The Counter Reformation

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EDITED BY *'> " V -T

MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.D., LLD.

tASE BISHOP OP LONDON 1

THE COTOTTER-KEFOEMATION

EPOCHS OF CHURCH HISTORY.

Edited by MANDELL CREIGHTON, D.D., LLD.,

LATE LORD BISHOP OF LONDON

Fcap. 8vo, price zs. 6d, each.

THE ENGLISH CHURCH IN OTHER LANDS. By the Rev

H. W. TUCKER, M A
THE HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND

By the Rev. GEORGE G. FERRY, M A.

THE CHURCH OF THE EARLY FATHERS. By ALFRED
PLUMMER, D D

THE EVANGELICAL REVIVAL IN THE EIGHTEENTH

CENTURY. By the Rev. J H OVERTCN, D D
A HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. By tht

Hon. G C BRODRICK, D.C L

THE CHURCH AND THE ROMAN EMPIRE. By the Rev
A CARR, M.A

THE CHURCH AND THE PURITANS, 157^1660. By HRNRY
OFFLEY WAKEMAN, M.A.

THE CHURCH AND THE EASTERN EMPIRE. By the Rev.
H. K.IOZER, MA.

HILDEBRAND AND HIS TIMES. ByW.R. W STEPHENS, B.D.

THE ENGLISH CHURCH IN THE MIDDLE AGES. By the
Rev. W. HCNT, M A. *

THE POPES AND THE HOHENSTAUFEN. By Uco BALZANI
THE COUNTER-REFORMATION. Bv A. W WARD, Lut D.

WYCLIFFE AND MOVEMENTS FOR REFORM By R. L
POOLE, M.A., Ph D.

THE ARIAN CONTROVERSY. By II. M. GWATKIN, M A.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

LONDON, NEW YORK, AND BOMBAY

COUNTER-REFORMATION,

BY

ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, LiTT.D.

MASTER OF PETERHOUSE, CAMBRIDGE

NEW IMPRESSION.

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON-
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY.
1908.

All rights reserved.

PREFACE.

IT Is not always easy to define tlie correct use of even
so well-worn a phrase as c the Counter-Reformation/
I have, however, done my best to suggest such a
definition in the brief Synopsis which I have prefixed
to the following Essay, and which will perhaps under
the circumstances not be regarded as altogether super-
fluous. Of the movement known under this name,
I can hardly hope in the following sketch to have
indicated more than the chief aspects, avoiding, as I
very sincerely trust, at all events the worst of the pit-
falls in the ground traversed. Religious partisanship,
deplorable as it is in elaborate narratives, would be
unbearable in a mere summary.

As is well known, the characteristic powers of Ranke's
genius as a historian were never exercised more con-
spicuously than in tracing the co-operation of religious
and political purposes and motives in the period of the
Catholic Reaction. Besides his History of tJie Popes,
his French History perhaps the most finished of all
his great works will from this point of view always
remain invaluable to the student Still, even with these

works, and Baron (now Count) von Hubner's admir-
c. ff. b

vl PREFA CE.

able monograph on Sixtus V. before me, I have found
Moritz Brosch's Cfesckichte des Kirchenstaates (1880)
a most useful manual of the history of Papal govern-
ment in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries* Of
late the attempt has been, made to treat the move-
ment of the Counter-Eeformation after a more con-
centrated fashion; but, unfortunately for me, Mau-
renbrecher's Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation
(1880) has not yet advanced beyond its first volume
(up to the death of Clement VII.). On the other
hand, Martin Philippson's Contre-Rfaoliition Eeligieuse
(1884), which concludes with the dissolution of the
Council of Trent, is complete within its limits ; but
my attention was not directed to this work till I was
revising the first draft of my own little volume, which
I hope has benefited from M. Philippson's lucid expo-
sition. From Mr. J. A. Symonds' two volumes on The
Catholic Reaction (which form the final portion of his
Renaissance in Italy], I could not, though joining issue
with some of his conclusions, fail to derive many valu-
able hints. There can be no necessity for reciting
here the authorities, old and new, on such special parts
of my subject as the Council of Trent, the Spanish
Mystics, the Edict of [Restitution, and the like, A
bibliography of the history of the Counter-Eeforma-
tion might indeed be a welcome gift to students, but if
offered here, it would be out of place, or at least out
of proportion. A. W. W.

MANCHESTER, Marcli 22, 1888.

SYNOPSIS.

A WELL-KNOWN sentence in Macaulay's Essay on

Ranke's ' History of the Popes ' asserts, correctly

enough, that in a particular epoch of his-

ine (Jounter- * *

defined atl u tor y ' ^ Q Church of Rome, having lost a
large part of Europe, not only ceased to
lose, but actually regained nearly half of what she
had lost.' Any fairly correct use of the familiar
phrase c the Counter-Reformation ' must imply that
this remarkable result was due to a movement pur-
suing two objects, originally distinct, though after-
wards largely blended, viz., the regeneration of the
Church of Eome, and the recovery of the losses
inflicted upon her by the early successes of Protes-
tantism.

If, then, the twofold purpose of the movement in
question, be kept in view, there can be no difficulty in
deciding what ought, and what ought not, to be in-
cluded within the limits of the present sketch. Outside
them must be left the schemes, projected or essayed, for
altering the doctrine or amending the practice of the
Church of Rome which preceded the first appearance
of Luther as her assailant in principle. Neither, on

v

the other hand, ought we to occupy ourselves here
with the resistance offered by the Establishment to
its opponents before the time when with this resist-
ance was coupled the design of self- re formation, of
reformation, as it has been usually styled, c from
primary within.' The short pontificate of Adrian
effort yj t wag an i ma ted by an eager desire to

comhine both ends; but inasmuch as its aspirations
remained altogether unaccomplished, no place belongs
to it in the body of my narrative. The
earliest continuous endeavour to regenerate

a couSmous' 18 the Church of Rome without impairing her
cohesion dates from the Papacy of Paul III.
within which also falls the outbreak of the first reli-
gious war of the century. Thus the two impulse?
which it was the special task of the Counter-Refoi
mation to fuse were brought into immediate contact.
The onset of the combat is marked by the formal
establishment of the Jesuit Order as a militant agency
devoted alike to both the purposes of the Counter-
Reformation, and by the meeting of the Council of
Trent under conditions excluding from its programme
the task of conciliation. Of the restoration of the
Roman supremacy in England, which occurred soon
afterwards, a brief notice will in the present connexion
suffice, since this proceeding, accidental in itself, was
Height of the soon rendered futile by another turn of the

movement wheeL j t mg in the fiBal Sltt j n g s of tjie

Council of Trent that the Jesuits first victoriously

SYNOPSJS. ix

asserted a control over the policy of the Church of
Eome ; and the promulgation of the Oonciliar Decrees,
while introducing into the life of that Church a series
of enduringly beneficent changes, at the same time
formed the first systematic attempt to obstruct the
progress of Protestantism c along the whole line.'
The date of this promulgation, therefore, announces
the opening of the period in which the

The weakness * r

of divided pro- Counter-Reformation put forth its full force

test 0.11 tlSDl. J-

At no previous time had the movement
been so well supported by the tendency on the Pro-
testant side to harden and perpetuate internal differ-
ences of doctrine, and thus to break up the front pre-
sented to the common foe. The period during which
the Counter-Reformation continuously displays a most
extraordinary and versatile energy closes with the col-
lapse of the deliberate attempt of Philip of Spain, as the
indefatigable champion, but not the henchman, of Rome,
to master the destinies of Western Christendom. The
Decime of the ^ as ^ ^ en y ears of his life reached from the dis-
movement s jp a tion of the Spanish Armada, an expedition
designed to avenge many martyrdoms inpartibus, to the
pacification which enabled Henry IV. of Prance to sign
the Edict of Nantes. During the years which followed,
the sense of the imminent renewal of the conflict lay
heavy upon Europe, and the agents of the Counter-
Reformation had to content themselves with undermin-
ing defences which it would have been inopportune to
seek to take by storm. And thus their side was the

X 6" YNOPS1S.

better prepared when the struggle in which they were
unceasingly engaged merged in the Great War in

parts of its course only a religious war

of the seventeenth century. Though in
Thirty Tears' the earlier part of the contest the cause of

War r

Home was completely victorious, so that it
seemed feasible to satisfy the claims of the Reaction
by imperial edict, the balance was in some measure re-
dressed by later events. Inasmuch, however, as the
movement for the reconquest of what Rome had lost
had ceased to aim, except incidentally, at the reform of
the Church, it can hardly be said to have been any
longer the Counter-Reformation proper which was ruled
out of date by the Peace of Westphalia. The twofold
movement which this Essay has in view did not wholly
come to an end, but it lost its combined historical
significance among the complications of the Thirty
Years' War.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER L

PAGE

INTRODUCTORY I

CHAPTER It

THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL , . 17

CHAPTER III.

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT 58

CHAPTER IT.

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT . , .101

CHAPTER V

THE RELIGIOUS CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR . 152
INDEX , 197

THE COUNTEK-BEFOBMATION,

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY.

IN tlie history of the Western Church, while united
under the acknowledged supremacy of the Bishop of
Eaiherat- Rome, there have been but few periods in
rIS?mation which its administration and the life of
church of its clergy have been exempt from censure.
^the b c e on. During the latter half of the Middle Ages
ciimr period, ^ Q reformation of these constant objects
of complaint was aimed at in a long succession of
efforts. Fresh bitterness was added to these griev-
ances, and the condition of the Papacy itself took the
most prominent place among them, when, on the first
decline of the Papal authority under Boniface VIIL,
there followed the abasement of Avignon and the
ignominy of the Schism. Yet, at the same time, a
belief sprang up that the end of these scandalous
divisions would also be the end of the existing de-
mtheCoiH*. generacy. During the period of the CEcu-
iiar period. meuical Councils which ensued, the task
of reforming the Church in both head and members

C. H. A

2 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

appeared at last to have been undertaken by the
Church herself, to the decrees of whose representative
assemblies the Pope himself was called upon to sub-
mit But the Council of Pisa was dissolved by its
own nominee, Alexander V. At Constance, had the
majority persevered, it would have redressed nearly all
the grievances urged against the Church within the
century preceding Luther's first assault. But the
success of any comprehensive measure of reform be-
came impossible after the German nation's demand
that the question of general reformation should precede
the choice of a now Pope had been defeated by the
election of Martin V. The revived activity of the
old papal system was made manifest by the results of
the Council of Basel. Of some of its earlier decrees
France secured the substantial benefit to her own
Church in the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, but the
Empire was skilfully deprived of them in the Concor-
date of Vienna. On the main issue as to supremacy,
the Papal authority in the end prevailed over the
Conciliar.

After the Council which burnt Hus and the Council
which transacted with the Hussites had alike sought
Between the to ta ^ e tne wor ^ ^ administration and
concii2i tlie disciplinary reform out of the hands of the
thfbifn- d Popes, they, in their turn, during the
pSfes^t 6 next P eri d, so far as possible ignored the
^formation. <j ecrees O f froth assemblies. Whatever
promises were made by Nicolas V. and his successors
down to Alexander VI., they took care not to repeat
the Conciliar experiment. Thus to the Papacy itself
was now left the initiative of Church reform ; nor

INTRODUCTORY, 3

was the need of it ignored by all these pontiffs.
Nicolas V. sent Cardinal Cusanus (Nicolas of Cues) to
Theimtia- reform the German monasteries. Paul II.
inllionieft' before his election promised a thorough re-

to the Popes form of botll Curia and clerg ^ An(J eyen

at the close of this period Alexander VI. was at no
loss for appropriate replies to the representations on
the subject addressed to him from Spain. In truth,
however, nothing short of heroic energy inspired by
apostolic zeal could have made reformers of Popes
breathing the intellectual and moral atmosphere of
the later Italian Renascence. The difficulties pressing
upon these pontiffs as Italian princes led them to regard
themselves essentially as such, without at the same
time losing sight of the influence inseparable from
their religious attributes. Under Sixtus IV. and Inno-
cent VIIL, simony and nepotism were the right and
the left arm of the Papal government, absorbed in the
struggle for territorial acquisitions. Alexander VI.
and his bastard stood face to face with the idea of
transforming the temporal power into a hereditary
dominion, while at the same time the spiritual envelope
of the Papacy had become transparent like a Coan
vesture, Julius II. put a stop to a condition of things
which even Eenascence consciences could no longer
bear, although he was more distinctively than any of
his predecessors an Italian prince, patriot, and politician ^
but his summoning of the Lateran Council (1512) was
merely an act of self-defence against the use made by
his political enemies of the growing cry for ecclesiastical
reformation.

For, notwithstanding the apathy or passive resist-

4 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

ance of the Popes, the nations of the West had not yet
learned to despair of a reformation of the Church by
her own constituted authorities. Nowhere
for reform^- was a more practical shape assumed by these
cravings than in Spain, the country destined
afterwards to become the chief source of the counter-
reformation. The movement for the regene-
Spam ration of the Spanish Church under Ferdi-

nand and Isabella, of which Ximenez was the directing
spirit, was in its political objects based on the Con cor-
date of 1482, and it had a considerable intellectual
affinity with the Eenascence. Yet, notwithstanding
these vital differences, it had much in common with the
Counter-Reformatkmitself, besidesthe co-operation of the
Inquisition, revived in Spain under a new constitution
(1483). Thus it was a Spaniard, Carvajal, who thought
to crown his demonstrations on behalf of Church reform
when, in company with four other cardinals,
members of the Sacred College, he sum-
apacy> moned a council to Pisa in despite of the
Pope (1511). At first it seemed as if this daring stroke
would be attended with success. A few meetings were
held at Pisa and at Milan under the aegis of Louis XII. of
France, whose national policy was consistently directed
to the restoration of the Pragmatic Sanction, nominally
abolished by Louis XI. The summons to Pisa at first
likewise received the sanction of the Emperor Maxi-
milian L ; for the widespread desire in Germany for
reformation had found frequent expression at the Diets
of the Empire. The gravamina presented at Worms
in 1510 are in fact largely identical with the com*
plaints which the Councils of Constance and Basel had

INTRODUCTORY. 5

in vain sought to redress, and for which there seemed no
enduring remedy left except the placing of the German
Church under independent national control. But the
absence, notwithstanding recent changes, of any real
national unity, and the characteristic collapse of Maxi-
milian's zeal for Church reform, wrecked all these
aspirations and endeavours ; and in the end the Empe-
ror and the princes, although unrepresented at the
Lateran Council, solemnly acknowledged it. The same
futile course was taken by Spain and by England*

While the Lateran Council was still in progress, and
just after the War of the Holy League had driven the
The Lateran French from Italy, Julius II died, and was
Counci1 - succeeded by Leo X. (March 1513). The
drastic measures taken by the new Pope at the begin-
ning of his reign prepared a virtually complete victory
for the Papal policy. The chief of the reforming car-
dinals submitted ; Francis I., though in the flush of
victory, accepted a Concordate (i 5 15) as a compromise
of the Trench national demands ; and the Lateran
Council before its close (December 1516) confirmed
the bull Unam Sanctum, which declared it c necessary
to salvation for every human being to be subject to the
authority of the Pope/ The question of reformation,
on the other hand, though by no means ignored, was
not materially advanced by this merely Italian assembly;
the Papal abuses proper were virtually passed by ; and
when, before separating, the Council sanctioned the
levy of contributions for a crusade, both the Spanish
clergy and the Estates of the Empire suspected a Flor-
entine trick.

