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LIBRARY

OF THK

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

OK1

Class

CONCRETE

CONSTRUCTION

ABOUT THE HOME

AND ON

THE FARM

PUBLISHED BY

THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY

30 BROAD STREET
NEW YORK

l/Vl)

THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT Co.
30 Broad Street. N. Y.

INDEX

PAGE

Foreword .'...' 5

Concrete Construction (history) . ... . . 6

Atlas Portland Cement (development) 8

Specifications for mixing and handling Atlas Portland
Cement.

Cement Mortar . 9

Concrete 9

Broken Stone, Gravel and Cinders (aggregate). 9

Sand * . 10

Cement 10

Water n

Proportions 1 1-12

Measuring 13

Mixing 13

Forms (molds) -. : 14

Putting Concrete into Forms. 15

Reinforced Concrete ... V 16

Table for designing Concrete Beams and Slabs 18-19

Cost of Concrete Construction 20

Table for material for i cubic yard of Concrete 22

Freezing 22

Specifications for

Circular Forms ....>...«.; 23

Sidewalks 24

Curbs and Gutters 27

Floors 28

Cellar 28

Barn and Stable 30

Feeding . . 32

Steps and Stairs 32

Flying Steps or Stairs. 37

Walls 38

Foundations (House, Barn) 43

Piers and Posts. 44

Windmill Foundations 45

158572

SPECIFICATIONS FOR — Contimied. PAGE

Chimney Caps. 46

Cisterns ... - 47

Square Cisterns. 50

Watering- Troughs : 50

Tanks. 53

Square, Small 54

Round 55

Large. 55

Reinforcement 55

Well Curbs -. 56

Horse Block. 57

Posts.

Fence • • •• 53

Clothes 61

Hitching 61

Piazza .61

Lattice 61

Hog Pens 63

Hog- Troughs 65

Chicken House 66

Ice House 69

Root Cellar .70

Mushroom Cellar 73

Greenhouses 75

Hotbed Frames 76

Box Stalls 77

Silos 78

Culverts 83

Table for Coloring Concrete 86

Stucco Work.

Cement Plastering 87

Spatter-dash 87

Pebble-dash . 87

Tools used in mixing and working- Concrete 91

Description of Building Construction on Gedney Farms
White Plains, N. Y., by Edward Burnett and

Stanley Cunningham. 93

Description of buildings on Brookside Farms, Newburg,

N. Y., by S. L. Stewart 114

Interesting and novel examples of Concrete Construc-
tion I 17-127

FOREWORD.

The development of the American Portland Cement in-
dustry during the past decade has been one of the marvels of
the age, and while Portland Cement Concrete has come to be
recognized as the ideal building material for heavy work,
comparatively little attention has been given to its use in the
smaller construction about the home and on the farm. That
active interest, however, is taken in this important subject by
the suburbanite, the villager, and the farmer, is evidenced by
the large number of letters of inquiry received by the agri-
cultural and technical journals.

During the past few years the price of lumber has ad-
vanced to almost prohibitive figures, and it is therefore only
natural that a substitute material which affords the advan-
tages of moderate cost, durability and beauty, should be looked
upon with favor.

It is not our purpose to enlarge upon the uses for which
Portland Cement is now considered standard, but rather to
direct attention to the economy of supplanting wood, brick
and cut stone in divers ways by the more durable, sightly,
and sanitary Portland Cement construction.

All photographs displayed in this booklet were taken from
actual work done with "ATLAS" Portland Cement, and the
specifications are those which have been employed in success-
ful construction.

In the following pages we shall endeavor to -point out, in
language free from technical terms, some of the uses for which
Portland Cement Concrete is especially adapted.

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.

Concrete construction dates back to the time of the
Romans, who secured good results from a mixture of slaked
lime, volcanic dust, sand and broken stone. Even this com-
bination, crude in comparison with Portland Cement concrete,
produced an artificial stone which has stood the test of nearly
two thousand years, as evidenced by many works in Rome
which are to-day in a perfect state of preservation.

"Portland Cement" is an invention of modern times — its
universal use the matter of a quarter of a century. The honor
of its discovery belongs to Joseph Aspdin, of Leeds, England,
who took out a patent in 1824 for the manufacture of "Port-
land Cement," so called because of its resemblance, in color,
to a then popular limestone quarried on the Island of Port-
land. Manufacture was begun in 1825, but progress was
slow until about 1850, when, through improved methods and
general recognition of its merits as a building material, com-
mercial success was assured. About this time the manu-
facture of Portland Cement was taken up in earnest by the
French and Germans, and, by reason of their more scientific
efforts, both the method of manufacture and quality of the
finished product were greatly improved. Portland dement
was first brought to the United States in 1865. It was first
manufactured in this country in 1872, but not until 1896 did
the annual domestic production reach the million-barrel mark.

Wonderful as the development of the general industry has
been, the growth of the Atlas Portland Cement Company's
plants has been even more so. Beginning in 1892 at Coplay,
Pa., with the modest capacity of 250 barrels per day, its pro-
duction has steadily increased through the construction of
plants Nos. 2, 3, and 4, at Northampton, Pa., and plants Nos. 5
and 6, at Hannibal, Mo., until now more than 32,000 barrels
are manufactured each twenty-four hours, or approximately
twelve million barrels per year. This production is greater
than the combined capacity of any other four Portland Ce-
ment companies in the world. "ATLAS" Portland Cement is
manufactured from the finest raw materials, under expert
supervision in every department of the works. It is of the
highest quality, being guaranteed to pass all usual and cus-
tomary specifications, such as the specifications of the United
States Government and those of the American Society for
Testing Materials, which latter specifications have been con-
curred in by The American Institute of Architects, The
American Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association,
and The Association of Portland Cement Manufacturers. The
quality of eastern and western "ATLAS" is identical. By virtue
of its enormous production, The Atlas Portland Cement Com-
pany is able to develop and retain in its service the most
skilled operating talent in the Portland Cement irtdustry,
which insures a thoroughly reliable and uniform product.

"ATLAS" Portland Cement is guaranteed to be
"ALWAYS UNIFORM."

Cement mortar for brick or masonry work, CEMENT

MORTAR

if made in the following proportions, will give

a mortar that works greasy under the troweL
Proportions are: One barrel "ATLAS" Port-
land Cement, four barrels clean sand and two
pails of lime putty. Always have your brick
thoroughly wet before using.

Ideal concrete (artificial stone) is made CONCRETE
from a mixture of broken granite, trap rock or
clean screened gravel, size varying from a wal-
nut to a hen's egg, clean coarse sand and first-
class Portland Cement in such proportions
that the voids between the stones will be filled
with sand, and the voids between the grains of
sand filled with Portland Cement, with Port-
land Cement slightly in excess of the quantity
necessary to fill said voids, in order to furnish
additional adhesive properties to thoroughly
combine the sand with the broken stone.

BROKEN STONE, GRAVEL, OR CIN- BROKEN STONE
DERS form the coarse AGGREGATE, as it
is sometimes called. The power of adhesion
of a high grade Portland Cement to stone is
shown by the fact that when a piece of con-
crete several months old is broken, the line
of fracture usually runs through the stone —
therefore, as the ultimate strength of concrete
depends largely upon the character of the ag-
gregate, care should be exercised in its selec-
tion.

Avoid soft sandstones, soft limestones, soft
freestones, slate and shale. Granite, trap,
slag, hard limestone or gravel are best. For
ordinary construction, gravel is more generally
used than any other aggregate, and in some
sections is found mixed with sand in nearly
correct proportions. The stones in the gravel
must be clean, as a coating of clay or loam
will prevent the cement from adhering to
them.

Cinders, broken hard brick, or terra cotta

GRAVEL, ETC.
(Cont'd)

SAND

CEMENT

may be used, but at a sacrifice of strength,
which in many cases is permissible. Cinders
should be thoroughly screened through a
mason's screen to remove the dust.

Sand should be clean and coarse. By clean

sand we mean it should be free from clay or

loam, as both retard the setting of cement,

and, if present in large quantities, destroy its

adhesive quality. There are three simple

ways of telling whether sand is clean or not:

i. — Rub some between the hands, and if they

are badly discolored do not use it.

2. — Drop a handful into a pail of clean water;
if the water is clear enough to see the sand at
the bottom in two minutes, it is "clean."

3. — Fill a bottle or glass fruit jar one-quarter
full of sand, and add clean water until the bottle
or jar is three-quarters full. Shake well, and
if a layer of mud settles over the sand, do not
use it.

If the clay or loam is removed by washing,
the sand may be used.

Sand should be coarse. By this we mean
that a large proportion of the grains should
measure 1-32 to 1-16 inch in diameter, and
even if a few of the grains run up to % or 14
inch, there is no objection to them. Fine
sand, even if clean, makes a poor mortar or
concrete, and if its use is unavoidable, an ad-
ditional proportion of cement must be used
with it to thoroughly coat the grains.

Use the best Portland obtainable, i Port-
land Cement is described by the United States
Government (Board of Engineers, U. S. A.,
Professional Papers, No. 28) as follows:

"By a Portland Cement is meant the product
obtained from the heating or calcining up to in-
cipient fusion of intimate mixtures, either natural
or artificial, of argillaceous with calcareous sub-
stances, the calcined product to contain at least
1.7 times as much of lime, by weight, as of the
materials which give the lime its hydraulic prop-
erties, and to be finely pulverized after said cal-
cination, and thereafter additions or substitu-
tions for the purpose only of regulating certain
10

properties of technical importance to be allow- CEMENT

able to not exceeding two per cent, of the cal- (Cont'd)

cined product."

In plain English, "ATLAS" Portland Ce-
ment is produced by quarrying, crushing and
grinding rock, containing proper ingredients,
to an impalpable powder, which powder is
conveyed to and fed into rotary kilns, and
there burned at a temperature of more than
2,000 degrees Fahrenheit, which burning pro-
duces what is known as cement clinker. The
clinker, after leaving the kiln, is cooled,
crushed and reground to an impalpable pow-
der,* and transferred to storage tanks or stock-
houses for seasoning. With the addition of
about two per cent, of Plaster of Paris, ground
equally fine, to control its setting qualities, the
cement becomes a finished product. From the
time the rock is taken from the quarry to the
placing of the finished product in barrels, or
bags, all conveying is done by machinery, and
in the course of its travels a thorough chemical
mixture takes place, it being under absolute
control of a corps of experienced chemists day
and night. Portland Cement on the job should
be stored in a dry place, as dampness is the
only element of danger.

"ATLAS" cement is shipped in barrels,
cloth and paper bags. The barrels weigh 400
pounds gross, or 380 pounds net. When
shipped in bags the weight is 95 pounds per
bag, four bags to the barrel.

Water should be clean and free from acid WATER

or strong alkalis.

In estimating, do not make the mistake so PROPORTIONS
often made by the uninitiated, of thinking that
six barrels broken stone, three barrels sand,
and one barrel cement will make ten barrels
concrete. As previously stated, the sand fills the

* We guarantee 95 per cent, to pass through a sieve having 10,000
meshes to the square inch; 80 per cent, through a sieve having 40,000
meshes to the square inch.

THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT COMPANY,
ii

PROPORTIONS
(Cont'd)

A RICH
MIXTURE

A MEDIUM
MIXTURE

AN ORDINARY
MIXTURE

voids between the stones, while the cement
fills the voids between the grains of sand;
therefore the total quantity of concrete will
be but slightly in excess of the original quan-
tity of broken stone.

The following quotation from "Concrete,
Plain and Reinforced," * by the well known
authorities Taylor & Thompson, is given as
a guide to those who wish to construct any
building for which specific instructions are
not given in the following pages :

"As a rough guide to the selection of mater-
ials for various classes of work, we may take
four proportions, which differ from each other
simply in the relative quantity of cement:

"For reinforced engine or machine founda-
tions subject to vibrations; for reinforced
floors, beams and columns for heavy loading;
tanks and other water-tight work — proportions
1:2:4, tnat is, one barrel (4 bags) packed
Portland Cement (as it comes from the manu-
facturer) to 2 barrels (7.6 cubic feet) loose
sand, to 4 barrels (15.2 cubic feet) loose
gravel or broken stone.

"For ordinary machine foundations, thin
foundation walls, building walls, arches, ordi-
nary floors, sidewalks and sewers, — propor-
tions i : 2^ 15, that is, i barrel (4 bags),
packed Portland Cement, to 2^ barrels (9.5
cubic feet) loose sand, to 5 barrels (19 cubic
feet) loose gravel or broken stone.

"For heavy walls, retaining walls, piers, and
abutments, which are to be subjected to con-
siderable strain, — proportions are 1:3:6, that
is, i barrel (4 bags), packed Portland Cement,
to 3 barrels (11.4 cubic feet) loose sand, to 6
barrels (22.8 cubic feet) loose gravel or broken
stone.

* "Concrete Plain and Reinforced," by Taylor & Thompson; John
Wiley & Sons, New York, Publishers.

"For unimportant work in masses where the
concrete is subjected to plain compressive
strain, as in large foundations supporting a sta-
tionary load, or backing for stone masonry, —
proportions are 1:4:8; that is, i barrel (4
bags) packed Portland Cement, to 4 barrels
(15.2 cubic feet) loose sand, to 8 barrels (30.4
cubic feet) loose gravel or broken stone.

"The above specifications are based upon fair
average practice. If the aggregate is care-
fully graded and the proportions are scien-
tifically fixed, smaller proportions of cement
may be used for each class of work."

Too much attention cannot be paid to this
important part of concrete making. All parts
should be measured. A convenient form of
measure for sand and broken stone is a barrel
with the bottom out, as it is easily filled, and
more easily dumped. A wheelbarrow of
known capacity is also a handy unit of meas-
ure. Water should be measured by the pail
for small jobs.

Concrete should be mixed as near the place
it is to be used as practicable, so as to avoid
delay in getting it into place. If left standing
any length of time, it will set and become use-
less. To avoid this, mix small batches at a
time, using on a small job not more than a
half -barrel or two bags of cement to the batch.
Should the cement take its initial set, i.e., be-
gin to harden, before being placed in the forms,
so that it lumps when retempered, discard it,
as the hardening qualities of cement are .
affected if disturbed after it has begun to set.

Mixing should be done on a flat, water-
tight platform in the following manner : Meas-
ure the sand and spread it in a layer of even
depth. Place the cement on top and turn with
shovel at least three times, or until the two
are thoroughly mixed, as shown by uniform
color. Stone (thoroughly wet) should then

A LEAN
MIXTURE

MEASURING

MIXING

MIXING
(Cont'd)

FORMS

be thrown on top of the whole, and turned at
least three times, water being added on the
second turning, the quantity varying accord-
ing to the nature of the work. In general,
sufficient water should be used to give a
"mushy" mixture just too soft to bear the
weight of a man when in place. Concrete
mixing machines should be used on large jobs
as a matter of economy. Water should be
added to the mixture of stone, sand and
cement, a little at a time, until the proper con-
sistency is reached. A sprinkling pot is handy
for adding water, as it does not wash away the
cement. Do not use a hose unless you are an
experienced hand.

