THE LIBRARY
THE FIELD ARTILLERY SCHOOL
FORT SILL, OKLAHOJ
ACCESSION NUMBER
PROPERTY OF U. S.
-PROPERTY OF U. S. ARMY"
FAS, Fort Sill, Okla., (5-15-44 5,000) 29343 9a
A LESSON IN LANGUAGE BY THE NEW TEACHER
FRONTISPIECE (Photography Applied to Advertising)
Complete ^elf<3ngtnictins ILflbrar?
of practical
VOLUME IX
Commercial, Press,
Scientific Photography
J. B. SCHRIEVER
Editor-in- Chief
popular edition
PUBLISHED BY
American Jbdjool of xlrt anfc
SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A
1909
COPYRIGHT, 1908, 1909, BT
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF ART AND PHOTOGRAPHY,
SCRANTON, PA., U. S. A.
ENTBRED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND.
All rights and translations reserved.
SRLB
URL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME IX
PAGE
CHAPTER I
COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION 17
CHAPTER II
COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY APPARATUS AND MATERIALS 23
CHAPTER III
THE REASON FOR ORTHOCHROMATISM 33
CHAPTER IV
COMMERCIAL EXTERIOR ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY . . 39
CHAPTER V
EXTREME WIDE ANGLE PHOTOGRAPHY GOERZ HYPER-
GON LENS PART 1 63
PART II DIFFICULTIES 72
CHAPTER VI
COMMERCIAL INTERIORS 73
CHAPTER VII
ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL 119
CHAPTER VIII
PHOTOGRAPHING CASTINGS AND MACHINERY 131
CHAPTER IX
BLOCKING NEGATIVES 151
CHAPTER X
PHOTOGRAPHING OBJECTS REQUIRING LONG-FOCUS LENSES 157
vi CONTENTS
PACK
CHAPTER XI
PHOTOGRAPHING PIANOS FOR CATALOGS, ETC 161
CHAPTER XII
PHOTOGRAPHING FURNITURE 167
CHAPTER XIII
PHOTOGRAPHING LACES, CUT-GLASS, SILVER TROPHIES,
BRIC-A-BRAC, ETC 1 73
CHAPTER XIV
CATALOG ILLUSTRATING 181
CHAPTER XV
SYSTEM FOR HANDLING CONSTUCTION WORK PART I. . 197
CHAPTER XVI
CONSTRUCTION WORK PART II PRACTICAL APPLI-
CATION 207
CHAPTER XVII
CONSTRUCTION WORK PART III DETAIL WORKING
CONDITIONS 215
CHAPTER XVIII
COMMERCIAL GROUPS 219
CHAPTER XIX
USE OF SMOKELESS DEVICES IN FLASHLIGHT WORK 229
CHAPTER XX
PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY PART I NEWSPAPER PHOTOG-
RAPHY 241
CHAPTER XXI
PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY PART II THE LOCAL PRESS
PHOTOGRAPHER 247
CHAPTER XXII
PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY PART III ATHLETIC SPORTS.. 251
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXIII
PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY PART IV EXCURSIONS, CON-
VENTIONS AND PROMINENT INDIVIDUALS 257
CHAPTER XXIV
PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY PART V ENGINEERING CON-
STRUCTION 267
CHAPTER XXV
STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY INTRODUCTION 279
CHAPTER XXVI
STEREOSCOPIC PHOTOGRAPHY DETAILED INSTRUCTION. 289
CHAPTER XXVII
PHOTOGRAPHING LEGAL DOCUMENTS, INSURANCE APPLI-
CATIONS, ETC., BY MEANS OF THE RECORD OUTFIT. . . 301
CHAPTER XXVIII
PHOTOGRAPHY FOR THE COURTS 311
CHAPTER XXIX
PHOTOGRAPHING HANDWRITING 319
CHAPTER XXX
PHOTOGRAPHS AS EVIDENCE 323
CHAPTER XXXI
USE OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN SCHOOLS 327
CHAPTER XXXII
PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY 341
CHAPTER XXXIII
APPARATUS FOR PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY 355
CHAPTER XXXIV
PHOTO-MICROGRAPHY PRACTICAL MANIPULATIONS FOR
THE BEGINNER 367
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER XXXV
PHOTOGRAPHING MICROSCOPIC SLIDES FOR LANTERN-
SLIDE WORK 383
CHAPTER XXXVI
MAKING POST-CARDS FOR QUICK DELIVERY 387
CHAPTER XXXVII
PING PONG AND PENNY PICTURES 397
CHAPTER XXXVIII
How THE STUDIES ILLUSTRATING THIS VOLUME WERE
MADE 407
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
VOLUME IX
1LLUS. , AR .
NUMBER TITLE PAGE REF.
1 ADJUSTABLE TRIPOD HEAD 27 32
2 RESIDENCE 4I 6 9
3 RESIDENCE 42 75
4 RESIDENCE 45 75
5 RESIDENCE 46 80
6 RESIDENCE ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE 47 82
7 COUNTRY RESIDENCE 48 84
8 SCHOOL HOUSE 51 88
9 COURT HOUSE 52 90
10 BANK 55 92
11 ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL 56 94
12 GOERZ HYPERGON LENS DEMONSTRATION. ... 65 117
13 GOERZ HYPERGON LENS 66 112
14 PARK Row BUILDING, NEW YORK 69 119
15 BUILDING ON BROADWAY, NEW YORK 70 119
16 INTERIOR LIBRARY 75 136
17 INTERIOR LIBRARY 76 140
18 INTERIOR LIBRARY 77 140
19 INTERIOR BED-ROOM 78 141
20 INTERIOR BED-ROOM 79 141
21 INTERIOR LIBRARY 80 142
22 INTERIOR RECEPTION HALL 83 143
23 INTERIOR RECEPTION HALL 84 144
24 INTERIOR LIBRARY 85 145
35 INTERIOR LIVING-ROOM 86 146
xii ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUS. PAR.
NUMBER TITLB PACK REF.
26 INTERIOR DEN 87 147
27 INTERIOR STAIRWAY 88 148
28 VERANDA 91 150
29 INTERIOR CHURCH 92 154
30 INTERIOR CHURCH 93 155
31 INTERIOR CHURCH 94 155
32 INTERIOR HARDWARE STORE 97 164
33 INTERIOR CAFE 98 167
34 DISPLAY RUGS 101 168
35 DISPLAY LEATHER GOODS : .... 102 168
DISPLAY OF ENGINE MODELS 103 168
WINDOW DISPLAY DAYLIGHT ILLUMINATION 104 169
35*: WINDOW DISPLAY ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINA-
TION 107 169
36 INTERIOR BANK 108 170
37 INTERIOR BANK 109 170
38 VAULT DOOR CLOSED no 171
39 VAULT DOOR OPEN in 171
40 INTERIOR COMPOSING ROOM 112 173
41 INTERIOR PRESSROOM 113 174
42 INTERIOR FILING DEPARTMENT 114 175
43 PORTRAIT IN PRIVATE OFFICE 117 176
44 ARCHITECTURAL DETAIL 118 179
45 BED BRACE FOR CAMERA 154 180
46 INTERIOR CEILING DETAIL 121 186
47 INTERIOR CEILING DETAIL 122 186
48 STAINED GLASS WINDOW 125 190
49 STATUARY 126 192
50 STATUARY 129 192
51 DISTORTION OF WIDE-ANGLE LENS
FIG. A, USE OF NORMAL ANGLE LENS,
FIG. B, USE OF WIDE-ANGLE LENS. ... 130 206
52 MACHINERY CASTINGS OF UPRIGHT EN-
GINES 141 234
520 AVOIDING HALATION SEVERE TEST FOR
SPECIAL EXPOSURE AND DEVELOPMENT.. 142 241
ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
ILLUS. PAR.
NUMBER TITLK PAGE REF.
53 SERIES OF DYNAMOS 145 241
53 INTERIORS MACHINERY SPECIAL DEVEL-
OPMENT 146 242
54 INTERIOR COTTON MACHINE IN OPERATION 149 243
55 MACHINERY BLOCKING NEGATIVES
FIG. A, PLAIN PHOTOGRAPH,
FIG. B, NEGATIVE BLOCKED DETAIL
WORKED IN 150 248
56 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHIC SUBJECTS 153 253
57 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPH STOVE 154 258
58 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPH PIANO 165 269
59 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPH BED 165 280
590 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPH SETTEE 166 280
60 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPH TABLE 166 281
6oa EXAMPLE OF LACE PHOTOGRAPHY 179 .298
6 1 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION CONTINUOUS BACK-
GROUND (VIGNETTED) 180 316
62 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION CONTINUOUS BACK-
GROUND (PLAIN) 180 316
63 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(VIGNETTED) 185 318
64 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(PLAIN) 185 318
65 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(VIGNETTED) 186 327
66 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(PLAIN) 186 327
67 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(VIGNETTED) 187 327
68 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(PLAIN) 187 327
69 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(VIGNETTED) 188 327
70 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION MULTIGRAPH
(PLAIN) 188 327
71 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION TRAVELING OUT-
FIT (WASH DRAWING) 191 330
xiv ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUS. PAR.
NUMBER TITLE PAGE REF.
72 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION TRAVELING OUT-
FIT (PLAIN) 191 330
73 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION FASHION PLATE
(PLAIN) 192 332
74 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION FASHION PLATE
(WASH DRAWING) 192 332
75 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION BANK BUILDING
(PLAIN) 195 334
76 CATALOG ILLUSTRATION BANK BUILDING
(WORKED-UP-PRINT) 195 334
77 CONSTRUCTION WORK LOCATION OF TOW-
ERS GROUND PLAN 199 341
78 CONSTRUCTION WORK PHOTOGRAPHIC FILE
CARD 196 365
79 CONSTRUCTION PHOTOGRAPHS A SERIES FOR
RECORD WORK 209 371
80 CONSTRUCTION PHOTOGRAPHS SERIES FOR
RECORD WORK 210 371
81 CONSTRUCTION PHOTOGRAPHS SERIES FOR
RECORD WORK 211 372
82 CONSTRUCTION PHOTOGRAPHS SERIES FOR
RECORD WORK 212 372
83 CONSTRUCTION BLUE PRINT 213 380
84 COMMERCIAL GROUP 221 406
85 COMPANY DRILL 222 406
86 PANORAMIC GROUPS 227 411
87 PROSCH FLASHBAGS 228 420
88 PROSCH FLASHBAGS 231 420
89 PROSCH FLASH LAMPS 231
90 PROSCH FLASH LAMPS 231
91 BANQUET ILLUMINATED BY FLASHBAGS.... 232 432
gia BANQUET ILLUMINATED BY FLASHBAGS
FLOOR PLAN 236 434
92 "PUTTING ON THE DEGREE" (FLASHLIGHT) 237 436
920. "SWIMMING POOL" (FLASHLIGHT) 238 436
93 ATHLETIC SPORTS REFLEX CAMERA WORK 253 473
94 PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY REFLEX CAMERA
WORK 254 484
ILLUSTRATIONS xv
ILLUS. PAR.
NUMBER TITLE PAGE REF.
95 PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY "STRIKE CONFER-
ENCE " 261 494
96 CALIFORNIA EARTHQUAKE REFLEX CAMERA
WORK 262 500
97 CONFLAGRATIONS 265 502
98 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION COLUMBIA
RIVER CANAL 266 504
99 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION STRUCTURAL
IRON WORK 269 508
100 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION RESERVOIR.. 270 509
101 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION PANAMA CA-
NAL 273 513
102 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION PANAMA CITY 274 515
103 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION PANAMA 275 516
104 ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION PANAMA 276 517
105 STEREOSCOPIC REFLEX CAMERA 283 529
106 STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS 284 535
107 STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS 285 535
108 STEREOSCOPIC CAMERA SIMPLE FORM 283 538
109 STEREOSCOPIC CAMERA GOERZ ANSCHUTZ
FOLDING 283 539
1090 STEREOSCOPIC CAMERA KODAK 286 539
no STEREOSCOPIC TRIPOD HEAD SIMPLE FORM 292 548
in STEREOSCOPIC TRIPOD HEAD ADJUSTABLE. 292 549
112 SELF-TRANSPOSING PRINTING FRAME 286 556
113 RECORD OUTFIT 300 578
114 RECORD OUTFIT FLOOR PLAN OF ROOM.. 305 584
115 BOTANICAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT OF SEED
GERM 329 642
116 BOTANICAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT OF SEED
GERM 330 648
117 BOTANICAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT OF SEED
GERM 331 648
118 BOTANICAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT OF TWIG 332 650
119 BOTANICAL STUDIES DEVELOPMENT OF TWIG 333 650
*2o PRACTICAL OUTFIT FOR PHYSICIAN OR NAT-
URALIST 343 669
xvi ILLUSTRATIONS
ILLUS. PAR.
NUMBER TITLE PAGE REF.
121 A SIMPLE FORM OF MICROSCOPE 344 672
122 FIG. i, DAYLIGHT ILLUMINATION,
FIG. 2, ENLARGING MICROSCOPIC SLIDES 349 681
123 ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION 350 682
124 PHYSICIAN'S AND NATURALIST'S OUTFIT... 351 684
125 WELSBACH GAS LAMP 344 686
126 FOCUSING AND ADJUSTING OBJECT FOR MI-
CROSCOPIC REPRODUCTION 352 687
127 BAUSCH & LOME PHOTO-MICROGRAPHIC
CAMERA FOR LABORATORY USE 365 711
128 INTERCHANGEABLE DIAPHRAGMS FOR MICRO-
SCOPE 362 715
129 REPRODUCTIONS FROM MICROSCOPIC SLIDES. 379 754
130 REPRODUCTIONS FROM MICROSCOPIC SLIDES. 380 760
131 REPRODUCTIONS FROM MICROSCOPIC SLIDES, 380 764
132 SENECA PENNY PICTURE OUTFIT 399
133 SENECA MULTIPLYING ATTACHMENT 399
134 B. & J. MULTIPLYING ATTACHMENT 399
135 PRACTICAL SUBURBAN STUDIO 400
136 A PRACTICAL SUBURBAN STUDIO FLOOR
PLAN 405
CHAPTER I.
Commercial Photography.
Introduction.
1. During the earlier years of photography while it
was, as we might say, in its experimental stages portrai-
ture and landscape, with occasional flights into scientific
fields, were the beginning and end of the photographer's
endeavors.
2. In those days, the publisher, the advertiser and the
manufacturer were dependent on the black and white artist
for their illustrations ; the newspapers had not yet educated
the public to news-pictures taken but an hour or two, or
at least, a few hours, before; the travelling salesman was
yet hampering his movements from city to city with huge
cases of samples, instead of carrying in his grip a few port-
folios of photographs of his goods ; the daily growth of a
monster building or a railroad could be shown only by the
written reports of the engineer in charge; damage cases in
court, trials for forgery or murder were all dependent on
verbal evidence ; the art auctioneer could only offer the more
expensive but generally less reliable wood-cut in his cata-
logue-de-luxe, and so on throughout the realms of art and
business.
3. Today, this is all changed. Without the camera,
the lens, and the sensitized plate and paper, the business
of the world, the amusements of a large part of the popu-
lation, the instruction of the school children, the expeditious
selling of material and the spreading of news, would be
vastly hindered, if not at a standstill.
4. The constant improvement in photographic appara-
tus, lenses and material has made photography of use, and
17
18 Library of Practical Photography.
in most cases a necessity, in every branch of human en-
deavor scientific, commercial and artistic.
5. While photography, in its earlier years, was classed
amongst the luxuries, today not even the strictly portrait
photographer will admit that he caters to a fad, while the
so-called commercial photographer, the man who specializes
in everything but portraiture, from the photographing of
a tombstone to the flashlighting of a princely banquet,
is a necessity and is to be found in every hamlet. His
activities extend to anything and everything that has to be
put in permanent, preservable shape, or quickly converted
into pictorial form for public use. And it is a field, too,
which will never become exhausted, but, on the contrary,
grows daily in its variety and needs.
6. Commercial photography comprises all those mani-
fold phases of picture-making which fall outside the domain
of the portrait or landscape photographer. News-pictures;
photographs of buildings, machinery, manufactures of every
nature, from delicate laces to elaborate curtains and rugs,
from fancy bric-a-brac to the product of the piano-maker;
pretty posings for advertisers ; interiors of work-shops or
palaces; instantaneous views of speedy trotters or prize
cattle anything not strictly portraiture is the commercial
man's share.
7. A volume could be filled in merely enumerating the
various subjects, but a general summary of the work and
the different demands made on the photographer's skill
is all that is necessary here. The knowledge gained from
the instruction given in the following pages will enable
the student to undertake any other class of work not spe-
cially mentioned herein.
8. Commercial photography deals more particularly
with the technical side rather than the artistic, but the les-
sons already learned in handling apparatus and lenses, in
obtaining lightings, in retouching, printing and finishing,
all apply equally to portrait or commercial work. The
methods are the same, but the technique and the conditions
are slightly different.
Commercial Photography. 19
9. It is absolutely necessary in commercial photog-
raphy to secure a perfectly accurate reproduction of the
original, and in doing this, detail must exist in all portions
of the picture, and the perspective should be perfectly true
and accurate. In other words, sufficient illumination must
be had and the proper amount of exposure given, to produce
good, clear detail. To avoid distorted perspectives a lens
of long focus, or one which will give a narrow-angle view,
should always be used.
10. The portrait photographer has but few principles
to learn and apply, as compared with the commercial
worker, for the latter has to deal with all kinds and classes
of subjects, situated practically under any form of light,
and this adds difficulties with which the portrait photog-
rapher does not have to contend. In both cases, however,
the field is unlimited in its scope, and to this same extent
is the amount of practical training necessary to make one
thoroughly proficient. The individual ideas of the photog-
rapher, as well as his own ingenuity, both in portraiture
and in the commercial field, go far toward making him a
master of his work, and, therefore, a success.
11. In almost all of the different branches of com-
mercial photography the greatest accuracy is essential.
This is especially important where the object being photo-
graphed contains lines, such as interiors, furniture, ma-
chinery, exteriors of buildings, etc.
12. Depth of focus and the securing of a clear, per-
fectly sharp image must not be sacrificed for exposure.
Without giving any consideration to the increase of ex-
posure, the lens should be stopped down far enough to
secure the required depth of focus and sharpness of image.
13. Detail is another feature which must not be
slighted. The lighting should be such as to illuminate the
subject to the best advantage, and the exposure sufficient to
give detail in the most dense shadows. As the majority
of objects to be photographed are stationary, there is no
excuse for under-exposure. On the other hand, extreme
over-exposure should be avoided, as the negative must not
20 Library of Practical Photography.
be fogged, which would be the case if exposure were car-
ried to the extreme. What is required is a negative full
of detail, snap and brilliancy, and one which will give a
good strong print with detail in the high-lights, detail in the
shadows, and an excellent range of gradation between these
two extremes. The shadows must not be lifeless and lack-
ing in detail, nor should the high-lights be hard and chalky.
14. It is necessary to reproduce exactly what is seen
in the original and give the observer an absolutely accurate
idea of the subject. Further than this, for objects out-of-
doors, whose high-lights and shadows are important and
necessary for the success of the picture, the time of
day and the weather conditions should be taken into ac-
count, and such lighting effect secured as to show the build-
ing, or photographed object, to its best advantage. To
such a perfect degree must the technical side of photography
be understood, that the object will be reproduced exactly
as it exists, and yet give a pleasing and effective result.
15. For advertising purposes, in particular, detail and
accuracy in a photograph from the original object are of
paramount importance. The dealer or manufacturer cannot,
in all instances, show his customers the actual goods he has
for sale and must resort to the photograph to represent
them truthfully and appealingly, and the degree of perfec-
tion in the re-presentment attained will be responsible, to
a great extent, for the success or failure to effect a sale of
the particular article, all of which goes to prove that the
commercial photographer cannot be too careful with his
work, nor too well informed regarding the particular sub-
ject he has to reproduce. The best results are only attained
by experience and continued practice. It will be our aim
in the present volume to so cover the general principles
of commercial photography, that anyone who follows the
instruction with diligence will be enabled to apply these
principles to any branch of commercial work that may arise,
and successfully accomplish the desired results. We can
supply the necessary foundation of knowledge, but the
practice and the gaining of experience lie with the student.
Commercial Photography. 21
16. Subject Material. Aside from the photographing
of individual subjects, such as a store window, a residence,
a particular piece of furniture, etc., there are far wider
fields of operation, which are very remunerative, besides
being extremely interesting and fascinating. What could
be more enjoyable than to make a series of photographs
of vegetables and flowers for a seed catalog; a series of
pictures of a particular type of residence for the architect;
a series of photographs of residences for a real-estate dealer;
a collection of photographs of stained-glass windows for
the manufacturer of them ; a series of photographs of
fowls for the catalog of a bird fancier; the exterior view,
as well as a large number of interiors of a factory, to illus-
trate its working equipment, and, incidentally, to be used in
a catalog; a series of photographs of various styles of
trunks, valises, etc., for the manufacturer of leather goods,
to illustrate a catalog; a series of photographs of glass-
ware, furniture, etc.? There is an endless number of sub-
jects which may be classified, all requiring the services of
the photographer in order to reproduce the articles most
truthfully and show to the purchaser the actual appearance
of the various articles for sale.
17. With the advent of the mail-order business, in
which practically everything depends upon the catalog to
effect the sale, the demands upon commercial photography
have increased with great rapidity, until today there is
not a branch of commercial life that does not, in some way
or another, depend upon the photographer and his camera.
18. But, commercial photography goes still farther
than this. It includes the making of post-cards, the opera-
ting of studios at summer resorts, the making of tin-types,
the procuring of stereoscopic views, photographing of
groups in factories and stores, securing special illustrations
for catalogs, book cover illustrations, making of photo-
graphs to illustrate songs, illustrating novels, stories, etc.
In fact, there is an endless field for the photographer who
actually means business and wishes to make the most of his
opportunity.
CHAPTER II.
Commercial Photography.
Apparatus and Materials.
19. Cameras. The proper equipment for commercial
work depends, to a great extent, upon the class and kind
of work required. Different localities require different
sized prints, and an instrument large enough to meet these
requirements should be procured. For general view work
an 8 x 10 camera usually answers every purpose. For
general professional commercial work, however, one should
be equipped with a camera capable of making pictures at
least 11 x 14 inches in size. The camera should be fitted
with a long bellows and have full range of movement.
20. In addition to the large camera, one should pos-
sess at least one smaller instrument, say a 5 x 7. This
camera will be found very useful for small work, and con-
venient in many instances where a larger camera could
not be used at all. An 8 x 10 instrument will often be
useful, yet where the expense of instruments is considered
an obstacle, the 5x7 and 11 x 14 will be found the most
serviceable for all around work. The 11 x 14 camera may
be used for 8 x 10 pictures, as well as for large work.
21. For speed photography the reflecting type of
camera is to be preferred, although if one has but little of
this work to do the regular view camera may be fitted with
a focal plane shutter and very successful results obtained
of rapidly moving objects. All cameras should have a full
range of movement and be fitted with long bellows, which
latter should have rings attached to different sections, to
enable one to gather the bellows forward and attach to the
front of the camera when normal and wide-angle lenses are
as
24 Library of Practical Photography.
used. This will prevent the cutting off of the picture by
the folds of the bellows. Some view cameras are supplied
in regular equipment, with patent bellows support attached
to each side of the wooden frame of the camera and to
the bellows. When the bellows is drawn out, the arms
of the support are pressed down, holding the bellows nearest
the plate in a rigid position and preventing sag, thus avoid-
ing cutting off of the picture. It is important to have a
generous amount of rising and falling front, also a double
swing-back, with a reversible ground-glass frame for both
horizontal and vertical pictures.
22. For practice work a 4 x 5 camera may be employed,
yet a 5 x 7 instrument is to be preferred. The initial outlay
necessary for the outfit and materials, which more than
proportionately increases with the size, is an item worthy
of some thought. Considering the lens alone, a couple of
lenses may be purchased for a 5 x 7 instrument at about the
cost of one for an 8 x 10 camera. In addition to this, it is
well to bear in mind that lenses of short focal length do
not require the same extent of stopping down to obtain
depth of focus. This allows of larger apertures being used,
calling for shorter exposures, which is of considerable
advantage when working in dark interiors. From 5x7
negatives of good quality, 14 x 17, or larger, enlargements
can be made without much loss of definition. In fact, these
enlargements are often difficult to distinguish from direct
work.
23. Advantage of Large Cameras. Larger cameras,
however, have their advantages, the first of which is the
greater facility offered for composing the picture on a large-
size ground-glass; and second, when a lens of great focal
length is used, it is easier to emphasize the sharpness of the
different details of the image, if necessary to do so.
24. Advantage of Small Cameras. One great advan-
tage in using the smaller plates for practice work is, that
one can make a great many more exposures, at less cost,
than with the larger plates, and when a good small negative
is secured it can be enlarged to any size desired. When the
Commercial Photography. 25
serious side of commercial work is considered, however, the
use of large plates will be found a decided advantage in prac-
tically every respect, and no outfit would be complete with-
out large and small cameras.
25. Lenses. That the lens be of good quality is
even more important than that the camera should be a high-
grade one. Owing to its depth of focus the ordinary rapid
rectilinear lens is, perhaps, fully as desirable for all around
commercial work as any of the more expensive types.
This lens must, however, cover the plate sharply to the
edges and give good definition in all parts of the subject.
The anastigmat lens has its advantages when shortness
of exposure and the most minute definition are essential
features. Rectilinear lenses are far cheaper than anastig-
mat, and unless thoroughly familiar with the latter instru-
ments and capable of handling them, it is much better to
hold to the rectilinear lens. For certain classes of work,
and especially for copying, the anastigmat lens, with its
great covering power and flatness of field at large apertures,
is superior to the rectilinear lens, but the one point against
it, however, is its lack of depth of focus when used at full
aperture.
26. Doublet Lenses are divided into two classes or
groups, according to the various focal lengths which may
be secured by using different combinations. Where the
front and back combinations of a doublet lens have the
same focal length when used separately, the lens is termed
a symmetrical one. On the other hand, if the front com-
bination has a different focal length from the rear combina-
tion, it is termed an unsymmetrical or convertible lens. In a
symmetrical kns the focal length of either the front or rear
combination is almost double that of the combined lens.
In the unsymmetrical lens one of the separate combinations
is almost double the focal length of the combination, while
the other cell has a focal length of about one and a half that
of the combination.
27. The majority of hand cameras and view outfits
are fitted with either the one or the other type of lenses,
26 Library of Practical Photography.
the unsymmetrical ones being a trifle more expensive than
the symmetrical. All rectilinear lenses can be used either
as single lenses or in combination, but anastigmat lenses
are not all so constructed that their sections can be used
individually. For complete information regarding lenses
see Volume VI.
28. The most useful all around lens for interior pho-
tography is one of medium focal length, or about equal to
the base of the plate on which it is intended to be used.
For exterior photography and detail work the focal length
of the lens cannot be too long, providing you have room in
which to work. When it is necessary to photograph a
building in a narrow or crowded street, a lens of the wide-
angle type (which is one of short focal length) will be
required in order to secure the subject in the position de-
sired and obtain the effect wanted. A 5 x 7 convertible lens,
having 7%-inch focal length, will be made up of two lenses
having a focal length of about 11% inches and 14 inches,
respectively. A 10-inch lens will be made up of 16^ and
19-inch lenses.
29. It is a good plan to bear in mind that one should
use the longest focus lens that will include the amount
of view required. The judicious use of the convertible
(sometimes called trifocal) lens will assist one very ma-
terially to improve the balance of a picture much more ef-
fectively and easily than by altering the position of the
camera.
30. Although wide-angle lenses are absolutely neces-
sary in many cases, they should not be employed where one
of greater focal length can be used. Although a wide-angle
view is optically correct, it is always visually faulty, and
for this reason a picture does not appear correct that em-
braces a wide angle. On account of the extreme perspective
produced with a wide-angle lens the resulting picture gives
the appearance of great distance or depth, and in this
respect gives untruthful rendering. For instance, the in-
terior of a narrow room, which can only be photographed
with a wide-angle lens, will appear in the photograph to
Commercial Photography.
27
be fully twice as deep as would be the case if it were pos-
sible to make a photograph with a normal-angle lens. It
is often absolutely impossible to employ the normal lens,
Illustration No. I
Adjustable Tripod Head
See Paragraph 32
however, and in order to secure a photograph at all, the
wide-angle type of instrument is used. It is sufficiently
important to warrant the wide-angle lens being included in
the commercial photographer's necessary equipment,
28 Library of Practical Photography.
31. Tripod. The tripod one of the telescopic type,
which permits of the legs being adjusted to any desired
length should be rigid and firm when set up. This will
permit one to work on uneven ground, or to place the
camera at varying heights. When working on marble or
smooth surface floors or pavements, some device should
be employed to avoid the slipping of the tripod legs.
Pieces of cork or small rubber tips placed on each point
will answer the purpose. A very convenient attachment,
and one that will make the tripod absolutely rigid and free
from slipping, is the wire tripod stay. This attachment
is easily adjusted, being clamped to each leg by means of
a thumb-screw.
32. Adjustable Tripod Head. An adjustable tripod
top which permits of the camera being tilted at any angle,
even at right-angles to its normal position, will be a neces-
sity for many classes of work. It will be invaluable when
photographing detail work in interiors, as well as in the
photographing of still life subjects which are to be ar-
ranged on the floor or table, instead of fastened to a copy-
ing-board. (See Illustration No. 1.) We might add that
it is advisable to use the former method whenever possible,
for then unsightly tacks or similar supports are entirely
done away with.
33. Commercial Photographer's Outfit. There are,
practically speaking, two classes of commercial photog-
raphers. We have the commercial man who makes a busi-
ness of making general views, school groups, groups of
workingmen, pictures of public buildings, construction
work, views for post-card reproductions, small flashlight
work, interior photographs, etc. For this class of com-
mercial work, the following outfit will be sufficient:
34. One 8 x 10 long, square bellows view camera, fitted
with a rectilinear or convertible lens and a good shutter,
accompanied by a camera brace for long focus work ; one
additional 8 x 10 wide-angle lens for interior work ; one
good rigid folding tripod, fitted with tripod stay ; one tilting
tripod top; and from eight to twelve double plate-holders.
Commercial Photography. 29
35. In addition to the above camera, you should be
provided with a 5 x 7 hand camera, fitted with rapid lens
and shutter, at least six to eight plate-holders, and one
ordinary flash machine for small flashlight work. If a
5x7 anastigmat lens is used for the hand camera, this same
lens can be made to answer for the wide-angle work with
8 x 10 camera, for by stopping to f. 32 an 8 x 10 plate will
be covered sharply to the edge.
36. Complete Equipment for Advanced Commercial
Work. The photographer who wishes to equip himself
for all classes of commercial work will require the follow-
ing outfit:
37. One 11 x 14 or 16 x 20 view camera, the size de-
pending upon the requirements made upon the photog-
rapher in the particular district in which he is located.
38. The camera should be fitted with a rapid con-
vertible lens and shutter, and at least two double plate-
holders should be included in this outfit. A 6 to 8-foot
heavy tripod will be necessary.
39. The above apparatus is for use on special occa-
sions, and for special work, such as flashlight work for
large banquets, theatrical work, large groups outdoors,
college work, etc., railroad work and large construction
work.
40. In connection with the above, a set of smokeless
flashlight bags (at least six in number) should be provided.
If much work is to be made on 11 x 14 plates, an extra
11 x 14 camera should be added to the outfit.
41. For the moderate size work, one should be pro-
vided with an 8 x 10 long, square bellows view camera,
fitted with a good rapid convertible lens and good shutter,
including a four-times color-screen to fit over the lens ; also
an extra wide-angle lens, 8 x 10, to be used for interior
work, etc., a good rigid tripod, with an extra tilting tripod
top, and a tripod stay for holding the legs of the tripod
from slipping on smooth surfaces ; and at least a dozen
plate-holders should be included. Also, a 5x7 Reflex
camera, to be used for speed work and at-home portraiture.
30 Library of Practical Photography.
This camera should be fitted for use with plate-holders or
roll-holder attachment for films, or in place of the roll-
holder a film pack will be found very convenient.
42. A magnesium blow flash-lamp will be required
for the photographing of castings, machinery and interiors,
and one should also be provided with an ordinary flash-
lamp for flash-powder use.
43. In providing cameras with lenses, where the
anastigmat type of lens is procured, an 11 x 14 anastigmat
lens can be successfully used for 16 x 20 wide-angle work,
by stopping down to f. 22, and an 8 x 10 anastigmat can
be made suitable for work on 11 x 14, by stopping to f. 32,
and a 5 x 7 anastigmat can be used on an 8 x 10 stopped to
f. 32. By selecting this class of lens you have at hand a
wide-angle lens for use on any of your larger cameras.
44. It is advisable to have a four-times color-screen
to fit over any of the lenses, for by means of the screen some
extraordinary improvements can be produced over the use
of the lens alone.
45. Plates. Various speeds and kinds of plates will
be required for various classes of commercial work, but
where an all-around plate is desired, the exact nature of
the lighting, conditions for the subject you are to photo-
graph not being known, the more rapid brands should be
employed, for with them it is possible to obtain a sufficient
amount of exposure, at least, while if a very slow plate
were used it might be difficult or perhaps impossible to
make a negative at all. Where the objects to be photo-
graphed remain stationary, the length of the exposure,
so far as the moving of the object itself is concerned, does
not have to be taken into consideration, and a slow plate
should be used, for with it there is greater latitude and
the results are invariably clearer and contain more con-
trast. If a sufficient amount of exposure be given, and
the subject has been properly lighted, no difficulty will be
experienced in securing the proper amount of detail in the
shadows, and by careful development the high-lights will,
practically speaking, take care of themselves.
Commercial Photography. 31
46. The fastest brands of plates are especially suited
for all extremely short exposures and flashlight work.
Whenever it is necessary to work in changeable and un-
certain light, and especially in the winter, when under-ex-
posures are frequent, fast plates should be used.
47. For the copying of drawings, manuscript, plans
and printed matter, and in all cases where black and white
effects are desired, the slowest plate obtainable should be
employed. These plates generally require ten to fifteen
times longer exposure than the rapid plates.
48. Slow plates should be employed for the reproduc-
tion of the grain of wood in mahogany furniture, dark oak,
bird's-eye maple, etc. Slow orthochromatic plates have
considerable latitude, but lack, to a certain extent, the
strong density in the middle tones, which is important in
work belonging to this class. Flower and landscape pho-
tography require the use of the special orthochromatic
plate, in order that the correct rendering of color values
be given. The brilliant coloring of the foliage is much
more dull, black and lifeless when the ordinary plate is
used. In fact, for general all-around work in which the
correct rendering of color is desired, the orthochromatic
plate should be employed.
49. The non-halation plates will be found useful for
many kinds of subjects, and especially are they valuable
in photographing interiors when strong lights or out-of-
door openings are included in the view, which always re-
produce very dense and with considerable halation at the
edges. When photographing shops containing machinery,
rooms with furniture, or any highly polished articles, there
is always danger of strong reflections, which will cause
halation, and for these a non-halation plate may be used to
advantage. Very soft detail in the high-lights under most
trying conditions can be secured with them. The slight
additional cost of non-halation plates over the ordinary
plates will be outweighed by their advantages.
50. The non-halation plate does not, however, do
away with halation in extreme cases, and there are other
32 Library of Practical Photography.
methods which may be employed in conjunction with the
ordinary plate, whereby halation may be practically elimi-
nated from the most difficult views possible to photograph.
(See Illustration No. 52a, Page 142, and Illustration No.
53a, Page 146.) In the chapter on Special Development,
Volume II, is given full information as to the manner of
producing excellent negatives of subjects photographed
under the most difficult and trying light conditions, with
the total absence of halation in the final results.
Chapter III.
The Reason for Orthochromatism.
51. It is often difficult for the uninitiated to understand
and appreciate the principles involved in correct rendering
of colors in monochrome (one color) . Messrs. Wratten and
Wainwright, Ltd., of Croyden, England, in their booklet
" Real Orthochromatism," give a very clear explanation of
the subject, and the following is, in substance, taken from
a portion of the article:
52. To make the principle most clear, one should be
in possession of a small piece of dark blue and one of dark
green (not green-yellow) glass, celluloid, or gelatin. (The
glass may be procured from a dealer in stained glass.) If
the blue glass is held up in front of one eye and any scene
observed through it, it will be noticed, in the first place,
that the screen has removed all color from the scene that
in fact all things are one color, namely, blue. But if you
consider the scene a little longer, you will see that not only
have all things lost their color, but that different colors
have lost brightness to different extents, and the relative
brightnesses of the scene are wrong. The bright yellows,
reds, and yellow-greens have become dark, while the usually
dark blues and violets have become light.
53. Now, if you photograph the scene on an ordinary
plate, and then compare a print from the negative with
the scene as it looks through your blue glass, you will see
that the plate gives exactly the same incorrect rendering;
that it sees bright yellows and reds dark, and dark blues
and violets bright. And if it is a landscape with blue sky
and light clouds, you will find that the screen and the plate
agree in making those clouds invisible. Now it is in order
that you may get those yellows and blues of the same degree
88
34 Library of Practical Photography.
of brightness as the eye sees them that you are so frequently
advised to use orthochromatic plates and screens.
54. You have probably been convinced that it is de-
sirable to avoid this objectionable sensitiveness of a plate
to blue and insensitiveness to all the other colors, and you
have decided to try what is known as orthochromatic or
isochromatic plates that is, plates which are sensitive to
other colors than blue. But there are difficulties. In the
first place, it is not yet practicable to make plates which are
not very much more sensitive to blue than to other colors
(and your eye is very much less sensitive to blue than to
other colors), so that you must put in front of your lens
a piece of yellow glass or gelatin, which will stop the
blue light before it gets to the plate. This yellow screen
must increase the exposure the plate will need. If it does
its work properly, it will increase the exposure very much.
Most orthochromatic plates are about twenty times as sensi-
tive to blue as to green, so that if this matter is to be put
right, the screen which cuts out the blue light will require
about twenty times the usual exposure for the plate.
55. Also, you are accustomed to developing plates by
a red light, so that the plates you use must not be sensitive
to red. This means that the plate will still be blind to red.
If you hold a green glass in front of your eye, you will see
how things look to a plate which is sensitive to green, and
is being used with a yellow screen strong enough to cut out
the excess of blue light, but is not sensitive to red. You
will see at once that the reds are not right; they are still
black. In fact, to call the plate orthochromatic was wrong,
because " orthochromatic " infers that correct color ren-
dering is obtained, and no red-blind plate can give that. So
that for real orthochromatism you must use a red sensitive
plate, and that means that you cannot develop in red light.
We will go back to that presently.
56. But you are probably a photographer who photo-
graphs landscapes mainly, and there are not many reds in
landscapes. Take two pieces of colored fabric, a bright green
and a yellow, and look at them through your green screen.
The Reason for Orthochromatism. 35
You will see at once that compared with the yellow the
green has become too light. The cause of this needs a little
explanation.
57. An object is yellow because it absorbs the blue
from white light, and does not reflect it, so that all the rest
of white light, except blue, is what we call yellow; that
is to say, yellow is white light minus blue. Gas light, for
instance, is yellow because it does not contain as much blue
as the daylight with which it is compared. White light con-
tains red and green and blue, so that if we take away blue
from white light, we get only red and green light left; that
is, red light and green light together make yellow light.
An object is yellow because it reflects the red and the green
portions of white light, but not the blue portion ; therefore,
a red-blind plate will not see the red in yellow, but only the
green, and consequently it will see a bright green object
as too light compared with a yellow object, just as you
see it through the green screen.
58. If a red-sensitive plate is used, then it records not
only the green in yellows, but also the red, and consequently
yellows do not appear the same as green they are lighter.
Thus one of our difficulties has been overcome entirely by
using a plate sensitive to all colors, or panchromatic. The
other difficulty with regard to exposure is removed by the
same procedure.
59. The only satisfactory method of obtaining a fast
red sensitive plate is to bathe the plate in a solution of
dye. Ordinary orthochromatic plates are sensitized in the
course of manufacture by adding a dye to the emulsion,
but this has not yet proven satisfactory, and the " Pan-
chromatic " or " Trichromatic " plate owes its success to
the fact that it is sensitized by bathing. In this plate the
sensitiveness to other colors than blue is so great that a
screen increasing exposure only three times gives superior
results to one requiring twenty times increase on green-sen-
sitive or " red-blind " plates.
60. Orthochromatic Screens. You will sometimes see
it stated that you can use some particular " orthochromatic "
36 Library of Practical Photography.
plate without a screen. You can, but you will not get any
appreciable orthochromatic effect.
61. A color-sensitive plate will do everything that an
ordinary plate will do, so that the photographer who uses
panchromatic plates exclusively is at no disadvantage
as compared with the photographer who uses ordinary
plates, but at a great advantage; for even without using
any screen he may get some improvement in rendering,
while with a screen his work will always be superior in this
respect.
62. If the very color-sensitive panchromatic plate is
used without a screen, it will give you about the same result
as if you use the old orthochromatic plate with a four-
times screen; consequently, whenever possible, you should
use a screen.
63. Possibly you have used orthochromatic plates be-
fore, and have one or more screens. Naturally, you want
to know whether you can save getting new screens by
using those you already have. Examine them carefully,
and you can easily ascertain this. If they consist of brown-
ish-yellow glass, they are practically useless, will require
great increase of exposure, and should not be employed.
If they are light lemon-yellow they may be useful.
64. The four-times screen supplied by Burke & James,
or the dry-plate and lens manufacturers, are suitable for
general purposes for use with orthochromatic, trichromatic
or panchromatic plates, and may be considered a standard
all-around screen.
65. With a four-times screen on the regular ortho-
chromatic plate you correct the blues, greens and light
yellows with distinguishable results that is, you bring all
colors nearer their relative visual tone and produce con-
trasts, while with the same screen on a panchromatic or
trichromatic plate you, in addition to the former correc-
tions, correct the violet and red colors also, thus giving a
true rendering of all colors in monochrome.
66. The color-screen should never be used on an ordi-
nary plate, for it would require an enormously long ex-
The Reason for Orthochromalism. 37
posure, and experience has taught us that it is of little
value, over the ordinary exposing of the plate, without a
screen; while with the orthochromatic plates, which are
corrected for use with the screen, the exposure is but
slightly increased over the ordinary plate without the
screen. Thus it will be readily seen that the screen should
only be used with orthochromatic plates.
67. For copying of colored objects, such as oil paint-
ings, lithographs, etc., a fifteen-times screen will assist in
producing better results, but for all ordinary purposes the
four-times screen is recommended.
CHAPTER IV.
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography.
68. Introduction. The principles embodied in com-
mercial photography out-of-doors are exactly the same as
those on which instruction was given in Volume III, but
the commercial features are entirely technical, the artistic
side demanding very little consideration. It is quite true,
however, that the laws of balance and light and shade
should be borne in mind, and the subject composed and
lighted so as to produce the best general effect. In this
chapter are supplied numerous illustrations showing differ-
ent conditions under which the photographs were made.
These illustrations should serve to materially assist the stu-
dent in the photographing of this class of subjects.
69. Residences. In photographing residences it is ab-
solutely essential that all of the strong points of the archi-
tecture be shown. Frequently trees and shrubbery will in-
terfere, making it difficult to show the building properly.
In such a case, if it is possible, the photograph should be
made at a season of the year when the leaves are off the
trees. An example of a residence photographed under
these conditions is shown in Illustration No. 2. With the
trees in full foliage it was absolutely impossible to secure
a picture of this residence, unless an extremely wide-angle
lens was employed, and even then the smaller trees occu-
pied undesirable positions, necessitating a point of view
to be chosen which would not show the building to its best
advantage. Although some of the finer qualities have been
lost in the half-tone reproduction, you will notice that
there is full detail in the highest points of light, as well as
in the deepest shadows.
70. The angle at which the light falls and the portion
39
40 Library of Practical Photography.
of the building receiving the strongest light are extremely
important factors to be taken into consideration. There are
times when it is advisable to photograph a building on a
cloudy day, when there is a soft, delicate light. Then again,
not only more pleasing, but far better technical results will
be secured when the light is really bright in fact, when
the sun shines and casts quite heavy shadows. Shadows
falling horizontally, or quite nearly so, tend to exaggerate
the breadth of a structure. The height, on the other hand,
will be exaggerated when the shadows fall perpendicularly.
Shadows falling diagonally on the building will produce
various effects, much depending upon the lines of the
building itself.
71. The residence shown in Illustration No. 2 was pho-
tographed quite late in the afternoon, as will be seen by
the direction in which the shadows fall. This time of
day was chosen because it was desired not to exaggerate
the height of the residence. This lighting gives a most
truthful rendering of this particular structure. The point
of view from which the exposure was made was such as
to show the principal features of the architecture. If taken
so as to show the opposite side of the house, the result
would not have been so pleasing, as that side is quite plain
and has an objectionable chimney on the outside of the
wall, which, with its parallel lines running from the ground
to the top, was undesirable.
72. Notice that the small tree trunk, which is almost
in the center of the foreground, and just outside of the
walk, does not hide the corner of the bay-window. If the
camera had been placed but a very few inches to the right,
this tree would have hidden the corner line of the building,
and thus have destroyed a feature of the architecture. In
the position it occupies, the tree is not at all objectionable.
73. An important consideration, when making photo-
graphs of residences, is to see that the shades on the win-
dows are properly adjusted. As a rule, the shades should
be raised half-way, so that their lower edge will come di-
rectly opposite the middle sashes. To have the shades
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 43
drawn at different lengths mars the general appearance of
the house. The lace curtains on the window should be ar-
ranged to hang gracefully. In fact, everything should ap-
pear just as natural as possible.
74. When it is desired to photograph a residence to
show its architectural construction only, it is advisable to
secure the picture as soon after the residence is completed
as possible, for then there will be few, if any, trees to ob-
struct the view. The lawn and surroundings, however,
should be cleared and made to look as neat and tidy as
possible ; for, if boxes, trestles, planks, and other objection-
able objects occupy a position in the foreground, they will
detract from the building to such an extent as to render
the photograph entirely undesirable and of little or no value
for the purpose intended. Anything which will detract
from the residence itself should be removed, if possible.
If this cannot be done, a time of day should be chosen when
the objectionable feature will be in shadow and, therefore,
attracts little attention.
75. Two residences of almost identical architectural
design are shown in Illustrations 3 and 4. The one, how-
ever, is of wood, painted white, while the other (Illustra-
tion No. 4) is of cream colored brick, and it was, therefore,
necessary to have a different lighting for each.
76. When photographing the residence shown in Illus-
tration No. 3, which is built on quite an elevation, a low
view-point was necessary in order to show the strongest
features of the architectural design and include the general
surroundings. Had this picture been made under a clouded
sky, the building would have appeared flat, as well as broad
and squatty. A time of day was, therefore, chosen when
the sun was quite high ; thus the cornice and trimmings
cast long perpendicular shadows on the building, which
gave the impression of more height. If the sun had been
low the shadows would have been cast horizontally, causing
the building to be exaggerated in width and appear quite
squatty.
77. Another reason for making the exposure at the
44 Library of Practical Photography.
particular time of day it was made was to have the strongest
light on the front, in order to produce relief in the capitals
of the pillars and the ornaments at the corners of the
residence.
78. In Illustration No. 4, a time of day was chosen
when a portion of the front of the residence was in shadow,
yet the sun shone on the pillars of the porch in such a way
as to give an immense amount of relief. This lighting effect
verges onto the artistic, and is a very pleasing one for this
particular subject. It would have been difficult to have
secured the effect of atmosphere or distance if the front,
as well as the side, had been strongly illuminated with di-
rect sunlight.
79. The picture is a most truthful rendering of the
subject. The point of view chosen is practically the only
desirable one, for by moving to either right or left a tree
would have cut into the building, while as it is, the only
portion that is hidden is the upper right-hand corner, which
is behind the lower branches of the tree. This is not ob-
jectionable, as the corner of the residence nearest the camera
gives a clear idea of the architectural construction. If,
however, it had been desired to show both corners, a closer
view could have been made, by means of which the trees
would have been avoided ; but, of course, less foreground
would have been admitted, and while from a commercial
standpoint the architectural effects would be reproduced,
yet the general balance to the picture, to make it appear
more pleasing to the eye, and a truthful representation of
the property, requires more of the general surroundings.
80. An entirely different type of architecture is shown
in Illustration No. 5. Notice the lighting effect, and also
the point of view. This building, although quite tall much
taller than is apparent in this illustration appears to be
very broad, owing to the fact that the shadows are cast in
a horizontal direction, the sun being very low. A more
pleasing view, and one which would have shown less of
the round roof of the veranda, would have been from the
opposite corner. The long horizontal line of the eaves,
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 49
which runs from one corner of the building to the other,
is very objectionable, and especially so as this line is
parallel with the ridge of the roof immediately above.
81. If the picture had been taken from the other cor-
ner the same proportion of the two chimneys would not
have existed. In fact, the chimney to the right would have
been almost wholly obstructed from view by the roof. The
other chimney, being on the outside of the building, would
have assisted in giving height to the structure, and its per-
pendicular lines would have very materially helped to coun-
teract the long horizontal lines of the veranda roof. The
lines of the left-hand chimney do not run parallel from the
roof to the ground, as the lower third of the chimney is
much broader than the upper portion.
82. In Illustration No. 6 we have still another type,
known as English architecture. An excellent view-point
has been selected for photographing this residence, in that
it shows all of the strong points of its construction. This
view is an exceptionally valuable one for the architect who
wishes detailed information regarding the form of construc-
tion. A front view of the house would have been objection-
able, as it would have been too tall for its width to give a
pleasing proportion. If a photograph had been made from
the opposite corner, but little idea would have been given
regarding the form of architecture other than that shown
in the front gables.
83. There are times when it is impossible, perhaps
owing to location, to secure a point of view for photograph-
ing residences that is at all pleasing, and it is therefore
necessary to select the best one possible under the
circumstances.
84. In Illustration No. 7 we have a reproduction from
a photograph made under conditions which are quite com-
mon. This structure is built on quite an elevation, and
under ordinary conditions is an extremely difficult subject.
The building, as you will observe, is large and square, but
not high in proportion to its width. By covering the end
wing of the building to the right with a sheet of blank
50 Library of Practical Photography.
paper, you have a well-proportioned building as to height.