The Fifth Lateran Council had made it clear that

6 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

all hope of a reformation of the Clmrcli from within
must be abandoned. Except where the practice of
APapii tne Papal policy was restricted by concor-
^ormtion c | ateSj p r i nceSj prelates, and peoples suffered
hoped for m com mon from the impositions of Borne,
and no class of society could be blind to the results of the
progressive decay of both efficiency and morality among
the clergy. More especially was this degeneracy to be
deplored in the case of the monastic orders, so many
of which had been established with the avowed purpose
of reanimating and reinvigorating popular religion.
Princes and prelates were in addition as jealous as they
had always been of Papal claims which impaired their
own sovereign or episcopal authority. Surrounded by
a new splendour since the subjection of the New World
to its supremacy, the Papacy had at home outwitted
its adversaries, and could afford to contemn its censors,
What remedy remained ?

To this question two different answers were proposed
by two great men; but by preferring Luther's, the oppo-
Luthornnd nents of the Papal system of Church govern-
the Papacy meni - ^^ tfceanswer of Erasmus impossible.
Accordingly, the experiment was left untried whether
Western Christendom might be educated into seeking
and securing for itself a purer Chnrch, with a more
reasonable presentment of religion. The actual mould
was soon burst by the fiery metal impulsively poured
into it. Rome spoke in the matter of the Lutheran
heresy (June 1520), at the very time when, in his
fulminant address to the Christian nobles of Germany,
Luther was detailing his own ideas of indispensable
Church reform ideas far more moderate than the

INTRODUCTORY. 7

language in which they were clothed. Eleven months
later, he was, with the help of a discreditable man-
oeuvre, formally placed under the ban of the Empire.
But the edict was far from generally executed in the
Empire, and a prospect still existed of closing the
breach made by Luther's well-timed boldness, when
the pontificate of Leo X. suddenly came to an end
(December 1521).

The elevation to the Papal chair of Adrian VI., the
Emperor's late tutor and actual regent in Spain, may
Papacy of Bave been primarily due to the fact that
Adrian vi. j^ wag an a b sen t ee f rom the conclave where
all the cardinals present desired their own election.
But of course he was a peculiarly safe choice in the
eyes of the imperial party and of its accepted nominee,
Cardinal Gmlio de Medici, when the election of the
latter proved impossible; while, as a distinguished
scholastic theologian, he seemed worthier of trust than
perhaps a prominent reformer or two among the
candidates. In his antecedents there was nothing to
alarm conservative instincts. When an academical
celebrity at Louva-in, though all but an ascetic in
habits of life and most open-handed in his charities,
he had been a very notable pluralist. The doctrine of
Papal infallibility, which his learned pen had in those
days taken upon itself to confute, was one which the
Church had still left undefined. As regent in Spain,
while his resignation, on his appointment to the
see of Tortosa, of some of his other preferments
might seem the act of a purist, he had shown great
activity in the office of Inquisitor-General (which he
retained till within a few days of his death). On

8 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

the announcement of his election to the Papacy,
Adrian submitted to this crowning manifestation of
the Divine will with a solemn sense of the dignity
of the office to which he was called, and in which
it seemed impossible for him to loot upon him-
self as the creature of the Emperor. The circum-
stances of his election were at the time, as afterwards,
much misrepresented; but how could he have failed
from the first to appreciate its significance, and to
recall the times when another Charles had, under the
Papacy of another Adrian, fought the battles of the
Holy See against its foes? Nor when the general
character of the ecclesiastical policy of Charles V. is
considered, together with the nature of his personal
relations to Adrian VI., can it be denied that the
union of these two potentates seemed to offer a
unique chance of a Catholic counter-reformation, i.e.,
a regeneration of the Church combined with the extir-
pation of heresy,

But Charles V. could not take either of these
objects in hand, any more than set about his desired
crusade against the Turks, till he had carried to a
successful issue his war with France, in which he not
unnaturally thought himself entitled to the support
of the new Pope. Adrian, on the other hand, though
longing for the restoration of peace between the
Christian powers, in order that they might in common
make war upon the encroaching infidel, would fain
have brought about this peace as mediator rather
than as the ally of one of the combatants. In the
end just before his death he had to fall in with
the Emperor's proposals (August 1523); but during

INTRODUCTORY. 9

nearly the whole of his short Papacy there had been
little real cordiality between the pair, and the reforma-
tion, of the Church was hardly if at all mentioned in
their correspondence. Thus it was without the aid of
his imperial pupil that Pope Adrian VI. addressed
himself to the task imposed upon him by his lofty
conception of his office. At Rome, his election, as that
of a foreigner, had been received with the most open
manifestations of ill-will ; he neither possessed, nor
would lie have condescended to use, the arts by which
disaffection might have been appeased ; he seems not
even to have been master of the Italian tongue. At
first he may have derived some encouragement from
the speech by which Cardinal Carvajal welcomed him
in the name of the Sacred College. The seven re~
cordationes presented to him dwelt on the grievous
corruptions in the Church, but contained no allusion
to the religious movement in Germany, of which it
was still the fashion at Eome to make light. Even
more significant was the elaborate memorial drawn up
by ^Egidius of Viterbo, General of the Order of St.
Augustine, and submitted to the Pope by the reform-
ing party among the cardinals. This document
appeals to the Pope, in whose election the hand of
God is manifest, to restore the Church, beginning with
an enquiry into the fallen condition of the Papacy
itself, as the real source of the widespread ecclesias-
tical corruption. The power of the keys ought to be
reduced to the limits of ancient usage, and any abuse
of it scrupulously avoided. Pluralities and compositions
should be wholly abolished ; reservations confined to ex-
ceptional cases, and commends kept within due measure.

TO THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

The entire judicial administration of the Church should
be revised, the supreme court at Eome (rota) re-
organised, the chamber of finance (camera) reformed,
and a commission appointed to enquire into the new
offices by which Leo X. had so largely increased his
expenditure and his debts. As for the life and
morals of the clergy at large, it would be desirable to
carry out the decrees of the Lateran Council. On the
other side, while the memorial insisted on the necessity
of restricting improper concessions granted in concor-
dates to temporal princes, it demanded the rigorous
execution of the Edict of "Worms against the new
German heresy. The Holy See should hasten to take
advantage of the readiness of Bohemia to be reconciled
to it ; while, with a view no doubt to the suppression
of the more recent and more dangerous religious revolt,
it should use its best endeavours to mediate peace be-
tween the Empire, Prance, and England. The entire
memorial might have served as a text-book for the
actual Counter-Keformation.

Coming from Spain, Adrian VI. must have re-
ceived these demands and recommendations, all of
which were completely in harmony with

His attempt ..,,, . -, , . . .

at a counter- both his experiences and his opinions, as

reformation in i . rri

a challenge to his conscience. The plague
was raging at Eome, and he was himself enfeebled
by illness ; but he resolved to remain in the city. On
the very day after his coronation (September I, 1522),
he annulled all steps taken by the Sacred College sine
his election for the filling up of benefices; and soon
afterwards (October I ith) he published the Chancery
rules, which he had first put forth in Spain (April

IN TROD UCTOR F. I I

24th), aucl which revoked all reservations made, or
expectancies granted, in his name. He soon showed
his intention to respond to nearly all the demands of
the reforming cardinals, by declaring against pluralities,
renouncing the right of ordering reservations, and
seeking to limit the operation, and thereby to diminish
the issue, of indulgences. But the best proof of his
resolve to f oust Simon Magus from his time-honoured
seat' is to be found in his strenuous declaration
against abuses which at Rome had come to be con-
sidered institutions. He reduced his household in a
spirit of primitive simplicity, and adapted his military
establishment to the model of Sparta on a peace
footing. He tried to prevent his subjects from bear-
ing arms, and the cardinals from granting sanctuary.
And while he announced his intention of abolishing
the multitudinous new offices created by his predecessor,
he incurred by his cold and almost precisian reserve the
contemptuous hatred of the Eoman artistic and literary
world.

If Adrian VI. actually supposed that his well-meant
but crude efforts would be crowned with success, he
had reckoned without Rome. The population of the
city desired money to be spent in, among, and upon
it. The official world of the Curia opposed with deadly
determination this sudden deviation of the Papacy into
the path of administrative reform. Adrian was laughed
at as a Platonic idealist among the Romulean rabble ;
he was execrated for appointing Flemings and Germans
to some of the most confidential of the offices left in his
court ; not a grain of popular sympathy was from first
to last bestowed upon his endeavours. But the resist-

12 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

ance to these of course centred in the College of
Cardinals, to which, with the exception of one nomina-
tion immediately before his death, he made no additions,
His policy was indeed here supported by Caraffa, who,
like Adrian, had imbibed ideas of ecclesiastical reform
in Spain, and by one or two others. But even Cajetano
(de Yio), who had learnt patience from the results of
the Lateran Council, advised deliberation, and Soderini
uttered warnings fraught with the experience of three
pontificates. Thus the Pope was left to carry on the
struggle nearly alone ; nor is it wonderful that he
should have had resort to men of piety and learning,
on whose sympathy he thought himself able to count,
and among them to his countryman Erasmus, the
foremost man of letters of the age. The correspond-
ence between Adrian VI. and Erasmus, however, shows
that, whatever may have been at this time the great
scholar's mental attitude towards the Lutheran refor-
mation, he had scant sympathy to spare for the
counter-movement as conceived by the actual head
of the Church. He declined the Pope's invitation to
Borne, taking occasion to express both his annoyance
at being charged there with the authorship of the new
heresy, and his conviction that no advice of his was
called for if that heresy was to be suppressed by
persecution. And he was right ; since, transparently
honest as Pope Adrian was, he could hardly have acted
in concert with an ally who invoked the sweet name of
Liberty. Before the final reply of Erasmus was indited,
the Pope had already entered upon the second part of
Lis scheme of counter-reformation. Luther's patron,
Frederick the Wise of Saxony, was admonished to re-

INTRODUCTORY. 13

pentance in a Papal missive, containing an attack upon
Luther himself as virulent as it was ill-founded. Then,
in December 1523, through his legate, Chieregati, at the
Diet of Nurnberg, the Pope denounced the Lutheran
movement to the Estates in the most unmeasured
terms, and declared his determination to resist it. In
the same breath, however, he professed his desire, but
for which he would never have taken upon himself the
burden of the Papacy, to reform the deformed Catholic
Church. With true greatness of soul, he caused the
condition of that Church to be described to the Diet
as corrupt from the head downwards. The Diet replied
in a very cool tone, recurring to the grievances of the
German nation against the Eoman Cnria, and suggest-
ing that they should be remedied "before the proposed
steps were taken against Luther. In no other way
could a modus mvendi be found up to the meeting of
a General Council, which it was hoped would soon be
summoned to some suitable German city. No desire
was indicated to break with the Pope, but the sanction
of the Diet to the execution of the Edict of Worms
was distinctly refused, and even a request on the part
of the Pope for the institution of proceedings against
certain preachers of heresy in Nurnberg itself was de-
clined. The result must have been a bitter disappoint-
ment to Adrian, although in truth his difficulties at
Rome left him no time for proceeding effectively against
His failure the German reformation. In the midst of
nnd death. t]iem te ^^ (September 1 4, 1 5 2 3). At his
death-bed, the cardinals to whom he commended the
cause of the Church are said to have responded with
eager enquiries as to the disposal of his personal pro-

14 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

perty. His great endeavour was doomed to failure,
if only because he ignored the most obvious considera-
tions of policy, and sought to accomplish his ends
forthwith and unassisted, save by the sanctity of his
office. Sacred no doubt it still was to many minds,
but hardly to those of all the cardinals, not to speak
of the protonotaries, referendaries, solicitors, writers of
the archives, collectores plwribi, and other officials at
Rome. Adrian expected, with a confidence either
childish or sublime, that everything, including the
Emperor's necessities, would bend to the demands of
his own zeal He brought no other leverage to bear
upon the twofold task which he had set himself to
accomplish, and Christendom might indeed have cried
miracle had he lifted the load.

Adrian's successor, Clement VII. (i 5 23-34), though

not indifferent to the efforts which, in the course of

his reian, religious enthusiasm continued to

The crisis of o ? o

^oUr^indTr ma ke at R me ; returned to the ordinary
element vii. p a p a i methods of government and policy.
At first, indeed, he displayed some diplomatic activity
on behalf of the suppression of heresy in the Empire,
and put forth a thin decree bearing upon the removal of
certain internal abuses. In 1524 his legate Oampeggi
at Ratisbon published a mandate conceived in the
spirit of Adrian's reforms, and modelled on their
Spanish precedents. It appears to have exercised a
salutary effect upon the South German clergy, and to
Lave approved itself to the great English Cardinal
Wolsey, himself a reformer of the moderate type. The
time of its publication was opportune, for a reaction
against Luther's no-compromise seemed to have set in

INTRODUCTORY. 15

even in Germany, and a great opportunity seemed to
offer itself to Erasmus and the Erasmians. But all
too soon the sky was darkened by events which con-
stitute an epoch in the history of the Papacy. Not so
much by his own fault, as by that of the policy in-
herited by him from previous holders of the temporal
power, Clement VII. had to throw himself into the
arms of France and to quarrel with the Emperor.
Not only did the Edict of Worms now become a dead
letter, but soon the imperial army was marching upon
Borne. In the sacco di Roma (i 527) Spanish soldiers
shared with German landsJcnechte ; nor was it to the
Protestant world alone that the judgment of Heaven
seemed to have descended on the city of the Popes.
Charles V., who now held Pope Clement as a prisoner
in his power, might perhaps have solved the twofold
question of the reformation of the Church and of the
suppression of the religious revolt by simply abolishing
the temporal power. Or he might have refused to re-
store it unless after a thorough reform of the Roman
Curia and of the whole system of Papal administration,
such as was actually demanded by his Spaniards. At the
very least he might have carried out the plan, which lie
had cherished during the last three years, of assembling
a General Council, whose reformatory decrees no Papal
intrigues could have hindered, manipulated, or stultified.
Charles V. contented himself with trusting to the weak-
ness of the restored Pope. The demand for a Council
was evaded at Bologna (November 1 529), where, about
the very time when Protestantism was seeking to
establish itself on definite dogmatic bases, the Papacy
returned to political manoeuvres. Successfully resist-

1 6 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION'.