Green timber is preferable, for if seasoned,
it is likely to swell and warp when brought in
contact with moisture from the concrete. Fir,
yellow pine, or spruce are suitable. If a
smooth surface is desired, the sheathing next
to the concrete must be planed. It is usually
advisable to grease the inside of forms with
soap, linseed oil, or crude oil; otherwise par-
ticles of concrete will be detached when the
forms are removed, thus giving an unneces-
sarily rough surface to the face of the con-
crete. Forms should not be greased when it
is intended to plaster the surface of the con-
crete, but should be thoroughly wet imme-
diately before placing the concrete. |

The sheathing, which is usually laid hori-
zontally, may be i inch, iy2 inches, or 2 inches
thick, the distance apart of the studding being
governed by the thickness selected. The studs
should not be placed more than 2 feet apart
for i -inch sheathing, nor more than 5 feet
apart for 2-inch sheathing. They should be
securely braced to withstand the pressure of
the soft concrete, also of the ramming and
tamping. In building forms, do not drive the
nails all the way home. Leave the heads out,

so that it is possible to draw them with a FORMS

claw hammer. The less hammering done

around green concrete the better. Avoid

cracks in forms into which the mortar will

force itself and form "fins" on the surface of

the work.

Forms should be left in place from three to
four weeks if there is earth or water pressure
against the wall. If, on the other hand, there
is no strain upon it, twenty-four hours' set-
ting, or until the concrete will withstand the
pressure of the thumb without indentation, is
sufficient.

An easy method of preventing the forms
from bulging is shown in cut at bottom of
page. Two holes are bored in both sides of
the form and a wire passed through them and
the ends tied together. A piece of wood or
large nail is then used to twist the two
strands together. The form can thus be
drawn together and held securely in place.
In removing the forms cut the wire at the
sides and trim off even with the wall.

Place concrete in forms in layers of not PUTTING INTO

more than 8 inches deep, and tamp lightly
with a rammer, or puddle with a piece of
2-inch x 4-inch joist, until water begins to
pool on top and no pockets of stone are left
uncovered with mortar. Concrete exposed

PUTTING INTO to the sun should be dampened occasionally
fr, ,.v for two weeks or more at a time when the wall

(Vont a)

is in a shadow — this will allow the interior
of the walls to dry in uniformity with the ex-
terior, thus preventing scaling or cracking.

The method of obtaining a smooth face on
concrete frequently adopted is as follows:
Thrust a spade or thin paddle between the
concrete and the form, moving the handle to
and fro, and up and down. This movement
forces the broken stone in the concrete away
and brings a coating of mortar next to the
form, which gives a smooth surface. Care
taken in manipulation of concrete along the
moulds will be amply repaid by the smooth
surface resulting, and the saving in time and
expense otherwise made necessary in plaster-
ing over cavities and smoothing rough places.

REINFORCED Reinforced concrete is ordinary concrete in

^ *

which iron or steel rods or wire are imbedded.
Reinforcement is required when the concrete
is liable to be pulled or bent, as in beams,
floors, posts, walls or tanks, because, while
concrete is as strong as stone masonry,
neither of these materials has nearly so much
strength in tension as in compression. More-
over, concrete alone, like any natural stone, is
brittle, but by imbedding in it steel rods or
other reinforcement, the cement adheres, and
the metal binds the particles together $o that
the reinforced concrete is better adapted to
withstand jar and impact. Even railway
bridges are built, not only in arch form, like
a stone arch, but in some cases like a steel
girder bridge, with a flat reinforced concrete
floor supported by horizontal beams of the
same material.

For reinforcement, plain round or square
rods may be used, or rods with irregular sur-
faces, many of which are patented, so designed
as to adhere more strongly to the concrete in
16

which they are imbedded. For floor or roof REINFORCED

CONCRETF

slabs, steel is sometimes formed in sheets like .c ,,.
wire lathing, or expanded metal, or woven
wire fabric.

An engineer or architect experienced in re-
inforced concrete design should be employed
in preparing the plans for houses, barns, or
other large structures, but by carefully follow-
ing the directions and specifications in this
booklet, small reinforced concrete construc-
tion may be safely undertaken by the inex-
perienced. The table which follows gives the
thickness and reinforcement of slabs, and the
dimensions and reinforcement of reinforced
concrete beams for a number of conditions
which are liable to be met with in common
practice. While the values are as low as
should be adopted without knowing the local
conditions, complete mathematical calcula-
tions of dimensions should be made for large
structures, not only from the standpoint of
safety, but also because of the saving in cost
of material which can be effected by fitting
each member in its proper place.

Rules, which are written as foot-notes to the
table, give very important directions.

An invariable rule in placing steel is to in-
sert it in the face where the pull will come.
Thus, in a beam or slab it must be close to the
bottom. In a wall to withstand earth pres-
sure, it must be in the face nearest the
earth. If, for example, a beam were designed
according to the table, but the steel placed in
the middle or top of the beam instead of in
the bottom, it would certainly break under a
very light load. There must be only enough
concrete outside of the steel to protect it from
rusting or fire. In floor or roof-slabs of small
structures, this thickness should be one-half
inch to three-quarters inch below the bottom of
the steel, and for beams, from i to 1*4 inches.

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REINFORCED A typical beam with its connecting floor

CONCRETE gl the concrete of both of which should be

(C-ontd) . .

laid at the same operation, is shown in Fig.
No. 50. It will be seen that the beam rein-
forcement consists of rods running length-
wise of the beam, — one-half or one-third of
these rods being bent up about one-third way
from each end and extending over the sup-
ports, as shown in Fig. 50, — and U-shaped bars
or stirrups, which pass under the longitudinal
rods and up on each side of the beam. The
horizontal bars withstand the direct pull in the
bottom of the beam due to bending when a load
is placed upon it; the U-bars or stirrups and
the bent-up bars prevent diagonal cracks,
which sometimes occur under loading, and the
bars passing over the supports prevent the
cracking of the beam on top at the ends.

Maximum size of broken stone or gravel
should not be over one inch diameter in
order to pass between and under the steel
rods. Consistency of concrete should be like
heavy cream.

COST OF CON- ln taking up the question of cost, many
<ys things have to be considered. In some sec-

OTHER KINDS tions of the country lumber is scarce and
OF CONSTRUC- . .„ , , . ... .

skilled mechanics at a premium, while in other

sections timber is comparatively cheap and
labor can be had at a nominal figure. It is
very difficult, therefore, to give comparative
figures. A number of buildings shown herein
were originally intended to be built of wood,
brick or stone, and the specifications drawn
accordingly. The final cost of these buildings
when built of concrete was much less than
the original estimate, to say nothing of their
superior appearance and lasting qualities.

X £fD

(0 (P

8
u

COST OF CON-
CRETE CON-
STRUCTION
(Cont'd)

FREEZING

From the table given below the cost of ma-
terials for a cubic yard of concrete can be
easily figured out.

MATERIALS FOR ONE CUBIC YARD
OF CONCRETE.

Proportions

1:2:4
1:2*:5
1:3:6
1:4:8

Bbls. Cement

in
1 Cubic Yard

1.57
1.29
1.10
0.85

Bbls. Sand

in
1 Cubic Yard

3.14
3.23
3.30
3.40

Bbls. Gravel or

Stone in
1 Cubic Yard

6.28
6.45
6.60
6.80

The cost of labor in concrete construction
is small in comparison with other forms of
building, as much of the work can be done by
unskilled labor under the direction of a
skilled foreman.

The lumber for the forms may be used over
again, or utilized in building roofs, partitions,
etc., as the cement absorbed adds to its
strength and durability.

Concrete work should be avoided so far as
possible in freezing weather, as the frost will
prevent the bonding of different layers, and
will cause a thin scale to peel off of the sur-
face of concrete. Salt is frequently used to
lower the freezing point of concrete. One
method is to add one per cent., by weight, of
salt to water used for each degree Fahrenheit
below freezing. One cannot tell how low the
temperature is going to fall, so ten per cent,
by weight, of salt to water or its equivalent,
twelve pounds per barrel cement, may be used
in the northern portions of the United States.

Another, and perhaps preferable, method is
to mix warm sand and stone with the cement
and water in such manner as will bring the
entire mixture up to about seventy-five degrees
Fahrenheit, protecting in the early stages of
setting, so far as possible, from cold and cur-
rents of air.

In a circular form there are two sides — the
inner and the outer — A and B, Fig. No.- 20.
These may be used together as in building a
silo, or, as in a cistern, using the inner form
alone; or for a column, using only the outer
form. Both sides of the form are made in the
same way, but the inner and outer sides can-
not be made to the same pattern, as the thick-
ness of the walls comes between the parts,
making the radius of each side different.

The simplest way to make a circular form is
to draw a circle of the size of the form de-
sired, and lay boards around the circumference
of the circle, as shown in Fig. No. 48. These
boards should be lightly tacked together in
place, and, using the same measure, mark
a circle upon them. They should then be
knocked apart and sawed out along the lines
marked, the pieces being fastened securely to-
gether, as shown in Fig. No. 20. After making
two or more forms, place them at equal dis-
tances apart, and put on the sideboards in the
manner shown in Fig. No. 21. These boards
are called "Lagging."

A simple method of drawing a large circle is
as follows: Take a piece of string, fasten one
end in the ground by means of a long nail,
marked "A," Fig. No. 48. Measure off one-

CIRCULAR
FORM

Circufai*

half the diameter of the circle desired and tie
a knot. Through the knot force a nail (marked
"B," Fig. No. 48), and, keeping the string

CIRCULAR
FORM
(Cont'd)

stretched taut between these two points, draw
a cpntinuous line. After the boards have been
put in place as described above, a pencil can
be substituted for the nail "B."

A section of a circular form may be figured
out from the following formula, should it be
more convenient:

Fbrmufa / fv be used when width of board f

SIDEWALKS.

As much care should be taken in laying the foundation as
the walk itself. Foundations should generally be 6 inches to
12 inches deep, depending upon the climate and character of
the soil. In sections where there is a porous soil and a mild
climate, foundations are sometimes omitted entirely. If the
soil is clayey, blind drains of coarse gravel or tile pipe should
be laid at the lowest points in the excavation, to carry off any
water that might accumulate. Walks are frequently ruined
by water freezing in the foundations and heaving them out of
position.

Excavate to the sub-grade previously determined upon, 3
inches wider on each side than the proposed walk, and fill
with broken stone, gravel or cinders to within 4 inches of the
proposed finished surface, wetting well and tamping in layers,
so that when complete it will be even and firm, but porous.
Place 2-inch x 4-inch scantlings (preferably dressed on inside
and edge and perfectly straight) on top of the cinder founda-
tion, the proper distance apart to form the inner and outer
edges of the walk. The outside or curb strips must be i inch
to 2 inches lower than the inner edge of the walk. This will
give a slight incline to the finished surface, and allow the
water to run off. A good rule to follow is to allow ^4-inch
slope to every foot of width of walk. For wide walks lay off

the space between the scantlings into equal sections not
larger than 6 feet square, put 2-inch x 4-inch scantlings cross-
wise and in the center, as shown in Fig. No. i — this will make
every alternate space, shown in figure by diagonal line, the
size desired. Fill these spaces with concrete to a depth of 3
inches (this depth should be 4 inches where there is more
than ordinary traffic, or where the blocks are 6 feet
square) — one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts clean
coarse sand, and four to five parts broken stone or screened
gravel, then tamp until water begins to show on top. On the
same day, as soon as the concrete has set, remove crosswise
and center scantlings, place a sheet of tar paper on the edges
to separate them from all other squares (Fig. No. i), and fill
in the spaces thus left with 3-inch concrete as before. Mark
the scantling to show where the joints come.

The finishing coat should be i inch thick, of one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement and one and one-half parts clean,
coarse sand or crushed stone screenings. This coat should be
spread on before the concrete has taken its set, and smoothed
off with a screed or straight edge run over the 2x4 scan-
tlings, the object being to thoroughly bond the finishing
coat to the concrete base. If the bond between the finishing
coat and the concrete is imperfect, the walk gives a hollow
sound under the feet, and is liable to crack after having been
down one or two years. Smooth with a wooden float, and
groove exactly over the joints between the concrete (Fig. No.
2), so as to bevel the edges of all blocks. Do not trowel the
finishing coat too much, nor until it has begun to stiffen,
as this tends to separate the cement from the sand, producing
hair cracks, and giving a poor wearing surface. Keep the fin-
ished walks protected from dust, dirt, currents of air, and the
hot sun during the process of setting, and further protect
from the sun and traffic for three or four days, and keep moist
by sprinkling. The covering may be whatever is most con-
venient— sand, straw, sawdust, grass, or boards.

Most walks are made the width of a single block, and
should be constructed as shown in Fig. No. 3. In a walk
the width of a single block, make every alternate block and
then go back and fill in the blocks between. Fig. No. 4 shows
cross section of same, and Fig. No. 5 is a lengthwise sec-
tional view.

CURB AND GUTTER.

The foundation for curbs and gutters, like sidewalks,
should be governed by the soil and climate.

Concrete curbing should be built in advance of the walk
in sectional pieces 6 feet to 8 feet long, and separated from
each other and from the walk by tar paper or a cut joint, in the
same manner as the walk is divided into blocks.

Curbs should be 4 inches to 7 inches wide at the top and
5 inches to 8 inches at the bottom, with a face 6 inches to 7
inches above the gutter. The curb should stand on a con-
crete base 5 inches to 8 inches thick, which in turn should
have a sub-base of porous material at least 12 inches thick.
The gutter should be 16 inches to 20 inches broad, and 6 inches
to 9 inches thick, and should also have a porous foundation at
least 12 inches thick.

Keeping the above dimensions in mind, excavate a trench
the combined width of the gutter and curb and put in the sub-
base of porous material. On top of this, place forms and fill
with a layer of concrete, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement,
three parts clean, coarse sand and six parts broken stone, thick
enough to fill the forms to about 3 inches below the street
level. As soon as the concrete is sufficiently set to withstand
pressure, place forms for the curb, and after carefully cleaning
the concrete between the forms and thoroughly wetting, fill
with concrete, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and
one-half parts clean, coarse sand and five parts broken stone.
When the curb has sufficiently set to withstand its own weight
without bulging, remove the 3^-inch board shown in Fig. No.
6, and with the aid of a trowel fill in the space between the
concrete and the" form with cement mortar, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement and one part clean, coarse sand. The finish-
ing coat at the top of the curb should be put on at the same
time. Trowel thoroughly and smooth with a wooden float,
removing face form the following day. Sprinkle often and
protect from sun.

In making curbs alone, specifications on following page and
illustrated in sectional drawing should be followed.

Excavate 32 inches below the level of the curb and fill with
cinders, broken stone, gravel, or broken brick to depth of 12
inches. Build a foundation 8 inches deep by 12 inches broad,
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse

sand and six parts broken stone, and from the top of this and
nearly flush with the rear, build a concrete wall ni/4 inches
high, 714 inches broad at the base and 6% inches at the top,
the i -inch slope to be on the face. Forms should be built as
in Fig. No. 6.

