river leaps
over a precipice of 58 feet into an immense chasm, forming a cataract of
great beaut} 7 . The river is navigable from this point to its mouth. At
the head of St. John harbor occurs the famous "reversible falls," caused
by the narrowing of the river as it passes between walls of rock 100 feet
high, and by the rapidity of the tide, which here reaches a height of 25
feet. The upper course of the river passes through a dense forest coun-
try, so that the river is of great use to the lumbermen in floating logs to
the mills. For the greater part of its lower course it passes through a rich
agricultural country. The St. Croix River, which forms part of the western
boundary of the province, flows into the Bay of Fundy, and is navigable up
to about 25 miles from its mouth. The Miramichi River, about 220 miles
in length, flows into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The river has two
branches, which unite near its mouth. With its tributaries the Miramichi
drains a large portion of the interior of the province. The river is navi-
gable for large vessels as far as Newcastle and Chatham. It is important
for its large lumbering trade and for its fisheries. The Restigouche River,
which flows into the Bay of Chaleur, is 225 miles in length and for a
portion of its course is the boundary between New Brunswick and Quebec.
It is navigable for the largest vessels as far up as Campbellton. The river
is noted for the beautiful scenery along its banks and for its salmon. The
Petitcocliac, D'Aulac, and Tantramar are but small streams when the tide

loiigltuae "Wyat fi6" from Green wtch 65

JUEW BRUNSWICK

Sonic of Miles
I? 1,0 ifl 30 40

Cltl-M with oter 10,000: St.JollIl

Cities with 2,000 to 10,000: Moncton

County Towns with less than S.OOO: Oalhousie

Smaller Places: Treadle

Capital of Hrovince thus:*- County Towns thus:
Other Places thus:

OCEAN -ONG/r<?

Longitude Wt-Ht 66' from Greenwich

Fio. 117.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of New Brunswick. (2) Draw
an outline map of the Province, locating the highlands and rivers and the bays
on the coast. (3) Trace the course of the principal rivers. (4) Compare the rivers
that flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence with those that empty into the Bay of
Fundy. (5) Locate the larger lakes of the interior and point out the principal
islands, bays, and capes on tne coast. (6) Compare the eastern with the southern
coast. (7) Locate the mineral regions. (8) Trace the lines of railway, pointing
out their relations to the mining districts and naming the principal places on
each line. (9) Name and locate the larger cities and towns of the Province.
(10) Trace the coast-line surrounding the Bay of Fundy.

NEW BRUNSWICK

141

is out, but when the tide from the Bay of Fundy rushes in they become
broad rivers. The rivers of New Brunswick are an important element in
the prosperity of the country. For the most part they extend far inland
and have good harbors at their mouths. The interior of the country is
thus brought into close communication with the ocean and with ocean
navigation.

The Islands of Campobello and Grand Manan, at the entrance
of the Bay of Fundy, belong to New Brunswick. These are small
islands, but of importance as centres of the fishing industry and as
resorts for tourists. Miscou and Shippegan Islands at the entrance
to the Bay of Chaleur have good harbors.

CLIMATE

The climate of New Brunswick is similar to that of Quebec and
Maine. The winters are severe, and in summer a high temperature
prevails, but the climate is healthy. In the interior the thermometer
sometimes registers 90 Fahr. Winter begins early in December and
lasts until the end of March. Along the shore of the Bay of Fundy
the climate is less extreme, but here fogs are of frequent occurrence.
The most charming season is the autumn, which lingers long. The
cold weather does not become established until well on in November.
The average rainfall is thirty inches, and the average snowfall is
eighty-eight inches.

AGRICULTURE

One of the leading industries of New Brunswick is agriculture,
the greater number of the people being fanners. The province con-
tains about 14,000,000
acres of arable land,
a very large part of
which has not yet been
cultivated. Of the por-
tion now under culti-
vation, the marshes at
the head of the Bay
of Fundy, the inter-
vales of the St. John

and other large rivers, FIU. us.

and the uplands of the Apple trees in blossom, Keswick Ridge, N.B.

14-2

NORTH AMERICA

northern portion of the province are very fertile. Wheat is
grown successfully but not in sufficient quantities to supply the
needs of the province. The largest crops are oats, potatoes, turnips,
and buckwheat, all of which grow well. Maize, used for feeding
purposes, is extensively grown in the interior of the province.
Apples form an abundant crop in some sections. (Fig. 118.) A
great deal of attention is now being given to dairying. There are
numerous cheese factories and creameries in the province which
manufacture cheese and butter for export to England and other
countries.

LUMBERING

The larger portion of the province is still covered by forests, and
lumbering is after agriculture the principal industry. The forest
trees of New Brunswick consist of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, maple,

oak, hemlock, butter-
nut, birch, beech, ash,
elm, and numerous
other species of trees.
Spruce is at present
the principal commer-
cial wood, and is cut
into deals and ex-
ported in immense
quantities to Great
Britain. Lumber mills
are scattered at im-
portant points all over
FIG. 119. the province. (Fig.

A log boom at Marysville. 119. )

Shipbuilding was formerly a very important industry in New Bruns-
wick, and large numbers of splendid vessels were launched from its ship-
yards every year. As in Nova Scotia, this business has almost disappeared
in consequence of steel ships and steamships taking the place of wooden
vessels. The decline of shipbuilding had a very serious effect on the
prosperity of the province.

MINING

New Brunswick is inferior to Nova Scotia in respect to mineral
wealth, but it possesses some valuable ores, and abounds in excellent
building-stone. Coal is found in the southern portion of the province

NEW BRUNSWICK 143

at many points, and is being worked at Grand Lake and in two or
three places in the county of Kent. The seams are thin but close
to the surface, and easily reached. Albertite, a valuable bitumen, is
found in the county of Albert, and, in the same vicinity, petroleum.
Wells of the latter are being operated in Westmoreland. Iron is
found in many portions of the province, and has been worked exten-
sively in the county of Carleton. Copper ore exists in large quan-
tities, and is now being worked in Westmoreland County. Deposits
of nickel, antimony, galena, manganese, and graphite also exist.

New Brunswick is abundantly supplied with limestone, the most
valuable deposit being in the county of St. John. Gypsum is found in
large quantities, and is extensively quarried in the county of Albert.
There are large quarries of granite in various parts of New Brunswick, at
Hampstead, in the Nerepis Valley, and near St. George in the county of
Charlotte. Marble is also found in some localities. Freestone, suitable
for building purposes and for the manufacture of grindstones and mill-
stones, is also found in many parts of the province. Slate is abundant,
and there is clay for the manufacture of bricks in most of the counties.
Saline and other mineral springs are numerous, the principal ones being
in the county of Kings.

FISHING

New Brunswick possesses a coast-line on the Bay of Fundy, Gulf
of St. Lawrence, and Bay of Chaleur of upward of 600 miles, and
these waters abound in fish. Although less extensive than the
fisheries of Nova Scotia, those of ,
New Brunswick are very valuable,
the average product being over
83,000,000 a year. The two great-
est fishing counties are Charlotte
and Gloucester. The largest catch
is that of herring, of which up-
wards of a million dollars' worth
are taken every year. Lobsters,
sardines, smelt, codfish, salmon,

haddock, and oysters (Fig. 120) Fleet of oyster boats off Caraquet, on

come next in order. the Ba y f Chaleurs '

Upwards of $2,000,000 is invested in the fisheries, and nearly 300
vessels and 7000 boats, manned by 12,000 men, are engaged in the in-
dustry in the fisheries, in addition to about 3000 employed in the can-
neries.

144 NORTH AMERICA

MANUFACTURING

The greatest manufacturing industry in New Brunswick is the
conversion of the lumber of the province into deals, boards, clap-
boards, shingles, and similar articles. This industry employs hun-
dreds of saw-mills and gives employment to many thousands of men.
The province contains four pulp mills for the making of chemical
pulp. There are five cotton factories in New Brunswick and several
iron foundries. The manufacture of nails is carried on extensively.
There are many tanneries, and boots and shoes are made in a number
of places. Paper boxes, wools, grindstones, candy, and soap are also
extensively manufactured. There are also a few furniture factories
and carriage factories. The canning of lobsters is an important
industry.

TRANSPORTATION

New Brunswick contains about 1500 miles of railway, the prin-
cipal lines being the Intercolonial and the Canadian Pacific. M one ton
is the centre of the Intercolonial Railway system and that line con-
nects St. John, Fredericton, Chatham, and other important New
Brunswick towns with Quebec and Montreal. The Canadian Pacific
Railway has its Atlantic terminus at St. John, and it connects that
city as well as Fredericton, Woodstock, St. Andrews, and St. Stephen
with Moncton and the West. A large portion of the winter traffic
of Canada passes over its road through New Brunswick to the port
of St. John, where there are deep-water wharves and elevators.
Steamboats for local trade ply on all the principal rivers.

CITIES AND TOWNS

St. John, the largest city and the business centre of the province,
is situated at the mouth of the river of the same name. The harbor
is a very fine one, open all the year round, and, owing to the very
high tide, entirely free of ice in winter (Fig. 121). Regular lines
of steamships connect the city with Great Britain, the West Indies,
the coast cities of the United States, arid with the ports on the Bay
of Fundy. The extension of the " short line " of the Canadian
Pacific from Montreal has greatly increased the business of the city
as a winter port. It has also railway communication with Montreal,
Quebec, and Nova Scotia by means of the Intercolonial Railway.
In addition to its importance as a distributing centre, St. John has

NEW BRUNSWICK

145

FIG. 121.
The harbor of St. John.

many large and growing manufacturing establishments. The prin-
cipal manufactures are lumber, heavy machinery of all kinds, cottons,
woollens, pulp-
wood and paper,
and leather goods.
The city is sub-
stantially built and
has many fine
buildings, includ-
ing the Custom
House, Post Office,
and the Provincial
Asylum for the
Insane.

Fredericton, the
capital of the prov-
ince, is beautifully
situated on the
right bank of the
St. John, about eighty -four miles from its mouth. It is connected
by rail and water with the most important centres in the province.
The city is in the midst of an important agricultural district and is
the seat of a great lumbering industry. The provincial Govern-
ment Buildings are located here, as are also the University of New

^ ._ , Hrunswirk. llu- Normal

, | School, and the Infantry

School.

Moncton, the head-
quarters of the Inter-
colonial Railway, is
situated on the Petit-
codiac River. It is an
important manufactur-
ing centre, the princi-
pal manufactures being
sugar, flour, cottons,
rate of six or seven miles an hour. woollens, and iron

goods. At Moncton may be seen the great " Bore " or tidal wave,
which rushes up the river when the tide is coming in from the Bay
of Fundy (Fig. 122).

FIG. 122.
Tidal bore at Moncton. Here the tide rushes in at the

146

NORTH AMERICA

CHATHAM, on the Miramichi River, has an excellent harbor, and is an
important port for the shipment of lumber to Europe. It has also a num-
ber of manufacturing establishments. ST. STEPHEN, on the St. Croix
River, has a large lumber trade and cotton and candy factories. ST.
ANDREWS, at the mouth of the St. Croix, is engaged principally in the
fisheries and the lumber trade, and is also a popular summer resort.
WOODSTOCK is the centre of a rich agricultural country and has large
woollen and lumber mills. NEWCASTLE, on the Miramichi, has an impor-
tant lumber trade. MARYSVILLE has a large lumber trade and cotton
mills. RICHIBUCTO, at the mouth of the Richibucto River, has large lum-
bering and fishing interests and is noted for its lobster canneries. DAL-
HOUSIE, at the head of the Bay of Chaleur, has a fine harbor, and is the
shipping point for the lumber floated down the Restigouche River.
SACKVILLE, the seat of Mount Allison University, MEMRAMCOOK, the seat
of St. Joseph's College, and DORCHESTER, where is situated the Peniten-
tiary, are important places. Other towns are CAMPBELLTON, BATHURST,
EDMUNSTOST, and HILLSBORO.

SUMMER RESORTS AND SPORTING

New Brunswick is ranch resorted to by sportsmen, as it abounds
in fish and game. The interior of the country is a network of

streams, affording easy
access by means of
canoe and paddle. It
possesses some of the
finest salmon rivers in
the world, and trout
also abound in most of
its rivers and streams.
In its forests, moose,
caribou, and deer are
found in large num-
bers, as are foxes,

Provincial Government Buildings, Fredericton.

FIG. 123.

mink, and muskrats.

Excellent game laws
are in force, and as these are strictly carried out, the game is increas-
ing rather than disappearing. Wild fowl of all kinds are plentiful,
and every year it is becoming more famous as a centre of sport.
Hunters' lodges may be found dotted all over the northern part of
the province.

In addition to those who visit New Brunswick for the sake of the
sport, many tourists summer in the province in various parts. The

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND 147

northern fishing streams are favorite spots, but the Bay of Fimdy
ports are not neglected. Grand Manan and Campobello Islands
have already been named as the summer home of wealthy tourists
from a distance.

GOVERNMENT

New Brunswick is governed by a Lieutenant- Governor appointed
by the Dominion Government, and by a Legislative Assembly, of
forty-six members, elected by the people. The Executive Council
consists of seven members and is responsible to the Assembly (Fig.
123). The province has thirteen members in the House of Com-
mons and ten in the Senate. There is a complete system of munici-
pal government.

V. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Physiography. Prince Edward Island is 145 miles in length,
and varies in width from five to thirty miles. Its outline is irregu-
lar, as it is penetrated by deep bays forming harbors on both its
northern and southern sides. The surface is generally level or
rolling, the highest land upon the island not being more than 500
feet above the level of the sea. The rock is red sandstone. No
coal has been discovered on the island, but it is believed that beds
of it exist, although at a great depth below the surface.

Climate. The climate of Prince Edward Island is somewhat
milder than that of the adjoining coasts of New Brunswick and
Nova Scotia, but it partakes of the same general characteristics.
The spring is retarded by the influence of the Labrador current, but
the autumn is more protracted than in the adjoining portions of
Canada. In the winter the
island is cut off from the
mainland by the ice, which
sometimes freezes solid
from shore to shore, and
it has been proposed to
construct a tunnel across
the Straits of Northum-
berland to get rid of this

_,. ~. lf Farming scene in Prince Edward Island.

Agriculture. The soil of the island is an open sandy loam of a
deep red color and admirably suited to the production of crops,

148

NORTH AMERICA

especially of oats and potatoes. Maize and barley are also exten-
sively grown (Fig. 124). Nearly the whole of the island has been
cleared of its forests and is under cultivation. Much attention has

recently been paid to dairy-
ing and to stock-raising.
There is a condensed milk
factory at Charlottetown
(Fig. 127). The agricul-
tural exports of the island
are large and principally
go to Great Britain.

Fishing. The waters
surrounding the island are
among the finest in the
world and abound in cod-
fish, mackerel, lobsters,
herring, gaspereau, and other valuable fish (Fig. 125). Many of the
inhabitants of the island are engaged in the fisheries. The annual
product averages a million dollars. Prince Edward Island is noted
for its oysters, the famous Malpeque oyster finding its home here.

FIG. 125.
Fishing boats at Summerside.

Fm. 120.
The ice-breaking steamship Stanley, crushing its way over Northumberland Strait.

Transportation. During the season of navigation there is daily
communication by steamer between Summerside and Point du
Chene, New Brunswick, and Charlottetown and Pictou, Nova

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND

Scotia. A railway, owned and operated by the Dominion Govern-
ment, runs from one end of the Island to the other and has a number
of branch lines.

After the close of open navigation, communication is maintained
between Georgetown and Pictou, and between Summerside and Cape Tor-
mentine, by the specially built ice-breaking steamers Minto and Stanley
(Fig. 126). In midwinter the work of the steamers is supplemented by the
ice-boat services between Cape Tormentine on the New Brunswick shore
and Cape Traverse, a distance of about nine miles. The standard ice-boat
is about eighteen feet long, five feet wide, and two feet two inches deep.
Its frame is oaken, it is planked with cedar, and the planks are covered
with tin. It has a double keel which serves for runners, and four leather
straps are attached to each side. The crews are hardy, powerful, and
courageous men. The passage usually occupies three and a half hours,
but when there is much " lolly " small particles of ice floating in the
water often to the depth of several feet and when wind and tide are un-
favorable, it sometimes requires from five to seven hours. A trip by " the
Capes " is a unique experience. Telegraphic communication is maintained
by cable between Cape Traverse and Cape Tormentine.

Summer Resorts. Prince Edward Island is fast rising into ravor
as a seaside resort. On the north coast the wide bays which pene-
trate into the land are cut off from open water by long narrow
sandbanks with occasional openings through which small vessels may
pass. These sandy beaches are favorite resorts for bathing in summer,
for they are smooth and the water deepens very gradually. Among
these the most popular are: ST. PETER'S BAY, TKACADIE BAY, Rus-
TICO BAY, RICHMOND
or MALPEQUE BAY,
famous for its oysters,
and CASCUMPEC BAY.
Tourists in large num-
bers come here every
summer to enjoy the
sea-bathing and breathe
the invigorating sea air.

Cities and Towns.

-There are few large

cities or towns in

Prince Edward Island.

CHARLOTTETOWN, the i-i<;. 1-27.

Capital City, is beauti- Condensed milk factory at Charlottetown.

150

NORTH AMERICA

fully situated at the confluence of three arms of the sea and possesses
a fine harbor. It has a thriving trade, and excellent steamship con-
nection. The city is well planned, with every modern improvement
but an electric railway. One of the healthiest cities in Canada,
it is yearly becoming more esteemed as a place of residence. The
excellence of its drinking water is proverbial, and its park, public
gardens, and squares are attractive breathing spaces. Within a
few minutes' trip by ferry, opposite the city, is a spot of great his-
toric interest, where remains of the French occupation may be seen
and where the air of romance still hovers. SUMMERSIDE has a large
trade with New Brunswick, and is the centre of the oyster industry.

It possesses a fine har-
bor. Other important
towns are SOUR is,
GEORGETOWN, and
ALBERTON.

Government.
Prince Edward Island
is governed by a
Lieutenant -Governor
appointed by the Do-
minion Government,
and a Legislative As-
sembly of thirty mem-
bers, half elected by
property owners only,
and half elected on a franchise in which practically every man over
twenty-one has a vote. The Executive Council, or Cabinet, consists of
eight members, and is responsible to the assembly (Fig. 128). The
Island is represented in the House of Commons by four members, and
in the Senate by four members. There are no municipal institutions
for local government.

FIG. 128.
Provincial Government Buildings, Charlottetown.

VI. BRITISH COLUMBIA

Physiography. British Columbia is a country of mountains,
valleys, and elevated plains. Here the great Cordilleran system
makes its grandest display. Belonging to this system are four well-
defined parallel ranges. On its eastern border is the highest range
of all, the Rocky Mountains, with an average width of about sixty

134 Longitude 130 West

NOOTM

BRITISH COLUMBIA

Scale of. Mi lea.
50 100 200

FIG. 129.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of British Columbia. (2) Draw
an outline map of the Province, locating the various mountain ranges. (3) Trace
the course of the rivers, showing clearly their relation to the mountain ranges. (4)
Locate the larger lakes, showing clearly the importance of each in inland navigation.
(5) Draw a map of the coast-line of the mainland and of Vancouver Island, locating
the principal bays and islands. (6) Locate definitely the most important mining
districts, showing the relation of each to the navigable rivers and the lines of
railway. (7) Trace the lines of railway. (8) Name and locate the cities and
towns of the Province, accounting for the position of each. (9) Trace the over-
land route to Dawson City. (10) Trace the coast-line of Alaska that lies between
the northern part of British Columbia and the Pacific Ocean.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

151

FIG. 130.

View of the Great Glacier in the Selkirk Range of
the Rocky Mountains. Note the railway station
at the foot of the mountain.

miles and a height of 8000 feet. Many of its peaks have a much
greater elevation, the highest being Mt. Murchison, 13,500 feet high.

There are twelve princi-
pal passes in this range.
Through Crow's Nest Pass
runs the British Columbia
Southern Kailway; through
Kicking Horse Pass the
Canadian Pacific Kailway at
an elevation of 5296 feet.
Farther north are the Yel-
lowhead and the Pine River
Passes. Through the former
the Canadian Northern Rail-
way Company contemplated,
a few years ago, an exten-
sion of their system, to reach
the coast at the mouth of
Bute Inlet, thence across the
narrow strait by ferry to the nearest point of Vancouver Island, thence by
rail to Victoria. Through the latter the Grand Trunk Pacific will, it is
said, find its way to the western coast.

Across a long, straight valley of considerable width, through
which wind the Columbia and Fraser rivers, lies a second range or

series of ranges, somewhat
wider than the first, and
of slightly less elevation,
generally known from the
name of its principal mem-
ber as the Selkirk Moun-
tains (Fig. 130). These
are well defined through-
out the southern half of
the province, and near the
boundary are broken up
FIG. J3i. into a number of smaller

Mount Sir Donald and Eagle Peak in the Selkirks. parallel ranges. In the

northern half of the province the Selkirks, here called the Cariboo
Mountains, lose their rugged grandeur and fade away into the wide
and fertile plateau where the Peace and Liard rivers have their
birth. The average width of the Selkirks is about eighty miles.

152

NORTII AMERICA

West of the Selkirks is a wide plateau of varying altitude, the
average height being about 1500 feet, intersected by numerous
mountain-fed rivers with their lake expansions. Beyond this central
plateau is the Coast Range whose western foot-hills form a precipi-
tous barrier to the waters of the Pacific.

A glance at the map will show the extreme irregularity of the
coast line of British Columbia. Here we find a sinking coast, and
the innumerable narrow and deep inlets, resembling the fjords of
Norway, are the drowned valleys and canyons of the foot-hills of the
Coast Range. Some of these inlets, scarcely more than a stone's
throw in width, are so deep that vessels cannot find anchorage within
them. In Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands are found the
surviving summits of the Island Range, the fourth and partially
submerged member of the mountain system of British Columbia.
This is the lowest of all, its greatest elevations being about 7000 feet.

Rivers. British Columbia is the birthplace of all the large rivers of
northwestern America. The Columbia rises in the glaciers of the western
slopes of the Rocky Mountains and after tortuous windings aniid the
broken ranges of the Selkirks finds its way to the ocean between the

states of Washington
and Oregon. The Fraser
River also rises on the
slopes of the Rockies,
drains the southern half
of the central plateau,
and empties its waters
into the Strait of Geor-
gia. The ' Yukon rises
in the watershed that
crosses the northern
portion of the province.
The Mackenzie, by means
of its tributaries, Liard
and Peace, finds its
sources in the wide plains
that cover the northeast-
ern corner of the province. The Skeena, Nass, and Stikine are rivers of
considerable size which take their rise in the northern plateau and find
their way to the Pacific through depressions in the Coast Range.

All of these rivers are rapid and turbulent, and carry to the sea vast
quantities of sediment from their mountain homes. lu the case of the
Fraser the turbid current can be traced into the quiet waters of the Strait
of Georgia for miles. Large areas of flat alluvial land have thus been

FIG. 132.
Bonnington Falls on the Kootenay River.

ElilTISH COLUMBIA 153

built up at the mouth of the river, which was once sixteen miles farther
inland, where the town of New Westminster now stands.

Lakes. There are numerous lake expansions, many being of large
size. The principal are: In the south, Kootenay, Slocan, Arrow (Upper
and Lower), Okanagan, Shusicap, and Harrison; in the central part,
Quesnel, Babine, and Stuart; on the northern border, lAiktt, Atlin, and
Teslin,

SCENERY

In a country so well watered and so diversified in its surface
features the scenery must of necessity be indescribably grand. The
snow-covered mountain ranges, the great glaciers, the canyons, the
wild, foaming mountain streams with their rapids and waterfalls,
numberless mountain lakes, clear and placid, reflecting the glory of hill
and sky, the narrow valleys and wider plains with their setting of
evergreen forest and snowy mountain peaks, the dissected coast line
with its countless bays and islands fringing the great Pacific, all
combine to produce an aggregation of scenic effect not elsewhere
surpassed. Because of the grandeur and beauty of her natural
scenery British Columbia is attracting a large and rapidly increasing
tourist trade.

CLIMATE

There are in British Columbia several well-defined climate belts.

1. The humid coast region with excessive rainfall, chiefly during
winter, and but little snow or frost.

2. East of the Coast Range, throughout the central plateau, is
found what is known as the Dry Belt, where the precipitation is very
slight and the extremes of heat and cold are somewhat greater than
at the coast.

3. In the elevated valleys of the Selkirks and Rockies the pre-
cipitation is greater and more uniform. On the mountain summits
this falls as snow, even in midsummer, and thus are formed those
large glaciers in which the rivers of the province have their sources.