Ing the Emperor's reiterated demands for a Council,
Clement called in the aid of the infidel and heterodox
world to redress the balance of the faithful. Thus he
contrived to maintain his own political influence, and
to assure the future of the house of Medici. He was
warned by the Venetian Contarini that the welfare of
the Church, for which it was the Pope's duty to labour,
did not rest on her temporal power. The personally
respectable but common- place character of Clement
VII. enabled him to pass unchanged through an ex-
perience more awful than had befallen any of his pre-
decessors. But just as the Rome of the Renascence
was never again to rise from her ruins, so the Church
of which Rome remained the centre was already before
his death (September 1534) awake to the fact that
in the epoch now at hand she could no longer remain
standing in the old ways.

CHAPTER II.
THE BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL.

PAUL III. (Alexander Farnese, 1534-49) w &s quali-
fied neither by his antecedents nor by his character
for the task of reforming the Church, but
forty years of license during his cardinalate
had not altogether blunted his perception of what he
might help to effect as a Pope. Very soon after his
election he gave proof of his insight both into the
spiritual needs of the Church and Into the shortcomings
of his predecessors. But unfortunately none of his
responsibilities, besides the duty of upholding the
temporal power, seemed to him so obvious and so
pressing as the traditional Papal obligation of providing
for his family. Thus he succeeded in obtaining for his
descendants a respectable place as Dukes of Parma and
Piacenza among the sovereign families of Italy and
Europe. The really determining force of his versatile
foreign policy was not religious bigotry, from which he
was personally free, nor even his sincere desire for
peace between the great contending powers. It was,
in a word, dynastic ambition, which was, paradoxically
enough, on occasion stronger in him even than the ties

1 8 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

of blood. Not even his hatred of the ascendancy of
Charles V., established by the issue of the Smalcaldic
war, nor the suspicion probably entertained by him
that the imperial policy was privy to the assassination
of his own son (September 1547), prevented him from
seeking in Charles V. a support which the dynasty of
the Farnese could not spare. In the religious policy
of a Pope actuated by such a master-motive it would
be futile to seek for any inner consistency. The mind
of Paul III., though enlightened and in some sense
unprejudiced, was* not moved by spiritual zeal ; and
thus the religious history of his reign is full of startling
contrasts.

The earliest attempts in this period to regenerate the

Church of Eome without breaking the mould of her

existing forms are not associated with any

Spiritual ... . , ji

movements opposition, conscious or unconscious, to tue
in Italy. labours and aspirations of Luther and the
reformers who followed in his path. In Italy, the first
manifestations during the sixteenth century of a desire
for a spiritual revival in the Church represent a natural
reaction against the prevailing fashion of unbelief. At
the Lateran Council in 1513 Leo X. had to assert by
a < constitution' the doctrine of the individual immor-
tality of the soul. Yet neither the circle in which
Leo had himself grown up, nor that which dominated
Roman society under his rule, could lay claim to
orthodoxy. Though Lorenzo the Magnificent and his
Academy had never defied the teachings of the Church,
yet their own point of view was essentially mystic and
undogmatic. Leo X.'s personal interest in divinity has
probably been underrated; but even in the case of a

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 19

Pope it is permissible to deduce his inclinations from
the company which he keeps. Thus certain pious and
reflecting minds began to fear lest the most spiritual
elements in the work of the Church and of her priest-
hood might either meet with disregard and derision, or
come to be dissociated from the distinctive doctrines
and practices of the Catholic religion. At some time
in the course of this pontificate (1513-22) an Oratory
The Oratory of f Divine Love was founded in the church
UivmeLove. of g tg> Sylvester ,and Dorothea in Trastevere
at Rome, and its services and exercises were attended
by a congregation of between fifty and sixty members,
including the future Cardinals Contarini, Sadoleti,
G-hiberti, and Carafla. The precedent of this foundation
was speedily imitated at Vicenza and in several other
towns ; and in the reign of Adrian VI. the movement
of the Oratorians naturally threw ont further fibres.
Under Clement VII. the dire catastrophe which befell
the city of Rome together with the Pope deprived the
Renascence in Italy of its very centre and focns ; nor
did Rome for a long time, or the Italian Renascence ever,
recover from the shock. Thus an influence in the main
antagonistic to a restoration of the spiritual life and
energy of the Church was permanently impaired. But
for the moment this effect could not be measured ; and
after the sack of Rome the representatives of the Re-
nascence and those of the religious revival were alike
fugitives from its walls. Not a few of both the one
and the other group found their way to Venice, a city
whose own power was already on the wane, but which
alone among the communities of Northern and Central
Italy had remained untouched by war or foreign inva**

so THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

sion. Theological opinion enjoyed much freedom of
utterance here, and the intimate mercantile relations
with Germany had given rise to a very warm interest
in the new Lutheran doctrines. At Venice, then, and
in the neighbouring University of Padna, there met
several scholars and ecclesiastics belonging to the school
of thought associated with the Oratory of Divine Love
beyond the Tiber. Hither came, at least
in passing, Gian Pietro Garaffa, bishop of
Chieti and archbishop of Brindisi. Born of an illus-
trious and influential Campanian family, and trained in
the best learning of the Renascence, he had been early
introduced to the Papal court, and had earned distinc-
tion as nuncio at the courts of Ferdinand and Henry
VIII. In Spain he had been fired by the spectacle of
a genuine religious revival. Leo X. had afterwards
availed himself of his theological acumen when the
Lutheran heresy underwent examination ; and he had
been consulted on the schemes which lay so near to
the heart of Adrian VI. Under Clement VII. Caraffa,
had withdrawn from court into a convent, though the
Pope had proposed to confer upon him an extraordinary
disciplinary authority over the clergy resident at Eome
(May 1524); but even during the dark days in question,
he refused to despair of the future of the Church.

Gasparo Contarini was a Venetian born, and an

eminent senator of the republic, which he had also

served on foreign missions. To whatever

degree his views of the cardinal doctrine of

justification may have approached Luther's, his doctrinal

opinions seem to have been as broad as his conceptions

of ecclesiastical government; while his conciliatory

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 21

wisdom and lofty independence of spirit were alike
indigenous to the city of his origin. Other noble
Venetians sympathised in the highest aspirations of
the scholars of Padua, but none more ardently than
the ' nobleman of England/ whose royal
blood and generous bearing had marked
him out even when a mere student in the venerable
university. He probably thought himself but a so-
journer in these seats of learning and culture, when
in 1534 he was ordered by his royal kinsman, Henry
VIII.j to renounce the supremacy of the Pope. After
the king had acknowledged the receipt of Pole's de-
fence of the unity of the Church by an invitation to
England, and that invitation had been declined, there
could be no peace between them. But the early in-
tercourse between Contarini and Pole, who together
with Caraffa may be said to represent the opening
stage of the Counter-Keformation, was animated by no
purely or essentially controversial purpose. On the
contrary, as Ranke has shown, the teaching of Contarini
and his school, more especially on the crucial ques-
tion of j ustification, was in actual touch with theological
ideas which at this time had penetrated into various
spheres of Italian society, and in their turn had much
in common with Protestant doctrines proper. Least
of all could these relations remain obscure at a time
when the influence of the Reformation itself, besides
reaching Venice from Germany, had from Prance and
Navarre penetrated into Northern Italy, and had thence
by way of Ferrara, where Calvin at one time took
refuge, reached the Eomagna and the immediate neigh-
bourhood of Eome. It thus becomes easy to under-

22 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

stand on the one hand the readiness of Contarmi and
his friends to entertain schemes of reunion, and on
the other the determination of the Jesuits to eradicate
the effects, visible in almost every city from Naples to
Milan, of the insinuating literary arguments of Juan
Valdez and his disciples, and of the powerful sermons
of Bernardino Ochino.

Very soon after his accession in 1534? Paul III.,
beginning, more wisely than Adrian VI., with men
instead of measures, created six new car-
creTtedVy 13 ' s dinals, chosen without their own knowledge,
Paul in. ^^ purely on account of their religious views

and sentiments. Contarini is said to have been the
first nominated, and to have proposed the rest. They
included, besides Caraffa and Pole, Matteo Ghiberti,
the exemplary bishop of Verona, whom Leo X. had
honoured, and whom ' Vida sung;' Federigo Fregoso,
archbishop of Salerno, and Jacopo Sadoleti, bishop of
Carpentras in France, both of whom had, like Grhiberti,
frequented the Oratory of Divine iJove. Sadoleti, ad-
mired far and near as a type of the elegant culture of
the later Renascence, was the author of a work in
which he argued that the caducity of the Church could
only be cured by the introduction of a new and more
vigorous discipline. Yet it was in no truculent spirit
that he or those associated with him accepted the
Papal nomination. When announcing his appointment
to JMelanchthon, and asking for the friendship of the
G-erman reformer, he declared himself not to be " the
kind of man in whom difference of opinion at once
gives rise to hatred."

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 23

The next step of Paul III. was to appoint a com-
mission consisting of these new cardinals, together with
two other members of the Sacred Colleg-e,

Commission ^ TAT -I-II^T .

on churcii Oortese and Aleander, both of them eminent
for learning, while the latter had gained
reputation as a diplomatist by his exertions in Germany
in connection with the bull of excommunication against
Luther and the Edict of "Worms. This commission
was charged with the preparation of proposals, in
harmony of course with accepted doctrines and tra-
ditions, for the reform of the Church. Its report is the
celebrated constlium de emendandd ecclesid. Contarini,
the soul of the entire transaction, appears to have
abandoned his original intention of demanding the
opinion of all his colleagues on each head of the com-
mission, but there was no lack of earnestness, or even
of boldness, in their joint conclusions. The report
insisted with pitiless logic upon the principle that no
payment could be accepted by the Pope for any spiritual
grace without the guilt of simony being incurred by him,
and reflected severely on the condition of the regular
orders, urging that, if they were not altogether abolished,
they should at least be prohibited from receiving any
more novices, while those already under their care should
be dismissed. It also took occasion to reprehend the
spread of irreligious teaching from academical chairs,
and even from church pulpits. The influence of Con-
tarini, who supplemented the report by tractates of his
own, chiefly directed against cunalistic abuses, brought
about the appointment of special commissions for the
execution of reforms in various branches of the Papal
administration^ and the issue of bulls indited in the

24 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

same spirit. The publication of the entire report was,
however, postponed until it could be laid before a
G-eneral Council; but to the convocation of such a
council the action of the Pope seemed logically to point.
Both within and beyond the frontiers of the Empire,
in Wurtemberg and at Augsburg, in Saxony and in
Brandenburg, in Livonia and in the Scandi-
p^ofest s autism, navian north, as well as in England and in
1532-47- Switzerland, the course of events during the
fourteen years which intervened between the Religious
Peace of Nurnberg (1532) and the outbreak of the
Smalcaldic War (i 546) seemed to justify the confidence
of the Protestants, In the midst of these advances of
heresy, Charles V., though steadily adhering to the plan
of a General Council, was involved in arduous conflicts
which made it necessary for him to conciliate the
Protestant interest in the Empire. In both the French
wars of this period (1536-38 and 1 5 4 2-44) the S ultan
was the ally of Francis I. ; the floodgates of Hungary
stood open, and Austria and the Empire were in con-
stant peril. The Association of Catholic Princes, formed
in opposition to the League of Smalcald (1538), was
under these circumstances wholly ineffective; and by
the advice of Granvelle the Emperor encouraged a
series of theological conferences between

Conferences on , _ ...

- Koman Catholic and Lutheran divines with

union, .

a view to finding a basis for re-union.
Already at Frankfort (1539) the Protestants made
plain their desire for a definitive settlement, and refused
to hear of the intervention of a Papal nuncio in future
discussions of the subject. The conferences that followed
were looked forward to with many pious hopes,

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 25

and many minds devoutly attached to the Church
once more renewed their aspirations for her reforma-
tion from within. But the desired result remained
unaccomplished either at Hagenau and Worms (i 540),
or by the more elaborate efforts made on the occasion
of the Diet of Eatisbon (1541). Here failure was
ensured by the effort^ of French seconded by English
diplomacy, and still more by the stiff-neckedness of
some of the Protestant princes, led by the Elector
John Frederick of Saxony, and encouraged by Luther
himself. But Oontarini too, who, sped by the good
wishes of Pole, appeared as Papal legate, arrived at
the limit of the concessions for which he was prepared
on the subject of the Eucharist ; and it is open to
grave doubt whether his previous concessions on other
points would have been ratified by the Pope. Ulti-
mately, after the Ratisbon Interim had postponed a
settlement (1541), it was decided not to submit to a
future General Council even those points on which an
agreement had been reached ; and the failure of the
entire transaction was made patent by the Emperor's
renewal of the Nurnberg league of Catholic princes,
of which, at his instigation, the Pope, disappointed or
disillusioned, now became a member. The schisrn
thus seemed remediless, and in the Empire the Pro-
testant interest continued in the ascendant. Mean-
while, in Italy, under influences which had at first
co-operated with the endeavours of the school or
party to which Contarini and Pole belonged, a move-
ment was already on foot which was speedily to urge
the Church of Rome in a contrary direction to that of
comprehension or tolerance. The pontificate of Paul

26 - THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

III. may (of course without exact chronological accu-
racy) be regarded as the birth-time of the militant
orders of the Catholic reaction.