Remove the forms as soon as the concrete will withstand
its own weight without bulging, and proceed as per directions
given on preceding page (Fig. No. 7). Keep moist for several
days and protect from the sun. The above measurements may
be varied to suit local conditions.

FLOORS.
CELLAR FLOORS.

Cellar floors may be laid without foundations, except in
places where there is danger of frost getting into the ground
below the floor. The dirt should be evened off and tamped
hard, and the concrete, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement,
two and one-half parts clean, coarse sand and five parts
broken stone, spread over the surface in one continuous slab
3 inches to 4 inches thick and lightly tamped to bring the
water to the surface, and screeded with a straight edge resting

Photo No. 231.

COW BARN, WASCO, ILL.

Photo No. 229.

CONCRETE FLOOR IN COW STABLE, ST. CHARLES, ILL.

upon scantlings placed about 12 feet apart. The scantlings
are then withdrawn and their places filled with concrete. No
finishing coat is needed unless the floor is to have excessive
wear. The surface of the concrete, however, should be trow-
eled as soon as it has begun to stiffen. Joints about 12 feet
apart should be made if the surface is more than 50 feet long,
or if it is to be subjected to extreme temperatures.

Photo No. 228.

FEEDING FLOOR, KLEMME, IA.

BARN AND STABLE FLOORS.

Barn floors should be laid in the same manner as sidewalks.
The thickness of the porous sub-base should be 6 inches to 12
inches, the base 3 inches to 5 inches, finishing with a surface
of mortar, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement and one and
one-half parts clean, coarse sand, i inch to i1/^ inches thick.
This may be roughed at time of laying and before it has set,
or grooved in blocks about 6 inches square, to prevent the
animals slipping. The surface should have sufficient slope to
carry liquids to drains placed at convenient intervals. These
drains may be either gutters or pipes laid under the floor
leading to manure pit. If pipes are used, they should be laid

Photo No. 265.

INTERIOR COW BARN, BABYLON, L. I.

l.'O ^K

5ecJ~/on oF Cow 5fobfe- Floor.

(

rs Or

in the sub-base and the joints put together with cement
mortar, care being taken to give the pipes enough slope to
flush properly. The lids of the drain should be sunk about
14 inch below the level of the floor, and should be loose, so
that they can be removed conveniently.

Driveways are made by dividing into 6-inch squares to
give foothold.

FEEDING FLOORS.

The immense advantage of concrete feeding floors over the
old method of placing fodder on the ground is apparent to all
who have given the subject any thought.

Feeding floors should be built the same as sidewalks (see
Walks). The finishing coat is optional, although it has the
advantage of being much easier to keep clean. Many farmers
prefer an unfinished surface on account of its giving cattle a
firmer footing in slippery weather.

STEPS AND STAIRS.

Steps and stairs are of two kinds, those made in one piece,
monolithic, and those cast in separate moulds and put into
place. There are numerous ways of arriving at the same end,
and each man in charge of such work must use his ingenuity
in the use of the materials at hand, and adopt the method
best suited to his requirements. Specifications are given for
four ways of making steps and stairs, all of which have proved
successful.

The rises on all steps and stairs should not be less than
6 inches nor more than 8 inches, while the tread should be
from 10 inches to 14 inches, except where it is intended that
more than one step should be taken on the tread, hi which
case 30 inches should be the minimum width.

Foundations for all steps out of doors should extend below
frost line, or have a porous base with a drain situated at the
lowest point to allow the water to run off. Steps should be
wider than the walk or opening from which they lead, to avoid
looking cramped, and, in order to secure an artistic effect,
should have some sort of projection, or moulding, at the upper
edge. A slight slope to allow the water to run off is also
desirable.

All steps and stairs cast separately should be reinforced
by iron bars placed about one inch in from the bottom of step,

and flying steps and stairs (stairs having no supports under-
neath) should be well reinforced as described below.

Let us first consider steps to areas or terraced grounds.
Excavate on the slope to the desired depth (see Foundations
for Sidewalks) and put in porous foundation with a drain at
the lower end to dispose of any water that might accumulate.

Photo No. 323.
STEPS LEADING TO GREENHOUSE, IT. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Place a plank along each side of the proposed steps, broad
enough to house the rise of each step, and brace well. Lay
a strip of woven wire fabric, or other reinforcing mesh, of a
width nearly corresponding to the width of the steps and the
full length of the steps on the slope. Then spread upon this
metal a layer of concrete about 3 inches thick, in proportions
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse
sand, and six parts broken stone or gravel, mixed with suffi-

cient water so that it will work through the mesh of the wire
cloth and completely surround the metal. After setting 24
hours, start at the top and place boards between the housings
to form the rise of each step. These boards should each have
a groove at the top to form the projection or moulding above
mentioned at the top of each step, and should be firmly
fastened to the housings. After wetting the concrete base, fill
the top form thus made with mortar, one part "ATLAS" Port-

Photo No. 196.
CELLAR STEPS AND ICE BOX, W, N, WIGHT, WESTWOOD, N. J.

land Cement and one and one-half parts clean, coarse sand,
wet until of consistency of jelly, tamp solid and smooth with
a wooden float. Continue with the next step below. A saving
in material may be made by building the steps of one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand
and six parts broken stone, and, before the concrete has set,

coating them 14 inch deep with mortar, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement and one and one-half parts clean, coarse
sand, but unless this is done by skilled workmen it is apt to
crack.

Porch steps, etc., can be built as follows: Build two 8-inch
walls to a depth below frost, the upper surface conforming
to the desired pitch of the steps, but 3 inches below the point
where the inner edge of the tread meets the rise. Between
the walls build a platform out of 2 x 4 stuff well braced and
conforming to the slope of the walls. Over this and over the
top edge of the walls, put a 3-inch layer of concrete reinforced
every foot by 14-inch iron bars running from top to bottom.
Build up the form on the outside of walls and proceed in the
same manner as for area steps. Should the steps be more
than 6 feet wide, a wall similar to the two side walls should
be built in the center. Forms should not be removed from
under the steps for 28 days. If the porch is so high that more
than three or four steps are needed, the reinforcing rods must
be larger and nearer together. To determine the diameter
and spacing of rods, see columns headed "Reinforcement of
Slabs" in portion of table referring to "Light Floor Load-
ing," and select the diameter and spacing of rods in accord-
ance with the length of the horizontal projection of the

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stairs, which corresponds to the column of "Distance Apart
of Beams" in table.

Steps cast separate from supporting walls should be made
in advance and allowed to season. The sectional drawing
illustrates this form of step. To build a single step, make form
shown in cut, page 35, Fig. 8, 14 inches x 7 inches inside
measurement and i inch for projection, and fill as shown to
within i inch of top with concrete, one part "ATLAS" Port-
land Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand and six parts
broken stone; tamp hard and let set. Remove the board "A"
next to the face of the concrete, which should not be fastened
to the form, but simply set in and well greased. This will leave
a space on the side and top of step, also a small mould for the
projection at top of step. Fill this with wet mortar, one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement and one and one-half parts clean,
coarse sand, and let set. The side forms may then be removed
and used again. In building the two side walls for these steps,
build a foundation 12 inches wide and below frost, Fig. No. 9.
On this, and at equal distance from each edge, erect 8-inch
walls with the top stepped off to conform to the bottom and
back of steps, Fig. No. 10. Place the steps on the walls thus
made, after covering all joints with cement mortar, so that
they overlap one another 2 inches.

PORCH STEPS, GREENPORT, L. L, H. Y.
36

Photo No. 290.
FLYING STAIRS, DAIRY HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

FLYING STAIRS OR STEPS.

In constructing "flying" steps or stairs, first make the steps
as in figure D and allow them to season. The stringers are
cast in place and constructed as inclined beams of sufficient
length, and with a projection along the lower inside to support
the steps as in figure C. Place two %-inch bars about i%
inches in from bottom and one of the same diameter at the top,
the three being connected as shown under "Steel reinforcing
in stringers." The reinforcing, however, depends upon the
depth and pitch of the stairs, also the weight they are to carry.
Stairs are put in place with the lower edge resting against the
upper corner of the stair below, a small notch being left in
each stair for this purpose. A finishing coat of one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement and one part clean, coarse sand is

given to the stairs after all are in place and have been picked
with a stone axe. This binds the whole flight together. See
Fig. 42.

WALLS.

Concrete walls for every purpose are considered the best
by engineers, and such walls may be thinner than if built of
any other material. Every wall should have a footing — that is,
a base which is wider than the wall it carries. A foundation
must extend below the frost line. A foundation must extend
through soft or yielding soil.

Walls are of two kinds, solid and hollow, and may be either
plumb, the same thickness at top as at bottom, or battered,
wide at the bottom and sloped toward the summit. They may
be built in two ways; first, cast in blocks and put into place
the same as brick or stone ; second, cast in place in one piece.
Walls must be true, level, and unless battered, plumb.

Hollow walls are usually built with two faces 3 inches to
4 inches thick and are either tied together with galvanized
iron strips or have piers of concrete connecting the two faces.
These piers are built at the same time as the faces, and the
whole is practically one wall with air chambers at regular
intervals. Walls should be allowed to season before any
super-structure is built upon them, to prevent their being in-
jured by the workmen. In dry, warm weather this will re-

quire from six to eight days. Earth should not be filled in
against a concrete wall for three or four weeks unless the
form furthest from the earth is kept in place. Where there is
no earth or water pressure against the wall, 24 hours, or until

Photo No. 295.

RETAINING WALL, GEDNEY FAEMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

the concrete will withstand the pressure of the thumb, is
sufficient length of time to keep forms in place. For this rea-
son it is well to have two or more forms where movable
forms are used. In building forms they should be assembled,
as far as possible, with bolts so that they may be used again.

Window or door frames should be put in place and the
wall built around them. Cellar walls should be from 10
inches to 12 inches thick for frame superstructure and 14
inches to 24 inches thick for brick, or about 2 inches wider
than the brick wall for convenience in laying out the brick-
work.

Contraction in walls should be provided for by forming
joints at intervals to divide the walls into separate sections to
prevent cracks, or by reinforcing with sufficient steel to with-
stand shrinkage. These joints can be provided for in the fol-
lowing manner:

The simplest way is to place a temporary dam between the
forms, to remain until a section of concrete has set, when it
is removed and the next section filled.

Another way of forming a joint is to insert two or more
thicknesses of tarred paper between sections of the wall.

fig-to*

Fig. No. loa represents the side view of an ordinary
form. 2-inch x 4-inch braces are placed against the 2-inch x 4-
inch studs, as shown in Fig. No. n.

Fig. No. ii represents an ordinary low wall in course of
construction and shows the way the footing is placed and
the forms braced.

Fig. No. 12 represents a wall for which the bank is made
to do duty for half the form. In places where there is hard,
clayey soil, this form may be used.

Figs. No. 13, No. 14, and No. 15 represent the various sec-
tions of a form used in building a solid wall of any height.
This form is put in place and filled with concrete. After the
concrete has set, the bolts are withdrawn and the form raised
so that the bottom set of bolts rests on the completed wall —
the lower part of the form overlapping the concrete. This
tends to keep the wall plumb. The bolts used should be
greased each time, otherwise it will be difficult to remove
them after the concrete has set. The holes caused by the
bolts can be filled solid with mortar mixed in the same pro-
portion as the sand and cement in the concrete.

Top View

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Figs. No. 16, No. 17, and No. 18 represent a design for a
form for hollow reinforced walls. In this form the bolts do
not pass through the concrete, the form being raised when the
concrete reaches their level. Fig. No. 16 shows the elevation.
Fig. No. 17 shows a horizontal section. The core box is seen
in the center, and at either end are the concrete piers used to tie
the walls together. The core boxes are tapered to prevent
them from slipping down, and the rods in the center of the
outside faces of form rest on top of these core boxes. (See
Fig. No. 1 8.) Strips of wood are used to fasten the tops of the
faces together to stiffen the form.

Fig. No. 19 represents design used in construction of a
hollow wall where there is not much strain on the wall, also
in low walls. The faces of the form are constructed as in Fig.
No. ii. The core is built in sections about two feet high and
rests on the galvanized iron straps used to tie the walls to-
gether. These straps should be 2 inches broad by % inch
thick, and should be turned up an inch at each end and be
long enough to extend half way through each wall. The dis-
tance apart at which these rods should be placed depends upon
the strength required in the wall. There should, however,
be a layer of them every time the core form is raised. The
ends and top of this style of wall should be filled solid the last
6 inches, thereby forming a dead-air space.

Photo No. 293.

DETAIL OF FORMS FOR HOLLOW WALL CONSTRUCTION, GEDNEY FARMS,
WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

There is still another style of hollow wall, forms for which
are shown in the accompanying illustration. In this wall the
core boxes are made collapsible and run to the height of the

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finished wall. The outside or face forms are made in sections
such as are seen in the foreground and are securely fastened
with braces similar to those in Fig. No. n. After the wall has
been brought to its full height and set hard, the core boxes
are collapsed and lifted out. The outside forms are then
removed.

In making a curved hollow wall, both the core and face
forms should be curved. (See Circular Forms).

HOUSE FOUNDATION.

To build a house foundation, first excavate to the desired
depth of cellar and around the edge dig a trench 18 inches
wide and 6 inches deep, and build forms for wall about 12
inches thick, as in Figs. No. n or No. 12. Fill with concrete,
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and one-half parts
sand, and five parts broken stone or gravel, ramming or
puddling carefully, allowing the concrete at the bottom to
flow out under the forms the width of the trench, to the de-
sired height. Allow the concrete to set hard before removing
the forms. If earth is filled in against back of wall the face
forms should be left three or four weeks, but superstructure
may be begun in about a week.

Partition walls are constructed in same manner as out-
side walls, but need not be more than 8 inches thick. If re-
inforced with % inch r°ds spaced 18 inches apart horizontally
and vertically, 4 or 6 inches will be thick enough. In wet
ground, to prevent moisture from soaking through, it is well
to give the inside a coat of one part "ATLAS" Portland
Cement and one part sand, one-quarter inch thick, applied
with trowel and wooden float, after picking the wall well with
a stone axe and wetting thoroughly. There is little danger,
however, of moisture passing through a well-laid wall if
a blind drain of coarse gravel is laid just back of the founda-
tion to carry off the water and prevent its rising back of the
wall. In gravel or sand, the blind drain is unnecessary.
BARN FOUNDATIONS should be built the same way as
house foundations, except that the cellar is omitted.

Photo No. 222.

BAEN FOUNDATIONS. KIKKWOOD, ILL.

PIERS AND POSTS.