By covering the small wing to the left, you have a more
massive appearing building. If this building, as it stands,
were viewed from an elevated point, it would appear still
more beautiful as a work of architecture, but in working
from an elevation you would not have the natural view-
point of the building, as the elevation on which the resi-
dence is built would appear more level; therefore, in order
to reproduce the residence and its surroundings, and give a
truthful rendering of its appearance as it rests on this
elevation, the picture is taken from a point of view which
shows that the residence is situated on the top of a knoll,
and not on level ground. The best results would have been
secured if the photograph could have been made from
a slightly elevated position.
85. Exposure. Again referring to the six photographs
of residences, you will observe that a sufficient amount of
exposure was given to secure a full amount of detail even in
the very deepest shadows, and in doing this it was not neces-
sary to sacrifice the quality of the high-lights, which, also,
are full of detail and do not appear at all chalky or blocked.
The secret of good negatives, therefore, lies in full expo-
sure and proper development. In fact, an architectural
negative should by no means be over-developed, as the
high-lights will immediately become hard and will not pro-
duce the best of results in the finished print.
86. Public Buildings. Although the general principles
in the photographing of public buildings are approximately
the same as for residences, there are some special features
which need consideration. As a general rule, it is somewhat
difficult to get far enough away from the subject to use a
narrow-angle lens and secure all of the object on the plate.
Especially is this true in large cities, where the buildings
are tall and the streets too narrow to permit one to secure
the proper view-point and include all of the building within
the picture space. There are various ways of overcoming
this difficulty; one is to use a wide-angle lens, but this is
not always satisfactory, as it tends to give distortion and
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 53
does not reproduce the building truthfully as the eye
sees it.
87. Then, again, when photographing so near the
building, especially if it be a tall one, the camera will have
to be pointed upward, and if not provided with a swing-back,
rising and falling lens board, or a swing-bed, the lines of the
building will not be true. Even with these attachments to
your camera the lens employed may not allow of all the
building being admitted on the plate. The best method in
such cases is to ascend to the second or third floor of some
building opposite the one you are photographing, and from
the window make the exposure. The height from which you
take the picture will depend upon the height of the building
being photographed. It is advisable to have the camera
opposite the center of your object; then you will be able
to secure the proper amount of foreground, as well as a
sufficient amount of space above the building.
88. Not only is difficulty experienced from having to
work in crowded quarters, but many times telephone poles,
trees, fences, and other objectionable features are to be
contended with. In Illustration No. 8 is reproduced the
picture of a school-house. This was a comparatively simple
subject, yet there was practically only one point of view
from which it was possible to make an exposure. Even
from this point the flag-pole in the foreground, which
stands out white against the dark roof, is objectionable;
yet in order to show the building to its best advantage, a
view-point was selected admitting the pole where it would
appear the least conspicuous, and yet enable one to ob-
tain a good view of the building. It would have been pos-
sible to make a straight front view of the building, omit-
ting the pole, but this would not give good lines to the
building. It may be taken, as a general rule, that a front
view of a building which is situated by itself is objection-
able. It is, however, advisable to show more of the front
than the side, and the strongest light should fall on that part
of the building nearest the camera.
89. As all public buildings usually are erected in the
54 Library of Practical Photography.
center of a large square plot of ground, they may be quite
easily photographed. Where there are many trees to con-
tend with, late in the fall of the year will be the best time
to make the photograph, for then the leaves will be off the
trees, permitting of a full view of the building being secured.
90. In Illustration No. 9 we present a picture of a
court-house, built of stone, located in the center of a
square. The stone and trimmings being of practically one
dull color, the structure required bright sunlight to illumi-
nate the projections so as to cast shadows upon the plain
surfaces, and thereby supply contrast and snap. It is im-
portant that the sunlight should fall on the building at the
proper angle.
91. In making the picture for Illustration No. 9, the
front of the building facing the west received no sunlight
until quite late in the afternoon ; consequently the picture
was made at this time. If a later hour in the day had been
chosen the sun would have broadly illuminated the front
of the building, and the effect would have been extremely
flat as compared to what is shown in Illustration No. 9.
This demonstrates another principle in architectural photog-
raphy: Relief and a true sense of distance or atmosphere
are essential, and the light should fall at an angle on that
side of the building facing the camera to secure this effect.
Observe that a sufficient amount of exposure was given
to secure full detail even in the deepest shadows. The de-
velopment was carried only far enough to give strength and
brilliancy, and yet retain the detail in the high-lights and
the actual quality of the stone.
92. A subject quite apart from those we have pre-
viously treated is shown in Illustration No. 10, which is a
strictly commercial view of a bank building. Such a pic-
ture is required when the building is situated in a business
block. A front view should be made to avoid distortion.
The same principle of relief must be adhered to; in fact,
it is absolutely necessary that the angle at which the light
falls be such as to give perfect relief in every respect. A
straight front or flat light will give a picture which will
Illustration No. 10
Bank Building
See Paragraph 92
Photo by T. E,. Dillon
Illustration No. II
Architectural Detail
See Paragraph 94
Photo by T E. Dillon
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 57
be totally valueless. Where there is carving, ornaments and
lettering, such as shown in the accompanying illustration,
the light should fall at an angle of about 45, thus permit-
ting the letters and figures to cast a shadow which will
make them stand out in perfect relief. The exposure and
development must receive the same careful consideration
as given all other architectural subjects.
93. Sectional Detail. It is many times desirable to
show certain portions or features of a residence or other
building, such as gables, doors, windows, porches, pillars
and their capitals, as well as various ornaments and carv-
ings. In a later chapter architectural detail will be treated
upon fully.
94. In Illustration No. 11 is shown the entrance to a
library. The object of taking this particular view was to
show the entrance, also the gable construction. Notice that
this view was made when the sun was shining brightly,
thus casting heavy shadows, falling at an angle of about
45. The proper exposure, however, was given and the
plate correctly developed so that there is detail in both
shadows and high-lights. The shadows are not flat and
lifeless, nor are the high-lights hard and chalky.
95. Practice Work Exterior Architectural Photog-
raphy. It is almost impossible to give any definite advice
regarding the selection of the subject. Generally speaking,
however, one should always take a general view of the
scene which is to be photographed, and not hurry to make
an exposure before being absolutely certain that the best
point of view and best light conditions have been chosen.
96. When photographing residences there are many
things to take into consideration : In the first place, con-
sider the purpose or use of the picture. Is it to be used
as an artistic architectural view, or is it to be used for detail
construction work, or to show the building with general
surroundings, giving a truthful representation of the build-
ing and its location? The purpose for which the picture is
intended has much to do with the selection of the view-
point. In all cases consider any obstructions, such as
58 Library of Practical Photography.
trees, telephone poles, fences, etc., which may be in front
of the building to be photographed. Try to avoid these
as much as possible. Study the building itself and see which
side shows the strongest architectural features and presents
the most pleasing general outline with the least number of
long parallel lines coming into prominence.
97. When possible you should study the lighting ef-
fect on the building at various times of the day, and ascer-
tain what time of day is best at which to make the exposure.
Bear in mind that long perpendicular shadows on the
building tend to exaggerate the height while horizontal
shadows exaggerate the breadth. When necessary to pro-
duce harsh effects or increase the contrast, a bright, sun-
shiny day should be chosen. When softness is necessary,
and you desire to flatten the appearance of the subject to
a certain extent, a cloudy or dull day should be chosen in
which to make the exposure. Under no circumstances,
however, should you have a flat result. Relief and roundness
are extremely essential features, and the light should fall (in
the majority of cases at least) so as to more strongly il-
luminate the portion of the residence or building nearest the
camera.
98. Accentuating Shadows on Dull Days. Where
residences are photographed under a clouded sky the color
values lights and shades may be accentuated considerably
by stopping down the lens. For example, if you are using
a stop U. S. 8, then to stop down to U. S. 16, giving prac-
tically the same exposure or at the most only a trifle more
than you would to fully time a plate with stop U. S. 8, you
will find this will accentuate your shadows, and you will
also have a crisp and snappy negative, with sufficient ex-
posure for the high-lights, providing development has been
properly carried out in a normal bath.
99. The examples shown in the preceding lesson will
give an excellent idea of the proper form of light. There
is nearly always a certain time of day which will give the
most pleasing rendering. Fortunately, in architectural pho-
tography the distracting color factor is, to a large extent,
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 59
absent, which makes the work much easier, and enables
one to see the monochrome effect more clearly.
100. In selecting the view-point, a very common error,
with beginners at least, is that of selecting a direct front
view. This is a mistake, for in photographing residences,
especially, a straight front view is not a pleasing one,
and such a view should only be selected when it is abso-
lutely impossible to photograph from any other point. A
perspective view showing the front and one side of the
residence is always the best.
101. The distance at which the camera should be
placed to one side of the center of the front depends entirely
upon circumstances. Care should be taken to always in-
clude a fair amount of foreground, and if any large trees
come within the field of view it is advisable to have some
foreground between the tree base and the camera. It will
not do to have the top of a tree included within the picture
space and then cut off its base, without giving it any support
within the picture space.
102. If there are any special features or points of in-
terest in the architecture which are stronger than others,
these dominating points of interest should be emphasized by
photographing them when the sun shines on them at the
proper angle.
103. It may be taken as a general rule for exterior
work, that subdued sunlight falling on the building at an
angle of 45 will be found to give the best results, unless
some special effect is sought, in which case you must be
governed entirely by the effects desired.
104. Leveling the Camera. It is essential that the
camera be perfectly level, and as the majority of view cam-
eras are fitted with a plumb or a spirit level, it is an easy
matter to see that the camera is upright in both directions.
A pocket level will be found exceedingly convenient, for it
can be placed on any part of the camera. With the camera
leveled, then set the thumb-screw tight, holding the cam-
era rigid to the tripod.
105. Where lenses of good covering power are em-
60 Library of Practical Photography.
ployed, it is best to level the camera immediately after se-
curing the general view on the ground-glass, and then to
rely entirely upon the movements of the rising or falling
front to include the extent of the view required. If, how-
ever, the camera is tilted up and the use of the swing-back
resorted to, the lens will have to be stopped down to ob-
tain the required sharpness, for the image will be more
indistinct at the bottom of the plate than at the top. This
decreases the working rapidity of the lens requiring longer
exposure.
106. Stop to Use. The size of stop to use will depend
entirely upon the covering power of the lens employed.
The whole plate must be cut with good definition to the
extreme edges, and the depth of focus must include all of
the principle parts of the building. For commercial work,
where good clear definition is the great essential, more stop-
ping down is required than for portrait work. It is a good
practice to always use a one size smaller stop than is
necessary to secure a good general focus. This extra stop-
ping down will have a tendency to accentuate shadows
and give crisper negatives.
107. Exposure. A light colored building will require
much less exposure than a dark one, while the exposure on
a slightly dull day will not be appreciably greater than that
required on a bright sunny day. Usually, for exterior
architectural work on a bright day, with a stop at f. 16 or
U. S. 16 (which is the usual stop used for this class of
work) a bulb exposure pressing and releasing the bulb,
which requires approximately a half-second exposure is
sufficient; for a cloudy day double the exposure, or one
second, would be about right.
108. It is impossible to give any definite information
regarding the exact amount of exposure. The general rule,
however, is to give sufficient exposure to secure full detail
in the deepest shadows.
109. Development. As a rule, exterior architectural
views can be treated as average outdoor subjects, and a
developer of normal strength used. The formula for the
Commercial Exterior Architectural Photography. 61
Universal Developer, as given in Volume II, is recom-
mended. So many architectural photographs are seen,
wherein the high-lights are hard and chalky. This is due
to the use of too strong a developer and the carrying of
development too far.
110. Proof-prints should be made from experimental
negatives, and full data, including color of building, time of
day, light conditions, size of stop, amount of exposure,
and any other features of importance, placed on the back,
and the proofs filed for reference.
CHAPTER V.
Part I.
Extreme Wide-Angle Photography
By Means of the
Goerz Anastigmat Hypergon Lens.
111. While the wide-angle lens is at no time the lens
which will give the most perfect representation of a build-
ing, scene or object, its use is often compulsory, especially
in cramped positions or narrow quarters.
112. The Hypergon Lens. The shorter the focal-
length of a lens, in proportion to the size of plate it is in-
tended to cover, the greater the angle it cuts ; in other words,
the nearer it can be brought to the object to be photo-
graphed, and still retain absolute sharpness on the plate, the
greater is the angle. The ordinary inexpensive wide-angle
lens has an angle of from 75 to 90 degrees ; anastigmat wide-
angle lenses are made to cover an extreme angle of 110
degrees. Even at this angle, certain subjects come into the
commercial man's sphere, which cannot be brought on to
the plate, owing to extreme height, or unusually narrow
quarters. To cover these extreme instances, the Hypergon
lens was put on the market by the C. P. Goerz Company.
This lens differs in construction from any other form of
wide-angle lens, and is so calculated that it will cut the
enormous angle of 135 degrees. What this means can be
realized when one remembers that a full arc only measures
180 degrees. (See Illustration No. 13.)
113. Size Plate Covered. The diameter of the image
circle in other words, the diagonal of the plate covered
by the Hypergon double anastigmat is equal to five times
63
64 Library of Practical Photography.
its focal-length. This means that a Hypergon of 6-inch
focal-length will cover a plate of 20 x 24 inches, thus fully
covering four times as great an area as a 6-inch lens of the
old construction. The peculiar construction of the lens,
which consists of two semi-spherical single lenses, is such
that the light falls off very rapidly toward the margins of
the image. This is unavoidable in all forms of wide-angle
lenses, but becomes more noticeable the greater the angle
of the lens.
114. The Star-Diaphragm. To overcome this, the Hy-
pergon is supplied with a rotating star-diaphragm, which is
so delicately adjusted over the optical center of the lens that
a pressure of air from a bulb attached to a small blow-
pipe, fixed on the mounting of the lens, starts it rotating.
In this way the light is held back over the center of the
picture during a part of the exposure. The diaphragm is
then dropped by pressing a spring and the balance of the
necessary exposure given. The plate is in this way given
even illumination all over. A regular leather cap is supplied
to cover the lens before and after exposure.
115. Under certain favorable light conditions the
Hypergon can be used at a speed of 1-35 of a second. For
this purpose a special form of shutter is supplied, similar
to the old drop-shutter, but arranged with its opening so
that a greater amount of light reaches the margin of the
lens than the center, thus equalizing the exposure. Usually,
however, the small stop is employed, using the rotating dia-
phragm, and an exposure of from 3 to 15 seconds given.
116. Working Aperture. The maximum relative
working aperture of this lens is f. 22 (U. S. 30.25). It has
all the regular corrections of the anastigmat lens, except for
chromatic aberration, but this is eliminated after the image
is focused, by the use of the smaller diaphragm opening.
117. The demonstration shown in Illustration No. 12
clearly shows the immense covering power of the Hypergon
lens. The upper print in this illustration was made with
a Goerz Celor No. 3 lens (S 1 ^ inches focal-length), the ex-
posure being l-25th second ; while the lower one was made
Illustration No. 12
Goerz Hypergon Lens Demonstration
See Paragraph 117
M
-S
Illustration No. 13
Goerz Uypergon Lens
See Paragraph 112
Extreme Wide- Angle Photography. 67
with a Goerz Double Anastigmat Hypergon lens (No. 000-
2% inches focal-length), requiring 4 seconds exposure. The
camera in both cases was in identically the same position.
118. It will be observed that there is absolutely no
distortion in the wide-angle view, each and every line being
perfectly accurate. Some persons may contend that there
is distortion of perspective, or rather an unnatural perspec-
tive shown, but it must be borne in mind that the field of
the lens being so great this is unavoidable. On the other
hand, if, when looking at the wide-angle view, the eyes are
held at a distance from the print equal to the focal-length of
the lens, this apparently exaggerated perspective is entirely
done away with and the actual normal perspective seen.
119. Streets and Interiors. The most practical appli-
cation of this wide-angle lens, to the commercial photog-
rapher at least, is in photographing very high buildings
located along narrow streets, and general interior views.
Illustrations Nos. 14 and 15, which show respectively Park
Row building and a building on Broadway, N. Y., further
demonstrate the advantages and possibilities of the Hyper-
gon Wide-Angle lens.
120. The Camera. The Hypergon lens is most useful
in cases of 11 x 14 and larger sizes, owing to its extremely
short focal length. When used with smaller plates a special
camera will have to be constructed, as the ready built cam-
eras will either not permit of the lens being brought close
enough to the plate, or else the various exterior portions,
base of camera, etc., will intrude into the picture. Where
11 x 14 and 14 x 17 plates are used, a square bellows view
camera or professional camera may be employed, providing
the lens can be placed sufficiently close to the plate. In
other words, the distance required between the center of
the lens and the ground-glass, or sensitive plate, for the No.
lens, is 3% inches, and for the No. 1, 6 inches. Although
a special camera is procurable through the Goerz people,
anyone handy with tools can, in a few minutes, and with
little expense, construct a camera box that will answer the
purpose as well as the most expensive instrument.
68 Library of Practical Photography.
121. Home-Made Camera Box. The following applies
to a 5x7 size instrument either larger or smaller ones
can be constructed on the same principles: The first req-
uisite is the back of your ordinary camera. On practically
all hand and view cameras it is possible to remove the
ground-glass spring-back. If this back is reversible it will
be perfectly square i. e., the length of sides and ends are
the same. Where the back is not reversible the sides will
be longer than the ends. Take the measurements from the
inside of the groove or flange of this back (which, if a
reversible back, will be 7% inches) and cut a piece of board
to this size, using half-inch lumber.
122. Next, construct a box 2% to 3 inches deep, omit-
ting the ends, using quarter or half-inch material (the thin-
ner the better), and for a 5x 7 camera the sides of a cigar
box will answer nicely. Care must be taken that the boards
are free from cracks or holes, as the camera must be ab-
solutely light-tight. The box should be constructed to
fit snugly around the square board you have just cut
(which latter is to be the front-board to which the lens is
attached). The spring-actuated ground-glass back, which
you have taken from your regular 5x7 camera, will also fit
perfectly in the rear end of the box. Temporarily fasten this
in position (it may be tied on with a cord). Now, in the
center of the front-board cut a hole to receive the lens.
For a 5 x 7 camera the diameter of the opening should be
2% inches on the front side, while the opening should be bev-
eled so that the inside diameter will be at least 3*4 inches.
123. Having the ground-glass back in position in the
box, lay it on a table and insert the front-board. Insert
a ruler or similar measure in the opening of the front-board
and allow the end to rest on the ground-glass, then move
the front-board in or out until the front surface of it is the
exact focal-length of the lens from the ground-glass. In
other words, the distance between the front of the front-
board and the ground-glass should be equal to the focal-
length of the lens. In the case of the No. 000 lens, this
distance is 2% inches.
Copyright, 1902, by C. C. Langill, N. Y.
Illustration No. 14
Park Row Building, New York
Made with Goerz Hypergon Lens
See Paragraph 119
Copyright, 1902, by C. C. Laugill, N. Y.
Illustration No. 15
Building on Broadway, New York
Made with Goerz Hypergon Lens
See Paragraph 119
Extreme Wide-Angle Photography. 71
124. Being careful that the front-board is on a per-
fectly parallel plane to the ground-glass, fasten it in posi-
tion by inserting small brads in the sides of the box. Now,
remove the back, and in order to be sure that all light is ex-
cluded insert putty all around the inside edge, between the
front-board and the sides of the box ; then, paint the whole
inside with black paint. A small nut may be procured from a
hardware store and this fastened in position in the bottom
of the camera, the size of the nut being such as to fit the
tripod screw ; or a brass nut made to fit the regular tripod
screw may be obtained from any camera manufacturer.
The back of the camera may be tied on to the box with
cord, but it would be far neater to make small brass spring
catches to hold the back in position.
125. The outside of the camera can be carefully sand-
papered and then either stained or varnished. A water-
proof stain will be the best to use. By using a little inge-
nuity and working with care a very practical instrument
can be easily constructed by anyone. Bear in mind that
the lens is of universal focus, and that it is not necessary to
focus the distance from the lens to the ground-glass must
be equal to the focal-length of the lens.
126. Making the Exposure. The star-diaphragm
should be used during three-fourths of the exposure and
removed altogether during the latter part of the exposure.
The average exposure required for exterior views is from
3 to 6 seconds in ordinary sunlight using the smallest
aperture. When an exposure of 6 seconds is required, the
star-diaphragm should be kept in front of the lens for 4 sec-
onds and then removed by lightly pressing down on the re-
lease lever, H. (See Illustration No. 13.) As the exposures
will be of some length the cap can be used, and no shutter
is required. The exact amount of exposure for all work,
whether interior or exterior, can be ascertained by figuring
out the f value. Bear in mind that the largest aperture
of the Hypergon lens is f. 22, while the smallest one is
f. 31, or U. S. 60.
72 Library of Practical Photography.
Part II.
Difficulties Hypergon Lens.
127. Margins or Corners of Plate Either Transparent or
Semi-Transparent. Caused by not leaving the star-diaphragm in
front of the lens for a sufficient length of time during the exposure.
The star-diaphragm should remain in position for at least three-
fourths of the time. The lighting conditions and the character
of the subject regulate the amount of time to a certain extent. A
series of practical demonstrations has shown that the star-dia-
phragm should remain in front of the lens during thirteen-six-
teenths of the exposure. If, on developing the plate, you observe
that the corners and edges have not received as much exposure
as the center, carry the development beyond the normal for the
central portion; in fact, develop until the margins of the image
are of proper strength. After fixing the plate, take a weak reduc-
ing solution (Red Prussiate of Potash) and locally reduce the
central portion of the plate until the whole image is of uniform
density. This method of procedure is not to be encouraged, but
when one has a negative of a valuable subject and this difficulty
occurs, it is advisable to proceed as directed.
128. Opaque Circular Spots in Center of Plate. Caused by
over-exposing the center not leaving the star-diaphragm in posi-
tion long enough during the exposure to give uniform illumination.
To save such a plate, after fixing it reduce the central opaque spot
until its density matches that of the surrounding portion.
129. Opaque Star-Shaped Spot in Center of Plate. Caused
by the star-diaphragm not being revolved during the exposure.
Remedy obvious.
130. Transparent Spots in the Corners of the Sky Portion of
the Plate. Caused by the hand or finger coming within the angle
of view of the lens while making the exposure. As the angle of
view is so great, when removing the cap, the hands must be im-
mediately drawn away from the front of the camera. If this pre-
caution is not taken, there will be danger of cutting off rays of
light and thus producing transparent spots on the sky portion of
the plate.
CHAPTER VI.
Commercial Interiors.
131. Introduction. The photographing of interiors
is, by most photographic workers, considered a difficult
task and, therefore, has received little attention, except from
the few who have specialized on this particular subject. To
illustrate this chapter we have chosen a large variety of
subjects dealing particularly with all the various conditions
of lighting and subject material with which the average
photographer will have to contend. The manner in which
these different pictures were produced is described at the
end of this volume; therefore, we will not dwell upon this
feature, but supply numerous suggestions which will very
materially assist you to photograph interiors successfully.
132. Lighting Interiors of Residences. In making in-
terior views, generally the question of lighting is the most
important consideration. A good rule to follow, at least
until you become sufficiently experienced to manipulate the
light as required, is to so locate the camera as to have the
principal light for the illumination come from one side of,
and back of, the camera, and at an angle leading into the
view in other words, directed from the camera instead of
toward it.
133. Dark Interiors. The darker the room and its
furnishings, the more direct or broad should be the light
employed, while for light interiors and furnishings the
more side or cross light should be used. The object of this
difference in lighting is as follows: In the\ case of dark
interior furnishings you want to do away as much as pos-
sible with heavy shadows, in order to illuminate all portions
evenly, and enable you to secure detail in all parts of the
room.
78
74 Library of Practical Photography.
134. Light Interiors. In the case of light furnishings,
having the light fall upon the subject more from the side
will produce slight shadows and give relief and roundness
to the various objects. It will not always be possible to
have the light enter the room at exactly the angle desired,
but as the angle of the light is constantly changing through-
out the day there will be times in the day when the light
gives better results that at others. For the very best re-
sults one should observe the light conditions and make the
picture when the light enters at such an angle as to give
the most pleasing effects, making the best of the prevailing
conditions.
135. Diffusing Strong Light. If the light is extremely
bright, as will be the case when the sun is shining strongly,
a piece of cheese-cloth, or similar thin material, may be
placed over the windows, to diffuse the light evenly
throughout the room. This diffusion of the light will supply
more even illumination throughout the room, thus permit-
ting of shorter exposure. To over-diffuse will result in
flatness. There should be some sparkle and snap to the
light, so exercise care that you do not over-diffuse.
136. Observe the very effective lighting of the room
shown in Illustration No. 16. All the illumination here
comes from the side and in front of the camera, as will be
clearly seen, yet even the deepest shadows contain detail,
while the high-lights are not at all hard. Owing to the large
surface to be covered and in order to have all parts sharp,
a small stop was necessary, yet the picture is not at all wiry.
137. Location of Objects. It is seldom advisable to
change the location of any of the articles in the room, un-
less so desired by the person for whom you are making
the photograph. All objects in the foreground must, how-
ever, come within the angle of view. For example, it would
mar the picture materially to have a table or some piece of
furniture in the immediate foreground, with the legs cut
off, thus removing all suggestion of support.
138. Height of Camera. The camera should be placed
at a moderate height, but not too high, for if too high it
Commercial Interiors. 81
will give the floor the appearance of running up-hill. It is
seldom, if ever, that perfect conditions exist for the proper
illumination of a room for photographic purposes. There
is usually some obstacle to overcome and one must utilize
the facilities at hand and produce the best results possible.
In the following pages we supply numerous illustrations
of interiors, all made under different circumstances, but
one rule is followed closely, and that is, the light is always
leading into the picture this is essential.
139. Illustrations. In Illustration No. 16 observe the
general form of composition, or rather the general arrange-
ment of the articles of furniture and the direction in which
the camera was pointed. Nothing appears set, nor is the
picture space equally divided in any part. You should aim
at securing as harmonious a picture as possible, and under
no circumstances have a corner of the room divide the pic-
ture space into equal parts. Further than this, chandeliers
hanging from the ceiling should not occupy a central posi-
tion. They appear much better located on one side or the
other of the center.
140. A reverse lighting effect is shown in Illustrations
No. 17 and No. 18. In the one case the light comes from
directly back of the camera, while in the other it comes a
trifle from the left, as will be easily observed by the direc-
tion in which the shadows fall from the legs of the table
and chairs.
141. A most beautiful effect has been secured in both
Illustrations No. 19 and No. 20. Practically everything in
this room was of uniform color, yet there Is depth and
atmosphere in both of these pictures, and they give a perfect
idea of the interior.
142. Illustration No. 21 was illuminated from two
windows, one being directly back of the camera, while the
other was a trifle to the left. This view was a difficult one
to photograph, owing to the fact that the camera could not
be located as far back as was desirable and properly admit
all the furniture into the view, yet the picture would have
appeared much more pleasing if the two chairs in the im-
82 Library of Practical Photography.
mediate foreground had been omitted entirely. Although
some detail has been lost in the high-lights in the half-
tone reproduction, the print, as a whole, is very good from
a technical point of view.
143. The lighting for the interior shown in Illustration
No. 22 came entirely from back of the camera, which was
the only light obtainable for this view. Had it been pos-
sible to obtain some light from the side, giving a cross
light, better results would have been produced. As it is,
however, the picture gives an accurate rendering of the
interior.
144. Illustration No. 23 was a very difficult subject
to handle, owing to the fact that the whole interior, as
well as the furnishing, was very dark and not well illumi-
nated by daylight. It was necessary to burn magnesium
ribbon in various portions of the room, behind objects and
in doorways which protected the lens from the direct rays
of the illuminant. Owing to the extreme length of the hall
it was necessary to stop the lens to a very small aperture,
and it was left open for a considerable length of time, per-
mitting the photographer to move about within the picture
space and burn the ribbon at the various points from which
it was desired to throw the light in order to give an even
illumination.
145. Illustration No. 24 shows a room illuminated en-
tirely from the skylight in the ceiling. This was a very
great advantage for this particular view, and it gives good
lighting on the paintings, which would not have been the
case if the light came from a side window.
146. Illustration No. 25 shows a general interior of a
residence, in which is included the view of two other rooms.
This gives an excellent idea of the general plan of this
portion of the house, in addition to showing the room in
the foreground with its general arrangement of furniture.
147. The picture of the den shown in Illustration No.
26 was illuminated from a window back of the camera. The
interior was very dark, yet with a sufficient amount of ex-
posure full detail has been secured.
Commercial Interiors. 89
148. Illustration No. 27 gives a detailed view of a
stairway. This picture was made especially for the archi-
tect, and shows clearly the general construction of this
particular feature and its harmonious setting with the gen-
eral surroundings.
149. Detail and Harmonious Arrangement. In a gen-
eral way, it may be stated that when photographing in-
teriors of residences, detail and a harmonious arrangement
of the various articles are of prime importance. Try to
avoid having any set arrangement, and also aim to have
the lighting effect as uniform as possible. A very com-
mon error is to have the foreground or the front portion
of the view strongly illuminated and the distance lacking in
detail, giving the appearance of nothing more than a mere
mass of meaningless black. If this difficulty presents itself,
the source of light should be diffused by either drawing the
lace curtains across the window, or stretching a piece of
cheese-cloth over it. Then, by giving a sufficient amount of
exposure to secure detail in the deepest shadows, and de-
veloping for the highest points of light, you will secure a
perfectly satisfactory result.
150. Illustration No. 28 is a view taken on a veranda,
one of the most difficult of subjects known to the photo-
graphic worker, and especially so when all wood work is
of very dark color. Notice the excellent detail throughout,
the lack of heavy shadows, the natural appearance of the
landscape in the distance, and the harmonious general ar-
rangement of the whole picture. The secret of the success
in making this picture was due to giving proper exposure
and correctly developing it. The negative was made and
developed according to the method described in Volume II.
(Special Development Part II.)
151. Typical Interior Examples. As the illustrations
given herewith are typical of the average interiors, a most
careful study should be made of them, as they will give
a better idea as to the arrangement, lighting effect, etc.,
than is possible to explain by words alone. After a little
practice and experience, and following the suggestions
90 Library of Practical Photography.
given herewith and in Volume VI, on photographing interiors,
one should have no difficulty in securing most excellent
commercial results.
152. Church Interiors. Good photographs of church
interiors are usually admired for their technical qualities.
Their massive architecture makes them very interesting,
yet at times somewhat difficult subjects to photograph. The
chief cause of this difficulty lies in the stained glass win-
dows used for illumination, which, although admitting
visual rays of light, do not permit of a large amount of
actinic rays entering. For this reason one is easily deceived
by the image on the ground-glass, which, from its distinct-
ness, will lead one to believe that a full exposure can be
secured in much less time than is actually the case. The
red and yellow glass in the windows is responsible for the
retarding of the actinic rays of light. The more the red
and yellow glass predominates over the white and clear
glass the longer will be the required exposure.
153. There is invariably a large window directly back
of the altar or pulpit and as it is usual to photograph from
the rear of the room toward the front it will be necessary
to include this window. In order to avoid any serious
effects from the spreading of light, the use of non-halation
ortho plates are recommended. It is, however, possible to
work with ordinary plates, and by properly manipulating
them according to the methods given in Volume II, Special
Development, Part II, fully as good, if not superior, negatives
will result as when using the non-halation plates with ordi-
nary development. When the non-halation ortho plate is
used in connection with the special development still better
results may be obtained than if the ordinary plate were used.
154. Illustration No. 29 shows a technically good
photograph of a church interior. The important considera-
tion in church interiors lies in the selection of a point of
view to overcome a repetition of lines and avoid parallel
lines as much as possible. You will observe there is no
repetition of lines in this view and the entire composition
is such as to give an exceedingly pleasing effect. There
Illustration No. 30
Interior Church
See Paragraph 155
Jrliutu by T. U. Dillon
Commercial Interiors. 95
is almost a total absence of halation. The lighting effect,
however, is very natural, and although the subject was an
exceedingly difficult one to handle, full detail has been
secured in the deepest shadows, while the high-lights are
not chalky.
155. In contrast to this general interior view we show
two views in Illustrations No. 30 and No. 31. These two
views are intended to give an idea of the massive detail
work around the altar, and in order to represent it truth-
fully it was necessary to take a straight front view. Al-
though this gives a uniformity of line on both sides of the
center, it is not at all displeasing, and from an architectural
standpoint is perfectly correct.
156. Time of Day. The light conditions will have
much to do with your success or failure with this class of
subject. You should try to make the exposure when the
sun or strong light is not on the windows included in the
view. Then, again, the sun should not strike those windows
which supply the strongest amount of illumination.
157. Weather Conditions. When the weather is very
bright a good time of day for such exposures is at the
noon hour when the sun is directly overhead. You will
then have more even illumination, yet have snappy high-
lights with illuminated shadows. It is far better to make
church interiors, if you rely on daylight alone for your il-
lumination, when the weather is slightly cloudy, as this
will give much softer results. A longer exposure, of course,
will be required, and it may be necessary to give double the
exposure under such conditions as when the sun is shining
brightly.
158. Plates to Use. The rapid non-halation ortho
plate is best for this purpose, yet the ordinary rapid plate
will be found very satisfactory, especially when the Special
Development is employed. It must be remembered that when
the special method of development is employed, from three
to four times the normal exposure must be given.
159. Exposure. The exact amount of exposure re-
quired for all such work cannot be given here, as there are
96 Library of Practical Photography.
few interiors giving the same amount of actinic light, or
that are arranged in the same manner. Frequently the ex-
posure will be at least half an hour long. In the majority
of cases, however, it will be far in excess of this. Some-
times it will be necessary to leave the lens uncapped for
several hours, in order to secure proper detail in all portions
of the interior. Careful study of the exposures given the
interiors illustrated herein, and a little practice and experi-
ence, will enable you to judge quite accurately, by the ap-
pearance of the image on the ground-glass, the amount of
exposure necessary.
160. Stores, Store-Fronts and Bank Interiors. The
photographs of interiors of stores, show-windows, banks and
business places are made usually for advertising purposes.
Banks are sometimes photographed for their architecture.
Even then, if views are made with the idea of giving one a
general impression of the appearance of the interior of the
building, the point of view is all important. The view
should be made from the main entrance to the building;
so if the photographs are used for advertising purposes,
customers upon entering will recognize the place by the
picture published. The next consideration is the general
arrangement of the interior and the light conditions.
161. Illumination. Most store rooms receive all of
their illumination from the large front windows, thereby
causing the strongest light to fall on the objects nearest the
camera. If the room is very deep (long) you will, usually,
find a skylight in the center of the room, which supplies
illumination for the central parts, and as the rear of the
room usually has a few small windows, there will be suffi-
cient light to illuminate the entire room uniformly. The
light for interiors of store-rooms, banks, etc., like all in-
teriors, gives better effects at some hours of the day than
others, and usually, when the light enters the room at a
slight angle, it gives better results than if falling broadly
on the objects. With the light falling at an angle you have
some slight shadows which give relief to the high-lights,
thus overcoming flat effects.
Commercial Interiors. 99
162. Attention to Foreground. A very important
point for consideration in photographing store-rooms is
to avoid a crowded foreground, and also the placing of
large objects in the immediate foreground which will not
only appear out of proportion, but will dwarf all small
articles by comparison.
163. Point of View. Strive to secure uniformity and
general balance throughout the view, and select a view-
point that will give the observer an idea of the general
appearance of the room in its natural state.
164. It is never advisable to have a set appearance of
the articles in the room, and the camera should be located
so as to give proper balance to the picture space. Do not
point the camera directly down an aisle unless it is abso-
lutely necessary. Notice the point of view chosen when
making the photograph in Illustration No. 32, which gives
one a good idea of the general arrangement of the store, yet
the picture is void of any attempt at special preparation
for the picture.
165. Illuminating Rear of Long Rooms. Where there
is not sufficient daylight to illuminate the rear of the store, or
if there is no skylight for the center of the room, the use of
a small charge of flash-powder, or even a few pieces of
magnesium ribbon located back of some pillar or large ob-
ject, obstructed from view of the camera, will illuminate
the room and will not fog the plate.
166. In Illustration No. 32 the above mentioned con-
ditions existed, and it was necessary to burn a little powder
at the end of the counter, on the right-hand side, and also
behind the desk, which is farther down in the room.
167. Illustration No. 33 supplies a good interior view
of a gentlemen's restaurant and bar. While this room is
arranged practically square, which is a difficult condition
to illustrate in one single view, yet in this picture we get
a good idea of the appearance of the place. The picture was
made from one corner of the front of the room, with illumi-
nation from the side and front, which would be back of the
100 Library of Practical Photography.
camera, thus quite evenly distributing the light over the
entire space.
168. In Illustration No. 34 we have a view of a sec-
tion of a rug store. This picture was made for advertising
purposes. In arranging the rugs for this picture, you will
observe that large rugs are used to form the background,
and in order to break the monotony, stacks of small rugs
are arranged in the center of the background; while to
break up the flat foreground and supply some high-lights
and shadows, single small rugs were gathered up and dis-
tributed promiscuously on the floor. The illumination was
supplied from four windows, two on each side. In Illustra-
tion No. 35 we have another picture of goods grouped to-
gether for use in advertising. For the purpose of this pic-
ture the goods were arranged in the front part of the store
thus permitting them to be seen upon first entering. The
illumination coming all from the front windows, gave a
good light, resulting in an excellent picture. Illustration No.
35a, which shows engine models, as well as models of va-
rious engine parts, is reproduced here to illustrate the best
method of illustrating subjects which are practically all
dark in color, with occasionally brightly illuminated sur-
faces. This photograph was made without dulling the
surface of the metal, but a double source of illumination
was employed. The display was placed about 20 feet from
the two windows, which latter were about 15 feet apart, the
camera being located between them. In this way a front
view of the display was secured, and the light coming from
both sides of the front fully illuminated all shadows, some-
thing which could not have been properly accomplished if
a straight front or a straight side light had been employed.
169. Window Displays. One of the most difficult sub-
jects to photograph by daylight illumination is window dis-
plays, the trouble arising from reflections which invariably
occur under ordinary conditions. Illustration No. 35b is a
reproduction from a very successful photograph made in
daylight. Observe that the view-point selected was very
low, as at such a height there is a minimum amount of re-
Commercial Interiors. 105
flection. High buildings on the opposite side of the street
also materially do away with reflection. The bad effects of
light objects, and especially the sky, being reflected in the
window will be observed in the upper part of this illustra-
tion. There is usually a certain time of day when a window
display will appear with less reflections than at other times ;
the location of the window as to how it faces the sunlight
has much to do with the selection of time of day when the
least amount of reflections appear in the view. Usually
to secure the best daylight illumination one should choose
a time of day for making the exposure when direct, strong
sunlight falls on the window. Under such conditions the
window display will be fully illuminated, and, further, the
objects on the opposite side of the street will be in shadow,
thus reducing to a minimum any possibility of reflection.
The greatest amount of trouble in photographing window
displays will be experienced on dull days, or when the sun
does not strike the window being photographed. The most
satisfactory results, however, will be obtained in the eve-
ning, when the windows are illuminated by electricity.
Usually the lights are so concealed that they are not vis-
ible to the passerby the rays being concentrated upon the
display. This is exactly what is desired by the photog-
rapher, as all lights should be shielded so that the rays
of light will not strike the lens. If the back of the display
window is open, be sure that all lights in the store are
extinguished, otherwise they will produce ghostlike effects.
Should there be objectionable lights on the opposite side
of the street they should be turned out, if possible, or a view-
point chosen that will bring their reflected image out of the
view. This class of work cannot be hurried and one must
study carefully each and every feature, remembering that
there are innumerable chances for reflections appearing on
the sensitive plate, which might have been overlooked when
focusing. The height of the camera is a factor that must
also be considered, but usually a low view-point should be
chosen, as from such a point reflections of objects which
are of an equal height as the window will be done away
106 Library of Practical Photography.
with. Illustration No. 35c is an average example of a
commercial photograph made at night to show window
displays.
170. Illustrations No. 36 and No. 37 show bank in-
teriors. Both of these receive illumination from the sky-
light, also from the front windows, and by this general il-
lumination it was much easier to secure a proper lighting
effect without the use of magnesium ribbon or powder.
Carefully observe the point of view chosen when making
both of these pictures.
171. Illustrations No. 38 and No. 39 show a vault door
closed in the one case and open in the other. In making
these two illustrations the aim was to show in detail the
construction of the door and its manner of operation. The
original prints were 11 x 14 inches in size, and in reducing
for reproduction much of the detail has been lost, yet the
general construction and appearance are easily seen. Day-
light supplied the illumination for both exposures. When-
ever possible to use it, daylight is preferable to artificial
light. There are cases, however, when it is impossible to
take advantage of daylight in order to fully illuminate the
deepest shadows ; therefore, artificial light must be resorted
to.
172. Factories. The securing of photographs of the
interiors of factories is one of the most remunerative
branches of this part of photography. From the fact that
the photographer is looking for business, he will make it
a point to thoroughly acquaint himself with different manu-
facturing establishments and secure a series of interior
views. In the first place, these readily sell to the employees,
but the main object in making photographs should be to
secure a set of views showing the various departments.
When the pictures are finished these may be shown to the
management, who in turn will generally purchase them to
be used for advertising purposes, particularly for illus-
trating booklets. If the photographer is progressive he
will not wait to be asked by the manufacturer to make these
photographs, but will take the initiative and actually go out
Illustration No. 36
Interior Bank
See Paragraph 170
Photo by T. E. Dillon
Illustration No. 39
Vault Door Open
See Paragraph 171
Thoto 1 v T. E. Dillon
Commercial Interiors. 1 15
after business, and there is no reason at all why success
should not be met with.
173. Illustration No. 40 shows the interior of a com-
posing-room of a large printery, which is excellently illumi-
nated by the skylight, as well as by side windows. The
subject was not at all difficult to handle, as the illumination
was very uniform throughout the room. The point of
view chosen was one which included the foreman's desk and
shows the room to best advantage, giving one a good gen-
eral idea of the arrangement and appearance of this depart-
ment. A non-halation plate was used, and owing to the
even illumination only a short exposure was required, even
with the lens stopped down quite small to give good depth
of focus.
174. Illustration No. 41 shows one of the press-rooms
of a printery, which was lighted only by side windows, yet
by giving the proper amount of exposure full detail was
secured in all parts, and a very truthful rendering of the
view obtained. The principal consideration in making this
picture was the selection of point of view from which to
make the picture to give a general idea of the appearance
of this department.
175. The photograph reproduced in Illustration No.
42 shows an office filing department, which was lighted
by side windows. By using a non-halation plate an excel-
lent result was secured. Notice that the general arrange-
ment is very pleasing, and that the point of view chosen
was such as to show all of the room to its best advantage.
A position more central or more to the right would not
have given this effect; in fact, the whole appearance would
then have been very set, as too much blank space would
have been admitted in the foreground.
176. Illustration No. 43 a portrait made in the office
gives a good likeness of the individual. This picture
would very aptly find a place in a catalog, together with the
three previously mentioned views. An exterior of the
building and half-a-dozen more interior views, showing
perhaps more detail work, such as the linotype machines
1 1 6 Library of Practical Photography.
with their operators at work, some of the large cylinder
presses, the book-binding machines, the immense paper
cutters, etc., all would find a place in a representative cata-
log of a large printery of this kind.
177. Machine Shops, Engine-Rooms, etc., as well as
an endless variety of manufacturing industries, may be pho-
tographed to advantage, but the general principles involved
throughout are approximately the same. The important
points to bear in mind, however, are : First, the light ; next
the point of view ; then sufficient exposure ; and finally the
development. As a general rule daylight may be used as
the illuminant, but there are times when it will be necessary
to resort to the use of artificial light in connection with
daylight. If, however, the interior is illuminated with high-
power arc-lights, it will be possible to make the exposure
without resorting to flash materials. Wherever possible
one should aim to use daylight, as better results will be
obtained, especially by beginners. The manner of using
artificial light is fully described in Chapter XIX on Arti-
ficial Light.
Illustration No. 43
Portrait in Private Office
See Paragraph 176
CHAPTER VII.
Architectural Detail.
178. The photographing of architectural details is ex-
tremely interesting, yet until recent years little of this class
of work was undertaken except by the amateur photog-
rapher. Architects, designers, contractors and builders all
realize the value of photographs of this nature. In conse-
quence, the commercial photographer of today is giving this
class of work more careful attention. Perhaps a reason for
lack of interest along this particular line, by the photog-
rapher doing general photographic work, is that such sub-
jects do not lend themselves easily to pictorial treatment
or afford scope for artistic rendering; yet a series of such
photographs properly produced will create far greater in-
terest than many others of pictorial value. There is hardly
a church or public building of any description that does not
abound with excellent subject material, and especially those
of stone and concrete construction. The capitals of pillars,
ornamental panels, bosses, and endless carvings, all form
excellent subject material.
179. Outfit Necessary. Some amount of work can be
done with a hand camera, but the ordinary view camera
with long bellows extension and the addition of a low power
telephoto lens will be found most useful. In the absence of
the regularly constructed telephoto lens, a single combina-
tion of the ordinary rectilinear lens will answer very well, for
with the single combination, working from the same view-
point, you produce double the size image on the plate. The
proper use of even the ordinary rectilinear lens enables one
to obtain records of many interesting subjects which the
untrained user might consider quite out of range and be-
yond the capabilities of the ordinary lens. Illustration No.
119
120 Library of Practical Photography.
44 is an excellent example of this class of work. For de-
tailed description of how this picture was made see the
department, How Studies were Made.
180. Avoid Vibrations. Great care must be taken to
avoid vibrations during the exposures, when using the
telephoto attachment, or even the single combination of your
regular lens, for the distance between the lens and sensi-
tive plate is so great that the slightest tremor is fatal to
good results. A firm tripod is, therefore, a necessity, and
when the bellows is fully extended an additional brace from
the base part to the tripod is advisable (see Illustration No.
45), for a sudden breeze or even the uncapping of the lens,
is apt to cause trembling.
181. Illumination Clear Atmosphere. To obtain the
best results for detail work a clear atmosphere is essential,
but direct sunlight is generally a disadvantage, for with the
sun shining on the object you have heavy shadows to con-
tend with, which are undesirable for this class of work, as
clear detail is the essential feature. For general field work,
of course, where the single combination lens is employed, in
order to bring the object closer to you, then strong sun-
shine is essential, as this gives strength to the view, where
without strong sunlight, the view is very apt to appear flat.
182. Telephoto Exposure. The amount of exposure
to be given where the regular telephoto lens is employed,
may be very easily reckoned by referring to the table given
in Volume VI, in Chapter XLII, Telephotography. As
a rule, where the image is doubled in size, giving you
four times the area, you will require four times the expo-
sure that would be necessary from the same point of
view with the doublet or complete lens.
183. Adjustable Tripod Top for Details. For some
detail work the camera has often to be tilted considerably
and in such cases a tilting tripod top should be employed.
With this attachment any amount of tilt, even to a perpen-
dicular position, may be obtained, without fear of the ap-
paratus collapsing. See Ilustration No. 1.
184. Ceiling Detail. If much work is to be done with
Illustration No. 46
Interior Ceiling Detail
See Paragraph 186
Photo by T. E. Dillon
Illustration No. 47
Interior Ceiling; Detail
See Paragraph 186
Photo by T. E. Dillon
Architectural Detail. 123
the camera and lens pointed upward for bosses or ceiling
details, a tilting, or adjustable, tripod top is a great con-
venience, for all detail work requires a visual inspection of
the focusing screen to secure sharpness. In the absence of
a tilting tripod top, when the object allows of a lens of
normal focus being used, the camera can be taken off the
tripod and simply placed lens upward on a table or even on
the floor, when it should be carefully leveled in both direc-
tions horizontally. The focusing scale must, of course, be
used in a case of this kind.
185. Methods of Focusing. If your camera is not
equipped with the focusing scale, estimate the distance from
the ceiling to where the lens will be when making the ex-
posure; then focus the camera on some object located at an
equal distance. Leave the lens set at this position, and
then place the camera on the floor or table, or whichever
distance you have estimated from, to secure the view you
desire to include.
186. Two examples of ceiling detail are shown in Il-
lustrations Nos. 46 and 47 ; the former is taken with a rapid
rectilinear lens of 16-inch focal-length, stopped to U. S. 64;
the plate used was a 11 x 14 Standard Orthonon with a
twenty minutes exposure. The other example was made
with the same lens fitted with a Bausch & Lomb ray filter.
The lens was stopped to U. S. 32 ; the plate used was a Stand-
ard Orthonon ; exposure given, 10 minutes. When photo-
graphing the dome the tilting tripod attachment was used,
owing to the necessity of having to focus very accurately.
The other view, however, being 12 feet from the floor, the
camera was focused on an object 11 feet away, and when
placed on the floor with the lens pointing upward a per-
fectly sharp image was secured, without any great amount
of stopping down of the lens. For further data regarding
how the picture was made, see department, How Studies
-were Made.
187. Stained Glass Windows. Usually stained and
figured glass windows in churches, residences, etc., are con-
sidered quite difficult subjects to photograph. They are
124 Library of Practical Photography.
generally composed of highly colored glass, ranging in tone
from a deep blue to a rich red. The principal difficulty in
photographing stained glass windows lies in the overcoming
of halation.
188. Weather Conditions. Owing to the concentra-
tion of light on the window, a dull day should be selected
for photographing, as this will not only assist in overcoming
halation, but will also give more softness and evenness of
tone.
189. Plates and Color Filters. While the use of non-
halation ortho plates will assist materially in overcoming
this halation, yet even with their use, unless the plate is
properly exposed and specially developed, one will not pro-
duce the best of results. By means of the Special Development
method given in Volume II, even with the ordinary plate
good results may be secured. Of course, still better results
may be obtained if a non-halation color sensitive plate be
employed and developed by the special method above men-
tioned. A four-times screen used with these special plates
will be found of value to those who are not skilled in their
use. Many of the expert commercial workers use only the
ordinary plate, and by means of proper exposure and special
development produce results equal to those obtained when
special plates are employed.