This diversity in climatic conditions is due to local causes. The pre-
vailing westerlies blow from the Pacific, warmed by the Japan Current
and saturated with moisture. On reaching the cold air surrounding the
highlands of the Island and Coast ranges, their moisture is in part con-
densed and falls as rain. At the same time the condensation of the water
vapor liberates latent energy in the form of heat, giving to this region its
mild winter temperature.

154

NORTH AMERICA

Along the eastern coast of Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands
the rainfall is much less. The comparatively small rainfall at Victoria
is due to the fact that the prevailing westerlies reach the southern point
of Vancouver Island after crossing the high Olympian Mountains in
AVashington, by which they are robbed of much of their moisture, and
also to the fact that there are no great elevations in the vicinity of Vic-
toria to increase the precipitation. Crossing the Strait of Georgia, the
westerly winds have their moisture still further condensed by the coast
mountains, giving increased rainfall to the mainland coast. Beyond the
Coast Range the eastward-moving air, still retaining moisture, passes over
the central plateau with but little condensation, thus causing a wide dry
region. The increased precipitation in the region of the Selkirk and Rocky
Mountains is due to the further condensation caused by their lofty, snow-
bound peaks.

Throughout the Island and Coast regions there is comparatively little
rain during the midsummer months of July and August, this period being
one of almost continuous sunshine.

LUMBERING

The province is well wooded in all parts excepting its high moun-
tains and dry areas. Owing to the moist, mild climate of the islands
and coast these regions are heavily timbered. Nowhere else in the
world is timber found so large and valuable. Here the Douglas fir
grows to a height of 300 feet with a diameter of
ten feet and more, one such tree furnishing suf-
ficient lumber to build a house of moderate size.
From the Douglas fir are cut and shipped im-
mense quantities of lumber. Some goes to
Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba by the
Canadian Pacific Railway, but more is sent by
ships to Japan, China, South America, and
Europe. Some of the ships thus employed have
a capacity for over 2,000,000 feet and require
fifty days in which to load.

FIG. 133.

Chopping down a big
tree in the forests of
British Columbia.

As the largest trees are found near the coast and
waterways and as the mills are so placed that the
ships can load within a few yards of the saws, the
cost of sawing and shipping the lumber is comparatively small.

To fell one of these forest giants is no easy task. The wood at the
base is very resinous and hard, so the workmen mount on spring-boards
some six or eight feet high, to a point where the cutting is not so difficult,
and labor, perhaps for hours, with axes and saw, till their task is accom-

BRITISH COLUMBIA

155

plished, and the monarch falls, with tremendous crash and roar, to the

ground (Fig. 133). The tree is then sawed into suitable lengths, perhaps

eighteen, twenty-four, or thirty feet, which are rolled or dragged by horses

or stationary engines and ropes to a skid road not far away, along which

they are dragged to the sea, where they are collected into rafts to be towed

to the nearest

mill. Sorne-

times, when cut

at a considerable

distance from

the sea, they

are taken to a

branch railroad

and loaded upon

flat cars, a single

log sometimes

being a load for

a car.

The largest

mill in the prov- . _. ... , T , . .

Royal City saw-mills, New Westminster. Cutting a large log.
ince is at Che-

mainus, on Vancouver Island. There are also large mills at Vancouver,
New Westminster (Fig. 134), and Victoria, and many smaller ones at dif-
ferent points on the coast and in the interior.

FIG

Next in importance to the Douglas fir is the red cedar, which
also grows to great size on Vancouver Island and along the valleys of
the coast. Logs of eight to ten feet in diameter are not uncommon.
This tree is used chiefly for making shingles which are noted for
their durability. These are shipped to all parts of Canada. On
account of the straight-grained wood of the cedar the pioneer settler
building for himself a home in the forest, remote from the mills, is
able to split boards, shingles, and pickets out of which he can con-
struct his buildings and fence his lands. The red cedar is also largely
used as a wood for interior furnishing, as it has a fine grain and takes
a beautiful polish.

Other cone-bearing trees abound throughout the province. Of
these, spruce and balsam are of greatest economic importance. These
trees furnish lumber for a variety of uses, but are chiefly valuable as
material for pulp-making, an industry now in its infancy but of great
promise. With ample water-power and an unlimited supply of these
soft-wood trees close to shipping facilities, it seems probable that
pulp-making will soon rank as one of the leading industries.

156

yORTI[ AMERICA

The forests of this Pacific province, unlike those of eastern Canada,
contain comparatively few of the broad-leaved or hardwood trees. There
are no beech, elrn, or ash trees, and comparatively few oaks, maples, and
birches. Poplars are abundant in places, and at the coast the alder grows
into a forest tree sixty or seventy feet high.

FISHING

Fishing is one of the leading industries of British Columbia. The
catching of the fish, preparing them for market, and canning the sal-
mon give employment to thousands of men during the fishing season.

Salmon. During the salmon " run " countless numbers of this fish
swarm the coast waters on their way to the upper courses of the rivers to
spawn. Indeed, the lower waters of the rivers seem alive with them at

timesj the fish actually
crowding some of their
number ashore. This is
the busy season for the
fishermen, and for the
numerous canneries situ-
ated near the mouths qf
the rivers. Hundreds of
men, chiefly Japanese and
Indians, go out and catch
the fish with gill nets,
filling their boats in a
short time. Trap se
are also set along the shores, in suitable places, and catch the fish by
thousands as they swarm toward their breeding-grounds. The fish are
delivered by boat loads at the canneries, where they are put through the
several interesting stages of the canning process (Fig. 135). The finished
cans, holding about one pound each, are labelled and packed into cases
each containing four dozen tins. There are more than eighty canneries
in the province. In 1901 the season's pack consisted of 1,236,156 cases,
valued at about $6,000,000. The chief market is found in England, where
the season's pack- is contracted for by large dealers even before the catch
is made. Fresh salmon is now shipped in large and increasing quantities,
by means of cold storage, to eastern markets. TAn inferior quality known
as dog salmon is salted and dried for the Oriental market.\

Halibut. Xext in commercial importance is the halibut, which is
found in great abundance on the west coast of Vancouver and around the
north of Queen Charlotte Islands. One large company which conducts
most of the fishing has four steamers which ply continuously between the
fishing grounds and Vancouver, at which point the fish are packed in ice

FIG. 135.
Hundreds of salmon in a cannery.

BRITISH COLUMBIA 157

and shipped in car or train loads, by fast service, to Boston. One hundred
thousand pounds is not an uncommon catch for one of these steamers as a
result of a few days' fishing.

In addition to the salmon and the halibut, several species of cod
abound. The oolachan, or candle fish, is a small fish which swarms the
rivers and inlets during March and April. It is a very oily fish, as its
name implies, and of excellent flavor. The Indians preserve the oil, which
they use much as we use butter. The anchovy is also abundant, of large
size, and excellent quality. Herring and bass are plentiful.

SEALING ,

For years the fur seal, once very abundant in the Behriug Sea,
around the Aleutian Isles, and on the coasts of British Columbia
and Japan, has contributed in no small degree to the wealth of the
province. A few years ago the sealing fleet, consisting of fifty
or more vessels, was a familiar sight in Victoria Harbor, leaving
in early spring for the northern waters, where the seal makes its
home, and returning with their catches in the autumn. In recent
years, however, there has been a falling off in the abundance of the
seals, owing to their partial extermination or to their abandonment of
their accustomed haunts. Closer restrictions have also been placed
upon the business of seal-hunting, so the business has greatly de-
creased.

MINING

Notwithstanding the great wealth of its forests and seas, British
Columbia is essentially a mineral-producing country. Here the
earth's crust has been uplifted, tilted, and denuded on a gigantic
scale, so that its exhaustless store of precious and useful metals
has been brought within reach.

Gold. In 1858 gold was found in the gravel bars of the lower Fraser.
Adventurous prospectors followed the golden trail up the river till, two or
three years later, on the upper tributaries they discovered the exceedingly
rich placers of the Cariboo District, which yielded some $r>0,000,000 of
the precious metal. Reports of the golden wealth of this district spread
abroad and caused a rush of gold-seekers from the failing gold fields of
California and from other parts of the world. During one year 20,000
miners came from San Francisco alone.

During those early years the pick and shovel and rocker were the
primitive implements used by the placer miner, and these are still used in
the newer and less easily accessible " diggings." When, however, better

158 NORTH AMERICA

communication is opened with the outside world and capital is available,

the more scientific and effective method known as hydraulicking is adopted.
Gold is found in nearly all of the creeks and rivers of the province,

though in many instances the quantity would not pay for working. Many

of the creeks and river-beds, how-
] ever, that are considered too poor
for white men are worked by In-
dians and Chinese, who are content
with a return of one or two dollars
a day. Gold is also found pretty
generally throughout the province in
veins or lodes. From such sources
it is obtained by crushing and wash-
ing the ore and collecting the gold
by a process known as amalgama-
tion. When gold is found mixed
with other metals, such as silver,

Smelter at Trail, B.C. Here gold silver, coppev or lead, the Ore is Smelted
copper, and lead are smelted. . .. ' n

and the gold afterwards separated

from the accompanying metals (Fig. 136).

Silver and Lead ores are found chiefly in the vicinity of the Selkirk
Mountains. To encourage the production of lead the Dominion Govern-
ment in 1903 passed an act providing for the payment of a substantial
bounty on all ore smelted in Canada. This has greatly stimulated the
lead-mining industry and incidentally silver production as well, for the
lead ores usually carry more or less silver.

Copper is found in many parts, frequently carrying gold in its ores,
which are chiefly sulphides. Smelters at Ladysmith and Crofton produce
large quantities of gold-bearing copper ores. Copper is found chiefly in
West Kootenay, at Howe Sound, and on Vancouver and Texada islands.
The annual product is over 30,000,000 pounds.

Iron. Magnetic iron ore in unlimited quantity occurs on Vancouver
Island. The smelting of this ore will no doubt be an important industry
in the future.

Zinc, Platinum, Arsenic, and other metals of minor importance have
been found in limited quantities, but have not as yet been mined to any
extent.

Coal is abundant and widely distributed. Coal mining, however, is
confined to a few localities easily accessible to means of transportation.
The oldest collieries are on the eastern side of Vancouver Island. These,
with an annual output of about one million tons, supply the coast cities,
the Pacific steamships, and export largely to San Francisco. Within
recent years important mines have been developed at Crow's Nest Pass.
Both here and at Union, on Vancouver Island, coke is manufactured in
large quantities for the use of smelters (Fig. 137). Large deposits of coal
occur on Queen Charlotte Islands, but have not yet been developed.

BRITISH COLUMBIA

159

With its 300,000 square miles of mineral areas, only a small
fraction of which has as yet been prospected, with its abundance of
coal and limestone widely distributed, and with its unlimited supply
of the useful metals, it seems not unlikely that British Columbia will
become one of the greatest mining and manufacturing countries in
America. The awakening of Japan to commercial activity, her
example to be followed no doubt by China, must inevitably lead to

Fiu. 137.
View of the coke ovens at Fenrie, B.C.

great industrial expansion on the north Pacific coast of America,
no portion of which is in a better position than British Columbia to
take advantage of the opening opportunities.

AGRICULTURE

Scattered throughout the province are numerous tracts of very
fertile land, so that agriculture is rapidly becoming a leading in-
dustry. In the interior much attention is given to stock-raising
and mixed farming, as well as to the cultivation of fruit. In the
coast district the farms are small, but the land is of extraordinary
fertility. The principal crops are oats, barley, and hay. Fruits
of all kinds, particularly peaches, pears, plums, apples, and grapes,
are grown almost everywhere throughout the southern and coast
regions.

160 NORTH AMERICA

COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS AND COMMERCE

The chief products of British Columbia have already been noticed.
Her foreign trade consists in the exportation of these products and
the importation of manufactured goods. Her trade route lies in all
directions. The Canadian Pacific Railway is the chief means of
communication with eastern Canada. Another Canadian transcon-
tinental railway the Grand Trunk Pacific is under construction
through the more northerly part of the province, while the southern
border is tapped at several points by the Great Northern and
Northern Pacific railroads, with transcontinental connections. The
greater part of her imports of manufactured goods reaches the
province by these several railways. The most of her export trade,
however, is carried on by water routes. Lines of steamers run to
northern points carrying supplies to the great mining districts of
northern British Columbia and the Yukon, and southward to the
Pacific States and Mexico. Japan and China are connected with
Victoria and Vancouver by the Canadian Pacific Railway steamship
lines.

The chief imports from Japan and China are rice, tea, silks,
and a great assortment of novelties and bric-a-brac known as Jap-
anese and Chinese goods. The Chinese population also imports the
greater part of its groceries from Hong Kong. A small seedless
orange, of delicious flavor, is imported from Japan in considerable
quantity. The exports to these countries consist of fish, flour, and
lumber.

Steamship lines also connect British Columbia with Australia and
New Zealand. From the former country canned and frozen meats,
butter, and fruits are imported.

The China Mutual Steamship Line makes connection, monthly,
with England via the Suez Canal, bringing manufactured goods
and returning with canned salmon, seal skins, and miscellaneous
products.

CITIES AND TOWNS

VICTORIA was founded in 1843 as a Hudson's Bay Company's
trading fort, under the name of Camosun. It is the capital city
of the province and contains the local parliament buildings, the
handsomest in Canada (Fig. 141).

BRITISH COLUMBIA

161

FIG. 138.
Harbor at Esquimault.

Having an excellent harbor and being favorably situated from a com-
mercial point of view, it enjoys a large shipping trade. ESQUIMAULT HAR-
BOR, four miles distant, is very strongly fortified and is garrisoned by
Canadian troops (Fig.
138). The beauty of her
natural surroundings and

the delightful coolness of *

her summer climate at-
tract to Victoria crowds
of tourists. The city

.contains several private -^Wl N

schools and is the seat % . *S *'

of Victoria College, in
affiliation with McGill
University of Montreal.
Victoria has its Chinese
quarter, in which the
visitor might readily im-
agine himself in a section of Canton. Here the streets are lined on either
side with shops adorned with signs in Oriental characters and filled with
curious articles of Chinese manufacture. Men, women, and children may
be seen about the streets and shops, clothed in native costume, and chat-
ting in their own language.

'VANCOUVER, on Burrard Inlet, was founded in 1885, and has had
a remarkable growth (Fig. 139). It is the terminus of the Canadian

Pacific Railway and of the
steamship lines to Japan,
China, and Australia, and
hence is a city of large
commercial importance.
It contains a sugar re-
finery, large lumber and
shingle mills, and many
other local industries. It
has many handsome
buildings and is the seat
of McGill University of
FIG. 139. British Columbia and of

Vancouver. tlie Normal School.

NEW WESTMINSTER, near the mouth of the Eraser River, was
the capital of the old crown colony of British Columbia (Fig. 140).
It is the centre of the salmon-canning industry of the Fraser River,

162

NORTH AMERICA

Fio. 140.

New Westminster.

on which forty-four canneries are located. It is also the market town
of the large and fertile valley along the lower Eraser. The city is
connected with the opposite side of the river by a fine steel railway
and traffic bridge recently completed. Among the institutions of

the city are the
Exhibition Build-
ing, the Peniten-
tiary, and the
Asylum for the
Insane. The city
is also .the seat
of Columbia Col-
lege.

NANAIMO, on
Vancouver Island,
is the most impor-
tant coal-mining
centre of the prov-
ince. It is the shipping port of the Western Fuel Company. KAMLOOPS,
on the Canadian Pacific Railway, at the junction of the North and South
Thompson rivers, is an important district centre. REVELSTOKE, on the
Columbia, is a railway divisional centre and a point of departure of traffic
for the Kootenay District. NELSON, at the head of the Western Arm of
Kootenay Lake, is the commercial centre of a large mining area. KASLO,
on Kootenay Lake, is the point from which the Kaslo and Slocan Railway
enters the Slocan mining district. FERNIE, in the centre of the Crow's
Nest Pass coal-mining region, has a large number of coke ovens, which
supply the smelters of the interior. ROSSLAND, on Trail Creek, is the
largest mining town in the Kootenays. TRAIL, on the Columbia at the
junction of Trail Creek, has a large smelter in which the ores of a num-
ber of large mines in the vicinity are treated. VERNON and KELOWNA,
on Okanagan Lake, are in the midst of an excellent fruit-growing district.
Tobacco is raised at the latter place. ATLIN, on Atlin Lake, upon the
northern border, came into existence in 1898 as the result of the dis-
covery of gold in Pine Creek. It is the official centre of the Atlin min-
ing district.

GOVERNMENT

The government of British Columbia is similar to that of the
other provinces. There is a Lieutenant- Grovernor representing the
Crown, a Legislative Assembly of forty-two members elected by
the people, and a Cabinet, or Executive Council, of seven members,
chosen from among the party having a majority in the Legislative

YUKON

163

Assembly (Fig. 141). The
province is represented in the
House of Commons by seven
members and in the Senate
by four members. In cities
and towns, and in several dis-
tricts where the population is
sufficient, municipalities are
formed for the control of local
affairs.

FIG. 141.
Provincial Government Buildings, Victoria.

VII. YUKON

Yukon Territory lies north of British Columbia, between Alaska
on the west and the Rocky Mountains on the east. Its only sea-
coast is a short stretch on the Arctic Ocean, but this, on account of
the ice, is of very little use.

Physiography. The surface, consisting of mountains and plateau,
greatly resembles that of northern British Columbia. It has an
area of about 192,000 square miles, nearly all of which is drained
by the upper courses of the great river from which the district takes
its name. In the southwest corner of Yukon Territory and in the
districts immediately adjoining are to be found the most elevated
mountains in North America. In the Yukon is Mt. Logan ; just
across the Alaska border is Mt. St. Elias ; while in the adjoining
corner of British Columbia is Mt. Fairweather, the most elevated
peak in that province.

Climate. The northern part of Yukon is within the Arctic
Circle, and throughout the whole territory the winter climate is
very severe. Snow falls in September, and the rivers and lakes
freeze up in early October, even in the southern parts. At Dawson,
near the centre of the territory, the winter temperature sometimes
falls to 70 below zero, the average for December, January, and
February being about 15 F. But the winters are enjoyable not-
withstanding the severe cold. The air is clear, dry, and invigor-
ating, and the people go about freely out of doors even on the coldest
days. Many of the people have dog teams, just as those in warmer
countries have their horses and carriages. A favorite winter amuse-
ment is " mushing " over the hard, smooth snow in sleighs drawn by
two or more pairs of dogs.

1G4 NORTH AMERICA

The midwinter days at Dawson have only about four hours of sunshine,
the sun setting about two o'clock in the afternoon. In midsummer the
nights are correspondingly short, but even after sunset it remains almost
as light as day, as the sun sinks but a short distance below the horizon.
Farther north, within the Arctic Circle, the sun does not set for days or
weeks together, and disappears for a similar period in winter.

Vegetation. The valleys of the southern part are well wooded.
The principal trees are spruce, fir, birch, aspen, balsam, and poplar,
of somewhat smaller size than their more southern representatives.

FIG. 142.

This is the simplest and most primitive way of gold seeking. Placing some of the gravel
in a trough of water, it is rocked back and forth in such a way as to cause the heavier
particles of gold to separate from the gravel, while the lighter materials are thrown away.

During the warm, short summer the vegetation grows very
rapidly. Most of the fruits and grains that ripen in the region
around Edmonton will ripen in southern Yukon. Even as far
north as Dawson vegetables can be successfully grown.

Gold. To the discovery of this precious metal along its river
beds Yukon owes its importance and its population. The most
productive area in the territory is the Klondyke. This region,
covering about 1000 square miles, lies between the Klondyke and
Indian rivers and to the east of the latter. Numerous small tribu-
taries flow through this area. The most important are Bonanza,

YUKON

165

Eldorado, Bear, Hunker, Too Much G-old, and All G-old creeks, flow-
ing into the Klondyke, and Dominion, Sulphur, and Quartz creeks,
flowing into Indian River. These streams lie in deep, trough-
like valleys, along the bottoms of which the gold is found. It
is also found in the terraces or
branches lying a little above the
present river beds.

In 1896 George Cormack, a hunter
and prospector, who had settled in
Yukon and married an Indian wife,
discovered gold on Bonanza Creek. In
the same year a Nova Scotian named
George Henderson made a rich strike
on Gold Bottom Creek. The news
spread, and soon hundreds of adventur-
ous gold-seekers were on their toilsome
way into the new diggings. The fabu-
lous success of some of these drew
thousands of others after them during
the next two or three years. On some
of the claims, pans of gold were found
that washed out hundreds of dollars,
and a few of the adventurous pioneers
who went into the country owning noth-
ing but their outfits, returned million-
naires.

Mining is carried on chiefly in winter. First the layer of moss, or
" muck " as it is called, which covers the surface to a depth of several
feet, is removed. Fires are then built in the hole or shaft, and a foot or
two of the gravel thus loosened is thrown out. This process is repeated
over and over till bed-rock is reached, at a depth of five to twenty-five feet,
where most of the gold is found, some in nuggets and more in fine grains
or dust. Tunnels are then run along horizontally and the gold-bearing
gravel removed and piled upon the surface, to be panned or washed when
the warm spring sun shall have unlocked the streams from the icy grasp
of winter.

Districts and Towns. The chief mining districts besides the
Klondyke are the Stewart River, Big Salmon, and. Alsek districts.
The last is 185 miles northwest of White Horse, the terminus of the
White Pass and Yukon Railway. The discovery of gold on one of
the tributaries of the Alsek River in 1903 led to a rush thither
during that and the following year.

FIG. 143.

Sluicing on Bonanza Creek, showing
method of washing gravel containing
particles of gold.

166

NORTH AMERICA

The chief town of Yukon is DAWSON, at the confluence of the
Klondyke and Yukon rivers. This city grew up during the famous
Klondyke rush, and at one time had a population of nearly 10,000.

The number has, however, greatly de-
creased, owing to the fact that some of the
richest claims in the vicinity have been
worked out and the miners have migrated
to other fields. It is the seat of the gov-
ernment of the territory.

The chief route to Dawson and the
Klondyke is by way of the White Pass
and Yukon Railway from Skagway to
White Horse, 112 miles, thence by steamer
down the river for the remaining dis-
tance. In winter mails and passengers are
carried over the ice by dog teams. The greater part of the freight
designed for Dawson and neighboring camps is carried up the
Yukon in summer, from St. Michaels at its mouth, on flat-bottomed
river steamers.

Government. The Yukon is administered by a Commissioner,
who is appointed by the Governor-General in Council. The Com-
missioner is assisted by a Council, in part appointed by the Crown
and in part elected by the people of the district. The Yukon has
one member in the House of Commons.

FIG. 144.

Boxes of gold awaiting ship-
ment from Dawson City.

VIII. MANITOBA

The Three Prairie Levels. Before beginning the geography of
Manitoba, notice must be taken, as a whole, of the great plain which
makes up the three prairie provinces of the Dominion, viz., Mani-
toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. This plain extends almost from
the eastern boundary of Manitoba to the foothills of the Rocky
Mountains in Alberta. The plain has a height of 700 feet in the
Red River Valley and reaches an elevation of 4000 feet at the foot-
hills of the Rockies.

The plain is divided into three distinct levels or steppes by the pres-
ence of two lines of hills more or less broken, stretching from southeast
to northwest. The average width of the first or lowest level is 120 miles,
its area 55,000 square miles, and its elevation about 750 feet. This por-
tion of the plain includes a large part of Manitoba.

FIG.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of Manitoba. (3) Draw a map of the
Province, locating the principal highlands, the larger lakes and the most important
rivers. (3) Show clearly how Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and Winnipegosis are con-
nected. (4) Point out the islands in each of these lakes. (5) Trace the courses of the

Scale of Mile*
10 20 30 40 51

j Capital thus: Other Places;
Hallways thus:

ind Assiniboine Rivers. (6) Point out the rivers that flow into Lake Winnipeg.

ace the lines of railway. (8) Show how Manitoba is connected by railway with the

Provinces to the east and to the west. (9) Point out the geographical advantages

location of Winnipeg. (10) Name and locate the principal cities and towns.

MANITOBA

16:

The middle, or second prairie level, is 250 miles wide, its area 105,000
square miles, while its elevation is about 1600 feet. It is separated
from the first level by a line of hills which enter the country from the
south under the name of the Pembina Mountains and continues northwest-
ward under the names of the Brandon Hills, Riding Mountains, Duck
Mountains, and the Porcupine and Pasquia Hills. Trace these on the map
(Fig. 145).

The third level is about 450 miles wide, with an area estimated at
134,000 square miles. Its elevation increases from. 2000 feet on its
eastern edge to 4200 feet at the foot-hills of the Rockies.

FIG. 146.

Profile map of the three prairie levels at the boundary line between Canada and the

United States.

Physiography. The eastern and northeastern portion of Mani-
toba covers a portion of the rocky and wooded Laurentiari plateau,
a region of rough broken country, full of bogs, and covered in part
with forests of small trees.