Excavate below frost and build forms 2 feet square to with-
in 6 inches of surface of ground. Fill with concrete, one
part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and a half parts clean,
coarse sand and five parts broken stone or gravel not
over one inch in size, and tamp or puddle carefully. From
the center of this foundation build a hollow form one foot
square and to desired height, and fill with concrete of same
mixture. Before the form is filled — in fact, before setting it —
four steel bars % inch in diameter should be placed vertically
so that they are about 2 inches inside the corners, and around
them, at intervals of one foot, wind loops of % inch or ^4 inch
wire, tying these to the steel rods with fine wire. Every two
feet a short piece of % inch or y± inch wire may be tied to
each of the vertical rods (see A) so as to project against the
form and hold the steel in place. Make the concrete soft and
mushy, so that it will just flow, and, as it is poured into the
top of the mold, work a long paddle, made like the oar of a
rowboat, against the forms to force the stones away from the

surface and drive out bubbles of air which tend to adhere to
the boards and form pockets of stone (see Fig. No. 49).

WINDMILL FOUNDATION.

The great danger caused by the rotting of wooden wind-
mill foundations is obviated by the use of concrete.

Excavate four holes at the proper distance apart, 2% feet
square and 5 feet deep; build forms for the sides and grease
properly. Fill forms 2 feet deep with concrete, one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand,
six parts broken stone or gravel, of a jelly-like consistency,
tamping well every six inches. To insure proper location of
holding-down bolts, construct template and hang the bolts
from it as shown in Fig. No. 22, and fill in concrete around
them until flush with top of form, and allow to set several
days before using. This gives a substantial anchorage for a
steel tower.

In case a wooden tower is to be used, run projecting bolts
up through the timber sills and use large cast iron washers
under the nuts. The anchorage in this case should project at
least 6 inches above the ground.

form forWfnd Mi/f Foundafron

CHIMNEY CAPS.

Chimney caps of concrete are rapidly supplanting stone,
brick or iron, as they are not only cheaper and more durable,
but protect the top of chimney better.

Make a bottomless box the size of the required cap, and
one or more small bottomless boxes to correspond to the flue
or flues of the chimney, and y2 inch higher, so that the surface
of the concrete can be sloped to allow water to flow off, and
set in place (Fig. No. 23). The thickness is usuallyi about 4
inches, but this can be varied to suit convenience. Plaster the
inside surface of the large mold with y2 mch of stiff mortar
and then immediately fill form one-half full with one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand,
and six parts broken stone, and put in reinforcing, either
woven wire, expanded metal, or i/i-mch rods, complete, and
tamp until water puddles on top. When partly set, trowel
smooth.

If it is desired to build the cap in place, the following plan
should be adhered to: Place small rods across the chimney
between the flues. On these build platform of tongue and

grooved board planed on upper side, and driven snug together,
but not nailed. On this platform place the forms previously
described and fill with reinforced concrete. After the con-

FfcOtO JNO. 224.

CONCRETE WALK AND WINDMILL FOUNDATION, CLINTON, IA. "

crete has set (at least a week is needed) remove platform by
raising each side of chimney cap alternately and knocking
platform apart. Remove outer and inner forms. Raise one
end of slab, cover all accessible surface of top of chimney with
mortar, lower cap on bed thus formed and remove rods under
end. Repeat process at opposite end.

CISTERN.

Make a circular excavation 16 inches wider than the desired
diameter of the cistern, or allow for a wall two-thirds the thick-
ness of a brick wall that would be used for the same purpose,
and from 14 feet to 16 feet deep. Make a cylindrical inner
form (See Circular Form) the outside diameter of which shall
be the diameter of the Cistern. The form should be about 9
feet long for a 1 4-foot hole, and 11 feet long for one 16 feet
deep. Saw the form lengthwise into equal parts for conven-
ience in handling. Lower the sections into the cistern and

there unite them to form a circle (Fig. No. 33), blocking up at
intervals six inches above the bottom of excavation. (With-
draw blocking after filling in spaces between with concrete
and then fill holes left by blocking with rich mortar.)

Make concrete of one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement,
two parts clean, coarse sand, and four parts broken stone or
gravel. Mix just soft enough to pour. Fill in space between
the form and the earth with concrete, and puddle it to prevent
the formation of stone pockets, using a long scantling for the
purpose and also a long-handled paddle for working between

Concrete Ci stern

!£^

the concrete and the form. To construct the dome without
using an expensive form, proceed as follows : Across top of the
form build a floor, leaving a hole in the center two feet square.
(Fig. No. 34.) Brace this floor well with wooden posts rest-
ing on the bottom of the cistern. Around the edges of hole,
and resting on the floor described, construct a vertical form
extending up to the level of the ground.

Build a cone-shaped mold of very fine wet sand from the
outer edge of the flooring to the top of the form around the
square hole and smooth with wooden float. Place a layer of

concrete four inches thick over the sand so that the edge will
rest on the side wall, Fig. No. 35.

Let concrete set for a week, then remove one of the floor
boards and let the sand fall gradually to the bottom of the

Photo No. 232.

CONCRETE CISTERN, ST. CHARLES, ILL.

cistern. When all boards and forms are removed they can
be easily passed through the two-foot aperture and the sand
taken out of the cistern by means of a pail lowered with a
rope. This does away with all expensive forms and is per-
fectly feasible. The bottom of the cistern should be built
at the same time as the side walls and should be of the same
mixture, six inches thick.

SQUARE CISTERN.

A square cistern such as is shown in illustration (page 49)
is much easier to build, and, in most cases, answers the pur-
pose as well as a round cistern.

Excavate to desired depth and put in 6 inches concrete
floor, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts sand,
and four parts broken stone. As soon as practicable, put up
forms for 8-inch walls (See Walls) and build the four walls
simultaneously. If more than 8 feet square, walls should be
reinforced with a woven wire fabric.

Photo No. 301.

WATERING TANK, BOODY, ILL.

WATERING TROUGHS.

Watering troughs may be made with or without reinforc-
ing, but troughs without reinforcing should have a greater
thickness of concrete. Troughs may be built with a solid
base or set on bench blocks. One of the sizes in common use
is 8 feet long, 2 feet wide at top and i% feet at bottom, and
il/2 feet deep, all inside measurements, which may be varied
to suit convenience.

Photo No. 25y. WATERING TROUGH, BABYLON, L. I.

Photo No. 278.

FIELD TROUGH, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N, Y.
51

Select a level piece of ground and build well braced, bot-
tomless box form from 2-inch stuff, the inside measurements
being 8 feet 8 inches long, 2 feet 8 inches broad and 2 feet i
inch deep. Ram the ground hard inside the form. Grease the
form well and put in a layer of concrete, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, two parts clean, coarse sand and four parts
broken stone, mixed to jelly-like consistency, 2% inches deep,

Photo No. 299.

WATERING TROUGH, DECATUR, ILL.

and tamp well. Place a sheet of woven wire fabric ov£r the
concrete, letting it come to within i inch of the top of forms
at sides and ends. Put in 2% inches more concrete over the
bottom and ram lightly to bring mortar to the surface, and
smooth it carefully. As soon as it is laid and before it has
begun to set, put the inner form (well greased) in place,
taking care to keep it at equal distances from the sides and
ends. The inner form should be made of 2-inch stuff and
slightly wedge shape. The outside dimensions may be as
follows :

Eight feet long, i% feet deep, 2 feet broad at top of trough
and il/2 feet broad at bottom. Fill in the spaces between the

two forms with soft concrete, tamping lightly

Remove forms next day, or as soon as concrete will

sure of thumb, and smooth off irregularities in surface, then,

as soon as hard enough not to crumble, paint with pure cement

mixed as thick as cream.

Inlet and outlet holes may be made by putting pieces of
pipe in place before filling in the concrete, or a greased, taper-
ing wooden plug to be drawn out when concrete has set.

Photo No. 223.

FIELD WATERING TROUGH, KNOXVILLE, IOWA.

A trough with a solid concrete base should be made in the
same general way, the forms carried up to the desired height
of trough and the reinforcing imbedded in the concrete a few
inches from the inside. Troughs should be protected from
the sun and currents of air for several days, and kept wet by
sprinkling.

TANKS.

Concrete tanks for storing water are in all respects su-
perior to any other kind. They are easy to clean, do not rust,
neither do they decay.

DIRECTIONS :— Concrete mixture one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, two parts clean sand and four parts broken

stone or gravel, not more than three-quarter inch in size, re-
inforced by woven wire fabric for small tanks, and steel rods
for large tanks. The concrete should be wet until of the con-
sistency of jelly.

SQUARE TANKS — Small: — Build inside of form 8 inches
wider, 8 inches longer and 4 inches deeper than the inside of

Photo No. 302.

WATER STORAGE TANK, BOODY, ILL.

the finished tank is to be. Set reinforcement, allowing that
placed on the sides of the tank to project down into th£ bot-
tom and that from the bottom to project up into the sides.
Place the inner form 4 inches from the outside form. This
form can rest on iron pins driven into the ground. Have the
bottom of the side walls about 2 inches thicker on the inside,
giving a slight slope outward. This is done to prevent ice
from cracking the concrete in Winter. Grease inside of forms.
Put concrete into forms in one continuous operation, as there
must be no joints between courses. The reinforcing at the
bottom should be lifted slightly as the concrete is placed, to
allow the concrete to get under it. In filling the sides take
care to keep the reinforcing in place. After the concrete

has set and the forms are removed, paint the entire tank with
pure cement mixed with water until of the consistency of
cream and brush well in. This will prevent any leakage.

ROUND TANKS:— Same general idea should be followed,
the forms being made as per circular form and the reinforcing
worked in the form of a spider web.

Photo No. 328.

FIFTY-FOOT WATERING TROUGH, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

TANKS — Large: — The thickness of concrete and the
amount of steel necessary must be figured out accurately for
large tanks, and as the dimensions vary in each case, an en-
gineer should be consulted.

Should the tank be desired above ground, remove the sod
and loose earth, and build foundation of gravel or crushed
stone, and proceed as above. For inlets and outlets, pieces of
pipe should be placed in the concrete while same is being de-
posited.

REINFORCEMENT FOR TANKS.

On following page is given a list of sizes of steel required
for tanks of several different dimensions, allowing ample factor

of safety. The entire pressure of the water is assumed, accord-
ing to the very best practice, to be taken by the steel, as con-
crete is not reliable in tension unless reinforced. The thick-
ness of concrete is only required to imbed the steel and to
make the tank water-tight, and should vary with the height
of the tank, but not necessarily with the diameter. A mini-
mum thickness of 4 inches for a 5-foot tank, running up to 15
inches for a tank 15 feet deep, is suggested.

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Depth

Diameter

Thickness
of
Concrete

Diameter
Circumfer-
ential rods.

Spacing
circumfer-
ential rods
at bottom.

Spacing
Circumfer-
ential rods
at top.

Diameter
vertical
rods.

Spacing
vertical
rods.

Ft. Ft.

Inches

Ft.

5 by 5

iy2

5 " 10

%«

2y2

10 " 10

2y2

10 " 15

15 " 10

2^2

15 " 15

NOTE. — Bend circumferential rods in rings, place in center of wall and lap ends 2 ft
Increase, gradually, spacing of circumferential rods from bottom to top.

WELL CURBS.

Concrete makes the best well curb, as it keeps out the sur-
face water, and is easily kept clean.

After the well has been dug to the desired depth, and the
sides properly braced in short sections, so that the earth can-
not cave in, build a circular form 8 inches smaller than the di-
ameter of the hole, and 4 feet long. (See Circular Form.)
Lower to the bottom in sections and adjust so that there are
4 inches between the form and the side of the hole. Place
concrete mixture, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two
and one-half parts clean, coarse sand, and five parts broken
stone or gravel, in this space. To allow the water to get into
the well, place a couple of pints of loose, broken stones in
"pockets" every few feet until water level is reached. After
filling the form to the top and allowing it to set over night, or
until the concrete will bear pressure of the thumb, raise it 3
feet, brace securely, and repeat until ground level is reached.
A slab 4 inches thick and 8 feet square should be built around

the top of the well, first replacing surface soil with a layer of
cinders or clean gravel, well rammed, about 12 inches thick.

Photo No. 185.

HORSE BLOCK, HITCHING POST AND SIDEWALK, WESTWOOD, N. J.

HORSE BLOCK.

Build a box 24 inches long, 10 inches wide and 8 inches
deep, outside measure. Turn this bottom up on the floor, or
some other smooth surface, and around it build a box or form,
without bottom, 36 inches long, 18 inches wide and 12 inches
deep, inside measure. Be sure that the smaller box is set at
equal distance from both sides and ends of the larger box, and
fill the form thus made with concrete, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand and five parts
gravel or broken stone. Scrape with straightedge and smooth
with wooden float. Let it stand for at least 48 hours before
removing outside form. Keep damp by sprinkling for three
weeks, and do not attempt to move it before that time. If
finished appearance is desired, a coating one-quarter inch
thick, made of one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement and one
part clean sand may be plastered over the entire surface of
the block, after picking with a stone axe and wetting thor-
oughly.

FENCE POSTS.

The use of concrete fence posts is becoming more and more
general in rural districts, which bespeaks their good qualities.
The life of a concrete post is unlimited, as it can never rot.

The farm fence post should be 6 inches square at the bottom
and about 3% inches at top, 6V2 feet long (Fig. No. 28), and
should be built in the following manner: Select some space
where the posts can be left in their original position until dry.

Photo No. 233.

CONCRETE FENCE POSTS, SIOUX RAPIDS, IA.

Place the bottom board, i% inches x 10 inches x 7 feet, in a
firm position on the ground, supporting it throughout its
length. Take two planks, 2 inches thick, 6 feet 6 inches long,
and from either edge lay off 3*72 inches at one end, and from
the same edge 6 inches at the other end. Draw a line be-
tween these points and saw along the line. Place them on
edge, straight side down, on the bottom board, keeping the
6-inch ends 6 inches apart, and the 3%-inch ends 3% inches
apart. Nail two or three stiff cross pieces to keep them in

place, and put a solid wooden block at each end (Fig. No.
26). The sides should be further stiffened by pieces of
moulding or lath tacked along the bottom board on the out-
side. Fill the form thus made i inch deep with concrete,
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and one-half parts
clean sand, and five parts broken stone, wet to consistency of
damp soil, and place a piece of strong wire (No. 6) i inch

in from each side and running from end to end (Fig. No. 27).
Fill to within i inch of top with concrete and tamp until water
flushes to surface and no air spaces are left. Place two more
pieces of wire i inch from sides and fill to level of form with
concrete ; tamp again, and smooth off with a trowel. Let the
forms remain on the sides at least ten hours. Do not move
the bottom board either away from the post, or with the post
on it, for ten days, under penalty of post cracking. Posts
should be left for three or four weeks at least before using,
and kept damp by sprinkling.

For fastening wire to the posts, the following method is
suggested: While the concrete is being put into the forms,
put %-inch steel bars (greased) through holes bored in
the sides of the form, the proper distance apart for stringing
wires, and leave until the concrete takes its final set (approxi-
mately four hours) ; then pull them out. This will leave a hole
through which the fence wire can be strung, or a short piece

of wire can be run through and the ends twisted around the
running fence wire, or wooden or lead plugs may be inserted
in the concrete through holes in the form at the proper dis-
tance apart and the wire fence fastened to them with staples.