190. In Illustration No. 48 is presented a good example
of this class of subjects. For complete data as to how this
picture was made, see department, How Studies were Made,
191. Stopping Down Lens. It is not always necessary
to stop the lens down to any great extent. In fact, if per-
fectly accurate focusing is done, f. 16 will be a sufficient
stop to use in many cases, yet the smaller the aperture the
less danger there is of halation ; therefore, it is advisable to
use at least two sizes smaller stop than is required in ob-
taining a good clear focus, and time accordingly, bearing in
mind that when the ray filter or screen is used you will
require from four to ten times the amount of exposure that
would be necessary if the filter were not used. The amount
Illustration No. 48
Stained Glass Window
See Paragraph 190
Photo bv T. E. Dillon
Illustration No. 49
Statuary
See Paragraph 192
Photo by T. E. Dillon
Architectural Detail 127
of the increase in exposure depends entirely upon the density
of the particular filter you are employing.
192. Statuary. In Illustrations No. 49 and No. 50
are shown two excellent examples of the reproducing of in-
terior statuary. The three essential points to remember in
this class of work are: First, the lighting; second, the ex-
posure ; and third, the development.
193. Lighting. The light for photographing these
subjects in interiors is usually soft and diffused, and in
order to accentuate the high-lights and shadows the prin-
cipal light should, in a manner, fall across the figure at an
angle never directly in front of it. This is especially neces-
sary when the statue is of nearly one color marble or cream
color for a broad front light on a light colored statue,
especially if you have white walls for a background, will
give very flat effects, with no depth to the shadows. There-
fore, whenever possible, the light should fall on the subject
so as to cast slight shadows in the little wrinkles and folds
which usually appear in the drapery portions. The direc-
tion of light, however, will usually depend upon the local
conditions under which you are working.
194. If your subject is not properly located so you
may take advantage of daylight, perhaps it will be necessary
for you to employ artificial light, such as flashlight powder ;
or flashlight may be used in connection with daylight. This
will be found especially advantageous when front light alone
can be had. By making part of the exposure by daylight
and then igniting a light charge of flashlight a trifle to one
side of the figure, high-lights and shadows will be supplied,
thus giving snap to the resulting picture.
195. Exposure. Statuary is usually white, but some-
times surrounded by dark objects, making it difficult for
one to judge the correct exposure. While the statue is the
principal object, yet some attention must be paid to the
surroundings, as it would mar the general appearance to
have a meaningless amount of flat, lifeless shadows. Under
such conditions it is best to give a little longer exposure
than is necessary for the statue, and the excess exposure on
128 Library of Practical Photography.
this part will supply sufficient detail in the dark background.
The exact amount of exposure to give the subject will
depend entirely upon the prevailing conditions.
196. Lengthy exposures are usually required, owing
to the non-actinic color of the surroundings. Many times
you will find excellent examples of carving, and other details,
in crypts or other dark places, where very little or no day-
light reaches, and for such a contingency a coil of mag-
nesium ribbon may be employed very successfully. The
exposure should be made by burning a length of magnesium
on each side of the subject, to give modeling one length
being twice as long as the other. Care should be taken to
shield the lens from all direct rays of the light. The amount
to be used to give correct exposure will vary with the color
of the object, and also the distance of the subject from the
camera.
197. Obtain Special Permission. It is advisable, when
working in public places, to obtain special permission to use flash-
light or any artificial illumination, which as a rule, is easily
obtained.
198. Development. The development should be car-
ried far enough to secure full printing strength, but under
no circumstances should it be carried so far as to lose the
delicate details in the high-lights.
199. In Illustration No. 49 we have quite a light back-
ground, and all the light coming from the side accentuates
the shadows in the folds of drapery, thus giving them depth
and supplying general roundness and relief. In Illustration
No. 50 we have a medium dark background, with all the
illumination coming from one side, but entering the room
at some distance from the subject, thus making a lengthy
exposure necessary. The side lighting, as you will observe,
gives strength and boldness to the figure. Sufficient back-
ground for the statue is admitted to give one a good im-
pression of the general surroundings. The pillars in the
background while massive in themselves, are yet a part of
the picture.
Illustration No. 50
Statuary
See Paragraph 192
CHAPTER VIII.
Photographing Castings and Machinery.
200. Introduction. One of the most important fields
of commercial work for the photographer is the securing of
perfect reproductions of castings and machinery. This
work is not at all difficult, yet there are numerous points
which need to be carefully considered in order that the
best of results be secured. This class of work covers such
a wide field that each subject cannot be taken up individ-
ually, and we will treat it from a general standpoint.
201. The majority of photographs of machinery, tools,
etc., are used for catalog work and other forms of advertis-
ing. The conditions under which it is necessary for the
photographer to work are often not the most desirable,
yet it will be necessary that he secure the best of results,
and for this reason he should be thoroughly acquainted with
the various methods of controlling the light and making
use of whatever illumination is at hand.
202. Little or no difficulty will be experienced in se-
curing good negatives when it is possible to place pieces
of machinery or tools under favorable light conditions, or
where it is possible to move them about to receive better
illumination. The difficulty presents itself when stationary
machinery is to be photographed and, as is usually the case,
the machines are crowded into a small space with one side
placed quite close to windows, necessitating the working
from the shadow side with the camera pointed toward the
source of light. Under such circumstances it requires care-
ful work to produce the best results. Therefore, the follow-
ing instruction will be confined more particularly to the
securing of results under difficult conditions.
203. Equipment. The equipment necessary for all
131
132 Library of Practical Photography.
classes of this work would include a view camera from 8 x 10
to 11 x 14 inches in size, according to the size prints desired,
a good rectilinear or anastigmat lens, an extra medium
wide-angle lens, a good rigid tripod with telescopic legs,
and a magnesium blow flash-lamp or a coil of magnesium
ribbon. With this outfit one is equipped for any ordinary
emergency and can produce good results.
204. The Camera. A regular view camera will be
found the most serviceable form to use, and it should take
a plate not smaller than 8 x 10 inches. Where very large
objects are to be photographed a camera not smaller than
11 x 14 inches should be used. The camera should have
good bellows extension, and be equipped with a swing-back
or swing-bed, reversible back, and rising and falling front.
A rack and pinion for accurate focusing are very essential.
205. The Lens. The lens employed must give a per-
fect rendering of lines, and, therefore, should be of the recti-
linear or anastigmat type. The regular rapid rectilinear
lens will, however, answer practically every purpose where
speed is not an essential factor, for this lens can be stopped
down sufficiently to give an absolutely correct rendering of
the subject. Owing to the fact that it is necessary to have
a lens that will cover a large plate, the rectilinear type may
be employed very satisfactorily by the photographer who
has but limited means, and to whom the question of the ex-
pense of an anastigmat lens is an item. One can purchase
two or three rectilinear lenses for the price of one anastig-
mat lens and with the former produce almost equally good
results.
206. Distortion of Wide-Angle Lenses. The focal-
length of the lens is also of vital importance, for a wide-
angle lens invariably gives a violent perspective and ap-
parent distortion and does not produce a true rendering
of the subject. A clear demonstration of this principle is
shown in Figures A and B of Illustration No. 51. Figure
A was made with a lens of good focal-length, it being equal
to twice the longest side of the plate, and thus its angle is
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 133
about 40 degrees. Figure B was made with a wide-angle
lens, which had an angle of about 90 degrees.
207. On studying Figure B it will be noticed that the
table of this machine appears tipped, and although a very
small stop was used, the drill head and the portion of the
table nearest the camera are out of focus. With the ex-
ception of blocking out the backgrounds no hand-work has
been done on either of these illustrations, and they, there-
fore, show exactly the advantages of a lens of normal angle
over one of wide angle, the former giving a perfect ren-
dering of the subject, while with the latter a very misleading
impression is produced.
208. Tripod. The tripod should be extremely rigid,
and one of good weight should form a part of the outfit
to be used for this purpose.
209. Preparing the Subject. All classes of machinery
will not require special preparation for photographing; gen-
erally this is necessary only when it is desired to show the
article in its new state to best advantage. Even then it is
sometimes advisable to have some parts specially prepared
so that they will photograph to the best advantage.
210. Parts to be Specially Prepared. Usually the
frame-work of all classes of machinery is painted a deep
green, which photographs very black. Where deep green
is not used a jet black is substituted, either of which re-
produces very dull and without detail. Metal, even though
painted, will reflect light and cause halation, which will be
very difficult to avoid even though non-halation plates are
employed. It is, therefore, advisable to paint the machinery
or tools with some paint which will give a good matte sur-
face with detail in the photographic print. This paint
should be such that it may be easily removed after the
exposure has been made. These surfaces are usually gone
over and prepared in advance by the manufacturer, with
a coat of dull lead color prepared with turpentine (not oil)
that is readily removed after the picture is made. The
nickel or bright parts may be dulled with putty, by rolling
a ball of the putty over the surface within the angle of
134 Library of Practical Photography.
view of the camera. Other portions in shadow which re-
quire more detail may also be treated with the putty.
211. Usually, manufacturers in preparing machinery
for photographing, which photographs are to be used for
catalog and advertising purposes, paint and prepare it
especially for this purpose, using neutral colors through-
out, thus supplying detail. Where this method is unknown
to the manufacturer, and such work is being prepared for
photographing, the photographer should acquaint the for-
mer with the methods employed, thus enabling him to pro-
duce much superior results.
212. Machinery is usually photographed in the work-
shop, with the working machinery, belting, etc., surrounding
it, requiring the blocking out on the negative of the en-
tire surroundings, and a point of view should be chosen
which will give a good, clear outline to the ends of the
object. If this is impossible, a piece of white muslin or
ordinary light-colored wrapping paper placed back of the
ends of the object to be photographed will supply sufficient
detail to enable you to trace the outline and block out the
background.
213. Dulling the Surface of Dark-Painted Machinery.
Mix white lead with turpentine to the consistency of thin
cream, with sufficient lampblack added to form a light slate
color, and then add one-sixth the bulk of Japanese gold size
to make the mixture adhere. Paint the machinery over with
this. After the photograph has been taken the color can
be readily removed with " cotton waste " moistened with
turpentine or benzine. This paint should be applied to all
frame-work where dark paint is usually employed.
214. Chalking Machinery. On the majority of cast-
ings and pieces of machinery the maker's name-plate will
be found, bolted on, or perhaps cast in some part of the
tool or machine. It is very important that these raised
letters be reproduced as strongly as possible. The most
effective way to prepare these letters is to rub a little chalk
over the raised letters, and then by means of the ball of the
forefinger soften the chalk marks down, when they will be
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 135
found to stand out in bold relief. Other parts which may
require this treatment are the gearing, wheels, springs, nuts,
and any fine detail found in the dark portions of the object.
It is really wonderful how the teeth of the gearing may be
made to show up in the finished photograph, by means of
careful preparation with a little powdered chalk.
215. Study the Subject Carefully. One should always
look over the object being photographed very carefully be-
fore making the exposure, and see that all detail within
range of the lens is perfectly distinct, and that it will repro-
duce properly. In cases where outlines of portions of a
tool or a machine are backed up with other dark parts, and
therefore do not appear with enough contrast, much may be
done by chalking the edges so that they appear with a
light line against a dark background. The chalk when prop-
erly applied gives a slate color to the parts to which it is
applied, thus rendering them a more neutral tone, which
photographs with detail.
216. Preparing Rough Castings. Very often it will be
necessary to photograph rough castings before they have
received their finishing touches. The manner of procedure
differs materially from that of completely finished ma-
chinery. These castings are frequently of great weight,
and, varying in their shape and dimensions, are likely to
appear rough and spotted. They are generally photo-
graphed without any painting. In this condition they appear
somewhat patchy and show an abundance of chisel marks
from the hands of the dressers. These marks will probably
present a bright, shiny appearance when viewed at cer-
tain angles of lighting, and these parts will appear quite un-
like the dull gray of the remaining piece.
217. Then again, there will be other portions where
large patches of dark-colored metal will almost be sure to
be present. The best way to prepare the surface of cast-
ings is to forcibly throw moulder's sand on the surface or
dust it on. In all dressing shops there will be no want of
this material, as the castings are usually literally surrounded
with sand. After the dry sand is forcibly thrown upon the
136 Library of Practical Photography.
parts the surface should be gently dusted over with a little
dry waste. The bright, glaring chisel marks will have dis-
appeared and the large dark metallic patches will be as
gray as the rest of the piece.
218. In all rough castings, even at the stage where they
leave the dresser's hands, there will be small holes or in-
dents on the surface, which appear in exaggerated form
under side lighting. It is always advisable to doctor the
more pronounced of these before exposing the plate. The
best material to use is moulder's putty, which when first
applied to fill up these little holes will appear as dark dots
against the light gray color of the casting, but a handful
of dry moulder's sand thrown forcibly on them will make
the dark spots vanish.
219. Illuminating Objects when Working Against the
Light. The manufacturers of engines, locomotives, print-
ing-presses, steam-pumps and other heavy machinery,
usually, after preparing all the parts for these machines,
assemble them together in the shop. Most work-shops are
built with windows all along the sides and with the lathes
and other working machinery lined up along the windows,
and when machines are assembled they are usually located
more in the center of the room. If there is no skylight, the
illumination is naturally very poor. The space surrounding
the object is generally quite crowded, and there is no op-
portunity for making the exposure from the window-lighted
side; therefore, the shadow side is the only point from
which the object can be photographed. To illuminate the
object from this side is apparently quite difficult.
220. Artificial Light. There are two successful ways
of illuminating such subjects. The simplest and best way
is by means of magnesium-powder alone, a large canvas
being placed back of the object and the work entirely done
with artificial light. Flashlight is not, as a rule, always
successful, as the exposure, being instantaneous, gives bad
shadows. Of course, one could use two machines, one on
each side of the camera, yet you are apt to meet with false
lights ; but, by means of the magnesium blow flash-machine,
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 137
with which you can move the light about from one side to
the other, if necessary, you can obtain the same effect of
illumination as with daylight, and in much less time. (See
illustration of Prosch Magnesium-machine, Page 231.)
221. Daylight. When one is not provided with arti-
ficial illumination and daylight must be employed, it will
require some curtaining and reflecting of the light, and this
may be accomplished as follows :
222. First, suspend at least two large sheets back of
the object, between it and the windows ; next, stretch a large
sheet in front of the object, facing the light, and on one
side out of range of view of the camera. This latter sheet
is used as your reflecting screen and should be arranged at
a slight angle to the floor so as to reflect the light slightly
upward against the object. If arranged perpendicularly the
light would very likely be reflected down toward the floor.
223. Operating the Screens. To operate the screens
successfully will require several assistants. While the re-
flecting curtain remains stationary the others must be ad-
justed from above; therefore, with one assistant at each
end of the curtain, you are ready for the exposure. First,
obtain a good focus, using a one-size smaller stop than is
necessary for good, clear definition in all parts ; then, with
the curtains raised just high enough so the light from the
windows does not shine into the lens, uncap the lens for
making the exposure.
224. At intervals of three to five minutes drop the
curtains to within a foot or so of the top of the object being
photographed, and then to overcome any halation the cur-
tain should be kept in motion constantly, raising and low-
ering within the radius of a foot or more above the
object. Continue this movement for about one minute
at a time, then raise to the normal position for another
five minutes. Usually, unless there is some general illumi-
nation in the room, such objects will require from 10 to
20 minutes exposure, and they should then be developed by
Special Development, according to instructions given in Vol-
ume II.
138 Library of Practical Photography.
225. General Lighting. The form of lighting to em-
ploy is that which will give the greatest amount of relief
and roundness to the object being photographed. Harsh
and strong lighting should be avoided, as this will only tend
to give hard, chalky high-lights and dense shadows. The
light should be soft and diffused and when it is necessary
to work close to the source of light, cheese-cloth or thin
paper should be hung over the windows in order to diffuse
the light sufficiently. Wherever possible, the light should
fall quite broadly onto the object and at a slight angle.
226. Illuminating Shadows. If the lighting is too con-
trasty, and if there is not a sufficient amount of illumination
in the shadows, a reflector of some kind, such as white
muslin or white paper, should be brought into use and light
reflected into the deep shadows. Where there is much de-
tail work in a large piece of machinery, sometimes it be-
comes an advantage, where electric light can be had, to
run a wire, with a 32 candle-power bulb attached, from the
regular socket across to the machine, locating the bulb back
of some parts in the foreground, excluding it from view,
but at the same time arranging it so as to illuminate some
parts in shadow which require more detail.
227. Where electric light cannot be had, the use of
magnesium-ribbon or magnesium-powder in the regular
magnesium-machine will be found the most useful addition
to your outfit, for by means of the blow-tube attached to
the magnesium lamp, you can blow as light or as heavy
a blast of light as you desire, and you can also move about
the object while blowing in the tube, thus giving uniform
illumination and overcoming any harsh shadows such as
would exist if flashlight were employed, which naturally
could be used from one point only.
228. Preventatives of Halation. Halation will often
be found difficult to prevent, especially when working toward
strong light, and when it is impossible to adjust the objects
so as to secure the proper angle of light. Where the object
is situated under bad light conditions, such as just described,
any halation about it may be overcome by arranging cur-
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 139
tains behind it and before the windows, at no time lowering
these curtains below the object itself, and keeping them
slightly, but constantly, in motion. As the remaining parts
of the view will be blocked out anyway, halation above the
object will do no harm. Where curtains are not at hand
(however, shops manufacturing work of this kind are
usually supplied with them), one can overcome halation to
a certain extent by covering, with brown paper, the lower
portion of the window which comes within range of the
object being photographed. In other words, have the brown
paper, or background, come one foot above the top of the
object, as viewed from the camera.
229. It is far better to avoid halation at the time of
making the exposure than to doctor the negative after de-
velopment. The selection of the proper hour for exposure,
when the direct light is not so strong toward the camera,
will many times assist in doing away, to a great extent at
least, with the bad effect of halation. Non-halation plates
should by all means be used, unless you apply the principles
given in Special Development, Volume II. Even when apply-
ing this method, non-halation plates will assist materially in
producing better results. (See Pages 142 and 146.)
230. Photographing Tools and Small Articles. The
best way to photograph tools or other small articles is to
lay them on the floor, or small box, covered with brown
paper, opposite a window, in a good, strong light (not sun-
light) and then by means of a tilting tripod top, tilt the
camera so that it will point straight downward. The height
the camera is arranged from the floor will determine the size
of the image. Where tools or articles are highly polished
they may be treated with putty, as previously described.
This will overcome any glare, and if the light falls on them
too strong and contrasty, by hanging a piece of tissue-paper,
or preferably a strip of cheese-cloth, over the window you
will subdue the light sufficiently to give an even illumi-
nation. If proper exposure is given your results will well
repay your special efforts.
231. The special advantage of laying small objects on
140 Library of Practical Photography.
the floor, to be photographed, is to secure reproduction
without the presence of any tacks, nails, string, or other
means of support, which would have to be employed if the
tools were hung in a perpendicular position.
232. Heavy Machinery. Among other things, one
will often have to photograph large shaftings and immense
castings which are extremely massive. The light conditions
for such subjects, owing to their size, are usually better
than smaller subjects, for, ordinarily, where such massive
machinery is built there is a sufficient amount of illumina-
tion, as it is essential that the mechanics have good light
to work by.
233. Elevation of Camera. It will be necessary, for
this class of work, to have the camera elevated at least on
a level with the center of the object, and where it is ex-
tremely large the pictures may be made from a higher
elevation. Where large movable overhead cranes are em-
ployed (as is usually the case in such shops) they supply
a convenient point from which to work, for by taking
advantage of the cranes practically any desired point of
view may be secured, as they may be moved forward or
backward to suit the required distance from the object.
234. Illustration No. 52 shows a photograph of five
large castings of upright engines in course of construction.
The view-point from which the exposure was made was
about 10 feet above the ground. By judicious use of the
swing-back perfectly parallel lines were secured, although
the castings were of considerable height. In this illustra-
tion we have a case where the height of the engines was
an important feature; also the attachments under the dif-
ferent iron platforms were important. If this view had been
made from a higher point, looking down upon the objects,
as it were, you would not show the actual height of the
engines, neither would you reproduce the view as it would
be viewed naturally, and besides, the platform would have
cut off some of the important parts which are desired to be
shown in the view. Therefore, it will be readily seen that in
addition to the light conditions and other circumstances to
Photo by
Illustration No. 52
Machinery Castings of Upright Engines
See Paragraph 234
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 143
be contended with, the object for which the picture is to
be used is of paramount importance and must be given first
consideration in the making of such pictures. A view-
point must be selected which will give the desired im-
pression of the appearance of the object being photo-
graphed.
235. It often happens that manufacturers desire a pho-
tograph of their machines as soon as possible after they
are installed in some new shop or factory, before the floor-
ing or other parts of the surroundings are in their finished
condition. When this is the case it is advisable, before
printing, to opaque the entire floor space on the negative.
When the plate is dry, by means of a ruler and pencil draw
flagstones on the face of the negative, inserting cross lines
at their proper angles ; then, with the etching knife, slightly
trace these lines through the opaque when they will repro-
duce dark in the prints. This will give a base or support
for the machine, which is very essential in all cases, as it
is necessary that there appear some support for heavy
objects.
236. Photographing Machinery in Use. Pictures of
interiors of power plants, machine shops, factories, etc.,
are made for use largely for advertising purposes, where
the object is to impress customers and the general public,
by means of the photographs, with the completeness and,
perhaps, magnitude of the plant, as well as supplying evi-
dence of the facilities for producing the goods.
237. Point of View. For all such work the principal
consideration is the selection of point of view from which
to make the picture, giving a general view of the interior
arrangement. As the different machines in use are usually
located close together, to show them to their best advantage
a position must be selected at some elevation sufficiently
high to enable you to look down upon them viewing them
from above rather than on a level with them.
238. In selecting the point of view, choose such a
point as will give you good perspective, working diag-
onally across the room, showing one side and end of the
144 Library of Practical Photography.
different machines. Wherever possible, the picture should
be made from a point which shows the smaller machines in
the foreground and the more massive ones in the distance.
Where large objects are located in the immediate fore-
ground, they exclude many small objects from view, thus
giving a false impression of the plant. The height of
elevation should be sufficient to enable you to distinguish
each machine and the point of view for this class of work
should be, as near as possible, diagonally across the space.
As all such shops and factories have side windows, you
will need to face the light.
239. Owing to the large area of space to be covered,
a good, bright day should be selected for this work, as
cross-lights from the windows will give strength and snap
to the view. The best light for such work is when the
sunlight is faint, but the day clear. If the sunlight is very
bright, then the best time of day for such work is about
the noon hour, when the sun is directly overhead. This
will enable you to avoid strong reflections.
240. Avoiding Halation. While working toward the
source of light will, ordinarily, produce severe halation,
yet by the Special Developing Method given in Volume II,
halation may be overcome. This method should be em-
ployed for all work of this kind. Non-halation plates will
further assist in overcoming halation and should be em-
ployed whenever possible. Even with such plates a long
exposure four times the normal should be given, and
then developed by the special formula, as above stated.
241. In Illustration No. 52a is presented a severe test
for working against the light. Observe that while the
camera is pointed directly toward the window (the source
of illumination), yet there is no halation. The resulting
picture is clear in detail, with snap and vigor. In Illus-
tration No. 53 is shown a general view of a series of
dynamos. The point of view selected was from an eleva-
tion of about eight feet from the floor, working diagonally
across the room, resulting in a picture of practically all
the machinery in the room, showing its arrangement, etc.,
Photographing Castings and Machinery. 147
and at the same time including the iron-work of the ceil-
ing sufficiently to give a truthful impression of the plant.
242. In Illustration No. 53a, we have a group of four
views showing interior work where the special method of
exposure and development was employed.
243. In Illustration No. 54 we have a radically dif-
ferent subject, being a cotton machine in operation. This
machine was located in a basement, with all the illumina-
tion coming from small windows, falling broadly onto the
machinery, resulting in a long exposure being required to
secure full detail.
244. Exposure. The necessary exposure for this class
of work will depend entirely upon the subject, but you
must bear in mind that when photographing machinery
you are dealing principally with dark colored objects, which
will require longer exposure in order that full detail may be
secured in the shadows. It is very essential that all por-
tions of the subject present clear detail, and, therefore,
a sufficient amount of exposure must be given to accom-
plish this. A reasonable amount of over-exposure will
do no harm as this can be controlled in the developing. A
little experience will soon enable you to judge very closely
the amount of exposure required.
245. Development. For all important work such as
above described, especially where there is any likelihood of
halation, the Special Method for exposure and development,
described in Volume II, should be employed. For all ordi-
nary work the Universal Formula will answer.
Fig. A. Plain Photograph
Fig. B. Negative Blocked Detail Worked-In
Illustration No. 55
Machinery Blocking Negatives
See Paragraph 248
CHAPTER IX.
Blocking Negatives.
246. Blocking the Negative. Generally commercial
photographs require white backgrounds. This effect can
easily be obtained in the following manner: Sew together
a couple of widths of white muslin, the length required to
completely shut out all objects back of the subject to be
photographed. Attach a pole to each end of this screen.
The poles serve as standards for stretching the muslin,
and also to roll it on when not in use.
247. When preparing the object to be photographed,
stretch the screen behind the object, when sufficient white
ground will be obtained to give a good, clear outline.
Sometimes, where the sheet requires a good, strong light,
by keeping the sheet moving during the exposure a suffi-
cient white ground will be produced for all practical pur-
poses, but for very large work, in order to produce a pure
white effect you must resort to what is called blocking-out.
This you do upon the negative.
248. Before blocking the negative, all alterations
such as reducing strong high-lights, building up weak parts,
etc., thus equalizing the tonal values should be made in
advance of blocking the negative. By reference to Fig. A,
Illustration No. 55, you will observe that the top of the ma-
chine is in very strong high-light. This was unavoidable,
as you will find in many instances where such work is to
be photographed, for all the illumination comes from the
skylight directly overhead. In making the exposure enough
time was given the plate to fully expose the densest
shadows, and the plate was then developed by the regular
method of development and afterward locally reduced with
a weak solution of red prussiate of potash. Finally, the
161
152 Library of Practical Photography.
background was blocked out, with the results as they appear
in Fig. B.
249. The first step in blocking the negative is to out-
line the subject, and this is best done by applying, to the
film side of the negative, liquid opaque, gamboge or Strauss
Marl, or any opaque substance which will not stain the
print. With a small brush charged with the opaque, trace
the outline carefully, and when the outline is complete fill
in and paint over all parts you wish to appear white in the
print. In order that the opaque may take to the film
readily, carefully wet a portion of the plate. Do this by
swabbing it, only once, with a tuft of wet cotton. This will
not wet the film sufficiently to injure it and the opaque will
adhere to the film much easier. Should you, by accident, ap-
ply the opaque to parts not wanted, the surplus so applied
can be removed with a tuft of wet cotton.
250. Where the entire background is to be blocked
out white, it is best to paint only about one-half inch from
the outline, then use yellow post-office paper, or any black
opaque paper, for masking out the remaining background.
The mask should be cut so as to lap over tlie opaque. Outline suf-
ficiently with the opaque, however, to give a clean white
background. Any openings in the object, or any open work,
should also be blocked with the opaque in the same manner
as the exterior portions.
251. Fig. A of Illustration No. 55, is a reproduction
from a negative made of a metal turning lathe before being
blocked, while Fig. B shows the method of blocking out
and accentuating various portions.
252. Another Method of Blocking. A very satisfac-
tory method to employ in blocking out machinery and in
working up detail is to make an enlargement on bromide
paper, of the original negative, and then with white ink
outline the subject and block out the background on the
print. By employing this method it will be possible to
darken or lighten any portions desired, or to build up letters
and other detail. When the enlargement has been worked
up to one's satisfaction, a copy of it can be made to what-
Illustration No. 45
Bed Brace for Camera
See Paragraph 180
Illustration No. 57
Commercial Photograph Stove
See Paragraph 258
Blocking Negatives. 155
ever size is desired, and then prints made from the final
negative. Where this method is preferred, a small camera
may be employed, say a 5 x 7 or 8 x 10, and the enlargement
made from the small plate. After the enlarged print is
worked up, any size plate desired may be used for repro-
ducing it, and contact prints made in the regular way.
253. A number of commercial subjects which have
been photographed and the majority of them blocked out
in the negative, are shown in Illustration No. 56. The
original prints having been made from 10 x 12 to 18 x 22
plates, they naturally have suffered considerably by the
reduction, yet they serve to illustrate the way such work
is handled in the blocking out of the background.
CHAPTER X.
Photographing Objects Requiring Long-Focus Lenses.
254. Small objects and similar articles must be repro-
duced in their natural perspective to preserve their true
drawing and show a semblance to their original structure.
Consequently, any lens which tends to foreshorten or ex-
aggerate the lines, should not be used.
255. By a long-focus lens, in this connection, is meant
a lens of a larger size than would ordinarily be used for the
same size plate. For example, where an 8 x 10 plate is used,
an 11 x 14 or even a 14 x 17 lens will give better results, for
the larger the lens, within reason, the better will be the
perspective.
256. Photographing Stoves and Ranges. Stoves and
ranges belong to the class of subjects requiring a long-focus
lens. For example, consider the heating stove, which may
be quite high or low and squatty. The actual article itself
is made with good lines and curves to give it a graceful
appearance when set up in the home. This same appear-
ance must be retained in the photograph. By working
close to it, which would be the case if a short-focus lens
were used, you get distortion of lines and only cover the
front of the stove, while with the larger or longer focus
lens, you admit more of the object i. e., you see farther
around it thus producing more natural lines in the picture.
257. With ranges we have another feature to consider,
the top of the stove and the stove proper being square (box-
shaped) and setting quite low and squatty. In order to show
the top of the stove and hold it in true perspective, and
at the same time admit to view the design of the base-
frame, also the legs supporting the frame, we must work
at some distance from the object so as to enable us to see
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158 Library of Practical Photography.
around it, as it were. The depth of the stove, measuring
from the point nearest to the camera to the most distant
point from the instrument, will, in many cases, exceed three
feet. With a short-focus lens the distortion would be
enormous, and a larger size lens must be employed if
correct drawing is to be preserved.
258. In Illustration No. 57, we have a reproduction
from an 11 x 14 plate, made with a 16 x 20 rectilinear lens,
which you will observe gives a natural perspective and a
pleasing appearance of lines to the stove.
259. Lighting the Object. Stoves should be lighted
with a broad front, subdued light, and as such articles are
usually photographed at the foundry, the stock-room is
generally selected for the purpose. A corner of a room
with windows on the side and front gives ideal conditions
under which splendid illumination should be obtained.
With these conditions the stove should be located, say,
25 feet from the end of the room and 10 to 15 feet from
the side. The camera should be located in the corner of
the front of the room, thus viewing the stove or object diag-
onally across the room. The stove should be placed on a
platform, say 6 to 8 inches high, and facing broadside to
the front windows. With the camera located in the corner
you will have a view of the stove showing the front and
one side, all in good light. When such work is made under
the regular studio skylight, the arrangement of the object
is exactly the same, and the camera is worked from one
side (the skylight side) of the room, thus viewing the
object diagonally across the room, when both side and
front of the stove will receive even illumination.
260. Height of Camera. The camera, attached to the
ordinary tripod, should be adjusted to a height sufficient
to give a good, clear view of the top of the stove, so that
you can distinguish the lids clearly, but no more.
261. Preparing the Stove to be Photographed. A
light canvas background should be used, in order to show
the open-work and give a good outline for blocking out
purposes. Where the trimmings are nickeled the highly
Objects Requiring Long-Focus Lenses. 159
polished parts are very apt to appear spotty. To overcome
this, the polished or nickeled parts are dulled with putty.
Work the putty up with the hands, if necessary, softening
it with linseed oil. When it is soft, but not tacky, roll it
over the polished parts, which will give them a uniformly
light, dull surface. Should the putty be too sticky when
first prepared, mix a little powdered chalk with it, which
will place it in good condition for use.
262. Focusing and Exposure. Focus with the lens
wide open and when you have obtained a general focus
throughout, stop down until all parts are perfectly sharp.
This will require considerable stopping down. This ac-
complished, make the exposure, giving full time the color
of the object being photographed requiring this. The
amount of exposure is governed entirely by the strength
of light employed and the size stop used. There being con-
siderable latitude in exposure for this class of work, owing
to the color of the object being photographed, it is better
to aim at over than under-exposure, for any reasonable
amount of over-exposure is very easily controlled in the
development of the plate. Usually, with a U. S. 32 stop and
fair light conditions, using an ordinary rapid plate, from 2
to 5 minutes exposure will be required.
263. Complete detail is always required ; hence the
shadows must be fully timed, but with slight over-timing
of the high-lights you subdue the contrast and by careful
development for which the Universal Developing Formula
given in Volume II is recommended you will produce
good results.
CHAPTER XL
Photographing Pianos for Catalogs, Etc.
264. The enormous extent of the piano industry is
barely realized by the average person, but it is safe to say
that there is no city of any size in the country which does
not boast of one or two piano factories, while every large
department store has its own brands of pianos, known in
the trade as " stencil pianos." Each and every one of these
concerns publishes, usually annually, more or less elaborate
catalogs and price-lists, for which photographs of all the
various styles are needed. The advertising of pianos, too,
which is more extensive than that of any other commodity,
requires a large assortment of photographs of pianos and
piano parts. Thus it is clear that the commercial photog-
rapher has here a large field in which to exercise his talents.
265. Pictures Usually Made in the Factory. The size
and weight of pianos entirely precludes the possibility of
taking the instruments into the work-shops of the commer-
cial photographer, many of whom have specially fitted sky-
lights for furniture and similar objects. Consequently, the
photographer has generally to do his work within the con-
fines of the factory, and under more or less serious diffi-
culties. Not the least of these is the lack of room or dis-
tance at which one can place the camera from the object.
266. Wide-Angle Lens Not Advisable. The use of
a wide-angle lens is usually not to be considered, as the
perspective produced by such a lens is not pleasing in
a catalog or advertising illustration.
267. Going Over the Ground. The best plan, when
called upon to do work in a factory, is to first visit the
factory or shop and note the position of the windows in the
room which has to be used, whether facing north or west,
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162 Library of Practical Photography.
etc.; also the size of the room, so that the needed focal-
length of lens can be estimated; also the possibilities of
working without interfering with the workmen. Usually
the pictures must be made in the assembling-room, or
polishing-room, both, as a rule, well lighted, but crowded
with instruments and workmen.
268. Best Time to Work. If possible select the noon
hour for the work. At that hour, the men are out of the
building and the machinery shut down, so that vibration
and interference need not be reckoned with. All pianos
being on easy running castors, no outside help is needed to
move the instruments about to the required position.
269. Locating the Piano. The pianos should be
placed well back from the light, with the camera at a
slight angle. As a general rule the photograph of a piano
should show one end of the piano case and the full front.
In other words, not quite a front view. (See Illustration
No. 58.) The key-board should be left open and the music-
rest drawn out. With the lens wide open, focus on the
name-plate over the key-board and then stop down until
both the near and the far end of the piano are in absolute
definition. In all cases use a long-focus lens, so as to get as
perfect drawing as possible.
270. The background material is of no consequence,
as the negative is blocked out, yet a light canvas ground
will aid in supplying a clear outline for tracing when block-
ing the negative. The level of the camera should be just
above the key-board, as the top is not generally shown.
The light being usually none too good, great care must be
taken, during focusing, to observe that the end of the near-
est leg or extended base of the piano is not cut off by the
edge of the plate.
271. Avoiding Reflections. Where the piano has al-
ready been polished it is a good plan to extend over the
front of the camera a black cloth, with an opening for the
lens, thus cutting out the reflection of the camera and
tripod. The photographer should stand at some distance
from the camera during the exposure, to avoid reflections
Photographing Pianos for Catalogs. 163
of his image on the piano. If reflections are cast on the
lower part of the piano from the floor, spread a breadth of
black calico on the floor in front of the piano, or place the
piano on a dark rug.
272. Also, when it is desired to have the photograph
of the piano as free from reflections as possible, to cut down
the expense of the engraver, or where photographs are de-
sired entirely without reflections, this may be accomplished
by placing a screen of black calico, arranged wedge shape,
on each side of the piano. The screen should not be placed
too close to the piano, but close enough to cut out all side
reflections, thus enabling all the light to fall broadly on
the front.
273. Whenever possible, persuade the manufacturer
to assemble the parts of his sample piano before polishing.
Then, the original grain of the wood can be preserved
and reflections will be eliminated, making the picture much
more satisfactory.
274. Brightening Dull Metal Parts. When photo-
graphing interiors of pianos or other musical instruments,
to show the working parts, it is often advisable to rub chalk
on dull parts of the mechanism, thumb-screws, etc., which
are required to show up prominently.
275. Exposure. The exposure for such work will
naturally be a long one, usually ranging from five to twenty
minutes.
276. Development. The plates should be developed
with a diluted developer, to which a few drops of bromide
have been added. The bromide will prevent fog and the
diluted developer will supply good detail. The Universal
Developing Formula, given in Volume II, slightly diluted will
produce excellent results.
Illustration No. 58
Commercial Photograph Piano
See Paragraph 269
Illustration No. 59
Commercial Photograph Bed
See Paragraph 280
Illustration No. 590
Commercial Photograph Settee
See Paragraph 280
Illustration No. 60
Commercial Photograph Table
See Paragraph 281
CHAPTER XII.
Photographing Furniture.
277. Introduction. The manufacturers of furniture,
especially when there is no upholstering, such as in beds,
dressers, wooden chairs, etc., never finish or polish the
wood for their sample pieces, before photographing, but
only fill them with one coat of filler. This brings out the
grain of the wood and gives an even surface throughout.
278. Furniture and highly polished surfaces are hard
to photograph satisfactorily without the proper facilities.
A soft diffused front light is necessary, and the light should
come all from one source. If objectionable high-lights can-
not be prevented, arrange to have them come from one
source of light only. When this class of work is photo-
graphed in the studio you will usually require some white
muslin diffusing screens on the skylight to diffuse the
light in some portions. Where the work is done at the
factory, the light from the windows may need to be diffused
by means of cheese-cloth stretched across a portion of
them. Under any circumstances a uniformly soft illumina-
tion must be given the object.
279. Reflectors for Very Difficult Work. Many times
a reflector must be employed to reflect light into weak parts.
For this purpose a large mirror will be found very con-
venient. Where a mirror is not at hand a large white card-
board held in the hand, tilted to the proper angle, will an-
swer the purpose. For articles of furniture requiring a
perspective view, the front and one end must face the light,
and in that case the camera worked more diagonally across
the room.
280. Lens to Use. A good rectilinear or an anastig-
mat lens should be used. Where distance will permit, a
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168 Library of Practical Photography.
very long focus lens is preferred. For example, where an
8 x 10 negative is desired, an 11 x 14 lens is best to use. With
the larger lens better perspective will be obtained. The
photographs for Illustrations Nos. 59 and 59a were made on
8 x 10 plates, with an 11 x 14 rectilinear lens. Short-focus
lenses cannot be used successfully for photographing furni-
ture, bric-a-brac, glassware, etc., as you will be troubled
with distortion. When photographing tables, chairs, beds,
stoves, etc., where a short-focus lens is used, the rear legs
will appear very short and out of proportion. Even with a
rectilinear lens of normal focal-length, one that can be
used on a plate no larger than the size negative you are
making, you will not get the best results. You should use
a lens made for at least a one-size larger plate than the
negative you expect to make; two-sizes larger, in many
instances, would be still better.
281. To further illustrate the advantage of large-size
lenses being used for this work, make a 5 x 7 negative of an
ordinary table, using a 5 x 7 lens. Then attach an 8 x 10
lens to the 5x7 camera, or if the bellows is not long enough
in your 5x7 camera to admit of the 8 x 10 lens being used,
then attach the 8 x 10 lens to your 8 x 10 camera and use
only a 5 x 7 plate, and make a negative of the same table
with the larger size lens. Develop the two plates and note
the difference; the one will show a very much distorted
table similar to Illustration No. 60 ; the other will look well
balanced, with good lines.
282. Plates to Use. The best plate to use for this
work is a slow one. With a slow plate and a long exposure
the best of results can be obtained. The Commercial Ortho-
chromatic plate will also be found to give good results, but
the ordinary rapid plate is not good for this class of work.
283. Exposure. As the lens is considerably stopped
down to obtain detail and bring out the grain of the wood
clearly, a long exposure is necessary usually from two to
four minutes being required.
284. Development. All such work should be started
developing in old developer and carried in this to a stage
Photographing Furniture.
169
where the grain is clear and snappy. Then a normal devel-
oper with a few drops of bromide added should be used to
conclude the development. The old developer gives you
snap and the fresh normal developer gives you softness and
mellowness, which are essential for this class of work. The
Universal Developing Formula given in Volume II is recom-
mended for this work, always starting, of course, with old
developer. In case of serious over-exposure, develop far-
ther and then, after fixing, reduce with red prussiate re-
ducer. See Volume II.
285. Finishing Commercial Prints. While consider-
able commercial work is printed on glossy gelatin printing-
out paper, and for some purposes it is the best to use, yet
for the majority of the best work Aristo Platino or matte
surface papers are preferred, and for cheap commercial
work the gaslight papers are used quite extensively. For
methods of manipulating different papers, see Volume IV.
286. Mounting and Finishing. Where glossy gelatin
prints are desired, they should be toned to a deep-brown
or purple tone, and mounted on either canvas or paper
backing. Where matte papers are used, the commercial
backing paper supplied by the manufacturers is used almost
exclusively.
287. Squeegeeing the Prints. After the prints are
thoroughly washed they are squeegeed on to ferrotype
plates, the plates being first cleaned by washing with a
soft sponge. Place the wet print onto the plate, face side
down; with a flat 6-inch squeegee, swab off all surplus
water ; then place over the print a dry blotter and roll down
with the print-roller, until all air-bells are expelled. In
large establishments, where much work is to be done, a
nickel-plated metal roller, 4 to 5 inches thick and about
24 inches long, may be used. A smooth metal bed the size
of the squeegee plates used, which is also nickel-plated, is
used to roll the prints on. One rolling over the prints with
this roller is sure to expel all air-bells, thus saving con-
siderable time and labor.
170 Library of Practical Photography.
288. Backing the Prints. When muslin backing is
used, the back of the print on the tin plate is pasted, and the
muslin backing adjusted to the print and then rolled in con-
tact by a print-roller. Where paper backing is used the
backing is first soaked in clear water to make it limp, after
which the water is drained off and with the print pasted on
the plate the backing paper is adjusted to the print, coated
side up, and rubbed in contact by the print-roller. It
is a good plan to put the cut pieces of backing paper and
the prints in the final wash water at the same time. This
insures the same expansion of both prints and backing
paper.
289. Combination Prints. There are times when
prints are wanted mounted in sets of from three to six in
a row, and in order to mount them so that they may be
folded together, a squeegee plate as long as the combination
required, is necessary. These large plates are made to
order only, and can be purchased from any photographic
supply house. To mount the combinations, first clean the
plate well and, having previously sorted the prints and
numbered them in regular order as they are to appear in the
set, lay them within a quarter inch of each other on the
plate, squarely adjusting them upon it in a straight line.
Expel the surplus water with the flat squeegee and then roll
them in contact with the print-roller or the large metal
roller. With this done, paste the entire set; then cut
narrow strips of muslin, about one inch wide and a little
longer than the width of the print, and lay them over the
joints of the prints, after which paste the strips and then
back the prints with the regular backing and stand the
plate up to dry. When dry, the print can be peeled off the
plate by catching hold of one corner and gradually lifting
on the print.
290. Paraffining the Plate. Should the prints stick to
the plate, the latter should be prepared with paraffine,
which will overcome this difficulty. First wash the plates
with warm water, carefully removing all the paste; then
mop off with blotters and allow to dry. When thoroughly
Photographing Furniture. 171
dry, with a tuft of cotton swab the plate with the follow-
ing solution :
Benzine 1 oz.
Paraffine 10 grs.
In the absence of the above solution a drop or two of castor
oil may be substituted. It should be well rubbed in with absorbent
cotton, and the plate then rinsed "with clean water,
291. The plate is thoroughly swabbed with this solu-
tion and then polished with a tuft of dry cotton, rubbing all
the superfluous solution from the surface, making it per-
fectly smooth and clean, when the plate is again ready for
more prints. Plates should be polished with the above solu-
tion after using half a dozen times, to insure the prints
not sticking.
292. Trimming Prints. After the prints come from
the plates they should be trimmed and squared accurately.
This can be done either with the regular trimming board
or by means of a sharp knife, using an ordinary metal square
for a guide. After prints are squared, if they are to be
used loose, all the corners should be rounded. This is
done with a pair of large shears. Where the prints are to
be used as leaves in a book only the two outside corners
should be rounded.
CHAPTER XIII.
Photographing Laces, Cut-Glass, Silver Trophies,
Bric-a-Brac, etc.
293. Certain difficulties present themselves in photo-
graphing small objects which do not make themselves ap-
parent in the photographing of large objects, such as fur-
niture. Aside from the manufacturers who need good pho-
tographs of their products for catalog illustrating, maga-
zines devoted to fashions depend, to a great extent, upon
the commercial photographer for illustrations of lace pat-
terns, embroideries, and all kinds of lace-work. The in-
struction which follows, as to the methods to employ, will
prove of material assistance in overcoming reflections, etc.,
in silver and glassware and the obtaining of pleasing results
with lace-work and other fabrics.
294. Camera and Lens. Any ordinary view camera,
5x7 or larger in size, is suitable for this class of work.
A rigid tripod should, however, form a part of the outfit,
for frequently prolonged exposures are given, especially
where colored embroidery work is being photographed,
which requires a color screen over the lens. The ordinary
rapid rectilinear lens will suffice for this class of work and
the rough focusing accomplished with the lens wide open.
In making the exposure the lens should be stopped down
to at least U. S. 32. No harm will be done in using even
a smaller aperture, for the smaller the diaphragm opening
the finer the definition.
295. Lighting Laces and Embroidery. There are va-
rious ways of lighting these objects. In the majority of
cases, however, it will be found necessary to use the light
coming from one direction, or from one source, but where
possible it is advisable to have the light fall on the subject
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broadly, but not harshly, so as to give soft, even illumina-
tion throughout. In the studio the object may be arranged
almost opposite the source of illumination, cutting off all
of the lower portion of the light with opaque curtains, and
using all top light on the object. In the home, where there
are two windows on one side of the room, the camera may
be set between these, with the subject directly opposite.
If the room has a window in each of two adjoining walls,
then the camera should be arranged in the corner of the
room between these two windows, with the subject ar-
ranged near the center of the room directly opposite, thus
permitting of a broad and even illumination.
296. It is not necessary to have the light diffused to
any great degree; in fact, it is desirable to have strong
but not harsh illumination. The relief or detail 'in the lace
is produced by little catch-lights on the heavier portions of
the design of the lace, followed by minute shadows on the
outline. To obtain this relief the light must fall on the lace
at a slight angle, yet the object must be evenly illuminated.
Therefore, when working in the studio, by using all top
light you obtain this result. Where two ordinary win-
dows are employed the desired effect may be produced
by cutting off the illumination from one window during
a portion of the exposure. A very even illumination should
be given during the first half of the exposure by using
both windows, after which, by lowering the opaque cur-
tains on one window, the light is shut off from this source,
and the remaining illumination, coming from the other
window, supplies a sufficiently even illumination, also a
correct angle of light upon the object, which creates catch-
lights with enough shadow to cause the lace to stand out
in bold relief, resulting in snap and roundness in the
photograph.
297 Background. For white or cream-colored laces
a black background should be employed. This may be of
black velvet, or better still, common table oil-cloth (cloth
side out), stretched over a drawing-board, the cloth side
being painted with two coats of dead black shellac.
Photographing Laces, Cut-Glass, Etc. 1 75
298. Placing Lace on Board. Lay the lace on the
center of the board, and smooth out wrinkles and snags
carefully with a bristle brush. Stick common black pins
through the selvedge edge of the lace ; the pins must be in-
serted at right-angles to the board. After the pins have
been inserted in position the heads may be clipped off.
When all of the pins are in place set the board upright in
position. Now, with a long hat pin, very carefully pull the
lace out from the background until it hangs on the very
tips of the pins. This destroys all evidence of the grain
of the background and gives more depth to the print. (See
Illustration No. 60a.)
299. Photographing Delicate Laces. Where ex-
tremely delicate laces are to be photographed it may be
found impossible to place them in an upright position.
Should such be the case, the drawing-board background
may be laid flat on the floor, and by employing a tilting
tripod top the camera can be pointed downward. By adopt-
ing this method of procedure it will not be necessary to
use pins, but the lace must be very carefully smoothed out
using the bristle brush. When working with the lace ar-
ranged on the floor, a splendid lighting effect may be ob-
tained about four feet from an ordinary window. The
illumination will be diffused and broad, yet the angle of
light will supply snappy catch-lights with sufficient shadows
to give depth to the picture.
300. Plate to Use. The effect required is delicate
half-tones, with predominating catch-lights contrasted with
a dead black background, therefore, for the best results a
slow plate should be employed, yet with care an ordinary
rapid plate may be used successfully. If colored embroid-
eries are being photographed, orthochromatic or panchro-
matic plates, with a three or four-times screen, should be
used to render correct color values.
301. Developer. Any normal pyro developer diluted
one-third with water will give good results. A metol-
hydroquinon, with very little of the hydroquinon, will also
prove very satisfactory. The finest results, however, may
176 Library of Practical Photography.
be obtained by long exposure and special development,
as instructed in Volume II.
302. Glassware. Roundness, tranparency and detail
as well as the avoidance of reflections are the main points
to consider when photographing glassware. In nearly all
cases the background employed is black, yet some very
effective results may be obtained by using a white back-
ground for making the negative, and then by contact make
a transparency from the negative and print from the trans-
parency. With the white background for making the nega-
tive you produce a black background in the finished print
from the transparency, with snappy catch-lights and clear
detail in the subject. Therefore, the nature of the back-
ground is not of great importance, but the greatest amount
of care should be exercised that the object be so lighted as
to give roundness and snap in the finished results.
303. Lighting. Unless proper precautions are taken
difficulties will be experienced when photographing glass-
ware, cut-glass, etc., in overcoming reflections and exces-
sively strong high-lights. The subject should be lighted a
trifle from the side. An ordinary window supplies good
illumination for this purpose, working with the object about
four feet away from the window and a little to the rear of
it, and the camera arranged as close to the wall or window
as possible.