Manitoba has three distinct slopes : the Red River Valley which
slopes northward, the valley of the Winnipeg River, and the east
shores of Lake Winnipeg which slope to the west. The Red River
Valley includes within its area Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, Winni-
pegosis, and Dauphin, while the Assiniboine Valley draws to itself
all the drainage of central and western Manitoba. The westerly
slope drains the eastern portion of the province, the chief feature of
which is the Winnipeg River, a typical Laurentian stream, which
finds its way to Lake Winnipeg.

The Red River Valley is bordered by several ranges of hills,
known in various parts as the Pembina, Riding, and Duck Moun-
tains, and the Porcupine and Pasquia Hills. In the southwestern
part of the province are found the Turtle Mountains. The Riding,
Duck, and Turtle Mountains have lately been reserved by the
Dominion government for the purpose of protecting the forests that
are found there.

The rivers flowing through the first prairie plain have little or
no valley to speak of. They are now wearing away their banks very

168 NORTH AMERICA

rapidly, making their valleys ; but those which run through the
second prairie level flow through deep valleys bordered by hills
200 to 300 feet high, the valley being in some places half a mile
to a mile wide. For example, the Assiniboine, where it enters
Manitoba on the second prairie level, runs between hills 250 to 500
feet high and a valley from one-half a mile to three-quarters of a
mile wide; while at Winnipeg, on the first prairie level, often, at high
water, it overflows its banks. The reason of this is that the second
plain was elevated long before the first, consequently the rivers in
that section have worn out deep valleys in the course of ages.
Many of the side hills of the older river valley are wooded. The
prairie of the Red River Valley is almost level, but on the second
plain it is mostly rolling.

Rivers. The rivers of Manitoba are not large, but they are important
for many reasons. The chief river of Manitoba is the Red River with its
numerous tributaries. It is nearly 700 miles in length, rising in the state
of Minnesota, flowing northerly with a very winding course and empty-
ing into Lake Winnipeg. It carries a great deal of sediment, with which
it is gradually building up a delta encroaching on the lake.

Before the days of railways the Red was much used for freighting
purposes. Improvements are being made at St. Andrew's Rapids, about
twenty miles from Winnipeg, and when these are completed it is ex-
pected that there will be communication even for large boats between
Winnipeg and Grand Rapids on the Saskatchewan. The chief tributaries
of the Red River are the Pembina and the Assiniboine from the west ; and
on its east bank several small streams enter, the chief of which is the
Seine, which enters opposite Winnipeg. The Pembina rises in southern
Manitoba, its head waters being Rock, Swan, and Pelican Lakes. It
flows almost due east, crossing the boundary into North Dakota and
finding its way into the Red River at the town of Pembina a few miles
across the border line. The Assiniboine rises in Saskatchewan and at
first flows southeasterly. It takes a sudden bend to the east near Brandon
and there flows east, entering the Red River at Winnipeg. It receives
numerous streams from the Duck and Riding Mountains, such as the
Shell and Bird Tail. From the west it receives the Qu'Appelle and Souris
rivers. The Qu'Appelle rises near the South Elbow of the South
Saskatchewan. Flowing through a deep, broad valley, the river broadens
into several lovely lake expansions, which are noted for their fishing and
shooting. It joins the Assiniboine near Fort Ellice, close to the western
boundary of Manitoba. The Souris or Mouse River rises on the east
side of the Missouri Coteau and flows in a southeasterly direction into
the United States. It then makes a sharp turn to the north, joining the
Assiniboine near Brandon. The Souris has the Great and Little Antlers
as tributaries.

MANITOBA

lb'9

FIG. 147.
A rapid on the Winnipeg River.

Plowing into Lake Winnipeg from the southeast is the Winnipeg
River, which takes its rise in the Lake of the AVoods, Ontario. It is a rapid
stream, with a great number of rapids and falls (Fig. 147). Numerous small
rivers flow into Lake Winni-
peg from the east and west,
many on the east side being
unexplored. The most im-
portant is the Dauphin River,
flowing from Lake St. Mar-
tin. This river is the outlet
by which Lakes Manitoba and
Winnipegosis are drained.

Lakes. Fully three-
quarters of Manitoba was
once the bed of an ancient
lake, which extended far in-
to Ontario and the United
States. It is called Lake
Agassiz, in honor of a famous
Swiss scholar. Here and there in the province are to be found many re-
mains of its gravelly beach and many banks and hills of sand formed along
its shores. The chain of hills running northwesterly across Manitoba was
its western shore. Lakes Winnipeg, Winnipegosis, Dauphin, and Sican are
the remains of this once great lake. Lake Winnipegosis is a northerly
continuation of Lake Manitoba and is connected with it by Ebb and Flow
River, so called because the water of this river flows backward or for-
ward, according as the wind forces the waters of Lakes Manitoba and
Winnipegosis north or south. Lake Manitoba is drained by the Fairford
River into Lake St. Martin, and it in turn is drained by the Dauphin
River (formerly called the Little Saskatchewan) into Lake Winnipeg.
Lake Dauphin is drained by the Mossy River, and Swan Lake by Shoal
River, both flowing into Lake Winnipegosis.

Lake Winnipeg, the largest of the group, is about 250 miles in length
and varies in width from 25 to 60 miles. It is, however, very shallow, its
greatest depth being 60 to 70 feet. An immense volume of water flows
into it, for in addition to all the water from the rivers and lakes before men-
tioned it also receives the waters of the Saskatchewan River, which rises
in the Eocky Mountains. Lakes Manitoba and Winnipegosis are also
shallow, surrounded by low shores and filled with small islands. Lake
Dauphin is similar to the other lakes. All of the Manitoba lakes abound
with fish, and a very valuable trade is carried on, principally with the
United States.

Climate. The climate of Manitoba varies greatly, according to
the season of the year. The summers are warm, while the winters
are severe. Frequently in summer the thermometer reaches as high

170

NORTH AMERICA

as 90 and over, but in winter it drops as low as 40 below zero.
The skies are bright and sunny all the year round, while the air is

dry and bracing. Even
in the hottest summer the
evenings are delightfully
cool. The rainfall is abun-
dant and generally well
distributed.

Agriculture. Manito-
ba has all the necessary
conditions for successful
grain growing, and it is
for this reason that grain
growing forms the leading

FIG. 148.4. industry of the province.

Ploughing scrub land near Portage la Prairie. The greater part of Mani-

toba being once the bed of

an ancient lake, the soil brought down by the rivers flowing into
it settled at the bottom and formed the rich alluvial soil which has
made the province famous as a grain-producing country. This rich
soil, coupled with the long summer day and short summer night,
enables the wheat plant to pass from its seed time to harvest in from
85 to 105 days. The
principal crop is tvheat,
and Manitoba is fa-
mous the world over
for its excellence. The
grain grown in Mani-
toba is all sown in the
spring. It is a won-
derful sight in the lat-
ter part of August to
see mile upon mile of
golden grain reaching
as far as the horizon.
Everything connected FlG -

With wheat raising is A steam plow at work on the prairie.

on a large scale, the widest seeders, the largest of binders and
threshing machines being used. The greater part of the threshing
is done directly from the stooks, stacking when possible being done

MANITOBA

171

away with. The grain is hauled in bulk to the nearest elevator.
(Figs. 148 ^,#, 6^,2).)

The Elevator System. In travelling over the province, tall, boxlike
buildings are seen all over the country, long before even the houses
of the towns are viewed; these are the elevators into which the wheat is
rushed during the har-
vest (Fig. 149). A glance
at the map will show
how well Manitoba is
supplied with railways,
and at almost every sta-
tion the most prominent
feature is the row of
elevators. From these
elevators the cars are
loaded and the grain
therein shipped to the
flour mills or to the great
terminal elevators at
Fort William, Port Ar-
thur, and other eastern

points.

FIG. 148 C.
A reaping scene on the prairie.

Some idea of the immense importance of this business may be gained
by the following facts : At the close of 1905 the Canadian Pacific Rail-
way had the following elevators and storage owned by different com-
panies at its various
stations in Manitoba :
the number of stations
with elevators 168, num-
ber of elevators 504,
warehouses 18, giving a
storage capacity of 15,-
337,100 bushels. The
Canadian Northern Rail-
way at 103 stations had
195 elevators, 15 ware-
houses with a storage
capacity of 5,319,000
bushels. This gives a
total of 699 elevators
and 33 warehouses, with
a storage capacity of

FIG. 148 D.
A threshing scene on the prairie.

20,656,100 bushels. Immense terminal elevators have been erected at
Port Arthur and Fort William to receive the wheat from the Manitoba
elevators (Fig. 81). Seventy million bushels of wheat were raised in 1905,

172

NORTH AMERICA

and that from about one-quarter of the land fit for raising wheat. Besides
wheat large crops of oats, barley, and potatoes are raised. The total area
of land under cultivation in 1905 was 4,197,609 acres.

Method of Survey in the Western Provinces. The method of survey
adopted in Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta is well suited to the
country, where agriculture on a large scale is the principal occupation and
where so few landmarks can be seen on the vast open prairies. Lines called
township lines, six miles apart, were first made, running parallel to the
southern boundary line of the provinces. After this range lines running
north and south, also six miles apart, were made. To save running up into
large numbers a first range line, or as it is called principal meridian, was

chosen, and a sec-
ond, third, fourth,
and fifth meridians
were selected as
starting points. The
first meridian is
placed a little west
of Winnipeg. The
township is thus six
miles square. The
townships are num-
bered, counting No.
1 from the 49th par-
allel northward. The
ranges east of the
principal meridian
are called 1, 2, 3,
etc., east, and those
west of it 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc., west. The lat-
ter ranges number up to 34, when the next meridian is reached, and the
ranges west of it number from 1 to 30, reaching the third meridian, and
so on. The township thus contains 36 square miles and is numbered from
1 to 36, and each square mile is called a section. Each section is sub-
divided into quarter-sections, named respectively Northwest, Northeast,
Southwest, and Southeast quarter-sections. A section contains 640 acres,
and a quarter-section 160 acres. N. W. \ of Section 31, Township 10, Range
19 West. To find this section, locate range 19 west of the principal merid-
ian ; then count 10 townships from the 49th parallel and where these lines
meet is the township required; the northwest quarter of section 31 will
be found to be in the extreme northwest corner of the township which
contains the city of Brandon. Section posts placed on a mound marked
with the range, township, and section number enable the settler to find
the location of any place. Road allowances, 99 feet wide, are placed
between each section running north and south and east and west. In

FIG. 149.
Elevators at a small country village.

MANITOBA 173

the greater part of Alberta and Saskatchewan, however, the road allow-
ance is 66 feet, running between each section north and south, and only
between alternate sections running east and west.

A large and growing trade is being carried on in the raising of
cattle for export. These cattle find ready sale in the British market
and are a source of profit to the farmer. The raising of hogs is also
attracting more and more attention. Pork-packing establishments
have been erected in various parts of the province, and their prod-
ucts in addition to what is required for the home market find a
ready sale in the mining districts of British Columbia. Little
attention has as yet been paid to the raising of sheep, although there
is no reason why Manitoba should not excel in this also. Ranching
is carried on in certain parts of the province, but not much atten-
tion is paid to it, as, if this were carried on, there would be less of
the land suitable for grain raising.

Almost all sections of Manitoba are suitable for dairying purposes,
although some parts, owing to the abundance of good grass and a plen-
tiful supply of water, are more suitable than others. Creameries and
cheese factories are found all over the province. A successful dairy
school is in operation in Winnipeg, and this has been of great benefit to
the province. A good deal of the butter and cheese is sent to British
Columbia and to the Yukon.

Fishing. The principal fish caught in Manitoba, largely in
Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, Winnipegosis, and Dauphin, are the
whitefish, trout, pickerel, pike, sturgeon, catfish, tulibee, perch, and
certain coarser fish. The annual catch exceeds 30,000,000 pounds,
about one-third of this amount being whitefish. Most of the fish
caught are exported to the United States. To secure this catch
over 20 large fishing tugs, about 1000 boats, and over 10,000 nets
and lines are employed; and about 150 freezers and ice-houses are
required to preserve the fish until shipment can be made. The
fisheries of Manitoba are kept under the strictest control by gov-
ernment inspectors appointed for that purpose.

Lumbering. North of the prairie belt in Manitoba is an exten-
sive forest country. Sawmills employing a large number of mm
are situated in all the lumber districts communicating with the
leading centres by water or by rail. Some of these are found in the
eastern part of the province along the western side of Lake Winni-
peg and in the Riding Mountains, while there are also large saw-

174 NORTH AMERICA

mills at Winnipeg, Brandon, Selkirk, and many other points.
Spruce is the timber used in all these mills.

Mining. There are very few minerals in Manitoba, and mining
is not one of the leading industries. In southwestern Manitoba
there is some coal of a soft variety, but this is not extensively
mined. Iron has been discovered in Black Island in Lake Winni-
peg, and gypsum is found in the neighborhood of Lake Manitoba.
At the town of Gypsumville, on the shores of Lake Manitoba, the
gypsum is prepared for the market. Very promising salt springs
have also been found near Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba.
Limestone for building purposes is quarried extensively at Stone-
wall, Stony Mountain, and at Tyndall.

Manufacturing. Manitoba is mainly an agricultural country,
but there is no good reason why manufacturing should not be car-
ried on to a considerable extent. Coal is near at hand and water
power is abundant, electrical power being now delivered in Winnipeg
developed from the water powers at Lake Du Bonnet. So far,
however, manufacturing has risen largely from the needs of the
farm and the city. Flour mills are to be found in almost every
village, and this flour is not for domestic use only, but for export to
eastern Canada, the United States, Great Britain, South Africa,
China, and Japan. Machine shops, where threshing machines,
engines, and farming implements are made, are in operation at
Winnipeg and Brandon. There are several small cloth factories in
the province. Brickmaking is an important industry, as is also the
making of Portland cement. A large deposit of marl, from which
cement is made, has been found near Morden.

Transportation. Railways are of the greatest importance to
Manitoba, as on these the province has to depend for the transporta-
tion of the immense crop of wheat and other grains raised each year.
The greater part of this crop is shipped out of the country by way
of Fort William or Port Arthur, where it is carried across the Great
Lakes in boats specially built for the purpose. Two lines of railway,
the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern, connect Winnipeg
with Lake Superior, and the branch lines of these two roads spread
throughout the province. The main line of the Canadian Pacific
cuts across Manitoba, while communication with the south is had by
means of the Great Northern, the Canadian Northern, and the Cana-
dian Pacific. The Canadian Northern has already direct connection
between Winnipeg and Prince Albert, Battle. ford, and Edmonton,

MANITOBA

175

and is to cross the Rocky Mountains through to the Pacific coast.
The waterways of the province are as yet of little value, although
considerable shipping is done on Lake Winnipeg. The new Grand
Trunk Pacific will afford Manitoba another outlet to the East and
also connect the province with the Pacific coast, while the Canadian
branch of the Great Northern is rapidly pushing its way across
Manitoba and the other western provinces also to the Pacific coast.
The eastern terminals of this latter line are in Winnipeg.

Sporting. Manitoba is celebrated as a resort for sportsmen.
The principal native game bird is the prairie chicken, but during
the summer and
fall wild geese
and ducks, plover
and snipe, abound
in all parts of the .
province. Deer,
foxes, and prai-
rie wolves, besides
smaller animals,
are found in the
more unsettled
parts of Mani-
toba.

C ities and
Towns. There
are three cities in
Manitoba, all of
which have a
great and growing importance. WINNIPEG, with a population in
1906 of 101,249, originally an old Hudson Bay fort, at the junction
of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, is the capital of Manitoba and
the leading city of the Canadian West, and is little more than
thirty years old. It is almost equally distant from the Atlantic and
the Pacific oceans, on the line of the natural routes of the great
railways running east and west, and just at the entrance to the prairie
section. To this situation it owes its importance as the great dis-
tributing point for the whole western country. Railways extend in
all directions and more are being built each year. Winnipeg is
the business, banking, railway, political, and educational centre of
the province,

FIG. 150.

A view in Winnipeg, showing the City Hall, Volunteer Monu-
ment, and one of the large commercial buildings.

176

NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 151.
The University of Manitoba.

The Parliament Buildings (Fig. 151 B} are situated in Winnipeg, as
are also the University of Manitoba, the Provincial Normal School, and
the Provincial Institute for the Deaf and Dumb. The principal buildings,
in addition to those already mentioned, are the City Hall (Fig. 150), Car-
negie Library, Post Office,
General Hospital, Land
Titles Office, St. John's,
Manitoba and Wesley Col-
leges, Manitoba Medical
College, and, near at hand,
the Government Agricultu-
ral College. The public
school buildings of Winni-
peg are the finest in Canada.
The city has a large local
trade and some manufac-
tures, principally flour, soap,
biscuits, iron goods, lumber,
and dressed meats. The
shops of the Canadain Pa-
cific and Canadian Northern Railway give employment to several thou-
sand men. The town of ST. BOXIFACE, opposite Winnipeg on the Ked
River, is the seat of the French College of the same name and of the
French Normal School for
Manitoba. It has a wool-
len mill and several large
brickyards.

PORTAGE LA PRAIRIE,
on the main lines of the
Canadian Pacific and Ca-
nadian Northern Rail-
ways, 56 miles west of
Winnipeg, is an important
railway centre. It has
the further advantage of
being placed in the midst
of a rich agricultural coun-
try, with which it does a

large local trade. The Provincial Home for Incurables and
Indian Industrial School are both situated at Portage la Prairie.
The principal manufacture is flour.

BRANDON is beautifully situated on the south side of the Assini-
boine River, about 130 miles west of Winnipeg. It is a railway

FIG. 151 A.
The Collegiate Institute, Portage la Prairie.

MANITOBA

177

centre, and has a large local trade with the rich farming country
round about. Brandon is the seat of one of the Provincial Asylums
for the Insane, an Indian Industrial School, and Brandon College.
Across the valley is the Dominion Experimental Farm. The prin-
cipal manufactures are flour, machinery, woollen goods, and lumber.

The towns of Manitoba are not large, varying in population from 500
to 2500. They are for the most part engaged in grain or cattle business
and local trade, but the volume of business they do greatly exceeds that
of the average towns of the same size in eastern Canada. This is owing
to the large area under cultivation around them. The Manitoba towns
are just large enough to supply the wants of the surrounding fanners,
while the whole business of the district passes through them. Each
town has its elevators and its flour or saw mills, but there are few manu-
factures. The most important towns are WEST SELKIRK, at present the
head of the Lake Winnipeg navigation. It has the Dominion fish hatch-
eries and large freezers for the fish trade. MORDEX has a large cement
factory. BOISSEVAIX, DELORAIXE, and SOURIS, in southern Manitoba,
are large grain markets, while CARBERRY, VIRDEX, and OAK LAKE, on
the main line of the Canadian Pacific, are the centres of a fine wheat
country, and in northwest Manitoba, GLADSTOXE, MIXXEDOSA, DAUPHIX,
BIRTLE, and RUSSELL are thriving towns. EMERSOX and GRETXA, on the
southern border, are Custom Ports of Entry. CARMAX, a little south of
' Winnipeg, is a large grain
market.

Government. - - Mani-
toba is governed by a Lieu-
tenant- Governor, appointed
by the Governor-General
in Council, and a Legisla-
tive Assembly of forty mem-
bers, elected by the people.
There is also a Cabinet, or
Executive Council, of five
members, chosen from the
party having the majority
in the Legislative Assem-
bly (Fig. 151 #). Manitoba is represented in the House of Commons
by ten members, and in the Senate by four members. The province
is divided into municipalities, each of which has its own local gov-
ernment. Matters affecting the relations of the municipalities are
in the hands of the Municipal Commissioner.

FIG. 151
The Government Buildings, Winnipej

178

NORTH AMERICA

IX. SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA

Physiography.. The eastern portion of the province of Saskatche-
wan is part of the second prairie level. This has already been
described in the section dealing with Manitoba. See Pages 166
and 167. Locate on the map, as accurately as you can, the second
level, and note the rivers common to both provinces.

The western part of Saskatchewan, together with Alberta, is in
the third prairie level. The eastern boundary of this level begins in

the Missouri Coteau, a rough
line of hills, thought by
some to have been the shore
of an ancient sea that has
long since disappeared. It
continues northward through
the Eagle Sills along a line
joining these hills with a
point some distance west of
the western end of Lake
Athabaska. Trace this line
on the map. The surface
of the third level is on the

FIG. 153.

The plateau country of the Cypress Hills and Wood
Mountain. This figure shows the varied nature
of the country in this district. wh()le ft Uttle more

than the others. The soil is often of the finest quality, the only
exceptions being the cactus and sage-brush land a little to the south-
west of the Cypress Hills (Fig. 153), and several other small districts,
covered by sand-hills, or else of too hilly a nature to provide profit-
able pasture grounds for horses, cattle, or sheep. The southern
portion, that is, the land of southwestern Saskatchewan and south-
ern Alberta, is almost treeless. The northern and northeastern
parts are generally wooded.

Almost the whole of Saskatchewan and Alberta north of the
fifty-fifth parallel is timbered, but in the region of the Peace River
many fine prairie stretches are found. The prairies to the south of
the wooded country are, on account of their fertile soil and delight-
ful climate, exceedingly valuable for grazing purposes, while the
wooded country is more suitable for fuel and lumber. Near the
international boundary line the Rocky Mountains rise abruptly from
the plain and often present to the east a wall of perpendicular rocks.

ALBERTA

AXD

SASKATCHEWAN

FIG

M\P QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of Alberta and of Saskatchewan. (2)
Draw a map of the two Provinces, locating the watersheds and the larger lakes and
rivers. (3) Compare the physical features of Alberta with those of Saskatchewan.
(4) Compare eastern, western," and northern Alberta in regard to their surface. (5) Make
a similar comparison between northern and southern Saskatchewan. (6) Trace care-

.y the course of the Saskatchewan River and its tributaries. (7) Show how Saskatch-
in and Alberta are related by means of their river systems and the lines of railway.
Point out and describe the larger lakes of the two Provinces. (9) Locate the lines
railway, naming the most important places on each line. (10) Name and locate the
ncipal cities and towns.

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA 179

A short distance farther north, however, they become bordered or
fringed by the foot-hills, and these continue, with varying breadth, at
least as far north as the Peace River country.

A strip of plateau country south of the Wood Mountain and
Cypress Hills forms a part of the Mississippi basin, and is drained
south by the two forks of the Milk River and the White Mud River
into the Colorado. The rest of the southern half of these provinces
is drained by the Saskatchewan into Hudson Bay, through Lake
Winnipeg and the Nelson River, while the northern portion is
drained into the Arctic Ocean by the Athabaska and Peace Rivers,
through the trunk stream, the Mackenzie.

Rivers. The North Saskatchewan rises in the Kockies of western
Alberta, flows northeast past Edmonton, turns southeast, and enters the
province of Saskatchewan. At Battleford it receives the waters of the
Battle River, a winding stream flowing in a deep valley. A short distance
below Prince Albert it is joined by the south branch. The combined
streams pour their waters into the northern end of Lake Winnipeg.

The Mackenzie River country, which includes northern Alberta and
Saskatchewan and the district of Mackenzie, is worthy of attention, not
only because of the immensity of the river basin, but also on account of
the importance of the upper Peace River lands. In this district, though
north of the fifty-fifth parallel, the land is so fertile and the climate so
moderate that ranching and even mixed farming should become profitable
occupations. Into what river does the Peace Kiver drain ?

The Athabaska rises in western Alberta, flows northeastward, and
empties its turbid waters into Lake Athabaska. This lake, the first
great expansion of the Mackenzie, is a beautiful sheet of water, over twice
the size of Lake Manitoba, with its southern shore well wooded. The
Slave River drains Lake Athabaska into Great Slave Lake in the district
of Mackenzie, while it, in turn, is drained into the Arctic by the Mackenzie
River. The Athabaska is navigable in long stretches, but its usefulness
as a commercial highway is greatly lessened by several rapids. At the
mouth of the river is a heavy rapid with a descent of 70 feet, but above
this the main stream is navigable for river steamers for 900 miles. Dur-
ing most of its course the river flows in a narrow valley over 200 feet
deep. For the last 280 miles, however, the river sweeps in a majestic
stream down a broader and shallower valley.

The South Saskatchewan, over 800 miles in length, is formed by the
union of the Bow and Belly Rivers. The Bow rises in the mountains
beyond Banff, receives the Elbow at Calgary, and is joined by the Belly
River in southeastern Alberta, whose tributaries are the Little Bow, the
Old Man, and the St. Mary's. These streams are of great importance to
the country, as supplying an easy means of irrigation in a region of defi-
cient rainfall. The south branch flows east past Medicine Hat, is joined

180

NORTH AMERICA

by the Red Deer farther east, and finally pours into the north branch a
stream 600 yards wide, which is navigable for 400 miles above its conflu-
ence.