The reformation of the monastic orders, recognised

as necessary at Constance and actually taken in hand

at Basel, had made some progress even in

New Orders. . ,.,, . '1.1 T>

countries still in communion with Kome ;
and wherever an attempt to enforce it was made by
Church or State, academical, literary, and general
public opinion were, as a rule, ready with their support.
Still, a wholly new impulse was given to the move-
ment in the period now under discussion. The last
order founded before the age of the Protestant refor-
mation had been that of the Minims, established by
Francis of Paula (canonised i 5 19) in Calabria, and con-
firmed by Sixtus IV. in 1473, The earliest monastic
institution which it is possible to connect with the
Catholic reaction is the organisation in 1522 by
the Venetian Paolo Giustiniani at Masaccio in the
Papal States of a reformed congregation of the Camal-
dolites, themselves an aftergrowth of the Benedictines.
The reformed rule, framed by both Adrian VI. an<J
Clement VIL, was ultimately established with great
rigour at Monte Corona ; but inasmuch, as, in accord-
ance with the original design of the order, its opera-
tion was essentially isolating, the congregation, which
spread in Italy, Germany, and Poland, could not exer-
cise much direct influence upon the revival of religious
life and sentiment. Far different was the effect of the
reformation one among many in the

The Captfchinj. . . ;

great Franciscan order which Matteo de
Bassi began in 1 5 2 5, and which in 1528 resulted in the

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 27

establishment near Camerino, with the approval of Pope
Clement VII., of the so-called Capuchins. They do not
appear to have obtained full independence as an .order
till nearly a century later (1619), but in the mean-
time they had done more than enough to 'justify their
existence. In Italy, where they began by exhibiting
a self-sacrificing devotion during the ravages of the
plague, they contributed more than perhaps any other
agency to sustain the fidelity of the people at large to
the Established Church. Though both in earlier and
in 'later times there wera among them many men of
learning, including their vicar-general the celebrated
Bernardino Ochino, whose apostasy could hardly have
failed to damage a less robust body, it was their popu-
lar fibre which gave them their peculiar vitality.
Like the Franciscans of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries, they were the preachers of the people, and their
oratory exercised its influence over a great part of
Europe, often no doubt flying in the face of all canons
of refinement. -Thus it was not only in matters of
State policy that the Capuchins were afterwards at
issue ' with their contemporaries the Jesuits. With
much of the strength of the great mendicant order of
which the Capuchins were an offshoot, they combined
one of the chief symptoms of its age of decay. Pro-
hibited from depending upon any provision of their own,
they resorted to whatever means were at hand for work-
ing upon the superstitions of their public. In an age
peculiarly prone to belief in witchcraft and devilry of
all kinds, they established a pre-eminence as exor-
cists which assured to them a reputation even among
Protestant populations. The organisation of the female

28 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Capuchines, established at Naples in 1538 by a Catalan
lady, appears to have been modelled upon the rigorous
original rule of the Clares.

An even more striking contrast is that between the

Capuchins and the Theatines, confirmed by Clement YII.

in 1524, and soon settled on the Monte

TbeTheatinea. Finido ^ KomeB Their f oun ders were Gae-

tano of Thiene, a native of Vicenza, and Gian Pietro
Caraffa. The former had quitted a lucrative post at the
Roman court in order to transplant the ideas of the
Oratory of the Divine Love to his native city, Venice
and Verona, and had gradually come to concentrate
his pious thoughts upon the reformation of the secular
clergy of the Church. On his return to Rome, Boni-
facio da Colle, a Lombard lawyer, became interested
in his design, and then it was enthusiastically taken
up by Caraffa, whose bishopric of Chieti, or, according
to the older form, Theate, gave its name to the new
Order of the Theatines} The members of this order
called themselves, not monks, but clerks- regular ; their
superior bore the title of provost; their costume was
the ordinary clerical dress; their statutes explicitly
declared it unfit that, either in the conduct of life or
the services of religion, the conscience should be bound
by mere usage. Clearly, the idea of their founders was
the restoration of the clergy, by the example of these
simple priests, to the primitive apostolic type. Indeed,
the Theatines might remind us of the Low German
Brotherhood of the Common Life, were it not for the
select and aristocratic character impressed upon this

1 J'ra Paolo states that it was customary in his day at Venice to
call ' votaresses of the Jesuits' Chictines.

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 29

* seminary of bishops 5 by Caraffa, who for a time gave
himself up entirely to its cause. They showed great
activity both in the care of the sick and as preachers,
and their missions afterwards spread from Italy, where
they were zealous in staying the growth of heresy, to
the remote regions of Georgia, Circassia, and Tartary.
The example of the Theatines was imitated in seve-
ral quarters. The clerks-regular of St. Paul (Paulines),
other Ordeis whose congregation was founded by An-
m Italy. tonio Maria Zacharia of Cremona and two
Milanese associates in 1532, approved by Clement
VII. in 1533, and confirmed as independent by
Paul III. in 1534, in 1545 took the name of
Barnabites, from the church of St Barnabas, which
was given up to them at Milan. The Barnabites,
who have been described as the democratic wing
of the Theatines, actively engaged in the con-
version of heretics both in Italy and in France
and in that home of heresy, Bohemia. In 1540
Paul III. confirmed the order of the Somascines, so
named from the town of Somasca. Their founder, a
Venetian noble commonly called Grirolamo Miani, ap-
palled by the ravages of war in Lombardy, had con-
secrated his life and wealth to the service of the poor,
and in particular of homeless children, and had founded
several hospitals in this part of Italy. Both these
traditions were carried on by his order, afterwards
called the Order of St. Majolus, from a church made
over to it at Padua ; but it does not appear to have
acquired a more than local importance. Almost equally
modest in their beginnings were the labours of Philip of
Neri, a young Florentine of good birth (151 5-1595) ;

30 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

canonised 1-622), who in 1548 instituted at Eome the
Society of the Holy Trinity, to minister to the wants
of the pilgrims at Eome. But the operations of his
mission gradually extended till they embraced the
spiritual welfare of the Eoman population at large,
and the reformation of the Roman clergy in particular.
No figure is more serene and more sympathetic to us
in the history of 'the Catholic reaction than that of
this latter-day ' apostle of Eome.' Prom his associa-
tion, which followed the rule of St. Augustine, sprang
in IS7S the Congregation of the Oratory at Eome,
famous as the seminary of much that is most admirable
in the labours of the Catholic clergy.

This activity in the foundation and renovation of
monastic orders continued throughout the reign of
Paul III., r whom in 1544 we find confirming the
famous female order of the Ursulines, established by
Angela of Brescia, with a view, not to isolation from the
world, but to a living care of the unfortunate. There
seems no reason for assuming any very close or direct
connection to have existed in these years be-

bpam. the movement in Italy and the early

efforts of Spanish mysticism. This altogether indige-
nous growth never exhibited the slightest tendency to
estrange itself from the established Church, which,
notwithstanding the fears of the Inquisition, was im-
measurably strengthened by the encouragem-ent com-
municated to pious minds from this new world of
religious emotion. Peter of Alcantara (14991562)
was 'one of the first to exhibit the combination of medi-
tative religiosity with reforming enthusiasm character-
istic of the Spanish mysticfe. Forced by Jofrn III

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 31

of Portugal from the lovely conventual retreat in which
he composed his Golden Book on mental prayer, he re-
formed the Franciscan order of which he was provincial
in Estrarnadura, both in Spain and in Portugal, and
i n * 5 5 5 established the congregation of the Barefooted
Friars, afterwards known as of the strictest observance
of St. Peter of Alcantara. Alejo Venegas was likewise
at the height of his activity in the period covered
by the pontificate of Paul III., as were Juan d'Avilla
(1500-69), the eloquent c apostle of Andalusia/
and his Portuguese convert called Juan di Dio, who
in i 540 founded the order of the Brethren of Charity,
devoted more especially to the relief of the physical suf-
ferings of the poor and unhappy. To the same period
and group belongs the Franciscan Juan de los Angeles,
the friend of St. Francis of Borgia ; but it was not
till the nest generation that the fruits of their enthu-
siasm were to become most fully manifest.

In Spain, the assistance given to the progress of
the Counter-Keformation by these new associations
The comply was j f^ow. the nature of the case, wholly
oi jesus indirect ; but, even as to Italy, an estimate
of the extent of that assistance is not in all cases
possible. The great religious society of which it
remains to speak may be said to have been expressly
called into life in order to advance the movement,
which acquired an entirely new impetus so soon as it
was informed by the fiery spirit of Spanish religious
enthusiasm. The story of Ignatius Loyola (1491-
1556)5 the founder of the Jesuit order, who, after his
beatification had been pronounced by Pope - Paul V.
(1607), was canonised as St. Ignatius by Gregory

32 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

XV. (1622), cannot be narrated here. ,As has fre-
quently been pointed out, such a character as Loyola's,
and such a life's work as his, could have taken their
origin nowhere but in Spain, the land of ardent aspi-
rations and of heroic endurance, and from of old
a nursery of combatant Christian chivalry. Even
scholastic philosophy was not cultivated with pre-
eminent success in mediaeval Spain, and the mysti-
cism to which reference has been made was the
product of sentiment rather than of speculation. The
alwribrados, though decried as a sect by ignorance and
prejudice, were guiltless either of heretical intentions
or of doctrinal independence. Thus the great religious
revival of Ferdinand and Isabella had been carried
out on a well -prepared soil, and its effects were en-
hanced by the conquest of the New World for the Cross
as well as for the Crown. Lastly, though neither Ferdi-
nand nor his grandson Charles would ever have deigned
to become the mere tools of the Papacy, the nation
was fully aware of their design that the power of Spain
should control the world over which the Pope claimed
the spiritual supremacy. Loyola accordingly lived in
an atmosphere of ideas which forbade his being content
with one more attempt at puritanising the Franciscan
or some other of the older orders, or even with rang-
ing himself among the Theatines (who gave him shelter
at Venice in 1537), as one of Caraffa's saints suited
for Bishoprics. To the Theatines he no doubt owed
the suggestion of such a society as that which he was
on the eve of founding, but the idea had its roots in
his nation's historic past.

When, on his partial recovery from his wound and

OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 33

Ms surgeons, Loyola resolved to serve God and His
saints as a monk, he cannot have known much about the
progress of the Protestant Reformation* Indeed, when,
after his ascetic exercises and visions in the Dominican
convent at Manrese, and his infructuous pilgrimage
to Jerusalem, he sat with heroic doggedness among
the philosophy and divinity students at Alcala and
Salamanca, though already himself in some measure a
popular teacher and a counsellor of beautiful souls,
the Inquisition twice laid hands upon him. Of course
he was suspected of being an alumbrado* When in
1528 he resumed his studies at Paris, he must have
felt nearer to the purpose of his life, with which his
journeys into Belgium and to London may have had
some connexion. At all events, before, in 1535, he
betook himself to Venice, the nucleus of his great in-
stitution was in existence. At first it consisted of two
academical acquaintances of Loyola, the Savoyard Pierre
Le Ffevre and the noble Navarrese Francis Xavier, who
then occupied a chair in the College of Beauvais at
Paris. The Spaniards Lainez, Salmeron, and Bobadilla,
and the Portuguese Rodriguez, likewise took part in
the famous meeting held in the Church of St. Mary
on Montmartre (August 15, 1534). The list was com-
pleted by the Savoyard Le Jay and the Frenchmen
Codure and Brousset, all of them Parisian students,
who, in the same or the following year, joined Loyola's
followers during his own absence from Paris. In 1537
all the associates met first at Venice, and, towards the
end of the year, at Rome. Already before they reached
the latter city> their leader seems to have bestowed on
them the name of the Company of Jesus 3 very possibly
C. II. C

32

34 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

a reminiscence of one of the abortive religious orders
of knighthood founded by Pius II. (1459), and always
preferred by Loyola, as significant of the military
organisation of his institution. 1 When, after their
arrival at Koine, they found that the Holy Land re-
mained inaccessible to them, they lost no time in defin-
ing to themselves the objects of their common engage-
ments. Mission-work, especially among heretics, and
afterwards among heathen, and education, were their
special tasks. Thus, even before the confirmation of
the order, probably about the time when Loyola was
himself involved in charges of heresy, which are rather
obscurely mixed up with his reprobation of the crypto-
Lutheranism of a certain Tiemontese monk, his followers
distinguished themselves as the assailants of heresy at
Rome itself, and at Ferrara and some of the neighbour-
ing cities. Two members of the band were appointed
to chairs of divinity at the Sapunza, while others were
soon placed in charge of some of the schools recently
founded by the Pope. But though Paul III. personally
favoured the plans of Loyola, a protracted struggle
ensued, which must have been conducted by the latter
with singular skill, before the desired confirmation was
granted. As has been the case with other eminent
fanatics, the astute element in him showed itself com-
paratively late , but of its strength, his dealings with

1 It was not the custom during tlie sixteenth century for individual
members of the Society to call themselves 'Jesuits ;' indeed, the term
seems to be used as a kind of nickname, and is so employed by Calvin
in 1560. In Spain and Portugal the members of the Company were,
in its early days, known as Theatines, Ignatians, or Apostles.

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 35

temporal governments and their interests, as well as
his injunctions to his disciples, leave no doubt. In tlio
days of expectancy, though for a time the new religious
enterprise was chiefly popular with the lower orders,
yet it had also secured powerful friends, such as
Cardinals Oontarini and De Carpi, and the Emperor's*
sister, Margaret of Parma. Thus the Pope, upon whom
a personal interview with Loyola had made a deep
impression, was encouraged to ignore an unfavourable
report from a commission of three cardinals, and on
September 27, 1540, he issued the bull JReyimini, con-
firming the new order. The subsequent bull, Injunc-
tion nubis (1543), abolished the restriction of the
number of the members of the order to sixty, which
Loyola had speedily discovered a way of evading. New
privileges facilitating the ministrations of the Company
in all parts of the world we-re conferred upon it by
Paul III. (1545 and 1549)7 while the results of its
labours were amply recognised ini his bull Pastoralis
offidi cum (i 548). The Jesuits obtained all the rights
of the older orders, together with the privilege for
their general of absolving his subordinates from all
ecclesiastical penalties except in abnormal cases reserved
for the decision of the Pope. Other favours were
granted to the order by Paul's successor, Julius III.,
who proved its consistent friend (1550).