304. Frame to Avoid Reflections. To avoid side re-
flections a small three-sided frame may be employed. This
frame can be easily constructed by taking three sheets of
cardboard 22 x 28 inches in size, having a dead black sur-
face on one side. Lay the three cards, with the black side
up, edge to edge on the floor or work-bench. Paste
strips of dark cloth over the adjoining edges these act as
hinges. When dry the frame is ready for use. Place this
cardboard frame on the table or support which is to hold
the subject, with the black side facing inward, the whole
forming a U-shaped enclosure. The subject should now be
placed in the center of this enclosure. In other words, the
subject will be about eight inches from the background,
Photographing Laces, Cut-Class, Etc. 1 77
and the cardboard wings on each side will extend sufficiently
to the front to cut off all side reflections in the glassware.
The frame may be constructed of boards, if desired, and then
covered with velvet or plush, or any black material which
will absorb, rather than reflect, light.
305. When small articles, such as cut-glass, tumblers,
small vases and small silver pieces are to be photographed,
very good results may be obtained by placing a black card-
board, about 14 x 17 inches, against an ordinary window,
and then place the article on a table within, say, six inches
of the cardboard. Then place the camera directly facing the
window. The object will receive illumination from both
sides, thus giving prominence to the figure or design. For
small articles the camera should be arranged to slightly
look down upon them. For tall articles this would not be
satisfactory, as the article would appear distorted, and a
more central point should be selected.
306. When photographing toward the light the lens
must be shielded from the strong rays of light; otherwise
the light shining in. the lens will give you a fogged plate.
307 Coins, Jewels and Flat Surfaced Objects. Pho-
tographs of coins, jewels, engraved plates and flat surfaced
objects, generally, are best made arranged on the floor,
with the camera attached to the tilting tripod attachment.
By arranging such articles on the floor, using an ordinary
window for the source of illumination, you will have suffi-
cient cross light to give snap, and at the same time the
light is sufficiently broad and soft to give good detail.
308. Another Method for Avoiding Reflections.
French chalk or putty (rolled up into a ball) applied to sil-
ver objects will produce a dullness which will prevent re-
flections. If French chalk is employed, it will be a good
plan to make a bag of some soft material, in which to place
the chalk. Then the bag containing the chalk is patted over
the subject, leaving a coating of powder. One of the best
methods to employ, however, but one requiring quick action,
is, after having focused the subject and gotten everything
in readiness for the exposure, to place a piece of ice in the
178 Library of Practical Photography.
glass, china or silver object, if it is an open receptacle. As
soon as the subject is thoroughly chilled it will be covered
with a fine moisture, which gives the same effect as the
powder or putty. The exposure must be made at this
moment; otherwise the accumulation of the moisture will
cause water to run on the surface, leaving streaks, which
will appear in the picture.
309. Silverware, Trophies, Etc. Silver trophies, coffee
services, and similar subjects, may be handled in the same
manner as already described for glass and chinaware. Care-
ful attention, however, must be given to the arrangement
of such subjects, and when photographing silver trophies
where there is any lettering, dedication, or other engraving,
this should, of course, be brought prominently to the front.
With the light coming from one side the lettering or en-
graving will show clearly. Silverware is best photographed
against a black velvet ground. In the case of a cup or
trophy, a block or plinth covered with black velvet cloth
should be used on which to support the object.
310. Plates. For photographing ornamental or
painted china, a slow orthochromatic plate, together with
a four-times screen, should be employed, so as to give a
correct rendering of the color values. For objects of one
color the ordinary plate will answer preferably a slow plate
with long exposure.
311. Development. Development should be carried
to a point where all detail is full and soft. The little high-
lights which appear on cut-glass or down the side of a vase
should show clear and strong, as these high-lights are es-
sential to give the necessary roundness. The formula and
instruction for special exposure and development given in
Volume II is particularly recommended for this class of
work.
Photo by Harry C. Peterson, Palo Alto, Cal.
Illustration No. 60 a
Example of Lace Photography
See Paragraph 298
Illustration No. 61
Catalog Illustration
Continuous Background (Vignetted Cut)
See Paragraph 316
Illustration No. 62
Catalog Illustration
Continuous Background (Plain Photograph'
See Paragraph 316
CHAPTER XIV.
Catalog Illustrating.
312. A very important use to which photography has
been put is catalog illustrating. There is scarcely an article
advertised that is not photographed and the illustration em-
ployed in advertising literature. Various machines and
office appliances, and almost all manufactured articles, are
photographed so as to show their exact appearance, and in
the case of instruments and machinery, they are photo-
graphed in sections, illustrating the mechanism and
manipulation.
313. Photographs for this purpose require clear, sharp
detail, with uniform illumination over the entire object.
The matter of background or foreground, as a rule, for this
class of work is of no consequence, as the object is usually
blocked out on the negative before the prints are made ; or,
in many cases, prints are supplied to the engraver direct
from the negative without blocking, when the artist em-
ployed in the engraving establishment will paint over the
print, blocking out all objectionable parts, building up and
strengthening the outlines, weak parts, etc. So the photog-
rapher's work is merely the producing of the best direct
photograph possible, so that the engraver has a good basis
on which to work.
314. The Lens. The best lens to use for this class of
work is one of fairly long focus. The focal-length of the
lens should be at least twice the longest side of the plate.
This will permit of the camera being placed far enough
away from the subject to give accurate perspective. A
wide-angle lens should never be used unless it becomes
necessary owing to working in confined quarters, where
the object is immovable. A wide-angle lens will not give a
181
182 Library of Practical Photography.
true rendering of the .object; it invariably gives a flat and
distorted image, the front of the object being decidedly out
of proportion to the rear. The ordinary rapid rectilinear
lens, or an anastigmat lens, may be used very satisfactorily.
Both, however, should be stopped to at least f. 16, in order
to secure good depth of focus. If the distance from the front
of the subject to the rear is considerable, and the camera
is quite close to the subject, a smaller aperture will have
to be employed, to be sure that all parts are absolutely sharp.
315. Background. As a rule, the background for the
majority of articles should be perfectly white. When arti-
cles are arranged on a table or similar support for photo-
graphing, a drapery of some neutral tint may be employed,
covering the table and extending back of it to a height
sufficient to give a background for the articles being photo-
graphed. It matters but little what the material is which you
use for a background, as all the space surrounding the ob-
ject is usually blocked out in the negative, but canvas or
muslin is usually employed. Where the background is
admitted as a part of the picture, then such goods should
be employed as are in keeping with the articles being pho-
tographed. Generally some soft, plain drapery of a neutral
tint is used.
316. Continuous Background. When photographing
small articles requiring a continuous background, a sheet of
cream wrapping-paper may be used, laid over the back of
a chair and across the top of a table, with a curve in the
paper as it extends from the table to the chair, thus avoiding
any dividing line between the background and the base
upon which the object is arranged. An example of this
work is shown in Illustration No. 62. In Illustration No.
61 is shown the same picture which has been worked up
by the engraver's artist ready for the catalog, showing the
outline to the best advantage. It also shows the manner in
which the engraver has vignetted the cut, giving the picture
a neater appearance.
317. Hand- Work. Although it is customary to have
hand-work on illustrations of this character done by artists
Catalog Illustrating. 183
employed by the engravers, yet if the photographer knows
how to do it, he has an opportunity of adding many extra
dollars to his bank account. In doing this work the photog-
rapher has an advantage over the artist, for considerable
of the building up, strengthening and outlining can be done
on the negative itself. There are some parts of the work,
of course, that will need to be made on the print, such as the
blending, etc., which is usually done with the air-brush.
When background designs are changed, the work is done
on the print, but the general outlining and accentuating,
evening up of tones, etc., can be done on the negative.
318. All white lines on the object should appear
white in the finished print. Outlines of the object, where
they contrast against black, should be white. Portions con-
trasting against white should be black. This is clearly
shown in Illustrations Nos. 63 and 64. In Illustration No.
64 is shown a picture of a Multigraph machine, the print
being made direct from the negative, unaltered. In No.
63 is shown a reproduction from the same negative after
the hand-work had been applied.
319. The first work to be done is to locally reduce the
strong lights, giving them a more uniform tone and obtain-
ing all detail possible in all parts of the negative. Then the
entire machine is blocked out, giving a pure white back-
ground, after which a print is made from the negative and
mounted on a piece of smooth cardboard. After the print
becomes dry, it is worked up and strengthened. The first
work to be done is the strengthening of the outlines. In
Illustration No. 63 we began by strengthening the edge
of the plate running across the top of the machine. This
we outlined with a draftsman's ruling pen. The rubber
pad, on which the machine rests, is also outlined in black.
320. Bright portions of machines and all metallic
parts of objects throw reflected light, which latter is often
objectionable in photographs, and they must be softened
in the print if they were not properly treated on the original.
The air-brush is the most satisfactory accessory to em-
ploy in accomplishing this result. These bright surfaces
184 Library of Practical Photography.
are sprayed with a fine spray of ink, thus giving them an
even surface. Shadows in the sheets of paper used as a
background are also softened with the air-brush. All such
parts are sprayed over rather promiscuously but evenly,
and finally delicate high-lights are cut out by erasing the
ink with a rubber eraser. The nickeled parts are strength-
ened by slightly outlining the high-lights with Chinese
white.
321. The most important point to remember is, that
all outlines and distinct parts or features must be perfectly
clear and show exactly what they are. The lettering must
be sharp, for it is extremely important that they be clearly
reproduced. Black letters are best worked up in the final
print, while white ones, although they may also be accentu-
ated with white ink in a similar manner, should be chalked
up on the object itself before the exposure is made.
323. If any parts of an object reflect too much light
they may be easily dulled by rubbing a little putty over
them. By properly applying putty and chalk to the original
object, and by giving careful attention to the lighting, very
little hand-work will be required on the final print, other
than to outline the important parts and to accentuate
straight white lines on the object itself.
323. A regular draftsman's ruling pen, which may be
obtained at any artist's supply store, should be secured for
making straight lines. The liquid water-proof India ink
and a liquid Chinese white ink (Letterine), should both be
procured, as they are the best for use with the ruling pen.
324. A right-angled triangle made of celluloid (also
procurable at any stationary store), should be used as a
guide for the pen. On account of its transparency it is
possible to see through this triangle, which enables one to
observe what is directly underneath. In this way the whole
of the picture is unobstructed and no errors are likely to
be made, which would be often the case if an opaque rule
were employed. An advantage of the ruling pen is, that
the lines may be made any width desired by simply vary-
ing the distance between its two points by means of the
Illustration No. 63
Catalog Illustration (Vignetted Cut)
See Paragraph 318
Illustration No. 64
Catalog Illustration (Plain Photograph)
See Paragraph 318
Illustration No. 65
Catalog Illustration (Vignetted Cut)
See Paragraph 327
Illustration No. 66
Catalog Illustration (Plain Photograph)
Sec Paragraph 327
Illustration INO. 07
Catalog Illustration (Vignetted Cut)
See Paragraph 327
Illustration No. 68
Catalog Illustration (Plain Photograph)
See Paragraph 327
Illustration No. 69
Catalog Illustration (Vignetted Cut)
See Paragraph 327
Illustration No. 70
Catalog Illustration (Plain Photograph)
See Paragraph 327
Catalog Illustrating. 189
thumb-screw. The pen should always be held in a per-
fectly vertical position, in order that the edges of the lines
may be smooth and not ragged.
325. Size of Print. One should use large plates, if
possible, for all commercial work, but if you do not desire
to invest in an expensive outfit, you may use smaller plates
and make enlargements from the small negatives, which
can be very carefully worked up. Smooth bromide paper
is the most satisfactory to employ for this purpose. Hand-
work on large prints will not show in the final reproduc-
tion, providing the illustration is much smaller than the
print. The reduction in size does away with any slight
roughness which might appear in the large original.
326. To further illustrate the methods employed in
making photographs for catalog work, we have chosen for
our subject the Gammeter Multigraph, which instrument
is used to print duplicate type-written letters. This ma-
chine, instead of printing a character at a time, as does the
ordinary typewriter, prints the whole letter, and to illus-
trate the method of working as clearly as possible, the
manufacturers of this machine have in their excellently
printed catalog shown the various steps from the setting
up of the type on the machine to the printing of the letters.
327. In the accompanying illustration we show re-
productions from the original photograph, as well as from
the final worked-up print, which latter illustrations were
used in the catalog. Illustration No. 66 shows the picture
of the machine as supplied by the photographer. Illustra-
tion No. 65 shows the hand-work applied to the print by
the artist, to give it a more even and uniform tone. This
illustration shows the method of setting up a letter, the
type in the left-hand cylinder being thrown, letter by letter,
into the right-hand cylinder by means of a key, which the
lady is pressing down with her right-hand thumb. The
cylinder on the left side is revolved by the left hand until
the proper type character is opposite the channel which
leads onto the printing drum constituting the right half
of the machine. The form is held in position on the print-
190 Library of Practical Photography.
ing drum, as shown in Illustrations No. 68 and No. 67. No.
68 shows the print as furnished by the photographer and
No. 67 shows the results of the hand-work by the artist.
No. 64 and No. 63 show the feeding of the machine for
printing; No. 64 represents the print as received from the
photographer and No. 63 the results after the print is
worked by the artist. This illustration shows the operating
of the machine. By turning the handle to the right the
sheet of paper is drawn between the ribbon and a rubber
platen, coming out on the opposite side of the machine, as
shown in Illustrations Nos. 69 and 70, the latter representing
the photographic print and the former the hand-worked
print.
328. Carefully compare Illustrations No. 63 and No.
64 and notice how the upper portion of No. 63 has been
blocked out, while the lower part has been vignetted. The
object of placing the white paper on the table in front of the
machine was to completely separate the machine from any
support that might be considered a part of the machine,
and also enable the engravers to vignette the cut more easily.
329. In Illustration No. 67 the objectionable reflec-
tions which occur on the little platform in front of the ma-
chine in Illustration No. 68 Hve been worked out, and the
outline of the various parts ruled in white, so that they
may be shown to their best advantage. By comparing these
two illustrations you will see other portions which have
been worked up with either the air-brush, white ink or
India ink, the black being required in some places, while
the white is used in others. By careful comparison of the dif-
ferent illustrations, you will observe the manner in which
the prints have been worked up to produce the final results.
330. Another type of subject is presented in Illustra-
tions Nos. 71 and 72. This picture illustrates the manner
of photographing a gentleman's traveling outfit to be used
for catalog work. In Illustration No. 72 is presented the
straight print from the negative. Here, you will observe,
an ordinary knock-down table was used, upon which the
articles were arranged. A piece of white canvas was care-
Illustration No. 71
Catalog Illustration Traveling Outfit (Wash Drawing)
See Paragraph 330
Illustration No. 72
Catalog Illustration Traveling Outfit (Plain Photograph)
See Paragraph 330
Catalog Illustrating. 193
lessly hung behind the table, to act as a background. In
Illustration No. 71 is presented a reproduction from the
picture after the artist had applied his work. You will
readily observe, by comparing these illustrations, that all
the engraver requires is a print with good, clear detail and
sharp outline. From this print he builds his final results,
either by working directly upon the print, or, as was done
in this case, by making a bromide enlargement and then
applying the work upon the enlargement. All portions are
carefully outlined and detail worked in where it was not
sufficiently clear. The background, as you will observe, has
been practically removed, and in the engraving the print
has been vignetted, thus giving a clear outline to the picture.
331. Wash Drawings. All wash drawings are usually
made over bromide enlargements ; therefore, all that is
required from the photographer is to make a small negative
showing the attitude of the subject and a suggestion of the
object of the picture. In other words, the photographer
originates the ideas and arranges his subject, supplying the
foundation and model for the artist to follow. With this
foundation the artist works up the picture, adds in the
background and completes the work.
332. In Illustration No. 73 is shown a model posed for
a fashion plate to be used in illustrating men's negligee
garments. The subject, as will be observed, is arranged in
the act of dressing, with all garments carelessly placed on
the table before him. The picture was made by an ordi-
nary window in a tailoring establishment, using a mission
table as the only accessory in carrying out the idea, the
background being a crude canvas affair which answers every
purpose, as this will be all blocked out by the artist. This
picture was made on a 5 x 7 plate and a straight print sup-
plied the engraver, who in turn copied the picture and made
a bromide enlargement from it about 11 x 14 inches in
size, and after painting out the background, leaving a plain
white surface, he worked in the additional accessory in the
form of a dresser, and also strengthened the appearance of
the objects on the table and worked over the table itself.
194 Library of Practical Photography.
The figure was then built up, the shirt and trousers all
modeled to neatness, the likeness of the face changed, etc.,
resulting in a splendid illustration to be used for the ad-
vertising of such goods. (See Illustration No. 74.)
333. Business Places for Catalog Work. Ordinarily,
the photographing of business places is a simple matter,
yet, at times, the task is a difficult one, owing to obstruc-
tions before the building, such as telegraph poles, wires,
etc., which become very annoying to the photographer.
While these wires and poles are not objected to in the ordi-
nary commercial print, yet, when the picture is desired for
catalog work, they should be removed. This is more easily
done when the picture is made on a large plate (not smaller
than 11 x 14 inches) and glossy paper used for the print,
toned to a brown color.
334. Where a large plate cannot be made, a bromide
enlargement can be made from a small plate and the wires
and poles painted out on the enlarged print. To paint out
these objections a wash is prepared by mixing white ink
or Chinese white, with India ink, so that the tint will exactly
match those portions surrounding the parts to be removed.
Then, by using a small brush the objectionable features are
spotted out, after which the paint is allowed to dry; then,
with a still finer brush, the detail in the structure is worked
out over the painted out portions, thus removing all traces
of the brush work. For example, in Illustrations No. 75 and
No. 76 a bank building is shown before and after the pole
and wires were removed. When removing the telephone
pole it was necessary to use a tint which exactly matched
the stone of the building, and when the pole was all taken
out the detail of the building was worked in where the
telephone pole had been. The wires were also worked out
in a similar manner, requiring, of course, an extremely fine
brush for this purpose. The lettering was accentuated with
white ink applied with a very fine brush. In fact, all detail,
and especially that in the fire escapes, has been slightly
accentuated, and the half-tones vignetted so as to give a
pleasing cut, as shown in Illustration No. 75.
C
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CHAPTER XV.
System for Handling Construction Work.
Part I.
Introduction.
By E. S. Hanson,* Editor "The Contractor."
335. A record of every important detail of business
a record that has a meaning and a use that is one of the
purposes of system.
336. Business today is developing a new kind of
record automatic, accurate, incontrovertible the photo-
graph. To manufacturers and builders, to engineers and
contractors, who are carrying out the vast constructive en-
terprises of the day, the photograph is coming to be a most
important record.
337. To these men, who are accustomed to handling
reports, drawings, profiles and blue prints, from one end
of the day to the other, it is a positive relief to have a
superintendent send in with his report, a photograph of
the work as it actually stands when the report is made. And
then, too, it verifies the report. Even the superintendent
with the best of intentions is likely, at times, when the work
has dragged, to convey the idea in a written report that
more has been done than is actually the case. A photo-
graph cannot very readily be made even to imply an un-
truth. And if the superintendent knows that a photograph
must be taken at a certain time, he will put forth his best
efforts in order that it shall show as great an amount of
progress as possible.
338. Large construction companies, such as the
Arnold Company, of Chicago, on all their work make photo-
* Reproduced by permission of The System Co., Chicago.
197
198 Library of Practical Photography.
graphs at uniform intervals of two weeks. These are all
made a uniform size of 8 x 10 inches, and with " progress
blue prints " of the same size they are fastened with eyelets
in a heavy paper cover. These covers have printed on the
outside the name of the job, date, name of customer, and
location. Several sets are made up for each date. The
covers are printed in quantities, the printer changing the
date for each set. One of these sets is kept in the files of
the main office, and one set at the office on the work. One
set is also sent to the person for whom the work is being
executed, or to each of them if there are more than one.
A few are kept on hand for emergency and to show to pros"
pective clients.
339. The Usual Method of Securing Photographs of
Work. A contract is made with a local photographer in
each place where work is to be prosecuted. This contract
specifies the exact size of the plates and the prints, the
color, the style of finish and mounting, the price for the
plate, and the price for prints. The plates in all cases re-
main the property of the company, and the photographer
is not allowed to sell copies without permission. This is
readily granted in most cases, however, and brings an added
income to the photographer; he is also allowed to place his
imprint on the back of each photo.
340. Where photographs are 8 x 10 inches or larger,
most contractors prefer to have them mounted on muslin,
with a hinge and extension for binding. Sometimes this
is done on the smaller sizes, though these are more fre-
quently printed on ordinary paper and mounted in an album,
such as can be secured of almost any dealer in photographic
supplies.
341. One of the higher refinements of photographic
work has been worked out by one of the engineers of the
Arnold Company in connection with the construction of
the shops of the St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad, at
Springfield, Missouri. Here, instead of a hit-and-miss sys-
tem of taking anything which seemed to be of value from
any desired point, the company established four points on
System for Handling Construction Work- 199
the job from which all views are taken. (See Illustration
No. 77.)
Courtesy of The System Co., Chicago
Illustration No. 77
Construction Work Location of Towers Ground Plan
See Paragraph 341
342. The ground on which the shops are being located
is a rectangular piece about forty acres in extent, and has
200 Library of Practical Photography.
a considerable diagonal slope. At each corner of the rect-
angle a substantial but inexpensive tower was erected, the
four of varying heights above the surface of the ground,
but all uniformly thirty feet above the grade on which the
buildings were to be placed. The buildings were to be
sixty feet high, so that a camera placed on any of the towers
would cover the buildings without distortion.
343. Photographs Taken with the Accuracy of a Sur-
veyor. A point and an arrow of direction were established
on each one of these towers. The photographer was re-
quired to adjust his camera to these each time an exposure
was made, almost as accurately as a surveyor would adjust
an instrument in striking a line. These stations are lettered
A, B, C, D; the proper letter is put on the negative in
connection with the serial number. These photographs,
taken from the same identical points each time, enable one
to see the building grow before his very eyes, almost like
the film of a moving picture machine. In addition to the
views taken from the towers, detail photographs were also
made of important parts of the construction.
344. Uses of Photographs to the Contractor. The
uses of photographs other than their merely casual and
incidental application, are stated by one constructing com-
pany as follows :
345. " For keeping office employees in touch with the
varying conditions on the various jobs.
346. " For indisputable records of the condition of
adjoining buildings before starting work, and after its
completion.
347. " Photographing cracks over doors and windows
and in other places to show whether or not any settlement
has taken place, due to the construction work involved.
348. " For records to be available in case of a law
suit or other discord or misunderstanding.
349. " For advertising purposes."
350. Methods of Procedure. Various other rules, as
follows, indicate the methods of procedure in photograph-
System for Handling Construction Wor^. 201
ing, which have been found to be most advantageous in
obtaining the pictorial record desired:
351. " In all cases pictures should be taken of the
men while at work, and not as though idle and posing for a
picture. On out-of-town work, prints should be mailed to
the home office, and the negatives expressed promptly to
the regular photographer employed by the firm. All nega-
tives should be dated and numbered. Prints should be un-
mounted, and gaslight paper should be used for all prints.
The notation to be used on all photographs must include
the proper contract number, the serial number and the date.
352. " Special stress is laid on the advisability of ob-
taining photographs of conditions at the time of any acci-
dent. Unless otherwise directed, at least one roll of films
should be taken on each job, each week, and all pictures on
that film should be taken the same day.
353. " After the film is removed and sealed, the con-
tract number and date of taking photograph should be
clearly written upon it."
354. Value of Photographic Records. In its working
application, the system of photographic records just de-
scribed has been found, through its check upon the work
of the employees, to prevent damage to owners, to adjoin-
ing property, and to the contractor's interests, and to pre-
vent legal disputes, as well as furnishing the data necessary
to settle them without delay.
355. Classes of Photographs. Many engineers and
contractors require two classes of photographs to be taken
on all pieces of work : Construction photographs, which are
kept for record of the method and progress of the work ; and
what may be termed " publicity photographs," kept for
showing the class of work the firm is engaged in, thus in-
fluencing prospective clients, and for advertising purposes.
356. Superintendents of Construction can Make the
Photographs. Among firms following this method are
Dodge & Day, of Philadelphia. Each of their superinten-
dents of construction is provided with a film-camera taking a
photograph 4x5 inches. At regular intervals photographs of
202 Library of Practical Photography.
the work in progress are made, a placard giving name of
client and date having been placed on the work. The film is
returned to the home office, and two prints of each negative
are made by the firm's photographic department. The films
are kept on record in that department. Consecutive num-
bers are given to each plate, regardless of what job it
comes from ; each job is given a letter, which is prefixed
to the number. One print is kept at the home office, and
one print is sent to the superintendent on the work. The
print in the office is properly filed under the letter and date,
in a cover provided for that purpose.
357. Photographs Aid in Publicity and in Securing
Business. The publicity photographs are made 8 x 10
inches in size, by the firm's regular photographer, at such
intervals during the course of work as will insure interest-
ing pictures. These plates are given consecutive numbers
and a blue-print of each plate is kept on permanent file in
the home office.
358. Photographs as Evidence. While the primary
purpose of these photographs is to secure a record of prog-
ress and to supply material for publicity, they are valuable
evidence in case of disputes; and, moreover, they often act
as a sort of police power in the prevention of litigation. The
knowledge on the part of a sub-contractor that the general
contractor has dated photographs of the work on which
he has been employed, will tend to discourage the present-
ing of unjust claims. Cases of dispute which have come
up, and which otherwise would have gone to court, have
been satisfactorily settled when the photographic records
were referred to.
359. If a company employs its own photographer,
there is an advantage in having a man who has some knowl-
edge of engineering. In fact, some concerns consider an
insight into engineering problems of more value than an
expert knowledge of photography. For securing its photo-
graphic records the George W. Jackson Company, of Chi-
cago, has in its employ a man of some technical training who
is an amateur photographer. He is engaged continually in
System for Handling Construction Work. 203
visiting the different pieces of work which the company has
in hand, and in addition to the photographs which he takes,
he is able to report on any features of particular interest,
or answer intelligently any questions which the pictures
may suggest to the engineers of the company.
360. Uses of the Camera in the Factory. In the fac-
tory the camera can be adapted to an endless variety of
uses, limited only by the ingenuity of the manager in apply-
ing it and the skill of the photographer in working out
practical applications. Here the photographer, in a large
number of cases, is a regular employee, having rooms as-
signed to him in the plant, and occupying a permanent place
on the pay-roll.
361. The Increasing Demand for the Camera in the
Factory. One company photographs drawings which are
sent in to figure from, and which must be returned with
quotations. By this method the manufacturer insures him-
self against the customer substituting another drawing of
more expensive construction, and can refer to the photo-
graph at any time a question arises as to the methods of
figuring, and other matters, before the contract is closed.
362. Similarly for protection, photographs are taken
of the surroundings of a machine when an accident has
taken place. This is always done before the parts are dis-
turbed, so that it may be used as evidence in court. These
photographs have very often indicated that the person hurt
was at fault.
363. General Drawings and Special Details of machin-
ery on price-book pages may very well be photographed,
in order to facilitate explaining the construction of the
firm's manufactured goods to the customer. This saves
the annoyance and trouble of carrying around large blue-
prints which must be folded or rolled up, and which, after
being used several times, become torn.
364. Photography can very advantageously be used
for preserving and duplicating confidential records. The
Power and Mining Machinery Company, of Milwaukee, re-
produced their price-book in this way. And in view of the
204 Library of Practical Photography.
fact that this price-book must be revised very often, it is
also found to be economical and more convenient, besides
more rapid, to typewrite the pages on ordinary commercial
paper and then photograph them down to the proper size
sheet for the price-book. In this manner a large amount of
information can be crowded on a small sheet (necessary be-
cause the book is made pocket size) and the characters are
very clear. By doing this work themselves, instead of
handing it to a printer, they are absolutely sure that the
price-sheets do not get into the hands of competitors, as
the number of copies is kept track of in the photograph
room.
365. The Allis-Chalmers Company attempts to secure
a complete set of views for each installation of equipment
made. These are used by the sales department as aids in
planning tentative lay-outs for prospective customers. (See
Illustration No. 78.)
366. Every salesman knows that if he can show a cus-
tomer just how a thing is going to look when completed, he
has gone a long way toward awakening the interest which
leads to a sale. Especially is this true in an elaborate lay-
out of electrical apparatus, about which the purchaser some-
times knows little and feels a large degree of uncertainty.
367. Photographs for Advertising. The publicity de-
partment of this company also makes extensive use of the
photographs of completed installations. Articles are pre-
pared by the department's technical writer describing the
equipment in detail. This article is mimeographed, and a
copy, together with a set of the views, sent to a large
number of publications likely to be interested.
368. Photographs of important pieces of work are
taken as they progress through the shop, as, for instance,
a group of views of a steam turbine in different stages of
completion. (See Illustration No. 78.) These are used to
familiarize those in both the mechanical and business depart-
ments with the work which is being done, as well as to
assist in accomplishing the other ends which have already
been mentioned. Copies of all photographs are filed in a
System for Handling Construction Wor\. 205
vertical file in the photographic department. For this
purpose they are mounted on a piece of white 6-ply card-
board, 8!/2 x 111/2 inches in size. The prints are attached
only at the upper edge, as pasting over the entire surface
would inevitably cause a warping of the cards, making them
very inconvenient to handle in the file.* The upper margin
of the card is printed with suitable blanks for records, as
shown in the reproduction. They are, for the most part,
indexed under the name of the installation, as " Patapsco,"
" Kern River," and the like, as well as being cross-
indexed for the kind of equipment, as " Steam Turbines,"
" Dynamos."
* Prints may be mounted solid to the cardboard, if dry mount-
ing-tissue is employed. This tissue, together with the simple man-
ner of applying it, is thoroughly described in Volume IV.
CHAPTER XVI.
Construction Work.
Part II.
Practical Application.
369. The application of photography to construction
work, and its value, can be no stronger exemplified than in
the use which the Arnold Company engineers and con-
tractors of Chicago, are making of it. Through the
kindness of Mr. P. L. Battey, the Chief Engineer of the
Railway Shops Department of this company, we are able to
reproduce herewith two series of illustrations, which very
clearly show the immense value of photography in this
particular line of work. The prints are actual construction
photographs, having been taken from the regular office
records of the Arnold Company.
370. The series which we reproduce by no means
comprise the complete set of views which this company had
made of these subjects. We simply reproduce a sufficient
number to show the application of photography to con-
struction work.
371. The series shown in Illustrations No. 79 and No.
80 illustrate the construction of the Stratford, (Ontario)
shops of the Grand Trunk Railway System, for which the
Arnold Company are engineers and surveyors. The Loco-
motive Shop Building, illustrated, is on the site of the old
shop, and due to the requirement of minimizing the inter-
ference of the regular work of the Railway Company, the
building was put up in sections. These photographs show
the first fifteen bents, of which there are twenty-seven.
207
208 Library of Practical Photography.
372. The series of views shown in Illustrations No.
81 and No. 82, (which have been lettered in alphabetical
order) are construction photographs Nos. 4D, 24D, 48D,
56D, 68D, and 76D. These were all taken from one of
the towers referred to in Paragraphs 341-343 of the preced-
ing chapter, and will give an idea as to the progress of this
particular part of the site. Of course these views only take
in a portion of the work, and are not indicative of the
progress of the remainder.
373. The area covered by the camera in these photo-
graphs is a number of acres, as the entire area of the plant
covers about forty acres. Supplementary views of course
were taken, showing particular methods and types of con-
struction throughout the work, in addition to the four gen-
eral views.
374. The towers referred to above and shown in the
diagram (Illustration No. 77) are the ones employed in
making this series of records. One of the towers is in-
cluded in all of these photographs (with the exception of
No. 4D), and will be observed in the extreme distance, a
trifle to the left of the center.
375. Although it is not always possible to use this
particular method of taking pictures on all work, it is the
aim to do so as consistently as the conditions will permit.
Where towers are used, the photographer simply sets up his
camera at the regular time and makes the exposure with-
out any special instruction from the superintendent or
representative of the company at the time, the whole prop-
osition being pre-determined.
376. In regular construction work the Arnold Com-
pany takes the pictures every two weeks, and the prints
are bound in their regular graphical progress charts, cover-
ing each section of the work, a copy of which goes regularly
to the client.
377. A number of the large railroad companies for
whom the Arnold Company has handled construction work,
and upon which they have used their regular system con-
Courtesy of the Arnold Co., Chicago
Illustration No. 79
Construction Photographs A Series for Record Work
See Paragraph 371
Courtesy of the Arnold Co., Chicago
Illustration No. 80
Construction Photographs A Series for Record Work
See Paragraph 371
^^^i^^^^^^^^^
urtesy of the Arnold Co., Chicago
Illustration No. 81
Construction Photographs A Series for Record Work
See Paragraph 372
Courtesy of the Arnold Co., Chicago
Illustration No. 82
Construction Photographs A Series for Record Work
See Paragraph 372
Construction
213
struction reports, which include the photographs, have
adopted the same system, and are using it universally upon
all of their construction work.
378. Prints of Uniform Size. All prints are of the
Courtesy of
Illustration No. 83
Construction Blue Print
See Paragraph 380
same size, and are bound in the same manner, the lettering
appearing in approximately the same location and in ap-
proximately uniform type throughout.
379. It is not always possible for the contractors to
take their own photographs. As a matter of fact, it is found
214 Library of Practical Photography.
to work out quite as economically and advantageously to
contract with a local photographer convenient to the work
in hand, who has a regular time to take the photographs
every two weeks, and who makes them in accordance with a
standard specification which is furnished by the engineers.
380. In Illustration No. 83 is shown a reproduction of
a blue-print which the Arnold Company supplies to the
local photographer. This blue-print is a fac simile repro-
duction of the diagrams and detailed instructions for the
photographer to follow in making pictures for them.
381. Value and Uses of Photographs. There are an
endless number of ways in which the photographs may be
used by the contracting engineer, such as: For bulletin
illustrations; for post-cards, which are issued monthly to
the regular mailing list of railway officials and others; for
constant reference in the office for engineering, estimating
and designing purposes. The latter may not seem of much
importance, but it is surprising how frequently the photo*
graphs come into service. One of the principal advantages
of the photographs is the assistance they give in keeping the
office and the field organizations in touch.
382. A great deal of the work might be termed " rush
work ;" that is, sometimes work is begun upon both the
plans and the actual construction almost simultaneously.
This was the case in the Springfield work, and in cases
where plans are being made to keep ahead of a large con-
struction force, doing the particular thing that needs to
be done at the right time, it is very handy to refer to the
photographs as they come in, as they often show conditions
of work illustrating a great many details, which would
require considerable correspondence or a trip to the worlc.
383. Photographs are used for illustrations and rec-
ords of defective material, machinery, etc., and while it is
seldom necessary to use any of these as evidence in any
controversies, they are a very desirable thing to have.
CHAPTER XVII.
Construction Work.
Part III.
Detailed Working Conditions.
384. The application of photography to construction
work is not confined alone to the large companies and en-
gineers, for if they have found it of inestimable value it
is quite certain that all engaged in work of this nature will
find that the use of photographs not only saves time and
money in the ways previously mentioned, but they facilitate,
to a great extent, the actual work of construction.
385. The superintendent of the work should have a
sufficient knowledge of photography to at least be able to
operate the camera and give instruction intelligently with
reference to the finishing of the pictures. There are times,
however, when it is preferable to have a regular photog-
rapher attend to the securing of the views. For this reason
every photographic worker should be thoroughly informed
with reference to the requirements of the engineers, so that
he may be able to supply the highest class of work. The
general instruction contained in this volume regarding the
photographing of machinery, etc., should be thoroughly
mastered, in order that one may intelligently reproduce all
detail work. Instruction regarding the making of general
views of plants and buildings, in fact, all architectural sub-
jects, is contained in Volume III.
386. Apparatus Camera and Lens. The necessary
outfit for record of construction work can be covered
with two cameras, one an 8 x 10 fitted with a rectilinear
215
216 Library of Practical Photography.
or an anastigmat lens, the other a pocket or hand film-
camera. The 8 x 10 camera is used for all record work,
and, therefore, such a lens should be used as will give
perfect rectilinear lines. For this purpose a high grade
Extra Rapid Rectilinear or an Anastigmat lens should be
employed.
387. The camera should be one having as many at-
tachments as possible, and especially is it desirable that the
back have both horizontal and vertical swings, and that
the front be of the rising and falling type. The bellows
should be of sufficient length to permit one to use the single
combination of the lens, which combination usually has a
focal-length approximately double that of the complete lens.
388. The Tripod. The tripod should be extremely
rigid, for often it will be necessary to stop the lens down
to a very small aperture, which will require exposures of
some little duration. The aim in every case should be to
secure an exact record of facts with perfect accuracy. If
the tripod were not sufficiently rigid, a slight breeze might
ruin a negative, by causing a blur or a double image to be
registered on the plate.
389. The hand or film camera is employed for special
work illustrating different circumstances and little incidents
that occur during the day, for which a small picture is
sufficient, and the film camera is very convenient to handle,
and is always ready for operation.
390. Plates. Any ordinary plate will answer the pur-
pose for the making of architectural and general construction
negatives. As most of the work is made while men are at
work, a rapid plate will need to be employed, for when work-
men and continuously moving objects, such as teams, cranes,
derricks, etc., are included in the view, quick exposures will
be required in order that no movement of these objects
be recorded, and in such cases a rapid plate is a necessity,
but no specially corrected plate, such as the orthochromatic
plate, will be required. The only advantage of such a plate
is apparent when the construction work is badly scattered
and a large area is to be taken in the view ; then the use of
Construction Work- 217
orthochromatic plates with a four-times screen would as-
sist in obtaining a more accurate rendering of the scene.
391. Level. It is essential that all lines be absolutely
perfect, and for this reason the camera should be accurately
leveled. Although it is possible to judge approximately on
the ground-glass when the lines of the building are recti-
linear, yet a small pocket level, which will enable you to
set your camera perfectly plumb, should form a part of the
equipment.
392. Time of Day and Light Conditions. First of all,
an exposure should not be made at a time of day when it
is necessary to point the camera directly toward the sun.
An hour should be chosen when the sun is to the rear or to
one side of the instrument. Veiled and foggy negatives
would result if the strong rays of light were permitted to
strike directly, or even indirectly, onto the lens or interior
of the lens barrel. Usually it is preferable to have the
sun to one side of the camera, for in this position it will
cast shadows, which will give relief to the various parts
of the structure, and also materially aid in giving a more
adequate idea as to the character of the most minute details.
It is more preferable to make the exposure when the sun
is under a cloud than to do so when the piercing rays cast
extremely heavy shadows. With this latter lighting effect
the high-lights will be extremely hard, and the detail in
them lost, if enough exposure is given to secure a record
of the detail in the deeper shadows.
393. It is, of course, necessary to make the photo-
graphic records at stated intervals, and for this reason it
may not always be possible to work under the most favor-
able conditions ; but if the photographer will, with the
superintendent of construction, lay out a systematic plan
for making the series of records, objectionable lighting ef-
fects may be almost entirely eliminated, as the most favor-
able time of day may be chosen in which to make the
exposures.
394. Exposure and Development. The exposure will
depend, to a great extent, upon the lens, plate, size of stop,
218 Library of Practical Photography.
and weather conditions, as well as the nature of the subject
being photographed. Full exposure must in all cases be
given; under-exposure would result in a negative lacking
detail in the shadows. This latter is undesirable, as it is
essential that even the most minute detail be shown in the
construction photograph. It is far better to slightly over-
expose the negative, for by exercising proper judgment
such a one can be very easily controlled in the development,
and even though the resulting print may be a trifle flat it
will contain a detail record of facts.
395. In cases of known over-exposure, the develop-
ment should be so handled as to enable a negative of proper
contrast and gradation being secured. Full instruction re-
garding the handling of over-exposures is thoroughly
covered in Volume II.
396. When the extreme of exposure has been given, it
is preferable to carry the development beyond the normal-
stage, and then, after fixing, reduce with the potassium
ferricyanide reducer. (See Volume II.)
397. The suggestions contained in these chapters on
construction work should be most carefully studied, as
they are based upon the practical experience of one of the
largest engineering companies in this country. The secur-
ing of detailed interior photographs is covered in Chapter
VIII, which gives instruction on the photographing of
machinery and all interior details.
398. Finishing the Prints. It is preferable to finish
the print on glossy paper either a developing paper or a
printing-out paper. The method of mounting for the record
files is comprehensively shown in Illustration No. 83, which
is a reproduction from the regular blue-print diagram sup-
plied photographers by the Arnold Company, of Chicago.
399. Volume IV contains detailed instruction regard-
ing the printing and finishing of all classes of photographic
papers.
CHAPTER XVIII.
Commercial Groups.
400. The photographing of groups of large bodies of
men, women or children, or mixed crowds, such as con-
ventions, parades, etc., will occasion but little difficulty to
the one who has carefully followed the instruction, in pre-
vious volumes, on this subject. With very large groups,
however, the conditions are somewhat different. Fre-
quently the photographer has to consider more the question
of how to get his picture and how to get the crowd on to the
limited space of his plate, than how to get the best lighting
or most effective posing.
401. Groups Outdoors. In such instances, the pho-
tographer has little to consider but the question of speed
and appropriate surroundings. It is frequently possible
to arrange the groups on a sloping ground, or on the steps
leading to some large public building. This enables the
photographer to get a clear view of each individual. Where
this is not possible, the photographer must place his camera
on an elevation, by means of an extra tall tripod. These
tripods can be obtained up to eight feet and more in height.
When an ordinary tripod is employed, a temporary plat-
form may be constructed out of a few wooden boxes, and
the tripod placed on them. A big crowd photographed on
level ground, with the camera on the same level, will make
anything but a satisfactory picture, and would probably
result in sales only to the fortunate few in the front ranks.
Where sloping ground is available, or large steps leading
to some public building, it will be found a good plan to ar-
range the group with more depth than width, and thus
not only give the appearance of a larger group, but you
may work closer to them.
219
220 Library of Practical Photography.
402. The Lens. The lens should be a thoroughly
good instrument, covering the plate it is made for sharply
to the very edges. A first-class rapid rectilinear, one that
cuts to the edges of the plate at f.8, will be a satisfactory
instrument, but a good anastigmat lens of any make will,
of course, give greater brilliancy and flatness of field. Not
much will be gained in speed, however, by using these
lenses, as considerable stopping down will usually have to
be done to get both the front and the rear of the group in
sharp focus.
403. Focusing. A point a little inside of the center of
the group should be selected, and the ground-glass focused
with the lens wide open. Then stop down gradually until
both the front and the rear figures are equally sharp. A
lens of too short a focus will result in the distortion of the
faces at the sides of the group hence a normal-focus lens
should be employed. Where the group is arranged in
pyramidal form, on steps, etc. one tier back of the
other the swing-back of the camera should be used to
assist in bringing the rear and front of the group into equal
focus.
404. Lighting. The lighting should, of course, be
from the side, or rather, half-way between a line drawn
through the camera and one joining it at right angles.
In other words, the light should not come from back of
the camera, nor yet entirely from the side, but between.
Late afternoon is the best time of day, if the choice is with
the photographer. A cloudy day is the best for all out-door
groups, as the light is then softer and more diffused. Fail-
ing this, arrange your group, if possible, in the shadow of
a building, when similar conditions will prevail. If the
picture must be made in the sun, then, with the sun shining
from the left of the picture, have the members of the group
turn their heads toward the right or, in other words, away
from the sun when squinting of the eyes is entirely over-
come. A broader and more even lighting is then obtained,
which, with a softly developed negative, should give a most
satisfactory picture.
Commercial Groups. 223
405. The essential points are: Get above the group,
or have your group so arranged that each row of people
stands higher than the front row; get each individual as
large as possible; have sharp definition, and get as good
lighting as possible, avoiding harshness on the one hand,
and flatness or over-dark faces on the other artistic effects
are seldom desired or wanted for commercial work.
406. Small Groups. These should present no diffi-
culties other than those already described in previous in-
struction. The skill of the photographer will show itself
in the arrangement of the individuals and the selection of
suitable background material. Illustration No. 84 shows
a battalion of soldiers in camp, in which all the requirements
of good commercial grouping are preserved. The back-
ground of tents and trees is appropriate; the ends of the
group are not too square, and there is little difference be-
tween the sizes of the faces in the front line and those
in the rear, all being equally sharp. In Illustration No. 85
grouping of a different kind is shown. This is equally as
effective for a company picture, but not as a picture of
the individual members, yet will sell readily on account
of the memories it recalls.
407. Convention Groups Indoors. This is work of a
more difficult nature. Usually it requires expert flashlight
knowledge to get the most successful results, and we treat
of this in another chapter in this volume. In most cases the
photographer is allowed to take the picture from the stage
or platform, his flashbags or machines being distributed
throughout the hall, to give as even an illumination as
possible. The use of a normal focus lens is not always pos-
sible. A wide-angle lens will generally have to be used,
but it should not have too short a focus; otherwise the
faces of the people at any distance from the camera will
be very small.
408. Panoramic Groups. A very effective and pleas-
ing (because out of the ordinary) form of grouping can
be accomplished by the aid of the panoramic camera. This
instrument, in its most perfected form, is best represented
224 Library of Practical Photography.
in the Cirkut camera, made in various sizes by the Century
Camera Company. There are other forms of panoramic
cameras, but this one is typical and gives the most effective
picture.
409. Description of Camera. The Cirkut camera is
provided with a long bellows, so that a long-focus lens can
be used, giving better proportions of picture than with the
ordinary panoramic instrument. The lens is relatively sta-
tionary, while the sensitive film (plates cannot be used) is
relatively moving during the exposure. The film moves
past a narrow vertical slot, at the back of the camera, at
a certain speed, which is in proportion to the speed with
which the camera itself revolves. A special tripod has to
be used with this camera, which has a revolving apparatus
attached to its base (enabling the camera to make a picture
of 360 degrees, or a picture of any length up to that). The
revolution of the camera can be stopped at any point. A
scale on the top of the tripod shows at a glance where to
stop the camera for any desired length of picture. One
pressure of the bulb attachment starts the camera and an-
other pressure stops it.
410. Making the Group. In using a panoramic camera
in which the lens revolves about a fixed point, it is clear
that if a long, straight building were being photographed
with the camera exactly opposite the center of the building,
with the part of the building opposite the camera in focus,
the two ends of the building will be very much out of
focus ; even though the lens was of universal focus the
ends of the building would be so much further away
from the camera than the center that their images would
be very much smaller. The same happens with a group,
and in making a group of people it is naturally desirable
to have them all, as far as possible, appear of equal size.
To achieve this it will not do to arrange the individual peo-
ple in straight lines, as would be the case when photograph-
ing with the ordinary camera and long-focus lens.
411. To get a satisfactory panoramic group it is neces-
sary to arrange the people in a semi-circle, or any part of a
Commercial Groups. 225
circle, around the camera. This is very easily effected by
focusing on one or two of the group, at the distance best
suited for obtaining a fairly large image. Using this dis-
tance as the radius of a circle, group the remaining people
around the camera at the same distance. A piece of string
the length of this radius, with one end attached to the
camera and the other end brought to each individual in the
front row of the group will insure the correct distance from
the camera being obtained. A very large group may neces-
sitate the arrangement in a complete circle. (See Illustra-
tion No. 86.) A small group can be arranged to fall within
12, 14 or 20 inches of film length.
412. As the camera revolves on its tripod, particular
attention must be given to see that the camera is perfectly
level, otherwise considerable distortion will appear in parts.
It is better to work the camera at a slow speed on windy
days, as there will then be less chance of the wind affecting
the camera in its revolution. The speed of the camera is
controlled by various-sized fans giving speeds from % to
1-50 of a second. With this latter speed, fast moving objects
can be successfully photographed. Panoramic groups
should be made on level ground.
413. Development. The developing of panoramic
exposures presents no difficulties, beyond the necessity of
having large trays and plenty of solution. Special printing-
frames can be obtained for printing the pictures.
414. School Groups Out-Doors. A profitable phase
of commercial group work is the photographing of classes
of school children, especially in public schools. In the
larger cities, these classes often average forty or more
children, the majority of whom may be depended upon to
buy a picture, if their faces show up well. The photographer
should either make the acquaintance of the individual
teachers and persuade them to get permission from the
principal for him to photograph the children, or else go
direct to the principal. Some principals are averse to
letting strange photographers make pictures of the children,
but it should not be a difficult matter to become acquainted
226 Library of Practical Photography.
with some of the children or their parents, and thus get
an introduction into the school.
415. . The best time to do the work is in the early morn-
ing, after the opening exercises. The children are then in
the best of spirits. The school yard is usually large enough,
and one or two benches can always be borrowed from one
of the class-rooms. Group the children in the most effective
manner, the teacher in the center, the smaller ones nearest
her or sitting down in front, the middle-size children on the
benches, and the tallest arranged behind the latter. Very
effective pictures can be made with the children at their
games under the leadership of the teacher. These find a
ready sale, and often can be sold to the local newspapers, as
well.
416. Never attempt to joke too much with the chil-
dren, especially if they are young. If they once get started
laughing it is a difficult matter to quiet them when you
want to take the picture. Work quickly and quietly, as
there is usually little time to spare. Give a couple of sets
of the pictures, mounted exactly as they will be when
delivered, to the teacher as soon as possible. The children
will draw their impressions of the pictures from these sam-
ples, and will tell their parents accordingly. Provide the
mounts, if possible, with a little printed strip, giving the
name of the class and teacher. Half a dollar will be about
as much as can be asked for such pictures, but at this rate,
it can be made quite profitable. Use a 6^ x 8^/2 or 8 x 10
plate and keep the faces light.
CHAPTER XIX.
Use of Smokeless Devices in Flashlight Work.
By the Prosch Manufacturing Co.
417. Much progress has been made in flashlight
methods during the past few years. The old smoke nui-
sance is being avoided by the use of special fire-proofed
bags, which retain the smoke and permit the light from
the flash to pass through in diffused form. This revolution
in method has been brought about largely through the
introduction during the past few years of the Prosch Smoke-
less Flashbags and the Prosch Electric Envelope Flash
Cartridge, both patented devices.
418. Various Flashlight Methods. It may be well to
speak briefly of the other methods of flashlight work still
in vogue. Among them, the pure magnesium blow-lamp
process is a very efficient and necessary one for interiors and
still life, and for commercial, sample, and catalog work,
while the newer flashbag process is likely to be confined to
the work of photographing people, and for interior work
where smoke must be eliminated.