Climate. That part of Saskatchewan lying within the second
prairie level has a climate quite similar to that of Manitoba.

Western Saskatchewan and Alberta, included in the third prairie
level, have a greater elevation, and being under the influence of the
Chinooks winds have a smaller rainfall. Besides making the climate
drier, the general effect of these winds is to raise the temperature of
southern Alberta and southwestern Saskatchewan, and in this way
more than make up for what the third prairie level loses by reason of
its extra height.

Between the prairie country and the Pacific lie the Rocky Mountains.
The warm winds blowing over the Pacific from the southwest reach the
colder and higher mountain country, where they are more or less chilled
and made to give up the water they are carrying. How is this done ?
Afterward they work their way through the mountain passes and over
the mountain tops, and descend to the plains to the east, over which
they move as warm, dry winds, moderating the climate of a region several
hundred miles in width. These are the Chinooks, so called from the
Chinook Indians of southern British Columbia, over whose country the
wind passes. The chinooks melt with remarkable rapidity any snow that
falls. This is why it is possible for cattle to remain out all winter in
southern Alberta, as the grass is never buried deep in snow. Throughout
the whole of the prairie region the sky is clear, bright, and sunny, the air
dry, the days of summer hot, and the evenings delightfully cool.

Ranching. This is the great industry of southern Alberta and
western Saskatchewan. The ranch country extends from the foot-
hills toward the Mis-
souri Coteauwith CAL-
GARY, LETHBRIDGE,
MACLEOD, MAPLE
CREEK, MEDICINE
HAT, and BATTLE-
FORD as important
centres. This region,
where now are reared
thousands of cattle,
horses, and sheep (Figs. 154 and 155), was formerly the favorite
haunt of the buffalo. The climate is so mild that cattle and
horses can graze on the open plains all winter, while the prairies

FIG. 154.

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA

181

FIG. 155.

are covered in the early spring and summer by a short but thick
growth of the sweet, juicy buffalo grass, which becomes withered
later on, but being cured by nature retains its nourishing qualities.
Here, too, are many
fine streams and
springs, where excel-
lent water may be had
without the expense of
digging wells.

The rancher locates
his house, with its few
stockades or corrals and

sheds, within easy reach of a stream. Why? If there is no neighbor
within several miles, it is all the better, for his cattle are then more
certain of abundant grass. Few fences are built, partly because it is neces-
sary for the cattle to roam about at will in their search for food. A single

ranchman may own from ten
to twenty thousand head, and
yet they are all allowed to
wander upon the government
land. Usually they keep
within a distance of thirty
miles of the ranch house:
but sometimes they stray one
or two hundred miles away.

Twice a year there is a
general collection or routul-/>.
the first occurring in May or June, and the other in early fall. One object
of the first is to find the calves that have been born during the winter.

Since there are few fences, cattle belonging to ranches which are
even a hundred miles apart become mixed during the winter, and those
in a large herd may be-
long to a score of differ-
ent ranchmen. Each
cattleman has a certain
mark or brand (Fig.
156), such as a letter, a
cross, a horseshoe, or
some other device, which
must be burnt into the
side of every cow ; and
that is the sole mark of ownership, and is everywhere respected.

A round-up, which lasts several weeks, is planned by a number of
ranchmen together. A squad of perhaps twenty cowboys, accompanied

FIG. 156.
Branding cattle.

FIG. 157.

182 NORTH AMERICA

by a wagon and provisions, a large number of riding horses or "ponies,"
and a cook, go in one direction, and other wagons with similar outfits set
out in other directions. Before separating in the morning, the members
of a squad agree upon a certain camping place for the night, and then
they scour the country to bring the cattle together, riding perhaps sixty
or eighty miles during the day. Each ranchman knows his own cattle by
the brand they bear, and since the calves follow their mothers there is no
difficulty in determining what brand they shall receive. After branding
the calves, each ranchman drives his cattle homeward to feed during the
summer within a few dozen miles of their owner's home.

The second large round-up is similar to the first except that its
object is to bring together the steers, and ship them away to market ; it
is accordingly called the beef round-up. What becomes of the stock raised
on these immense pasture grounds ? A great many cattle are shipped to
the mining districts of British Columbia and the Yukon ; many more are sent
by train to the eastern and British markets, where they are in great demand.

More attention has been paid on the western ranches to horses
and cattle than to sheep, but the raising of the latter is becoming an
important industry. The same conditions that have made cattle
and horse ranching so successful are also suited to sheep-raising, but
the former pays better, and so has been given more attention. At
present there are nearly one hundred arid fifty thousand sheep on
the ranches of the West (Fig. 157).

Agriculture. The southern or prairie portion of Saskatchewan,
particularly in the eastern part, and a large part of Alberta, are

specially adapted to mixed
farming, including grain-grow-
ing, cattle-raising and dairying.
These two provinces, together
with Manitoba, promise to form
one of the greatest, if not the
greatest, grain-growing area
in the world. While portions
of the country are more adapted
to ranching, yet the introduc-
FlG> 158 - tion of irrigation on a large

An irrigation canal in Southern Alberta. ^^ ^ rendere d a good deal

of land, formerly given over entirely to ranching, suitable for
farming operations. There are at present over three hundred miles
of irrigation canals in southern Alberta, and extensive additional
works are in course of construction (Fig. 158). See pages 169-171.

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA

183

MAP

un, thtHL'DSONSBAYTradinjIW
thus ^wing Uw ntcntoT lie fuHokm W

CANADIAN WEST

FIG. 159.

The principal crops are wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, and other

roots. Much attention has recently been paid in southern Alberta

to the growing of fall

wheat, alfalfa, and sugar

beets. A large factory for

the making of sugar has been

established at RAYMOND.
The Fur Trade. On

the more remote plains,

woodlands, and unsettled

regions of the north this is

still an important industry.

The whole of this northern

region is covered by scores

of Hudson's Bay Company's

trading posts (Fig. 159),

each of which is the natu-
ral centre of a fur trading

district and all in touch

with those points best located for receiving the raw furs for future

shipment. Of the latter, ATHABASKA LANDING and EDMONTON are

the great depots for the Mackenzie basin ; PRINCE ALBERT and

BATTLEFOKD are the shipping points for the middle Saskatchewan

and the country to the north.
The furs are sent to England by
steamer from Hudson Bay, or by
train and steamship to the same
destination.

Lumbering. Along the north-
ern and middle Saskatchewan Val-
ley lumbering is an important
industry, and many saw-mills are
in operation. The f imber resources
of northern Saskatchewan are prac-
tically inexhaustible, and as yet
the industry is but in its infancy
(Fig. 160). Spruce is the timber
used in all these mills.

FIG 16Q Mining. -- The principal mine-

Spruce forest near Prince Albert. rai f ound in Alberta and Saskatche-

184

NORTH AMERICA

wan is coal, although there are signs of many other valuable deposits.
There are, it is said, fully 60,000 square miles of coal-bearing land
in these two provinces. In Alberta coal is procured so readily that
in certain places the rivers, by wearing their banks, have uncovered
the seams, and the residents of the neighborhood have only to drive
to the place, and load up all the coal they need. There are several
varieties of coal found in this region, and these grade all the way
from the lignite, or very soft coal, to the bituminous or harder coal,
and even to the anthracite of the hardest variety. Lignite is mined
at ESTEVAN, MEDICINE HAT, and at LETHBEIDGE; bituminous,
among the foot-hills nearest the Rockies ; and anthracite is mined
near BANFF, and at CANMORE in the same district. At BLAIKMOEE,

in southwestern Alberta,

coke is being manufactured
for the first time in the
North West.

All along the foot-hills
of the Rocky Mountains,
from the boundary to the
far north, there are abun-
dant signs of a bountiful
supply of petroleum, suffi-
cient, it is thought, to sup-
ply the whole continent
with coal-oil.

Considerable quantities
of gold are found in the sands arid gravels of the northern Saskatche-
wan and Peace rivers and their tributaries, but the returns as yet
have not been large (Fig. 161).

There are valuable quarries of gray sandstone near CALGARY,
EDMONTON, and MACLEOD in Alberta. Besides these, a great abun-
dance of granite boulders are found almost everywhere, much used
for building purposes.

Manufacturing. This industry is as yet in its infancy ; but the
abundant supply of coal and the water power supplied by the rapids
of the numerous streams, are conditions which should render this an
important industry in the future. Some wool is manufactured, and
there are local flour mills at almost every village. At RAYMOND in
southern Alberta a beet-sugar factory (Fig. 162), capable of working
over four hundred tons of roots each day, is now in operation.

FIG. 1(31.

Dredging for gold in the sands of the Saskatchewan
River.

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA

185

Transportation. The navigable rivers have already been men-
tioned in connection with the drainage, and there is no doubt that
these will be used more as the business of the West increases. Both

FIG. 162.
Beet-sugar factory at Raymond.

the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern Railways have
branches all through Saskatchewan and Alberta, and hundreds
of miles of road are being added each year. The Grand Trunk
Pacific, now in course of construction, will afford additional railway
facilities in the northern section of the provinces.

CITIES AND TOWNS OF SASKATCHEWAN

REGINA, the capital of Saskatchewan, is on the main line of the
C.P.R. nearly midway between Winnipeg and Calgary. Branch
lines connect with Saskatoon and
Prince Albert on the north, and
with Arcola on the southeast. The
city is therefore finely located as
the market and wholesale centre of
the surrounding country. It is
also the educational centre for the
province, the Normal school being
situated here.

PRINCE ALBERT is finely situated Court-house, Regina.

on the North Saskatchewan a short

distance above the junction of the river with the south branch. Arc
is an extensive agricultural country that of late has been rapidly developing.
It has saw-mills, flour mills, grain elevators, and brickyards.

186

NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 164.
Grain elevators at Indian Head.

Indian Head is in the centre of a great wheat country, as are also
the neighboring towns of Qu' APPELLE and SINTALUTA. About a mile
to the north of Indian Head is the government Experimental Farm.

The town has a large flour
mill, planing-mills, sash and
door factory, and elevator ac-
commodation necessary for
the surrounding district (Fig.
164).

Yorkton, on the Yorkton
branch of the Canadian Pa-
cific Kailroad, is in the midst
of a fine rolling country well
wooded in parts. Here the
government has established
a creamery. Yorkton is also
an important cattle shipping
centre.

Saskatoon, an important distributing point on the Prince Albert
Branch of the Canadian Pacific Railway, is the centre of a large farm-
ing country. Both the Canadian Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific
will probably pass through or near Saskatoon.

Moose Jaw, on the main line of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, is a
railway centre, being a divisional point on the main line, and also a ter-
minal point of the Soo branch, which runs southeast from Pasqua eight
miles east of Moose Jaw through Estevan to the boundary line at Portal,
where connection is made with the Soo line to St. Paul. From an agricul-
tural point of view, as well, Moose Jaw is one of the most flourishing cities
in the province.

CITIES AND TOWNS or ALBEKTA

EDMONTON, the capital of Alberta, is on the north bank of the
North Saskatchewan. Its command of the upper Mackenzie and
Saskatchewan valleys will, there is no doubt, raise it before many
years into a great railway and manufacturing centre. The coun-
try round about is rich in coal, in wood, and all the products of
the farm. Alberta College is situated here. The town is at pres-
ent connected with Calgary by a branch of the Canadian Pacific
Railway, and with Winnipeg and Port Arthur by the Canadian
Northern. On the opposite bank is situated the flourishing town of
STRATHCONA, connected with Edmonton by a steel bridge. South
of Strathcona on the Calgary-Edmonton branch are WETASKIWIN,
LACOMBE, RED DEER, INNISFAIL, and other towns, all centres of
large farming interests.

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA 187

CALGARY is a very progressive city, situated in western Alberta,
at the junction of the Bow and Elbow rivers, 840 miles from Winni-
peg and 640 miles from. Vancouver, on the border-line between the
great farming and ranching country of Alberta and the mining and
lumbering regions of British Columbia. It is a divisional point on
the Canadian Pacific Railway, has branch lines running to Edmonton
and Macleod, and is the seat of the Western Canada College, and of
the Provincial Normal School. It is an important commercial centre.

Lethbridge, on the Crow's Nest Kailway, is situated in the centre of
large coal-fields, farming and ranching lands. The mines here give employ-
ment to several hundred persons, and supply soft coal to southern Alberta.
Lethbridge is the terminus of the Alberta Railway and Coal Company's
line, running south to the boundary line. From Lethbridge a magnificent
view of the Rocky Mountains may be had.

Macleod, on the Crow's Nest Pass Kailway, lies a short distance west
of Lethbridge at the southern terminus of the Calgary -Edmonton branch
of the Canadian Pacific Railway. It is an important centre of the ranch-
ing industry in southern Alberta.

Medicine Hat, on the south branch of the Saskatchewan, is the centre
of a great ranching district. Near it are extensive coal-fields.

Banff. Eighty miles west of Calgary, on the main line of the Cen-
tral Pacific Railway, is Banff, the centre of a large tract of country full
of magnificent mountains, lovely lakes, and shady trees. This district has
been set apart by the Dominion Government as a great national park to
be used for purposes of pleasure and recreation only.

In southern Alberta are STIRLING, CARDSTOX, and RAYMOND in a district
made more valuable for grain, cattle, and vegetables by an elaborate sys-
tem of irrigation ditches. Near the mountains southwest of Macleod are
the famous ranches of PIXCHER CREEK, now growing smaller as the settle-
ments devoted to mixed farming are extending.

The whole western portion of Canada is growing so rapidly that it is
almost impossible to give any very accurate description of the cities and
towns. New settlements, which in a short time become flourishing towns,
are constantly being formed. The centre of population of Canada promises
soon to be west of the Great Lakes.

Government. Both Alberta and Saskatchewan have a Lieutenant-
G-overnor, appointed by the Governor-General in Council, a Legislative
Assembly of twenty-five members elected by the people, and a Cabinet,
or Executive Council, chosen from the members of the Legislative
Assembly. Each province is represented in the Dominion Parliament
by five members of the House of Commons and by four members of
the Senate.

188 NORTH AMERICA

THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES

The district lying north of Ontario and Manitoba and extending
to the Arctic Ocean, bordering on the east Hudson Bay, was formerly
known as Keewatin. This whole section is as yet almost wholly un-
explored, except by the hunter and the trapper. The Nelson River,
the outlet of Lake Winnipeg, the Hayes River, and the Churchill are
well-known streams to the Indian and the hunter. The southern
portion of the country consists of one long continuation of rocky
heights, beautiful lakes, and forest-covered stretches, intersected with
numerous rapid streams. The central portion, in the vicinity of the
Churchill River, is somewhat similar, but the northern part lies
almost wholly within the "barren lands." In the short spring and
summer season it is anything but barren, for the earth is covered
with myriads of flowers, and the air is full of insect and bird life ;
but in the winter nothing could be drearier than these wind-swept
plains. But little is known of these rolling, marshy, mossy plains,
and what little we do know has come largely from those who have
had to bear every kind of peril and suffering in their efforts to make
known a few more of the dark places of the earth. The region is
said to be rich in minerals. At present the only inhabitants, in
addition to the fur traders, are Eskimos and Indians. YORK FAC-
TORY and FORT CHURCHILL are important trading posts.

The district comprising the northern portion of the Labrador
peninsula, north of the province of Quebec, except the eastern strip
of coast, was formerly known as Ungava. The western coast is
rocky, indented by many inlets, and skirted by a large number of
rocky islands. The interior is a gently undulating plateau. The
main watershed, which extends north and south about the centre of
this section, causes the country to be drained westward into Hudson
Bay and eastward into the Atlantic. On the Hamilton River are
the Grand Falls, where the stream leaps three hundred feet over a
bluff into a narrow gorge. The country is more or less sparsely
wooded as far north as Ungava Bay, beyond which the country is
treeless. The only inhabitants, except a few white fur traders, are
Indians .and Eskimos.

The district consisting of the Arctic Archipelago was formerly
known as Franklin. The islands vary in size from Baffin's Land
down to small reefs. Some very good seams of coal are found on

THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES

189

various islands. The surface is in general low and is similar in char-
acter to the "barren lands" of the continent. In this region of
Arctic night the polar bear, reindeer, and musk-ox have as yet a
safe retreat. The Eskimos are the only inhabitants. The peninsula
of Boothia, which forms a part of this district, contains the magnetic
north pole.

The section of country lying to the west of the old district of
Keewatin was formerly known as Mackenzie. The northeastern
corner lies within the area of the u barren lands," beyond the limit
of the growth of trees, while most of the remainder is covered with
a forest of stunted spruce and larch of little commercial value.
Along the Bear River, however, and along the Mackenzie, for some
miles below the mouth of the Bear, is a magnificently timbered re-
gion. The whole district
has a gentle and fairly
regular slope northward
to the Arctic Ocean. The
most notable breaks in the
general level are the high
cliffs on the north shore of
Great Slave Lake, and the
Copper Mountains near
the Coppermine River.

The great artery of this
district is the Mackenzie,
"the king of northern riv-
ers," 1000 miles long and
with an average width of a
little over a mile. The waters of the three large lakes, Athabaska, Great
Slave, and Great Bear, drain into it, while one of its tributaries, the Liard,
rises within 150 miles of the Pacific. Some distance below the mouth of
the Bear River are the Upper Eamparts, a remarkable gorge (Fig. 1G5).
For some distance above the Eamparts the river is unusually wide, but
here it narrows to about 500 yards, and bending to the east runs for three
or four miles between huge walls of solid rock varying from 125 to 250
feet above the water.

At present the furs secured by the Indians throughout the fon-M-
are the principal source of wealth. Fish abound in the lakes and
streams and furnish valuable supplies of food for the traders and the
Indians. It is said, however, that mixed farming can be made a
profitable industry as far north at least as Great Slave Lake, this

FIG. 165.
The ramparts of the Mackenzie.

190 NORTH AMERICA

being no farther north than portions of Russia where agriculture is
carried on successfully. The country is also rich in minerals, coal,

petroleum, natural gas, and salt
being known to exist; but as yet
little accurate information is to be
had.

With the exception of the fur-
traders and mounted police, this
section is without white inhabit-
ants. A number of devoted mis-

The midnight sun. From a photograph

taken on the Arctic Circle at midnight by sionaries also make their homes in

Mr. C. W. Mathers of Edmonton. thege northepn wild8j passing f rom

trading-post to trading-post in pursuit of their calling. FORT GOOD
HOPE, on the Arctic Circle, and FORT MACPHERSON, still farther
north, are trading-posts of the Hudson's Bay Company.

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

THE DOMINION OF CANADA. (1) Locate on the map the various countries
of North America. (2) Estimate roughly the size of each and compare. (3) Who
is the owner of each of these countries? (4) Point out on the map the nine
provinces and five territories of Canada and give the boundaries of each.
(5) Estimate the size of each and compare. (6) When and under what circum-
stances did each enter confederation ? (7) Trace on the map the most important
railways in Canada. (8) Describe the government of Canada. (9) In what
relationship does Canada stand to Great Britain? (10) Is there anything in the
situation of Ottawa that makes the city specially suitable as the capital of Canada?

ONTARIO. (1) Draw an outline map of Ontario, showing its relation to the
other provinces. (2) Using the scale on the map, estimate the size of Ontario and
compare it with the other provinces. (3) Upon what large bodies of water does
Ontario touch ? (4) What is the importance of each of these to the province ?
(5) Give a brief sketch of the surface of Ontario. (6) Compare the climate of
Toronto with that of Ottawa. That of Hamilton with Sudbury. (7) What are
the most important influences on climate in the province ? (8) Why is not more
wheat grown in Ontario ? (9) Describe the stock-raising industry. (10) Why is
Ontario specially suited to dairying and hog raising? (11) Locate on the map the
counties more particularly engaged in stock raising and dairying? (12) Describe
the fruit districts of Ontario. (13) Where is tobacco grown in the province?
(14) What is the importance of the growing of sugar-beets? (15) Give a brief
account of a lumber camp. (16) How is paper made from w r ood? (17) Locate
the lumbering regions. (18) Tell all you can about the mining and manufactur-
ing of iron. (19) What other minerals are found in Ontario and where?
(20) What is the importance of nickel ? (21) Tell all you can about the manu-
factures of the province. (22) Tell about the fisheries. (23) What field does
Ontario offer for the sportsman ? (24) Describe fully the waterways of Ontario.
(25) Draw a sketch of the Great Lakes. (26) Trace on the map the leading

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 191

railways. (27) Locate on the map the principal cities and tell some facts about
each. (28) Locate the leading towns and tell why each is of importance.
(29) Locate on the map the leading summer resorts and tell the advantages of
each. (30) How is Ontario governed? (31) Tell what you can about education
in Ontario.

QUEBEC. (1) Draw a sketch map of Quebec. (2) Show the importance of
the St. Lawrence River to the province. (3) Describe the surface of the country.
(4) Describe the leading rivers, particularly the Saguenay. (5) Describe the loca-
tion of the city of Quebec. (6) Compare the climate with that of Ontario.
(7) Tell about agriculture in Qtfebec. (8) Locate the principal centres. (9) Tell
about making maple syrup. (10) Why are the French Canadians such expert
lumbermen? (11) Is lumbering an important industry in Quebec? Why?
(12) What minerals are found in the province and where? (13) What are the
leading manufactures? (14) Is Quebec well provided with railways? (15) Tell
about the summer resorts and the sporting. (16) Describe the cod fishing.
(17) Give a full description of Quebec and Montreal, and tell why they are of
importance. (18) Locate on the map the leading towns. (19) Note where each
is situated. (20) Describe the government of Quebec.

NOVA SCOTIA. (1) Trace on the map the coast-line of Nova Scotia. (2) Lo-
cate the principal coast waters. (3) Describe the surface. (4) Give a description
of the diked lands. (5) Tell what you can about the tide rivers. (6) Tell about
the tides in the Bay of Fundy. (7) Compare the climate of Nova Scotia with
that of Quebec. (8) Tell about the fisheries of the province. (9) Locate the
principal coal-fields and describe the process of mining. (10) What part does
iron manufacture play in the development of Nova Scotia? (11) Tell about agri-
culture, more particularly the growing of apples. (12) What is the importance
of the lumber trade ? (13) What are the leading manufactures? (14) Tell about
the railways. (15) Is Nova Scotia noted as a summer resort? (16) Locate these
summer resorts on the map. (17) Describe Halifax harbor. (18) Locate the
leading cities and towns. (19) How is Nova Scotia governed ?

NEW BRUNSWICK. (1) Describe the coastline. (2) Give a brief descrip-
tion of each of the leading rivers and trace the course of each on the map.
(3) For what is each noted ? (4) Describe the climate. (5) Tell about agricul-
ture in the province. (6) Describe the lumbering industry. (7) What are the
most important minerals? (8) Is fishing a leading industry? Why? (9) Tell
about the manufactures and railways. (10) Locate and describe St. John, Fred-
ericton, and Moncton. (11) Tell about " the Bore." (12) Locate the most im-
portant towns, and tell why each is important. (13) How is New Brunswick
governed? (14) Point out the leading summer resorts.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAXD. (1) Describe the surface, coast-line, and climate
of the island. (2) How is the island separated from the mainland ? (3) How is
communication maintained in summer? In winter? (4) What are the leading
industries? (5) Is the island noted as a summer resort? Why? (6) Point out
the leading cities and towns. (7) How is the island governed ?

BRITISH COLUMBIA. (1) Give a full description of the surface of British
Columbia? (2) What are the leading ranges of the western mountains ?
(3) Locate the most important passes through the mountains. (4) Trace on the
map the leading rivers and describe each ? (5) Give some account of the scenery.
(6) Mention the various climate belts, and describe the climate in each belt.
Why the difference? (7) Describe lumbering in British Columbia. What are
the most important trees? (8) Tell about fishing. (9) Tell what you can about
the salmon industry. (10) Tell about sealing. (11) What is the importance of

192 NORTH AMERICA

mining in the province? (12) Tell about agriculture. (13) What are the lead-
ing highways? (14) Describe the location of Vancouver, Victoria, and New
Westminster. What is the importance of each? (15) Point out on the map
the principal towns, and note carefully the location of each. (16) How is the
province governed?

YUKON. (1) Describe the surface. (2) Compare the climate with British
Columbia, Ontario, and Nova Scotia. Why the difference? (3) Tell about gold
mining. (4) Locate on the map the principal districts and towns. (5) Tell
about the government of the territory.

MANITOBA. (1) Locate on the map the thi'ee prairie levels. Describe each
and estimate its area. (2) What part of Manitoba is on the first prairie level ?

(3) Describe the part of Manitoba on the second prairie level. (4) Locate on the
map the principal rivers and lakes and briefly describe each. (5) Compare the
climate of Manitoba with that of Ontario. (6) What is the principal industry?
Why? Tell about the elevator system of the province. Describe the plan of
survey. (7) Tell about the other industries of the province. (8) Trace on the
map the leading railways. (9) Describe the city of Winnipeg. (10) Point out
the leading towns. (11) How is the province governed ?