Photo No. 183.

CONCRETE CLOTHES POSTS, WESTWOOD, N, J.

In making a finished fence post, the method of procedure
is practically the same as with the field post, except that after
the post is removed from the bottom board it should receive
a coat of pure cement, of the consistency of thick cream, ap-
plied with a brush and well worked in. Fence posts of this
description should have holes in them one-half inch in diame-
ter, made in the way already described, to which the wooden
runners may be bolted.

Corner posts may be made by enlarging the forms so that

the inside measurements are 10 inches x 10 inches at the bottom
and 6 inches x 6 inches at top. For reinforcing, use three-
eighths inch rods instead of No. 6 wire.

Clothes posts should be made in the same general way as
the finished fence posts, except that the post should be 9 feet
long and should have a staple made of iron one-half inch in
diameter, imbedded in the top, or a hole may be made near the
top to run a clothes line through. For reinforcing, use three-
eighths inch rods instead of No. 6 wire.

The posts may be made the same dimensions at the top as
at the bottom.

Hitching posts should be made six feet long and should
have an iron ring in top ; otherwise, the directions are the same
as finished fence posts.

PIAZZA.

In building a concrete piazza the first care should be the
supports. Unless these are strong and have a foundation that
will not be affected by frost, the piazza is liable to prove a
failure.

Erect two lines of 4-inch posts, 8-inch bases, 8 feet apart,
extending below frost. The outer line of posts should be
slightly lower than the inner line, to allow water to flow off
the piazza. On top of and connecting these, build concrete
cross beams and stringers 2^ inches x 5 inches. Both posts
and beams should be reinforced with one-quarter inch steel
bars. For a large piazza, refer to dimension of beams and
reinforcement in Table for "Designing Reinforced Concrete
Beams and Slabs."

After the concrete has set hard, erect forms and build
a solid slab of concrete over the entire framework, allowing it
to project slightly over the outer edge. This slab should be
reinforced with a woven wire fabric or expanded metal.

A finished surface can be obtained by plastering the surface
one-quarter inch thick with mortar, one part "ATLAS" Port-
land cement and one part clean, coarse sand, before the con-
crete has set.

LATTICE.

In building a lattice, the fact that there are two thicknesses
of concrete, i. e., the thickness of the panel or border and the
thickness of the lattice itself, should be borne in mind.

Build a form 8 inches higher and 8 inches longer than the

size the finished lattice is to be, using 2-inch stuff. Along the
top, bottom, and at either end, nail a 4-inch x 4-inch scantling,
and on these nail a 2-inch x 8-inch plank (see Fig. No. 44).
On the back of the form, at equal distances apart and equal
distances from the edge of the 2 -inch x 8-inch plank, nail se-
curely blocks of wood of the shape of the holes desired. (See
holes in lattice in accompanying cut.) Lay the form thus made

Photo No. 187.

PORCH STEPS AND LATTICE, RESIDENCE W. N. WIGHT, WESTWOOD, N. J.

on the ground, face up, and block securely. Fill with ^concrete
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts sand, and four
parts fine broken stone or gravel to the level of small blocks
for holes, and pack concrete all around under the 2-inch x 8-
inch plank to form panel ; tamp hard, making sure there are no
voids. Smooth off face of concrete and let stand for a week,
or until the concrete is thoroughly dry. After it is put in place,
a coating of pure cement, mixed as thick as cream, should be
applied with a brush. A moderately dry concrete should be
used in this form.

The lattice may be built in place by leaving off the 4 inches
x 4 inches at the top of form and boarding up the open space

— B

of Lotf ice *rfh parf- of Form removed,
ft $.4 3

'Phnk.

Section B.B
ri. 45.

in front of "hole-blocks" with a i^-inch plank, and pouring
the concrete in from the top (Fig. No. 45). A very wet con-
crete should be used if this plan is followed.

HOG PENS.

To construct a concrete hog pen excavate a trench, the size
and shape desired for finished pen, one foot wide and to a depth
below frost, and fill with concrete mixture one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, four parts clean, coarse sand, and eight parts
broken stone. On top of this foundation build a wall (See
Walls), at equal distance from edge, 4 inches thick and 4 feet
high. Proportions of wall, one part "ATLAS" Portland Ce-
ment, three parts clean, coarse sand, and six parts broken
stone.

Space for a gate should be left, and a trough built similar
to the one shown in picture, or described in "Hog Troughs."

A hog house can be added by building another wall in the
corner and roofing the space with 2a/o inches concrete, one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts clean, coarse sand, and
four parts broken stone. This slab must be reinforced with
wire mesh or steel rods. Flooring same as in "Cellar Floors."

Photo No. 282.

THE PIGGERY, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

Photo No. 285.

INTERIOR PIGGERY, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y,

HOG TROUGHS.

A desirable hog trough can be made by building a bottom-
less box 6 feet long and 12 inches broad by 12 inches deep.
From a 2-inch plank saw out two triangles having a base
of 12 inches and a height of 8 inches. Place these 5 feet 6
inches apart and nail a plank i inch thick on each side of the

Thoto No. 227.

INTERIOR PIGGERY WITH CONCRETE FLOOR, KLIMME, IOWA.

triangle. Place the inverted V-shaped trough thus made in-
side the bottomless box and put small triangular strips around
the edges to make a square edge. (See Fig. No. 24.) Fill the
space left with concrete mixture, one part "ATLAS" Portland

fbrms /or tfog Troughs.
65

Cement and three parts clean sand or sandy gravel, tamp hard,
and smooth off to top of box. Let stand until dry. In one
week remove the outer forms and paint with pure cement
mixed as thick as cream, turn the block over, remove inner
form and paint inside.

Should a trough with a round bottom be desired, an inner
form can be made by sawing a log the right length, stripping
it of bark, and splitting in half. Put this in the bottomless box
described above, flat side down, Fig. No. 25, grease well and
proceed as with triangular trough.

STUCCO CHICKEN HOUSE, NORTHAMPTON, PA.

CHICKEN HOUSE.

The protection afforded by a concrete chicken house against
rats, weasels, etc., and the ease with which such a structure
is kept clean, should be sufficient reason to give it preference
over every other kind.

Excavate a trench 12 inches wide, to a depth below frost,
and fill with concrete one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement,
three parts clean, coarse sand, and six parts cinders. On this
foundation, and at equal distance from either edge, build a solid
wall 5 inches thick (See Walls), one part "ATLAS" Portland

Photo No. 230.

CARRIAGE HOUSE, WASCO, ILL.

Photo No. 194. CHICKEN HOUSE, WESTWOOD, N. J,

Cement, two and one-half parts clean, coarse sand, and five
parts cinders; or, if cinders are not obtainable, a hollow wall
should be built 12 inches thick, consisting of two 3-inch walls
and a 6-inch air space. (See Hollow Walls for Small Struc-
tures.) If the house is not more than 8 feet wide, a roof with
slope in one direction may be made of a 4-inch concrete slab
reinforced with steel rods, or heavy wire mesh, of size sug-
gested in the table of Reinforced Beams and Slabs. For a
shorter span a less thickness may be adopted. A slope of six
inches in eight feet will give sufficient pitch for the water to

Photo No. 266.

ICE HOUSE, BABYLON, L. I.

run off, if the surface is well trowelled, as described under
Sidewalks. If the width is more than 8 feet, concrete rafters
may be placed, and slabs laid upon them of dimensions to be
selected from the table of Reinforced Beams and Slabs.

Concrete shelves and water basins can be put in to suit
convenience.

A coat of pure cement, mixed as thick as cream, should be
applied with a brush to the outside walls as soon as forms are
removed.

The use of cinders is recommended in this construction, as
the voids in the cinders take up the moisture which is other-
wise liable to collect on the inside of the wall in cold
weather.

ICE HOUSE.

There has been considerable discussion as to whether or
not concrete ice houses are a success. After thorough inves-
tigation the conclusion has been reached that there are none
better, if properly built — i. e., with a double wall.

Photo No. 221.

ICE HOUSE, MONMOUTH, ILL.

DIRECTIONS : — Excavate a foot below the desired depth
and put in a layer of coarse gravel or broken stone, ramming
hard. This makes a good floor and leaves plenty of drainage.
Set up forms in shape finished structure is desired, allowing
16 inches for a wall, and build foundation one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand, and six parts
broken stone, 16 inches wide by 4 feet deep, or below frost.
The wall should be built as shown in Hollow Walls, making
two 3-inch walls with a lo-inch space, each reinforced with
one-quarter inch rods placed 12 inches apart in both directions.

Mixture: — One part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts
clean, coarse sand, and four parts broken stone. The wall
should be built in sections about 2 feet high at a time, and the
outer and inner walls should be bound together by placing gal-
vanized iron strips, one inch broad by one-sixth inch, and
turned up about an inch at each end, between the first and
second section, after the first section of the inner form has
been removed. These strips will not only strengthen the wall,
but will serve as a convenient footing for the second tier of
inner forms, etc. The ends and top should be filled in solid to
the depth of 6 inches, leaving no openings for the air to circu-
late.

The roof should be made slanting, and after the lower or
inner side is completed, 5 inches of sand may be placed on top
and leveled off. The upper or outer surface of the roof can
then be laid, with suitable reinforcement, directly upon the
sand, and carefully trowelled as soon as it is partly set. The
sand is let out at an opening left for the purpose at the sides,
when the concrete has dried for a couple of weeks. There
should be several square blocks of concrete placed so as to
connect the two, and a strong concrete beam should form the
ridgepole. All openings between the walls and roof and the
two layers of roof should be sealed up solid, so as to give a
dead air space between them.

For a small house the dimensions of beams and slabs for
roof may be obtained from table of Reinforced Beams and
Slabs, but for a large house money will be saved and safety
assured by consulting an engineer or architect experienced in
concrete design.

ROOT CELLAR.

Root cellars are usually built half below and half above
the level of the ground. Excavate 16 inches below the desired
level of the floor and around the sides build a foundation 12
inches broad, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts
clean, coarse sand, and six parts broken stone or gravel. Re-
move the form and fill between the foundations to a depth of
12 inches with porous material, tamping well. On this build
a floor as described in Cellar Floors. On the foundation and
at equal distance from either edge, erect a solid wall 8 inches
thick (See Walls), one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two

Photo No. 262.

ROOT CELLAR, BABYLON, L. I.

Photo No. 263.

INTERIOR ROOT CELLAR, BABYLON, L, I.

and one-half parts clean, coarse sand, and five parts cinders,
broken stone or gravel, leaving an opening at one end for the
steps (See Steps.) Build up the end walls so as to form a
point in the middle, and high enough to give the roof a suffi-
cient pitch to shed the rain.

Near the top at each end, openings for windows should be
left, and the sash fitted and plastered in after the concrete has
set and forms have been removed.

Photo No. 317.

ROOT CELLAR, KNOXVILLE, IOWA.

Bins should be built of size and height to suit convenience,
with walls 4 inches thick, and reinforced with one-quarter inch
rods placed 12 inches apart horizontally and vertically.

If a concrete roof is desired, forms should be erected and
a roof 2^/2 inches thick laid on. On the top of this, and before
the concrete is dry, a layer one-quarter inch thick of one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement and one part sand should be
placed, trowelled when partially set, and smoothed with a
wooden float. Forms should not be removed from roof for at
least three weeks.

Should the roof be sufficiently long to require support other
than the concrete beam that forms the ridge pole (See section

on Reinforced Concrete), posts can be built in place 8 inches
square.

Roof and steps should be reinforced with a woven wire
fabric or with steel rods.

MUSHROOM CELLAR.

Mushroom cellars should be built at least two-thirds below
the level of the ground to obtain the best results.

Photo No. 198.

INTERIOR OF MUSHROOM CELLAR, WESTWOOD, N. J.

Excavate to the desired depth, and around the edge dig a
trench 12 inches deep and 16 inches broad. In this lay a foun-
dation one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean,
coarse sand, and six parts broken stone or gravel. On the
foundations and at equal distance from either edge build a
solid wall (See Walls) 8 inches thick, mixture one part "AT-
LAS" Poitland Cement, two parts clean, coarse sand, and four
parts broken stone, gravel or cinders.

Build a concrete roof 2l/2 inches thick, supported by con-
crete beams and posts (see Table, Reinforced Concrete Beams
and Slabs). An opening should be left at one side for steps

Photo No. 322.

GREENHOUSES, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Photo No. 319.

INTERIOR GREENHOUSE,

V, 8, SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D, 0,

(see Steps). All walls, posts, beams and roof should be rein-
forced. A coat of pure cement of the consistency of cream
should be applied to the whole exterior.

GREENHOUSES.

A greenhouse built of concrete not only does not require
constant repairs, but saves fuel, as it retains heat and keeps out
cold air.

Greenhouses should have a foundation 10 inches broad and
1 6 inches deep, or below frost, composed of mixture one part

Photo No.

GREENHOUSE, WESTWOOD, N. J.

"ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse sand,
and six parts broken stone. On this and at equal distance
from either edge, erect a wall 7 inches thick, mixture one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts cle*an, coarse sand, and
five parts cinders, to the height required for the walls. A
ridge-pole can be erected, 6 inches wide by 8 inches deep, of
concrete, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and one-
half parts clean, coarse sand, and five parts broken stone or
gravel not over three-quarters inch in size, reinforced with two
steel bars each one-half inch in diameter. If total width of

house is not over 16 feet, beams 2^/2 inches x 5 inches, extend-
ing from ridge-pole to side wall, reinforced with a one-half
inch bar, will be sufficiently strong to support the sashes.

Reinforced concrete posts 8 inches square should be placed
at intervals of 10 feet to support the ridge pole.

Concrete tables 2^ inches thick, mixture one part "AT-
LAS" Portland Cement, two and one-half parts clean, coarse

Photo No. 321.

GREENHOUSES, TI. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

sand, and five parts cinders, reinforced with a woven wire
fabric, can be built and supported by 4-inch posts of thejjsame
concrete.

All concrete should have a coating of one-quarter inch thick
of one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement and one part clean
sand. This should be put on after the surface to be covered
has been picked with a stone axe and thoroughly wet.

HOT-BED FRAMES.

Excavate a trench to a depth below frost and erect forms
for a 4-inch wall. Fill with concrete mixture one part "AT-
LAS" Portland Cement, four parts clean, coarse sand, and
eight parts broken stone or gravel, to level of the ground. On

top of these build forms for a 3-inch wall to height desired,
and fill with concrete one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement,
three parts clean, coarse sand, and six parts of broken stone.
Remove the forms in two or three days and keep the walls
damp for a couple of weeks.

BOX STALLS.

There is nothing so warm in Winter or cool in Summer
as a concrete structure. Concrete box stalls are of immense

Photo No. 181.