419. Magnesium Lamps. Pure magnesium blow-
lamps are made in many sizes and forms, prices ranging
from $1.50 to $30.00 for a single lamp outfit. In these lamps
pure magnesium (which is finely ground magnesium metal)
is blown from a tubular reservoir up through a spreader, or
V-shaped projector, in a wide, but very thin, sheet, through
an alcohol flame, which, if the magnesium is of the proper
grade and quality, completely oxidizes it, creating an intense
white light. If not of the proper grade there will be some
sediment of partially consumed magnesium. During the
229
230 Library of Practical Photography.
burning of this magnesium, the operator, who is holding
the lamp in hand, walks to and fro behind the camera,
raising and lowering the lamp to throw the light on every
possible shadow that might be cast by the article being pho-
tographed. In commercial work (for which these lamps
are used) flat lighting that is, absence of all shadows
prevails, while in portrait lighting, side lighting must pre-
dominate to produce good modeling.
420. Flash-Lamps for Compounds. There are also
lamps for using ordinary explosive flash powders. These
are still more numerous in style, design and methods for
igniting the powder. The methods for igniting explosive
powder in these lamps require the burning of alcohol, which
is extremely dangerous when used near such powder; burn-
ing ether, which is more dangerous ; percussion caps ;
burning punk ; all of which are limited to the firing of one
lamp at a time. Electricity, however, is by far the safest
and the most successful method to employ ; and in addition
it can be made to set off almost any number of lamps simul-
taneously. The development of the electric flash-lamp, by
the Prosch Manufacturing Company, has led to the intro-
duction of the Prosch Flashbag, which is shown in Illus-
trations Nos. 87 and 88.
421. Flashbags. The flashbag comprises, first, a fire-
proofed, pure white muslin bag, made in peculiar form,
extensible and collapsible by means of various styles of
frame-work ; second, a special style lamp made to ignite
electric cartridges or loose powder by means of electric
current ; third, wiring ; and fourth, switch-board necessary to
carry the current to the bag-lamp and to control its use.
The flashbags are generally used in sets of two or more,
as the maximum amount of powder that can be set off with
perfect safety in the ordinary flashbag is one-half ounce.
A lamp of peculiar shape is necessary for ignition of powder
inside the bag, as the flame must be directed straight
upward so that it will not char the cloth. The patented
form of lamp (which is a piece of sheet metal bent up
against itself to form a long pocket), or the patented elec-
TJ _
---
c
-
Smokeless Devices in Flashlight Work. 233
trie envelope cartridge (which has the same form as
the lamp described), make use of the only safe principles
for a bag-lamp. These force the flame upward into a
thin sheet of great area, which increases the illumination
about 50%.
422. Cloth for Flashbags. In use the flashbag is
securely tied so that practically no smoke escapes from
the flash, excepting that coming through the pores of the
cloth, which is unavoidable. The cloth must not be heavy
enough to cut down the intensity of the light too much,
nor so light that it will not hold most of the smoke ; there-
fore, in the flashbags on the market, the medium weight
of cloth is used. This cloth must be of an excellent quality,
to take the fire-proofing well and permanently. Poor
grades of cloth do not hold the smoke and are not so safe
to use. The flashbag, therefore, must be made most con-
scientiously and carefully.
423. Diffusion of Light. In use, also, the light of the
flash illuminates the whole flashbag like a Welsbach mantle,
and diffuses and spreads the intense light in all directions.
For this reason this form of flashlight is most remarkably
superior to the open flashlight for actual photographic work,
even leaving out of consideration the elimination of the
smoke. It is destined to take the place of all open flash-
light work.
424. Fire-Proofing Flashbags. Just a word about fire-
proofing of flashbags before taking up the next topic. There
are numerous methods of fire-proofing, or so-called fire-
proofing. The disastrous results experienced by those
photographers who thought they could save money by doing
their own fire-proofing and making their own bags proves
that it is wise to leave such important matters to those
who know how to do it properly. It is true that almost any
kind of fire-proofing will last for a short time, but, unless
it is done permanently, the bag imperfectly treated may
blaze up at the most unexpected time and cause untold
damage. A concern that makes a specialty of making flash-
bags for use in the most particular places will be absolutely
234 Library of Practical Photography.
certain that its fire-proofing will be of the permanent qual-
ity. Flashbags are things that no photographer has any
right to make in a crude way, thus endangering the property
of others.
425. Classes of Work. Now the question is asked,
how are flashbags used, and for what particular kinds of
work ? Let us divide their use into two classes small -work
and large work. By small work, we mean the use of a two-
bag outfit for portraits, groups, dinners and weddings,
mostly in studios, homes, churches, social halls, leaving all
hotel and club work, whether large or small, in the class
of the large worker. The latter operates almost exclusively
in hotels and clubs, and most of his work is in photograph-
ing banquets and other large social events. (These two
classes of work are distinctive, and the same photographers
seldom do both kinds to any extent; so we will treat of
them separately.)
426. Professional Photographer's Equipment. In the
studio one flashbag can be used to advantage when the re-
flector is employed. Ingenious devices are being made to
enable the operator to make repeated flashes without the
trouble of emptying the smoke each time. But if the
studio photographer is going to make the most of his flash-
light opportunities, he must be prepared to go into his
patron's home to take interiors, dinners, weddings, etc.,
without giving any annoyance. In this way a dozen nega-
tives can be made in the home to one made in the studio.
For this work he will need only a two-bag outfit with elec-
trical fittings so that he can use batteries in case the home
is not fitted with incandescent current.
427. The regular studio photographer would be very
unwise to try to get the large banquet work in hotels, unless
he is willing to equip himself thoroughly for this important
work. The average studio man is content to confine himself
to what two or three bags can be made to do. For group
work three bags are better than two, just as two are better
than one, because it is necessary to get a strong side lighting
to give good modeling. In all two or three-bag work the
Smokeless Devices in Flashlight Work. 235
heaviest charge is placed at the side, with a weak light in
front of the group, behind the camera.
428. Large Work. Banquets, Etc. As to the class
of large work, let us say that this is becoming very rapidly
a distinct profession in itself, and requires good business
ability outside of the regular photographic ability. It is
as different as newspaper photography from the ordinary
photography. While it requires considerable practice and
skill to get the best results in using bags for banquet work,
under the exacting conditions that prevail, it also requires
considerable maneuvering to get the hotel work to do, to
get the information about dates of future banquets, to get
ahead of the other fellow who is free with his fees to the
stewards, head waiters, etc., to convince the manager that
this is a free country, that hotels are public places, and that
he has no right to favor one photographer more than another.
429. Special Apparatus. Then, hotel work takes not
only generously large outfits of flashbags to always have
enough in reserve to cover several banquets at the same
hour, but it requires special cameras, and sometimes special
lenses, in order to get prints in which all heads are large
enough to draw forth the two or five dollars from the re-
spective owners. Most of the big flashbag operators in
New York have as many as fifty to seventy-five bags each
and they have several suitable cameras for the work.
430. Time to Make Exposure. The invariable custom
is to make the exposure when the guests take their seats,
and then show finished prints before the dinner is over and
before the speeches begin. This is the harvest time for these
photographers. They frequently take in as much as $500
from a single banquet, and seldom less than $50.
431. Cost and Profit. The expense for powder, or
electric envelope cartridges which most of them use, for
a large banquet is not over $1.50, for assistants not over
$5, and for plates and developing only a dollar or two;
so there is an immense profit in this work. Most of this work
is done on speculation, and for this reason the greatest dif-
ficulty confronting the photographer is to get ahead of all
236
Library of Practical Photography.
competitors by being on confidential terms with the hotel
management. This will enable the photographer to know
about dates for banquets. There are plenty of good oppor-
tunities for this work, and in New York City there is enough
of this work to support fifty such photographers during the
entire season. The conditions in other cities are somewhat
similar.
Illustration No. 91 a
Banquet Illuminated by Flashbags Floor Plan
See Paragraph 434
432. A Commercial Group. In Illustration No. 91 we
present a smokeless flashlight group picture of the profes-
sional photographers of Pennsylvania taken at their banquet
held at the Hotel Walton, in Philadelphia, during their
state convention. The picture was made by Mr. W. H. Rau,
of Philadelphia.
433. The smokeless flashbags used in making this ex-
cellent picture are the results of exhaustive experiments
on the part of Mr. Rau, whose eagerness to secure pictures
by flashlight, less the offensive after-smoke, has resulted in
Smokeless Devices in Flashlight Work- 239
the successful flashbag apparatus used on this occasion.
Mr. Rau's success with these flashbags has been the means
of encouraging manufacturers of the old style machines
to seek similar improvements, with the result that today
the Prosch Manufacturing Company has placed upon the
market the simple and practical flashbags previously
described.
434. Method of Procedure. In making the group pic-
ture for the above illustrations, Mr. Rau used six flashbags
four at the side and two at the front of the group, with the
camera placed in the corner of the room between the two
sets of flashbags. (See Diagram No. 91a.) A large 10-foot
tripod was used to support the camera, while a step-ladder
was employed for focusing. Victor flash-powder was used,
about 14 ounce in each bag, and the flash was made by
using an electric current from the building. The size plate
employed was 18 x 22, Cramer Crown. The camera was
fitted with a 7-A, 16-inch focus, Goerz Dagor lens, stopped
to f. 16.
435. A Valuable Suggestion. A very clever device ar-
ranged by Mr. Rau, which created much amusement for
the guests, was as follows : Cartoons of some of the promi-
nent members present were sketched on white canvas and,
folded in a neat little roll, were placed on the top of each
flashbag, with the top end of the sketch pinned fast. When
the flash was set off the concussion of the powder caused
the cartoons to drop over the front of the bags, thus serving
to hide the bags and also furnishing fun for the guests. The
bags were left intact until after the guests had adjourned,
and r.o effects of smoke or odor from the powder was
perceptible.
436. Quick Delivery of Prints. Another very interest-
ing part of this demonstration of smokeless flashlight was,
that within 36 minutes by the watch, after the flash was
made, two mounted photographs of the group were cir-
culated through the audience, for inspection. The financial
success of flashlight work depends on quick results. It is
important to have one or two solicitors with samples of fin-
240 Library of Practical Photography.
ished prints, mingling among the guests, securing their
orders and collecting the amount while they are interested.
Never depend upon obtaining orders after the guests have
departed, for by that time all interest will have ceased and
orders will be hard to obtain at any price. Other examples
of flashlight photography are shown in Illustrations No. 92
and No. 92a.
CHAPTER XX.
Press Photography.
437. Introduction. A phase of commercial photog-
raphy, which has grown with leaps and bounds during the
last few years, is the making of pictures for the newspapers
and magazines. So similar appear the two classes of work
that they are generally known as " Press Photography," but
in actuality the work of the newspaper photographer is
vastly different to that of the photographer who supplies
magazine illustrations. The former is all for speed, incident,
vivid contrasts, and, above all, vital action.
438. The newspaper photographer is ever on the jump,
ready at a moment's notice for any assignment an early
morning fire, or a presidential candidate; the scene of a
gruesome murder, or the snapping of a foreign noble bride-
groom entering the church. His pictures must tell news,
just as truly as the reporter's story tells the facts.
439. The magazine photographer, on the other hand,
prepares his work deliberately. He pictures incidents in
series, or hunts up his subject according to the story to be
illustrated. He works slower, but must produce more per-
fect work than his newspaper brother. With these dif-
ferences in view, we divide our instruction on press photog-
raphy into the various classes into which it naturally falls.
Part I.
Newspaper Photography.
440. Newspaper photography is one of the newest
arts, yet within the past few years it has become one of
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242 Library of Practical Photography.
the most important. Few papers of large circulation and
good standing can afford to ignore illustrations, and in this
fact lies the opportunity of the photographer-correspondent,
wherever he may be. The demand in nearly every news-
paper office is for pictures, pictures, and, again, pictures.
A good striking picture is often worth more than a column
of reading matter.
441. The Record. One fact must always be borne in
mind by photographers who would make money by selling
pictures for publication. The camera is an absolutely faithful
witness to what it sees. The reporter who gathers facts and
weaves them into an article may draw upon his imagination,
to a certain extent, for " local color " or " atmosphere ;" such
additions, while often not strictly correct, lend an added in-
terest to the " story " make it more readable and do no
harm.
442. Striking, Sensational Scenes. The camera cannot
go outside the range of its vision to gather color romance.
The good newspaper photographer always remembers this,
so his constant endeavor is to train his camera upon the
most striking, dramatic, sensational scenes of any happening
he may wish to picture.
443. Real News Value. It is because of his instinctive
recognition of (his " nose " for) news and the news value
of pictures that the newspaper photographer forges to the
front and commands a good salary. Two photographers
may take pictures of the same scene or subject; one will
make a perfunctory albeit a good picture, the other will get
real news value on his plate. It is the second man who
will sell his stuff, while the goods of the other go begging.
444. Action in Picture. For instance: There is a fire ;
an important building although in a small town may be
going up in smoke. Most newspapers illustrating their news
would like to have a picture of the actual fire scene. The
experienced photographer will not be content to take a
snap-shot of the burning building; he will plant his camera
in position and wait until he can picture firemen climbing up
ladders, or some thrilling scene of rescue. This is getting
Press Photography. 243
" life " or " action " into a picture. The photograph that
has " life " in it, although of a comparatively insignificant
subject, will sell, when one without " life " or " action " al-
though seemingly of much greater importance will be
turned down by the news-editor.
445. The photographer, therefore, should always en-
deavor to get " action " into his picture. He should aim at
accessories to the main fact. If he is photographing a street
parade it is not enough to picture the parade; he should
always endeavor to show some portion of the crowds on
the sidewalks, and some of the decorations of the buildings
should form a background.
446. If the photographer, then, will always bear in
mind that his pictures should have a definite news value,
he will have far less trouble in selling them. There is
always a demand for such pictures. A snap-shot, however
good, of President Roosevelt standing alone would not com-
mand a dollar in any newspaper office in the country ; every
paper has such pictures of the President in stock, without
number. But a picture of the President accepting flowers
from a little girl, or shaking hands with a cripple on the
street, would sell readily.
447. Ingenuity Brought to a Test. Then, too, it must
be remembered that it is not the photographs most easily ob-
tained that sell best. The newspaper camera man must exer-
cise the greatest ingenuity, the most daring resourcefulness.
This is not always at hand, as it would seem. If one can get
a better photograph of a procession or some other event by
climbing a tree, the extra exertion will be forgotten if his
pictures sell over those of the man who remained on the
ground. Always bear in mind, if one man can do a certain
thing, another, most likely, can do the same; never be dis-
couraged by seeming obstacles. The photographer who
shows the greatest resourcefulness in overcoming obstacles
is the one who commands big prices for his work.
448. One of the best photographs ever made of an
excited political gathering on the street was snapped by
a man who climbed to the top of a ladder, far above the
244 Library of Practical Photography.
heads of the surging crowd. At another time this man
stood on the sill of a window in the twelfth story of a
big office building and photographed a parade in the street
below, while two men held him to prevent a fatal fall. He
secured a picture that was unique the marching men below
resembling pigmies and that was why his photograph was
better than any taken by his rivals. The peculiar angle was
such that he could not have made the exposure simply by
leaning out of the window ; he was obliged to stand outside
it and lean far outward.
449. One of the best photographs of an impressive
religious service was made by him, in a church, while stand-
ing on a pedestal some eight feet tall. It happened that
this elevation gave the best light and afforded the best view.
His pictures sold in preference to any others.
450. The newspaper photographer must learn his
business through experience, always bearing in mind that
" news value " and " action " count best of all. The pic-
tures most difficult to obtain are usually the most prized
by editors.
451. Know Your Camera. One of the earliest funda-
mentals to be impressed upon the photographer is, get
acquainted with your camera; learn exactly what it will
do and what you can do with it. The most successful news-
paper photographers use a hand camera of the reflex type,
with a focal-plane shutter. One cannot do much with a
camera smaller than 5x7. These pictures can be enlarged
if desired. For flashlights, big gatherings, etc., the size
runs up to 11 x 14.
452. Good Lens Fast Plates. One should have the
best lens obtainable and the fastest plates plates that main-
tain their quality in all temperatures and do not harden in
winter or soften in summer. The plates recommended for
Press Photography are Lumiere Sigma, Hammer Red
Label, Seed Gilt Edge (2?') and Cramer Crown.
453. Exposure. The length of exposure for pictures
of different kinds must be learned through practice it does
not take long. The speed table that comes with the reflex
Press Photography. 245
camera gives the exposures necessary under ordinary cir-
cumstances, ranging from 1-5 to 1-1000 of a second. The
higher speed, however, is largely guesswork. Every
amateur knows that on dark days, or toward evening, a
longer exposure is necessary than in the bright light of
mid-day.
454. Moving Objects. In snapping moving subjects
and such pictures always have a high value in the news-
editor's eyes one must govern his control of the camera
and the swiftness of the shot by the position and motion
of the subject. One may be endeavoring, for instance, to
snap a prominent man, a notorious criminal, or a principal
in a celebrated divorce case. It is much better to catch the
subject coming toward the camera, for a longer exposure may
be given. When snapping a person moving across the
camera's vision the shot must be made more rapidly, and
unless the light conditions are good, satisfactory results
cannot always be obtained. It is especially desirable to get
in front of the subject on dark days or zvhen working in cor-
ridors, narrow streets or elsewhere in a poor light.
455. Flashlight Pictures. In making flashlight pic-
tures it is best not to have the lamp on or too near the
camera; when people are thus photographed, gazing di-
rectly at lamp and camera, their faces usually show ghastly
and with strained expressions. If you have only one lamp,
place it several feet to one side of the camera, or as far
away as six feet if the light from the lamp is strong enough.
Whenever possible, it is best to use two lamps, a smaller
one beside the camera and the other some six, eight, or more
feet to one side. These are flashed simultaneously. It is
well to practice making flashlight pictures; photographs
of happenings at night very often prove of immense value
to newspapers.
456. Finishing Negatives. When there is plenty of
time, the photographer doing work for a paper in another
city finishes the work himself; but it is seldom he has time
for this. The majority simply send in the plates and let
them be developed in the newspaper office. Nearly all
246 Library of Practical Photography.
staff photographers sent out from the home office do
this.
457. Label Each Plate. It must be borne in mind
that each plate must be distinctly numbered or labeled,
so that it may be identified by means of the explanatory
letter, telegram or telephone message the photographer
sends. The identifying caption should be explicit; not
merely " Street Scene in Scranton," but " Scene of Masonic
Parade at First Street and B Avenue."
458. Intelligent Systematic Work Counts. To be suc-
cessful, the newspaper photographer must carefully study his
camera and become capable of getting the best work out of
it ; he must attend to orders promptly and be quick to seize
the possibilities for making sales; above all, he should get
" action," " life " and " dramatic interest " into his pictures.
Always endeavor to get the plates to the awaiting news-
paper as far in advance of press time as possible, as each
news-editor likes time to arrange for a striking " layout "
of his illustrations by the office artist force.
459. Key to Class of Pictures Demanded. Watch
carefully the big newspapers that use illustrations freely.
Observe the kind of pictures to which they seem partial and
you will soon learn how to please. And bear in mind that
one picture of human interest something with life and a
story in it is worth a dozen photos of buildings, monu-
ments and other inanimate objects.
CHAPTER XXI.
Press Photography.
Part II.
The Local Press Photographer.
460. In many cases the photographs published in daily
or weekly newspapers, magazines, etc., are supplied by
regular press photographers, but a large percentage of
those used for this purpose are secured in other ways. The
larger publications have a photographic staff of their own,
but the smaller periodicals depend, to a great extent, upon
photographs sent to them by contributors.
461. Special Contributors. The majority of publica-
tions keep a special file wherein they have listed the names
of photographers located in different communities, upon
whom they may call at any time for special work. It is
an easy matter for one to have his name placed on the
files of various publications. If the pictures submitted are
satisfactory they will be immediately accepted, and each
success attained will place you in greater confidence with
the publishers, and they will assign work to you more
often if they feel positive that you will be able to comply
with their requirements.
462. Promptness. One cannot be too prompt in car-
rying out orders thus given, for promptness and quality of
work are the two greatest essentials to success.
463. Unlimited Field. The field for this class of work
is absolutely unlimited, for one located in any section of
the country may, from time to time, obtain excellent prints
of great value, especially for the weekly journals.
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248 Library of Practical Photography.
464. Story with the Prints. Although the prints
themselves are of value, if one can supply some interesting
data regarding the picture and the incident which it rep-
resents, the reward will be far greater than if the prints
are simply submitted without the article.
465. To be able to write a little story in connection
with the picture makes one's work still more valuable. It
is not necessary to have any great degree of literary ability,
nor are the editors as exacting as the inexperienced person
is apt to believe. The essential features of an article of
this kind are, first, tell the story in a simple, concise and
clear manner, second, give all of the facts, and, above all,
be prompt in sending the manuscript and prints to the
editor. Of course, one should be grammatically correct in
one's sentences and description, yet it is not necessary to
use stylish phrases nor extended descriptions. An editor
wants the actual facts, concisely put, so that he may publish
the necessary data with the pictures. The photographer
will find it quite profitable to make special efforts to secure
full information regarding the event he has photographed.
466. Foundation of Success. There is always a cer-
tain amount of interest attending the securing of special
work, for a failure to secure the photographs that one is
commissioned to obtain usually results in loss of confidence
by the editor, while, on the other hand, each success in-
creases one's chances of securing more commissions from
a publication, and eventually it will be possible to find a
place on the regular staff of some large publication.
467. Strong Competition. One of the greatest pleas-
ures, however, in this work is in the competition (which
is generally strong) to secure photographs of any incident.
To be successful one must always get the work to the
editor before any one else photographs the scene for,
although your pictures may be technically better than your
competitor's, if his pictures reach the editor first the
chances are that his work will be accepted over yours.
468. Large Profits. The profits which one derives
from this class of work are greater than with any other
Press Photography. 249
branch one may follow. Sometimes only enough will be
derived from the sale of prints to pay for your material,
while again one photograph may bring enough to pay for
two or three months' expenses. The price usually paid,
however, varies from $2.00 to $15.00 per print. Special
occasions and photographs of prominent events those of
world-wide interest bring from $50.00 to $500.00 each.
469. Subject Material. The list of subjects that come
under the head of press photography are without number,
for they not only comprise illustrations for the daily, Sun-
day, weekly and monthly publications, but also for the
trade journals, such as electrical and mechanical engineer-
ing, architectural, building, plumbing and gas-fitting, auto-
mobile, printing, etc. The daily and weekly publications
want pictures of accidents of any kind, and the quicker one
can secure such photographs the better. Especially is this
true in the case of serious accidents on the street. For in-
stance : when a child is run over by the street-car a crowd
will collect quickly and everything will be cleared away,
oftentimes before one has an opportunity of getting on the
ground and securing anything like a satisfactory picture.
Accidents such as railroad wrecks, fires, etc., give one more
time in which to get upon the scene and secure a photo-
graph, yet, no matter what the character of the accident,
it is necessary to be on the scene just as soon as possible.
470. Photographs of public men as they appear on
the street, or entering some prominent building, or while
attending some large gathering, are always of value.
CHAPTER XXII.
Press Photography.
Part III.
Athletic Sports.
471. The press photographer is called upon to photo-
graph athletic sports of all kinds, and he should be ac-
quainted, to a greater or less extent, with the particular
features of the various games, so that he may photograph
the important points the ones which are most interest-
ing and make accurate records of the event.
472. The photographing of athletes in action requires
a focal-plane shutter. In fact, the best camera to use is
one of the reflex type, for with this type it is possible to
make the exposure at the exact moment desired. This
is important in photographing all moving objects horses
as well as men.
473. The photographs reproduced in Illustration No.
93 show a few of the events taken on an inter-scholastic
field day. Figure 1 is the start of a 440 yard run. In
photographing the starts of running races the shutter
should be released at the second the starter fires the pistol.
Always hold the camera low, as it will give the most nearly
correct position of the subjects and show them to best ad-
vantage. If the camera were held on the level with the
eye when one is standing, nothing but the backs of the
runners would show. In Figure 2 is shown the finish of a
run. The exposure was made at exactly the right instant,
for the leader had just broken the white cord stretched
across the track. .With these two pictures, representing the
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252 Library of Practical Photography.
start and finish of an important race, and a little story con-
nected with the incident, one has a good article for any
wide-awake daily newspaper or sporting magazine.
474. Recording Finishes of Races. The camera is now
officially used on many race tracks, and especially at horse
races, where large amounts of money are at stake, to give
a perfectly accurate judgment of the " finish." In these
cases the camera is placed directly above the finishing
line of the track, its angle of view including the whole width
of the track.
475. A cord is stretched across the track, one end
being attached to the shutter of the camera. The instant
the leader touches this cord the shutter is released, making
an instantaneous exposure a perfect record on a sensitive
plate of the positions occupied by all of the horses near
the finishing line. A white chalk mark across the track, or
a heavy white rope stretched high enough to be out of the
way of the racers, enables a perfect and accurate judgment
to be made of the positions of each contestant. Should
a dispute arise at any time the photograph can be pro-
duced, which will settle any contention that might arise.
476. Starts and Finishes. The " starts " of races are
not so important as the " finishes." Newspapers and maga-
zines desire photographs of the finishes of the races.
477. Shot-Put and Hammer-Throwing. In making a
photograph of the " shot-put " or the " hammer-throwing,"
the shutter must be released almost at the instant the shot or
the hammer leaves the hand. An instant may be allowed to
elapse, however, in order to secure an image of the object
being thrown, when it is at its height. An example of this
is shown in Illustration No. 93, Figure 3.
478. Pole- Vault and High-Jump. The contestant in
the " pole-vault " or the " high-jump " should be photo-
graphed just as he clears the bar. Many times he will not
perfectly clear it, but will knock it off the supports, in
which case one should not waste a plate by making an
exposure. Yet, this, at times, is a difficult matter to judge.
If one has perfect control of his instrument and exercises
Photos by A. S. Dudley
Illustration No. 93
Athletic Sports Reflex Camera Work
See Paragraph 473
Photos by A. S. Dudley
Illustration No. 94
Press Photography Reflex Camera Work
See Paragraph 484
Press Photography. 255
care, he will learn to judge instantly whether or not the
athlete will clear the bar, and make the exposure accord-
ingly. In both of these events the contestants make re-
peated trials, so long as they do not touch the bar. After
each jump the bar is raised a certain height, and another
attempt is made. One should watch each event closely, and
after the majority of the contestants have been disqualified
make a photograph of the remaining one or two who are
yet capable of clearing the bar. The most important pho-
tograph to secure here is of the man who makes the record
of the day. A good photographic record of a high-jump
is shown in Illustration No. 93, Figure 4.
479. High and Low Hurdles. In making photographs
of hurdle races the camera should be placed on practically
a level with the track, for this will tend to slightly exag-
gerate the height of the hurdles. In Illustration No. 93,
Figure 5, is shown contestants clearing the final hurdles;
when making photographs of these the shutter should be
released at the instant the leader is clearing the hurdle.
480. Obtaining Permission to Photograph. If you
represent a magazine or newspaper it is a very easy matter
to obtain admission to the field-meet and secure photo-
graphs of the various events. This is a very important
matter to consider, for with the concession, and a ribbon
or badge denoting such a privilege, you will be able to go
into any part of the field so long as you do not interfere
with the various contestants and secure your photographs
from the best point of view obtainable. Always aim to
become acquainted with the manager, or officials in charge,
as well as those familiar with the various events and knowing
the contestants. This will prove of assistance in selecting
the important subjects, thus making your pictures more
valuable.
481. Data. By working in close touch with the man-
agement you can obtain accurate information regarding
the different contestants, which will enable you to secure
a fairly perfect record and full information regarding each
of the exposures you make. Your plate-holders should be
256 Library of Practical Photography.
numbered, and these numbers recorded in your note book.
From the program you will be able to obtain the names of
the contestants entered in the various events, and by
carefully following these you will be able to judge very
closely who will be the winners. This is important, for
it is the photographs of the winners that are most valuable.
The photographs alone would not be of as much value as
when some data regarding the event is supplied with the
picture.
482. Market for Prints. Do not confine yourself to
one publication alone, but send your prints and data to
as many newspapers in your locality as possible. In fact,
supply all editors whom you think would desire the
prints. Even though the publication may have reporters
and press photographers of their own on the field, if your
results are superior to theirs, and if you get them in on
time, you will stand a good chance of securing a sale for
some prints, at least. It is, however, those publications
which are not represented that you should exercise the
greatest effort to supply with prints. It is advisable, when
possible, to make arrangements with the editor before the
event occurs, so that he may depend upon you to supply
the material.
CHAPTER XXIII.
Press Photography.
Part IV.
Excursions, Conventions and Prominent Individuals.
483. Although for all phases of press photography the
reflecting type of camera is the best to employ, a view
camera may be used when photographing large groups
which are arranged or posed expressly for the purpose of
having their pictures taken, but the press photographer
cannot carry more than one instrument; therefore, the
reflecting type of camera is his all-around instrument, and
for reproduction in the newspaper or magazine the 4x5
or 5 x 7 print is just as acceptable as a larger one. If large
prints are desired it is possible to make enlargements up
to 14x17.
484. The lens on all reflecting cameras being of the
highest type anastigmatic it is possible to secure a per-
fectly sharp enlargement. If the press photographer has
to hurriedly secure a photograph of a large group on level
ground, he has many obstacles with which to contend. In
making the photograph shown in Figure 1, Illustration No.
94, the press photographer had but a moment in which to
make the exposure, but as this group contains very impor-
tant personages it was extremely important that a photo-
graph be secured. The picture was made when the party
was taking a minute's exercise while the engine of their
train was taking on water.
485. In securing the photograph reproduced in Figure
3, of the same illustration, more time was available in which
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258 Library of Practical Photography.
to see that each person occupied a position within view of
the camera.
486. It is important, in making a photograph of large
groups, to request the members composing the group to
assume a position enabling them to see the camera. If this
is done their faces will be seen. The most important per-
sonages should always occupy a position in the front of
the group. Included in these two photographs are the
members of the Commercial Organizations of the State of
Washington, who made an extended excursion to Cali-
fornia in 1906.
487. An excellent photograph of Honorable Albert E.
Meade, Governor of the State of Washington, is shown in
Figure 2, of Illustration No. 94. (He occupies a central
position). The exposure was made during a rain shower,
and unknown to the Governor. Photographs of this kind
are always in demand by newspapers as well as monthly
publications, which pay fully twice as much for them as for
the conventional photographs made in a studio.
488. Excursions. During the summer time, especially,
there are, from even the smallest towns, excursions to lakes
and various summer resorts, and the photographer who is
ambitious and will accompany such excursions will reap
a small harvest, providing he can secure a few excellent
group negatives showing practically the whole party. It
is not advisable to wait until you get home and have fin-
ished the pictures before you solicit orders. You should
have a note-book with you, and take down the orders and
receive full payment for the pictures immediately after
having made the exposure. If you are known to the persons
they will not hesitate to pay for their pictures in advance,
and you can either mail or deliver them two or three days
later.
489. During the excitement of the outing it is possible
to secure fully five times as many orders as you would
receive if you waited until people had returned home and
partly forgotten the pleasures of the trip. In fact, if you
did wait, it would be very doubtful whether you would sell
Press Photography. 259
enough pictures to pay for the material used. One must
have a good business instinct and not be at all backward
about exercising his rights and letting the excursionists know
that he is the official photographer on the excursion, and that
it is to him they are to look for souvenir photographs.
490. Publicity. If there is a program issued, or a
special time-table printed by the Railroad Company he
should try to have his name appear on the folder as official
photographer. This will prove of valuable assistance. By
making himself known in this way the people will imme-
diately have confidence in him, and be perfectly willing to
deposit the full amount asked for the pictures.
491. The price for such prints will depend largely
upon the size of the plate used. It is better to sell prints
from only two or three negatives and charge a good price
for them, than to take orders from a half-dozen negatives,
selling the prints very cheaply. There is much less work
in finishing from the fewer number of plates, and the ex-
cursionists will appreciate them just as well as a larger
number. They will seldom buy more than one or two
prints, so one might as well charge a little more for each
print and thus secure larger financial returns. If a 5x7
camera is employed it is customary to sell the prints for
about 35 cents each, or if a set of three is made, charge
$1.00 for the set ; 8 x 10 prints usually sell at 50 cents each.
492. In soliciting orders it would be a good policy to
have a couple of excellent views on hand, which were taken
on previous occasions, so as to give the people an idea
of the class of work and the quality of the pictures which
they may expect. Few excursions consist of less than two
to three hundred people, and one should plan on secur-
ing orders from not less than 25% of these, which will
give profitable returns for the day's work. The pictures
should be finished and delivered at the earliest possible
moment.
493. Conventions. Quite often there are conventions
of different characters, varying in interest to the general
public. The more general or more national the nature of
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the convention the greater are the possibilities of selling
photographs to the larger daily and weekly papers.
494. If one can secure the exclusive right of making
a photograph of the convention in session they should do
so. As an example of the possibilities in this direction we
show, in Illustration No. 95, a reproduction of a photograph
made of the Strike Conference held in Scranton in the fall
of 1902. This assembly was of national importance, and
the results of the conference were eagerly watched for in
all parts of the country, as it had to deal with thousands
of miners. The result of this conference settled one of the
greatest strifes between capital and labor that this country
has ever experienced.
495. The photograph reproduced in Illustration No.
95 was the only one made of this assembly of noted lawyers
and some of the most influential men of the United States.
The first attempt at securing a picture was made on a
Friday morning. The photographer had secured permission
to make the photograph, with the understanding that the
picture was not to be made until a certain hour, when the
judge would make the announcement that a picture was to
be made. The photographer had his 14 x 17 camera set
in position, his flashlight apparatus properly located, and
the machines loaded with powder, when to his dismay the
judge dismissed the gathering for the noon recess and the
various members arose and left the room. The error was
due to the judge forgetting to announce that a photograph
was to be made. The following Monday (November 17th)
the photographer had typewritten slips handed to each mem-
ber, stating that a photograph would be made at the noon
recess, and that each person was requested to remain seated
for a few moments. This time the judge did not fail to make
the announcement; in fact, he gave a special recess at 11
o'clock, for the purpose of having the photograph made.
496. No difficulty was experienced in getting an ex-
cellent exposure. The plate was developed, a bromide print
made, and the photographer immediately went to New
York and sold a print to Collier's Magazine for $75.00.
Photos by A. S. Dudley
Illustration No. 96
California Earthquake Reflex Camera Work
See Paragraph 500
Press Photography. 263
497. Taking into consideration that this was the only
photograph made of the convention, it is a very easy matter
to estimate that the returns to the photographer from this
one negative were no small amount, for each member was
anxious to get prints, which sold for $5.00 each. The pho-
tographer could, however, have secured $200.00 from Col-
lier's as easily as he did $75.00, for they wanted the picture
and would have been willing to pay any price to get it.
498. Of course this opportunity does not come to
everyone, yet if you will be on the alert there are oppor-
tunities presenting themselves every day, which, if taken
advantage of, will bring returns of some kind to the press
photographer. He is always sure of making his expenses,
and often secures extra large commissions.
499. Catastrophes. Railroad wrecks, floods, fares,
earthquakes, and all similar catastrophes, due, to a greater
or less extent, to the uncontrollable elements, make good
subject material for the press photographer. The Cali-
fornia Earthquake, which aroused such national interest,
on the 18th of April, 1906, followed by the great San Fran-
cisco Fire, brought into the hands of many photographers a
small mint of cash returns.
500. A few examples are shown in Illustration No. 96,
the upper three of which were taken within an hour after
the earthquake, and show the effects of the catastrophe on
some of the costly buildings at Stanford University, which
institution is located on the Peninsula, thirty-four miles
south of San Francisco. These pictures, together with many
others of a similar character, were immediately forwarded
to eastern publications, as well as the coast daily papers,
and the photographer received an excellent reward for his
promptness in getting out the prints and placing them in
the hands of the various editors.
501. The three lower reproductions in Illustration No.
96 are of scenes in San Francisco, photographed ten days
after the earthquake, and show the deplorable conditions
which existed there at that time. The middle print shows the
ruins of the City Hall; the lower left-hand print shows a
264 Library of Practical Photography.
view from Russian Hill looking toward the business center
of the city ; while the right-hand picture is a view on Market
Street, which gives an idea of the appearance of what was
formerly the main business portion of the city. All of the
buildings were completely gutted by the fire, which burned
this entire district.
502. Conflagrations. In making photographs of fires,
especially for newspaper reproduction, one must aim to
secure the view which will show to best advantage the
magnitude of the fire ; in fact, the incidents connected with
the fighting of the flames, the crowds collecting on the
streets, and, in general, showing the excitement usually
witnessed on such occasions. This would include the burn-
ing building and its surroundings, the fire-engines, the
men at work and the on-lookers, etc. The lower reproduc-
tion in Illustration No. 97 shows the kind of a photograph
that is desired. Compare this picture with the upper one,
which is a closer view of the same building taken within a
few moments of the former. In the one we have no appear-
ance of life or excitement, the picture appearing dull and
uninteresting, while in the other we show action and ex-
citement, giving a general idea of the scene during the actual
occurrence.
503. The negative should be developed at once and
gaslight prints made and sent to the various papers, which
will be printing extras regarding the fire within a short
time after it starts. If the photographer works quickly he
should have finished prints to deliver to the various publica-
tions within 20 minutes after having made the exposure.
It is these prints that will be accepted. The person who
procrastinates will never make a success at press photog-
raphy. It is the alert and ambitious worker who wins.
Illustration No. 97
Conflagrations
See Paragraph 502
Photos by A. S. Dudley
Illustration No. 98
Engineering Construction Columbia River Canal
See Paragraph 504
CHAPTER XXIV.
Press Photography.
Part V.
Engineering Construction.
504. A glance through the various engineering jour-
nals will give one some idea of their photographic require-
ments. All of the various trade journals make certain
demands upon the photographer, but one of the most
lucrative fields that the photographer can enter is the one
embracing engineering work. It is always necessary to
have photographic records of the various stages during the
progress of any large engineering project, such as the photo-
graphing of canals, canal locks, subways, tunnels, buildings,
the erection and installation of all kinds of machinery, etc.
To illustrate the handling of subjects belonging to this class,
we show in Illustration No. 98 four different views of the
canal built on the Columbia River to overcome the rapids
at the Cascades. The illustrations are intended to give an
idea of the manner in which a canal lock is operated.
505. The object of canalizing rivers is usually to over-
come abrupt ascents, and several short canals have been
constructed for this purpose on various rivers in the United
States. The width of these canals is governed, to a certain
extent, by the size of boats that are to pass through them.
They are, however, wide enough to allow of two boats
passing in them, so that one may go up and the other down
at one filling of the lock.
506. Figure 3 is a view taken from the rear of a boat
having entered the first lock, and shows one of the lower
gates as it is being closed. Figure 4 shows a lock filled
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268 Library of Practical Photography.
with water, both of the gates having been closed, of course.
The boat has been raised to the level of the water in the
lock above. Figure 1 is a view from the front of the boat,
showing the lower side of a closed gate, while Figure 2
shows this gate partly open, with a boat in the upper lock
ready to come down to the lower lock.
507. This branch of commercial photography is in-
exhaustible, so far as the variety of subject material is con-
cerned, for it is necessary to photograph all manner of
building and engineering projects during the different
stages through which they have to pass before completion.
As many as twenty-five or thirty photographs are often re-
quired to show these different stages.
508. In Illustration No. 99 is shown the structural iron
work of a large armory. This particular view was taken
from the rear of the building, to give a general idea of the
frame-work. At this stage it was possible in fact desir-
able to make six different views, for the work had pro-
gressed to different degrees in different portions, the ma-
sonry work on the front of the building having been
completed. The engineers generally desire many detail
photographs of different phases of the work which will
show the methods of construction, and especially is this
true when a new form of construction is being used.
509. The building of large reservoirs makes interest-
ing photographs, and in Illustration No. 100 we show the
completed masonry work which forms the dam of a large
reservoir supplying water to a near-by city. The position
chosen from which to make this view was one that shows
the construction in a most perfect manner, and also gives
an adequate idea of the dam and its general surroundings.
510. Panama Canal. One of the greatest engineering
projects of modern times, and one of special interest to
every American, is the construction of the great Panama
Canal across the Isthmus of Panama. When completed
this canal will connect the Carribean Sea with the Gulf of
Panama or, in other words, the Atlantic Ocean with the
Pacific a distance of about 50 miles. This project has
Press Photography. 271
received much attention during the past twenty-five years.
Large sums of money were raised by a company, organized
in France, to construct a sea-level canal at Panama. The
actual work performed was very slight, as compared to the
total amount required to complete the canal, and entirely
out of all proportion to the expenditure. Finally, the affairs
of the company fell into the hands of receivers, under very
scandalous circumstances. The United States Government,
in the meantime, appointed an engineering commission to
examine the project, having received an offer from the
French Panama Canal Company, who wished to dispose of
their interest in the project, for forty millions of dollars.
The matter was finally considered by Congress and terms
agreed upon, which gave the United States full possession
of the Isthmus of Panama.
511. Accurate reports must be sent, by the engineering
officials working on the Canal, to the head of the United
States Government, and it is, therefore, just as necessary to
have official photographers as regular constructing engi-
neers. Thus it will be seen that photography plays an ex-
ceptionally important part in this particular instance.
512. In addition to these, press photographers are sent
to the Canal Zone, from time to time, to secure photographs
and information for the magazines they represent. The
photographs we have reproduced in the accompanying illus-
trations are of the type the press photographer would obtain.
513. In Illustration No. 101, Figure 1 shows the Cu-
lebra Cut as it appeared in June, 1906. This cut is about 11
miles from the city of Panama, which city is located on the
west side of the Isthmus. Figure 2 is from a photograph of
Bas Obispo Cut, looking toward Colon, which city is on
the eastern side of the Isthmus. This illustration shows a
mountain of solid rock, which will have to be excavated for
the Canal. Figure 3 shows the dirt cars, three deep, at
Las Cascadas. The Canal is in the immediate rear. Figure
4 is from a photograph of a steam shovel working on the
higher levels of the Culebra Cut. This steam shovel may
also be seen in the distance in Figure 1.
VII 12
272 Library of Practical Photography.
514. In making these photographs it was the aim of
the photographer to show to the best possible advantage
the lay of the ground and the methods employed in getting
out the dirt and rocks.
515. The photographs reproduced in Illustration No.
102 are scenes in Panama City. Figure 1 is a view of this
city from Tivoli Hotel. Figure 2 is from a photograph of
Central Avenue after the Isthmian Canal Commission had
paved it. This shows the Spanish style of architecture,
which prevails throughout the Isthmus. Figure 4 shows
another section of this avenue during the Roosevelt parade
in 1906. Figure 3 shows yards of the Panama Railroad at
Panama City.
516. In Figure 1, Illustration No. 103, is shown a lot
of old French machinery piled up at Empire. This is but
a small part of the unused materials which were left by the
French company when the United States purchased the
Isthmus. Figure 2 shows the laborers in line for their pesos,
at Ancon. Figure 3 is a mining gang at Pedro Migner, ex-
cavating for a lock site. Figure 4 is a general view of the
Empire shops, at Empire City.
517. In Illustration No. 104, Figure 1, is shown a type
of architectural construction used throughout the Panama
regions, and which the American Government uses entirely
for their employees. The building is constructed with large
porches completely surrounding it, which porches are
screened in so that it may be possible for persons to sit out
in the fresh air and yet be protected from mosquitoes and
other insects, which are very troublesome at times. The
particular building illustrated in this figure is the peniten-
tiary at Culebra, a double row of barb-wire being around it.
Figure 2 is a tropical view showing the palms in the hos-
pital grounds at Ancon. The house on the right was for-
merly the De Lesseps' palace. Figure 3 shows the native
huts at Pueblo Nuevo. Figure 4 is from a photograph of
a railroad flag station at Lirio. One of these stations is
located at every turn in the road, in order to avoid collisions,
for dirt trains from the Cut follow each other very closely.
Press Photograph]). 277
518. This set of illustrations gives but a very slight
idea of the great possibilities which present themselves to
the photographer in this particular section of the world.
The material for the press photographer is unlimited, yet
it is necessary that care be taken to secure the most interest-
ing and the most typical views. There are so many new and
extraordinary scenes that it is possible to waste dozens of
plates and yet not secure a print which will be acceptable
to publishers. The pictures must in themselves tell the
story to a great extent. The manuscript which accompanies
them should deal simply with definite data which cannot be
told in the photograph.
519. Pictures such as these just described, accom-
panied with a little data somewhat after the style of this
chapter, for the compiling of a story, is what the papers
want and are willing to pay liberally for. The more action
and typical views one can obtain the more interest the pic-
tures will have.
CHAPTER XXV.
Stereoscopic Photography.
Introduction.
By L. J. R. Hoist.
520. Nature has equipped mankind with two eyes,
which enables him to observe and judge the distance be-
tween objects, as well as the lateral dimensions of objects.
Experience makes it possible to gauge distances accurately,
but as soon as we must rely on the vision of one eye
only, the faculty of judging distances, if not entirely lost,
becomes materially weakened. The explanation is simple.
We receive in our brain two different images of the same
object, or objects, due to the different relative positions
which our eyes occupy with relation to these objects, and
their blending in the brain produces the impression of
distance between the objects observed. This fact, upon
which stereoscopic photography is based, can be proven by
a very simple experiment.
521. Open a book before you upon the table and hold
one of your fingers, or any other object which will not
entirely hide the book from view, about midway between
the book and the eyes. Now, first close the left eye and
observe which part of the page is hidden from your view;
then close the right eye, and observe that when viewing
with the left eye a different part is obscured. Repeat this
experiment, bringing the finger nearer to the eyes. You
will have observed that the distance between the parts
of the book that are covered with the finger increases the
nearer the finger comes to the eyes, and also that it is
quite easy to see with both eyes, not only the finger, but
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280 Library of Practical Photography.
also all of the book, whereas the finger hides the greatest
part of the book when looking with one eye only.
522. These apparent inconsistencies are conciliated
in the brain, which through life-long training, has learned
that they are caused only by the different distances which
objects are from our eyes, and then makes us observe their
distance. The fact that young children will reach for ob-
jects that are entirely out of their reach shows that they have
not yet learned to properly combine the vision of both
eyes, which moreover explains their frequent unintentional
squinting.
523. These remarks will help us to thoroughly, under-
stand the principle of stereoscopic photography, which is
to first produce pictures such as each eye forms of a view,
and then to arrange them for viewing so that they will
blend and, by their blending, produce the sense of distance
or space. We need the stereoscopic camera to produce
the picture and the " stereoscope " to view it.
524. Stereoscopic Cameras. There are a few devices in
existence whereby the two stereoscopic images of a view are
obtained by means of one lens only, but they offer no prac-
tical advantages over the usual two lens cameras, and
therefore are only used where the twin lenses are not at
hand.
525. There are mainly three different sizes of stereo-
scopic cameras in use in this country, viz., 3% x 7 inches,
5x7 inches, and 5x8 inches. Some manufacturers have
made smaller sizes, which have met with a great demand
from amateur workers ; but views made for sale are, with-
out exception, both here and in Europe, 3% x 6 inches,
which dimension must be considered as a standard, and
from which we conclude that the 5 x 8-inch cameras are
unnecessarily large, and that the 5 x 7-inch cameras are
most desirable, owing to the ease with which plates of
this size can be obtained everywhere.
526. It should be plainly stated than in stereoscopic
photography the actual size of the picture, or of any object
in the picture, is of very secondary importance, as the
Stereoscopic Photography. 281
observance of a proper relation between the taking and
the viewing lenses makes it possible to produce the im-
pressions of large and even life-size objects, from very
small views.
527. The next point of importance is the most desir-
able distance at which the lenses should be placed. Some
cameras permit of the adjusting of this distance from 2%
to 31/2 inches, but in actual practice this adjustment is of
very little or no value, and it is most convenient to place
the lenses at the standard distance of S 1 ^ inches from cen-
ter to center. This is recognized to be the standard dis-
tance by all manufacturers of stereoscopic between-lens
shutters, and is in proper harmony with *the dimensions of
the finished picture, which will appear as standing out be-
hind its mount, and produces the effect of looking at the
view through an opening or window, thereby materially
enhancing the plastic effect. A lesser distance between
the lenses tends to destroy this effect, and a greater distance
would prevent the proper blending of images in the great
majority of stereoscopes of standard manufacture, and also
exaggerate the effect of distance beyond the desirable limits.
528. The wide front board necessary to accommodate
the two lenses leads many manufacturers to fit their stereo-
scopic cameras with a front board of equal width as the
back of the camera a very satisfactory design insuring
great rigidity. The internal lateral partition is frequently
removable, in which instance the camera is equally useful
for ordinary single-lens exposures.
529. The necessity of the greatest possible sharpness
of definition from the nearest foreground to the furthest
distance makes ground-glass focusing highly preferable
over reliance on a focusing scale, as only very few operators
can " divide " the focus with certainty without seeing the
actual image projected by the lens. For this reason the
most successful hand-camera stereophotography is done
with reflecting cameras. (See Illustration No. 105.)
530. The Lenses. The majority of photographers
have only one set of stereoscopic lenses and must use
282 Library of Practical Photography.
these for the greatest possible variety of views. This
makes the selection of a focal-length from 4% to 5 inches
most desirable. As such lenses embrace only a relatively
small angle of view on the finished picture they are not
very desirable for interior views, for which a focal-length
not exceeding 3% inches should be selected. It is, of
course, of the greatest importance that a set of stereo
lenses should be accurately matched; that is, that their
focal-lengths be as nearly alike as possible a difference not
exceeding 1-250 of an inch, or l-10m/m, is allowable.
531. Testing the Matching of Lenses. If a pair
has not been matched by a reputable firm of lens manu-
facturers they can be tested by a comparison on distance
and on close-by objects. If a pair matched properly on
a distant view, it would still be possible that a difference
in focal-length exists, but is compensated by a correspon-
ding difference in the setting of the glass in the mounting;
or, in other words, if we should have one lens of 4% inches
focus and one of 4^ inches, they may still show a sharp
distant view at the same adjustment of the lens board
when the shorter lens should also be set -fa inch deeper
in its mounting. This will, however, be at once notice-
able by focusing the same pair of lenses on an object only
2 or 3 feet away. The difference in sharpness will become
visible and we can decide with certainty that such lenses do
not match.
532. This rule works with equal accuracy in the op-
posite way, and may thus be used to determine if matched
lenses are set equally deep in their mountings. Apparently
they might fail to match and one would require to have
its ring or flange sunk in the lens board in order to focus
sharp with the other on distance. If after having done
this the lenses will give equally sharp definition on nearby
objects, they match optically and will be serviceable for
stereoscopic purposes.