The bulls establishing the order and extending its

privileges contained in themselves the substance of tLe

Constitutions , which, though not published

8 sys em ' till after the death of Loyola, and then as

revised by Lainez (1558), had for some years previously

36 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

regulated the life and labours of the Jesuits, With
these were published the Declarations^ which already
exemplify the well-known Jesuit tendency to exceptions
mitigating, and often to all appearance materially
modifying, a rule. This tendency is carried much far-
ther in the collection of so-called Secret Institutions
(Monita Secreted), from successive generals to their sub-
ordinates (first published in 1 6 1 2), of which, however,
the Jesuits have always denied the genuineness, and
which, at all events, possesses no official character. On
the other hand, there has been no attempt to gainsay
Loyola's authorship of the Spiritual JSxercises, published
in 1548 for the use of laymen and novices, and to
some extent suggested by a mystical manual of de-
votion by Garcia de Oisneros, abbot of Manrese. (The
Directory for the conduct of these exercises was not
definitively adopted till r 593-94 ) From these sources
we derive our knowledge of the principles and methods
which were characteristic of the order in its early
days, and by adhering to which it accomplished a
great part of its successes.

In the three vows taken by an ordinary member of
the Company there was nothing unfamiliar to common
monastic usage. The simple import of the vow of
poverty was indeed materially modified in practice,
the Constitutions as well as the Declarations making
sufficient provision in this direction ; but in sub-
stance such had also been the case with earlier orders.
Even as to the vow of obedience, Loyola could not in
the way of metaphor go beyond the famous perinde ac
cadaver, borrowed by him from St. Francis of Assisi.
To this principle, as determining the relations of the

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 37

members of the Company to their superiors, and to tlie
general above all, tlie founder is, however, never weary
of returning, and he is always ready, both in theory
and in practice, to push it to its utmost logical con-
sequences. Hence sprang the rule that in Europe no
member of the Company should accept high office in the
Church as bishop, archbishop, or cardinal. This rule
owed its origin to the offer of the see of Trieste to Le
Jay, and was enforced by Loyola, though with charac-
teristic modifications, when that of Vienna was pressed
upon Canisius. 1 Nor was even a virtual independence
conceded by the general to the leading members of the
order , he broke the attempt at resistance of Rodriguez
when provincial in Portugal (15^-2), and taught even
Lainez, in whom he must have divined his successor, to
know his place (1543). Great importance no doubt also
attached to the additional vow of obedience to the Pope
in missionary matters, taken by the so-called professed
of the four vows. But the members of the order who
rose to this rank were few in number, amounting, it is
said, to not more than thirty-five at the time of Loyola's
death, and on an average to not more than two in the
hundred of the entire body. In truth the success of
the Company was much more largely than that of
most other orders due to its chiefs or aristocracy. For
though at first sight the enormous authority of the
general might seem to give a monarchical character to
the whole system, this authority was, in fact, the reverse
of limited. The assistants, representing the chief
provinces, and forming a kind of cabinet under the

1 The first Jesuit who accepted the purple was Toletus (Francibco
de TuleJo), s.a. 1593

38 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

general, Lad not only the right of assembling a general
congregation of the order in his despite, bat in a case
of urgency might proceed to his deposition by a still
more summary method. Loyola himself was about two
years before his death (30th July I5S 6 ) obliged to
accept a vicar imposed upon him by his assistants. A
constitution of this kind leaves room for much suspicion
and intrigue, but in the vigilance thus engendered
lav another of the vital principles of the Jesuit system
of administration and life. In many of its members
the system, hinging on obedience and guarded at
every point by surveillance, may have crushed some of
the most powerful as well as most generous motives of
human action, but it would be an error to regard the
whole institution as a machine worked by a single will.
The early activity of the Jesuits, though intense, was
hardly so multiplicitous as that of some other orders.
It was, as observed, chiefly directed to missionary and
propagandists labours, including the diplomacy of the
Company, largely worked through the confessors of
royal and princely personages, and to education, soon
in the main to its higher branches only. But all its
seeds were sown and watered and all its fruits gathered
ad majorem Dei gloriam, that is to say, for the ulterior
purposes which the Society covered by this phrase,
viz , the benefit of the Church as represented by the
Papacy. What in Protestant eyes gives so indescrib-
able a hollowness to Jesuit theology and Jesuit educa-
tion, even to Jesuit oratory and literature and art ? is
precisely what attests the subordination in this system
of everything to the purpose for which it was called
into life. It is not wonderful that no other religious

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 39

society should have been trusted so much and hated so
bitterly. That the Company of Jesus has in general
remained free from outward extravagances of zeal such
as have often given offence in other religious asso-
ciations, is largely due to the cosmopolitan character
impressed on it by its founder. Already his early
followers were by him as much as possible employed
on missions to countries other than their own. while his
plan of frequently changing the place of sojourn of the
members of his company emancipated them from the
routine which impairs activity. 1

Nothing, accordingly, is more striking in the early
history of the Jesuits than the zeal and promptitude
its earjy w ^ n which from the very beginning of their
pio-ress. formal existence as a community each of them
addressed himself to his specific share of their work.
At Easter I 541, Ignatius Loyola, with some little coy-
ness, accepted the generalship, to which he had been
elected by six professed members of the order, and
proceeded to the formal distribution of its labours.
Almost the first mission intrusted to members of the
order was that on which, in the same year, I54 r ?
Pasquier-Brouet and Salmeron, accompanied by the
apostolic notary Zapata as a novice, set out by way
of Scotland to Ireland, where, in 1542, they spent a
month of extreme and apparently futile hazards. Yet
these same men had a large share in the

Inltily. . - , i ? i J

campaign against heresy which was waged

1 The order was as early as 1547 relieved by Papal ordinance from
the control of female conventuals. In 1545 Loyola had sanctioned an
association of Jesuitesse 5 *, but he soon found reason to change his mind.
The experiment was renewed and again suppressed under Urban VIIL

(1631)-

40 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

in Northern and Central Italy in the period immediately
ensuing (154243). We are informed by Jesuit his-
toriographers that Pasquier-Brouet recovered Fohgno for
the Church (154243); that Salmeron was victorious
at Modena and Montepulciano (1543); while Lamez,
after working with Le F&vre at Parma and Piacenza,
stemmed the tide of error at Venice, where, as else-
where, it was among the upper classes that the teach-
ing of the Jesuits proved most immediately effective,
and where they founded a college (1542). But above
all, our attention is directed to the success of their
efforts in these years at Faenza, whence, in the course
of a prolonged campaign, which established them
in a kind of acknowledged control over the inhabi-
tants, they caused the arch-heretic Ochino himself to
withdraw (1543-45). Shortly afterwards (15 46), they
established a college at Bologna. There is no reason
to contest either the zeal or the success of this home
mission of the Jesuits, whose labours, however, coin-
cided with the reorganisation of the Inquisition at
Rome (1542). Even at Naples they established a
footing through Salmeron. At Rome itself, which,
in accordance with the design of the order, was its
permanent centre, Loyola in 1550 established the Colle-
gium Romanum, soon afterwards removed to the site of
the well-known G-esu ; and two years later the founda-
tion of the Collegium Germanuum^ approved by a bull
of Pope Julius III., offered visible testimony to the
missionary aspirations of the Society in reference to
what might be called the least secure part of Europe.
In Spain the progress of the Company
seemed at first less assured, though during

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 41

the first decade of its existence it was mainly com-
posed of Spaniards, who furni&hed nearly three-quarters
of the first general congregation, of the oider. But,
apart from the manifest unwillingness of Loyola to
give a national colour to his institution, the Jesuit
revival might well at first seem to the people, and
more especially to the clergy of Spain, the mere sur-
plusage of an accepted religious movement. The
episcopate and the universities were alike under the
influence of the Dominicans, the chief agents of the
Inquisition. Finally, the sovereign of Spain, who was
also, in point of fact, the supreme governor of the
Church in his dominions, had no love to spare for the
protegees of the Pope. Thus it came to pass that in
Spain the Jesuits were for a time thought neither very
interesting nor at all respectable. But before very long,
the inner affinity between the order and the nation
from which it had sprung prevailed, and the efforts of
Araoz provoked great enthusiasm in Castile, Catalonia,
and the Basque provinces. It was through his agency
that Francis Borgia, Duke of Gandia, the viceroy of
Catalonia, was induced to accord his powerful support
to the order, whose permanent establishment in Spain
was virtually due to him. In 1548 he became him-
self a member of the Company, of which he afterwards
rose to be general (1565-72)5 and in the same year,
Alcala having been already deeply impressed by the
preaching of Yillanueva, Salamanca became the seat of
a Jesuit college. More rapid was the early progress
of the Jesuits in Portugal, where, under
Portu John III., they attained to the highest in-

fluence, and whence Xavier early (1541) set forth

42 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

for India, to earn for himself the sacred title of its
apostle. Eodrig-uez, who remained behind, superin-
tended the foundation (1542) of the famous college
of the order at Ooimbra ; and being himself member
of a noble Portuguese family, was intrusted with the
education of John's successor, Sebastian, whose mind
he helped to imbue with a deep, and, as it proved,
fatal religious enthusiasm. The example thus given of
the influence obtainable by the education of a prince
was not lost upon the Company ; though Philip II.,
who, after Sebastian's death (1578), had made himself
master of unwilling Portugal (1580), never forgave
the Jesuits the influence which they had exerted there
under the last two national sovereigns, and which they
continued to exert under his own rule.

In France, on the other hand, notwithstanding its
early association with Paris, the Company had to con-
tend with many difficulties. It was here
ranee. regarded as an essentially Spanish growth ;

moreover, during some of these years (i 542-44) France
was again at war with Spain. Under Henry II. the
order enjoyed the goodwill of the crown and of the Car-
dinal of Lorraine ; but both the Parliament of Paris and
the University strongly resisted a royal ordinance sanc-
tioning the establishment of a Jesuit college in the
capital (1550), and an agitation was provoked which,
after a formal condemnation had been pronounced by
the Sorbonne (1554), spread throughout the country,
and for a time almost entirely stopped the labours of
the order there. According to Jesuit historians, the
dismissal from the Company of Postel, whom Margaret
of Valois called the Wonder of the World, contributed

BEGINM&GS CF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 43

to this result (1551); but of its general nature there
can be no doubt. The jealous pride of the university,
the national instincts of the bishops and other clergy,
and the mocking spirit abroad among the people, were
the real obstacles in the way of the Society, whose
members were only here and there tolerated in the
realm until the beginning of the great religious wars
warned the friends of the Papacy to conciliate its most
consistent champions (1561). After this the fortunes
of the order in France varied, but the national anti-
pathy against it never came to an end. Of all the
generals who have ruled over it, not one has been a
Frenchman.

In the neighbouring Low Countries the progress of
the Jesuits was likewise slow, though at first Le Fevre
The Nether- gained a following in the University of
lands. Louvain. Even after the resignation of

Charles V., it was only by slow degrees that Philip II.
was prevailed upon to admit them into the country
(1556). They were, however, greatly favoured by the
regent, Margaret of Parma, upon whom they exercised
a direct influence through her confessor; and thus
their colleges at Louvain and Antwerp were opened,
and the former place in particular became a centre of
their operations.

In Germany their success was continuous in the
Catholic parts of the Empire. As early as 1540 Le
F&vre arrived in the capacity of theolo-
gian to the imperial ambassador at Worms,
whence he proceeded to Ratisbon. His reports made
a great impression upon the Pope, and probably did
more to stimulate propagandist efforts than was effected

44 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

by the religious conferences in the direction of re-union.
On Le Fevre's removal to Spain, he was succeeded in
Germany by Le Jay and Bobadilla, of whom the latter
had in Italy laboured in common with Cardinal Pole
at Viterbo. The political difficulties of their task be-
gan when, after the Smalcaldic war, Charles V. sought
to impose the Augsburg Interim (1548) upon the
Empire. Bobadilla had to be recalled as a sacrifice
to the displeasure excited in Charles by his successful
exertions in urging the Catholic princes to refuse
acceptance for themselves of the compromise, one-
sided and temporary as it was. On the other hand,
greater confidence than ever was felt in the Jesuits by
the orthodox Duke William IV. of Bavaria (1508-50),
whose example was, after some hesitation, followed
by his successor, Albert V. (i55-79-) Under
him, as will be seen, Ingolstadt, though it never be-
came a purely Jesuit university like Innsbruck and
Dillingen, was to a great extent given up to the order.
Into the hereditary dominions of the house of Austria
the Jesuits effected an entry in 1552, when King
Ferdinand invited to Vienna two Jesuits from Ingol-
stadt, Peter Canisius (Kanes), rector of the univer-
sity, and his companion Nicholas Gandamus Canisius
had already done good service at Cologne during the
struggle against the Archbishop Hermann of Wied,
in which, the Church ultimately proved victorious
(1547), and soon obtained considerable influence over
King Ferdinand. From Vienna, where he held an
important position both in the university and in the
community at large, he undertook a series of special
missions in Upper and Lower Austria, and supplied

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC R&VIVAL. 45

the Collegium Germanicum at Rome with promising
novices. In Bohemia, where their influence was to "be so
momentous at a later stage of the country's history, the
Jesuits first arrived in 1556, and, in defiance of public
opinion, maintained their hold upon the Clementimtm,
their college at Prague, and upon, the churches which
gradually fell into their hands. In Hungary the settle-
ment which they effected in 1 561 was merely transitory.

Such had been the progress of his Company in this
part of E a rope, that, not long before his death, Loyola
resolved upon the foundation of an Upper German,
province, at the head of which Canisius was placed
(1556). It was he who, at the religious conference
held at Worms in 1557, destroyed such illusions as
still remained concerning a possible reconciliation be-
tween Koman and Protestant doctrine, and who pur-
sued the same line of argument at Trent. When he
resigned his provincialate in 1569, he had contributed
more than any other man to transform the spirit of
German Catholicism into one of unyielding intolerance.
The text-book of the preachers and teachers whom his
energy had planted through Upper Germany was his
Smnma, Doctrines Christiana (1554), which is said, in
the first hundred and thirty years after its publica-
tion, to have run through four hundred editions.