SASKATCHEWAN AND ALBERTA. (1) Describe the surface of Saskatchewan.
Of Alberta. (2) Draw a sketch of the third prairie level. (3) Tell what you can
of the foot-hills of the Rocky Mountains. (4) Describe the most important rivers
and trace each on the map. (5) Compare the climate of Alberta with that of
Saskatchewan. (6) Describe fully a western ranch and ranching operations.
(7) Why is ranching of so much importance? (8) Tell about agriculture.

(9) Describe an irrigation canal. (10) What is the value of irrigation.
(11) Tell about the other industries. (12) Describe the leading cities and towns
and locate each on the map. (13) Are the provinces well provided with railways ?
(14) How is each province governed?

THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORIES. (1) Make a sketch map of this section,
locating the rivers and lakes. (2) Describe the surface of the country. (3) Tell
about the Mackenzie River. (4) What is meant by "the Midnight Sun"?
(5) What is the importance of this part of Canada?

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Read up the history of Canada and find out about the
Confederation movement in Canada, and when and how each of the provinces
became a part of Canada. (2) Obtain a railway map of Canada, either from the
Department of Railways at Ottawa or from any one of the transcontinental lines,
and trace the various railways in Canada. Note particularly the route followed
in each case. (3) Obtain from the Interior Department at Ottawa, from the Im-
migration Departments of each of the provinces, and from the leading railway
and steamship companies, illustrative matter relating to Canada, and make a col-
lection of these pictures. Classify the pictures in the most convenient way.

(4) Describe the various parts of Canada that you have visited and with which
you are familiar. (5) Visit all the leading manufacturing establishments in your
neighborhood, and keep an account of what you have seen. (6) Make a collection
of such manufactured articles as you can easily obtain, and the raw material from
which the article is manufactured. (7) Read descriptions of mining, fishing, lum-
bering, and other industries. (8) What stories have you read that deal with the
life of men engaged in these occupations? (9) Hunt up in the dictionary or other
reference book pictures of the more important animals, birds, and fishes in Canada.

(10) Make a collection of pictures of this kind. (11) Draw a map of Canada, and
locate the position of the most important mines. (12) Find out all you can about
the waterways of Canada, and why each is important.

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the trans-continental lines across Canada and the Unitec
States. (2) Estimate the extent of territory served by each of these lines. (3) Tract
the steamship lines connecting North America with the other continents. (4) Trace
the steamship lines through the Great Lakes and the River St. Lawrence. (5) Compare
the railways of Canada with those of the United States, with regard to the territorj
through which each passes, and the steamship lines with which they connect. (6) Frorr

Map shewing
PBIXCIPAl KAILWAl'S & .STEAMSHIP LINES

DOMINION OF CANADA

and

UNITED STATES.

e map, show the relations of the railways to the steamship lines. (7) Show how the
ans-coiitinental lines of railways are connected by other railway lines. (8) Compare
[ontroa.1 with New York as a railway terminus. Compare Vancouver with San Fran-
,sco as a shipping point. (9) From the map point out the advantages of the St. I.aw-
;nce as a shipping route. Compare this with a route from Europe to the west shore of
udsou Bay. (10) Locate and name the principal harbors in North America.

IV. NEWFOUNDLAND

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) What shape is the island? (2) What is its greatest
length ? (3) What is its greatest breadth ? (4) Point out the coast waters.
(5) Point out the largest peninsulas. (6) Name the largest bays and inlets.
(7) Compare the latitude of Labrador with that of England.

History. Newfoundland was discovered in 1497 by John Cabot.
Various attempts were made to colonize the island, but with little
success. From 1792 the island began to increase in population and
to make some progress, and in 1832 constitutional government was
conceded. From that time progress has been steady, although
affairs were for many years complicated by the French Shore
Difficulty. By the Treaty of Utrecht the French were allowed
equal rights with the British on the shores of parts of the island.
This equal right caused a great deal of friction, but by an agreement
recently entered into between the French and British governments
the trouble has been removed. Up to the present time Newfound-
land has refused to enter the Canadian Confederation, preferring
to retain her independence as a separate colony.

Coast-Line and Physiography. The coast-line of Newfound-
land is very irregular, the indentations both large and small being
numerous. The total length of coast-line following the indenta-
tions is said to be over 2000 miles. Most of the larger bays, such
as White, Notre Dame, Bonavista, Trinity, and Conception, are on the
northeast side of the island, although St. G-eorge Bay and the Bay
of Islands on the west are large and important. The peninsula of
Avalon on the southeast extremity is connected with the mainland
by an isthmus only three miles across, while there is a smaller pen-
insula, Buron, on the south. The character of the coast is bold
and rugged, and there are numerous rocky islands.

The surface is also very irregular, although at no point does the
elevation exceed 2000 feet. The plateau on the west of the island,
about 1000 feet in height, is known as Long Range. The interior
has not been fully explored, but the higher parts are covered with
forests. In spite of the irregularity there is a large amount of

193

194

NORTH AMERICA

arable land and also a wide extent of country covered with valuable
timber. There are many small lakes ; indeed, it is said that the
lakes form one third of the surface of the island. The rivers are
numerous but small and of little use for navigation. The River of
Exploits, about 200 miles in length, and the Humber, are the largest.
Climate. On account of its peculiar location, and the influ-
ences of the Gulf Stream and the Arctic Current, the climate is
subject to sudden changes. On the whole the climate is healthy,
and not so severe as in Quebec and Ontario. The winter sets in
about the beginning of December and lasts until the middle of April,
the temperature varying from 80 in summer to a little below zero
in midwinter. Dense fogs occasioned by the meeting of the Gulf

FIG. 168.
Scene on the Labrador coast. Curing fish in summer.

Stream and the Arctic Current are prevalent in the south and
southeastern parts, but are unknown on the west coast and in the
interior of the island.

Fishing. The great industry of Newfoundland is fishing, over
one-quarter of the inhabitants being engaged in the catching and
curing of fish (Fig. 168). No other country in the world is so
abundantly supplied along its shores with fish. About one thousand
vessels owned on the island, in addition to numerous smaller craft,
are engaged in the fisheries. The principal fish is the cod, although
herring, salmon, haddock, and other fish are also caught. Lobster
fishing is becoming an important industry, there being many can-
neries along the coast. The rivers are filled with salmon.

The GRAND BANKS are situated about 100 miles from the coast. They
are elevations of the bed of the ocean, and extend about 600 miles in length

NEWFO UNDLA ND

195

by about 200 miles in width. The average depth of the water is 250 feet.
The cod coine in summer to these shallow banks in search of food, and
there they are caught by the fishermen with capelin, herring, and squid,
the food of which they have come in search. The Grand Banks are with-
out the jurisdiction of Newfoundland, and any one can fish there, but the
bait is caught inshore along the coast. This privilege of catching and
selling bait is a very valuable one, and is jealously guarded by the New-
foundland fishermen. Most of the cod caught is dried and exported.
As in Quebec and Nova Scotia, the greatest care is taken to waste no
portion of the fish. Every part is of value. See Page 124.

Sealing. Each year large masses of ice are brought down around
the coast of Newfoundland by the Arctic Current. On these ice-
floes are thousands of seals, who have sought this refuge for the

FIG. 169.
Newfoundland sealers killing seals on the floe ice off the coast of Labrador.

purpose of bringing up their young. About twenty steamers and
twelve thousand men are engaged in the business of sealing. The
vessels set out about the 12th of March, when the young seals are in
the best condition, and make their way in among the floes, killing the
seals with clubs (Fig. 169). Only the blubber and skins are of use.
The occupation is dangerous, but profitable, for those engaged in it.

Lumbering. There is much valuable lumber in Newfoundland
along the rivers and bays, but the industry has not yet been devel-
oped. The principal trees are pine, spruce, fir, tamarack, birch, ash,
and maple.

Agriculture. Farming does not form one of the leading indus-
tries. There is much valuable land, but as yet agriculture has not
been attempted on anything like a large scale. The principal crops
are barley, oats, and vegetables.

196

NORTH AMERICA

Mining. Newfoundland gives promise of being rich in minerals.
Coal in large quantities has been discovered south of St. George
Bay, and in other parts of the island. Copper, Lead, and Iron are
found in considerable quantities. Immense deposits of Gypsum exist
in St. George Bay. Asbestos and Petroleum have also been found
in small quantities. With sufficient capital to develop these prop-
erties, mining promises to be one of the leading industries.

Manufactures. There are few manufactures, and these only of
local importance, and many of them connected with the fisheries.
The principal, in addition to those already mentioned, are twine,
nets, ropes, and leather.

FIG. 170.

View of the harbor of St. John's, Newfoundland.

Game. Newfoundland is rich in game, especially caribou, which
are found in large numbers in the interior. Wild geese and ducks
and ptarmigan are plentiful, while trout are abundant in the streams.
The island is attracting more and more attention as a resort for
sportsmen.

Transportation. Newfoundland is connected with the mainland
of the continent by various lines of steamers. About 650 miles of
railway are in operation, and building is being rapidly extended.

Cities and Towns. The cities and towns of Newfoundland are
not numerous. The chief city and capital of the island is ST. JOHN'S,
situated on the east side of the Avalon peninsula, opening on the
Atlantic (Fig. 170). The harbor is entered by a deep gap between

LABRADOR, THE FRENCH ISLANDS, AND GREENLAND 197

high cliffs. The chief industry is connected with the fishing, the
principal article of commerce being fish. The government buildings
a.re at St. John's, but the chief buildings are the Roman Catholic and
Anglican Cathedrals, two of the most beautiful churches on this
continent. Other towns are HARBOR GRACE, CARBONEAU, TWIL-
LINGATE, BONA VISTA, and HEART'S CONTENT. This latter is the
landing place of a number of Atlantic cables.

Government. The government of Newfoundland, which also
includes a large strip along the coast of Labrador, is in the hands of
a Governor, appointed by the British government, a Legislative Council
of fifteen members appointed by the Governor in Council, and a Legis-
lative Assembly of thirty-six members elected by the people. The
Executive Council, at the head of which is the Premier, is chosen from
the party that has the majority in the Legislative Assembly. The
government is similar to that of Quebec and Nova Scotia.

LABRADOR, THE FRENCH ISLANDS, AND GREENLAND

Labrador. A strip of country along the shore of Labrador,
about 700 miles in length, is under the government of Newfound-
land. The coast is similar to that of the island, and the inhabitants,
in addition to the Indians and Eskimo, are mostly fishermen and
trappers. The climate is severe in winter, and the shortness of the
summer season and the frequent frosts render the cultivation of the
soil almost impossible. About one-fourth of the total catch of fish of
Newfoundland comes from Labrador. The interior has not as yet
been explored to any extent. The most important river is the
Hamilton, about 600 miles in length, and noted for its magnificent
falls and cataracts.

The French Islands. These are two islands near the coast of
Newfoundland that belong to France : Miquelon and St. Pierre.
The inhabitants are almost all engaged in the fisheries.

Greenland belongs to Denmark, and there are a few trading stations
maintained there by the Danes. The most important is UPPER-
NAVIK, where a considerable trade in skins, walrus ivory, blubber,
and eider down is carried on.

QUESTIONS. (1) Sketch briefly the history of Newfoundland. (2) Tell
what you can of the French Shore Difficulty. (3) Mention the more important
bays and rivers. (4) Describe the coast-line. (5) Describe the interior of the

198 NORTH AMERICA

island. (6) How does the climate compare with that of Canada? (7) What
effect has the Gulf Stream on the climate? (8) Describe the Grand Banks.
(9) Why is fishing such an important industry? (10) Describe a Newfoundland
sealing expedition. (11) Tell what you can of the other industries. (12) De-
scribe the harbor of St. John's. (13) Tell w r hat you can about Labrador. (14) Of
what importance, are the French Islands? (15) To what nation does Greenland
belong? (16) What are the principal exports of Greenland?

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Obtain a large railway map of Newfoundland and locate
the coast-waters, the principal towns, and the railways. (2) Find out all you can
about the fishing on the Grand Banks, and its seal catching. (3) Find out about
the fogs on the Banks of Newfoundland. (4) Find out about the Atlantic Cable.
(5) Find out all you can about the Hamilton River. (6) Why do the French
attach so much importance to the small islands owned by them ? (7) Describe
the life of a white trader in Greenland.

FIG. 1

MAP QUESTIONS. (1) Trace the boundaries of the United States. (2) From the
map, estimate the area of the country, and the distance across the widest part. (3) Com-
pare the western with the eastern highlands. (4) Trace the course of the Mississippi
River and its chief tributaries. (5) Compare the rivers of the eastern with those of the
western coast. (6) Trace the eastern, western, and southern coast-lines, naming the

reenwich 90*

,a rs, bays, capes, and islands. Compare these coast-lines. (7) Locate the principal
- other than the Great Lakes. (8) Locate the mining and agricultural districts,
raw a map of the United States, filling in the various States by groups. (10) Point
id name the principal cities, giving reasons for the location of each.

V. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

History. In 1785, at the conclusion of the Revolutionary
War, Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the thirteen
colonies, and in addition gave up the rich country lying between
the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Soon the tide of migration
had passed the Appalachians, and thousands of settlers poured into
the fertile valley of the Mississippi. This territory was further
extended by purchase, conquest, or international agreement, until at
present the part of the continent lying between Canada on the
north and Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico on the south, belongs to
the United States. Alaska, Porto Rico, and the Hawaiian Islands
are also United States territory. The original thirteen states have
now grown to forty-six states and three territories, and the popula-
tion from a little over three millions to nearly eighty millions. A war
with Great Britain in 1812-14, a war with Mexico, a disastrous Civil
War (1861-65) between the northern and southern sections of the
country, and a war with Spain, are the chief incidents in the history
of 'the United States. See also Page 450.

Government. The United States is a federal union composed of
states and territories and is governed by a President and Congress.
The President is elected every four years by Electors chosen for this
purpose by the people of each state. Should he die during his term
of office he is succeeded by the Vice- President, who is elected at the
same time as himself. The President is assisted in his work of
administering the affairs of the nation by a Cabinet appointed by
himself, but each member must be confirmed by the Senate. This
Cabinet differs from the Canadian Cabinet in that its members are not
dependent upon the popular branch of the legislature, but are respon-
sible to the President alone, and may be dismissed by him at any time
at his own pleasure. Congress consists of two branches, the Senate
and the House of Representatives. The Senators are elected for a
term of six years by the state legislatures, each state being entitled
to two members. The Representatives are elected for two years by
the people, the number being based on the population of the state.
All laws, in order to go into effect, must pass both the Senate and
the House of Representatives, and receive the assent of the President

200 NORTH AMERICA

but a law may be passed over the veto of the President, provided
that two-thirds of the members of each house vote in its favor when
it is again submitted. Each state has a legislature of its own,
modelled after that of the federal government. It consists of a
G-overnor, a /Senate, and a House of Representatives, the members
being known as State Senators and State Representatives. All
matters respecting the United States are dealt with by the federal
government, while those which more intimately concern the indi-
vidual states are under the control of the state legislatures.

The capital is Washington, where is the White House, the official
residence of the President, and the Capitol, where the federal Congress
meets (Fig. 172).

FIG. 172.

The National Capitol at Washington.

A plan similar to that adopted in the case of Canada will be
followed in dealing with the United States. The country is so
large, its soil and climate so varied, its resources so vast, and its
population so widely dispersed, that it is impossible to treat it other
than in sections. The division into New England, Middle Atlantic,
Southern, Central, and Western states is based on historical, physio-
graphical, and climatic grounds. Locate these divisions 011 the map
of the United States. Alaska .and the Hawaiian Islands are also
treated in this chapter.

The United States is honeycombed in all directions by railways
and waterways, and these are constantly being added to and devel-
oped. The more important of these are noted in connection with
the various sections. Trace on Fig. 167 the transcontinental lines.

THE NEW ENGLAND STATES

201

I. THE NEW ENGLAND STATES

(MAINE, NEW HAMPSHIRE, VERMONT, MASSACHUSETTS, KHODE ISLAND,

AND CONNECTICUT)

Physiography and Climate. The sinking of the coast has made
the shore-line extremely irregular, thus forming many good harbors.
The great glacier from the north has left its traces everywhere.
By damming the streams and turning them from their courses, it
has caused many lakes, falls, and rapids. The rocky surface of the
country, with bare ledges and boulder-strewn soil, and, indeed, the
very soil, itself, have also been caused by the glacier.

While low
near the coast,
the land rises
rapidly toward
the north and
west and becomes
a plateau crossed
by river valleys,
the bottoms of
which are several
hundred feet be-
low the plateau

FIG. 173.

top.

A view across the upland of New England, with Mt. Monadnock
rising in the background. Describe this view. -

The upland

near the coast has been so cut by many valleys that the surface is
studded with low hills. But in the west, the higher upland, known
as the Berkshire Hills, is quite mountainous.

Other mountains, in some cases where the rocks are hard, rise
above the plateau. Some of these, like Mt. Monadnock, in southern
New Hampshire (Fig. 173), rise singly. Others, like the White
Mountains of New Hampshire, are in groups, and still others, such
as the G-reen Mountains of Vermont, form irregular ranges. Many
of the mountain peaks reach from 3000 to 4000 feet above sea-level,
but Mt. Washington, in New Hampshire, is nearly 6000 feet in
height.

The northern part of the New England states has a climate resem-
bling that of Quebec, while the southern part, tempered by the warm,

202

south winds off the Gulf Stream, which here is only a hundred miles
off the coast, has a less rigorous climate.

Lumbering. This is an important industry in Maine, New Hamp-
shire, and Vermont (Fig. 174). The logs, cut in autumn and
winter, are floated down the innumerable streams, swollen by the
melting snows, to the many saw and paper mills, which are mostly

located at tide-water. Around
these saw and paper mills
large cities have grown up,
such as BANG OR on the
Penobscot, WATERVILLE and
AUGUSTA on the Kennebec.
BATH, at the mouth of the
latter river, is noted for its
shipbuilding, and PORT-
LAND, the largest city in
Maine, exports large quanti-
ties of lumber.

Paper mills, using rags as
well as wood-pulp, are found
at WATERVILLE, GARDINER,
WESTBROOK, and other
places. HOLYOKE, the great-
est paper-making city in New
England, is situated in the
midst of the busy cities of
Massachusetts. There the paper is generally made from rags, which
produce a finer grade of paper. The neighboring cities assure a
large supply of the necessary rags.

Quarrying. There are three kinds of stone that are especially
valuable in New England; namely, granite, marble, and slate, each
of which is quarried in large quantities.

Granite. One of the oldest granite quarries in the country is at
QUINCY, near Boston, and buildings made of Qiiincy granite over two hun-
dred years ago may still be seen in Boston. Other granite quarries are
found in and near GLOUCESTER, Massachusetts, BARRE, Vermont, CON-
CORD, New Hampshire, and along the coast of Maine.

Marble. The most noted marble quarries in the United States are
near EUTLAXD, Vermont. This stone is so much softer than granite
that it may be sawed without being blasted. It is much used for

FIG. 174.
Lumbering in the Maine woods.

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is-

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THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 203

buildings, statues, and monuments. Like granite, it may be given a high
polish.

Slate. Slate is quarried in several parts of New England, as in east-
ern Maine, western Massachusetts, and Vermont. The value of slate is
due largely to the fact that it splits or cleaves so easily that it is readily
broken into thin slabs with a smooth surface. In this way it is made into
roofing slate, school slates, slate pencils, slabs for wash-basins, etc.

Fishing. A very important industry of New England is fishing.
Near the coast fish are now much less abundant than formerly, but
since they are still found farther out from the shore, hundreds of
vessels and thousands of men are engaged solely in catching them.
GLOUCESTER, which is a centre for that industry, is the greatest
fishing port in the United States, but BOSTON and PORTLAND also
have an important fish trade. Mackerel, halibut, cod, and lobsters
are the chief varieties. See page 124.

Agriculture. So much of the New England states is hilly or
mountainous and so strewn with boulders that farming is not so
important an industry as in many other parts of the United States.
By no means all the food that is needed can be raised in this section,
much grain and meat having to be brought from the Mississippi Valley
and elsewhere. And since the southern portion of this part of the
country is thickly dotted with cities, where the people are engaged in
other occupations, there is a ready market for whatever food the
farmers can supply. Many of the farmers are engaged in raising
various kinds of vegetables, as tomatoes, corn, potatoes, etc., and
sending them to the nearest town to be sold. Selling milk to the
neighboring towns and cities is also an important source of revenue
to the New England farmer. In the more hilly parts, where the
soil is poor, and no market is near, many of the farms have been
abandoned, and houses and barns are tumbling down.

Manufactures. The rivers of New England abound in waterfalls
(Fig. 176), which furnish such excellent water-power that this region
early became, and is yet, one of the most important manufacturing
sections of the whole country. Its many large cities owe their exist-
ence chiefly to this industry. Hundreds of articles are made, those
composed of cotton, wool, leather, and metal being the most important.

Cotton. There are about 400 cotton mills in New England. As many
as 1200 persons, three-quarters of whom are women, are frequently em-
ployed in a single mill. Most of the cotton is brought from the Southern
states, but some of it conies from Egypt.

204

NORTH AMERICA

Wool Manufacturing. Much of the wool that is manufactured into
cloth in the Xew England states is obtained from Ohio and other states
farther west. Large quantities of wool are also imported from Australia.
The chief cities engaged in the cotton and woollen industries are, in
Maine, LEWISTOX and AUISURX; in Xew Hampshire, MANCHESTER and
])OVEH ; in Massachusetts, LOWELL, LAWRENCE, and FALL RIVER ; in
Rhode Island, PAWTUCKET and PROVIDENCE. There are besides many
more smaller places engaged in the industry.

Leather Manufacturing is carried
on extensively in LYXX, HAVERHILL,
and BROCKTOX, in Massachusetts.

Metal Manufacturing. The lighter
articles, as jewellery, clocks, needles,
cutlery, tools, and firearms, that re-
quire a high degree of skill, are the
chief articles manufactured from
metal in New England. For in-
stance, WORCESTER is noted for its
wire and iron goods; PROVIDENCE
for its jewellery; XEW HAVEX for
hardware and firearms ; HARTFORD
and SPRIXGFIELD produce firearms
and bicycles; WALTHAM, near Bos-
ton, and WATERBURY are noted for
watches and clocks.

FIG. 176.

A waterfall that supplies power to some
factories in one of the smaller manufac-
turing towns of Xew England.

The Large Cities. Most of
the large cities are on the coast.
PORTLAND, the largest city in
Maine, has an excellent harbor,
and is the eastern terminus of the
Grand Trunk Railway. NEW HAVEX is the largest city in Con-
necticut ; PROVIDENCE is the largest city in Rhode Island, while
BOSTON is the largest in New England. All these are on the
coast. BURLINGTON, the largest city in Vermont, is on Lake
Cham plain.

Boston, with a population of nearly 600,000, is the fifth city in
the United States, and is surrounded by many large cities, such as
CAMBRIDGE, the seat of Harvard University; CHELSEA, MALDEN,
and SALEM. It has an excellent harbor, and is a great railway and
manufacturing centre. The port of Boston is second in importance
in the United States. NEW HAVEN is the seat of Yale College,
Summer Resorts. To the dwellers in the crowded cities of New

THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES

205

England the wooded mountains, the silvery lakes and rivers, and the
rocky sea-coast offer many and varied attractions. Tens of thousands
flock each summer to these places to spend their vacation.

While great numbers visit the woods, mountains, and country, many
go to the sea-shore to bathe in the salt water or to row and sail. Almost
the entire coast of New England is dotted with summer cottages and hotels.

Among the many seaside resorts may be mentioned BAR HARBOR in
Maine, NANTUCKET ISLAND and MARTHA'S VINEYARD farther south, while
NEWPORT, on Narragansett Bay, is one of the most fashionable watering
places on the coast. PORTSMOUTH on the Maine coast has a large navy
yard.

II. THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES

"(NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARYLAND,
VIRGINIA, AND WEST VIRGINIA)

Physiography and Climate. The Appalachian Mountain ranges
and plateaus, with their stores of coal and iron, extend across these
states from northeast to southwest. Just east of the mountains is a
low hilly plateau of hard rock, called the Piedmont Plateau. This
region is really a worn-down mountain land like New England ;
in fact it represents the very roots of those
mountains which rose above the sea long
before the Coal Period. The land slopes
seaward, and the streams flow in short
courses in the same direction.

Nearer the sea-coast the country is a
low plain of softer rocks, chiefly sands and
clays that were deposited on the sea bot-
tom and then raised to form dry land.
These plains, added to the country not
many years ago, are known as the coastal
plains.