BOX STALLS, WESTWOOD, V. J.

advantage on this account, as they prevent a horse becoming
restive and ill-tempered. They may be built of concrete one
part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and one-half parts clean,
coarse sand and five parts broken stone. The walls should be
4 inches thick and reinforced with one-quarter inch steel rods
12 inches apart (See Walls). A smooth surface can be se-
cured by plastering the walls one-quarter inch thick with mor-
tar, one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement and one part clean,
coarse sand, after they have been picked with a stone axe and
thoroughly wet. Concrete water box and manger may be built
in with the same mixture as the mortar used in plastering.

SILOS.

Concrete Silos are without question the best, as they are
air-tight, too heavy to blow over, will not shrink or collapse
when empty, and if properly built will last for ages. They

Photo No. 294.

ONE OF THE SILOS, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

can be built at low cost, provided the walls are not made un-
necessarily thick. By using reinforced concrete the thickness
of the walls can be reduced to a minimum. Two styles of
silos are shown which have proved satisfactory in actual serv-
ice. The first, a 2oo-ton silo on the Gedney Farm at White
Plains, N. Y., built with a hollow wall, is perhaps preferable
in cold climates for the reason that the dead-air chamber be-
tween the walls tends to prevent freezing.

Specifications for silos similar to the Gedney Farm silo
are as follows:

Excavate to a depth below frost and of the desired diame-
ter, allowing for the thickness of the walls. Erect a 1 6-inch
solid wall, to the level of the ground, with concrete one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, two and one-half parts clean,
coarse sand, and five parts broken stone. After removing the
forms fill the excavation inside the walls to within 8 inches of
the ground-level, with cinders, gravel or broken stone, and

Photo No. 304.

CONCRETE SILO FOUNDATION, BRICELYN, MINN.

tamp hard. Pick with a stone axe that part of the inside wall
that shows above the porous foundation and wet thoroughly.
Fill the space on top of the cinders, etc., to within one inch
of the foundation, level with concrete, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement, two and one-half parts clean, coarse sand,
and five parts broken stone, tamping well. Erect forms 4 feet
high for 3-inch hollow core walls with lo-inch air chamber
(See Walls). The details for the necessary forms are shown
under "Circular Forms."

Place the forms on the foundation and fill with concrete
one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts clean, coarse
sand, and four parts broken stone, tamping thoroughly. Al-
low concrete to set hard, and after cleaning top of wall with
a stiff wire brush, wet thoroughly and raise the forms for the
next filling. The raised forms should overlap the walls already
built by about 2 inches, which will tend to keep the walls
plumb. Continue raising forms until desired height is ob-
tained.

The reinforcing should be one-half inch twisted steel bars
placed vertically around the circumference of the outside wall,
centered where the walls connect, about every 3 feet. These
bars should be set before the first layer of concrete is put into
the form and held securely in place by wooden blocks, or tied
with wire. Three-eighths inch steel hoops should also be
placed in both walls every foot, running entirely around the
silo. To prevent moisture soaking through, it would be well
to wash the entire outside of the silo with a coat of pure
cement mixed as thick as cream and applied with a brush.
Spatter-dash may be used if desired. The inside of the
silo should be plastered with mortar, one part "ATLAS"
Portland Cement and one part clean, coarse sand, one-quarter
inch to one-half inch thick, after the walls have been picked
with a stone axe and thoroughly wet. The roof can either be
made of concrete, or wooden frame and shingles. It should
have a ventilator and also a man-hole, which are usually
reached by means of a ladder.

Openings for doors should be left about every 3 feet on
one side of the silo, for convenience in handling ensilage. A
chute running to the full height of the silo should be built
around these doors. The chute should be built simultaneously
with the wall, and the forms should be so arranged that a per-
fect bond is obtained. The walls of the chute should be 4
inches thick and reinforced with twisted iron bars running
vertically from top to bottom. The size of the chute is op-
tional, 2% feet at the sides and 4 feet along the face being a
convenient size.

The photograph showing the two solid wall silos was
taken at the U. S. Soldiers' Home, Washington, D. C., and,
through the courtesy of Mr. A. G. Brust, Superintendent of
Construction, who built the silos, we are enabled to give
specifications prepared by him, as follows:

Photo No. 330.

SILOS, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Silos, 20 feet diameter, 32 feet high, and walls 12 inches
thick.

One part best Portland Cement.

Two parts clean, coarse sand.

Three parts clean, fine gravel.

Four parts clean, broken stone, brick or terra cotta.

The stone to be broken so that it will pass through a 2-
inch ring. Any stone may be used, broken cobblestone being
excellent for the purpose. If good clean cinders, free from un-
burned coal, are procurable, they will take the place of stone.
If broken brick is used, it must be HARD BURNED.

Mix sand and cement together thoroughly, and, when dry,
spread out on mixing board and place gravel evenly over same,
then on top of the gravel place the stone evenly and spread,
after which use sufficient water to make a moderately dry con-
crete, then throw the whole into a pile in the center of mixing

board and turn over twice, place in the mold and ram thor-
oughly.

The forms are preferably made about 5 feet long for a 20-
foot diameter silo. Take 2 inch x 12 inch joist and saw to
the outside diameter, using the inside piece to make the in-
side diameter form in the manner shown (Fig. No. 36). Make

•Defar'f of Chtsfe De
If very on Line Q-

forms about 4 feet high and fill to the top with concrete. The
filling of the forms should take about one day, or, in other
words, the silo should be brought up 4 feet daily. Set the first
form on the foundation, which has been previously put in, see
that forms are perfectly plumb, then fill to the top, thoroughly
ramming each 6-inch layer of concrete. After concrete has
set hard remove the forms and raise them up so as to lap top
of wall about 2 inches, then brace in position, and cover top of
wall with cement grouting mixed half and half, and fill again,
continuing thus to the top. Place anchors in the wall at the
top as shown (Fig. No. 37), and make plate of 2-inch x 12-inch

joist cut to form. Make plate of 2-inch thickness lapping one
over the other so as to break joints, and spike thoroughly to-
gether. Then put on ordinary shingle roof.

The chute is made of 1 2-inch Terra Cotta Ts and pipe.
Use 2-foot lengths and put in as shown in cut (Fig. No. 38).
Alternate lengths of plain pipe and Ts are to be used so as to
bring the openings 4 feet apart (Fig. No. 39). Use Terra
Cotta plugs when filling, which will be removed as the silo is
emptied, thus giving access to the chute from the inside.

Put galvanized iron ventilator in apex of roof, as shown.
Plaster entire inside of silo with cement and sand in the pro-
portion of two of cement to three of sand, then pebble dash
outside.

CULVERTS.

Concrete culverts are coming into general use with the ad-
vancement of "Good Roads." They are not only the cheapest,
but the most durable, as well as the most artistic. Culverts
should be built during the dry season, if possible, and the wa-
ter diverted during the course of construction. Should this
be impracticable, build a dam above the culvert and convey
the water past the place where the work is in progress by
means of a wooden trough or sewer pipe.

To construct a culvert as shown in the sectional drawing,
proceed as follows: (Fig. No. 40.)

Excavate trenches for foundation to a depth below frost
and 2 feet 8 inches wide "A A," and at the upper end of culvert
connect the two foundations across space E with an 8-inch
wall the height of invert B. This is called an apron and will
prevent scouring. Build invert B 8 inches thick, having the
top on a level with the bed of the stream. Next build forms
for part of wall marked CC, with one straight form strong
enough to support the arch, and well braced, and the other
form as shown on left hand side of cut.

For convenience in keeping the road open for traffic, and
the saving in material for forms, we suggest making only nine
feet of the culvert at a time. Should this suggestion be ac-
cepted, proceed as follows:

Make three semi-circular forms the size required, out of
i^-inch stuff (as shown in Circular Forms), and set them in
place three feet apart. Fasten joist 2 inches x 4 inches x 9 feet
on them. This is called lagging (See cut). Set the form thus

['boto No. 297.

ROAD CULVERT WITH WING WALLS, NANTIC, ILL.

/T/ierf /s ctessrabfe
if /s besf formztf w/fh a fern
pfafe.

made on large wedges supported by top of form marked "sill."
Grease forms well and fill with concrete of a rather wet con-
sistency and tamp thoroughly every 6 inches, taking care not
to disturb the form. Let stand until thoroughly dry, about
28 days, and then knock out the wedges, lowering the semi-
circular form, which will be easy to remove.

Should the culvert be made all at one time, enough semi-
circular forms should be constructed to support the lagging
at least every 3 feet.

Photo No. 257.

CULVERT, DES MOINES, IOWA.

Reinforce the concrete with expanded metal, placing it so
that it is 2^/2 inches in from the under side of the arch D and
extending down through the walls CC. All concrete should
be mixed one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts
sand, six parts broken stone. Should wing walls be required,
as shown in accompanying photograph, they should be built
at the same time as the foundation, should go to the same
depth and be reinforced, the reinforcing connecting with that
in walls CC. The width of these walls should be left to the
judgment of the man in charge of the work, and built as shown
in "Walls."

As an alternative, the top of the arch may be made 10 inches
thick, without reinforcing. This method is considered prefer-
able by many engineers for the reason that expanded metal is
difficult to handle in an arch, and equally good results can be
secured by a slightly thicker arch without reinforcing, and
at less cost.

COLORING FOR CONCRETE FINISH.

The use of colored concrete up to the present time has not
been general, and the effect of coloring ingredients upon the
strength of concrete is not definitely known.

In his book on "Cement and Concrete,"* Mr. L. C. Sabin,
an eminent authority, states that the dry mineral colors,
mixed with the water in proportions by weight of from two
to ten per cent, of the cement, give shades approaching the
color used, with no apparent effect on the early hardening of
the mortar.

Mr. Sabin also gives the following table, showing the re-
sult obtained from a dry mortar (wet mortars give a darker
shade) :

COLORED MORTARS

COLORS GIVEN TO PORTLAND CEMENT MORTARS CONTAINING TWO
PARTS RIVER SAND TO ONE CEMENT.

Dry

Material
used.

Weight of Dry Coloring Matter to 100 Pounds of Cement

Cost of
Coloring
Matter per
Ib. Ct.

% Pound

1 Pound

2 Pounds

4 Pounds

Lamp Black

Light Slate

Light Grey

Blue Grey

Dark Blue
Slate

Prussian
Blue

Light Green
Slate

Light Blue
Slate

Blue Slate

Bright Blue
Slate

Ultra Ma-
rine Blue

Light Blue
Slate

Blue Slate

Bright Blue
Slate

Yellow
Ochre

Light Green

Light Buff

Burnt
Umber

Light Pink-
ish Slate

Pinkish
Slate

Dull Laven-
der Pink

Chocolate

Venetian
Red

Slate, Pink
Tinge

Br'g't Pink-
ish Slate

Light Dull
Pink

Dull Pink

2V2

Chattanooga
Iron Ore

Light Pink-
ish Slate

Dull Pink

Light Terra
Cotta

Light Brick
Red

Red Iron
Ore

Pinkish
Slate

Dull Pink

Terra Cotta

Light Brick
Red

2Y2

* "Cement and Concrete," Louis Carlton Sabin ; McGraw Pub. Co.,
N. Y.

STUCCO.

Stucco-work is cement plastering, and, in one form or
another, has been in use for ages. It is durable, artistic, and
impervious to weather. For veneering new buildings, or pro-
tecting old structures, and wherever the cost of solid concrete
is prohibitive, Portland Cement Stucco cannot be equalled.

As a rule, two coats are used — the first, a scratch coat

STUCCO COTTAGE, WOODMERE, L. I., N, Y.

composed of five parts "ATLAS" Portland Cement, twelve
parts clean, coarse sand, and three parts lime and a small
quantity of hair ; the second, a finishing coat composed of one
part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts clean, coarse
sand, and one part slaked lime paste. Should only one coat
be desired, the finishing coat is used. Some masons prefer a
mortar in which no lime is used, but this requires more time
to apply. In applying Stucco to brick or stone structures, clean
the surface of the wall and, after thoroughly wetting, plaster
1 1/2 inches thick. For a finish, either smooth with a wooden
float or rough by rubbing with burlap.

LLLLLLLLLLLl

///////// /

SCRATCH COAT

In using Stucco on a frame structure, first cover surface
with two thicknesses of roofing paper. Next put on furring
strips about one foot apart, and on these fasten wire lathing.
(There are several kinds, any of which are good.) Apply
the scratch coat y2 inch thick and press it partly through the

STUCCO KITCHEN ON THE ATLAS PORTLAND CEMENT CO.'S FARM,
NORTHAMPTON, PA.

openings in the lath, roughing the surface with a stick or
trowel. Allow this to set well, and apply the finishing coat
y2 inch to i inch thick. This coat can be put on and
smoothed with a wooden float, or it can be thrown on with a
trowel or large stiff-nbered brush, if a spatter-dash finish is
desired. A pebble-dash finish may be obtained with a final
coat of one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, three parts
coarse sand and pebbles not over ^ incn in diameter, thrown
on with a trowel.

Photo No. 191.

DOG HOUSE, WESTWOOD, N. J.

ROTARY JOINTER.
For use in places too
small for ordinary-
style.

Date Sumo

DATE STAMP.
For marking walks,
artificial stone, etc.

BRASS JOINTER.
For finishing joints
in walks.

JOINTER.

For finishing joints
in cement walks, etc.

HAND BRASS JOINTER.
For finishing joints
in cement.

FLUTED ROLLER.
For finishing walks,

ROUND CORNER
SMOOTHING TROWEL.

For finishing corners
in gutters, etc.

NAME PLATE.
For stamping names
of makers on walks,
artificial stone, etc.

RADIUS TOOL.

For finishing inside
or outside edges of
circles.

TAMP.

For tamping con-
crete foundations, etc.

CENTRE KNIFE.
For cutting the sur-
face of cement walks
into flags.

ROUND CORNER
SMOOTHING TROWEL.

INDENTING ROLLER.

For indenting the
surface of walks.

SQUARE CORNER
SMOOTHING TSOWELS.

DRIVEWAY GROVER.

DRIVEWAY IMPRES-
SION FRAME.
For marking cement
driveways.

HAND CONCRETE MIXER.
For sidewalks, foundations artificial stone, etc.

Capacity, 40 cu. yds. per day.
Gives Batch or continuous mix.

Made for hand or power. Portable or stationary,
or coarse, wet or dry material.

TAMPER.

Makes fine

TOOLS USED IN THE MIXING AND THE WORKING OF CONCRETE,
NOTE. — Cuts loaned by VV. H. ANDERSON & SONS, Detroit, Mich.

f UNI

OF THE

Photo No. 260.

COW BARN, BABYLON, L. I.

Photo No. 264. CONCEETE BOX STALLS, BABYLON, L. I.

CONCRETE IN FARM BUILDING.

The following description of the buildings on Gedney
Farms was written by Mr. Edward Burnett, the well-known
architect, assisted by Mr. Stanley Cunningham. Mr. Burnett
planned and executed the entire work, Mr. Cunningham being
the engineer in direct charge of the work. Over 7,300 barrels
of "ATLAS" Portland Cement was used in these buildings.