Canisius' visit to Poland in 1558, when he reported
the country deeply infected with heresy, led to no
positive result, nor was it till after the
close of the Council of Trent that the order
was established in this kingdom (1564). Its entry
into Sweden belongs to a still later phase of the reli-
gious reaction. At the time of the death of Loyok

46 THE

(1556), the order numbered something like one thou-
sand members^ who were distributed through thirteen
provinces. Of these provinces, the majority

The order at . , -n , / T

the tune of were Spanish or Portuguese, or formed out

Loyola's death - J , , * , . /, . t > .

or the colonial possessions or these king-
doms ; three Italian, one French, two German. The for-
mation of one of the last named, however, which was to
have its nucleus in the Low Countries, still awaited
the approval of Philip II., while the objects as well as
the methods of the founder of the order were clearly
marked out for his successors. They well knew that,
apart from the distant missions to which Xavier had,
np to his death (1552), devoted himself in India,
Japan, and China, their work must be carried on in
even wider orbits than it had been under their founder,
and that, above all, they must never cease to act oil
the offensive. Lainez, the second general of the
order, was fully adequate to the task ; with Loyola's
boldness, energy, and astuteness he combined the sub-
tlety of mind which enabled him to give to Jesuit
theology an elasticity of its own, while holding it fast
to its cardinal principles, including the infallibility
and the universal episcopacy of the Pope. The sub-
sequent history of the Church of Rome by no means
uniformly shows the Papacy in harmony with the
Jesuits, but it very rarely shows the latter inconsis-
tent with themselves, or with their task of compelling
Christendom to turn back with them.

In the contest now waged by Rome she had resort
to the old as well as to the new engines in her arsenal.
Like the Jesuit order, towards which it long continued
unfriendly, the Inquisition in its modern form was

OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 47

Spanish in origin. From Aragon, wliere the institution
lad, with an eye to the wealth of Judaising Christians,
The inqmsi- been revived on the basis of a union of autho-
tum m spam. ^ -b etween ^ e Dominicans and laymen
in the confidence of the crown, it had reached Castile,
and under Ferdinand and Isabella it had flourished
throughout Spain, and had extended to Majorca and
Sardinia. Early in the sixteenth century it had been
forced upon the Sicilians ; but at Naples a successful
resistance had been offered to its introduction. Daring
the whole of this period the attitude of the Papacy
towards the Inquisition had been neither sympathetic
nor the reverse. The spirit of the Renascence age,
and the absence of any current of religious feeling
strong enough to overwhelm political considerations,
produced in the Papal governments of this period an
unmistakable spirit of tolerance ; but the financial ad-
vantages to be gained from the renewed organism sanc-
tioned by Sixtus IV. could not escape his successors.
Hence the frequent conflict between Papal engagements
towards the most Catholic sovereigns and Papal exemp-
tions granted to those upon whom the judgment of the
Inquisition was, with the eager concurrence of these
sovereigns, about to descend ; hence reclamations, reser-
vations, and disappointments hardly less cruel than
the tender mercies of Torquemada. After some early
struggles, Spain piessed the instrument of her suffer-
ings closer and closer into her flesh, resenting repeated
Papal attempts to mitigate its severity nor were the
efforts of its agents or the sufferings of its victims
diminished under the sway of Ximenez (1507-18),
although this great man was not blind to the Chris-

48 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

tian principle underlying the common saw as to pre-
vention and cure. Under Adrian, who succeeded
Ximenez as Inquisitor-General, the combined jealousy
of King, Cortes, and Pope threatened the Inquisition
with the loss of a great part of its powers ; but the
temper of Charles was changed by the revolt of the
Castilian cities, and the Inquisition came forth from
this season of trial with its strength unimpaired.
During his five years of office the hand of the good
Adrian was as heavy upon the culprits as that of any
of his predecessors had been ; and it is probably an
estimate below the fact according to which, during the
forty-three years of the first four Inquisitors-General,
the Spanish Inquisition burnt more than I 8,000 per-
sons, besides putting over 9000 to death m effigie, and
sentencing over 206,000 to divers non-capital penal-
ties. To Adrian was also due the establishment of
the tribunal of the Inquisition in the East Indies and
in the New World.

On the appointment (1523) of Adrian's successor,
Ifanrique, archbishop of Seville and afterwaixls car-
dinal, hopes were entertained of a more lenient conduct
of the Inquisition. Towards the Morescoes there was
indeed an occasional show of politic moderation, though
in the main the Inquisition worked steadily towards
the expulsion of the entire Moorish population from
Spanish soil, which, when accomplished (1609), per-
manently impoverished the country. But there was
no general relaxation of activity or rigour, and at
the time of Manrique's death (1538), although Charles
V. had temporarily deprived its jurisdiction of certain
privileges, the Inquisition had spread a network of not

BEGINNINGS of THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 49

less than nineteen provincial tribunals over Spain and
her colonies, and had established itself (1536) across
the frontier in Portugal. This was the period in
which Lutheran books first found their way across the
Pyrenees; but it is as yet only outside their own
country that Spaniards such as Juan Valdez and his
brother Alfonso, or again such as Alfonso Ligurio and
Michael Servetus, are found in sympathy with, or even
in advance of, the ideas of the Reformation. Under
the generalate next but one to Manrique's, that of Fer-
nando Valdez, archbishop of Seville (1547-66), the
Spanish Inquisition assumed the stereotyped form
belonging to it as an agency of the Counter-Reforma-
tion. Prom the time when Philip II. solemnly under-
took the protection of the Inquisition at the famous auto
da ft of Valladolid (October 8, 1559), he completely
identified himself with the institution; but alreadv
Charles V. bad in his last years become a convert to
the methods as well as to the principles of the inquisi-
tors, although he wished their name to be eschewed
in Flanders, and although he had formerly for a time
curtailed their jurisdiction in Spain. Both sovereigns
contrived to put the Inquisition to very useful govern-
mental purposes ; but above all, the religious unifor-
mity at which it aimed seemed to them the surest
guarantee of political as well as of religious unity.
Thus protected and fostered by the temporal power,
and furnished with new powers and privileges by Pope
Paul IV. (iSSS-59), the Inquisition crushed Protes-
tantism out of Spain, where about the middle of the
century its roots were probably more widely spread
than has been sometimes supposed. Its chief centres
c &. D

50 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

seem to have been Seville and Valladolid. In the
former, Rodrigo de Valer, a young nobleman impas-
sioned by the enthusiasm of moral conversion, was
confined in a convent, where he died. Among men of
learning charged with heretical tendencies, ^9Egidius
(J. Gil) recanted; Ponce de la Fuente died in prison,
At Valladolid the establishment of a Protestant com-
munity is ascribed to Carlos de Seso, and thence
these opinions spread to the neighbouring parts of
Castile and Leon. Those who undertake the laborious
task of accurately following the merciless winnowing-
machine in its operations may perhaps succeed in
distinguishing between the prosecutions of Lutherans,
Calvinists, ahwibrados, and defados (Quietists), which
filled the archives of the Spanish Inquisition. On the
one hand, it flattered the national pride by scorning
all consideration for the foreigner, who, whether am-
bassador, or merchant, or common mariner, found him-
self subjected to its control, and often exposed to its
penalties. On the other, it excited that official self-
consciousness which made a Lope de Vega take pride
in placing his style of ' Familiar of the Office ' upon the
title-pages of his books, by showing perfect fearless-
ness of either temporal greatness or spiritual dignity,
and by subjecting to the processes of its examiners
princes, prelates, ministers of state, and members
of religious orders. Indeed, the chief concern of its
operations was with the clerical world; from arch-
bishops and bishops, such as, above all, Carranza,
archbishop of Toledo, who, on account of his i Com-
mentaries on the Christian Catechism * (1558), was
subjected to an arrest of seventeen years' duration, not

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 51

interrupted even by the declaration in his favour of
the Council of Trent, to supposed irregulars such as
Ignatius Loyola and Teresa de Jesus. These examples
sufficiently show how imperfect was the harmony be-
tween the movement of the Counter-Eeformation as
a whole and the Spanish Inquisition, albeit they so
largely made war on common adversaries.

Reference will be made below to the attempt of
Philip II. (1559) to introduce into the Netherlands a
The Nether- system by which, in enquiries into matters
lauds. o f faifc]^ the bishop of each diocese was to

be assisted by two inquisitors, in addition to seven
canons an attempt so well remembered even in the
Catholic provinces that they had no scruple in record-
ing their renunciation of it in the Pacification of
Ghent (1576), which secured to the Church her ex-
clusive privileges in the south. In the neighbouring
kingdom of France the zealous party were,
in, the reign of Henry II., anxious to intro-
duce the Inquisition when they found the ordinary
tribunals unwilling to apply the powers conferred
upon them for the suppression of heresy; but the
Parliament of Paris defeated both their first attempt
(1555) and another which was supported by a Papal
bull approved by a royal declaration (1557). The
Cardinal of Lorraine indeed prevailed upon Henry II.
to force the Parliament to register the edict establish-
ing the Inquisition (1558), but it remained ineffective,
largely by reason of the king's political relations with
the German Protestant princes. In the brief reign of
Francis II., during which the Guise family controlled
the government, the edict of Eomorantin (May 1559)

52 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

went far towards establishing a system like tliat of
the Spanish Inquisition in France, and a board of four
cardinals was appointed ; but the death of the young
king (December) cut short their operations.

In Naples the viceroy of Charles VI., the unyield-
ing Pedro de Toledo, was, at the suggestion of Caraffa,
now archbishop of the province, instructed
tay * to renew the attempt to introduce the

Inquisition (1546). It failed again; but when once
more, and more effectually, repeated eighteen years
later, the institution had already become a national
one, and could about the same time (15 63-64) be
imposed upon the Milanese with the direct co-opera-
tion of Home. When the Papacy had at last adopted
the revived Inquisition as part of its regular machi-
nery of government, the headquarters of the institution
were logically transferred to Rome itself. In the
opinion of Caraffa, and those who like him regarded
the extirpation of heresy as the primary task of the
Church, the counsels of the reforming cardinals needed
supplementing by measures which directly addressed
themselves to this end; and thus, in July 1542,
Paul III. issued the bull Licet ah initio, constituting
the Congregation of the Holy Office at Borne. It
consisted of six cardinals, and received unrestricted
powers of enquiry and punishment, with a sphere of
jurisdiction in theory equally unlimited. Care was,
however, taken to assure the chiefs of the Spanish
Inquisition that no prejudice was intended to their
authority. Caraffa was, in the first instance, placed
at the head of the Congregation, with other Domini-
cans by his side ; "but the institution is said to have

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 53

had the approval of Loyola. Its effect on the re-
ligious life of Italy was great, especially after the
stringency of its proceedings had been increased by
Caraffa on his elevation to the Papacy as Paul IV.
and again by Pius V., after an interval of compara-
tive moderation. The statement that, after the death
of the last-named Pope (1572), no capital punish-
ment was inflicted in the states of the Church on
account of religious charges, is incorrect ; but the
instances in which the penalty of death was inflicted
by the Roman Inquisition were beyond dispute com-
paratively few. The numbers of its victims were not
here, as in Spain, swelled by two ill-fated large alien
nationalities, but were made up entirely of those sus-
pected of Protestant views, or of the various shades of
skepsis, classed together under the convenient name
of atheism. Both Lutheranism and Calvinism incon-
testably counted numerous adherents in the towns of
almost every part of Italy ; moreover, the tendency
to independence of religious thought must have re-
ceived some encouragement from the infusion of a
strong element of liberalism into the composition of
the Sacred College. The men in whom a popular
Italian reformation movement, had such a thing been
possible, might have found its natural leaders, fled
for their lives from the Inquisition, taking refuge at
the very hearths of the heresies which it denounced.
Bernardino Ochino, after many adventures, reached
Switzerland, which, with other Protestant countries,
sheltered him for the long remainder of his life (to
1568). Peter-Martyr (Vennigli), summoned like him
to Home, likewise found a refuge at Geneva, whence

54 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

he afterwards passed for a time to England, Many
other suspects of less note hastened across the Alps,
and behind them the storm broke over the communi-
ties to which they had belonged. At Lucca it proved
possible to resist the efforts of the Inquisition to
e&tablish a permanent tribunal there. The surrender
of Burlamacchi to the Emperor, who put him to death
(1548), was primarily the consequence of his revolution-
ary political designs ; but such was not the case with
the victims found at Ferrara (from 1551) and Bologna
(1553). These proceedings belong to the pontificate
of Julius III., but already under Paul III. the Seignory
of Venice had consented to establish an inquisitorial
tribunal, into which care was taken to introduce lay
representatives of the government, but which resorted
to measures of considerable severity, including, as is
stated, the execution of nineteen sentences of death
at Vicenza, Treviso, and Bergamo (from 1548). But
neither at Venice herself, and at the University of
Padua, nor in the other subject towns, were Protestant
sympathies extinguished, so that after the accession of
Paul IV. the rigour of the tribunal was revived, and
several Venetians charged with heresy were delivered
up to the Pope and burnt at Rome. Elsewhere in
Italy, as already observed, the activity of the Inqui-
sition increased under Paul IV. and Pius V. But in
truth it was now a self-working organism, and its pres-
sure was often surest where it was slowest, as in the
melancholy case of the Duchess Rente of Ferrara (i 5 84).
The Spanish Inquisition, of which the Roman may
be regarded as a branch, could not have prevailed in
Italy without the political Ascendancy of Spain, which

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 55

neither temporal nor spiritual authorities, including
that of the Popes themselves, could refuse to acknow-
ledge. Such brutalities as the massacre of the Wai-
denses at Guardia in Calabria (1562), which Philibert
Emmanuel of Savoy would, if he could, have emulated
in his raid upon the Waldenses of the Alps, were the
excesses of this foreign despotism ; but its iron entered
into the heart of the Italian people at large, even outside
the parts of the country directly under Spanish sway.
The selfish greed of foreign nations had delivered over
Italy to the doom of political dependence ; now the
Spanish rule and ascendancy likewise took away from
her sons and daughters what remained to them of
the spirit of moral and intellectual freedom, which,
under other circumstances, might have survived the
Renascence, or have added to it an ennobling phase.