FlG 177

The fall line. Coastal plains
dotted> p ie( i m ont and other
sections left white. Cities

i n ' iuted in heav * , ^ are
located along the fall line.

m , ,. , . , ,. r .. ,

The line which separates the Piedmont

Plateau from the coastal plain is called the

fall line (Fig. 177). Here occur rapids and
L ,, . .,,

falls because the streams dig more rapidly

into the softer layers of the coastal plain than into the harder rocks of
the Piedmont Plateau. Since the rapids and falls determine the place
where boats, passing upstream, must stop, and also where there is water-
power, the earlier settlers located their villages on the fall line as the

206 NORTH AMERICA

Indians had done before them. Note how many large cities are on this
line (Fig. 177). Name them.

Many rivers, such as the Mohawk, Delaware, Susquehanna, Potomac,
and James, have cut deep water-gaps through the mountains, affording a
comparatively easy route to the fertile western plains beyond.

On the western side of the Appalachians, there is a plateau, sloping
gently toward the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, called the Appalachian
Plateau. Near the mountains in West Virginia and Pennsylvania the
plateau is so deeply cut by rivers that in many cases they have cut down
to the coal beds, and brought the coal to light.

Owing to the fact that the glacier did not spread over the southern
part of this group of states, few lakes and waterfalls are found. But they
abound in New York, northern New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, which
the glacier did cover.

In the Middle states, as in New England, the sinking of the land has
produced numerous large bays and fine harbors, through which the tide
often reaches far inland. In the Hudson River, for example, the tide ex-
tends above Albany.

While the climate of the northern portion of this group of states
resembles that of New England, the climate of the southern portion
is much warmer. Its greater warmth is due partly to the lower
latitude, and partly to the ocean currents. The cold Labrador
Current does not extend south of Cape Cod ; but the Gulf Stream
passes very near the Virginia coasts.

The climate is so mild in Virginia that sleighing and skating are rarely
possible, while places near the entrance of Chesapeake Bay as OLD
POINT COMFORT and NEWPORT NEWS are important winter resorts.
Among the mountains, however, the climate is cooler; and even as far
south as Virginia and North Carolina there are cool summer resorts on
the mountain sides.

The rainfall averages about thirty-five inches a year, which is
sufficient for crops and for dense forests. Because of its climate
and products, the region is well fitted to support a dense population.

Lumbering. There are extensive forests both in the Adirondack
and Appalachian mountains. WILLIAMSPORT in Pennsylvania is
extensively engaged in the lumber business ; there are also many
paper mills supplied from the forest, as in WATERTOWN near the
Adirondacks.

Fishing. Fishing is a much less important industry than in
New England, shad being the principal fish caught. Oysters are
found all along the coast ; but one of the best localities for them

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THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES

207

is Chesapeake Bay, where the waters are warm and quiet. From
this region they are collected in great quantities. BALTIMORE and
NORFOLK are especially noted for the oyster industry.

Agriculture. Owing to the large areas of fertile land in these
states, agriculture in all its branches is carried on successfully. The
numerous large cities call for quantities of vegetables and small fruit,
and so there is much truck farming.

Many farmers turn their attention chiefly to dairying. Although
butter and cheese are made in every state of the Union, the industry
is especially important in New York. UTICA on the Mohawk
River is an important cheese market ; and scattered all over New
York are small cheese and butter factories. These are of great value
to the farmers, since they furnish a ready market for their milk.

Tobacco. Among the plants which the early explorers found in
America was the tobacco (Fig. 179). The newcomers quickly learned to
smoke the leaves of this plant, and tobacco soon became one of the lead-
ing products shipped to Europe. Now
its use extends through the whole
world. The state most noted for its
production is Virginia. In the vicinity
of LYNCH BURG and DANVILLE, where
much tobacco manufacturing is carried
on, immense quantities are raised; and
RICHMOND and PETERSBURG are among
the great tobacco markets of the world.

The tobacco plant grows to a height
of about three and a half feet, and has
thick leaves which are large and broad,
somewhat like those of the rhubarb.
The leaves, which are the valuable part
of the plant, are plucked in the fall, hung
in a drying room, and then made into
some form for use.

Fruits and Vegetables. Owing to
the fertile soil and suitable climate, fruit
is raised nearly everywhere. Apples form an important fruit crop in New
York, especially along the southern shores of Lake Ontario. So much
fruit is cultivated in this state that the nursery business is greatly de-
veloped, especially at ROCHESTER.

On the coastal plain and Piedmont Plateau, grapes, berries, especially
strawberries, and other fruits, nourish. One of the most noted fruit belts
is the Chautauqua grape belt on the southern shores of Lake Erie in western
New York.

FIG. 179.
The tobacco plant.

208

NORTH AMERICA

The canning of fruit and vegetables for winter use has become an
important industry in many cities, as in BALTIMORE and WILMINGTON.

Mining is one of the most important industries in the Middle
Atlantic states. Thousands of men are employed in the mines and
millions of dollars invested.

Salt is mined extensively south of SYRACUSE and ROCHESTER. Indeed,
New York produces more salt than any other state in the Union.

Coal. The coal swamps that existed millions of years ago stretched
westward from the ancient Appalachian Mountains beyond the Missis-
sippi. In some places the coal has
been entirely washed away. In others
it is sometimes found close to the
surface and sometimes several hun-
dred feet beneath it (Fig. 180). Most
of this is soft or bituminous coal, which
is mined in enormous quantities in
the neighborhood of PITTSBURG and
ALLEGHENY.

In two or three places, however,
in Pennsylvania hard, or anthracite,
coal is found, the chief centres being
WILKES BARRE and SCRANTON. It
is to the coal that these cities owe
their importance.

Anthracite coal was first made in
the same way as soft coal. Had it not
been subjected to the pressure caused
by the mountain folding, it would
doubtless have formed a bituminous
coal ; but the pressure has changed it
by driving off the gases that form a
part of all woody matter. These
changes have made the coal harder
and more difficult to burn ; but since it gives forth a more intense heat
than bituminous coal and burns with less smoke, it is preferred for some
purposes, such as heating and cooking.

Petroleum and Natural Gas. Petroleum is found in the plateau along
the northwestern border of the Appalachian Mountains. Near the oil wells
cities have grown up", such as BRADFORD and OIL CITY in Pennsylvania
and OLEAX in New York. No region in the world furnishes so much oil
as western Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and eastern Ohio. The only
section of the world that approaches it is in Russia near the Caspian Sea.
As soon as an opening is made through the rock by boring into it,
the gas which is associated with petroleum rushes forth and is conducted

FIG. 180.
A view in a coal mine in Pennsylvania.

THE MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES

109

away in pipes. This gas is used for lighting and heating, as well as for
fuel, in factories in many cities and towns, especially in BUFFALO and
PITTSBURG.

Iron. Pennsylvania and West Virginia enjoy a great advantage in
having within their borders an abundance, not only of coal, but also of oil
and gas, for fuel. Iron is also found in Pennsylvania, Virginia, and other
states. Thus both the raw material and the fuel necessary for manufac-
turing it into useful articles are found almost side by side. It is easy to
see, therefore, that one of the principal industries of this section must be
connected with iron. Indeed, almost every city in the Middle Atlantic
states is engaged in iron work of some kind, some in making iron and
steel out of ore, others in manufacturing iron and steel goods. For
example, in New York BUFFALO manufactures car wheels, machinery,
and many other articles. In NEW YOKK CITY almost all kinds of iron
goods are made. Iron and steel goods and bicycles are manufactured in
SYRACUSE, and there are iron foundries in BINGHAMPTON, ELMIRA, and

SCHENECTADY.

In Pennsylvania, PHILADELPHIA manufactures steel ships, cars, and
hundreds of other iron goods; PITTSBURG and ALLEGHENY make steel
and iron goods of nearly every kind;
and SCRANTON, READING, HARRISBURG,
ERIE, ALTOONA, and a score of other
places have furnaces, foundries, and
machine shops. In New Jersey, JER-
SEY CITY, NEWARK, CAMDEN, and Ho-
BOKEN manufacture iron goods. In
Delaware, WILMINGTON is noted for
its cars and steel ships. In Mary-
land, BALTIMORE has a great variety
of iron manufactures. WHEELING in
West Virginia and ROANOKE in Vir-
ginia are also engaged in iron manufac-
turing.

Glass, Pottery, Bricks, etc. Glass
is manufactured at and near PITTSBURG,
WHEELING, and many other places.
In and near TRENTON, New Jersey,
there is a kind of clay which may be
manufactured into pottery of a very
high grade, and pottery making has become an important industry in that
city (Fig. 181). Brickyards are found near every large city.

Largest Cities and Chief Shipping Ports. NEW YORK, with a
population of nearly 4,000,000, is second only to London among
the great cities of the world. Near it are JERSEY CITY, HOBOKEN,
NEWARK, ELIZABETH, and PATEIISON, which, as far as their busi-

FIG. 181.

A potter's wheel in the works of the
Trenton Potteries Company.

210

ness relations are concerned, form a part of New York. Before
its union with New York, the great city of BKOOKLYN on Long
Island was fourth among the cities of the country. That such a vast

FIG. 182.
Brooklyn Bridge in New York City.

number of people have collected in one section is due in part to the
excellent harbor, and the ease with which goods may be sent west-
ward into the interior both by water and by rail. The tide reaches
up the Hudson above ALBANY, and the Erie Canal extends from
there westward to BUFFALO on Lake Erie.

The Erie Canal, which is over 350 miles long, follows the easiest
route westward from the Hudson, the route used by the Indians before

the white men came. Since the canal
is only 70 feet wide and 7 feet deep,
all the freight coming from the West
in Lake steamers, and intended for the
canal, must be unloaded at Buffalo and
placed in canal boats. These clumsy-
looking boats are made with broad, flat
bottoms, in order that they may carry
heavy loads without sinking deep into
the water. They are drawn by horses
or mules that walk along the tow-path
at the side. Before the Erie Canal
was built, Philadelphia was larger than
New York, while Buffalo was only a
small village ; but since the completion
of the canal in 1825 both the latter cities
have grown rapidly, while numerous
other cities along the Hudson and the canal have attained great importance.
New York is not only the greatest shipping port in North America,
having more than half the foreign trade of the country, but, together with

FIG. 183.

New York City elevated railway skirting
the border of one of the city parks.

THE SOUTHERN STATES 211

the neighboring cities, the greatest manufacturing centre as well. The
wholesale trade of New York is enormous. At the southern end of
Manhattan Island, on which much of New York is built, there are eight
square miles of the city given up wholly to it. The city contains some
magnificent public buildings. Central Park, in the heart of the city, is
about one thousand acres in extent.

PHILADELPHIA. Like New York, this city is surrounded by
other important cities, as TRENTON and CAMDEN in New Jersey,
CHESTER and MORRISTOWN in Pennsylvania, and WILMINGTON in
Delaware. The Delaware is navigable for ocean vessels as far as
Philadelphia. It is, therefore, a great shipping point, especially for
coal. Like New York, it is a great railway centre, and, having coal
and iron near by, it is also a great manufacturing centre. The city
is especially famous for carpets.

BALTIMORE. At the head of Chesapeake Bay in Maryland is
the beautiful city of Baltimore, the sixth in size in the United States.
Since it has a good harbor, and is connected with the West by rail-
ways, and also has access to the coal-fields of Pennsylvania and West
Virginia, Baltimore has become a noted manufacturing city and ship-
ping port. It is the seat of Johns Hopkins University. A few miles
south at ANNAPOLIS is the United States Naval Academy.

WASHINGTON, on the Potomac in the District of Columbia, is
the capital of the United States. Here are the Departmental Build-
ings and the residence of the President.

RICHMOND, the largest city in Virginia, is at the head of tide-
water on the James River. It is, therefore, an important shipping
point, as is NORFOLK, on the coast. A great deal of cotton is
shipped from both these cities.

HI. THE SOUTHERN STATES

(NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA, GEORGIA, FLORIDA, ALABAMA,
MISSISSIPPI, TENNESSEE, ARKANSAS, LOUISIANA, TEXAS, AND
OKLAHOMA)

Physiography and Climate. Almost the entire area included in
this group of states is made up of plains. The most level portions
are the delta and flood plain of the Mississippi, and the coastal plains
that skirt the entire Gulf and Atlantic coast of the Southern states.
The coastal plains are very level ; and, since the rainfall is heavy,

212

NORTH AMERICA

they are often swampy, especially near the rivers. Their higher
portions are more irregular and better drained ; but since the soil
is sandy, there are large areas which are too barren for agriculture,
and are, therefore, still covered by an open pine forest.

The Piedmont Plateau, at the eastern base of the Appalachian
Mountains, has a good drainage and excellent soil, so that it is the
seat of extensive agriculture, especially cotton and tobacco raising.
As in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, there is a rough plateau
west of the Appalachians. This plateau is deeply cut by river val-
leys, and is so rugged that it is still covered by extensive forests,
and has few inhabitants. Still farther west are the broad and

fertile plains of the Mississippi
Valley and of Texas.

In western Texas the plains
rise until they become high pla-
teaus, reaching an elevation of
4000 to 5000 feet near the base
of the spurs of the Rocky Moun-
tains, which extend into Texas

(Fig. 184).

The coast-line is much more
regular than that of New Eng-
land. Sand-bars, built by waves
and tides, have in many cases blocked the entrance to the shallow
harbors. The waves throw up the sand in banks, and the winds pile
it still higher, forming sand-dunes along the shore.

In southern Florida countless millions of coral polyps live in the
warm waters of the Gulf Stream. These little insects have built the
limestone rock which forms the southern part of the Florida penin-
sula, and also the many reefs and small islands or keys which lie just
south of Florida.

The low plains of the Southern states lie so far south that the
climate is everywhere warm ; and the damp winds from the Gulf
bring an abundant rainfall to them. These conditions make it
possible to raise cotton, sugar-cane, and rice. In southern Florida
semitropical and even tropical fruits are easily raised.

FIG. 184.

A view in the mountainous section of the
extreme western part of Texas.

The Southern winter is mild, like spring and autumn in the North.
Consequently many Northern people go South to spend the winter at such
resorts as JACKSONVILLE and ST. AUGUSTINE. The latter, founded in
1565, is one of the early Spanish settlements.

THE SOUTHERN STATES 213

Western Texas, being too far from the sea to be reached by the damp
winds from the Gulf, has a very dry climate, fitted only for ranching.
Between this arid belt and the warm coastal plains is a plain and prairie
region with extensive cotton fields.

Lumbering. Extensive areas in the Southern states are timber
covered, and among the forests are found many trees unknown in
the North, such as the magnolias. On the sandy coastal plains grows
the hard or Georgia pine, much used for flooring in the North. It is
shipped North from CHARLESTON, MOBILE, and other coast cities.

On the plateaus and among the mountains grow the oak and
other hardwood trees. From MEMPHIS, Tennessee, large quantities
of this hardwood is shipped to northern points.

FIG. 185.
Negroes picking cotton.

From the Southern pine turpentine is obtained, while the chestnut
oak yields tannic acid, used in tanning leather.

Agriculture. In the Southern states, with their excellent soil and
warm moist climate, agriculture is the principal industry. Tobacco
raising, already described as an industry of great importance in Vir-
ginia, is also extensively carried on in Tennessee and North Carolina.
CLARKSVILLE in Tennessee and DURHAM in North Carolina are
centres for this industry.

Cotton. The crop in the South that surpasses every other in
value is cotton. As in the days of slavery, most of the negroes still
make their living by working in the cotton fields, for cotton is the
principal crop from North Carolina to Texas (Fig. 185).

214 NORTH AMERICA

In 1898 the Southern states produced 11,000,000 bales of cotton, each
weighing nearly 500 pounds. In the same year the entire world pro-
duced a little over 17,000,000 bales, which makes it clear that the United
States produces at present much more than half of all the cotton grown.

Cotton requires rather fertile soil and a long warm summer with
an abundance of rain. These conditions exist in the Southern states.
The seeds are planted in the spring, in rows about three feet apart, and
the weeds are kept out until the plants are nearly grown. They reach a
height of about three feet, and develop large blossoms that produce a pod,
in which the cotton and cotton seeds are contained. On maturing, the
pods burst open, revealing a white woolly ball known as cotton, which
in appearance resembles the downy substance in the thistle and in the pod
of the milkweed. When a great number of these pods have split open, a
"cotton plantation of five or six hundred acres presents a beautiful sight,
much like a field flecked with snow (Fig. 185). Then the busy season for
the pickers begins. As many as two or three hundred negroes men,
women, and children may assemble in one field, carrying bags and pick-
ing cotton, singing melodies, and chattering in the negro dialect the live-
long day. When plucked from the pods the cotton is attached to seeds,
and these must be removed before the cotton can be of use. The seedless
cotton is tightly pressed into bales of about 500 pounds, which are then
covered with coarse jute bagging, bound with iron bands, and shipped away
to the warehouses to be sold.

Rice. This is one of the most valuable food products of the
world, being the main support of millions of people, as, for example,
the Chinese. Although rice is not a staple food in the United States,
the quantity raised is not enough for the use of the people. The
plant is cultivated on the coastal plains from the Carolinas to Texas.

In the cultivation of rice, after preparing the ground as for other
grains, and planting the seeds, it is usually necessary to flood the fields
from ditches. As the plant grows it forms a slender stalk, upon the top of
which appears a head of seed somewhat resembling a head of oats, the
whole reaching a height of from three and a half to six feet. Just before
the harvest season the water is drawn off, so that horses may enter the
field, and the grain is then cut and the kernels threshed out, as in the
case of wheat. After the hull is removed, the grains are polished at such
cities as NEW ORLEANS, SAVANNAH, and CHARLESTON, and are then ready
for market.

Sugar-cane and Sugar. Sugar-cane is now not nearly so impor-
tant in sugar manufacturing as formerly, being partly superseded in
temperate climates by the sugar-beet, described in a previous section.
But in the Southern states sugar-cane is still an important crop,

THE SOUTHERN STATES

215

especially in the Mississippi delta, in the state of Louisiana.
a single sugar plantation may cover several thousand acres.

Either in the spring or
fall the cane is planted in
rows about six feet apart,
and a crop is raised every
twelve months, being cut
in the fall, after the middle
of October. The stalks
grow to be two or more
inches in diameter, and
reach such a height that a
man riding through them
on horseback may easily be
entirely hidden from view
(Fig. 186). As soon as the
stalks are cut they are
drawn to the sugar-house

Here,

FIG. 18(5.

A sugar-cane field in Louisiana, with the sugar-houses
in the background.

in wagons, or, on the larger plantations, in railway cars. Then the cane
is ground between rollers in order to sqiieeze out the juice, which is so
acid that it must next be treated with lime. The waste cane after the
juice is pressed out is used as a fuel to run the engines of the sugar-
house, and the sap is placed in large vats and warmed to evaporate the
water in it. As a result two products are formed, a thick black molasses

and brown sugar. This crude sugar is
sent from the sugar-house to the re-
finery, where, by a complicated process,
it is changed into white sugar.

Fruits. Fruits, such as apples,
peaches, pears, and grapes flourish in
the warm climate of these states.
Florida, however, is so far South
that it has fruits of an entirely dif-
ferent kind. Here, orange and lemon
groves are found in many parts;
while at the extreme South grow
the more tender tropical plants, such
as the cocoanut and pineapple (Fig.

187). Florida and California supply most of the oranges and

lemons used in Canada.

Grazing. In western Texas, where the rainfall is insufficient foi

agriculture, but sufficient for grass, ranching is the chief industry.

FIG. 187.
The pineapple growing in Florida.

216 NORTH AMERICA

Mining. The Southern states are not so rich in mineral wealth
as the Middle Atlantic states, but considerable mining is carried on.

Coal and Iron. Coal and iron constitute the principal mineral wealth
of the South. They are mined chiefly at CHATTANOOGA in Tennessee and
around BIRMINGHAM in Alabama.

Petroleum. Recent discoveries of vast quantities of oil in Texas
have made the state one of the most noted oil-producing regions in the
world.

Other Minerals. Marble is quarried extensively at KXOXVILLE, Ten-
nessee. Gold is mined in North Carolina, and mineral phosphate, a
valuable fertilizer, is found in large quantities in Florida and Tennessee.

Manufactures.- BIRMINGHAM, the leading manufacturing centre
of the South, is located on an old cotton plantation. It owes its
importance to the fact that iron ore, coal, and limestone are all
found near it ; it manufactures iron and steel extensively. Cotton
cloth and cotton-seed oil are manufactured now in many cities in the
South, but the most noted are COLUMBIA in South Carolina and
AUGUSTA in Georgia. The manufacture of sugar and of tobacco
have already been referred to. KEY WEST, on a small coral key or
island south of Florida, is noted for its tobacco factories, the leaf
being obtained from Havana, Cuba.

Chief Cities. NEW ORLEANS, situated at the gateway to the
most productive valley in North America, is the greatest of all

the Southern cities. It is very
favorably located about one hun-
dred miles from the mouth of the
Mississippi, at a point to which
ocean vessels can easily ascend.
The river here makes a bend in
the form of a half circle, which
explains the reason for the name
of " Crescent City," commonly
188. applied to New Orleans.

A view in a cemetery in New Orleans,

where the ground is so wet that the Much of the land on which New

dead must be placed in stone tombs Orleans rests is frequently below the

level of the river (Fig. 188). To pre-
vent the river from flooding the district, strong walls of earth called levees
have been built along the banks. In the springtime these embankments
sometimes give way ; then the destruction to life and property is appall-
ing. New Orleans is an important cotton market and a centre for sugar,

THE CENTRAL STATES 217

molasses, and rice, besides being a shipping point for products from farther
up the Mississippi Valley.

MEMPHIS, in Tennessee, is one of the great cotton centres and lumber
markets of the South. ATLANTA, the capital of Georgia, is an important
railway centre, and is also noted for its manufactures. CHABLESTON
and SAVANNAH are both, important shipping ports for cotton and lumber.
HOUSTON near the coast, is the largest city in Texas. GALVESTON, on
the coast, exports large quantities of cotton and other products. DALLAS
and FORT WORTH are important centres for cotton and cattle raising.

In June, 1906, the Indian and Oklahoma territories were joined as a
single state called OKLAHOMA. The state is mainly a great plain, arid in the
west, but fertile in the east. The principal products are corn in the north
and cotton in the south. It was first opened to settlement in 1890. There
are two flourishing cities, OKLAHOMA and GUTHRIE.

IV. THE CENTRAL STATES

(OHIO, KENTUCKY, INDIANA, MICHIGAN, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MINNE-
SOTA, IOWA, MISSOURI, KANSAS, NEBRASKA, SOUTH DAKOTA, NORTH
DAKOTA)

Physiography and Climate. A hundred years ago, when a con-
siderable number of pioneers pushed across the Appalachian Moun-
tains into Ohio and Kentucky, they were gladdened by the sight of
immense tracts of level land. For hundreds of miles the plains
slope gently toward the Mississippi ; and then beyond that river
they slowly rise again for hundreds of miles to the very base of the
Rocky Mountains. In a few places, as in western South Dakota
and southern Missouri, low mountains rise above the plains ; but
most of the country is a vast level tract, quite unlike the hilly and
mountainous region farther east.

Not only did the newcomers find the land level, but most of it
was free from forests and boulders, and for hundreds of thousands
of square miles covered with grass, and awaiting only the plough of
the settler.

While boulders are abundant in some places, the glacier has in
most sections left a deep, rich soil free from stones. The reason for
this is that here the glacier found softer rocks to grind up into soil'
than in New England, and was therefore more easily able to reduce
them to small fragments. In many sections, as in part of Illinois,
Indiana, and Ohio, the glacial drift is 100 or 200 feet deep. It is

218 NORTH AMERICA

the deposit of this drift which has caused the thousands of lakes in
Minnesota and other states.

Caverns. The abundance of limestone in Kentucky is the reason for
the numerous caves that exist there. Limestone, although hard, is more
easily dissolved by water than other rocks : and as the water seeps into the

earth and enters the limestone
joints, it slowly dissolves the rock
away. In this manner many a
long tunnel has been made, the
largest that is known being the
Mammoth Cave in Kentucky.

Not all parts of the Mammoth
Cave are yet known, but it is said
there are more than 150 miles of
galleries. The entire cave is as
dark as any mine, and the only
sound to be heard is that of tric-
kling water (Fig. 189).

FlG - m The summers are too short

A view in one of the Kentucky caverns, show- i , , i i j

ing icicle-like stalactites, which are made f r OOttOD, but they are long and

of limy matter deposited by the water hot CllOUgh for numerous other
which slowly trickles from the cave roof . rni < n i c

crops. I he rainfall is also suf-
ficient for crops, except in the extreme western part.

Agriculture. All the way from eastern Ohio to central Ne-
braska agriculture is a very important industry. Grain raising is
extensively carried on, the chief grains being corn, wheat, oats, and
barley.