533. As to the speed of such lenses, practice demon-
strates that a maximum opening of f. 6.3 or f. 6.8 is ample
for all purposes, and faster lenses can only be recommended
Illustration No. 105
Stereoscopic Reflex Camera
See Paragraph 529
illustration No. 108
Stereoscopic Camera Simple Form
See Paragraph 538
Illustration iNo. 109
Stereoscopic Camera Goerz Anschtitz Folding
See Paragraph 539
Illustration No. 106
Stereoscopic Views
See Paragraph 535
Copyright, 10' 1. by H. C. White Co.
Illustration No. 107
Stereoscopic Views
See Paragraph 535
Copyright 1901, by H. C White Co.
Illustration No. loga
Stereoscopic Camera Kodak
See Paragraph 539
Illustration No. 112
Self-Transposing Printing Frame
See Paragraph 556
Stereoscopic Photography. 287
for portrait work. Larger openings reduce the depth of
focus too much, and especially in stereoscopic photography
depth of focus is of the utmost importance for the final
result. Soft definition destroys the plastic effect of the
image sharp, clean-cut negatives yield the best results.
534. For outdoor work it is often desirable to use
lenses of longer focal-length than indicated for the all-
around set of 4% and 5 inches. When the principal object
is at a distance which precludes sufficient detail with this
focus, longer lenses should be used, and better results will
be obtained with a focus of 6^ or 7 inches, under the
condition, however, that some object in the nearer fore-
ground be included in the view, as otherwise the effect of
distance would be lessened and the picture made to appear
flat.
535. In Illustrations Nos. 106 and 107 are presented
stereoscopic pictures made with lenses of different focal-
lengths. Fig. 1, Illustration No. 106, The Matterhorn, being
a distant view, for the best results would require a 7-inch
lens. Fig. 2, Pompeii, and Fig. 3, the Alexander Bridge, in
Paris, are good examples of the use of normal-focus lenses
for outdoor views, which is about 4% inches. Fig. 4, Illus-
tration No. 107, Interior of the Mosque of el Aksa, in
Jerusalem, is a good example of wide-angle interior views
made with lenses of 3%-inch focus. Fig. 5, The Grand
Hall, in Palace Hotel, is an example of interior work made
with normal-focus lenses, and shows the very restricted
angle included in such views.
CHAPTER XXVI.
Stereoscopic Photography.
Detailed Instruction.
536. Stereoscopic Camera. The stereoscopic camera
in its simplest form consists of a partitioned box with a
pair of perfectly matched lenses mounted on its front board
in a fixed position. The lenses should be fitted with stereo
shutters, both shutters acting simultaneously.
537. The camera should be equipped with a rising
front; also a swing-back or swing-bed, in order that true
and perpendicular lines may be obtained. A dividing par-
tition inside of the camera will be necessary to prevent
the images from fogging each other.
538. In Illustration No. 108 is shown a simple form
of stereoscopic camera, size 5x7. It is equipped with a
Wollensak shutter and symmetrically matched lenses. The
camera possesses a swing for either back or bed, a remov-
able front board, and a hooded, brilliant finder. The stereo
division inside of the bellows is on an improved roller prin-
ciple, and when the camera is closed or opened the division
rolls and unrolls automatically. The stereo division can
be detached from the camera at will, when it is desired
to use the camera for taking 5x7 pictures instead of
stereo pictures.
539. In Illustration No. 109 we present the Goerz-
Anschutz Folding camera, which is adapted to stereoscopic
photography. This camera is provided with an adjustment
by which the separation of the lenses can be varied a
point of some importance for the most accurate work. With
this camera the stereoscopic division can also be removed
and one of the lenses brought facing the center of the
289
290 Library of Practical Photography.
plate. By this means the camera which takes a plate
3% x 7 is rendered available for extensive panoramic views.
Where it is intended to use the camera for both stereoscopic
and panoramic view work, it should be fitted with anastig-
mat lenses. They, having great covering power, may be
used single or double. In Illustration No. 109a is shown a
roll film Kodak constructed for stereoscopic work.
540. Commercial Outfit. To make a business of
stereoscopic photography one should be equipped with a
square-bellows stereo-camera, fitted with focal-plane, as
well as between-the-lens, shutter, both arranged so that
either may be used independent of the other. They should
also be provided with lenses of different focal-lengths,
from 3% to 10-inch focus, the latter to be used when work-
ing at great distance from the object and the former for
working in confined places, interiors, etc.
541. Choice of Lenses. Very good commercial work
may be made with the ordinary rapid rectilinear lenses,
using two 3^4 x 4% lenses for this purpose. Where the
most accurate results are to be obtained, however, the
corrected or anastigmat lenses should be employed, such
as the Goerz Dagor f. 6.8 ; Bausch & Lomb Zeiss-Tessar lib,
speed f. 6.3 ; Dallmeyer Stigmatic Series II, speed f. 6 ;
Ross Homocentric Series C, speed f. 6.3; Voigtlander Col-
linear, Series III, speed f. 6.8, or Cooke Series III, speed
f. 6.5. Any of these types of lenses are sufficiently rapid
and may be used for speed work or time exposure.
542. These lenses are selected for their covering
power, depth of focus, and relatively large working aper-
ture. The smaller the working aperture of lenses the
easier and more accurately can they be paired. Little or
no difficulty is experienced, therefore, in matching lenses
of the rectilinear type, while lenses having a speed of f. 6.8
or f. 6.3 must be selected with great care, and lenses having
apertures of f. 5.5, f. 4.5, etc., are matched only with diffi-
culty. In addition to this the depth of focus of the most
rapid lenses is so very slight that they must be stopped
down in actual practice so their theoretical speed is of
Stereoscopic Photography. 291
no value and the length of required exposures is as great
as lenses listed to work with a smaller aperture.
543. Pairing of Lenses. When two lenses are em-
ployed it is essential that they be accurately paired, both
with regard to focal-length and quality. If it is found that
one is more rapid in its action than the other, which is
sometimes the case, this inequality may be balanced by
using a smaller stop with the more rapid lens.
544. Where one set of lenses is employed for all your
stereoscopic work, a normal-angle lens of from 4% to 5-
inch focal-length should be selected. Distorted perspec-
tives will be the result if wide-angle lenses are used for
architectural subjects, the nearer objects being exaggerated
in size in comparison with those in the distance. On the
other hand, the stereoscopic effect is reduced considerably
if a narrow-angle or long-focus lens is employed, for the
objects near at hand are not included in the picture, and it
is these near objects which assist very materially in pro-
ducing the strongest stereoscopic effect. The narrow-angle
or long-focus lens is suitable principally for long distance
work, where it is impossible to work close to the object.
By using lenses of a long focus in other words, employing
lenses intended for larger-sized work you obtain a larger
image on the same size plate.
545. For landscape work a lens having considerable
depth of focus will be required. The lens which will give
the best single picture, free from optical defects, is desirable
for stereoscopic work. One point in favor of stereoscopic
photography is, that pictures lacking in interest as a single
photograph possess quite a charm when viewed stereo-
scopically, and for this reason the beginner will often se-
cure excellent results with inexpensive lenses.
546. Stereoscopic Photographs with One Lens. Al-
though there are certain disadvantages which accompany
the use of one lens, there are many ways of making the dis-
similar pair of pictures with the ordinary hand camera hav-
ing only one lens. If a 5x7 camera is used the lens may
be mounted on a front board, which may be slid horizon-
292
Library of Practical Photography.
tally from one side to the other, between the two exposures.
In this case a partition in the camera will be needed.
547. Another method is to use a 4x5 camera, making
but one exposure on a plate. For this method a special
tripod top should be employed.
548. A very simple form of stereoscopic tripod head
is shown in Illustration No. 110. This is attached to the
tripod at the center B, and the camera fastened in either
notch A or C, and removed between exposures to the
opposite end.
549. An improvement on the above apparatus, so
far as the work of accurately shifting the camera between
the two exposures is concerned, and also the effecting of
the change with the least possible loss of time, is shown
in Illustration No. 111. The camera is fixed on the block
Illustration No. no
Stereoscopic Tripod Head
Simple Form
See Paragraph 548
Illustration No. Ill
Stereoscopic Tripod Head
Adjustable
See Paragraph 549
A, with the lens pointing over B. When an exposure has
been made the camera, which is on block A, is shifted
to the left until the two blocks again touch each other,
and then the second exposure is made on another plate.
The parallel movement is regulated by a pair of links fast-
ened to the two blocks. This attachment is fastened to
the tripod head at the center, in exactly the same manner
as the camera is ordinarily attached.
550. The single-lens camera, of course, has its draw-
back. For example, when making a picture of a street
scene, or any view where there are moving objects, and
where the exposure must naturally be rapid, the result pro-
duced is far from satisfactory. The objects that were mov-
ing would not have the same attitude or be in the same
Stereoscopic Photography. 293
location in the second exposure as in the first. Where
the twin lenses are used both exposures would be identically
the same. Therefore, even for the amateur the single lens
is not recommended for stereoscopic work, but may be
used in case of emergency.
551. For those who expect to do much stereoscopic
work, and yet do not want to invest in an expensive outfit.
we would recommend the purchasing of a square-bellows
5x7 camera, made for use with twin lenses. The same
camera can also be used with a single lens ; all that will be
required is an extra front board and an extra lens for 5x7
work.
552. Selection of View-Point. The accuracy of the
selection of point of view for stereoscopic work is even more
important than for regular view photography. The stereo-
scopic picture to be interesting must have objects in the
immediate foreground, to give a stereoscopic sense of relief
or distance, and to lead the eyes into the picture, at the
same time breaking up the monotony of plain space.
553. With the regular stereo camera, where the lenses
are mounted stationary, the best stereoscopic effects are
obtained where the nearest object is not farther away than
fifteen feet, and in many cases, especially interior views,
small objects within six to ten feet of the camera assist
materially in balancing the picture.
554. Lighting and Exposure. The lighting of all
subjects intended to be reproduced and to form stereoscopic
pictures should be soft, rather than hard and contrasty.
The high-lights must not be so white that they will produce
a chalky effect, nor must the shadows be so dense that no
detail is obtainable. As a general rule, the most satisfactory
pictures for the stereoscope are those which have been taken
in a subdued light and a fairly long exposure given the
plate. The amount of exposure for different subjects is
exactly the same as when using the lens singly.
555. Development. Stereoscopic exposures are treated
in exactly the same manner in development as the ordinary
exposure, but you must develop for softness and detail.
294 Library of Practical Photography.
When two separate plates are employed for stereoscopic
pictures, one must aim to secure perfect uniformity, bear-
ing in mind that a thin negative yields better prints than
a dense one. Aim to secure detail in the shadow portions
before the high-lights become too dense. A diluted pyro
developer or the Universal Developer given in Volume II
are best suited for developing stereoscopic negatives.
556. Printing. In making stereo prints it is necessary
to transpose either the negative before printing or the
trimmed prints before mounting. The reason for this is,
the lens throws an inverted image on the film ; therefore,
when the negatives are viewed right side up, the one on
the right is from the negative made by the left lens. To cor-
rect this the negatives or prints must be transposed. This
may be done in either of three ways : First, by making
one solid print from the negative as it is, then cutting the
two prints apart, and finally, transposing before mounting.
Second, by cutting the negative in half and, after trans-
posing the two views, mounting them on a piece of plain
glass. The edges are fastened with binding tape and the
print made on one solid sheet of paper. Third, by means
of the stereo self-transposing printing-frame, manufactured
by the Blair Camera Company, and made to hold only
films. By means of this printing-frame the cutting of
the negatives is done away with. The accompanying
illustration, No. 112, of this frame is self-explanatory.
This frame is made for developing papers only, to be used
in connection with film negatives 3*4 x 6^/2, and is not
adapted for glass plates, as they come in different
thicknesses.
557. As the stereo paper may be procured already cut
for use, the trimming of the prints may be done away with
entirely and the one solid print mounted on the stereo card.
558. Depth of Printing. Stereoscopic pictures, when
made on printing-out paper, should be printed to a good
depth. A light print when viewed through a stereoscope
will lack in depth and roundness, and there will appear little
or no relief. While we do not recommend flat prints, want-
Stereoscopic Photography. 295
ing in vigor, they often look the best through the stereo-
scope. The prints should be full of detail. Avoid contrast.
When printing on gaslight or developing papers, extreme
care must be taken to see that both prints are given the
same exposure. When printing on printing-out paper, be
careful to print both sections to the same depth. For in-
struction on toning and manipulation of all papers see
Volume IV.
559. Trimming. Where much stereo work is being
done, the paper should be purchased already cut the exact
size, so that no matter whether you use the self-transposing
printing-frame or if you transpose the negative before
printing, or even if you print direct from the negative and
transpose the prints afterward, the accurately cut sheets
can be used just the same. In the latter case all that is
required is to separate the two prints and transpose them
in mounting.
560. Where stereo prints are only made occasionally
and untrimmed sheets of paper used, then considerable
care must be exercised in the trimming. First, determine
the base line. A suitable size for the individual prints is
2y% x 3%. Provide yourself with a glass form this size.
If oval prints are preferred, a celluloid form should be
used. On one side of the form draw a vertical and a hori-
zontal line, crossing exactly at the center. These lines
will enable you to readily place the film in proper position
when trimming.
561. Position of Cutting Form. Place the prints to
be mounted face up on a sheet of plate glass or zinc, and
lay the glass form with the etched lines in contact with
the print. The vertical line on the glass should be parallel
to the vertical lines in the picture, such as the sides of a
building, while the horizontal line should be made to inter-
sect corresponding points in both pictures. Unless you
do this the two different pictures will be on different planes,
and not on a level with each other an error that will make
it difficult to combine the two pictures when they are
viewed in the stereoscope for when the subject is exam-
296 Library of Practical Photography.
ined it should present the appearance of relief, with all the
composition lying beyond the margins of the print. To
obtain this effect a little more of the subject should be
kept on the left-hand edge of the right picture, and a little
more on the right-hand edge of the left picture.
562. Mounting. Where prints are made direct from
the stereo negative, and are not transposed in the printing,
then before the double photograph is separated you should
mark the pair of prints in some way so as to be able to
match them in the mounting. The left end prints should
be marked on the back with the letter L, and the right
end with the letter R. They may then be numbered in
pairs and cut apart and trimmed, and in mounting be
guided by the letters and numbers on the back.
563. If prints should be mounted without reversing
them, the effect known as pseudoscopic will be produced,
and when the pictures are examined through the stereo-
scope, objects which should occupy a remote position ap-
pear in the foreground, while objects which should stand
out in the photograph tend to recede. Where the nega-
tives are cut in two and transposed before printing, then
one sheet of paper may be used, covering both negatives,
and prints from such negatives may be mounted without
cutting. The best stereoscopic pictures are made, however,
where the prints are made from the original negative and
transposed in the mounting, supplying two separate prints.
564. Paper to Use. Any paper may be employed that
will give good, clear, sharp detail either printing-out or
gaslight papers. Where stereoscopic pictures are made
on a large scale, usually developing papers are employed,
and the cheapest pictures are made where both images are
printed on one sheet, while for the best work they may be
printed from the original negative in one sheet and cut
apart and transposed in the mounting. Usually where gas-
light papers are employed for best work the glazed sur-
face papers are used and the single die cut sheets are em-
ployed. These die cut sheets are supplied by most all
manufacturers of paper.
Stereoscopic Photography. 297
565. Stereoscopic Mounts. Stereo mounts are usually
supplied in three sizes, square or round corners, and in
a variety of colors the buff, white and Queen's gray, how-
ever, are the most popular. The size of the mounts are
usually 3% x 7, 4x7 and 4^ x 7. The size generally used
is 3^2 x 7. Many large concerns who are making stereo-
scopic pictures on a cheap scale are using developing
papers, cutting their negatives in two, transposing them
on a piece of plain glass, masking the negative, and instead
of mounting the prints they are printed in one sheet and
backed with gelatin backing paper, the backing paper sup-
plying the mount. For instruction for backing prints see
Volume IV.
Illustration No. 113
Record Outfit
See Paragraph 578
CHAPTER XXVII.
Photographing Legal Documents, Insurance Applications,
Etc., by Means of the Record Outfit.
566. The use of Photography for quick record work
has in the past been somewhat restricted, owing to the
double process involved ; i. e., the first making of the nega-
tive and then from the negative making the print. The
production of sensitive papers, which permit of direct ex-
posure, led to the invention of an apparatus by means of
which reproductions may be made direct on the sensitized
paper, requiring no special photographic skill to operate.
In fact, with a little care anyone can operate the machine.
For this reason this apparatus has been of great help to
large concerns, such as insurance companies, law offices,
publishers, etc., who require exact records of applications,
agreements, contracts, deeds and reproductions of pages
of books, copying of plans, etc., for by means of this ap-
paratus accurate records are obtained and any possible
error avoided. In addition to these advantages there is
also a saving in clerical work.
567. Use of Apparatus for Detecting Forgery. While
this apparatus is now universally used by all large con-
cerns for different kinds of record work, it is also used in
the detecting of forgery. For example : Where a section
of manuscript or document has been erased, the photo-
graphic copy will indicate it. Inks used at different ages
photograph differently. Therefore, where an addition has
been made this addition may be detected by the appearance
of the photograph, which will show a silver deposit of dif-
ferent density from that of the original.
568. The record outfit was originally constructed for
use in life insurance offices, in large law offices and in
801
302 Library of Practical Photography.
Governmental work, where exact duplicate fac similes of
documents are required for filing and for use in the courts,
etc.
569. Since the new laws governing life insurance com-
panies have gone into effect, it becomes necessary to sup-
ply each policy holder an exact copy of the original applica-
tion. The old method of making copies by hand has be-
come very expensive, requiring a corps of clerks for the
purpose; and, besides, the old method has proven inade-
quate, for the reason that there is some danger of error
in the copy, whereby with the new method the copy is
quickly and accurately reproduced by photography, with a
positive assurance of accuracy and a great saving in
expense.
570. Photographs are taken directly on what is called
" Insurance Bromide Paper," which is made up in rolls
100 feet in length and 11 inches in width. Each roll is
mounted upon a reel, and is exposed in the camera in much
the same manner as a film of an ordinary pocket camera.
As it is reeled off the paper is automatically perforated
every 7 inches, and when as many exposures as may be
wanted have been made, the reel holder is removed from
the camera and taken into the dark-room, where the photo-
graphs are separated by the perforated marks, and devel-
oped in the usual manner.
571. The light for illuminating the application is
furnished by two Aristo arc lamps, one on each side of
the camera, and a little in front of it, so that they throw
a strong light upon the application, which is placed upon
a table or stage directly beneath the lens. To this lens
is attached a prism, which makes the application appear in-
verted on the ground-glass, and, consequently, not inverted
when reproduced on the bromide paper. The image, how-
ever, is in negative form the black letters reproducing
white, etc.
572. The time of exposure given to each photograph
averages about six seconds, and as the replacing of the
application only occupies a similar time, five photographs
Photographing Legal Documents, Etc. 303
may be made per minute. The developing, fixing, washing
and drying takes longer, of course, but the prints are de-
veloped in batches of ten or more at a time, and forty or
fifty photographs are frequently turned out in an hour.
573. The print is developed with gaslight paper de-
veloper, the time consumed being less than one minute,
after which it is placed for ten minutes in the fixing, or
hypo, bath, and then for a similar period in a tank, or
tray, supplied with fresh running water.
574. The print, which is now permanent, is hung up
and dried before an electric fan ; then trimmed and fastened
to the corresponding policy.
575. The original application, after being exposed, is
sent to clerks, called the " backers " (policy writers and
checkers) and by the time it comes back from them the
photograph of it has been finished.
576. The Mutual Life Insurance Company, of New
York, were perhaps the first company to install this method.
They have found it decidedly superior to the old method of
copying applications by hand, as there can be no errors in
the copy, for the photograph is an absolute reproduction of
the original application. This is an important feature.
577. Many times copies are wanted of old policies,
as well as applications, forms of which have now become
obsolete ; these were formerly typewritten, but now they
are photographed, as are also policies held for loans by the
company, check accounts, letters and other documents.
578. The Outfit. The outfit, as pictured in Illustra-
tion No. 113, is manufactured by the Eastman Kodak Com-
pany, and consists of a long bellows camera ; a cabinet ; an
adjustable stage (copying-board) ; a special insurance bro-
mide paper roll-holder, carrying 100 feet of 11-inch paper;
a No. 6 Plastigmat lens (13-inch equivalent focus) and
a 3-inch prism fitted to the lens. In addition to the roll-
holder, a ground-glass carriage and single sheet-holder,
with a full set of nested kits accommodating from 4 x 5 to
11 x 14 paper, are included ; also two Aristo arc lamps,
which supply the illumination.
304 Library of Practical Photography.
579. The base, or the support, for the camera is a
large cabinet, which is provided with shelves for storage.
The camera is arranged on this cabinet and slides bodily
on a track, controlled by a rack and pinion, operated by
a hand wheel on the side.
580. The lens attached to the camera is fitted with
a prism, so that the printed matter is photographed right
side to. The prism is necessary to avoid the inversion of
the image, for while the reproduction is, practically speak-
ing, a negative, yet it is opaque, and we do not look through
it as we would a negative, but at it as we would a print.
The lens is provided with a regulation shutter for ex-
posing.
581. The copy is attached to a stage, which slides
up and down, and is controlled from the back of the camera
by a large hand wheel, thus permitting of the raising or
lowering of the stage from the back while focusing.
582. The apparatus is provided with a plate-holder
which will take plates or paper, thus enabling one to use
the camera without the prism as a straight copying camera,
when desired.
583. Installing the Record Outfit The record outfit,
with lamps in position, will require a space of about 8 x 10
feet, allowing for ample room to pass around the machine.
The apparatus itself is about 72 inches long, and 50 inches
high to the top of the cabinet. The stage or platform carry-
ing copy is 24 inches long, and the lamp hanging on either
side of this would make the distance from center to cen-
ter of lamps about 42 inches, so that a floor space 8 x 10
feet will give ample room to pass around the machine. An
ordinary room 12 x 14 or 14 x 16 feet is amply large for
the operating of the machine, and, in addition, will allow
sufficient space for the dark-room and drying racks.
584. Installing the Machine. The machine should
be installed in one corner of the room, at a distance of
2 feet from both the side and the end walls. See Diagram
No. 114. The Aristo lamps are suspended from the ceiling,
at points 42 inches apart, dropping on each side of the
Photographing Legal Documents, Etc. 305
TABLE
Z1" x 36'
UKAKKSCCVT ElfCTTJlC US*T
Sl H K
30" * 72."
ROOM
o iNumtttHT Eiicnic near
truirt
OPERATING
AMD
' A /}t '
l*CA*9flHMr flfCTTTlt UCHT
Illustration No. 114
Record Outfit Floor Plan of Room
See Paragraph 584
306 Library of Practical Photography.
stage or platform. When ordering lamps for this machine,
state what current the lamps are to operate on, giving volt-
age, and in case of alternating current state the voltage
and frequency. Complete instructions for installation ac-
companies each lamp, so that any local electrician may
easily install it.
585. It is advisable to suspend the lamps by a cord
through a hook and pulley in the ceiling, so that each lamp
may be adjusted to any height desired. Usually a dis-
tance of 6 to 9 inches above the stage supplies the best and
most even illumination.
586. The Dark-Room. The dark-room may be made
by partitioning off one end of the room, and should be
large enough to permit a person to conveniently develop
and wash the prints. A dark-room should not be smaller
than 6 x 10 feet, and a liberal size sink built, with at least
two water faucets. A sink 30 inches wide and 6 feet long
will answer every purpose.
587. Three large trays 20x24 inches, and one tray
11 x 14 inches, will be required for developing, fixing and
washing the prints. The sink should be fitted with wooden
racks, upon which to rest the trays. Besides the above,
you should have an ordinary table, at least 3 feet long,
and a few shelves built over the end of the sink for hold-
ing bottles of developer, etc. A rack may be constructed
underneath the sink, to hold trays when out of use.
588. Drying Racks. The most convenient drying
racks are the stretcher frames. Provide yourself with as
many stretchers as you require, made of 1 x 2-inch pine,
22 x 36 inches in size. Cover these frames with thin mus-
lin. An inch block should be nailed on top of the corners,
and in the center of each screen, thus providing for air
space between stretchers when stacked with prints. When
ready for use, lay the first stretcher on a table (which
should be provided for this purpose and located in the same
room with the record machine) and raise the first stretcher
above the table say 4 inches, to allow for a current of
air to pass between table and screen. Fill the first stretcher
Photographing Legal Documents, Etc. 307
with prints and cover with another stretcher, and continue
in this way until all are laid out to dry. A current of air
from an electric fan will reduce the time required for dry-
ing to a few hours.
589. Manipulating the Apparatus. With the bellows
of the camera extended, the lens and prism in place, and
the ground-glass attached to the rear of the camera, in
place of the roll-holder, you are ready to begin work.
First, place the copy, or application, upon the stage, di-
rectly underneath the prism. This space you should out-
line on the bed of the stage, so that all future applications
may be placed in exactly the same position, thus making
it unnecessary to focus each application. The prism is cen-
tered over the application by racking the camera bed at-
tached to the cabinet, forward or backward; the racking is
easily accomplished by means of a wheel at the side of the
cabinet.
590. To hold the application flat, cover it with a sheet
of plate glass ; then step to the rear of the camera and
observe the image on the ground-glass. The size of the
image is adjusted by the raising or lowering of the stage.
This adjustment is operated from the rear of the camera
stand. The focusing of the image on the ground-glass is
accomplished by racking the camera forward or backward.
When the focus is once obtained for a certain size of work,
there will be no need for re-focusing.
591. After obtaining a sharp focus remove the ground-
glass and place the roll-holder in position. Be certain that
the shutter on the lens is closed, then withdraw the slide
of the roll-holder. Reel off enough sensitized paper for
the first exposure. With lights working well, six seconds
should be .a sufficient exposure. After the first exposure,
the shutter being closed, the exposed paper is reeled off,
bringing an unexposed section in place for the next exposure,
etc. When all applications have been photographed, in-
sert the slide in the roll-holder and proceed to the dark-
room to develop the prints.
592. Removing Exposed Paper. First, begin by cut-
308 Library of Practical Photography.
ting up the paper as perforated on the reel, each exposure
being perforated automatically in the reel. Next, place
the single sheets in a light-tight box or drawer until you
are ready for developing. In the meantime, prepare the
roll-holder again for further exposures, by attaching the
end of the roll of paper onto the empty spool, and insert
the slide to protect it from the light.
593. Developing and Finishing. The exposed sheets
should be developed, fixed, washed and dried without in-
terruption. The developing-room, or dark-room, should
be provided with three lights, two of which should be in-
candescent ruby, and the other may be of ordinary incan-
descent white light. If the developing is done over the
sink, the two ruby lights should be arranged one at each
end of the sink. However, if, as outlined, the developing
is done on a table at the left-hand end of the sink, then
one ruby light should be extended over the table and the
other over the center of the sink.
594. The trays should be arranged in regular order.
First, place your developing tray to your left, on the table,
and next to it one of your larger trays, to be used for acid
water after developing. In the left-hand corner of the sink
arrange the hypo or fixing tray, and place the washing tray
in the sink, next to the hypo tray.
595. The developer may be purchased either ready
prepared, or can be made up by yourself. For developing
and fixing formulae see Volume IV. A large quantity of
the developing stock solution should be made up at a time,
as it keeps well, and sufficient developer should be poured
into the tray to handle the prints nicely. When quite a
number of prints are to be developed, at least two quarts
of solution should be employed.
596. Developing the Prints. Immerse the prints in
the developing solution one at a time, face up ; then, imme-
diately turn them face down, and again face up. This in-
sures an even covering of the print with the solution.
597. When the print is completely developed place it
immediately in tray No. 2, which should be half filled with
Photographing Legal Documents, Etc. 309
water containing a few drops of acetic acid, which latter
checks the development. The prints should be carefully
rinsed in this acid solution for only a second or so, and
then immersed in the hypo bath. To avoid stains it is
essential that the print be completely immersed in this
bath.
598. The formula for mixing the hypo bath is given
in Volume IV, and plenty of solution should be prepared.
The prints may remain in the hypo until all are developed,
but if very large batches are to be fixed not more than
one hundred should be fixed at one time, and even then,
the prints, to prevent matting together and insuring thor-
ough fixing, should be separated at least twice during
the time of fixing. After fixing, place them in a tray con-
taining running water. Handle the prints from one tray
to another, using your former acid tray for your second
tray in this instance. Two or three changes in this way,
with water running in both trays all the while, will wash
the prints sufficiently, after which they may be laid out to
dry. Gather all the prints in one tray, and stand the tray
on end, to drain, for, say, five minutes, thus eliminating
all surplus water. The prints are then laid out on the
drying racks, which are arranged in the operating-room,
as previously described. They may be fanned dry in a few
hours, when they are ready for gathering up, to be sent to
the proper departments.
599. In Illustration No. 114, we present a floor plan
of a convenient room for manipulating the Record Outfit.
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Photography for the Courts.
600. Photographic records, for use as evidence in
court, are accepted in the majority of states, as well as in
many foreign countries. It is vitally important that those
persons connected with court proceedings be well informed
upon the methods of making photographic records which
are to be used as evidence. Not only must the photographer
who intends to cater to this particular class of work, but
also every lawyer, know the methods employed and the
manner of securing such records.
601. Photographic Distortion. It is a common state-
ment, that " a photograph cannot lie ;" but, as many pho-
tographers know, it is possible to misrepresent the appear-
ance of a view by the use of an improper lens. For example,
we may distort a subject considerably by using a lens of
short focal-length. An object which usually appears per-
fectly normal if photographed with the average lens in-
cluding a medium angle, will, when photographed with a
wide-angle lens, show the objects nearest the camera to
be larger in proportion to those in the distance. This is
but one of the many ways in which the camera may not
hold strictly to the truth, yet if it is known what kind
of a lens was employed the observer will secure an ac-
curate rendering of the scene and be able to interpret it in
a truthful light.
602. In order that a lawyer or judge may intelligently
treat with a case where photographs are to be introduced
as evidence, it is essential that he be thoroughly informed
with reference to the manner of securing photographs.
He will then be able to tell in an instant whether the pho-
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tograph was made with a wide-angle lens, or whether
there has been a truthful rendering given of the scene or of
the object photographed.
603. Photographs as Evidence for Damage Suits.
When photographs are introduced in court as evidence it
is essential that the photographer produce full and com-
plete information regarding the methods he used in pro-
ceeding to secure the negatives. For this reason a note-
book should always be carried by the photographer, and
in this book an exact record made of each and every ex-
posure. The first, and perhaps most important, item to
be given consideration is the date and the time of day
that the exposure was made. This should be given in
exact hours and minutes, as a few minutes one way or
the other might make the photographs of absolutely no
value. Next in importance is the kind of lens, its focal-
length, whether wide-angle, normal-angle or narrow-an-
gle; also whether a rectilinear lens or an astigmat was
used.
604. A Complete Record. Another item of impor-
tance, which should receive attention in some particular
cases, is to make a photograph of a scene, and then, leav-
ing your camera on the tripod in the exact position from
which the exposure was made, take another camera and
photograph the whole scene, including the camera which
made the print in question and the scene photographed by
it. The two photographs shown in court will of them-
selves tell much of the story, and do it far more effectively
than with the one print.
605. Truthfulness and Accuracy. Where photo-
graphs of gaps or openings in the earth, holes in the
ground, cracks in a wall, etc., are to be made in order to
prove exactly the size of these openings, a measuring rule
should be extended over the opening and this rule photo-
graphed in the scene. Where large openings are to be
photographed, a long pole should be measured off in feet
and placed over the opening. A two-foot rule, or even
a yard-stick with registered scale of feet and inches, should
Photography for the Courts. 313
be placed on the one end of the pole, to further prove its
accuracy, and the photograph made of the opening with
the pole or rule in the view.
606. In any case where the height or size is to be
shown, a measuring rule should be admitted into the view,
as in this way you avoid disputes as to the accuracy of the
picture. In all cases make your photograph prove its ac-
curacy. With photographs of this kind, and a memorandum
of all necessary data regarding the photograph in your
note-book, you have very valuable evidence which is
unquestionable.
607. Minute Details Recorded. The size of stop, the
exposure, the brand of plate, and the most minute details,
should be recorded, for one cannot rely on memory for
accuracy.
608. Photographing Accidents. The photographing
of accidents requires that the photographer be alert and on
the scene in an instant, if he would secure, approximately,
a perfect record. Although all accidents do not result in
suits for damages, yet such proceedings may occur, and
if they do your photographs with their data will be of
inestimable value. There have been many cases where
the photographer has photographed railroad wrecks and
accidents of various natures, without taking into considera-
tion that they would ever be used as court evidence, but
later, when a suit has been brought for damages, his pho-
tographs have been of vital importance either to the pros-
ecution or the defense, who willingly paid large sums of
money to secure them.
609. There have been cases in which photographers
have received from five hundred to two and three thousand
dollars for a single print. It is a very common occurrence
that photographs of this kind bring one hundred dollars
each. All depends upon the nature of the case and the
amount of money involved, as well as the decisive value of
the photograph. Therefore, a careful memorandum should
be made of all important data pertaining to the accident in
which the photograph figures, and the picture numbered
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314 Library of Practical Photography.
to correspond with the data, being especially careful as to
date and hour of the occurrence.
610. A recent railroad wreck on the Chicago, Mil-
waukee & St. Paul Railroad, in Wisconsin, was photo-
graphed by an amateur who had very little experience in
photography. He secured not only views showing the
wreck in general, but also made an interior view of a
mail car, which showed the damage done in it. The train
crews, as well as individual parties, purchased many of
these photographs, the result of which netted the amateur
about $20.00.
611. A month later he received a letter from the attor-
ney of the railroad, requesting a complete set of views of
the wreck, and a check for $10.00 was enclosed. (A mail
clerk who claimed to have been injured in the wreck, had
brought suit against the railroad company.) The views
were forwarded, and much to the surprise of the amateur
photographer, a couple months later he received a tele-
gram to go immediately to Chicago and take a set of the
views with him. Transportation was provided by the rail-
road company, and the amateur testified in the Superior
Court that he made the photographs. He was questioned
upon certain points, but the most important fact in his
testimony was that he made the photographs at 5 :30 A. M.,
which was twenty-three minutes after the wreck occurred.
612. Further than this, he testified that in the inter-
ior view of the car, the man who stood in the corner wash-
ing his hands was the man bringing suit against the railroad
company for $5,000 damages. At the time of the wreck,
the mail clerk had been sleeping in his bunk above the mail
pouches. His bunk was thrown to the floor, his head
striking the corner of the frame which holds the pouches
in position. He claimed that the injuries sustained neces-
sitated his being removed on a stretcher immediately after
the collision.
613. The photograph shows the man washing his
hands, his back being toward the camera. His build and
dress were recognized by other mail clerks. As the photo-
Photography for the Courts. 315
graph was made twenty-three minutes after the wreck,
when, according to the testimony of the prosecution, this
gentleman was under the care of local physicians at a neigh-
boring hotel, it was impossible for him to be at the hotel.
It happened that the local physicians who attended a num-
ber of other patients at the time had made no record of
their names, nor did they remember whether or not they
had attended this individual. The photograph, therefore,
proved conclusively that the injured mail clerk had not been
taken to the hotel, as he claimed, and it also proved that
he was able to stand up and wash his hands at the basin
in the corner of the car.
614. The testimony of the amateur photographer, to-
gether with his pictures, therefore won the case for the
railroad company. For his services the amateur photog-
rapher received besides all his expenses and a check for
$100, a year's free transportation over their road.
615. Detection of Crime. Perhaps the most important
branch of photography, as applied to law and the courts,
is its use in the detection of crime. It is possible for
the lens to detect and pick out imperfections and minute
detail that the eye would fail to observe. Then, too,
it is possible to enlarge a picture to sufficient size to
enable one to detect minute detail, and thus make a very
careful study of whatever has been photographed. To
illustrate this application of photography to the detec-
tion of crime, we might cite an instance which recently
occurred :
616. An Example. An aged lady, who was quite
miserly and lived alone in a house, was frequently visited
by a neighboring girl, about twenty years old. The elderly
lady was very much attached to the girl. After a visit
from her young friend one afternoon the lady died, and was
found the following morning by a neighbor. The case was,
of course, immediately reported to the authorities, who, in
turn, made a very rigid examination, and without disturb-
ing anything, other than to remove the body, sealed the
house.
316 Library of Practical Photography.
617. The case was a very mysterious one, as it was
impossible to ascertain any direct motive for murder, nor
was there any definite clue to be found upon which the
detectives might work. The young lady was rigidly ques-
tioned, but her story was given in a very frank manner.
She admitted having been with the lady during the day,
but knew absolutely nothing of the crime until the following
morning. Detectives, however, kept a close watch of the
girl, and finally one, more skilled, perhaps, than the others,
decided to photograph one of the foot-prints in the blood,
which had been left on the floor at each step of the mur-
derer. The foot-print was measured and the rule included
in the photograph, at one side of the foot-print, to give
exact measurement. The photograph revealed the fact that
the murderer wore high-heeled slippers; that the left one
had a hole, the shape of a cartridge, on the outer side of
the sole ; and that the slipper was an old one, as the side
of the foot forced the cloth over the edge of the sole and
left its imprint in the blood.
618. Further than this, it revealed that there was a
small piece of felt in the center of the hole and that the
stocking worn by the murderer was of very coarse material,
as the threads were shown through the hole. The detective
at once informed his confederates that the murderer was
a lady, who wore high-heeled slippers, the left one having
a hole in the center of the sole the shape of a cartridge;
that there was a small piece of felt in or near the center of
the hole, and that she wore a pair of coarse stockings.
619. Immediately a detective and one of the police
officers went to the home of the young lady, as she was the
person who had been most strongly suspected, though no
direct evidence had been secured which could in any way
lead to her arrest, and asked her what dress she wore on
the day she visited the old lady. She immediately showed
them all of the garments she had worn, revealing that her
stockings were of coarse material, the weave corresponding
exactly to that represented in the photograph through the
hole in the sole of the slipper. Then they asked her to
Photography for the Courts. 317
see the shoes, which she unhesitatingly brought out, and
although they were clean and showed no traces of blood,
the left one answered the description perfectly of the pho-
tograph which the detective had secured of the foot-print.
The girl was immediately arrested, and when her case was
brought to trial and the photograph produced, together with
the slipper, the evidence was considered sufficient and she
was sentenced to life imprisonment.
CHAPTER XXIX.
Photographing Handwriting.
620. The study of handwriting in court frequently
calls for a great deal of expert testimony on either side,
and is often the cause of most puzzling and contradictory
statements by the various experts. And it is easy to see
why this should be so, when one considers that a person's
handwriting is forever varying and changing, being as
much subject to the moods of the person as the weather
vane is to the gusts of the wind.
621. In every handwriting certain distinct features
will continually appear the dotting of the i, the crossing
of the t, the peculiar formation of the r, etc. but aside
from these features, which sometimes only an expert in
chirography can distinguish, the average handwriting will
vary according to whether the writer is in a hurry or at
leisure, whether in tempestuous mood or at ease with him-
self and the world. Is it any wonder, then, that even ex-
perts will disagree, each swearing to his own belief, or his
own method of deciphering the writing in question?
622. The usual plan adopted in court, with signatures
and all other handwriting, is to make enlargements, in
which the various characteristics can be more clearly
shown. Such enlargements should be made on transparency
plates, for various reasons, more particularly because on
a transparency plate an exact reproduction of the original
can be procured, without elongation or stretching of the
letters in any direction ; whereas when paper is employed
for the reproduction there is a certain amount of stretching,
either in one direction or the other, often sufficient to en-
tirely invalidate the value of the reproduction.
623. Then, again, where it is a question of comparing
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320 Library of Practical Photography.
specimens of the same handwriting with each other, the
transparency reproductions can all be brought down to the
same scale, and then being mounted one on top of the
other will give greater opportunities for comparison than
if laid side by side, as would be necessary in the case of
paper prints. The eye is easily optically deceived, and in
glancing from one sheet of paper to another can easily go
astray; but this is impossible, of course, where two speci-
mens of handwriting are superimposed on transparency
plates, both specimens being visible to the eye at one
and the same time.
624. Making Negatives of Handwriting for Enlarge-
ments. Where entire letters are to be copied for en-
largements, for use as evidence, they should be reduced in
size, say, one-half. This will give you accurate lines to the
edge. If negatives were made the exact size of a letter,
unless great care was exercised and a corrected lens em-
ployed, you would be likely to produce a slight curve in the
copy, which would show slightly in the negative, yet would
become quite evident in the enlargement. By making the
negative a reduced size all lines can be made true, and en-
largements from such negatives will be accurate.
625. When making negatives of a signature, special
care must be exercised, and the signature on the negative
should not be any larger than the original, and as two signa-
tures are generally photographed the genuine signature
with that which is considered a forgery both should be
photographed from the same distance.
626. For example: After making a negative of the
genuine signature, leave the camera in exactly the same
position and replace the genuine signature with the for-
gery, placing it in exactly the same place, and then make
a negative of it. In this way you will be photographing at
exactly the same distance from both, and for convenience
a contact transparency may be made of each, first marking
each negative so as to be able to distinguish one from
the other. With transparencies the original size, they
may be mounted together, so that they register over each
Photographing Handwriting. 321
other. This method is only recommended where the forgery
appears easily perceptible.
627. For critical work, enlargements must be made
from the negative, and while prints are usually made on
bromide paper, yet this method is not so satisfactory as the
making of enlarged transparencies. For instruction for
negative and transparency enlarging, see Volume V.
628. When it is suspected that the signature is traced
over another, by adjusting the two enlarged transparencies,
one over the other, this will be very easily detected. If
they are not copied by tracing, or if a free hand attempt at
writing the name is made, then each letter must be studied
carefully, and by superimposing one transparency over the
other the detection can be made.
CHAPTER XXX.
Photographs as Evidence.
I. ADMISSION NOT SUBVERSIVE OF RIGHT OF
CROSS-EXAMINATION.
629. Photographs are not inadmissible as evidence on
the ground that they deprive the adverse party of right of
cross-examination.
II. WHEN ADMISSIBLE.
A. Ordinary Photographs.
630. (/) As primary evidence. While it has been held
that photographs never rank higher than as secondary
evidence, they are undoubtedly primary evidence (and as
such admissible) upon issues directly involving their
character or quality. With reference to character is the dis-
playing or selling of obscene pictures, while of quality, in
an action brought by a photographer for the value of his
services.
6S1. Best Evidence. It may even be said that photo-
graphs constitute the best evidence possible of the physi-
cal appearance of human beings, animals, or conditions that
have ceased to exist. Photographs of deceased persons are
introduced in court, to show wounds inflicted by murderers ;
healthy appearance of deceased ; physical characteristics
of deceased ; probabilities of future physical development ;
characteristics, vigor, disposition and temperament of de-
ceased. Photographs of animals are introduced to show
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their appearance when alive, while the use of photographs
of different conditions which have ceased to exist may be
classed under the headings : Appearance of railroad wrecks
caused by collisions; appearance and conditions of streets
after storms; as well as the previous physical appearance
of a person.
632. (^) As secondary evidence. It may be laid down,
as a general rule, that, subject to the rules governing the
admissibility and introduction of secondary evidence, pho-
tographs are competent, though in some cases slight, evi-
dence of the identity, appearance and physical characteristics
of the object which they delineate, whether such objects
be animate or inanimate. Photographs, however, are in-
admissible when better evidence can be, or has been, pro-
duced. One very important point which should be remem-
bered is, that photographs taken two years before death
are not too remote, in cases where it is necessary to prove
the identity of persons, to be admitted as evidence. A
photograph taken from another photograph may be used
as evidence.
633. (j) As explanatory or illustrative evidence.
(a) In general, the most common use of photographs
as evidence is to enable witnesses to make their testimony
clear, and to enable judges to understand it better. For
these purposes photographs are used in making compari-
sons of handwriting and in illustrating descriptions of lo-
calities. Photography assists materially in making clear
one's description of scenes of assault, murder, or accident.
They are also very important evidence to introduce in action
for injury. Photographs which are not instructive should not
be used.
634. (b) Enlarged photographs stereoscopic views trans-
parencies from negatives. When additional instruction is
given by the court it is permissible to use either photo-
graphs which are on a larger scale than the originals, or
stereoscopes and stereoscopic views or transparencies from
negatives. The magnifying of handwriting makes it more
easy for the jury to examine the evidence, while if the
Photographs as Evidence. 325
photograph itself has not been enlarged it is permissible
for the jury to use a magnifying glass when examining pho-
tographs ; but where possible to do so, it is far better to
enlarge the photograph that is to be introduced as evidence.
B. Necessity of Proving Accuracy.
635. The right to introduce photographs in evidence
is always dependent upon the making of preliminary proof
of their accuracy. Photographs must be shown to be ac-
curate representations. This proof may be made by any
person of good eyesight, who is familiar with the persons,
places or things represented by the photographs.
III. WHEN ADMISSIBLE.
636. Photographs cannot be made the media of getting
improper evidence before, or for playing upon the passions
of, the jury. Photographs of persons in the nude are im-
proper and not admissible. The reproduction of tableau
planned to intensify dramatic effect of witness' testimony
is also inadmissible, but a photograph of the scene of a
tragedy, made and offered in good faith, is not rendered
inadmissible by the fact that it contains figures to indicate
the respective positions of the principals. Photographs ap-
pealing to passions of jury, and neither necessary nor
instructive, are inadmissible, but photographs otherwise
proper as evidence are not inadmissible because calculated
to awaken sympathy.
IV. DISCRETION AS TO ADMISSION OR
EXCLUSION.
637. It has been held that it is within the discretion
of the trial judge to admit or exclude photographs offered
in evidence. He is the one to decide whether a photograph
is instructive. This discretion, however, usually extends
only to the matter of the verification.
CHAPTER XXXI.
Use of Photography in the Schools.
638. Introduction. It is always essential to have rec-
ords of plant growth, as well as of the arrangement of
apparatus used for the various experimental sciences. In
the past it has been customary for the student to make
drawings of the various stages of plant growth, and to
illustrate, by means of the pencil, the various experiments
in chemistry and mechanics. The object of making these
illustrations is not to train the student in the art of draw-
ing so much as it is to secure a record which can be placed
in the note-book, to show the experiment more clearly than
is possible to describe it in words.
639. It is a generally conceded fact that the average
student is a poor draftsman and fails, in many instances,
to give a proper rendering of his subject; thus the drawing
does not give an exact record.
640. Colleges and universities, as well as many of the
public schools, are resorting to the use of photography,
making a practical application of it. In no place will it
be found more valuable than in making botanical records
and showing the arrangement of experimental apparatus
used in the various sciences, such as chemistry, electricity,
etc.
641. Inexpensive Process. One negative of an ex-
periment is all that is required, as an unlimited number of
copies may be secured from it, thus giving each student a
perfect record of the experiment to place in his note-book.
The expense is practically no greater than the procuring
of drawing materials, and the loss of the time required to
make a drawing, by each individual member of the class,
is avoided.
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328 Library of Practical Photography.
642. Photographing Seeds. Usually one of the first
records made by students in botanical classes is that of
the development of a plant from the seed. In the first of
the series of illustrations accompanying this instruction
Illustration No. 115 is shown the manner of procedure.
In order to photograph seeds to the best advantage, they
should be placed in a diagonal position to the camera (See
Fig. 1). The usual method of starting a seed germ is to
saturate a blotter with water and lay it on a board. On
top of this place a layer of cotton, also saturated with water,
and then lay the seeds in place. For experiment we have
selected three lima beans, three black beans, three golden-
eyed wax beans, three kernels of corn and six peas. An-
other strip of cotton is saturated with water and carefully
laid over the seeds ; the first photograph being made, how-
ever, previous to drawing the upper layer of cotton over the
seeds.
643. Daily Records. The photographic records should
be made daily and at approximately the same hour of the
day. This is comparatively easy, as class periods are
usually at the same time.
644. Location of Camera. The distance between the
lens and the subject in every record made of the same
series should be the same. For ascertaining its distance,
a yard or meter stick will be a convenient accessory. The
object of always having the camera at the same distance
from the subject is to show in a most accurate man-
ner, the actual development which takes place from day
to day.
645. Rapidity of Growth. The temperature of the
room in which the specimens are kept will have much to
do with the progress made in the development of the seed
germ. The amount of daily growth will be the factor gov-
erning the intervals between making of photographic rec-
ords. Instead of making the exposures every day, it may
be thought more advisable to do so every other day. A
photographic record made every day will, however, show a
certain amount of development.
Illustration No. 115
Botanical Studies Development of Seed Germ
See Paragraph 642
Illustration No. 116
Botanical Studies Development of Seed Germ
See Paragraph 648
Illustration No. 117
Botanical Studies Development of Seed Germ
See Paragraph 648
Illustration No. 118
Botanical Studies Development of Twig
See Paragraph 650
Illustration No. 119
Botanical Studies Development of Twig
See Paragraph 650
Use of Photography in the Schools. 335
646. Care should always be exercised that the seeds
are in the same relative positions when making each record.
After the sprout has become x /4 inch long it will, however,
alter the position of the seed. Fig. No. 2 of Illustration
No. 115, shows the seed after it has swollen and the germ
started to grow; Fig. 3 is the next stage, then Fig. 4. In
the latter view the seeds have been intentionally placed
in different positions so as to show various views of the
subjects.
647. At the end of the first week test tubes should
be placed in a rack, or a convenient support, and filled with
water. The root sprout of the seed is then placed in the
water. The seed being of sufficient size, it will find a
support on the edge of the test tube. If a regular test
tube rack is not at hand, small holes can be cut in the side
of a pasteboard box and the test tubes inserted in these.
(See Fig. 5, Illustration No. 115.)
648. The three views shown in Illustration No. 116
(Figs. 6, 7 and 8), further demonstrate the rapid growth,
also the sudden changes which take place during the prog-
ress of the plant's development. Following these we have
the views shown in Figs. 9, 10 and 11 of Illustration No.
117. The series of eleven views cover a period of a plant's
ordinary growth, under natural conditions, during a period
of two weeks.
649. Value of Photographs. This photographic illus-
tration clearly shows the actual value of photography in
illustrating the progress made during the growth of the
seed to a fully developed plant.