In asserting, mainly through the medium of the
Inquisition, her claim to a censorship over the lite-
rature and art of the Christian world, the
Church of Borne stood on a well-trodden
path. The system which, with the co-operation of the
crown, Torquemada had practised with relentless zeal
in Spain, and which in Germany, though set in motion
after a much milder fashion, had covered the Domini-
cans of Cologne with undying ridicule, was developed in
Spain under the inquisitorial administrations of Adrian
and of Manrique, the latter of whom empowered his
officers to excommunicate possessors or readers of here-
tical books, as well as those who had failed to denounce
them. In this way it was hoped to extinguish many
pernicious reputations, including the fame of Erasmus.
No sooner had the revived Inquisition been formally

56 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

established at Rome than CaraSa, as its official head,
published an edict prohibiting, under the severest
penalties short of death, the reading, purchase, or pos-
session, as well as the printing or sale, of any heretical
book, or of any anonymous work not expressly ap-
proved by the Sacred Office (i 543). Not long before
this (1539), Charles V., resolved, like Ferdinand and
Isabella before him, to assert the secular authority
in these matters, had prohibited on pain of death the
circulation in Flanders of any of Luther's writings
(1540), with the Papal approval charged the Univer-
sity of Louvain with the task of drawing up a list of
books prohibited in Flanders; and after it had made
its appearance (1546), the example was followed,
and the list enlarged, by the Inquisition in Spain
(1556). Both here and elsewhere decrees abounded
establishing rigorous rules of censorship. The cul-
minating ordinance was that of Philip II. (1558),
attaching the penalties of death and confiscation
of property to the reading, purchase, or possession of
books prohibited by the Sacred Office. But the first
Index of prohibited books published by Papal authority,
and therefore, unlike the catalogi previously issued by
royal, princely, or ecclesiastical authorities, valid for
the whole Church, was that authorised by a bull of
Paul IV. in 1559. In 1564 followed the Index pub-
lished by Pius IV., as drawn, np in harmony with the
decrees of the Council of Trent, which, after all, appears
to be a merely superficial revision of its predecessor.
Other Indices followed, for which various authori-
ties were responsible, the most important among them
being the Index Ifoypurgatomus, sanctioned by a bull of

BEGINNINGS OF THE CATHOLIC REVIVAL. 57

Clement VIII. in 1595, which proved so disastrous to
the great printing trade of Venice. After a time the
prohibitions contained in these lists came to extend
not only to particular books, but to particular passages
in books. Thus one of the scholars employed on the
so-called Index JZxpiLrgatorius of the Duke of Alva
(1571) is said to have boasted that he had struck
out 600 passages in ancient writers, all of which
appeared to contradict the claims or doctrines of the
Church of Borne. While the censors who conducted
the execution of these ordinances in the several dioceses
were jointly appointed by bishops and inquisitors, the
final decision on all these matters was intrusted to the
Congregation of the Index at Home, which was techni-
cally independent of the Holy Office. But the spirit
of the Inquisition pervaded an institution which, apart
from the awkward perversity of its operations (illus-
trated by the history of the Jesuits from St. Francis
Borgia to Bellarmine), ultimately tended not only to
weaken the defensive powers of the Church of Rome,
but to throw contempt upon them. Most lamentable
of all was its effect upon that branch of the Church, to
which the spiritual element in the Counter-Befonnation
was so pre-eminently indebted. The fear which para-
lyses the tongue of the teacher and makes the pen drop
from the scholar's hand narrowed and unmanned that
Spanish Church whose representatives proved them-
selves in so many respects worthy of her past at the
Council of Trent.

CHAPTER III.
THE COUNCIL OF TRENT.

THE conciliar idea, though discredited by the experi-
ence of the previous two pontificates, had by no means
Paul HI , slumbered under either Adrian VI. or Cle-
Sdthi*'' ment VII The former had not altogether
Council rejected the German demand for a General
Council, with which his imperial pupil from the first
strenuously identified himself; on the other hand, Cle-
ment VII. had been driven to a variety of subterfuges in
order to escape the necessity of convoking one himself.
There is no reason to suppose that the promise of sum-
moning a General Council made by Paul III. in his
conclave was intended to deceive. His insight into the
actual state of the Church must have made it clear to
him that no means of bringing about systematic re-
forms in it could be so effective as a genuine repre-
sentative assembly of the Church at large ; and argu-
ments to this end were eagerly addressed to him by
Sadolet and other members of the party in the Sacred
College, which for the time had his ear. Yet he, like
his predecessor, feared to bring together an assembly
whose decrees might* be moulded by the imperial will,
and was still more apprehensive of the attitude which

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT, 59

the council, if meeting under the conditions of freedom
desired by the Germans, might assume towards the
Protestant reformation* Charles V., however, con-
tinued urgent, more especially after he had aban-
doned the hope of restoring the religious unity of the
Empire by force. Thus, with the view of meeting
the Emperor's wish without putting the council and
himself entirely into his hands, Paul III., in June
1536, actually published a bull summoning a council
to Mantua for the coming year. But the Third War be-
tween Charles V. and Francis I. intervened (i 536-3 8) ;
and when, after its close, under further pressure and some
measure of menace from the Emperor, the Pope ordered
the council to assemble at Vicenza (May 1538), the
meeting was again postponed. When the project was
resumed in 1541, the progress made during the inter-
val by Protestantism in Northern and Central Europe,
and the hollowness of the religious truce patched up
at Eatisbon, combined to impress the necessity of
definitive action upon both Pope and Emperor. At
their meeting at Lucca, the Pope agreed to summon
a council for the close of the following year (November
1 5 42) to Trent, a town situate within the Empire and in
the Austrian dominions. Here Cardinals Morone and
Pole actually made their appearance as Papal legates.
But though the Emperor had likewise sent his am-
bassadors, Mendoza and Granvelle, events once more
proved too strong for him : before the date fixed was
reached he was involved in another war with France
and her ally the Turk (1542-44), and in July 1543
the small assembly of prelates at Trent was dispersed
by a bull of suspension.

60 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

The Peace of Crespy (September 1 544), ominous of
evil for the prospects of Protestantism, was immedi-
ately followed by a Papal bull summoning all the
bishops of Christendom to Trent for March 15, I 545.
At Eome the council was now known to be inevitable ;
hut by whom would it be controlled, and what scope
should be given to its deliberations ? The Pope's eyes
had been opened to the whole extent of the possibilities
confronting the Church when at Speier in 15 44 the
Emperor had promised the Protestants to secure them
a free council, or settle the religious question without
further ado at a diet of the Empire. As to the French
Church, notwithstanding the sound articles of faith
recently enunciated by the Sorbonne (ITarch 15 43)?
there was little hope of overawing it except by a very
decided attitude. This, again, was out of the question
if, in accordance with the views of Cardinal Pole, the
chief functions of the assembly over which he was once
more called to preside, were to be the bringing back
of the German Protestants into the fold, and the re-
storation of discipline in the Church at large. Paul
III. was accordingly both well advised in summoning
the council in. earnest, and sagacious in choosing for
the purpose the moment when Charles was concerting
with Francis the suppression of the Protestants. The
beginnings of the reorganisation of the Church had
already proved the work of internal reform to be some-
thing more than the dream of a few enthusiasts ; now
if ever was the time for the Papacy to use a General
Council for the advantage of the Church and of her
directing power. Of Protestant importunity there need
be no real fear. Luther had declared himself hope-

TH& COUNCIL OF TRENT. 61

less (1539) as to any real reformation of the Church
through a council convened by the Pope. Henry
VIII., whose alliance the German princes were wooing,
had protested against the authority claimed for the Man-
tuan assembly (1536). Thus there is no reason for sup-
posing Paul III. to have summoned the council on this
occasion as a mere makeshift. Though the actions of
this Pope were not as a rule dictated by pure religious
enthusiasm, yet he had every reason for desiring a more
distinct enunciation of those doctrines of the Church
which she was now with renewed energy propagating
among heathens and heretics, while at the same time
using the occasion for a serious reformation of her
discipline. So much, without prejudicing the Papal
control over the Church, Paul III. may be credited
with having wished to secure ; nor was the result out
of conformity with his wishes.

On December 13^ I545 5 the three legates ap-
pointed by the Pope held their public entry into
Trent, and the council was formally opened.

Opening of tbe _ . _ TT . . n , . ... f .

council of Paul III. s continued desire to conciliate the
Emperor was shown by his adherence to
Trent as the locality of the council, when the legates
again urged the choice of a town on Italian soil. Yet
the very bishop of Trent, Cardinal Madruccio, was
a prince of the Empire, and by descent attached to
the house of Austria, whose interests he consistently
erpresented during the first series of sessions. The
Papal legates, with whose control over the council the
Emperor at the outset showed no intention of inter-
fering, typified the different elements in the eccle-
siastical policy of Paul III. The presiding legate,

62 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Cardinal del Monte (afterwards Pope Julius III.),
while notable neither for religious zeal nor for wise
self-control, was a thorough-going supporter of the
interests of the Curia. Cardinal Cervino, afterwards
Pope Marcellus II., a prelate of blameless life, was
animated by those ideas of ecclesiastical reform of
which Pope Paul had encouraged the open expression ;
but he was more especially eager for the extirpation
of heresy, and not over-scrupulous in the choice of
means for reaching his ends. Lastly, Cardinal Pole's
presence at Trent, in which some have seen a mere
Papal ruse, must have surrounded the early proceed-
ings of the council with a hopeful glamour in the eyes
of those who, like himself, expected from it the reunion
as well as the reinvigoration of Western Christendom.
Nothing, as had probably been foreseen at Eome, could
have better facilitated the immediate establishment of
the ascendancy in the council of the Papal policy than
the composition of its opening meeting. Of the thirty-
four ecclesiastics present, only five were Spanish and
two French bishops, and no German bishop had crossed
the Alps. Nor had any secular power except the
Emperor and King Ferdinand sent their ambassadors.
The business machinery of the council, which the
legates lost no time in getting into order, was altogether
in favour of their influence as managers. Learned
doctors, without being, as in former councils, allowed
to take part in the debates, prepared the work of the
three committees or congregations, who in their turn
brought it up for discussion to the general congrega-
tions. The sessions in which the decrees thus prepared
were actually passed had a purely formal character, but

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 63

before they were successively held opportunity enough
-wa,s given for manipulation and delay. The voting in
the council was by heads, instead of by nations, as at
Constance and Basel j and care was taken to refresh
by occasional additions the working majority of Italian
bishops, mostly, in comparison with the * ultramontane'
prelates, holders of petty sees. Some of these are even
stated to have bound themselves by a sworn engagement
to uphold the interests of the Holy See, though by no
means all of the Italian bishops were servile Curialists ;
witness those of Chioggia and of Fiesole. The council
in its second session (January 7, 1 546) waived the form
of title by which previous councils had implicitly de-
clared their representative authority paramount. On
the other hand, it boded well for the cause of reform
that, by an early resolution, virtually all abbots and
members of the monastic orders except five generals
were excluded. Clearly, episcopal interest was resolved
upon asserting itself. So long, however, as the German
bishops were detained iu their dioceses by the duty of
repressing heresy there, while the great body of the
French were kept away by the vigilant jealousy of their
government, the episcopal interest and the episcopal
principle were mainly represented in the council by the
Spanish prelates, the loyal subjects of Charles, and the
convinced inheritors of the traditions of Ximenez. Their
leader was Pacheco, cardinal of Jaen. With him came
eminent theological professors, who in the early period
of the council at least were without rivals Dominico
de Soto, whom Queen Mary afterwards placed in Peter
Martyr's chair at Oxford, and Bartolomeo Carranza,
afterwards primate of all Spain, and for many years a

64 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

prisoner of the Inquisition. Through the Emperor's
ambassador, the accomplished and indefatigable, but
not invariably discreet, Mendoza, the Spanish bishops
were carefully apprised of the wishes of their sovereign.
The crucial question as to the order in which the
council should debate the two divisions of subjects which
Order of bust- & ^^ met to sett ^ e h&d to be decided at
ness. once . an( j tj^ compromise arrived at showed

both the strength of the minority and the unwillingness
of the leaders of the majority, the presiding legates, to
push matters to an extreme. Their instructions from
the Pope were to give the declaration of dogma the
preference over the announcement of disciplinary re-
forms ; for it seemed to him of primary necessity to
draw, while there was time, a clear line of demarcation
between the Church and heresy ; and for this, as he
correctly judged, the assistance of the council was
absolutely indispensable. The Emperor, on the other
hand, was still unwilling to shut the door completely
against the Protestants, while both he and the Episco-
pal party at the council were eager for that reforma-
tion of the life and government of the Church which
seemed to them her most crying need. Ultimately it
was agreed that the declaration of dogma and the re-
formation of abuses should be treated pari passu,, the
decrees formulated in each case being from time to
time announced simultaneously. Taking into account
the subsequent history of the council, onB can hardly
deny that this arrangement saved the work of the
assembly from being left half done. Nor was the pro-
gress made in the period ending with the eighth
session of the Council (nth March 1547), intrigues

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 65

and quarrels notwithstanding, by any means trifling.

On the doctrinal side, the foundations of the faith were

in the first instance examined, and the whole character

of the doctrinal decrees of the council

Dogma.

was in point of fact determined, when the
authority of the tradition of the Church, including of
course the decrees of her oecumenical councils, was
acknowledged by the side of that of Scripture. Little
to the credit of the council's capacity for taking
pains, the authenticity of the Yulgate was proclaimed,
a pious wish being added that it should be henceforth
printed as correctly as possible. 1 At first, Pope Paul
III. hesitated about giving his assent to these decrees,
which had been passed before receiving his approval,
and showed some anxiety to prevent a similar course
being taken in the matter of discipline by publishing
a regulatory bull on his own authority. Bat on being
more fully advised by the legates of the nature of the
situation, he consented to allow the debates to proceed,
provided always that the decrees should be submitted
to him before publication. During the next months
(April- June 1546) the work of the council was ac-
cordingly vigorously continued in both its branches.
In that of discipline, the episcopal and the monastic
interests at once came into conflict on the
subject of the license for preaching ; and
still more excitement was aroused by the question of
episcopal residence, which brought into conflict the

1 When, about forty years later (1590), this wish had been, after a
fashion, carried into effect by Sixtus V., this authentic Latin Bible
had, after all, to be promptly withdrawn, and a corrected but still not
very correct edition substituted (1592).

C. H. K

66 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

highest purposes of the episcopal office and the selfish
profits of the Bom an Curia. The discussions on preach-
ing ended with a reasonable compromise, monks being
henceforth prohibited from preaching without the
bishop's license in any churches but those of their
own order. The question of residence was by the
Pope's wish adjourned.