The United States produce three-quarters of the world's supply of corn.
The great corn-growing states are : Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri,
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, which are known as the corn belt (Fig. 190).
As corn is the best grain for fattening cattle and hogs, -we can easily see
why large stock yards and meat-packing establishments are found in such
cities as CHICAGO, ST. Louis, and others in the corn belt. As corn is widely
used in the manufacture of distilled liquors, there are many distilleries
in ST. Louis, LOUISVILLE, PEOBIA, and other cities in this belt.

Wheat is an especially important product in Kansas, Ohio, and Indiana,
but the section which at present is most noted for its growth is that
adjoining Manitoba and Saskatchewan, including western Minnesota and
eastern Dakota. The great quantity of wheat produced in this region has
helped the growth of the cities of MINNEAPOLIS, ST. PAUL, and DULUTH.

Besides corn and wheat, oats and barley are also raised in great quau-

THE CENTRAL STATES 219

titles in these states. As barley is largely used in the manufacture of
beer, great breweries are to be seen in every large city. In CINCINNATI,
ST. Louis, and MILWAUKEE beer making is one of the most important
industries.

West of the one-hundredth meridian there is practically no farming
without irrigation. This arid belt, extending westward to the Eocky
Mountains, and from Canada to Texas, known as the Great Plains, is,
therefore, devoted chiefly to ranching. The chief markets for the ranch-
men's cattle are OMAHA, KANSAS CITY, ST. Louis, and CHICAGO. Millions
of cattle are slaughtered every year in these cities.

FIG. 190.
A field in Kansas entirely given over to corn.

Lumbering. This industry is carried on chiefly in Minnesota,
Wisconsin, and Michigan, but is of less importance than formerly, as
the forests are rapidly disappearing. In the three states mentioned,
however, there are still large forests, containing hemlock, spruce, white
pine, and cedar, and hardwoods such as oak, birch, and maple. All
of this lumber is required for domestic use.

Owing to the excellent water-power on the Mississippi at MINNE-
APOLIS, that city early became famous for lumber. There are also
large mills farther down the river at WINONA, and at the head of
Lake Superior at DULUTH and SUPERIOR ; while CHICAGO is espe-
cially famous for its manufacture of furniture. Other centres of the
lumber or the furniture business are LACROSSE and OSHKOSH in Wis-
consin, and SAGINAW, BAY CITY, and GRAND RAPIDS in Michigan.

Mining. Considerable mining is carried on in the Central states,
although the states do not share at all equally in mineral deposits.

Petroleum and Natural Gas. Great quantities of both these substances
are obtained in Ohio, Indiana, and other states. In fact, these materials
are so abundant in some places that where they are found towns have
sprung up like mushrooms as FINDLAY in western Ohio. The way in
which gas and oil were formed has already been described.

Coal. This mineral fuel is much more widespread in the Central
states than oil and gas. In some places the beds lie near the surface, like

220

NORTH AMERICA

FIG. 191.
An open iron mine in the Lake Superior district.

rock in quarries, and then coal mining is very simple ; in others it is buried
so deep that long shafts must be sunk to reach it. Being so valuable a
fuel for houses and manufactories the coal is mined in many places. All
the coal in this region is bituminous. Since bituminous coal is used in
making coke, and because there is so much of this kind of coal, many of
the cities of these states are engaged in iron manufacturing.

Iron. In recent years inexhaustible beds of iron ore have been dis-
covered northwest of Lake Michigan, and near the western end of Lake
Superior (Fig. 191). The Lake Superior district is now the leading iron-
producing centre in the United States. As there is no coal in that region,
however, the ore is shipped in large quantities to the coal regions. Boats

with cargoes of iron ore set out
from the lake ports of Du-
LUTH, SUPERIOR, ASHLAND,
and MARQUETTE for manufac-
turing centres all along the
lakes. As the ore must reach
a point where coal is easily
obtained, it is taken to CHI-
CAGO, DETROIT, CLEVELAND,
BUFFALO, etc.

Copper. Another very im-
portant metal found in the
Central states is copper. This occurs in the pores of a lava rock and be-
tween the grains of a pebble beach, which, though now hardened into rock,
was formed in the ancient sea. Indians and the early explorers found
fragments of copper on the surface, and mines were later opened in the
lava and beach rocks of the small peninsula jutting into Lake Superior
on the south. Towns have grown up around the most important mines,
the largest being CALUMET.

Lead and Zinc are mined in large quantities in Missouri in many places,
especially at JOPLIN. Salt is obtained in Michigan and Kansas.

Building Stone. Ohio and Indiana are especially noted for their lime-
stone and sandstone, which are shipped in all directions for building
purposes.

THE LAKE CITIES

It is evident that the raw products of the farms, ranches, forests,
and mines in the Central states must lead to much commerce ; and
that, since coal is included among the raw products, manufacturing
must also be developed. This means, of course, that there must be
many large cities ; and since the Central states have no ocean coast,
we naturally find the cities along the Great Lakes and the three great
rivers the Mississippi, Ohio, and Missouri where it is possible to
ship goods by water. The Lake cities come first.

THE CENTRAL STATES

221

DULUTH AND SUPERIOR. At the western end of Lake Superior
there is a fine, large harbor, one side being in Minnesota, the other
in Wisconsin. Upon this harbor are two cities, DULUTH and SUPE-
RIOR, which together have a population of about 100,000. The chief
products of this vicinity are iron, lumber, and wheat, which are
shipped eastward in immense quantities from these two ports. At
Duluth are enormous elevators for storing grain, and flour mills for
grinding it up.

CHICAGO. Near the southern extremity of Lake Michigan in
Illinois is situated the great city of CHICAGO. It is the nearest lake
port to one of the most productive grain regions in the world, and it is,
therefore, an important shipping point for grain. It is also within easy
reach of the coal-fields, while lumber and iron ore are readily brought
to it by boat. These advantages have caused Chicago to grow with
wonderful rapidity. In the year 1840 there were but 4470 inhabit-
ants and now nearly 2,500,000. To-day Chicago is the second city
in size in the New World.

Chicago is not only a great grain market, but also a most important
meat market. All the grazing states of the West ship stock to this point,
and in the city itself nearly a square mile is taken up by the famous
.Union Stock Yards, consisting
of large sheds, pens with high
fences, and troughs for food and
water (Fig. 192).

The meat that is not sold
fresh is canned. The fat of the
hog is made into lard, and not a
little beef fat is converted into
imitation butter, such as oleo-
margarine. The bones are burned
and used in the manufacture of
sugar ; and the horns and hoofs
are used in making gelatine and
glue. The hides are made into
shoes, gloves, harnesses, and
other goods. Even the bristles
of the hog are saved to make brushes; and the hair removed from the
hides of cattle is valuable in making plaster. In the packing business
nothing is wasted.

Being near the forest regions, Chicago has become a lumber market,
and iron ore is easily brought by boat. Therefore the opportunities for
manufacturing are excellent ; for, although there is no natural water-power
in that vicinity, vast coal fields are not far away. Some of the more

FIG. 192.
The Chicago stock yards.

222

NORTH AMERICA

important manufactures are : iron and steel goods, furniture, farming
implements, freight and Pullman cars, and clothing.

To prevent the contamination of the waters of Lake Michigan, from
which the city obtains its supply of drinking water, by the sewage from
the city, an immense drainage canal has been recently completed connecting
the lake with the Illinois, a tributary of the Mississippi. As this canal
is wide and deep enough for boats, it will undoubtedly develop into a ship
canal. In that case large boats may reach Chicago from the Gulf of
Mexico, as they do now from the St. Lawrence.

One of the most noted institutions in the city is the University of
Chicago, established in 1890. Chicago is also famous for its beautiful
park system.

MILWAUKEE, the largest city in Wisconsin, deals extensively in
grain, lumber, and leather, and has large flour mills. Its immense
breweries have already been mentioned. DETROIT, the largest city
in Michigan, is an important shipping and manufacturing centre.
Not far away, at ANN ARBOR, is the University of Michigan.
CLEVELAND, in Ohio on Lake Erie, has large manufactures and an
important trade in grain, lumber, and ore. It is one of the busiest
and most rapidly growing of the lake cities.

THE RIVER CITIES

ST. Louis has a favorable position in the centre of the productive
Mississippi Valley. Owing to its position on the Mississippi near

the mouth of its two
largest tributaries, it has
a large amount of trade
both by water and by
rail. It is an important
market for grain, live
stock, cotton, and to-
bacco. Its manufactur-
ing industries are also
very important.

MINNEAPOLIS and ST.
PAUL, the twin cities,

FIG. 193,
The Pillsbury-Washburn flour mills at Minneapolis.

with a combined population of over 400,000, are important markets
for grain and live stock. At Minneapolis the Falls of St. Anthony
furnish splendid water-power. The city is also in the midst of
the wheat-region ; and this, with its water-power, has caused Minne-

THE WESTERN STATES 223

apolis to become the leading flour-producing centre in America
(Fig. 193). St. Paul, only ten miles distant, is the capital of Min-
nesota, and an important trade centre.

The leading cities along the Missouri are OMAHA in Nebraska,
and KANSAS CITY in Missouri. Each is surrounded by a fertile
farming country, and each is also an important market for live stock,
and in each the meat-packing industry is gaining rapidly.

CINCINNATI, the largest
city in the Ohio Valley, is a
great manufacturing centre
(Fig. 194). The chief manu-
factures are pottery, iron, ma-
chinery, and clothing. Across
the river in Kentucky are
COVINGTON and NEWPORT,
both almost a part of Cincin-
nati. Farther north and east,
in Ohio, are DAYTON and
SPRINGFIELD, both noted for FlG - 1&4 -

the manufacture of farm ma- River boats on the Ohio at Cincinnati.

chinery. COLUMBUS is an important trade centre. LOUISVILLE
is the largest city in Kentucky. There are rapids in the Ohio at
this point, and a canal leads around them. The city is an important
railway centre, as well as a centre for tobacco. INDIANAPOLIS is in
the centre of a splendid farming district.

V. THE WESTERN STATES

(WASHINGTON, MONTANA, OREGON, IDAHO, WYOMING, CALIFORNIA,
NEVADA, UTAH, COLORADO, AND ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO
TERRITORIES)

Physiography. The Western states are made up almost entirely
of plateaus and mountains. Most of the surface is more than a mile
above sea-level, while some mountain peaks are two and three miles
in height. The extreme eastern portion is a continuation of the
Great Plains, which reach to the very base of the Rocky Mountains.
These mountains extend entirely across the country into Mexico on
the south and Canada on the north. They are made up of a large
number of ranges and ridges, which attain their greatest height in

224

MOUTH AMERICA

Colorado. A long distance farther west, and almost parallel with the
Rockies, is another system of mountains, called the Sierra Nevada
in California and the Cascade Ranges in Oregon and Washington.
Still farther west and close to the coast is a third series, known as
the Coast Ranges, which in places rise directly out of the ocean.

Just west of the Rocky Mountains is a plateau, dotted with
numerous mountain peaks and small ridges. It is higher at the
two ends than in the middle, and may be divided into three parts :
(1) the great Columbia plateau of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
on the north ; (2) the Colorado plateau of Arizona and Utah on the
south ; and (3) the Great Basin of Utah and Nevada between the

two. The numerous short

north

and

south moun-
tain ranges in the Great
Basin are called the Basin
Ranges.

Climate. Unlike the
East, where the climate is
very uniform over large
sections, the West is a
region of contrasts, with
FlG - 195 - a great variety of climate

Mt. Hood, Oregon. from place to place< The

most general fact about the climate of this vast region is its aridity.
Nearly everywhere it is so dry that no agriculture is possible with-
out irrigation. Only among the high plateaus and mountains, and
in Washington, western Oregon, and northern California, is there
rainfall enough for forests or for farming. Thus, almost one-fifth
of the entire surface is a partial or complete desert.

*#$>***,:

Along the northwestern coast the damp west winds bring so much
vapor that the rainfall is heavy. Indeed, near the coast of Washington,
there is a rainfall greater than in any other part of the United States, the
heaviest rain coming in winter. But being robbed of its vapor in crossing
the mountains, the air descends on the eastern side so dry that agriculture
is possible only in a few sections, as in the high mountain valleys and in
the wheat district of central and eastern Washington.

Mining. Every one of the Western states contains mineral
deposits of some kind, as gold, silver, copper, lead, mercury, and
coal. This section is now a most important mining district, and a
vast amount of capital is invested in the industry.

THE WESTERN STATES 225

At the present time Colorado produces more gold and silver than any
other state, and much copper, lead, iron, and coal besides. Among the
mountains in this state one sees mines almost everywhere ; but one of the
most noted mining districts is near LEADVILLE, a city at an elevation
of over ten thousand feet above sea-level. Another well-known mining
town is CRIPPLE CREEK. With the discovery of gold, thousands of
people rushed in from all directions, and the city sprang up almost in a
day.

The western half of Montana is another great mining section. BUTTE
is the most important mining centre. Here the principal metal is
copper, although some gold and silver are mixed with the ore. HELENA,
the capital of Montana, is the centre of an important gold-mining district.
Even the gravel out of which many of its streets are built has been
washed for gold.

In Arizona, too, mining is the principal industry, much copper, silver,
lead, and gold being produced. TUCSON, the largest city, is the most
important centre of the mining business. VIRGINIA CITY in Nevada was
at one time famous for the amount of gold and silver taken from its mines,
but many of these have become exhausted, and the city has now dwindled
to a town of 2000 inhabitants. Coal is mined in Colorado and Washington,
and iron near PUEBLO in Colorado.

Lumbering. In the damp, equable climate near the northwestern
coast are forests of giant redwood, fir, cedar, and spruce trees, many
of the trees being from six to ten feet in diameter, and some in Cali-
fornia very much larger. TACOMA and SEATTLE are important lum-
ber centres, and have enormous saw-mills.

Agriculture. Farming is carried on extensively in the well-
watered section of the Northwest. This is a great wheat-producing
region, while barley and hay are important crops. Great quantities
of fruit are also raised in this region, apples, pears, and grapes being
produced. Farther south, near STOCKTON and SACRAMENTO for
instance, are groves of oranges, lemons, olives, and figs.

But the only way in which farming is possible in most other parts
of the West is by means of irrigation (Fig. 196), which, in Colorado,
Utah, and southern California, has converted many barren regions
into fertile farming lands. In Colorado, DENVER and PUEBLO are
important centres of irrigation farming, which has contributed not
a little to the growth of those cities.

Most of the state of Utah was originally almost a desert, but large
areas have been entirely changed by the Mormons, a religious sect organ-
ized by Joseph Smith in New York in 1830. Under the leadership of

226

NORTH AMERICA

Brigham Young, these people migrated into the then unknown West, and
settled a few miles from Great Salt Lake. There they commenced to
build SALT LAKE CITY, which is now one of the most beautiful cities in
the country. They also began to raise crops by irrigation, to plant fruit

trees, and to convert por-
tions of the desert waste into
beautiful gardens.

Southern California is
also noted for its extensive
irrigation, the water being
supplied from the neighbor-
ing mountains. The region

is far south, and its shores
FIG. 196. , , , '

are bathed by warm ocean
A reservoir for irrigation near San Diego, California. waterg> SQ that the climate

is warm and delightful. Although the land is by nature almost a desert,
the addition of water to the fertile soil has changed the country about
Los ANGELES almost to a garden.

This region is famous for its orange groves (Fig. 197). The winter
season is the harvest time for oranges, which begin to be picked from the
trees about the middle of November, and continue to be gathered until
February or later. They are cut
from the trees, assorted according
to size, then packed in boxes and
shipped away. Lemons, peaches,
grapes, figs, olives, walnuts, and
almonds are also raised.

Ranching. There is so little
rainfall in the arid West that
only a part of the land can be irri-
gated. This leaves most of the
country suited only to grazing ;
and wherever there is water
enough for the animals to drink,
cattle, horse, and sheep ranches
are found. In some parts herds
of goats are raised.

FIG. 197.

An orange grove near Los Angeles. Notice
the snow-capped mountains in the back-
ground from which water for irrigation
is obtained.

BILLINGS in Montana is in the centre of an important sheep-ranching
district, and is consequently a great wool market. A good-sized sheep
ranch has from twenty-five thousand to forty thousand head of sheep,
which may be fed partly on the government land, or the " range,"
and partly on land fenced in and owned by the ranchman. During

THE WESTERN STATES

227

the coldest weather the sheep are, in many cases, driven into protected
corrals and fed on alfalfa, a plant resembling clover. To save the
expense of drawing the wool long distances to market, in June the sheep
are usually driven near to some wool market and sheared there. In this
way, too, the sheep secure food while on the journey to and from the
market.

SCENERY

The Yellowstone Park. This region, in the northwest corner of
Wyoming, is a tract of land which the government of the United
States has set aside as a national park. Among the many objects
of interest are boiling springs, boiling mud springs of different
colors, deep canyons, and waterfalls. This region is famous for
its geysers boiling springs, from which hot water and steam
occasionally burst forth with
great violence, sometimes to
the height of 100 or 200
feet. "Old Faithful," one
of the most regular of these,
plays at intervals of about
65 minutes to a height of
130 feet. The outbursts
are really explosions of
steam, the heat being sup-
plied from deep in the earth
(Fig. 198).

Colorado Canyon. For
300 miles the Colorado flows
at the bottom of this deeply
cut canyon 6000 feet below the level of the plateau. As a person first
looks out over the canyon he sees nothing but towers, pinnacles,
many-colored layers of rock, and apparently boundless depths.
When he finally takes a position from which the thread-like stream
below may be spied in the abyss it seems almost impossible that
so little water could have wrought such mighty havoc. The
difficult path which leads to the bottom is seven miles long, and
the trip down and back is a full day's journey. At the bottom
the scene is entirely changed ; and, as one looks upward to see him-
self shut in by walls which seem to extend to the very heavens,
his own littleness and the immensity of the work of nature are
wonderfully impressed upon him.

FIG.

An eruption of one of the geysers of the Yellow-
stone Park.

228

NORTH AMERICA

The Yosemite Valley. This wonderful valley is on the western
slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in California. Into it, with
one mighty leap over a precipice 1500 feet high, rushes the Yosemite
River, forming the world-famed Yosemite Falls. Below this are
some cascades, then another fall of 400 feet. Near the fall are seen
the giant trees of the world, the largest of which is 31 feet in
diameter.

CITIES

Cities in the Interior. These are few in number, and most of
them have already been mentioned. Whatever importance they have
is due chiefly to mining, farming by irrigation, and grazing.

DENVER, Colorado, is the largest city of the interior. Originally
a small mining camp, its growth has been due chiefly to two facts :
(1) the numerous mining towns among the mountains, which look
to it for supplies; and (2) the near presence of water, which has'

made irrigation on a large
scale possible. The city is
now a railway and manu-
facturing centre. It is also
important as a health re-
sort ; its altitude of over
5000 feet and its dry cli-
mate render it especially
adapted to persons suffer-
ing from lung trouble.
COLORADO SPRINGS, south
of Denver, is one of the
leading health resorts in
the country.

Cities on the Pacific Slope.
The largest city in all
these states is SAN FRANCISCO, located on a remarkably fine harbor
formed by the sinking of the coast. Other important cities are near
it, the largest being OAKLAND on the opposite side of the harbor.
To the northeast is SACRAMENTO, the capital of California (Fig. 199).

Owing to an insufficient supply of coal, the manufactures of San Fran-
cisco, though important, are not so extensively developed as might be ex-
pected. One sees the effect of this lack of coal on the railways, for wood
is a common fuel on the engines of northern California. The city is the

FIG. 199.

The capitol building at Sacramento, one of the most
beautiful state capitols in the United States.

ALASKA 229

greatest shipping point on the Pacific coast, and formerly monopolized the
trade with the Orient. In 1906, as the result of a disastrous earthquake
in which many lives were lost, a fire broke out which destroyed seven
square miles of the city, with a loss of over $300,000,000. It is, however,
being rapidly rebuilt.

PORTLAND, on the Columbia River 100 miles from its mouth, at
the head of deep-water navigation, has an excellent harbor. From it
are shipped the leading products of Oregon. It also has extensive
manufactories of woollen goods, flour, and furniture. It is the centre
of the salmon canning industry for Oregon (page 156). To the
south is SALEM, the capital. In Washington, on Puget Sound are
situated SEATTLE and TACOMA. Coal, lumber, grain, and hops are
the principal exports.

Territories. Arizona and New Mexico are still territories,
although Arizona has twice as many inhabitants as the state of
Nevada, and New Mexico nearly four times as many. ALBU-
QUERQUE is the largest city in New Mexico.

FIG. 200.

Mt. St. Elias, Alaska, 18,100 feet high, and for a long time supposed to be
the highest peak on the continent.

VI. ALASKA

Climate and Physiography. Since the Arctic Circle extends
across the northern part of Alaska, it will be seen that the climate
must be very uninviting. The winters are long and cold, and the
summers short and cool. A strip of coast land extends southward
from the main peninsula of Alaska, and to this the prevailing
westerly winds bring an abundance of rain and snow. Since these
winds come from the ocean, they also render the summer climate

230

NORTH AMERICA

much less cool than in the northern part of the territory. In this
portion is situated SITKA, the capital, where the governor of the
territory lives.

A large part of Alaska is mountainous. Among these mountains
are the loftiest peaks of the continent, the highest yet discovered
being Mt. McKinley, which is 20,464 feet high. Owing to the
latitude, most of the mountains are snow-covered throughout the
year, and among them are innumerable glaciers, many of which
reach down to the sea.

One of the largest glaciers now on the continent, known as the Muir
Glacier, is located in Alaska not far north of Sitka. It is so wonderful
and beautiful that many tourists visit it every year. The long peninsula
and the chain of Aleutian Islands which form the southern boundary of
Bering Sea are really a growing mountain chain sixteen hundred miles
in length. All together there are fifty-seven volcanoes in this chain, and
it was here, in 1795, that a new volcano suddenly broke forth, building
a lofty cone where previously ships were able to sail.

Fishing. Among the resources of Alaska, as in the case of
other far northern lands, those of the sea are especially important.
In the shallow waters near the coast both cod and halibut abound,
while immense numbers of salmon run up the rivers every summer.
The fishing industry is only partly developed, chiefly because of the
great distance from a profitable market.

Whaling. Every year steamers, specially built for the purpose,
venture through Bering Strait into the Arctic Ocean in search of
the whale. It is a hazardous occupation, and but few ships are now

engaged in it. They
are obliged to push their
way into the floe ice, in
which they are in dan-
ger of being imprisoned
and held firmly througli
the winter.

Sealing. In the
Arctic are found many
different kinds of seal.
FIG. 201. One of these, the fur

Fur seals among the rocks near the coast of one of the seal which lives in Be-
Pribilof Islands.

ring Sea, is of great
value because of its soft fur, which is much used for winter cloaks.

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 231

During the greater part of the year the fur seals swim in the sea in
search of food ; but in the spring, during the breeding season, they
resort to the Pribilof Islands (Fig. 201). At the proper season the
sealers select a number of males, for a law forbids the taking of
the females, and drive them off for slaughter, much as sheep would
be driven.

Mining. While there is some opportunity for farming in south-
ern Alaska, and the great tracts of forest land may be the seat of an
important lumbering industry in the future, at present the most
noted industry of Alaska is gold mining. There are extensive
deposits of gold, copper, coal, and other minerals ; but they are so
difficult to reach that there has been little development of any of
these except the first. A short distance north of Sitka, at JUNEAU,
there are some very profitable gold mines; and elsewhere in the
territory gold mining is also carried on. CIRCLE CITY and NOME
CITY are important mining centres.

VII. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS

Far out in the mid-Pacific, west of the United States coast, is a
mountain chain fifteen hundred miles long, most of which lies beneath
the ocean. From this long
submarine ridge there rise
several volcanic peaks, form-
ing a chain of islands known
as the Hawaiian Islands.
The largest is Hawaii. Each
of the islands is composed
chiefly of lava which has
been erupted from within
the earth. Two of the large FIG

Hawaiian volcanoes are still BuMing a grass hut in Hawaiian islands,
active, the largest, Mauna

Loa, extending nearly fourteen thousand feet above the sea. From
the coast the sea-botfrom descends so rapidly that, within a few miles
of the shore, a depth of eighteen thousand feet is found. Therefore,
if the water should be removed, a mountain peak would be revealed
rising nearly thirty-two thousand feet above its base a loftier
mountain than any known on the land.

As the islands are in the midst of the broad Pacific and therefore

232

NORTH AMERICA

surrounded by warm ocean water, the climate near sea-level is warm
and wonderfully equable. The northeast winds blow steadily and
bring an abundance of rain to the windward northeastern slopes.

The opposite or leeward
slopes are very much drier,
and in places even arid.