"The design and construction of a number of reinforced
concrete dairies, barns and other farm buildings has aroused a
keen interest in such construction among all progressive farm-
ers and stock breeders. They have seen the great possibilities
it possesses for cheap, sanitary and fire-proof buildings, such
as the modern requirements for clean milk make advisable, if
not imperative. Cleanliness in keeping stock and handling
farm products has been made the first essential, and profitable
farming requires that the buildings be constructed so that this
may be obtained with the least expenditure of labor for the
best possible result. It follows directly that stock kept in
clean, well-aired barns will thrive better and be less subject
to disease than that housed in dirty, ill-smelling, damp build-
ings, so that it is for both the farmers' and the consumers'
interest to take special care of the sanitary conditions on the
farm.

A discussion of the possibilities of reinforced concrete con-
struction may best be illustrated by a series of views of what
has already been done in this line. Briefly, reinforced con-
crete, or concrete steel construction is a combination of con-
crete and steel in structures where each material is relied on
to take special strains. Concrete is very strong under com-
pressive stresses, but cannot take tensile stresses of more than
small amounts safely. Here the steel comes into play and
each material supplements the other in making the structure
strong. The combination, properly designed, may be used in
floors, walls, columns, beams and roofs, and with the increas-
ing fund of experience with such designs they can be deter-
mined with great accuracy and satisfaction.

The farm buildings here shown have been built at Gedney
Farm, White Plains, N. Y. Most of them are entirely of con-
crete, and the plant has been designed with regard to the
latest and best ideas in farm building construction and man-
agement.

Photo No. 281, page 94, shows a view of the barns. The
low wings are the cow barns, each arranged for forty cows.
The feed-room and grain storage room is at the junction of
the two wings and the hay barn is in the background. The
roof of the silo shows to the left of the feed-room roof. The
small tower in the centre between the two barns is con-
nected on the back to the milk-room, where the milk is
brought after being taken from the cow. Here it is weighed
and poured into a large can, which, when full, is hoisted to

Photo No. 281.

SIDE VIEW, MAIN BARNS, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

a wire rope running from the top of the tower through the
upper door and travels on a carrier on this rope to the dairy
building, about 200 feet distant.

Photo No. 283, page 95, shows the rear of the barns, etc.
The two wings, feed-room and silo are repeated on the other
end of the hay-barn, making four wings in all, with two
feed-rooms and silos.

Photo No. 261, page 95, shows the interior of one barn
wing. Each is laid out either as shown for 40 cows, or in
box stalls for bulls and dry stock. The wings are 80 feet

Photo No. 283.

BACK VIEW, BARNS. GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

Photo No. 261.
INTERIOR ONE OF THE COW BARNS, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS. N. Y.

long inside and 42 feet wide, with a height of 8 feet at the
sides and n feet in centre. The walls are of reinforced
concrete, two 3-inch walls set 10 inches apart, or 16 inches
from outside face to inside face, and joined by a 3-inch
web every 3 feet. This forms a hollow wall, except where
the columns to support the roof beams occur. The roof
is formed with an air space like the walls, a lower slab
of 3 inches and a top slab of 4 inches, being separated by 2 feet
air space at sides and 2 feet 6 inches at centre. The roof is
supported by concrete-steel beams, 5 feet on centers, which
are as deep as the roof, 2 feet 7 inches at sides and 3 feet at
centre, are 12 inches wide and reinforced with four i-inch
Ransome bars, as well as U bars to take the shearing stresses.
The beams have the same curve as the roof, but they are
beams and not arches, because they are calculated to have a
tensile stress in the lower side and produce no thrust on the
side walls. The hollows in the walls make excellent ventilat-
ing flues, and in them is installed the "King system of ven-
tilation," the fresh air passing in near the grade level outside,
up through the wall and into the barn through ventilators
shown in Photo No. 261, page 95, between the windows near
the ceiling line, the foul air leaving by ventilators near the
floor line inside, and passing up through the roof to the
small flues shown in Photo No. 281, page 94. There are
also three central air shafts connecting with similar flues
along the centre line of the roof. The feed troughs are
cast in concrete, with a water inlet at one end and out-
let at the other, so that they may be easily flushed out.
The stalls are made of 1%-inch galvanized pipe and fittings
bent to shape and set rigid in the concrete. The cows are
fastened from each side by chains to a leather collar, instead
of by stanchions. The floors are concrete, and the gutter be-
hind the stalls has a double trap which permits of a double
system of drainage, the urine draining to a concrete tank built
for this purpose near the manure shed, and the wash water
running into the rainwater leader drain system. The win-
dows— except for the doors, the only wood in the finished
structure — swing on their lower edges and open into iron
cheeks which prevent any direct draft on the cattle. The
track hung from the roof on either side behind the stalls is
for the manure and litter carriers. These are semi-cylindrical
hods, hung on rollers from the track, which can be hoisted

and run out through the end doors and dumped into carts.
They may be seen outside the barn in Photo No. 281, page
94. The small racks over each stall are for pedigree cards
for registered stock and for milk and feed record cards.
These barns are warm in Winter and cool in Summer on
account of the insulating effect of the dead air space, which
makes them very slow to respond to temperature fluctua-
tions. Temperature readings for over a month in Winter
showed a maximum variation on the inside face of the wall

Thoto No. 2SG.

FRONT VIEW, DAIRY HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

of 8 degrees F., when the maximum outside variation of tem-
perature of the air was 25 degrees or 30 degrees. They are
finished inside with a hard cement plaster, with all coves
and edges rounded off, and can be washed down and
scrubbed clean, since there are no cracks in which dirt may
lodge.

Photo No. 294, page 78, shows a view of one of the con-
crete Silos. This is 20 feet in diameter inside, 33 feet high
to the eaves, and will hold over 200 tons of ensilage. It is
built with two 3-inch walls with lo-inch air space like the
barns, reinforced with vertical steel rods and steel hoops

every 3 feet in height. The roof is framed and shingled to
correspond with the roof on the main hay-barn, but might
easily be built in concrete, as, indeed, the roof of the milk-
room is, shown behind the tower in Photo No. 281, page 94.
This is a round room 20 feet in diameter, crowned with a
dome roof in concrete.

The Silos have proved perfectly satisfactory for keeping
ensilage in good condition.

The main hay-barn is built with concrete end walls of the
hollow type, as far up as the eaves. These walls continue part

I'hoto No. 270.

SIDE VIEW. DAIRY HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y,

way on the sides. Tr *est of the sides and the gables are
sheathed on studs, covered with wire lath and finished in con-
crete "Spatterdash," making a finish to correspond with the
concrete buildings. The roof is shingled. This "Spatterdash"
finish is made by first applying a scratch coat of "extra fibre
dry mortar" to the wire lath; after this sets, a fine concrete,
made of cement, coarse sand and rock splinters not over one-
quarter inch, is thrown on with a trowel. The barn is 120 feet
x 60 feet inside, and 42 feet 6 inches clear height to the collar
beams, which are the lowest cross ties for the roof trusses.

The system of framing is a modification of the "scissors" truss,
which is used extensively in the West for barn construction.

The feed-rooms form the junction of the two barn wings
on either side of the hay-barn. The first floor, of concrete
supported on six columns underneath, is a clear span 42 feet
each way, giving plenty of room to handle feed. Above are
the grain bins on a concrete floor, with chutes to convey the
grain to the room below. The Silos connect with the feed-
rooms through the covered passages, and below the feed-rooms
are the root cellars, entirely of concrete. This arrangement
concentrates the different varieties of feed and makes handling
easy. Modern sanitation requires that the cows be kept from
under the feed and the manure from under the cows. This
makes the modern barn cover a greater area than the old-
fashioned type, where the feed, cows and manure formed a
descending scale, with very probably a few pigs in the Cellar
to work over the manure and add to the general smell.

From the barns the milk is sent in cans on a traveller along
a wire rope to the dairy building, Photos Nos. 276, page 98,
and 286, page 97. Here the main idea is to cool and bot-
tle the milk in perfectly clean bottles as soon as possible
after it comes from the cows. This building is entirely of
concrete, except for the doors, sash and frames, and is
finished inside, like the cow barns, with hard plaster made
of one part cement and one part sand, trowelled to a smooth
finish. The piping for steam, water and the refrigerating
brine is kept as much as possible in the basement. In
every room there is a hose bibb outlet, with steam attach-
ment and mixing tee, so that hot water or steam may be
drawn from it to wash down and sterilize the building. The
usual milk strainers, coolers, bottling tables, separators, cream
tempering vats, etc., are set in the dairy. The rest of the
equipment consists in part of a churn with butter-worker at-
tachment, to be driven by electric motor, an ice-breaker for
crushing ice used in shipping milk, a large sink divided into
two parts for washing bottles, etc., with a turbine bottle
washer or revolving brush set in its centre, so that two men
may use it. This sink is cast in place, of concrete, with the
same cement plaster finish as the walls, and it will never crack
and lose its glaze, as enamel, earthenware or similar sinks
do, nor will it ever work loose in the joints as do those that
are built up of soapstone slabs. A view of this is shown in

Photo No. 287, page 100. After the bottles are washed, they
are placed in racks on cars and two cars at a time are placed
in the pressure steam sterilizer, where the temperature is
raised to 240 degees before they are allowed to go into the
dairy-room. After the milk is bottled it is placed in the
same racks on the cars and run into the refrigerators built
on one side of the building. The refrigerators are built
with concrete walls, inside which are two walls of plaster
blocks separated by an interval of 2 inches for a dead air
insulating space, and the inside wall is finished in cement

Photo No. 287. |

BOTTLE WASHING TROUGH, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

plastering. They have brine tanks above the cold rooms
through which the cold brine circulates to maintain the low
temperature. The tanks are supported on a cross slab of
concrete, and this has at one side a rising wall, on the other
a drop curtain, so that a good circulation and a low tempera-
ture may be maintained in the cold room beneath.

Another room in the building contains the refrigerating
apparatus, with tank for making can ice. Two rooms near this
are arranged for dressing and wash rooms for the dairymen
and milkers, in whom personal cleanliness is a primary requi-

100

site. These rooms, like all the rest, are entirely of concrete,
even to the slabs between the shower heads and the clothes
lockers. In the basement are the laundry plant, with washing
machine, extractor and mangle, with steam engine to run
them, a drying room, and the electric lighting and power plant,
two i5-kilowatt units to light and supply power for the barns
and dairy, etc. The boiler room contains two 30 horse-power

Photo No. 291.
CONCRETE CHIMNEY, DAIKY HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

boilers connected to a reinforced concrete stack about 24 inches
diameter inside, of 3 inches concrete wall at the top, with 2-
inch batter each way, rising 50 feet above the grates. This
chimney is octagonal, inside and out, for greater ease in con-
structing the forms, as is shown by Photo No. 291, page 101.
The end of the building shown in Photo No. 286, page 97, is
the general office for the farm, with connection by telephone
to every other building.

101

Photo No. 280.

SLAUGHTER AND SMOKE HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

Photo No. 275.

PUMP HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N, Y.
IO2

The manure pit, Photos Nos. 288 and 277, page 104, to
which the manure is carted from the barns, is no feet x 42
feet, with a roof supported on three columns, which is of the
same curve as that of the cow barns inside, the difference
being that there is no ceiling slab to conceal the beams.
The wall construction here differs from that in the barns.
The pilasters were cast first, and then the roof, while the
curtain walls between the pilasters were run in later, or
might have been left out altogether, as they do not form an
integral part of the structure. Near the manure pit is a
piggery, Photo No. 282, and Photo No. 285, page 64, of the
same type as the barn wings, 106 feetx 28 feet, with a small
feed-room at one end. The pen walls are all of concrete, and
the picture shows the troughs, with the iron doors swung over
them, so that the pigs are kept out of the troughs till they are
filled, when the door is swung out and fastened to the outside
edge of the troughs by the bolts shown.

The same system of ventilation is installed here, with the
same windows and cheeks as in the cow barns. The outside
pen doors are iron, and the whole building can be, and is, kept
as clean as the barns. It forms the most striking object lesson
of any of the buildings on the possibilities of concrete in con-
struction of sanitary buildings, and is justly entitled to the
name of "Pig Palace," which it is called in the neighborhood.
There is no wood in the building to become offensive after
constant use, and there is no lodging for any of the germs of
the various pig diseases whose ravages prove so disastrous
in unclean piggeries.

Outside are the pig runs, separated by wire fences, with
small, shallow concrete basins at the ends, where the hogs
may lie in water in hot weather. Behind the piggery are the
runs on earth in the orchard, at the end of which is a tunnel
under the road, built of concrete, through which the pigs may
run to the field beyond without crossing on the road.

Close to the piggery is the slaughter-house, with smoke-
house adjoining, shown in Photo No. 280, page 102. The
slaughter-house will be seen to be of the same type of
pilaster and curtain wall construction as the manure pit,
with a difference only in the shape of the roof. It contains
a scalding basin and scraping table, both of concrete, for re-
moving the hair from the hogs, and a boiler to supply steam

103

Thoto No. 288.

MANURE PIT, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

Photo No. 277.

INTERIOR MANURE PIT, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

104

for heating the water. A refrigerator of the same type as
those in the dairy, of a smaller size, serves for storing pork.
This refrigerator is built with triple walls, like that in the
dairy, but these walls are all three of concrete, and the result
is a stronger refrigerator. The ice bunker is filled from the
outside from platform on the extreme right-hand side of
Photo No. 280, page 102. The smoke-house is a concrete
building, 6 feet x 8 feet inside, with shingle roof to allow the

Photo No. 386.

HOESE BARN, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

smoke to pass out through cracks in the shingles, as well as
through ventilators in the ridge-piece. Between the slaughter-
house and smoke-house is the coal bin for the boiler, with
chute opening into the slaughter-house, and having storage
for about four tons of coal.

The pump-house, of similar construction to the slaughter-
house, is built over an artesian well, in a marsh, and contains a
gasoline engine connected direct to a pump. Concrete con-
struction recommends itself strongly here on account of the
wet character of the soil, which would be likely to rot out in
the course of a very few years any building erected on wooden
piles or floored with wood.

105

A farm stable to contain forty-two straight stalls and six-
teen box stalls is shown in Photo No. 386, page 105. This,
when completed, will be entirely of concrete except the roof,
which is framed and shingled in the usual style, and lathed
inside with wire lath on furring strips. On the wire lath a
scratch-coat plaster is applied, after which the cement plaster
is put on and trowelled smooth, giving the same surface as
that in the cow-barns. This is an interesting alternative mode
of construction where lumber is cheap — it gives about the
same sanitary result inside, though it is not so thoroughly
fireproof.

I'hoto No. 273.