G50. Development of the Twig. Another interesting
subject, and one which is usually given consideration in
public schools, is the making of records to show the devel-
opment of twigs. In the early spring, just as the buds
begin to burst, a collection of different twigs should be
procured and these placed in test tubes of water. The
larger the variety of these subjects the greater will be the
value of such a record, for the series of photographs will
show the rapidity of the development of one subject over an-
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336 Library of Practical Photography.
other. In Illustration No. 118, the twigs used were (reading
from left to right), maple, plum, apple, sumach, chestnut,
poplar, blackberry and walnut. The photographs were
made every two days for these four illustrations. Fig. 5,
Illustration No. 119, shows the subjects in their respective
test tubes in the rack. Fig. 6 of this same illustration
shows these twigs at the end of three weeks growth. The
intermediate stages between Fig. 4 and Fig. 6 have been
omitted, but the student should make negatives at regular
intervals (every two days) up until this time, in order
that the record may be complete in every respect.
651. Other Subject Material. These two series of
subjects are given to illustrate the application of photog-
raphy to botanical work, but photography can be applied
wherever a drawing is required. For instance, a valuable
record may be obtained of the construction of different
leaves, the veins, etc., all being accurately reproduced.
652. Photographing Leaves. The most satisfactory
method of photographing leaves to show the veining is to
place the stem of the leaf in red ink and allow it re-
main there until the veins are completely filled, which will
usually take about 24 hours; then lay the leaf carefully
between two sheets of clear, clean glass and bind them
together with lantern-slide binding or passe-partout tape.
This subject may then be placed in the regular copying
frame, as described in Vol. V, and an exposure made in
accordance to the instructions given for copying. The re-
sult of proceeding in this manner will be a negative in
which the veins of the leaves will be transparent, while
in the final print they will be practically black, the fleshy
part of the leaf being of a sufficiently lighter shade to
contrast strongly with the veins. By placing the leaf be-
tween two sheets of glass the serrated edges and general
outlines of the leaf will be accurately reproduced.
653. As previously stated, each and every experiment,
not only in botany but in chemistry and other similar
sciences, should be photographed, the views chosen being
such as will show forth, to the best advantage, the im-
Use of Photography in the Schools. 337
portant points which the student considers in his regular
lesson work.
654. System to Employ. Every school should be
equipped with a photographic dark-room. Many educa-
tional institutions have installed a complete system for
instruction in photography, and where this is the case pho-
tography should, by all means, be employed in the making
of records of various experiments. In the event that a
school is not provided with photographic conveniences, an
individual member of a class, who is interested in photog-
raphy, may take it upon himself to secure the photographic
records. The expense (which will be very slight) may
be divided among the individual students, if the school
does not appropriate the necessary funds. These photo-
graphic records are of immense importance to the individual
student, and each member should unhesitatingly avail him-
self of the opportunity of securing photographs of the va-
rious experiments rather than attempt the making of
drawings.
655. As previously stated, the average student is not
very apt in the art of drawing, and the time consumed in
making illustrations by means of the pencil could be far
better spent in studying the natural object and the per-
fecting of apparatus, and in properly performing and ar-
ranging the experiments, so that each item would show to
best advantage in the photograph. The details and the
method to employ will depend very much upon the con-
ditions existing in each school; but the essential features
with reference to the photographic apparatus will be the
same, no matter whether an individual student takes charge
of the work or whether the school itself has its own
equipment.
656. The Camera. It is not necessary that the outfit
be at all expensive, yet the better the apparatus employed
the more certain and the more satisfactory are the results
bound to be. Much will depend, however, upon the oper-
ator, for the knowledge of the methods to employ is of as
great a value as the apparatus itself. A camera that will
338 Library of Practical Photography.
make a picture 4x5 inches in size will answer every pur-
pose, and the expense of using a plate of this size will be
very slight. On the other hand, a 5 x 7 picture will give a
larger image, and in many cases prove more valuable than
the smaller size.
657. In order that different classes of subjects may
be adequately reproduced it would be advisable to have
a 5 x 7 instrument. Kits may then be inserted in the plate-
holders and 4x5 plates used where the 5x7 size is not
required. The ground-glass should of course be ruled
accordingly ; i. e., lines showing the boundary of the
4x5 plate should be drawn so as to come exactly in
the same position as the 4x5 plate in the holder. A
swing-back or swing-bed will be found a valuable attach-
ment to the camera, for it will be often necessary to tilt
the camera, and the perpendicular lines in the subject
would be distorted if the plate were not kept parallel to
them.
658. Lens. It is not necessary to have an expensive
lens, the main requirement being correction for chromatic
aberration and spherical aberration; the lens should also
give a perfectly rectilinear reproduction of all lines. The
speed of the lens is not an essential factor, for the subjects
are all still life, and an exposure of from twenty seconds
to a minute or so will not be at all objectionable. An
extra rapid rectilinear lens of good focal-length will answer
every purpose. In fact, it will be far better to use a lens
of this kind if those who are to make the pictures are
not thoroughly familiar with lenses of the anastigmat
type. The ordinary long-bellows hand-camera fitted with
a rectilinear lens will answer every purpose.
659. Stop to Use. Depth of focus is a very essential
factor, and in order to reproduce all portions of the sub-
ject perfectly sharp, a mediumly small stop will have to
be used. F.16 or U. S. 16 will, in the majority of cases, be
the proper stop to employ when the subjects are all in one
plane and the distance from the nearest point of the object
to the farthest is not over 2 inches, with the lens of the
Use of Photography in the Schook. 339
camera 2 feet from the nearest portions. The farther the
lens is from the object the greater will be its depth of
focus, of course, but when employing a rectilinear lens the
stopping of it to 16 will insure equal sharpness throughout.
660. Plates. An ordinary slow or medium speed plate
may be employed when photographing the average sub-
jects. Flowers, however, and all material in which it is
important to bring out all of the color values, should be
photographed on color sensitive plates preferably pan-
chromatic or trichromatic plates. A lemon-yellow ray ni-
ter, increasing the exposure three to five times, should
be used in conjunction with these plates. (See Volume II
for full description and methods of handling color sensi-
tive plates and filters.)
661. Background. The background is a very impor-
tant factor. A white one should be employed when the
majority of the subjects or objects photographed are dark,
while if they are light a black ground should be used.
These two extremes will be all that is required, and their
method of use and application is described in Volume III,
Chapter XX, Floral Photography.
662. Support for Camera. A tripod will answer every
purpose for supporting the camera, yet a regular copying
board, similar to the one described in Volume V, will be
found a more satisfactory piece of apparatus for many
still life subjects, and especially in the study of botany,
but for all-around work the tripod will answer every
purpose.
CHAPTER XXXII.
Photo-Micrography.
663. Introduction. Photo-micrography is the art, or
process, of enlarging minute objects by means of the mi-
croscope, and reproducing the enlarged image by photog-
graphy. Century Dictionary.
664. The production of photographic images of micro-
scopic objects is one of the most interesting and instructive
branches of photography, as well as one of the most impor-
tant, from a scientific standpoint. Any one familiar with
the use of an ordinary camera and a microscope will, by
following the instructions given in the subsequent pages,
have at hand an inexhaustible field of interesting study.
665. The amateur photographer can entertain all
members of the family with the many wonderful features
possessed by the most common insect, plant or flower,
which are invisible to the naked eye, but when photo-
graphed through the microscope will show something of
the marvelous and beautiful workings of nature. A thou-
sand and one objects, insignificant in themselves, when
viewed through the microscope become veritable mines
of interest to the mind of the ordinary man, woman or
child, and when enlarged by the aid of photography,
the reproductions can be studied, children instructed, and
their minds broadened thereby and made more receptive.
It should be the aim of every amateur worker to become
familiar with this branch of photography.
666. In schools and colleges photo-micrography is of
the utmost importance, and its practice will result in the
saving of money and time; clearer, and more complete in-
struction can be imparted to the class. Any number of
prints can be made from the photographs taken through
841
342 Library of Practical Photography.
the microscope, and used by the students with most satis-
factory results, as they will be able to follow instructions
more closely and intelligently by having the photograph
of the subject before them, and at the same time, by this
method, particularly fine specimens are preserved for fu-
ture reference and instruction. By means of the photo-
micrographic print a greater number of students can be
handled, than is possible where each individual member of
the class is obliged to use the microscope, in turn, to un-
derstand fully the instruction being imparted. This is
the method of instruction in the leading medical schools
of Europe and America.
667. The strain on the eyes, complained of by so
many when looking through the microscope, is avoided
by photo-micrography, and all can pursue their studies with
greater interest and enthusiasm. These photographs can
also be reproduced on lantern-slides, for lecture purposes,
full instructions for which will be found in Volume V.
The naturalist and the botanist are provided with an invalu-
able assistant in photo-micrography, in that rare specimens
are preserved in all their beauty for reproduction in book
or magazine. By following instructions covering trans-
mitted light and opaque illumination, photographs repro-
ducing microscopic objects on transparent slides can be
made, or depressions, minute cavities and formations on
the uneven surfaces of minerals clearly shown as they ap-
pear through the microscope.
668. To the physician photo-micrography is a neces-
sity, and the more general its practice among the medical
profession the greater will be the diffusion of knowledge,
and the more accurate and valuable this knowledge. It
also prevents all possibility of intentional or unintentional
misrepresentation. Practical instruction is given for start-
ing you right upon this special branch of study.
669. In Fig. 1, Illustration No. 120, is shown a micro-
scope of sufficient power for the physician's research, bac-
teriologists agreeing that the magnifying to +1000 being
all that is required. The camera attachment to the micro-
Illustration No. 120
Practical Outfit for Physician or Naturalist
See Paragraph 669
TI
BK--
5
'
Photo-Micrography. 345
scope is of simple construction and will answer for all prac-
tical purposes. The intelligent use of photo-micrography
is of the utmost value to every physician and surgeon,
whether specialist or general practitioner, for by its means
he not only is able to prove to his satisfaction his diag-
nosis or findings, but has material immediately at hand
for future reference, which cannot fail to help him in his
practice.
670. Photo-micrography gives to all a new field of
study, and one that is filled with the most unexpected and
beautiful creations of Nature's workshop.
671. Expensive Apparatus not Essential. For the
student or household an expensive outfit is entirely un-
necessary. Any ordinary microscope with a good solid
base, and containing a fairly fine focusing rack and pinion,
will answer almost every purpose. With such an instru-
ment a two-thirds or one-sixth objective may be employed.
However, the low-power two-thirds objective will prove the
most serviceable, and a one-sixth is really unnecessary.
672. For botanical studies the two-thirds objective is
the only one for the student to use. This stand fitted with
the Schriever Microscopic camera makes the outfit com-
plete. A reproduction of this outfit is shown in Illustration
No. 121 and the camera can be procured from the American
School of Art and Photography, Scranton, Pa.
673. Practical Outfit for the Physician or Naturalist.
While for this outfit a very elaborate camera may be em-
ployed, with long extension bellows and tilting stand for
working upright or horizontally, yet for all practical pur-
poses the camera attachment shown in Illustrations Nos.
120 and 121 will answer, and by its use the very best of
results can be obtained. For the more advanced or for phy-
sicians' use a better microscope, however, is required, but
the same camera may be employed. For this purpose we
recommend, and include in this outfit, the stand, BBS,
manufactured by the Bausch & Lomb Optical Company,
Rochester, N. Y. This is a standard instrument for every
kind of work. It is a very necessary requirement for the
346 Library of Practical Photography.
use of low and high-power lenses, and is, therefore, univer-
sally used by physicians. In this outfit is included a two-
thirds, a one-sixth and also a one-twelfth oil-immersion
objective.
674. The stand is fitted with both coarse and fine
focusing adjustments, an Abbe condenser with Iris dia-
phragms being also supplied. The instrument is supplied
with plain and concave mirror, extra large, adjustable ver-
tically on a swinging arm for focusing the mirror and to
secure oblique illumination. The pillar is made with a
joint for inclination, and with a stop for holding the body
exactly horizontal when inclined. A reproduction of this
complete outfit is shown in Illustration No. 120, Fig. 1.
675. Description of Outfit, Illustration No. 120. a, is
the microscope ; b, is the ground-glass screen ; c, camera at-
tachment ; d, the plate-holder ; e, carrying case for the micro-
scope ; f, eye-piece. These are the principal attachments to
which we will refer in the instruction to follow.
676. Supports for Instruments. It is important that
the instruments be placed on a solid, level support, which
is perfectly rigid, to avoid any movement whatever, for the
slightest movement will interfere with the obtaining of
perfectly sharp results. A good, solid, heavy table will
answer every purpose.
677. The Dark-Room. One of the indispensable ac-
cessories in connection with photo-micrography is the dark-
room. While this room need not be very large, it must
be absolutely light-tight, and for comfort should be well
ventilated. To make it more complete, it should have run-
ning water. An ordinary closet can be arranged to ad-
vantage. Where the work is done at night any ordinary
room which can be made absolutely dark will answer. For
the physician his regular office or consulting-room fills
every requirement. In the consulting-room, or some side
room, a very neat closet can be fitted up by partitioning
off one corner of the room. This dark-room need not be
larger than 3x3 feet.
678. Dark-Room Equipment For convenient work-
Photo-Micrography. 347
ing the dark-room should contain the following parapher-
nalia, or its equivalent : 4 rubber trays, 4 x 5 ; 1 rubber
fixing box, 4 x 5 ; 1 zinc washing box, 4 x 5 ; 1 small negative
rack ; 1 dark-room lamp (developing lantern) ; and regular
developing chemicals, depending upon the developing for-
mula employed. The dark-room lamp should be of good
size and well ventilated. The Ingento ruby lamp is well
equipped with all requirements. It is large, having a
door on each side, one side containing a ruby light which
supplies the illumination by which you may develop the
plates. The other side has a ground-glass for exposing the
developing papers and examining the plates after they are
developed and fixed. Either gas, or kerosene oil, or elec-
tric light can be used as the illuminant in this lamp. The
front section has three removable 7 x 9-inch glasses, ruby,
orange and brown, thus securing any quality of light, and
the lamp is of ample proportions to avoid over-heating.
If kerosene oil is used, ventilation is provided for to pre-
vent an offensive smell. When using the lantern for de-
veloping, the flame should be kept quite low. This will
not only prevent over-heating, but provides against fogging
the plates during development. For complete information
for dark-room see Volume II.
679. Illuminants. Photo-micrographs may be made
by either daylight or any artificial light, but more uniform
results will be obtained by means of artificial light, as it
is not as strong as daylight it permits of more latitude
in exposure and is more even. However, one should be
guided by one's own conveniences.
680. Daylight Illuminant. When using the micro-
scope and camera for daylight illumination, do not place the
instrument in direct sunlight. Subdued light is best, as it
allows for more latitude in the exposure. Neither should
you place the instrument too near the window, but close
enough to obtain illumination and overcome the reflection
of the division sash of the window into the mirror. Usually,
working about two feet from the window will give you
good illumination.
348 Library of Practical Photography.
681. Diffusing the Light. A very good way to modify
the light, if too strong, is to provide a piece of heavy card-
board, about 14 x 17 inches in size. Near one end of the
cardboard cut a square opening about 10 x 12 inches. Cover
this opening with fine white tissue-paper, pasting around
the edges. About three or four inches from the bottom
of this card, bend it at right angles to form a base for its
support. The sides are braced by means of cardboard cut
wedge-shape and glued into the corners. See Fig. 1, Illus-
tration No. 122, which illustrates completely the arrange-
ment for daylight exposure.
682. Artificial Light. In Fig. 2, of Illustration No.
120, is shown the use of electric light for exposing. For
this purpose a 32-candle power incandescent bulb is used.
In this illustration you will observe the large, white card
back of the electric bulb which serves as a reflector. By
means of the reflector the light is made more powerful,
thus shortening the exposure. In Illustration No. 123,
Fig. 3, is shown an arrangement for illuminating by gaso-
line vapor lamp. This class of light is used practically the
same as the electric light. Fig. 4 shows the arrangement
for illuminating with gaslight.
683. These different illustrations show the various
forms of artificial light, and have all been tried and found
to give satisfactory results. If none of these sources of
illumination are available, a good kerosene lamp can be
used with success, but considerably longer exposure will be
required. The selection of the illuminant is entirely im-
material. You must be guided by your surroundings, and
you may make use of any light at hand. The use of gas-
light is, perhaps, the most convenient and easily manipu-
lated, and it is almost universally available, as nearly every
city and town has its gas supply system.
684. Note. Where manufactured gas is used it will
be necessary to use a globe that is perforated at the base
with holes about % inch in size. This supplies vents for
the air and a steady illumination is secured. (See A,
Fig. 3, Illustration No. 124.)
j /
*'} *
Illustration No. 122
Fig. i, Daylight Illumination
Fig. 2, Enlarging Microscopic Slides
See Paragraph 68 1
Illustration No. 123
Artificial Illumination
See Paragraph 682
Illustration No. 124
Physician's and Naturalist's Outfit
See Paragraph 684
Photo-Micrography. 353
685. In Figs. 2 and 3 of Illustration No. 124 is shown
a horizontal arrangement of the camera and microscope for
gaslight illumination. The camera is supported by a solid
wooden block, which makes the camera quite rigid. When
used horizontally the Abbe condenser is usually dispensed
with and the bull's-eye condenser is substituted. The
horizontal arrangement will be found the easiest for illumi-
nating the slide, but aside from this the upright position
will give you a more rigid support for the camera and the
focusing will be much simpler and easier to adjust. In
Fig. 3 of Illustration No. 124 we have the horizontal use
of the microscope with the yellow screen or filter.
686. Welsbach Gas Lamp with Bull's-Eye Lens. In
place of the bull's-eye condenser, and where gaslight is
used as the illuminant, the Welsbach gas lamp with metal
chimney and iris diaphragm, and bull's-eye lens, as shown
in Illustration No. 125, page 344, may be used. This illus-
tration represents an ordinary Welsbach lamp fitted with a
metal hood which cuts off all unused light, and the lens
barrel, being supplied with an iris diaphragm, concentrates
all the light on the object. By the adjusting of the iris
diaphragm you can illuminate the structure of the mantle
of the lamp. Where no diaphragm is used a ground-glass
may be placed between the burner and the microscope in
the same manner as the color-screen in Fig. 3, of Illustration
No. 124. Without the ground-glass or diaphragm the struc-
ture of the mantle would appear in the picture.
687. Reflected and Transmitted Light After the
question of illuminant has been settled, we next have the
nature of the object to be photographed to contend with.
While most of the subjects selected to be photographed
are sufficiently transparent to be illuminated by light trans-
mitted from the mirror, yet some subjects, such as minerals,
shells and plants, are so dense in their structure that direct
light such as would be used with the instrument arranged
horizontally, or the light reflected from the mirror below
the stage will not pass through them and, therefore, will
need to be photographed from their reflected surface in
354 Library of Practical Photography.
other words, with the light falling upon the object instead
of transmitted through the object. The latter mentioned
class of subjects requires a low-power magnification, and
for the best of results the bull's-eye condenser should be
employed. This condenser is designated by the letter L
of Fig. 1, Illustration No. 124, and is shown in its proper
position for opaque illumination in Fig. 1 of Illustration
No. 126. You will also observe the gaslight is arranged at
an elevation above the stage. This is necessary to bring the
ray of light through the bull's-eye condenser onto the
surface of the object on the slide.
688. Additional important parts to this outfit are
designated in Fig. 1, Illustration No. 124, as follows:
G Coarse adjustment rack
H Cardboard or tin reflector
I Cedar oil bottle in nickel case
J Yellow filter screen
K Hand-focusing glass
L Bull's-eye condenser
M Welsbach light
N Camera cone thumb-screw
O Camera cone
P Camera box
Q Coarse adjustment
R Fine adjustment
S Objectives
T Abbe condenser
U Reflecting mirror
V The stage
689. The bull's-eye condenser, when employed on
opaque subjects, is used in a manner to concentrate a beam
of light upon the surface of the object; while when used
for slides of transparent subjects the bull's-eye condenser
is used to concentrate light upon the mirror or below the
stage, and the mirror in turn, reflecting this light through
the object or slide. H is a small piece of tin or white card-
board, bent in a semi-circular shape placed behind the slide
to further assist in reflecting the light upon the object.
CHAPTER XXXIII.
Apparatus for Photo-Micrography.
690. Use of Mirror to Illuminate the Slide by Trans-
mitted Light. Proper manipulation of the mirror for re-
flecting light is very important and should always be care-
fully done, as one may fail to obtain the best results and
may be led to reach wrong conclusions. Where strong
daylight is used for focusing, the improper use of the mir-
ror may become injurious to the eyes. The mirror of the
microscope is double one side being plain and the other
concave. The mirror is provided with a universal joint to
reflect the light from any source, either from the front or
side of the microscope. The plain mirror is used with low
power objectives ; while the concave mirror converges the rays
on the object and thereby gives intensified illumination;
the latter is used with medium and high power objectives.
When daylight is employed the concave mirror, converging
the light as it does on the object, has a focal point, and this
is of such length that with parallel rays it will concentrate
on the object.
691. Use of the Abbe Condenser. With artificial light
the focus will be longer, as the rays are more diverging,
and when no provision is made in the instrument to adjust
the mirror to meet these two conditions, it becomes diffi-
cult, and sometimes impossible, to obtain the best results
in critical work. For this and other advantages, an addi-
tional illuminating apparatus, termed an Abbe condenser,
is now universally employed with both medium and high
power objectives. The purpose of the Abbe condenser is,
to give an amplified field of illumination when the illuminant
is otherwise insufficient to illuminate the object with a
cone of light having an angular aperture equal to that
355
356 Library of Practical Photography.
of the objective, as well as to provide the means for con-
trolling the amount and character of the illumination to
suit the various conditions of work.
692. This condenser is attached beneath the stage of
the microscope and is mounted in a most complete form.
(See T, Fig. 1 of Illustration No. 124.) Where the Abbe
condenser is used, careful attention must be given to il-
luminating the object. A good rule to follow is to use
concentrated illumination, diaphragming down to as small
an opening as will permit of showing the structure and
other characteristics of the object.
693. It is also advisable where the Abbe condenser
is employed, to use the plain mirror for reflecting the light,
and, whether artificial or daylight is employed, the blue
screen which is fitted in the Abbe condenser should be used.
694. Plates to Use. While almost any reliable brand
of plates may be employed, yet a very rapid plate is quite
difficult to handle, and where ordinary plates are employed
the slower emulsion is preferred. For the best results, and
in cases where color values are to be preferred, it is abso-
lutely essential that color corrected plates be used, such as
orthochromatic, isochromatic or panchromatic. For ordi-
nary subjects where color values are not important the
double-coated ortho or non-halation plates will answer.
695. When color sensitive or double-coated plates are
not available, slow plates may be used quite satisfactorily
and longer exposures given. When orthochromatic plates
are employed, care should be exercised in loading the
holders, as the plates are very sensitive even to the ruby
light, and the holder should be loaded either in total dark-
ness or at a distance from the ruby light; otherwise fogged
plates will result.
696. Note. For very critical work, where the relative
color values are of utmost importance, the new Autochrome
plate may be employed, which will give a transparency of
the object in actual colors. For instruction in the manipu-
lation of this process, see Chapter LIX, Color Photography.
697. The Objectives and Focusing Attachment. The
Apparatus for Photo-Micrography. 357
most important parts of the microscope are the objectives
and focusing attachments. The objectives, or lenses as they
are sometimes called, are the vital parts of the microscope.
According to their magnifying power they are termed low
power, medium power and high power. All high-grade
microscopes, such as the BBS shown in Illustration 120,
are supplied with oil-immersion lenses, also three objec-
tives low power, marked two-thirds; medium power,
marked one-sixth; high power, marked one-twelfth.
698. Students, or beginners, as a rule, are apt to
use too much magnification, and often attempt to view
a large surface with an objective which will show but a
small part of it. It must not be forgotten that the apparent
field of view is decreased as the high powers are used, and
that a low power objective will give a better impression
of a large coarse object and its relative parts, because it
includes a larger area or surface in the view.
699. In all known objects it is safe to adopt the fol-
lowing rule: Never use a higher power than is necessary
to properly study the object. In fact, for the first experi-
ments it is best to begin with a low power (two-thirds)
objective, remembering that the higher the power of the
objective, the less space there is between the objective
and the slide, which necessitates more careful adjustment.
When there is more space between objective and slide, the
latitude for focusing is greater.
700. Focusing Adjustment. The focusing adjust-
ment for the cheaper instruments consists only of a diag-
onally cut rack and pinion, with no fine adjustment, while
the focusing adjustment for the higher-grade instruments
consists of a coarse adjustment by standard rack and pinion
(see Q, Illustration No. 124) and a fine adjustment by
standard micrometer screw movement, with extra large
graduated milled head and pointer for measuring thick-
nesses of objects (see R, Illustration No. 124). The coarser
adjustment on higher-grade instruments serves the pur-
pose of obtaining a rough or approximate focus, and the
fine adjustment for getting the more accurate focus. For
358 Library of Practical Photography.
all ordinary purposes the coarse adjustment will enable
the student to do all his focusing, except when using a high-
power objective. The fine adjustment, by the aid of
which an almost imperceptible movement may be imparted
to the optical system of the microscope, is one of its most
indispensable adjuncts. So sensitive are high-power objec-
tives that the slightest alteration of their distances from
the object would result in failure. Therefore, high-power
work will be quite impossible without the fine adjustment.
701. Bull's-Eye Condenser. This useful piece of ap-
paratus consists of a Piano-Convex lens mounted on an arm
sliding on a pillar so that with a little manipulation any
required position of the lens may be attained. One of the
purposes of this accessory is to illuminate an opaque ob-
ject by concentrating the light from any source upon the
specimen which could not, owing to its opacity, be viewed
by transmitted light from the mirror underneath. The
bull's-eye condenser is also used to concentrate the rays of
light upon the mirror when using artificial light with a
high-power objective. Where gaslight is used as the il-
luminant, the Welsbach gas lamp with bull's-eye lens will
be found an improvement over the bull's-eye condenser,
as it supplies a more concentrated light.
702. Eye-Pieces. The eye-piece (see F, Illustration
No. 120) consists of a couple of Piano-Convex lenses
mounted in a metal tube, the lower section fitting flush
with the metal tube, while the upper section is made with
a milled edge and projects over the tube, thus permitting
of the tube slipping into the microscope barrel and resting
upon the milled head of the upper section. The Nos. 1 and
2 eye-pieces are marked according to their optical value.
The one marked 1 has an initial magnification of ten diame-
ters ; the one marked 2 has five diameters. The low-power
eye-piece (No. 2) is the most useful to the student and
gives excellent results when used with the photo-micro-
graphic camera.
703. Use of the Yellow Screen. Owing to the fact
that many slides contain different shades of the same color,
Apparatus for Photo-Micrography. 359
you will require a specially prepared plate or color-screen,
which assists in rendering colors in their relative values
to each other. For example, some specimens show several
shades of red. With a specimen stained from a deep red to
a delicate pink, it is evident that in exposing to obtain de-
tail in the dark parts, you will inevitably obliterate the
more delicate portions unless some restrainer is employed;
hence the use of the yellow screen.
704. The yellow screen, according to its density, cor-
rects the delicate colors ; i. e., the screen restrains the action
of light upon these colors during the exposure of the
more opaque colors, thus giving a more uniform rendering
of the different tones. This screen is usually placed just
in front of the instrument and supported by the stage. It
may be placed anywhere in the path of the light. The
exact distance from the stage is of no particular importance,
but it simplifies matters to have it lean against the stage,
for then you are absolutely certain of cutting out any white
light that is not wanted. (See Fig. 1 of Illustration No.
122, which shows the instrument in use for daylight work.)
705. While these filters or screens can be purchased
already colored, yet one can very easily prepare their own
by immersing two unexposed 5x7 plates in the acid hypo
fixing bath, allowing them to remain in this solution until
all milkiness or bromide of silver, has disappeared; then
wash for half an hour in running water, after which place
them in the rack to dry. When dried, immerse the plates
in a saturated solution of picric acid for ten minutes, and
without washing place them in the negative rack to dry.
When dried, place the two film surfaces together and bind
the edges with passe-partout paper, when they are ready
for use.
706. Focusing. When a convenient and satisfactory
illuminant has been selected, the student may begin focus-
ing the slide. The principle of focusing is to adjust its
relations to the object on the slide, so that a clear image
is obtained. Care must be taken in obtaining the focus
and a certain line of procedure must be followed, which,
360 Library of Practical Photography.
by practice, becomes habitual. Exercise care that you do
not bring the front of the lens (objective) and cover-
glass in violent contact, and always begin focusing with a
low (two-thirds) objective, as the working distance be-
tween the lens and the slide is greater than with the high-
power objectives, and the danger of the objective and
cover-glass coming in contact is less likely to occur. With
the high-power objectives, in which the working distance
is so small that the front of the objective is very close
to the cover-glass, th^re is danger of injuring the instru-
ment as well as the slide.
707. In consideration of the foregoing, and until the
student has become thoroughly familiar with these prin^
ciples, focusing should be practiced without the camera
attachment and with a two-thirds objective, and always
keep in mind the rule previously given, never to use more
illumination than is necessary.
708. In obtaining the focus, after the slide has been
placed upon the stage under the clips to secure it in posi-
tion, and the objective is in position, if the instrument is
supplied with a coarse and fine focusing attachment, lower
the tube by the coarse adjustment until the front of the
objective is within one-fourth of an inch of the object.
Look through the eye-piece and slowly elevate by the ad-
justment until the image is distinct. The upward move-
ment should be slow, so that if the object is faint it is
not missed and you do not run the lens beyond the sharp
focus. The object will first appear with faint outlines, then
gradually become more distinct, and finally sharply de-
fined; but if the adjustment goes beyond this point, the
object will gradually become dim, in which case return
to the point of greatest distinctness.
709. In focusing with higher-power objectives, lower
the objective by coarse adjustment until the front of the
objective is nearly in contact with the cover-glass. Look-
ing into the eye-piece, slowly elevate the tube with the
coarse adjustment until the image appears; then, for final
focusing, use the fine adjustment.
Apparatus for Photo-Micrography. 361
710. When racking the adjustment to obtain a focus
of the image, it is advisable to slightly move the slide or
object in different directions while viewing the image
through the eye-piece, as the flitting of shadows or colors
across the field will indicate when the objective is nearing
the focal point. By this means you also select the portion
of the field you desire to photograph. With this accom-
plished, remove the eye-piece and place it within the cone
of the camera, first removing the ground-glass and then
slipping the eye-piece into the cone from the upper slide.
With the eye-piece in position in the cone of the camera,
the barrel of the eye-piece will protrude beyond the end.
Next place the camera cone over the tube of the microscope,
slipping the eye-piece which projects through the camera
cone into the barrel of the microscope, attaching the cam-
era over the tube and fitting it flush with the milled ring,
which places the eye-piece in proper position. Then very
slightly turn the thumb-screw on the camera cone, to se-
cure the camera firmly to the microscope.
711. Where the more expensive regular extension
bellows camera is employed, as shown in Illustration No.
127, the eye-piece is not removed from the microscope in
order to attach the camera, but, on the contrary, the cam-
era is fitted with a brass hood which fits snugly over the
eye-piece of the microscope and telescopes it sufficiently
to exclude all rays of light from entering the camera at
this connection. Focusing is then proceeded with upon
the ground-glass.
712. When focusing the camera, in place of attempt-
ing to look through the glass, as you would when focusing
the microscope, you observe the image by looking upon
the ground-glass, and in order to exclude all light from the
surface of the ground-glass, the head and camera should
be covered with a focusing cloth, as illustrated in Fig. 1,
Illustration No. 126. The image will appear upon the
ground-glass screen considerably magnified.
713. In placing the ground-glass into the camera,
exercise care that the ground-glass side is downward. This
362 Library of Practical Photograph}).
is essential in order to secure perfect focusing and record-
ing of the image upon the plate. If the ground-glass em-
ployed is not sufficiently transparent, it may be made
more transparent by rubbing the surface with a mixture
of equal parts of alcohol and glycerin. This will make the
focusing screen very transparent and serve every purpose.
In applying the mixture it is advisable to apply it in a
circular motion, and only over the center of the ground-
glass, covering a space about the size of the image on the
glass.
714. Use of the Hand Focusing Glass. For some
high-power work the hand focusing glass may need to be
employed. With it you obtain a sharp focus on the central
part of the image. Place an ordinary focusing glass, similar
to the one shown in Fig. 3, of Illustration No. 126, on the
center of the ground-glass and look through it the same as
you would when focusing with the eye-piece on the micro-
scope. The focusing glass may be moved about over dif-
ferent portions of the field until a sharp focus is obtained.
Illustration No. 128
Interchangeable Diaphragms for Microscope
See Paragraph 715
715. Diaphragms. For the cheaper instruments which
are not fitted with the Abbe condenser diaphragms, a little
more depth of focus can be obtained by applying an inter-
changeable diaphragm in the tube of the microscope.
These diaphragms may be made of black paper and can
be supplied with different size openings. (See Illustration
No. 128.) To insert these diaphragms, remove the eye-
piece and inner tube from the microscope and slip the dia-
phragm down in the tube, resting on a metal diaphragm,
which is present in this outer tube. These diaphragms are
Apparatus for Photo-Micrography. 363
easily made. In order to obtain the actual measurements,
place a piece of black paper on the top of the outer tube,
and with the finger crease the outline of the tube ; then,
with a pair of shears, cut to the outline. Next, perforate
the center, being careful that the hole is perfectly round.
Illustration No. 128 will give you an idea of the size open-
ing required. It is needless to state, that the smaller the
opening the sharper the image, requiring a correspondingly
longer exposure. When the high-grade instruments fitted
with an Iris diaphragm in the Abbe condenser are used, the
interchangeable diaphragms are not necessary. For all
ordinary work, the diaphragms are really unnecessary, but
where great precision is required in the focusing, they are
almost indispensable.
716. Photo-Micrographic Camera for Laboratory Use.
In Illustration No. 127 we present one of the latest photo-
micrographic cameras, made by the Bausch & Lomb Optical
Company. This is a very practical instrument, and is de-
signed to meet the requirements of medium-power work
in any laboratory. The strength, simplicity, serviceability
and convenience of manipulation are at once apparent, and
attention is directed to the fact that but one vertical bed
is employed, thus giving a much greater latitude for work,
as compared with those models using two upright rods.
717. The camera consists of a heavy metal base
9 4-5 x 13 inches, upon which a movable plate 8x6 inches is
mounted and secured with a clamp. This plate has a move-
ment of 4% inches, thus allowing the microscope, which
is clamped to it, to be removed from the axis for examining
a slide and then quickly returned to the proper position.
An adjustable clamp is mounted on the plate, and by this
means any microscope may be secured in place and ac-
curately centered, the clamp and the plate permitting move-
ment in two directions.
718. The vertical bed, 25 3-5 inches long, is graduated
throughout its length and is mounted on the base with a
joint having its bearing surface in the shape of an arc.
A clamp secures the vertical bed at any angle between the
364 Library of Practical Photography.
horizontal and vertical positions. This camera can, there-
fore, be used in a vertical position to photograph objects
which must be held in a horizontal position, such as speci-
mens in solution, or may be inclined at will to meet any
conditions.
719. Upon the vertical bed two frames are supported
by standards held in a T-shaped slot by clamps. The first
frame carries either the front board with tube adapter for
the microscope or a shutter and this adapter. The bellows,
which have a cross section of 4% x 6% inches, are attached
to the rear of this frame and extend to the rear frame. They
are long enough to accommodate work at any distance along
the bed.
720. The rear frame carries a camera box of unique
design. At the back a hinged cover with two springs per-
mits the plate-holder to be laid into place, and then gently
but firmly pressed into exact position, bringing the plate
into focus without jarring the apparatus. This is most
essential in high-power work where the focus must be
exact. The focusing screen of ground-glass, with clear
center, slides in two grooves in the camera box, and is,
therefore, always used in the same position.
721. The finish throughout is dull black, excepting
the bearing surfaces, thus preventing reflections as far as
possible. A double plate-holder for two 4x5 plates, with
kits for sy^ x 4% plates, is included in the outfit.
Illustration No. 127
Bausch & Lomb Photo-micrographic Camera for Laboratory use
See Paragraph 711
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Photo-Micrography.
Practical Manipulations for the Beginner.
722. Daylight Exposures. After becoming familiar
with the operating of the microscope, the manipulating
of the accessories and focusing of the camera, etc., you
will be sufficiently experienced to proceed to the final and
very important stages of exposure and development. For
your daylight work, arrange the microscope and camera
attachment, as in Fig. 1, Illustration No. 122, using the
two-thirds objective and No. 1 eye-piece. A suitable sub-
ject should be selected. For your first experiment, the
wing of a common house-fly will supply you a very good
subject.
723. After killing the insect, carefully detach one of
the wings and place it on a clean glass slide. Cover the
wing with a thin cover-glass, and fasten the cover-glass
in position with two narrow strips of gummed paper.
With the specimen prepared, place the slide on the stage,
securing it in position under the nickel clips. With the
camera attached to the microscope, you are now ready to
focus the image. With the focusing adjustment bring the
objective to within one-fourth inch of the slide. The fo-
cusing must now be viewed upon the ground-glass screen.
724. Place the focusing cloth over the head and cam-
era, excluding all light from the ground-glass. First begin
by manipulating the mirror (using the piano side) to il-
luminate the subject. After securing even illumination, be-
gin focusing by racking the objective upward by means of
the milled head adjustment attached to your focusing rack
and pinion. The focusing must be done slowly and care-
fully, and while turning the focusing screw observe care-
867
368 Library of Practical Photography.
fully the image as it appears on the ground-glass. The
subject will present the appearance of a delicate membrane
studded with minute hairs and traversed with thick mem-
brane. A fringe of very fine hairs will be found edging
the wing. If they are of a foggy appearance and do not
focus sharply, too much illumination is being used.
725. If the microscope is of the cheaper variety and
has not the sub-stage or Abbe condenser fitted with an
Iris diaphragm, then arrange the microscope and camera
farther from the source of light, or insert in the tube of
the microscope the second size of the interchangeable dia-
phragms. This latter method is preferable to the former,
for the diaphragm will assist in giving you a greater depth
of focus. Where the better grade of instrument is em-
ployed, which is fitted with the Abbe condenser and Iris
diaphragm, reduce the illumination with the Iris diaphragm.
This concentrates the light upon the object, and when dia-
phragmed to the correct stage the image will stand out
sharply defined without any appearance of fuzziness.
726. There being two diaphragms to the condenser, the
upper one, or one next to the stage, may be used with the
smallest opening, providing it covers the field. The lower
diaphragm cannot be used with so small an opening, for
then it would cut off the illumination on the edges of your
object. This diaphragm should be adjusted so that the
opening is sufficiently large to admit the entire field into
the view. The exact size can only be ascertained by trial,
viewing the image first through the eye-piece before attach-
ing the camera. With the proper stop selected and the
camera attached, the image may be focused on the ground-
glass.
727. When the focus has been obtained, carefully slip
out the ground-glass screen and insert the plate-holder in
its place, exercising great care that you do not jar the
instrument during this procedure.
728. The safest way to insert the plate-holder is to
hold the camera firmly with the left hand while inserting
the plate-holder with the right. This will avoid jarring.
Photo-Micrography. 369
The proper inserting of the plate-holder without jarring
the image is of utmost importance, and one can do no better
than to- practice this portion of the work, without making
exposures, for, strange as it may seem, the very slightest
jarring of the instrument may change the focus of the light
upon the image to be photographed. For this reason a very
rigid and substantial table upon which to rest the instru-
ment during exposure, is necessary.
729. Plates. While, ordinarily, we would recommend
the use of orthochromatic plates for all microscopic work,
yet for this class of work and for first experiments any
ordinary plate will answer one having a slow emulsion
preferred. The object of using orthochromatic plates is to
preserve the relative color values that exist in different
objects to be photographed. Wherever such values exist,
either an orthochromatic, or even a trichromatic or pan-
chromatic plate, which is sensitive to all colors, should be
used ; but for plain work void of colors, the ordinary or
double-coated non-halation plate will answer every purpose.
730. Exposure. With the camera and plate-holder in
position, the next in order would be the making of the ex-
posure. The cheaper photo-microscopic cameras not being
fitted with a shutter, some means must be employed
whereby the illumination may be shut off from the object
being photographed. A very simple arrangement will be
found in the use of an ordinary cardboard, say 10 x 12
inches, made V-shape so that it will stand erect. This
can be accomplished by bending the cardboard in the middle.
This will hold the card in position and permit of it stand-
ing without any support. When ready to make the ex-
posure, place the cardboard before the stage and in the path
of the light, excluding all light from the object on the
slide. You are then ready to make the exposure, the length
of which depends upon the density of the object being pho-
tographed and the strength of the illumination.
731. With the fly-wing specimen if daylight is used
you will require about five seconds exposure; with Wels-
bach light, thirty seconds. Now, with the shutter before
370 Library of Practical Photography.
the instrument, excluding all direct rays of light from the
object, very carefully withdraw the slide on the lower sec-
tion of your double plate-holder. After withdrawing the
slide, wait a moment until all vibration has ceased, then
carefully withdraw the cardboard shutter from in front of
the stage for the necessary length of exposure and again
replace, after which insert the slide and the exposure is
completed.
732. Use of Welsbach Gaslight. In Fig. 1 of Illus-
tration No. 124 we show the use of the Welsbach light
in connection with the bull's-eye condenser, for photo-
graphing the same object. While in this illustration we
show a high-grade microscope, yet the same arrangement
will answer with a cheaper instrument, and while gaslight
illumination may be employed without the bull's-eye con-
denser, yet this instrument will add materially to the even-
ness and strength of the illuminant. By its use you can
better concentrate the light upon the object. None of the
accessories appearing in this illustration, with the exception
of the light and the bull's-eye condenser, are to be used
in this instance.
733. You will observe that the bull's-eye condenser
is arranged on a perfect line between the light and the
mirror of the microscope. The condenser is tilted at an
angle to concentrate the light from the lamp upon the
mirror. This 'light is collected on the mirror and, in turn,
is reflected upward through the slide on the stage. With
this accomplished, the remaining manipulation, such as
focusing of the image upon the ground-glass, etc., is
exactly the same as for daylight work. The only difference
between the use of artificial light and daylight lies in the
exposure. Owing to the fact that artificial light is less
actinic, it requires a longer exposure. Usually the ex-
posure with a Welsbach light, where the bull's-eye con-
denser is employed, will require double the exposure neces-
sary for daylight work.
734. Reproducing Colored Objects. The nature of
the illuminant for reproducing colored objects is immaterial.
Photo-Micrography. 3 7 1
Exactly as good results can be produced with artificial light
as with daylight and, in fact, if any preference is given, it
should be in favor of the artificial light, for the reason
that there is more latitude in the exposure. For our next
subject, we have selected a double-stained slide, which rep-
resents protoplasm. The colors range from a slight pink
to a deep red with some blue. It is evident that if sufficient
exposure were given to obtain detail in the dark parts of
the image, the lighter or more delicate portions would be
entirely obliterated. In order to overcome this obstacle
and produce the colors in their relative values, we used
a yellow color-screen, as previously explained and as illus-
trated in Fig. 1 (J), Illustration No. 124. This screen is
placed before the microscope as shown in Fig. 1, Illus-
tration No. 122.
735. With the screen in position the focusing and
other manipulations are exactly the same as previously
instructed. You will observe, when focusing the image
upon the ground-glass, the light being diffused through
this screen, that the image does not appear as strong, but
the outline is more clearly defined and the relative values
are more apparent than if the screen were eliminated en-
tirely. When using the screen, whether for daylight or
artificial light, the exposure is again prolonged. Usually,
from three to six times the exposure is required, all de-
pending upon the density of the screen. The lighter the
color of the screen, the shorter will be the required ex-
posure, but, at the same time, the greater will be the loss
in color values. The darker the screen the longer the ex-
posure and the better the color values produced. There-
fore, a medium color-screen should be employed, one that
can be used universally for all purposes usually a three, or
even a four-times screen is selected. A screen dyed ac-
cording to instructions given in the previous chapter will
supply you with the right color.
736. Plates to Use. Having retained the relative color
values upon the focusing screen, your next endeavors must
be devoted to recording these same values upon the sensi-
372 Library of Practical Photography.
tive plate. As previously stated, we have learned that the
ordinary plate is not corrected to a variety of colors. There-
fore, we must employ specially prepared plates which are
sensitized and corrected expressly for the preserving of
color values. Such a plate will be found, to a certain de-
gree at least, in the orthochromatic, and for the best results
the orthochromatic slow plate is recommended. However,
the rapid orthrochromatic plate may be employed. In Fig.
3, Illustration No. 129, we present the results which were
made on a rapid orthochromatic plate, used in conjunction
with a color-screen, giving an exposure of six seconds.
737. Opaque Illumination. In Fig. 4, Illustration No.
129, we present the results of an opaque illumination. For
this subject we selected a strip of linen, stretched it across
the stage and held it firmly by means of the nickel clips.
When viewing this linen by light transmitted from the
mirror through the linen, an interlaced, rope-like effect,
with bright spots of light, is seen. If a picture of the linen
were made with transmitted light, as above explained, the
photograph would not show the texture of the fabric but
each thread would be represented by shadow outlined with
light, which was admitted between the threads when re-
flected through the goods into the camera. By changing
the position of the mirror, so that no light is transmitted
through the opening in the stage, and by elevating the
bull's-eye condenser, adjusting it to the light so as to
throw the rays downward and directly upon the object on
the stage, we obtained a good view of the surface.
738. In order to give an even illumination to the goods,
we employed a back reflector, as previously described and il-
lustrated in Fig. 1, (H), Illustration No. 124. This re-
flector, receiving the full rays of light coming from the
illuminant, reflects back upon the object, thus giving double
illumination. Now, upon again viewing the image on the
ground-glass, we find a very pretty effect and an accurate
rendering of the fabric. Instead of the dark lines, as would
be the case if transmitted light were used, we obtained an
interlaced white rope-like effect with dark spots, which
Photo-Micrograph]). 373
gives it a magnified natural appearance. For this subject
we employed a non-halation or double-coated plate, the
object being to avoid halation. The linen being white, un-
less a non-halation plate were employed, the results would
be quite harsh, lacking in roundness, while with the non-
halation plate we preserved all the half-tones and soft detail.
739. Photographing a Bacteria Slide. The photo-
graphing of bacteria is quite distinctive from the ordinary
use of the microscope, and this class of work is mainly
interesting to physicians and those interested in medical
research. The two-thirds and one-sixth objectives, with
theii proper eye-pieces, are capable of giving satisfactory
photographs of animal tissues, both normal and diseased.
The high-power 1-12 oil-immersion objective, with its mag-
nification of one thousand diameters, with either No. 1 or
No. 2 eye-piece, is almost universally adopted by the
scientific world as being sufficiently high to show very
clearly the minute forms, such as blood and pus corpuscles,
germs, bacteria and cell structure. For bacteriological work
the slides are usually stained with methyl-blue and carbol-
fuchsine. These stained slides necessitate the use of the
color-screen during exposure.
740. To begin focusing and finding the field, the two-
thirds objective should be used and the preliminary focus-
ing should be done without the camera attachment. The
method of focusing is the same as previously given, ex-
cepting that more care must be given. Every movement
must be made quietly and deliberately.
741. After placing the slide upon the stage of the
microscope, the field is found with a two-thirds objective,
having the Abbe condenser wide open. When the field is
found, before changing to a higher-power objective, first,
with the coarse adjustment, slightly raise the microscope
tube from the slide. Remove the two-thirds and insert the
one-twelfth objective. As all three objectives are attached
to the revolving nose-piece, all that is required is to turn
the objective into position, when you are again ready for
focusing.
374 Library of Practical Photography.
742. Proceed by placing a drop of cedar oil upon the
cover-glass of the slide. With the coarse adjustment lower
the 1-12 objective until it comes in immersed contact with
the slide ; then, observing the image through the eye-piece,
finish focusing with the fine adjustment, moving the slide
about on the stage until a satisfactory field is found. With
this obtained, slightly raise the objective from the slide.
This is done to avoid any possibility of the objective and
slide coming in contact while attaching the camera.
743. With the microscope raised, proceed to attach
the camera to the barrel. Insert the ground-glass and
again place another drop of cedar oil on the slide, then
lower the objective until it becomes immersed in the oil.
Now, covering the head and camera with the focusing
cloth (see Fig. 1, Illustration No. 126), observe the image
upon the ground-glass. Use the hand-focusing glass and
focus with the fine adjustment of the microscope, until the
image becomes perfectly sharp. Then very carefully re-
move the ground-glass without disturbing the instrument
a particle and insert the plate-holder, when you are ready
to make the exposure.
744. Before drawing the slide, place the cardboard
between the light and stage of the instrument, so as to
cut off all illumination. With this done, draw your slide
and, after pausing for a few moments until everything is
perfectly quiet, gently withdraw the cardboard, thereby
making the exposure. When the exposure is completed,
again replace the cardboard, thus cutting off the illumina-
tion. Follow this immediately by re-inserting the slide in
the plate-holder.
745. Developing. The ordinary methods for develop-
ing, fully described in Volume II, apply as well to the de-
velopment of plates exposed through the microscope.
Where one is not equipped with the paraphernalia neces-
sary for the regular dark-room, the outfit described in this
chapter, under the heading of Dark-Room, will be required.
746. Owing to the fact that for all color slides, espe-
cially bacteriological work, the orthochromatic plate must
Photo-Micrography. 375
be used, and as this plate is sensitive to all kinds of light,
extreme care must be exercised in providing an absolutely
light-tight dark-room, and the developing must be done
as far away from the developing light as possible. For
convenience, the trays should be used a trifle larger than
the plates to be developed. Where the regular developing
outfit is not at hand, three trays may be employed. In
the first tray place the developer; in the second, provide
plain water, and in the third, hypo or fixing solution. Hard
rubber trays are preferable for developing, their lasting
qualities being far superior to all others, and there is less
danger of spots or stains.
747. While any of the developing formulae in Volume
II may be applied to this work, yet it is advisable to employ
the formula supplied by the manufacturer of the brand
of plates you are using. A good, all-around developer for
this work will be found in the following formula :
748. Edinol-Hydro Developer.
Water 7 ozs.
Sodium Sulphite (Anhydrous) 150 grs.
Edinol 30 grs.
Hydroquinon 15 grs.
Sodium Carbonate (Anhydrous) 300 grs.
For use, take 2 ounces of this solution and dilute with 2 ounces
of water. This developer has no poisonous influence upon the
skin and will not stain the fingers.