The Hawaiian Islanders
are an intelligent race, re-
sembling the natives of
other Pacific islands. Since
white men brought in new

methods of agriculture the
larger islands have become
fairly productive, the prin-
Coffee, tropical fruits, and rice (Fig. 203)

FIG. 203.
Planting Rice.

cipal crop being sugar,
are other products, the last being cultivated by the Chinese, who
make up a large part of the foreign population. There are also
many Japanese, Portuguese, and Americans.

While some of the inhabitants are engaged in agriculture, large
numbers are gathered in small villages along the sea-coast. There
are only two cities, HONOLULU on the island of Oahu, and HILO on
Hawaii.

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

THE UNITED STATES. (1) Give a brief sketch of the history of the United
States. (2) Show how its territory has gradually increased. (3) Describe the gov-
ernment of the United States, and compare it with that of Canada. (4) Trace on
the map the principal transcontinental lines in the United States.

THE NEW ENGLAND STATES.' (1) Describe the surface of the country and
name the principal mountain ranges. (2) How do the ocean currents influence its
climate? (3) Describe lumbering and fishing. (4) What led to the develop-
ment of manufacturing in New England? (5) Name the principal manufactures
and the chief cities engaged in each. (6) What can you say about the manufac-
tures of metals ? (7) Give several facts about Boston. (8) What large cities are
near it? (9) Locate on the map the principal cities. (10) What are the most
important summer resorts?

MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. (1) Describe the physiography of these states :
the Appalachian Mountains, the Piedmont Plateau, the coastal plains, the fall
line and its importance ; the coastline. (2) Tell about the climate, its varia-
tions, and their effects on crops. (3) Tell about the forests. (4) What cities
are noted for the oyster industry ? (o) Describe the tobacco industry. (6) Name
the chief cities engaged in its manufacture. (7) Tell what you can about coal,
petroleum, and natural gas. (8) Name the principal cities engaged in the manu-
facture of iron. (9) What other manufactures are there in the Middle Atlantic

QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 233

states? (10) Tell all you can about New York. (11) Describe the Erie Canal.

(12) Mention two other large cities, and tell some important facts about each.
(18) Locate the principal cities, and mention some notable fact about each.

(14) Compare the Middle Atlantic with the New England states.

THE SOUTHERN STATES. (1) Describe the surface of the Southern states.
(2) Compare the climate with that of New England. (3) What cities have im-
portant lumber industries ? (4) What about tobacco raising in the South ?
(5) Tell all you can about cotton. (6) Tell about sugar. (7) Tell about rice.
(8) What fruits are raised in the South ? (9) What other crops are important?
(10) Where are coal and iron found ? (11) Where is iron manufacturing carried
on? (12) Name the other manufactures. (13) Why are there not so many large
cities in the South as in the North? (14) Tell about New Orleans. (15) Locate
the other large cities, and mention some fact of importance about each.

THE CENTRAL STATES. (1) Describe the surface of the Central states.
(2) AVhat about the climate of this section? (3) Tell about the Mississippi
Valley. (4) Where is tobacco raised? (5) What kind of stock is raised in
Kentucky? (6) Tell about corn. (7) Tell about wheat. (8) Describe cattle
ranching. (9) Where are the forests ? (10) What cities are engaged in lum-
bering? (11) Where are oil and gas obtained? (12) Tell about iron mining.

(13) Tell about copper mining. (14) Where are the principal cities located?

(15) What cities are on Lake Superior? (16) Tell all you can about Chicago.
(17) Name and locate the Great Lake cities, and mention some important facts
about each. (18) Describe the river cities. (19) Tell about flour milling.

THE WESTERN STATES. (1) Describe the surface of the Western states.
(2) Tell about California. (3) Tell all you can about the climate of this sec-
tion. (4) What minerals are found in the West ? (5) Name the principal min-
.ing towns. (6) Tell about gold, silver, copper, and coal mining. (7) Tell
about irrigation. (8) Tell about cattle ranching in the West. (9) Describe the
Yellowstone Park. (10) Tell about the Colorado Canon. (11) Describe the
Yosemite Valley and the Big Trees. (12) Tell all you can about San Francisco.
(13) Mention the other large cities and locate each. (14) Describe salmon fish-
ing and lumbering in Oregon and Washington.

ALASKA. (1) Describe the surface of Alaska. (2) Tell about the cli-
mate. (3) Tell about fishing. (4) Describe sealing. (5) Tell about gold
mining. (6) Name the principal places.

HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. (1) Describe these islands. (2) What about the
people? (3) What are the principal industries? (4) Name the two cities.

SUGGESTIONS. (1) Find out all you can about the leading manufactures
of New England, and make a collection as complete as possible of the manu-
factured articles. (2) Compare the fishing along the New England coast with
that along the coasts of Nova Scotia and Quebec.. (3) Obtain a guide-book to
Boston, and note the various points of interest. (4) Compare in population the
large cities of New York State with those in Ontario. (5) Compare the Erie
Canal with the Welland Canal. (6) Collect samples of rice, cotton, and sugar,
both in the finished article and the raw material. (7) What effect will the estab-
lishment of cotton mills in the Southern states have on the cotton mills in Can-
ada? (8) In what way are the Southern states dependent on the Northern
states ? (9) Write a description of the prairies. (10) How do you account for
the extraordinary growth of Chicago? (11) Find out all you can about the
methods of irrigation used in the Western states. (12) Write an essay describing
the natural wonders of the Western states. (13) Find out all you can about the
California earthquake of 1906 and the San Francisco fire.

VI. MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, AND THE
WEST INDIES

MEXICO

History. After Columbus discovered the West Indies, the
neighboring coast was visited and settled, and thus the Spaniards
naturally came into possession of Mexico. One of the boldest of the
Spanish invaders was Cortez, who conquered the Aztec and Pueblo
Indians as far north as northern New Mexico. So much gold and silver
was found in Mexico that many Spaniards settled there and began to
develop the country. But Spain governed Mexico so badly that the
people rebelled, and in 1821 won their independence, establishing a
republic with a government modelled after that of the United States.
There are a number of states, each with a government and capital,
and a central government with the capital at MEXICO CITY, where
the President lives.

Physiography and Climate. Mexico consists of four areas of
different altitudes. Near the sea are coastal plains and other low-

FiG. 204.
A scene on the arid plateau of Mexico. A road bordered by cactus.

lands. In the interior, occupying a large part of the country, is an
arid plateau (Fig. 204). The third area includes the slopes between
these two, and the fourth consists of peaks and mountain ranges
which are a continuation of those in southern United States. Among

MEXICO 235

the mountains there are a number of volcanic cones, two of them,
Orizaba and Popocatepetl, being among the highest peaks on the
continent.

This part of North America is narrow, and since the north and south
divide causes some of the streams to flow eastward and the others west-
ward, there can be no long rivers in Mexico. The steep slope from the
plateau to the lowland gives the streams a rapid fall, so that they have
cut deep canyons in the edge of the plateau. Moreover, the arid climate
of the interior allows them little water. This lack of large navigable
rivers has interfered very much with the development of Mexico.

The coast of Mexico is regular and there are few good harbors. Two

projections form the peninsulas of Yucatan and Lower California, the

former being a continuation of the mountain chain which made Cuba,

"Haiti, and Porto Eico. Lower California is a southern extension of the

Coast Ranges of the United States.

If the surface of Mexico were near the sea-level, the climate of the
greater portion would be tropical ; but owing to the differences in altitude,
there are several different climates. The low coastal plains, near Vera
Cruz and in Yucatan, are hot and damp, being reached by the winds which
blow across the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. There is also much
rain upon the cooler plateau slopes of eastern Mexico ; but with the excep-
tion of these regions, the greater part of Mexico has too little rainfall for
agriculture without irrigation.

Agriculture and Ranching. Although the climate of a large part
of Mexico is arid, much agriculture is carried on by the aid of irriga-
tion, which is made possible by reason of the snow and rain among
the mountains. On the irrigated farms the products of the tem-
perate zone are raised, such as wheat, corn, and beans, the latter
being one of the
staple elements of the
Mexican diet. Much
fruit is also produced,
especially apples,
pears, peaches, and
grapes.

The Mexican farm-
ing methods, which are FIG- 206.
very crude, are a mix- An adobe house in Mexico,
ture of ancient Aztec

customs and those introduced from Spain. In Mexico one may still see the
wooden plough, which barely scrapes the ground, and also the wooden-
wheeled cart, drawn by oxen.

236

NORTH AMERICA

The home life of the people of the poorer class is interesting. Their
houses have but one story and are commonly built of a brick made of clay
mixed with straw, and then dried in the sun (Fig. 206). These sun-dried
bricks, or adobes, are larger than the bricks that we use, and are piled tier
upon tier, being joined by layers of mud. Often there is but one room, the
ceiling being made of brush, and the floor of nothing but the earth or stones.
In this one room the whole family cooks, eats, and sleeps. Their food
usually consists of very simple materials, such as unraised bread, baked
in the fireplace, beans, and occasionally meat, commonly cooked with red
pepper. Men, women, and children use tobacco.

Upon the arid plateaus are found the sage bush, the mesquite,
and the cactus. One among them, known as the maguey, or agave
(Fig. 207), is very widely used in Mexico. Its stout, sharp-pointed
leaves rise from near the ground in a tuft. In the centre of this
rests the flower stalk, which sometimes reaches a height of forty feet,

and bears a cluster of
white flowers 011 the
top. It is also called
the century plant, be-
cause it requires so
long (from ten to
seventy years) to
reach maturity and
produce this flower
stalk. From the fer-
mented juice of this
plant the Mexicans
obtain an alcoholic
drink known as pulque, and by distilling it, a drink known as mescal.
The tough leaves contain a fibre which is made into paper and strong
thread. So valuable is the maguey that it is carefully cultivated
upon plantations.

On the damp lowlands, rice, sugar-cane, and cotton are produced ;
also tropical fruits, such as oranges, bananas, and pineapples, quanti-
ties of which are exported from southeastern Mexico. Upon the
slopes between the tropical lowlands and the temperate plateau much
tobacco and coffee are raised.

The latter requires a rich soil, abundant moisture, a warm climate,
and plenty of shade. In order to secure shade, the. coffee bush, which
reaches a height of from ten to fifteen feet, is planted in the shades of
higher trees. A white blossom appears as early, as March, and after the

FIG, 207.
A field of maguey plants (century plants).

MEXICO 237

flower falls off the coffee berry begins to grow. It resembles a dark red
cranberry. On the outside is a husk enclosing two kernels that fit with the
flat sides together ; and in order to prepare the coffee for the market the
outside husk must first be removed. On the larger plantations, machinery
for this purpose is employed.

Southern Mexico. In southern Mexico, near Central America, there
are dense tropical forests from which are obtained many valuable woods,
such as mahogany, rosewood, and logwood. Elsewhere in that country
forests are rare, except upon the higher mountains. In fact, there is so
little forest land that the Mexicans living on the arid plateau find diffi-
culty in obtaining wood for fuel. Much of this is dug from the ground;
for some of the arid-land bushes, notably the mesquite, have long, thick
roots which make excellent firewood.

Besides the valuable woods of the tropical forests, southern Mexico
produces the vanilla bean, which grows upon a climbing plant. In the
seed-pod are nestled the very fragrant beans which are used for flavoring
extracts, for perfumeries, and for medicine. Pepper, made from the dried
berry of a tropical plant, is also obtained in Mexico. Indigo, useful as a
dye, is likewise obtained from a berry in this region, and sarsaparilla
roots from the roots of a tropical plant.

The Mines. One of the principal objects that the Spaniards had
in exploring the New World was to obtain the precious metals, gold
and silver ; and both in Mexico and South America they were
rewarded in their search by the discovery of very rich mines, some
of which had previously been worked by the Indians. Mexico
is still a great mining country, being the second silver-producing
nation in the world. There are also some mines of copper and lead.

Many of the mines are now operated by Europeans, Americans, and
Canadians, so that modern methods have been introduced ; but in some of
those managed by Mexicans, primitive methods, similar to those used by
the Indians, are still employed. Large areas have never been carefully
examined for ore. In fact, some parts of the country are still occupied by
Indian tribes, who not only prevent miners from coming in, but even defy
the government.

The Cities. Wliile great numbers of Mexicans are engaged in
farming and ranching, and are therefore scattered over the country,
they have, wherever possible, gathered together in villages and small
towns. These communities are often necessary in order to obtain
the water supply needed for irrigation. It is usually too great a
task for a single farmer to build a ditch ; and therefore a number
combine and thus live close together.

In a few places, too, there are large cities, the greatest being

238 NORTH AMERICA

MEXICO CITY, with a population of about 350,000. In this city,
as in numerous other places in Mexico, there are many fine buildings,
especially cathedrals. Another city in the interior is PUEBLA, founded
in 1531. It is situated near one of the ancient cities, or pueblos, of
the Aztecs. SAN Luis POTOSI is quite a large city, and there are
a number of other cities with a population of 50,000 and over. Since
the eastern coast is low and sandy, it has no good harbors, the two
largest cities on the sea-coast being TAMPICO and VERA CRUZ, whose
harbors are protected by breakwaters. There are good harbors on
the western coast, as that at ACAPULCO ; but since it is backed by
high mountains and a worthless country, that port has never become
important.

Because of the ignorance of the working class, and the absence of
water-power and coal, there is very little manufacturing in Mexico ; and
that which is done is largely carried on by hand. However, even the
uneducated Mexicans are artistic and do some beautiful kinds of hand-
work. There are large tobacco factories in the tobacco district. Some
earthenware is also manufactured, and some cotton cloth. But Mexico is
now making rapid progress.

CENTRAL AMERICA

The Republics. South of Mexico are six small nations, known
as the Republics of Central America. These six countries are in a
perpetual state of unrest. An ambitious general, obtaining a few
followers, is likely at any time to start a revolution and overturn the
existing government. There is an almost constant state of turmoil
in these nations ; war after war has occurred ; presidents have been
deposed or murdered ; and such a state of unrest has existed that
there has been little chance for development. Their political con-
dition resembles that of the country in which they live, which is sub-
ject to disastrous eruptions of volcanoes, and to earthquakes of great
destructiveness.

The earthquake shocks have levelled towns and killed thousands of
people. For instance, SAN SALVADOR, the eapital of the country by that
name, was so frequently destroyed by earthquakes that the inhabitants
decided to choose a new location for their city ; but the one they selected
is hardly better than the one they abandoned.

Most of Central America is mountainous ; and, being in the
tropical zone, the climate is hot. The rainfall is heavy, especially

MEXICO

239

FIG. 208.
Loading a train with bananas in Costa Rica.

on the eastern coast, where it is so rainy that there are dense jungles
along the shores of the Caribbean Sea.

Of the six countries forming the Central American group, Nica-
ragua, Honduras, and Guatemala are about equal in size, while San
Salvador, Costa Rica, and Pan-
ama are smaller. In addition
to these, just south of Yucatan,
is British Honduras (Belize), a
crown colony of Great Britain.
The largest city in the group is
NEW GUATEMALA, the capital
of Guatemala, which has a pop-
ulation of over 70,000. Like
San Salvador, the inhabitants
have been forced to change its
location, which was formerly at
the base of two very active vol-
canoes; hence the name New
Guatemala.

A large portion of these
countries is occupied by dense tropical forests, from which are ob-
tained mahogany, rosewood, logwood, fustic, and other valuable

cabinet and dye
woods. The rubber
tree also grows there,
and the production of
rubber is one of the
industries of the
region.

As in Mexico, cof-
fee is raised on the hill
slopes in the shade of
the forest trees. One
of the most important
districts for this industry is Costa Rica. Bananas (Fig. 208), sugar,
tobacco, indigo, and cocoa are other products of Central America.

Some gold and silver are obtained, the former near BLUEFIELDS,
the latter in Honduras.

The inhabitants are mainly Indians, Spaniards, or half-breeds;
and owing to the uneducated condition of the great majority, and

FIG. 209.
Natives sorting coffee in Costa Rica.

240 WORTH AMERICA

even the uncivilized condition of many, there is practically no manu-
facturing carried on in these countries.

The United States has recently determined to build a canal across
the Isthmus of Panama, and has acquired the land necessary for that
purpose from the newly formed republic of Panama. The work is
being proceeded with as rapidly as conditions will allow. What effect
will the opening of this canal have on the seaports of the Atlantic
coast? What distance will be saved between Montreal and Van-
couver? New York and San Francisco? London and Yokohama?

THE WEST INDIES

From the Yucatan and Florida peninsulas a chain of islands
reaches to the mouth of the Orinoco on the South American coast.
These islands enclose the Caribbean Sea ; and, with the aid of the
peninsulas of Florida and Yucatan, the Gulf of Mexico also. With
the exception of the northern portion of the Bahamas, the entire archi-
pelago lies within the tropics, and therefore has a warm climate ; and
all have a damp climate. There are many scores of islands in the
group, only a few of which are large.

Cuba and Porto Rico. Cuba is the largest of the West Indies,
while Porto Rico ranges fourth in size, being exceeded by Haiti and
Jamaica. Cuba, Haiti, and Porto Rico form a portion of a single
mountain chain, highest in Haiti, though reaching an elevation of
8600 feet in Cuba.

While there are tree-covered mountain ranges in each of the
islands, a large portion of Cuba and Porto Rico has been cleared and
cultivated. This is especially true of Porto Rico, which is really an
island of farms. Crops grow luxuriantly, partly because of the
excellent soil, formed by the decay of the rocks, and partly because
of the favorable climate.

The islands are entirely within the tropical zone, so that their
temperature throughout the year is high ; and on the lowlands
neither snow nor frost are known. They receive an abundance of
rain, especially upon the northeastern or windward slopes, where
the damp winds which blow from the northeast first reach the land.
The summer is the rainiest season, for then these winds blow with
greater strength and steadiness.

Agriculture forms the chief industry of the Cubans and Porto
Ricans. The principal crop is sugar-cane, which grows well in the

TUE WEST INDIES

FIG. 210.
A Cuban ox team.

rich soil and the warm, rainy climate. Although much sugar is
raised, the industry has not as yet proved very profitable because of
the primitive meth-
ods employed and the
absence of a good
market. Two of the
products of the sugar
plantations are mo-
lasses and rum.

A second impor-
tant crop is tobacco,
for which Cuba is es-
pecially noted. There
is one district, on the
western end of the
island, where the rich,
limy soil and the climate are peculiarly suited to the growth of the
best quality of tobacco. At HAVANA and other places it is manu-
factured into cigars, which bring high prices the Havana cigar
being considered the best that is made.

Upon the hill-slopes much coffee is produced, and some tea and cocoa.
Spices, including nutmeg, cinnamon, and ginger, are products of the West
Indies, also pepper, cardamom, vanilla, and pimento or allspice. Such
fruits as bananas, oranges, limes, pineapples, and cocoanuts are also pro-
duced ; but, because of the poor market, in small quantities. Cuba has
also some valuable woods, such as mahogany, ebony, and fustic, the latter
of which produces a valuable yellow dye.

The conditions in Porto Rico are nearly the same as in Cuba,
though it is less wooded than Cuba and more completely cultivated.
Along the lower sections, near the coast, sugar and tobacco are raised ;
the low mountains produce excellent coffee, one of the most impor-
tant products of the island ; and the slopes between these two sec-
tions are largely occupied by herds of cattle.

Its principal cities are HAVANA, in Cuba, a city about the same
size as Toronto, and SANTIAGO DE CUBA, which is possessed of an
excellent harbor. MATANZAS is another important city. PONCE
and SAN JUAN are the largest cities in Porto Rico.

Cuba, after the war between Spain and the United States, re-
mained for a time under the government of the latter, but is now
independent. Porto Rico is a dependency of the United States.

242

FIG. 211.
A field of sugar-cane in the West Indies (St. Croix).

Jamaica. South of Cuba lies the Island of Jamaica, the third
in size in the West Indies, and a possession of Great Britain. Its

capital is KINGSTON.
This island is moun-
tainous in the centre,
but has an excellent
soil on the lower
slopes and in the
valleys, and is very
productive. The in-
habitants are mainly
negroes or mulat-
toes, there being
fully forty negroes
to one white person.
The women do out-
door work the same
as the men.

The occupation of the Jamaicans is chiefly agriculture. One of
the main, products is sugar-cane. Early vegetables and fruits, such
as oranges and bananas, are also raised. Jamaica ginger is obtained
from the root of a plant that grows in this island.

Haiti. The first large island discovered by Columbus in 1492
was Haiti, and on it he made settlements and opened mines. The
descendants of the Spanish slaves have now become free, after a very
complex history, and have set up two negro republics, Haiti and
Santo Domingo. The capital of the former is PORT AU PRINCE ;
and of the latter, SANTO DOMINGO. Many of the natives obtain
their living in the most primitive fashion, like the negroes of Africa ;
but others, especially near the sea-coast, are engaged in raising sugar,
tobacco, coffee, and bananas.

Lesser Antilles. Most of the islands among the Lesser Antilles
are possessions of Great Britain, though some belong to other
nations. For instance, Martinique and Guadeloupe belong to
France ; St. Thomas and St. Croix to Denmark ; and others to
Holland. Many of these small islands are volcanic cones, built on
the crest of a mountain ridge which is mainly beneath the sea.
Most of the volcanoes now appear extinct, but occasionally one or
other of them bursts forth with terrific results. In 1902 Mount
Pelee on the island of Martinique exploded, completely blotting out

THE WEST INDIES

243

the city of ST. PIERRE, and in one horrible blast of red-hot sulphur-
ous ashes and lava destroyed 30,000 people. A similar outbreak
took place at almost the same time in the adjoining island of St.
Vincent, from the volcano La Soufriere, causing the death of nearly
2000 people. Hot
water and steam still
rise from the craters
in other islands,
showing that the
volcanic fires have
not altogether died
out.

The products of
these islands are sim-
ilar to those of the
other West Indies,
the most important
of all being sugar-
cane.

The Bahamas.
North of Haiti and
Cuba are several
hundred small is-
lands belonging to Great Britain, called the Bahamas. A num-
ber of these are inhabited, and on one is situated the city of
NASSAU. These islands have been built by coral polyps. In the
warm waters of the Gulf Stream, which sweeps over the shallow
bank on which the islands lie, these minute sea animals have built
reefs. Waves have washed the dead coral fragments together, form-
ing bars and beaches, and the wind has blown the coral sand into
low sand-dune hills. In this way the islands have been made.

Sponges are obtained from the clear, warm waters of the Bahama
banks. To obtain them, the natives either cruise about in boats,
dragging the bottom, or they strip off their clothes and dive into
the clear water, tearing the sponge from the bottom to which it is
clinging.

From the land, early vegetables, pineapples, oranges, and cocoa-
nuts are raised by the inhabitants, who are chiefly negroes. One of
the industries on these islands is caring for winter visitors. Why
should people wish to go there ?

FIG. 212.
A tropical scene in the West Indies (St. Croix).

244

THE BERMUDAS

Far out in the Atlantic, alone in mid-ocean, and 600 miles east of
Cape Hatteras, is a cluster of small islands, known as the Bermudas,
the largest being only fifteen :niles long by one or two miles in width.

Being in the open ocean, and sur-
rounded by warm currents, the
Bermudas have a delightful and
equable climate.

This group of islands, which
belongs to Great Britain, is inhab-
ited mainly by negroes and mulat-
toes, who are engaged in raising
early vegetables, especially potatoes
and onions, for export. Another
important product is the Easter
lily (Fig. 213), great fields of
which are raised for the Easter
season. It is natural that many persons from colder climates should
be attracted to such a climate every winter. The majority of these
visitors stay in the largest city, HAMILTON. There is a British
naval station, with a very large floating dry-dock, on one of the
islands.

A field of Easter lilies in the Bermuda
Islands.

REVIEW QUESTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

Mexico. QUESTIONS. (1) Describe the surface of Mexico. (2) Why are
there few good harbors ? (3) Tell about the temperature and rainfall in the dif-
ferent parts. (4) Give the history of Mexico : the early settlement ; the in-
dustries developed ; the present government. (5) Mention the leading products
from the irrigated farms. (0) Tell about the methods of farming. (7) About
the home life. (8) Name some of the plants on the arid plateaus ; what prod-
ucts are obtained from the maguey? (9) What are the chief products on the
damp lowlands? (10) On the slopes farther inland? (11) Tell about coffee
raising. (12) In what part of the country are the forests? (13) Name the
valuable woods. (14) Name the products of southern Mexico. (15) Tell about
the mining of precious metals. (10) Locate the principal cities in the interior;
on the coast. (17) Why is there little manufacturing? (18) What kinds are
there?

SUGGESTIONS. (19) Find out why coffee raising requires special care.
(20) Find an article of furniture made of mahogany. (21) Walk toward Mexico
City. (22) What reason can you give for its location ? (23) Collect pictures of
Mexican scenes. (24) Find some one who has been in Mexico, and have him tell

THE WEST INDIES 245

you about it. (25) Who is the President of Mexico ? (26) Make a sketch map
of Mexico.

Central