DETAILS OF PIERS AND FLOOR BEAMS UNDER HORSE BARN, GEDNEY FARMS,
WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

In the basement of the main building will be kept wagons,
etc. ; on the first floor are the harness and feed-rooms, and on
the second, grain and hay storage and three men's rooms.
The straight-stall barn and box-stall barn form wings to this
building on two sides of a square ; the shed for wagons com-
pletes the other two sides, forming a courtyard, with entrance
at one corner. The concrete floor construction is shown in
Photo No. 273, page 106, which is the lower side of the har-
ness room, or first floor. This floor is calculated to sustain

106

a flood load of 150 pounds per square foot besides its own
weight, and the second floor, where the grain and hay are
stored, will carry 250 pounds per square foot. Oats weigh
on an average 32 pounds per bushel, or about 25 pounds per
cubic foot, and baled hay not over 10 pounds per cubic foot.
This allows grain to be stored ten feet deep on this floor,
which will, therefore, hold many carloads.

Besides its use in the farm buildings, concrete has found
its place in a number of other ways on the farm. Photo No.

Photo No. 279.

CONCRETE FENCE, GEDNEY FAEMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y,

279> page 107, shows a concrete rail fence and posts, with
gateway, built to enclose the courtyard on the south side of
the cow-barns and hay-barn. The rails are 4 inches x 9
inches, and about 16 feet long, cast in separate forms and
put into place between the posts when the concrete has set
hard. They have a one-quarter inch rod in each corner for
reinforcing, and have a one-quarter inch stirrup every two
feet of their length. The fence posts and gate posts were cast
in position, with a groove on each side, into which the rails
are afterwards dropped, and the space between them in the
groove filled with concrete. It is not necessary that the rails

107

be so large or heavy — they were made that size to correspond
to the buildings — 2-inch x 6-inch rails would be perfectly
feasible to cast.

Another concrete structure is the curved retaining wall
which supports the road embankment on the west side of the
dairy. This was built of rough concrete by putting up forms

Photo No. 289.

INTERIOR SLAUGHTER HOUSE, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

for the outside face and banking up the earth on the inside for
the inner form. This method is not entirely to be recom-
mended where a strong concrete is desired. Here it did very
well, and saved labor of building the inside form, which would
have been quite an additional expense. Concrete has also
been used in the stairs in various places in the group of build-
ings. Photo No. 290, page 37, shows a flight of stairs to
the basement of the dairy building, and Photo No. 286,

108

Photo No. 274.

INTERIOR HORSE BARN, GEDNEY FARMS, WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

Photo No. 284.

SHOWER BATHS AND LOCKERS, GEDNEY FARMS. WHITE PLAINS, N. Y.

109

page 97, shows the stairs to the porch outside the office.
The interior stairs were made by casting the stringer first,
with an offset on the inside to rest the risers on, which were
cast separately and set in place on the stringer. The out-
side stairs were cast all at once, which is cheaper where
there are but a small number of steps, or where they are
broad.

Photo No. 278, page 51, shows a trough, one of a number
that were built in various fields for watering the stock. Some
of these have been arranged with a ball-cock, boxed in to
prevent derangement, which keeps the water at a constant
level. Forms for such troughs were made like two boxes,
one inside the other and braced, with just enough steel rein-
forcing to prevent cracking from shrinkage or cold.

The general method of constructing these concrete build-
ings, which have hollow walls, is shown very clearly in
Photo No. 293, page 42. Here the foundations have been
cast, the outside forms are up, the frames for the window
and door openings are in place, and the core boxes which
form the air spaces in the walls and the flues for the "King
system of ventilation" are shown in their proper position.
The vertical steel rods are the reinforcing for the wall col-
umns to carry the roof beams, and horizontal steel rods
for the wall reinforcing are partly up. These horizontals
are fixed to the core boxes on wooden stops or buttons,
to maintain their proper distance from the face of the wall.
A few of the inside forms are shown ready to be raised in
place against the cores and held by stops 16 inches away
from the outside form. These outside and inside forms will
then be bolted together through 4-inch x 4-inch timbers
laid horizontally across the 2-inch x 6-inch verticals. The
bolts run through tin sleeves made of i-inch speaking tube,
so that they may be easily withdrawn after the concrete is
set. After the walls are set, the centering will be built
for the roof, supported strongly by braces and shores. The
roof is cast in sections running all the way across, each
section representing one day's work. The lower slab is put on
first, then core boxes the shape of the roof are placed on it,
the steel reinforcing laid on them and between them, and then
the top slab and beams cast. The beams are formed by
spacing the core boxes about one foot apart. The ventilators

on the roof are built later, when the roof has set. They are
entirely of concrete.

Throughout this group of buildings the attempt has been
made to develop the possibilities of concrete construction,
though by no means to the utmost of its limits. It has proved
itself a solid, clean, fairly cheap mode of construction. Car-
penters are needed to build and erect the forms. They will
have no difficulty in doing this, if they remember that they
are building the reverse of a structure. The concreting may
be done by a gang of untrained men under the guidance of an
experienced foreman. The finishing may be done by ordinary
plasterers or masons after a little practice in working with
the cement mortar. Buildings which have no special need of
this smooth finish may be roughly pointed up and painted
with cement and sand grouting. Outside, the buildings are
tooled with stone axes to give a rough stone finish. The con-
crete used on the Farm was made entirely of crushed field
stone from the stone walls, etc., which contained much mica,
quartz, etc., producing a very pleasing color on the buildings
after tooling. This is, incidentally, a very good way to get
rid of the aforementioned stone walls, which are irregular,
bulky and a harboring place for weeds. If a gravel bank is
available, the gravel may be graded by screening to make the
proper aggregate for the concrete, or possibly the "run of the
bank" may be good enough. This solves the problem of ma-
terial readily, especially if the cement can be shipped by car-
load to a point within easy hauling distance.

The lumber for forms may be used over and over again
if used with care, though the loss each time in buildings where
the design does not repeat itself is considerable. The concrete
roofs are covered with a tar felt, washed over with tar and
covered with slag, to make them perfectly water-tight. The
buildings also have a layer of felt and tar in the floors for a
damp course, to prevent the cold and dampness striking
through.

When a concrete building is completed, the owner realizes
that he has got something that cannot wear out, burn up or
decay. It is there for all time. It may be kept clean and free
from vermin. It will stand all shock of wind and weather,
and if it is desired to be rid of it later, dynamite alone will
destroy it. There will be no depreciation, no repairs, no sink-
in

ing fund toward replacing it required, no fire insurance to
carry — in fact, the first cost is the last cost. As a business
proposition, that is attractive. From a sanitary stand-
point it proves itself equally good. It can be washed down,
scrubbed, disinfected, steamed and sterilized to destroy germs,
and may be kept clean with the least expenditure of labor.
Concrete proves useful in a thousand ways. Wherever wood
decays and requires replacing, concrete will end all trouble.
The number of uses to which it may be put are beyond esti-
mate. Each builder will discover its special applications to
his own requirements."

Photo No. 234.

STEPS AND RETAINING WALLS FOR CONCRETE WALK AND GRAPE ARBOR,

ST. CHARLES, ILL.

112

BOTTLING EOOM, DAIRY HOUSE, BROOKSIDE FARMS, NEWBURG, N. Y.

INTERIOR OF CONCRETE ICE BOX, BROOKSIDE FARMS, NEWBURG, N. Y.

Mr. S. L. Stewart, the well-known expert on certified milk,
has written the following description of his place at New-
burgh, New York. "ATLAS" Portland Cement was used
exclusively in connection with this work:

"Sanitary conditions are as necessary for the welfare of
animals as for human beings, and the trend of the up-to-date
farmer is to have his buildings hygienic throughout. Cattle
thrive better and give better service under such conditions,
insuring to the farmer greater returns for the money and labor

Photo No. 380.

DAIRY HOUSE, BROOKSIDE FARM, NEWBURG, N. Y.

invested. Concrete is the only material for strictly sanitary
buildings. They are easily kept clean, for the entire absence
of cracks makes it impossible for dirt, germs and vermin to
collect. The whole interior may be flushed from top to bot-
tom with hot steam or washed with an antiseptic, thereby
providing a perfectly clean, sanitary home for the live stock.

"The cow barns and dairy house at Brookside Farms were
built with concrete, keeping the above conditions in mind, and
the results obtained have more than justified the experiment.
The cow barn is built with concrete floors and side walls, the

114

roof being of the ordinary shingle type. The walls, which are
hollow, make the structure warm in winter and cool in sum-
mer, the air acting as a non-conductor, and forming an easy
means of installing the "King system of ventilation." Con-
crete feeding floors and gutters are used, as shown in the pho-
tograph. A damp-proof course between the layers of concrete
on the barn floor does away with all dampness conveyed from
the ground, adding to the comfort of the animals. The dairy

Photo No. 378.

INTERIOR COW BARN, BROOKSIDE FARMS, NEWBTTRG, N. Y.

house, built in 1903, is concrete throughout, being the first of
its kind in the United States. The walls of the dairy house
are of the hollow type, two 3-inch walls, with a lo-inch air
space. Inside there are five rooms — the receiving room, built
above the bottling room (see page 113); the bottle washing
room; the men's wash room, which contains a sterilizing
closet, shower baths and clothes closet, all of concrete;
and the cold storage room or refrigerator (see page 113).
The refrigerator is entirely of concrete, having four 2-inch
walls with one lo-inch air space and two 4-inch air spaces.
(A photograph of the interior of this refrigerator is shown on
page 113.) This refrigerator has proved more than satisfactory.

The results obtained from this form of construction are exem-
plified by the records of the New York County Milk Com-
mission. Samples taken from Brookside Farms show sterile
plates during the years 1904 and 1905. These were the only
sterile samples submitted to this Commission during those
years, and is considered largely due to concrete construction,
which makes it possible to apply surgical cleanliness to
dairying."

Photo No. 303.

MILK CELLAR, DECATUR, ILL.

We have selected two well-known places where "ATLAS"
Portland Cement has been used, that contain some interest-
ing features in concrete construction, for a short general
description.

A most interesting place from the suburbanite's point of
view is the home of Mr. W. N. Wight, of Westwood, New
Jersey.

The photograph shown on page 117 is Mr. Wight's resi-
dence. This house is concrete throughout. The foundation
is rough field-stone set in cement mortar. The walls to the
first floor are concrete 1:2:5 cinders with pebbles about 2

I'hoto No. 190.

RESIDENCE OF W. N. WIGHT, CONCRETE THROUGHOUT.

inches in diameter set in by hand after the forms had been
removed and before the concrete had taken its final set.

The clapboard effect on the second story was produced
by placing i : i mortar over the concrete and lining it off to
represent wood. The shingles under the eaves are also of
concrete. They were put on in layers, before the concrete
had set so as to form a bond, one layer being placed over
the other. The interior of the house is concrete throughout.
The photograph on page 62 shows the steps, porch and lat-

117

Photo No. 186.

REAR VIEW, RESIDENCE OF W. N. WIGHT, WESTWOOD, N. J.

Photo No. 188.

DETAIL OF CONCRETE PEBBLE FINISH RESIDENCE, W. N. WIGHT, WESTWOOD,

N. J.

118

tice at the front of the house. The photograph on page 118
shows the back entrance and a concrete slab, at the corners
of which is the reinforcing for two posts. A preserve closet
is shown on page 125. The shelves, it will be noticed, have
no support other than that received from the walls. The
stairs leading to the cellar are shown on page 35 and are
described under "Steps and Stairs." The horse-block, hitch-

Photo No. 184.

DOORWAY, CONCRETE BARN. FORMS SET FOR CEILING, WESTWOOD, N. J.

ing-post, and sidewalk are shown on page 57. Photograph on
page 119 shows the interior of barn with the forms for the
first floor in place.

The house shown on page 120 is built of solid concrete
with wood trimmings. This house cost, complete, including
plumbing, $3,850.00. The barn adjoining has concrete walls

119

Photo No. 187.

CONCRETE HOUSE, WESTWOOD, N. J.

Photo No. 192.

RUBBLE CONCRETE BARN, WESTWOOD, N. J,
120

and ordinary shingle roof — inside are concrete box-stalls, see
photograph, page 77. The next group of buildings belong-
ing to Mr. Wight are the chicken-house, page 67, green-
house, page 75, and mushroom cellar, page 73, built entirely
of concrete. Throughout the construction cinders were used
instead of stone or gravel and for reinforcing "Lock Woven

Photo No. 197.

CONCRETE STOVE, WESTWOOD, N. J.

Steel Fabric" was used. The dryness of these buildings is
attributed by their owner to the use of cinders, which he
contends take up the moisture, the voids acting as a dead-
air space in the wall.

At the United States Soldiers' Home in Washington,
D. C., concrete has almost entirely taken the place of other

121

Photo No. 324.

WAGON SHED, IT. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON. D. C.

Photo No. 318.

WASH TROUGH, WINDOW AND DOOR SILLS, TT, S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASH-
INGTON, D. C.

122

forms of construction on the farm buildings. The cow-barn,
page 124, the wagon-shed, page 122, the silos, page 81, the
green-houses, pages 74 and 76, all testify to the superiority
of concrete construction. These structures were all built
with solid walls and lean mixtures of concrete, one part
"ATLAS" Portland Cement, two parts clean, coarse sand,
three parts clean, fine gravel, four parts broken stone, brick or
terra-cotta, being the general rule, although in the cow-barn

Photo No. 320.

ENTRANCE TO ROOT CELLAR, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

as lean a mixture as one part "ATLAS" Portland Cement, 20
parts sand, gravel, and broken stone was used. These mixtures
are not recommended by us, but simply go to show the great
strength that is attained by "ATLAS" Portland Cement Con-
crete. The photograph on page 55 shows a fifty-foot water-
ing trough in the field near the cow-barn. On page 124 is
shown the feed trough in the cow-barn. Detail of the pebble-

123

Thoto No. 325.

FEED MIXING TROUGH, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Photo No. 327.

COW BARN, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. C.

124

dash used on the outside of all the buildings, silos and water
basin is shown on page 88. On page 126 are shown two photo-
graphs of the interior of the cow-barn ; one the individual feed-
troughs for the cows, and the other the concrete tank for
washing the milk-cans. On page 123 is a photograph of the

Photo No. 195.

FRUIT CELLAR, W. N. WIGHT, WZSTWOOD, N. J,

entrance to the root cellar, which is under the wagon-shed.
The rear view of the greenhouse, shown on page 76, and
the steps leading to it are shown on page 33.

Most of these buildings were built in 1900, and at the
present time are in better condition than on the day they were

Photo No. 326.

INDIVIDUAL FEED TROUGH, COW BARN, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D, C.

Photo No. 329.

CAN TROUGH, DAIRY HOUSE, U. S. SOLDIERS' HOME, WASHINGTON, D. 0.

126

finished. They were originally designed to be built of stone,
brick or wood, and the specifications were drawn accord-
ingly— the final cost when built of concrete was considerably
less than the estimated cost of other construction.

127

Ask Your Dealer for Price
on "Atlas" — if he does not
carry it in stock, write to
The Atlas Portland Cement Co.,
Sales Department,
30 Broad Street,
New York City.

The Federal Printing Co., 200 Greene St., N. Y.

, PORTLAND "'

ATLAS

RETURN

14 DAY USE

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LOAN DEPT.

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or

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Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

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