749. Hypo Fixing Bath. The hypo fixing bath is
prepared as follows:
Solution A.
Water 48 ozs.
Hypo 1 lb.
Solution B.
Water 16 ozs.
Chrome Alum 1 oz.
Sulphuric Acid, C. P 2 drms.
Solution A: Dissolve the hypo in the water. Solution B:
Dissolve chrome alum in the water. Then, carefully add the sul-
phuric acid, constantly stirring while adding. When the chrome
vii 17
376 Library of Practical Photography.
alum is dissolved, pour Solution B into Solution A. This solution
remains clear even after continued use, and should be thrown away
when it becomes discolored.
750. Developing. With your developer and fixing
bath prepared and your ruby light turned low, remove
the plate from the plate-holder. In doing so, stand with
your back to the light, so as to shield the plate from the
light. Place the plate in the developing tray, rocking gently
for a moment, then cover the tray with a piece of dark card-
board. Do not examine it for at least two or three minutes,
or until development is very nearly completed, and then
only by very feeble ruby light, or at some distance from the
ordinary ruby light, and only a second at a time.
751. When you consider the negative fully developed,
the plate can then be examined nearer the light. If, upon
examination, however, you find it is not completely devel-
oped, return it to the tray and again cover with the card-
board. When the development is completed, rinse the
plate in clean water, to remove the adhering developer, and
place in the hypo tray; allow the plate to remain in this
solution for at least fifteen minutes, or until all milkiness
has disappeared ; then, place in the washing box and allow
to wash for at least a half an hour. If no running water
is at hand the plate can be placed in a tray of clean water
for three or four minutes; then, pour this water off and
pour clean water on again, repeating this operation ten or
twelve times, which should be sufficient to eliminate all
hypo from the plate. Just before placing the plate in
the rack to dry, swab the surface with a wad of absorbent
cotton, which will remove any dirt that may have adhered
to the surface.
752. When orthochromatic, trichromatic or panchro-
matic plates are to be developed, which for best results
should be in total darkness, a negative developing tank
will be found very convenient. A small tank should be used
one holding but six plates 4 x 5 or 3% x 4^4. Such a
tank will only require about 12 ounces of developer and
the plates may be placed in the tank in total darkness. If
Photo-Micrography. 377
the factorial method is employed, when you learn the time
required for developing one plate, with a particular devel-
oper, you practically have a line on all plates developed
with that formula, with the bath at the same temperature.
But, it is advisable, even when the factorial method is em-
ployed, to examine the plate quickly by a weak light, be-
fore placing it in hypo, and if it does not contain sufficient
strength place it back in the tank for further development.
By the tank method you will not only avoid fog, but will
also save the edges of the plate from becoming damaged
by handling.
Illustrations. How Made.
753. In order to give the reader a clearer idea of the
manner of producing results with the microscope and the
manipulation of the instrument generally, we supply here-
with some illustrations of different negatives made under
different conditions, beginning with the most simple
studies for the beginner and the more difficult ones for
the advanced worker.
754. In Fig. 1, Illustration No. 129, is shown the Wing
of a Fly. For this exposure a No. 1 eye-piece with a
% objective was used, the illuminant being gaslight. The
plate employed was a Standard Orthonon, which was given
30 seconds exposure, and developed with metol-hydro-
quinon. The object in using a non-halation plate was to
avoid halation. The subject being monochrome black and
w hite there was no necessity for orthochromatic or color
corrected plates being used.
755. In Fig. 2 we have Protoplasm and Nucleus show-
ing chromatic threads. In this exposure a No. 1 eye-piece
with a % objective was used. The plate employed was
an Orthonon, with a color-screen. The exposure given
was two minutes, with gaslight illumination. The color-
screen was used, owing to the color being blue and red,
the yellow screen correcting the blue, giving uniform tone
throughout.
756. In Fig. 3 we have the May Apple Ovaries. A
578 Library of Practical Photography.
No. 2 eye-piece with a % objective was used and a daylight
exposure given, using a Cramer slow isochromatic plate
with a yellow color-screen. The object was dark pink in
color. The exposure given was three minutes.
757. Fig. 4 is an illustration of Opaque Illumination,
showing the Threads of a Linen Handkerchief, which was
stretched across the stage of the microscope, the light from
a gas lamp being thrown upon the surface of the linen
through the bull's-eye condenser. In this case an Orthonon
plate was used and two seconds exposure given. A No. 1
eye-piece with a % objective was employed. The outfit
arranged for making this picture is the same as illustrated
for opaque illumination.
758. Fig. 5. Adeno-Fibroma (Tumor of Breast).
In photographing this subject the No. 1 eye-piece with a
% objective and gas illuminant were used. Upon viewing
the subject through the microscope several shades of blue
were visible, from very light to very dark. To tone down
these contrasts the dyed yellow screen was used and a
Cramer slow isochromatic plate was employed and fifteen
seconds exposure given. The developer was metol-
hydroquinon.
759. Fig. 6. Granulation Tissue. For this picture
the No. 1 eye-piece and the % objective were used. The
microscopic slide from which this picture was made was
evenly stained a red color, and in making the exposure with
gas illumination the dyed color-screen was employed. The
plate used was a Cramer slow isochromatic, and thirty
seconds exposure was given, using metol-hydroquinon for
developing.
760. Fig. 7, Illustration No. 130. Adenoma of Thyroid
Gland. (Tumor of Neck). This specimen shows different
shades of red. The color-screen was used with gas illumina-
tion, and No. 1 eye-piece and % objective employed.
Cramer slow isochromatic plate was used, and thirty sec-
onds exposure given. This plate was developed with edinol-
hydro developing solution.
761. Fig. 8, Illustration No. 130. Malignant Oedem*
Illustration JNo. 129
Reproductions from Microscopic Slides
See Paragraph 754
Pie i Wing of Fly Fig. 2. Protoplasm
Fil! v May Apple Ovaries Fig. 4. Example of Opaque Illumlna-
Fig. 5. Adeno-Fibroma Uon Linen
(Tumor of Breast) Fig. 6. Granulation Tissue
Fig. 7. Adenoma of Thyroid Gland
(Tumor of Neck)
Fig. 8. Malignant Odema Bacilli
(Gas Bacillus)
Illustration No. 130
Reproductions from Microscopic Slides
See Paragraph 760
Fig. 9. Adeno-Carcinoma
(Cancer)
Illustration No. 131
Reproductions from Microscopic Slides
See Paragraph 764
Fig. 10. Section of Fip. 9 Magnified
Photo-Micrography. 381
Bacilli. Gas Bacillus. This bacteria photograph is men-
tioned under the note on Bacteria. This slide has two
shades of blue, very light and very dark. The No. 1 eye-
piece and the 1-12 oil-immersion objective were used with
gaslight illumination. An Orthonon plate was employed
with the color-screen, and an exposure of four minutes
given. The developing was effected with an edinol-hydro
solution.
762. In Figs. 9 and 10 of Illustration No. 131, we
present the results obtained with a Bausch & Lomb Photo-
micrographic camera, as used by Mr. Herman Shapiro, of
Johns Hopkins' University, Baltimore, Md. This photo-
micrographic camera is shown in Illustration No. 127. Mr.
Shapiro has devoted most of his attention to the use of
the low and medium-power objectives (% and 1-6) for
work in histology, embracing from a 25 to 300-times magni-
fication, and rarely 500. Higher power he employs princi-
pally for bacteriology.
763. Mr. Shapiro prefers working by daylight. He
has his camera arranged on a table within two feet of a
north window, and with a few plate holders loaded he
is always ready for work, and it is merely a matter of
from five to ten minutes for him to obtain a record, his
exposures varying from ten seconds for low power (%)
objective without ray screen to two minutes for high power
(1-12) with yellow four-times screen, on an image covering
a 4 x 5 plate. His large sizes he makes by enlargement,
with a saving of time and money, and in addition the en-
largement may be subjected to legitimate strengthening
with India ink and Chinese white.
764. In Fig. 9 of Illustration No. 131, we have an
Adeno-Carcinoma (cancer of a female breast). This illus-
tration shows two areas of breaking down carcinoma. The
picture was made with a low-power (%) objective, using
a No. 3 eye-piece, and with the camera extended 14 inches,
producing a picture 3% inches in diameter. The plate used
was an orthochromatic, with a ten seconds exposure with-
out a screen.
382 Library of Practical Photography.
765. In Fig. 10 of Illustration No. 131, we have a
magnification of the larger of the two areas exhibited in
No. 9, showing very clearly the large Cancer Cells, with
central clean space of necrotic or dead tissue. In making
this illustration a 1-12 oil-immersion objective was em-
ployed, with a No. 3 eye-piece, and the camera extended
14 inches, producing a picture 3% inches in diamenter. For
this purpose an orthochromatic plate was used, with a
four-times screen, requiring one and a half minutes
exposure.
CHAPTER XXXV.
Photographing Microscopic Slides for Lantern-Slide Work.
766. While lantern-slide plates are frequently made
from microscopic enlargements, yet, owing to the lack of
distinct sharpness to the very edge, slides made from these
plates do not always give satisfactory results, and as the
slide itself is many times enlarged when thrown upon the
screen, the image on the slide does not require such enor-
mous magnification.
767. By means of an ordinary long-bellows camera
and a small-size lens, such as a No. 000 Goerz Dagor, which
has 2%-inch focus, the specimen on the microscopic slide
may be enlarged sufficiently for lantern-slide use and every
portion of the specimen can be made critically sharp. Of
course, where minute parts of a section of the specimen
are desired, the enlargement will need to be made through
the microscope ; but very often fair-sized sections of a speci-
men only are required. In such cases the use of the ordi-
nary long-bellows camera fitted with a small-size lens, such
as the Goerz Dagor, will serve best.
768. A simple method for enlarging a specimen is
illustrated in Fig. 2, Illustration No. 122. Herein you will
observe the specimen slide is attached to an ordinary piece
of cardboard, which latter contains an opening slightly
larger than the outside measurement of the specimen it-
self. The opening should be about the size of the cover-
glass, which is about % of an inch. The specimen may
be attached to the cardboard by means of pins inserted
883
384 Library of Practical Photography.
through the cardboard at an angle, at the top and bottom
of both ends of the slide, just sufficient to hold the slide
in place.
769. If one has a copying-board arranged as described
and illustrated for Negative Enlarging and Lantern-Slide
Making in Vol. V, then all that will be required is to insert
the cardboard in the printing-frame and place the latter in
the slide provided for holding it. You are then ready for
the enlarging. If, however, you are not equipped with
this outfit, Fig. 2, Illustration No. 122, shows a very simple
method for copying that will enable one to produce as
good results, requiring, of course, a little more care in
adjusting the camera to the proper stage so that it may
be on a perfect line with the slide.
770. An ordinary table may be employed for the pur-
pose of receiving the slide-holder and the camera, as the
instrument is more easily adjusted when working on a
level surface. Begin the work by first placing the slide-
holder (or printing-frame containing the slide) on the edge
of the table before the window. Place the camera on a
line with the holder. Draw out the bellows very nearly its
full length ; adjust the front-board by raising or lowering
until the lens faces the exact center of the slide or that
portion of the specimen you wish to reproduce. Arrange
the camera so that the lens will be located about three
inches from the slide, and with the bellows drawn to al-
most its full length you will find, upon focusing, that you
will have an image large enough for a lantern-slide. The
longer the bellows extension, of course, the larger the image
will be on the ground-glass, and the shorter the focal-length
of the lens the closer you can work to the subject, and as
is usual, the smaller the size of the lens the shorter the
focus ; therefore, a lens only sufficiently large to cover
the size object which you have to photograph is required.
771. If only microscopic slides were to be reproduced,
the smallest size lens made could be employed. But there
are other uses to which the lens can be put for instance,
the photographing of larger objects than those contained
Microscopic Slides for Lantern-Slide Worfy. 385
in the microscopic slide and the one lens can be made to
answer for all purposes. Therefore, we recommend the
No. 000 Goerz Dagor lens, with an equivalent focus of 2%
inches, covering a plate 2% x 2%, as that will answer every
purpose. This lens permits of working quite close to the
object. It also allows of the use of the ordinary hand cam-
era with good bellows extension.
772. Focusing. With the camera placed on an exact
line with the microscopic slide and the bellows extended,
you can obtain the focus by racking the bellows of the
camera to and from the object. Should the image not be
sufficiently large, you obtain a larger image by sliding
the camera closer to the object and extending the bellows
longer. The largest image that you can obtain will depend
on the focal-length of your camera.
773. Stopping. As good sharp detail is required, the
lens should be stopped down at least to F. 32, and in some
cases still smaller openings should be employed. The
same plates should be used for this class of work as you
would use when photographing with a microscope, for
the same values must be retained. For all ordinary work
the regular lantern-slide plate may be used. For special
work, where the relative color values are of importance,
the slow orthochromatic plate will be found an improve-
ment.
774. Dissecting Subjects for Photo-Micrography.
Some subjects (such as flowers) must be dissected. Fig.
2 of Illustration No. 126, page 352, shows the method
of using the microscope for this operation. Some difficulty
may at first confront the student, owing to the object being
inverted, as the work will be performed opposite to that
naturally done without a microscope. The slides for dis-
section are made by flowing them with a thick liquid
solution of gum arabic and allowing to dry. By breath-
ing upon the dry slide it will become sticky enough to
make the subject adhere for dissection. The % objective
is mostly used, as there is a good working space between
objective and slide.
386 Library of Practical Photography.
775. Printing and Finishing. The making of prints
from photo-micrograph negatives is usually done on glossy
printing-out paper, or on glossy developing (gaslight)
paper. Generally, the latter is employed, as it is the most
convenient to use and quicker results are obtained, and
for the busy man this is quite important. Another con-
venience, especially where artificial light is used for making
the negatives, lies in the fact that the same illuminant may
be employed for making the prints. For the manipulation
of the different printing papers, see Vol. IV.
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Making Post-Cards for Quick Delivery.
776. The Post-Card Business at Resorts. With the
advent of the developing post-card, an enormous and prof-
itable business has sprung up in the making of post-card
photographs for immediate delivery at the various summer
and winter resorts. Such photographs are, of necessity,
of no high order of pictorial merit, but they generally have
the saving grace of being good likenesses, and from
their inexpensiveness alone, the demand is practically
inexhaustible.
777. System Required in Making Post-Cards for Quick
Delivery. It is quite essential to have a method or system
of producing post-cards as quickly as possible in summer
resort, county and street fair galleries, etc. By following the
instructions and using the system herein described, and
with some little practice, you will be able to accomplish
this with ease and considerable profit. These instructions
will lead you, step by step, from the developing of the
plate to the finished post-card. They will also include the
manner of conducting the business and establishing a sys-
tem of working.
778. Required Outfit Camera and Lens. Any ordi-
nary small portrait or view camera fitted with double plate-
holders may be employed. The holders should be provided
with kits to enable you to use smaller plates. The lens
should be a rapid one of short focus.
779. Where a business is made of post-card work and
plates 5 x 7 or 4^ x 6 l /2 are used, there is no outfit so
convenient as the regular portrait outfit with cabinet attach-
ment, with which any number of plate-holders may be
employed.
887
388 Library of Practical Photography.
780. Developing Tanks and Trays. You should pro-
vide yourself with at least two hard rubber tanks, the size
of plate you are going to use one for developing and the
other for the hypo fixing bath ; one large tray for fixing
post-cards (the larger the tray, the better) ; one 8 x 10 devel-
oping tray ; and one 8 x 10 tray for acid clearing bath.
781. Plates. Any low-priced brand of quick plates
will serve. Some manufacturers now offer a special post-
card plate, which can be bought very cheaply in quantities.
782. Post-Cards. The choice of a card lies with the
individual, some having a preference for one make and
others for another. Generally, a fairly hard surface card,
semi-matte or matte is used, one that will give brilliant
results and will work clean. For special information on the
different brands of post-cards and their particular qualities
we refer you to Volume IV. When the cards are bought
in lots of 5000 or over, the manufacturers will generally
print the photographer's name, or the name of the resort,
on the back of the card, without extra charge.
783. Studio Fittings. Few pretensions are made in
the way of style in a post-card studio of the nature found
in resorts. Most of the elaboration is on the outside, which
should be made as attractive as possible, with the show-
case and business counter either right at the entrance or in
full view from the outside. Inside the studio, which need
not necessarily be enclosed from general view, there should
be little more than a chair or two, the camera, backgrounds,
some stucco rocks, railings, or whatever strikes the owner
as being most suitable for the customers to sit or lounge
on while being photographed, and possibly some extra ac-
cessory in the shape of an automobile shell, etc.
784. Backgrounds. The backgrounds should be suit-
able to the location of the gallery. A pier or beach scene for
a seashore resort; a mountain or waterfall background for
the mountains ; a chute-the-chutes scene for an amusement
park ; and so on. It would be absurd to place your customers
before a background of waves and beach if the gallery is
situated in the mountains.
Making Post-Cards for Quick Delivery. 389
785. A line of comic backgrounds, to be placed in
front of, and showing only the head of, the customer, with
some absurd drawing for the body, are often profitable
in a well-frequented resort.
786. Artificial Lighting. As most of the business at
such resorts is done in the evening, it is always well to
have the gallery fitted with some source of strong artificial
light. The new Tungsten incandescent bulbs are econom-
ical, and are capable of giving a very strong light for the
amount of current consumed. The Aristo lamp, which has
been fully described in Volume VI, is frequently used ; also
the Cooper-Hewitt tubes, which are more economical and
give greater actinic light. A complete outfit of tube, rheo-
stat, extra tubes, etc., will cost in the neighborhood of
$50.00, acording to the length of tube employed.
787. Lighting and Exposure. The background and
camera should be arranged to the light daylight or artificial
to give as broad a lighting as possible. This gives the
greatest roundness and smoothness to the face, which is
important, as there is no time for, nor profit in, retouching
the negatives. One should aim at over rather than under-
exposure.
788. Developing of Plates. Time saving being the
most important feature it is necessary to employ a rapid
developing agent. The following combination of metol and
hydroquinon (ortol can be substituted for metol, using
the same proportion) will develop the plate in from three
to ten minutes. The speed of the bath can be changed by
the addition of water. The more water added the slower
the bath will develop.
789. Formula.
Water 100 ozs.
Metol % oz.
Hydroquinon 2 ozs.
Sulphite of Soda (anhydrous) 8 ozs.
(if crystals are used, 16 ozs.)
Carbonate of Soda (anhydrous) 12 ozs.
(if crystals are used, 24 ozs.)
Bromide of Potassium (crystals) % oz.
390 Library of Practical Photography.
790. The chemicals must be dissolved in the order
named, and the solution stirred constantly while adding.
This is a concentrated developer, and if put up in a demi-
john will keep for several weeks. It will keep indefinitely
if put up in bottles, filling the bottles to the cork, being
careful that they are well stoppered. A cork stopper, dip-
ped in hot wax is the best.
791. After your stock solution has been standing for
several days, a slight precipitation may occur. This, how-
ever, will do no harm and perfectly clean negatives will
be produced.
792. This developer can also be used for the develop-
ing o-f post-cards. For regular grade post-cards use one
part of stock solution to two parts of water. For special,
or cards that have soft printing qualities, dilute the devel-
oper about four parts one part stock solution to four parts
water. Keep the temperature of the solution about 65,
never under 60 or never over 70.
793. Controlling the Developer for Prints and Plates.-
Full control of contrast is secured by varying the dilution
of the developer. Always bear in mind that the stronger
the developer the softer the prints. When printing from a
thin negative always dilute your developer, as this will
enable you to produce more contrast. Remember that this
rule is reversed when developing plates, as strong developers
develop quicker, stronger and more contrasty, while diluted
developers give softness.
794. Plate Developing. Always bear in mind that the
speed of development of the plate is entirely controlled by
the amount of dilution of the developer. The more water
you use the slower the plate will develop. The time of de-
velopment can be made very short by using a full strength
developer. Great care, however, must be exercised that ex-
posures are even; in fact it is necessary that the plates
should be fully timed, never under-exposed.
795. Fixing. We would advise the use of a plain hypo
bath for fixing. Use an extremely strong bath so that the
plates will fix very rapidly. The acid fixing baths, made
Making Post-Cards for Quick Delivery. 391
up according to the formulae given by the manufacturers
of plates, can also be used. After a plate has been fixed,
rinse for a few moments in fresh water and then place in
the following solution: Formalin, (or 40% formaldehyde),
one part to ten parts water. The formalin or 40% formal-
dehyde, can be purchased at any drug store.
796. Allow the plate to remain in this solution for a
few seconds. Remove and again carefully rinse for a few
moments, and then place in a bath of wood alcohol, diluting
the wood alcohol about one-half with water. Allow the
plate to remain for a few moments in this and then set up
to drain. The alcohol which is left oh the surface of the
negative will slightly attack the celluloid which is placed
over the wet negative, so that this covering which adheres
to the face of the negative will make the latter waterproof.
797. Printing from Wet Negatives. After the plate
has been drained for a few minutes, place on the emulsion
side a piece of thin transparent celluloid. The celluloid can
be obtained from any film manufacturer or through your
dealer.
798. Having treated the negative as above, now place
it in a printing-frame of sufficient size to permit the shift-
ing of the negative, cut-out and card, so that the portion
of the negative desired can be printed on the postal. Print
in the ordinary way, just the same as if the negative was
dry. After the order has been printed from the negative,
put it back in the washing tank for regular washing; then
place in a rack to dry, after which file for duplicate orders.
The post-cards are developed and fixed in the usual manner.
799. Printing Light. Although there is very little
danger of melting the film of the wet negative when treated
with the formalin bath, yet it is advisable to take some
precaution. Electric light is the most satisfactory illumi-
nant, as it gives off a minimum amount of heat, and, as
it is generally available, we recommend its use.
800. Even Illumination. The negatives must be
evenly illuminated. The proper distance from the light
being equal to the diagonal of the print, the negative from
392 Library of Practical Photography.
which postcards are to be printed should be at least G 1 /^
inches from the light.
801. Home-Made Apparatus for Printing. The sim-
plest form of printing apparatus is the electric incandescent
bulb, gas jet or oil lamp, with a small platform constructed
at proper height and correct distance from the light to
give even illumination and uniform exposure to every
print. If electric light is employed a stationary socket can
be attached to the work table so that the bulb will be per-
pendicular. An upright block, against which to set the
printing-frame, should be fastened on the table at a dis-
tance of about 8 inches from the light. To reduce the
time required for giving full exposure it would be ad-
visable to use a 32-candle power bulb. A switch, for
turning the current on and off to make the exposure, will
be an additional convenience, and will reduce the electric
light bill. Another arrangement for an electric printing
light is shown in Volume IV, page 210, its construction
being described in paragraphs 689 and 690.
802. Still another simple and practical contrivance
for printing from wet negatives without using a printing-
frame is to arrange electric bulbs in the bottom of a
box (having the box fit in the work table, with the top
on a level with the table) and cover the top of the box
with a sheet of ground-glass. The negative, covered with
a thin sheet of clear celluloid, is placed on the ground-
glass and the paper held in contact while printing, by em-
ploying the back of an ordinary printing-frame, hinging
one end of it to a block located at the rear of the ground-
glass. In addition to the regular bulbs a ruby bulb may
be placed in the center of the bottom of the box. When
the printing light is turned off the ruby light is auto-
matically switched on, thus enabling the printer to ad-
just the postcard on the negative before printing.
803. Printing Machines. Countless suggestions have
been advanced for various home-made printing machines ;
so it is not necessary for details to be given here. Further
than this, there are on the market practical printing ma-
Making Post-Cards for Quick Delivery. 393
chines constructed to fill the most exacting requirements of
the printer of developing paper.
804. Among the electric printing machines on the
market are the following: Reimers' Electric Contact
Printing Machine; Mclntire Photo Printer; Ingento Rapid
Frame; The Vote-Berger Contact Printing Frame; The
Kilborn Automatic Electric Printer; The Artura Printing
Machine; Courtright's Automatic Printer, and The Dick
Printer. These are all practical machines, involving prin-
ciples which have proven to cover in one way or another
the requirements of the photographer who desires to turn
out large quantities of postcards or developing paper prints.
805. Washing. After fixing, the cards should be
washed by placing them on an inclined piece of glass ; then
with a rubber hose spray the cards for a few minutes, spray-
ing both sides. After five minutes washing the prints can
be dried in the following manner:
806. Quick Drying Box. Construct a box or cup-
board of fairly good size say, 3x4 feet with a cover or
door which can be let down. An ordinary large packing
case will answer the purpose very well. To two sides of
the box nail strips of wood about six to eight inches apart,
these strips serving as supports for the stretchers on which
the cards are to be laid. Construct a number of stretchers,
to fit into the box so that they can be slid in and out on
the supporting strips, and cover them with cheese-cloth.
807. Although requiring longer time to construct them,
a better form of stretcher can be made by interlacing white
twine across the stretcher, much in the same way as a
tennis racket is made. The cards will dry quicker than
when laid on cheese-cloth.
808. The drying box should be built about two feet
from the floor. The door of the box should be made to drop
down and form a table. Cover the inside of the door with
two layers of clean, pure blotters and over this tack a sheet
of cheese-cloth. When the cards are taken from the wash
water, lay them face up on the door, and with a strip of
clean cheese-cloth wipe off the moisture from the face;
394 Library of Practical Photography.
then place the cards, face down, on the stretchers, to dry.
809. Cut a large hole in the bottom of the box and
cover the opening with a sheet of perforated metal zinc or
sheet iron. Under this set a lamp, the heat from which
will rise and circulate between the stretchers and dry the
cards very quickly. A large funnel over the lamp will
materially assist in collecting the heat rays.
810. Where the arrangements of the gallery will per-
mit, it will facilitate handling of the cards if the drying box
is built with the back of the box facing the office, so that
it can be reached from the business counter. A second door
in the box, constructed to open from the counter, is then
used to take out the dry cards, which avoids running to
and fro from the dark-room.
811. Overcoming Abrasion Marks. Abrasion marks
frequently appear on post-cards, especially where a vignette
or mask has been used. This you can overcome by adding
ten grains of iodide of potassium to each fluid ounce of
developer. These abrasion marks can also be removed
from the cards or prints after they become dry (and only
after they have become dry) by rubbing with a soft cloth or
tuft of absorbent cotton dampened with wood alcohol.
812. Preparing the Celluloid Film. In order that the
celluloid will lay out flat without buckling or cockling, it
should be placed for one hour in glycerin. The glycerin
will make it very soft and pliable. The celluloid must,
however, be allowed to dry before placing it in contact with
your wet negatives.
813. Cleaning Celluloid Film. As the film becomes
soiled and greasy from constant use, and by coming in
contact with the wet surface of the negative, which latter,
not having been properly washed, contains hypo, it is neces-
sary that the celluloid be washed occasionally. This can
be done in clean water, with a subsequent soaking in
glycerin.
814. Numbering Negatives and Cards. After making
a sitting, place the number of the negative (writing with
a soft or indelible pencil) on the film side of the plate, being
Making Post-Cards for Quick Delivery. 395
careful that the number be placed on the extreme edge.
This number must correspond with the receipt and number
given the customer when the name is entered on the studio
register. When making the prints place the number on one
of the cards, on the address side, about where the stamp
would be placed. This will enable the sorting of the orders
and insure against mistakes when delivered.
815. Keeping Track of Sittings and Orders. You
should provide yourself with checks similar to those used
at amusement parks. These checks are printed and num-
bered in duplicate. The check is perforated in the center;
one-half is retained by the customer and is presented at
the office when calling for the pictures, and the other half is
handed to the operator, who immediately places the check
under a specially provided little spring clip attached to the
back of the plate-holder at the time of making your sitting.
The party changing plates marks the number on the plate to
correspond with the check, and at the same time places the
plate in the developing tank and starts the order on its
way to finishing.
816. Manipulation. The speed of the developer is
usually about six to eight minutes. The fixing bath is very
strong and should fix in five to six minutes. Plates are
placed from the developing tank immediately into the fixing
tank. From the fixing tank the plates are quickly rinsed and
dipped in the formalin for only a moment ; then again rinsed
thoroughly and dipped in the alcohol bath, when they are
set in the rack to drain for a few seconds. The celluloid is
then placed in contact with the wet negative and both placed
in the printing-frame and the order printed. The cards
are fixed for five minutes and washed by a spray of the hose
for one minute, then dried, sorted and delivered.
817. Enlarging Method of Making Post-Cards. An-
other method much in vogue, and, by some, considered the
quicker, is the enlarging from a very small image on to
a bromide card. This method requires extra apparatus
in the dark-room, in the shape of a small enlarging lantern
and a post-card easel. The regular small projecting lanterns
396 Library of Practical Photography.
will serve for the purpose, but special lanterns can be
bought for a comparatively small sum. Burke & James
make a lantern which is very adaptable for the purpose.
The post-card easel is a small wooden frame, into which
the cards can be quickly slid and withdrawn after the ex-
posure has been made. The procedure is as follows:
818. A small plate is used, usually 2y inches square.
This is quickly developed in the manner previously given,
fixed, rinsed for a minute, and then the moisture wiped off
both film and back of plate with a pad of cotton (the nega-
tive is not dipped into the alcohol bath). The negative is
then placed in the holder in the lantern, and, after setting
the easel at the correct distance from the negative, the
bromide post-cards are slipped, one after the other, into
the frame, a cap over the lens being used to effect the
exposures. With a powerful light a second or two will suf-
fice for the exposure. The cards are then quickly developed,
fixed, washed, and dried in the manner already described.
By this method the cards can be delivered in fifteen min-
utes, or less, from the time of exposure of the plate. Of
course, bromide cards must be employed; gaslight or de-
veloping cards cannot be used in this way.
819. Care must be taken that the light from the
lantern is protected or the cards and the plates will be
fogged. After the post-cards have been made the negatives
go back into the washing tank and are, after drying, avail-
able for future orders. The negative should be made as
sharp as possible, to allow for the slight diffusion of the
image which will result when enlarging on the post-card.
CHAPTER XXXVII
Ping Pong and Penny Pictures
As a means of catching the dimes and quarters of the
young element, school children and visitors at resorts, the
ping pong and penny pictures were inaugurated, with the re-
sult that this class of picture has become very popular and
the making of them a very profitable business. To meet the
requirements different camera manufacturers are now mak-
ing suitable instruments, at a nominal cost, by means of
which pictures can be sold for a penny each and give the
photographer a good profit.
The term "Penny" Pictures is somewhat misleading, for
they are really penny pictures in name only as a single pic-
ture could not be made for one cent. They are made and
sold only in quantities, at the rate of one cent each. Usually
the photographer supplies fifteen pictures for fifteen cents,
no orders being taken for less than fifteen pictures.
Ping Pong Pictures are smaller than the penny pictures,
and are usually made in strips of a half dozen, delivered un-
mounted or what is known as a "slip mount". The aim of
the photographer should be to sell mounts to his patrons for
these pictures, they oftentimes bringing more money and
more profit than the pictures themselves.
General Principles. Instead of making one exposure on
a single plate for this type of picture, the apparatus is so
constructed that a 5x7 plate can be placed in a vertical or a
horizontal position and either one, two, four, six, eight,
twelve, fifteen, eighteen or twenty-four exposures made on
397
398 Library of Practical Photography.
the one plate. The object is to make a large number of ex-
posures on one plate, and after it is developed to print as
many full size sheets of paper as the proposition calls for.
As an example : If you have fifteen different exposures on
one plate, and if you are offering fifteen prints for fifteen
cents, then fifteen prints are made from it. This completes
fifteen orders of fifteen pictures each, for which you receive
fifteen cents each, or $2.25 for fifteen prints from one 5x7
plate.
To make the "penny picture" business a success, var-
ious methods must be used to increase the receipts. The
prints can be finished in a variety of styles, and different
positions can be made; in fact there is almost an endless
number of methods that may be adopted. For instance, if
fifteen pictures are sold for fifteen cents, one position only
is allowed to each subject. Where different positions
are wanted, twenty-five cents is usually charged, and three
exposures made of five different subjects, on one plate (fif-
teen exposures altogether), from which only five prints are
to be made. These five prints, therefore, bring you $1.25.
Figuring the cost of the plate at six cents, the five sheets of
paper at ten cents, and the plain cards at three cents, the
total cost has been but nineteen cents. Card mounts of a
better quality are usually sold with the higher class of work,
and in addition to paying for themselves result in a greater
profit than is made when cheap cards are used. The
mounts, therefore, should be given consideration.
The actual work and the methods employed in pro-
ducing the so-called ping pong or penny pictures making
and developing of negatives and final finishing of prints
are practically the same as in any regular studio. Most
of the ping pong studios, however, are not supplied with
the regular skylight, but an ordinary room, containing
one or two fairly good size windows, is selected, and the
methods of the home portrait photographer are employed
in making the lightings.
Illustration No. 132.
Seneca Penny Picture Outfit.
Illustration No. 133.
Seneca Multiplying Attachment.
Illustration No. 134-
B. & J. Multiplying Attachment.
Illustration No. 135
A Practical Suburban Studio
Chas. W. Allen, South Granby, N. Y.
Ping Pong and Penny Pictures. 40 1
Equipment. The necessary equipment consists of a
multiplying camera, camera stand, a few plate holders and
a few trays for developing the plates and finishing the
prints.
As only bust or half-length figures are all the ping
pong photographer attempts, only one or two small plain
backgrounds is all that is necessary. Generally two are
used, a light one and a dark one. Comical make-ups are a
novel feature of ping pong pictures, so one's list of acces-
sories might be increased and a few costumes added, such
as odd hats, a dilapidated silk hat, an old style derby,
canes, false moustaches, or any other paraphernalia that
might be used in a stage make-up.
The Camera. There are on the market various types
of cameras which may be procured at a very reasonable
figure, any of which will answer the purpose. These cam-
eras are specially arranged for the making of a number of
small pictures on one plate. In Illustration No. 132 is
shown the Seneca View camera, to which is fitted a Mul-
tiplying Back, which latter is shown more in detail in Il-
lustration No. 133. This instrument, in addition to being
available for penny or ping pong pictures, can also be used
for cabinet size portrait work or postal cards, as well as
for view work. The B. & J. Multiplying Attachment
shown in Illustration No. 134 can be adjusted to any or-
dinary portrait camera. Both of these attachments are
simply constructed, easily operated, and form good exam-
ples of the general type of outfits on the market.
Camera Stand. While any regular portrait camera
stand, or even the regulation tripod intended for view
cameras, may be employed, yet when the stand is preferred,
one light in weight, that can be "knocked down" should be
selected, for then it may be boxed in a small space for
shipment.
Lens, Any lens may be used, but, naturally, one of
402 Library cf Practical Photography.
short focus and good speed should be chosen. The manu-
facturers of cameras equip their outfits with or without
lenses, and also supply the lenses separately, at a moderate
cost.
Lighting the Subject. Under the ordinary studio
skylight the subjects usually are placed in open light.
When the ordinary window is employed a room is gen-
erally selected with the window facing the north. The
subject is placed within a few feet of the window and
slightly back of it, so as to receive the full benefit of all
the light entering. The usual background is placed back
of the subject. When but one style of picture is made, all
subjects are seated, and, generally, the chair is made sta-
tionary. This avoids the necessity of focusing on each
subject, for when once in focus the camera will need no
further adjusting, no matter how many different subjects
are photographed.
Operating the Multiplying Attachment. The manu-
facturers of cameras and multiplying attachments supply
complete instruction for their use, which is so very simple
that further mention here is unnecessary.
Development and Finishing. Tank development is
usually employed for this class of work, complete instruc-
tion for which is given in Volume II of this library.
Printing. Either glossy printing-out paper or glossy
gaslight paper is used for penny and ping pong pictures.
Complete instruction for their manipulation will be found
in Volume IV.
Mounting Prints. In order to obtain a high gloss the
prints are squeegeed onto ferrotype plates. After rolling
the sheet print and the ferrotype plate into contact, mop-
ping off the surplus water, apply ordinary mucilage to the
back of the prints and allow them to dry. Then they may
be cut apart, the backs moistened with a damp sponge,
and, like an ordinary postage stamp, attached to the mount.
Ping Pong and Penny Pictures. 403
If slip mounts are used it is not necessary to apply mucil-
age to the back of the print.
Ping pong pictures are generally made in strips of
five exposures, and are delivered unmounted. When
mounted usually the slip mounts are employed; they re-
quire no pasting.
General Notes. The making of ping pong or penny
pictures is entirely mechanical in every respect, and each
exposure must be accounted for.
There must be no re-sittings, no proofs shown, and
the pictures taken on one day should be ready for delivery
the next.
Get all the extra money you can by selling mounts.
Keep on hand a variety of different styles and prices
of mounts.
These pictures are seldom ever retouched. When it is
requested an extra charge should be made for the retouch-
ing.
Advertising. A very common method of advertising
is to place on the front of the building a large canvas sign,
reading: "Your photograph for one cent." On all such
orders you would make fifteen pictures, one position,
mounted on cheap cards, for fifteen cents. In some locali-
ties you may see signs which read, "Your photograph for
5 cents," or possibly 10 cents. In such cases they usually
make a trifle larger picture, or, perhaps, more than one
position, and make each order amount to fifty cents. If
they should advertise five-cent pictures, they would supply
ten prints for 50 cents, and in the case of ten-cent pictures,
they would supply five for 50 cents, or twelve for $1.00.
The price of such photos will need be fixed according to
circumstances and location.
As previously stated, the money in penny and ping
pong pictures lies in the quantities ordered and in the sell-
ing of suitable mounts for the prints. Slip mounts are to
be preferred, as they save the bother of pasting and mount-
404 Library of Practical Photography.
ing, for the prints and mounts are usually delivered in
separate packages, leaving the slipping of the pictures into
the mounts to the customers themselves. The slip mounts
are very attractive little mats, many of them having em-
bossed borders, with openings displaying one, two, three,
four or five faces, either oval or square, and they are de-
signed to take the place of "paste on" mounts. The print
being inserted saves much time in mounting. Of course
the regular mounts may be employed, but slip mounts
give a finished appearance to the photographs far superior
to the plain ones, on which the prints have to be pasted.
A novel method of advertising is to circulate small
cards among school children, these cards to be neatly
printed, bearing some inscription similar to the following:
"I am going to have my pictures taken at the Gem Studio,
to exchange with my schoolmates, 15 for 25 cents, five
positions, and get those pretty cards to mount them on."
To make this card more attractive have a small half-tone of
some cute picture printed on one corner of the card, and
have your address in neat type at the bottom.
A Practical Suburban Studio. In Illustration No. 135
is shown a neat and very convenient little studio, which is
practical for use in suburban localities, small cities and vil-
lages. This particular one was constructed in accordance
to the floor plan shown in Illustration No. 136, at a cost of
$500, the size being 12 x 28 feet. The general arrangement
is plain. The business can be handled by one man, so that
expenses can be reduced to a minimum.
Ota
405
CHAPTER XXXVIII:
How the Studies Illustrating This Volume Were Made.
Ilustration No. 2. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, 16-inch focal-length. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 11 A. M. Exposure % second.
Developer hydroquinon. (See Page 41.)
Illustration No. 3. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Single combination of Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A,
focal-length 24 inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day
4 P. M., sun shining brightly. Exposure one second. 'De-
veloper pyro. This illustration was from an 11 x 14 print.
(See Page 42.)
Illustration No. 4. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 12 M., sun shining brightly.
Exposure one second. Developer pyro. (See Page 45.)
Illustration No. 5. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A, focal-length 14 inches.
Stop U. S. 16. Time of day 5 P. M., bright sunshine. Ex-
posure 1-5 second. Developer pyro. (See Page 46.)
Illustration No. 6. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Single combination of Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A,
focal-length 14 inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time of day
11 A. M., sun shining brightly. Exposure 1-5 second. De-
veloper pyro. (See Page 47.)
Illustration No. 7. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Bausch & Lomb ray filter. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day
1 :30 P. M., bright sunshine. Exposure one second. De-
veloper pyro. (See Page 48.)
Illustration No. 8. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
407
408 Library of Practical Photograph]).
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 11 A. M., bright sunshine. Expo-
sure one second. Developer metol-hydroquinon. (See
Page 51.)
Illustration No. 9. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 5 P. M., bright sunshine. Expo-
sure one second. Developer pyro. (See Page 52.)
Illustration No. 10. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 3 P. M. Exposure ^ second.
Developer pyro. (See Page 55.)
Illustration No. 11. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 11 A. M., bright sunshine. Ex-
posure one second. Developer pyro. (See Page 56.)
Illustration No. 16. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Standard Wide-angle Anastigmat, focal-length 7
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 3 P. M., cloudy. Ex-
posure 20 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 75.)
Illustration No. 17. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Standard Wide-angle Anastigmat, focal-length 7
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 10 A. M., cloudy.
Exposure 10 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 76.)
Illustration No. 18. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7%
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 3 P. M. Exposure
30 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 77.)
Illustration No. 19. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7%
inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time of day 3 p. M. Exposure
15 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 78.)
Illustration No. 20. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7 1 /
inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time of day 3 :30 p. M., snow
outdoors. Exposure 20 minutes. Developer pyro. (See
Page 79.)
Illustration No. 21. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
How the Studies Were Made. 409
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7%
inches. Stop U. S. 64. The day was dull. Exposure
30 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 80.)
Illustration No. 22. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Standard Wide-angle Anastigmat, focal-length 7
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Day was cloudy. The illumina-
tion was from a transom above the hall door and from a
side window. Exposure 1 hour, 20 minutes. Developer
pyro. (See Page 83.)
Illustration No. 23. Plate Hammer Non-halation.
Lens Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-
length 8 inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 2 p. M.,
cloudy. The light was from a transom over a door back of
the camera. Exposure 1 hour, 20 minutes. Developer
metol-hydroquinon. (See Page 84.)
Illustration No. 24. Plate Hammer Non-halation.
Lens Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-
length 8 inches. Stop U. S. 64, bright outdoors. The
illumination came from a large skylight, a portion of which
is included in the view. Exposure 30 seconds. Developer
metol-hydroquinon. (See Page 85.)
Illustration No. 25. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7 l /2
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 9 A. M. Exposure
10 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 86.)
Illustration No. 26. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7%
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 10 A. M., cloudy.
Exposure 10 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 87.)
Illustration No. 27. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7^
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 9 :30 A. M., dull. Ex-
posure 10 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 88.)
Illustration No. 28. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 2 p. M. Exposure 10 seconds.
Developer pyro. (See Page 91.)
Illustration No. 29. Plate Hammer Non-halation.
410 Library of Practical Photography.
Lens Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-
length 8 inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 2 p. M.,
bright. Exposure 5 minutes. Developer metol-hydro-
quinon. (See Page 92.)
Illustration No. 30. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 11 A. M. Exposure 30 min-
utes. Developer pyro. (See Page 93.)
Illustration No. 31. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 3 P. M., bright. Exposure 14
minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 94.)
Illustration No. 32. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 10 A. M., cloudy. Exposure 20
minutes. Developer pyro. The rear of the room was
illuminated by means of magnesium ribbon. (See Page 97.)
Illustration No. 33. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7^
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 12:30 p. M., dull.
Exposure 15 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 98.)
Illustration No. 34. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 10 A. M., cloudy. Exposure 20
minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 101.)
Illustration No. 35. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A, focal-length 14 inches.
Stop U. S. 32. Time of day 10 A. M., cloudy. Exposure
3 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 102.)
Illustration No. 35a. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A, focal-length 14 inches.
Stop U. S. 16. Time of day 4:30 p. M., bright sunshine
on window. Developer pyro. (See Page 103.)
Illustration No. 35b. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 9 A. M., dull. Exposure 5
minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 104.)
Illustration No. 36. Plate Hammer Non-halation.
How the Studies Were Made. 41 1
Lens Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-
length 8 inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 4 p. M.,
bright. Exposure 20 minutes. Developer metol-hydro-
quinon. (See Page 108.)
Illustration No. 37. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-
length 8 inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 4 p. M.,
bright. Exposure 10 minutes. Developer pyro. (See
Page 109.)
Illustration No. 38. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Standard Wide-angle Anastigmat, focal-length 7
inches. Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 4:30 p. M. Expo-
sure 3 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 110.)
Illustration No. 39. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 16. Time of day 5 P. M. Exposure 15 minutes.
Developer pyro. (See Page 111.)
Illustration No. 40. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark, focal-length 14 inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time
of day 10 A. M. The majority of the light came from
the large skylight, yet the illumination of the shadows was
assisted by a small flash of magnesium after the exposure
of 20 minutes had been given. Developer pyro. (See
Page 112.)
Illustration No. 41. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 10 A. M., bright. Exposure 10
seconds, assisted by a heavy flash of pure magnesium. De-
veloper pyro. (See Page 113.)
Illustration No. 42. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 2 p. M. Exposure 20 seconds,
assisted by a heavy flash of pure magnesium. Developer
pyro. (See Page 114.)
Illustration No. 43. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Illumination */2 ounce Luxo flash-powder.
Developer pyro. (See Page 117.)
412 Library of Practical Photography.
Illustration No. 44. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 11 A. M., cloudy. Exposure
one second. Developer pyro. (See Page 118.)
Illustration No. 46. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 3 P. M., cloudy. Exposure
20 seconds. Developer pyro. The camera was pointing
up into the dome with the ground-glass laying flat on the
floor. (See Page 121.)
Illustration No. 47. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Dallmeyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches.
Bausch & Lomb Ray Filter. Stop U. S. 32. Time of day
2 P. M. Exposure 10 minutes. Developer pyro. This
ceiling photograph was made by guessing at the center of
the picture and pointing the lens straight up, having the cam-
era on the floor, the focus being secured by measurement.
(See Page 122.)
Illustration No. 48. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss 7-A, focal-length 14 inches.
B. & L. Ray Filter. Stop U. S. 16. Time of day 4 p. M.,
dull. Exposure 30 seconds. Developer pyro. (See Page
125.)
Illustration No. 49. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 9 A. M., cloudy. Exposure 10
minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 126.)
Illustration No. 50. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. Time of day 11 A. M., cloudy. Exposure 15
minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 129.)
Illustration No. 52. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Standard Wide-angle Anastigmat, focal-length 7
inches. Stop U. S. 64. The day was cloudy. Exposure
20 minutes. Developer pyro. (See Page 141.)
Illustration No. 53. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Clark Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Time of day 3 P. M., dull. Exposure
How the Studies Were Made. 413
20 minutes. Developer metol-hydroquinon. (See Page
145.)
Illustration No. 54. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss Wide-angle, focal-length 7 l / 2
inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time of day 2 p. M., bright. The
light came from two small windows. Exposure 15 min-
utes. Developer pyro. (See Page 149.)
Illustration No. 84. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Voigtlander, focal-length 14 inches. Stop U. S. 32. Time
of day 4 p. M. Exposure % second. Developer pyro.
(See Page 221.)
Illustration No. 85. Plate Cramer Crown. Lens
Voigtlander Rectilinear, focal-length 14 inches. Stop U.
S. 32. Time of day 3 :30 P. M. Exposure 1-5 second. De-
veloper pyro. (See Page 222.)
Illustration No. 92. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
Lens Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 18 inches. Stop
U. S. 32. The illumination 4 ounces Luxo flash-powder.
Developer pyro. This picture was made under some-
what unusual circumstances, a studio camera having a cur-
tain-slide plate-holder being used. The camera and flash
machine were arranged and both loaded at 5 P. M. A
member of the order who knew practically nothing of pho-
tography was instructed to pull the slide, take off the lens
cap and pull the spring to ignite the flash-powder ; then
replace the cap and slide and leave the apparatus as it stood
to be removed by the photographer. He followed the in-
structions perfectly, making the exposure at 8 :30 P. M. The
camera and flash machine remained in place until 11 o'clock.
The plate was developed the next morning, resulting in an
excellent flashlight negative. Although a couple of profes-
sional photographers were in attendance, it was preferred
to allow a person entirely unfamiliar with photography to
make the exposure, as such a person with a cool head would
follow the instructions closely and not use his own ideas
which might not coincide with the photographer in charge
of the work. (See Page 237.)
Illustration No. 92a. Plate Standard Orthochromatic.
414 Library of Practical Photography.
Lens Bausch & Lomb-Zeiss, focal-length 14 inches. Stop
U. S. 64. Walls of the building white. Time of day 4
p. M. Illumination one ounce Luxo flash-powder. Devel-
oper pyro. (See Page 238.)
Illustration No. 95. Plate Seed No. 26. Lens Dall-
meyer Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop U.
S. 32. Exposure 3 ounces of flash-powder. Size of plate
14x17 inches. Developer pyro. (See Page 261.)
Illustration No. 99. Plate Cramer. Lens Dallmeyer
Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 16 inches. Stop U. S. 32.
Time of day 9 A. M., cloudy and weather cold. Exposure
% second. Developer metol-hydroquinon. (See Page
269.)
Illustration No. 100. Plate Hammer. Lens Dall-
meyer Wide-angle Rapid Rectilinear, focal-length 8 inches.
Stop U. S. 64. Time of day 11 A. M., cloudy. Exposure
one second. Developer metol-hydroquinon. (See Page
270.)
Illustration No. 52a was made at 3 :30 p. M., on a bright
day, the windows facing northeast. Plate used was an 8 x 10
Standard ; lens used was a e 1 /^ x 8% Schriever Rectilinear,
stopped down to U. S. 64; exposure given, 20 seconds. The
plate was developed with pyro, according to formula and
instructions given in Chapter XIII, Volume II, Special Devel-
oping for Commercial Photography.
To develop I took 1 ounce of No. 1, 1 ounce of No. 2,
and 8 to 10 drops of No. 3, and about 18 ounces of water. As
the development advanced I added, every few minutes, a few
drops of No. 3. The No. 3 was added only as the devel-
opment seemed to have stopped. Complete development was
accomplished in 30 minutes.
GENERAL INDEX.
VOLUME IX.
Abbe Condenser, Use of the 691-693
Accentuating Shadows on Dull Days 98-103
Accidents, Photographing 608-614
Accuracy Evidence for Damage Suits 605, 606
Acid, Picric, for Staining Yellow Screen 705
Action in News Pictures '. 444-446
Adeno-Carcinoma, Photo-micrographic Reproduction of
764, 765, Page 380
Adeno-Fibroma, Photo-micrographic Reproduction of. 758, Page 379
Adenoma of Thyroid Gland, Photo-micrographic Reproduc-
tion of 760, Page 380
Adjustable Stereoscopic Tripod Head, Illustration of Page 292
Adjustable Tripod Head 32