Thus the council, now augmented by Swiss and
many other bishops, while all the chief Catholic powers
except Poland were represented by ambassadors, could
venture to approach those questions of dogma which
the Emperor would gladly have seen postponed, so
long as he was still pausing on the brink of his con-
flict with the Gei-man Protestants. The Pope, on the
contrary, while ostentatiously displaying on the frpn-
tier the auxiliary forces which he had promised to the
Emperor, was eager to proclaim through the council as
distinctly as possible the solid unity of the orthodox
Church. The doctrine concerning original sin having
been promulgated in the teeth of imperial opposition,
the legates pressed for the issue of the decree con-
cerning justification. In the midst of the debates the
Smalcaldic War broke out (July 1546).

For a time it seemed as if at Trent too the opposing
interests would have proved irreconcileable. Pole, as
conflicts be- ^ ue justification decree began to shape it-
^m^?and a " self > had, " for reasons of health," withdrawn
^h^ftho to Padua; Madruccio and Del Monte ex-
council. changed personal insults ; Pacheco accused
the legates of gross chicanery, and they in their turn
threatened a removal of the council to an Italian city,
where, in accordance with what they knew to be the

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 67

Papal wish, the council might deliberate without being
either overawed by the Emperor or menaced by his Pro-
testant adversaries. Soon, however, the case was altered
by the manifest collapse of the latter, notwithstanding
their expectations of support from England, Denmark,
and France, long before their final catastrophe in the
battle of Miihlberg (April 24, 1547). The Emperor
would not hear of the removal of the council to Lucca,
Ferrara, or any other Italian town, and in conse-
quence the plan of campaign at Trent was modified, in
order at all events to make the breach with the Pro-
testants impassable. The debates on justification were
eagerly pushed on, and, after some further trials of
finesse, the decree on the subject which anathematised
the fundamental doctrines of the Lutheran Reforma-
tion was passed in the sixth session of the council
(i3th January 1 547)- On the other hand, the decree
on residence was again postponed, and a very high
tone was taken towards the prelates absent from the
council the German being, of course, those princi-
pally glanced at. In the next session (5th March) de-
crees followed asserting the orthodox doctrine of the
Church concerning the sacraments, and baptism and
confirmation in particular, and with these was at last
issued the decree concerning residence. It avoided
pronouncing on the view which had been so ardently
advocated by the Spanish bishops and argued by the
pen of Archbishop Carranza, that the duty of residence
was imposed by divine law, and it took care to safe-
guard the dispensing authority of the Eoman See.
Tet, though at times evaded or overridden, the prohi-
bition of pluralism contained in this decree, together

68 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

witli certain other provisions for the bond fide execu-
tion of bishops' functions, has indisputably proved
most advantageous to the vigour and vitality of the
episcopacy of the Church of Rome.

Paul IIL's attitude towards the Emperor had mean-
while grown more and more suspicious. Partly they
had become antagonists on the great question of Church
reorganisation ; partly the Emperor was becoming dis-
posed to thwart the dynastic policy of the Farnese ;
partly, again, the Pope now thought himself able to
fall back on the alliance of France. In January Paul
III. recalled the auxiliaries and stopped the subsidies
which he had furnished to Charles V. ; and in March
Henry II. succeeded to the French throne, whose in-
trigues with the German Protestants, though leaving
unaffected his fanatical rigour against his own heretics
at home, seemed likely to break the current of impe-
rial success. Thus at Trent the struggle against the
Spanish bishops acquired an intense significance ; and
in the eighth session (nth March) the legates at
last made use of the power entrusted to them, it was
The removal Sai( ^ eighteen months before, and carried,
to Bologna, against the votes of Spain, the removal of
the council to Bologna, on the plea of an outbreak of
the plague at Trent. By the Emperor's desire the
Spanish bishops, plague or no plague, remained in the
city.

c The obstinate old man, 5 said Charles, c would end
by ruining the Church ; J and sanguine Protestants
might dream of a renewal of the situation of 1 5 2627.
The progress of events widened the breach between
the Emperor and the Pope. After Muhlberg Charles V,

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 69

seemed irresistible, and as he would hear of no solu-
tion but a return of the council to Trent, there seemed
no choice between submission and defiance. Gradu-
ally, however, it became clear that he had no wish
again to drive things to extremes, and least of all to
provoke anything of the nature of a schism. More-
over, France, where the Guises were now in the ascen-
dant, was -becoming more hostile to him ; and the
murder of the Pope's son at Piacenza, followed by the
occupation of that city by Spanish troops (September
1 547), nearly brought about the conclusion of a Franco-
Italian league against Charles. But though French
bishops arrived at Bologna, their attitude there was
by no means acceptable to the Pope, and Henry II.
had no real intention of making war upon the Em-
peror. Thus the latter thought himself able to take
into his own hands the settlement of the religious
difficulty. At the Diet of Augsburg, called ' the
mailed diet/ because it was surrounded by the im-
perial soldiery, certain of the Protestant princes de-
clared their readiness to submit to the council, while
the Catholics demanded its removal back to Trent a
demand urged by the Emperor at both Bologna and
Rome. But in the spring of 1548 came the worse
The Augsburg news that the diet had passed the In-
interim tenm, which, without sanction or cognisance
of Borne, conceded to the Protestants the marriage of
priests, the use of the cup by the laity, and a relaxa-
tion of the obligations of fasting. The Iiderim t it is
true, was repudiated by the Catholic potentates, while
the Protestants in many places had to be dragooned
into accepting it ; but the Emperor continued san-

70 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

guine, published at the diet an edict announcing a
series of Church reforms, and indulged a fancy that
his offered compromise would tempt England and the
Scandinavian North peradventure even the intelli-
gent Czar of Muscovy tack into the fold. At Rome,
Paul took advantage of the consternation created by
the Emperor's religious coup ffttat to suggest a con-
ference in the Papal city itself of bishops from both
Trent and Bologna ; but the proposal soon fell to the
ground, and the Interim was referred to a congrega-
tion of cardinals, including Pole, appointed to report
on the state of the Church. In the meantime, a com-
mission of bishops was, at the Emperor's request,
sent into Germany to superintend the working of the
Interim really to impede it, so far as might be. In
the same month (September) the meetings of the so-
called council at Bologna, where nothing had been
accomplished, formally came to an end. The almost
pathetic obstinacy of Charles in forcing through his
Interim might have sufficed to warn the Pope of the
uselessness of further resistance ; but his anxiety about
Parma and Piaeenza probably contributed to make him
give way. In the midst of further disappointments and
of fresh designs, the immediate purposes of which are
not altogether clear. Pope Paul III. died (i 5th Novem-
ber 1549). That the most generous of the aspirations
which had under his reign first found full opportunity
for asserting themselves had survived his manoeuvring,
was shown by the favourable reception, both outside
and inside the conclave, of the proposal that Reginald
Pole should be his successor. But Pole refused to be
elected by the impulsive method of adoration, and in

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 71

the end the Farnese interest, supported by the French,
prevailed, and Cardinal del Monte was chosen.

The Papal government of Julius III. (1550-55)

showed hardly more of temperate wisdom than had

marked his conduct of the presidency at

Paul II T sue- J

ceeded by Trent ; but he had the courage at the very

Julius III. o j

outset to decide upon the safest course. The
triumph of the House of Habsburg seemed complete ;
this was the period of the celebrated Family Compact
(March 1551), which dealt with the succession to the
Holy Eoman Empire itself as with a chattel of the
dynasty. At the diet held at Augsburg in 1550,
the majority of the Protestant estates declared them-
selves ready to accept the Interim, and Maurice, now
Elector of Saxony, proffered his services to force it
on the unwilling. Eegardless, therefore, of the over-
tures, and then of the menaces of France, Julius III.
threw over the Farnese interest, and gave in his
adhesion to the ecclesiastical policy of the Emperor.
The friends of reform may have had their doubts as
to the two commissions which he immediately insti-
tuted, the one (with Pole as a member) to amend the
method of appointment to benefices, the other to im-
prove the system of conclaves ; but after a few con-
ditions, most of them quite in the spirit of the
imperial policy, had been proposed and accepted, the
bull summoning the council to Trent for the following
spring was issued without further ado (November).

Yet even before the council actually reopened ( I st
May 1 5 5 i), it had become evident that the Papal view
of its purposes remained as widely divergent from the
Imperial as in the days of Paul III. The nomina-

72 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

tion of Cardinal Crescentio, a Eoman by birth, as presi-
dent of the council, with two Italian prelates, Pighino
of Siponto and Lippomano of Verona, by

Keopemngof ... -I ii ^ j/i

the Council at his side, was in itself ominous ; and the
German Protestants, upon whom the Empe-
*or pressed safe-conducts at Augsburg (1551), per-
ceived the Papal intention of treating the Council as
a mere continuation of that which had previously
sat at Trent. Still, several of them, as well as the
Catholic Electors, finally promised to attend. On the
other hand Henry II. of France prohibited the appear-
ance of a single French prelate, and began to talk
of a Gallican council. Wroth with the Pope, and on
the best of terms with heretic England, he was on the
eve of forming an alliance with some of the Protestant
princes of the Empire, fatal alike to its territorial
integrity and to all schemes for the restoration of its
religious unity (Alliance of Chambord, January 1552).
Thus the brief series of sessions held at Trent
from May 1551 to April 1552 proved in the main,
though not altogether, barren of results. While expli-
citly asserting the doctrine of tran substantiation, the
council left open the guomodo of the Divine Presence,
on which the Dominicans and the Franciscans were at
issue not less than the Lutherans and the Calvinists ;
and though, to humour the Emperor, a decision on the
permissibility of administration siib utrdgue was ad-
journed, the majority of Spanish as well as of Italian
bishops showed themselves averse to any concession on
the subject. Nor could any one besides the Emperor
found hopes upon the arrival of the ambassadors of
certain Protestant princes (Brandenburg, Wiirtem-
berg, and some of the Free Towns), between whom and

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 73

the council, notwithstanding certain courtesies, an atti-
tude of defiance was virtually maintained. Unless the
assembled fathers were prepared to reconsider the de-
crees already passed, and to force the assent of the Pope
to a religious policy of quite unprecedented breadth,
another deadlock was at hand ; and already in the
early months of 1552, the council, this time with the
manifest connivance of Rome, began to thin. When,
in April, Maurice of Saxony, now the ally of France,
approached the southern frontier of the Empire, the
Pope, whose own French war had taken a disastrous
turn, had reason enough for shunning further co-opera-
tion with the Emperor. The council dwindled apace
in spite of the efforts of Charles V., who had never
ceased to believe in his schemes. Finally, however,
he could not prevent the remnants of the

The Council . , ,. .

a#am BUS- council from passing a decree suspending its

pended. . * , i i >

sessions for two years, which was opposed
by not more than a dozen loyal Spanish votes (April
28, 1552). Cardinal Crescentio himself, whose Eoman
pride had not helped to render productive the second
period of the council, was not present at its close,
and died shortly afterwards. The possibility, if it
had ever existed, of Western Christendom being
reunited by the council on a basis corresponding to
that of the imperial Interim had passed away to
return no more ; in its place, the Empire, in the
Religious Peace of Augsburg (1555), acknowledged
the dualism which rent it asunder, and accepted the
principle, so far as Catholics and Lutherans were con-
cerned, that each territorial authority in the Empire
should, with certain modifications, determine which of

74 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

the two creeds should be professed by its subjects.
Thus Charles V.'s resignation of his thrones (15 54 5 6)
resulted, though far from being so intended, in a
confession o his failure. While it was in progress,
Julius III. died (23rd March 155 5)> leaving behind
him scant evidence to support the rumour of his hav-
ing indulged, at all events in the last period of his
reign, in ideas of Church reformation. But the choice
of his successor, Marcellus II. (April-May I555) 3
shows that these ideas were not yet extinct in the
Sacred College, notwithstanding the simultaneous crea-
tion by Julius III. of fourteen cardinals ; for Cervino
had always been reckoned a member, though a moderate
one, of the reforming party. Par greater, however, was
the significance attaching to the election of
opo m . ^ e p pe who speedily took the place of
Marcellus. The pontificate of Paul IV. (Gian Pietro
Caraffa., May 1555-August 15 59) forms one of the
most remarkable chapters in the history of the Counter-
Keformation, which in him seemed under both its aspects
to have secured the mastery of the Church. God's will
alone, he was convinced, had placed him where he stood ;
for he was unconscious of having achieved anything
through the favour of man. He was now seventy-nine
years of age, but he had never been more eager to devote
himself to his chosen purpose, the establishment in
the eyes of all peoples of a pure and spiritually active
Church, free from all impediments of corruptions and
abuses, and purged of all poison of heresy and schism.
Fully aware (though he had belonged to it himself) of
the virtual failure of Paul III.'s commission of reform,
Paul IV,, who in his first bull had solemnly promised

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 75

an effectual reform of tlie Church and the Koman
Curia, lost no time in instituting a congregation for
the purpose. The commission, which consisted of three
divisions, each of them composed jointly of cardinals,
bishops, and doctors, wisely addressed itself in the first
instance to the question of ecclesiastical appointments.
The new Pope likewise issued orders for the specific re-
form of monastic establishments, and his energy seemed
to stand in striking contrast with the hesitations and
delays of the recently suspended council.

But once more the seductions of the temporal power
overcame its holder. Caraffa's residence in Spain, and
enthusiasm for the religious ideals and methods preva-
lent there, had not eradicated the bitterly anti-Spanish
feeling inborn in him as a Neapolitan, and Charles V.,
returning hatred for hatred, had done his utmost to
offend the dignity and damage the interests of the car-
dinal. To these personal and national sentiments had
been added the conviction that the Emperor's dealings
with the German Protestants had encouraged them
to deal a deadly blow to the unity and strength of
the Church ; and thus Paul IV. allowed himself to be
borne away by passion. His fiery temperament, fretted
rather than soothed by old age, left him and those around
him no peace ; he maltreated the imperialist cardinals
and the dependants of the Emperor within his reach, and
sought to instigate the French Government to take up
arms once more. Then, nothing would content his pat-
riotic fury but the liberation of Italy from the presence
of the foreigner. Taking advantage of a difference with
Philip of Spain concerning the revocation of certain
bulls concerning the Spanish Church and Inquisition,

76 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

he directed a legal suit of excommunication to be
instituted against Charles and Philip at Borne (1556).
Intent solely npon the satisfaction of his passions, lie
raised to the purple, and soon intrusted with the main
conduct of affairs, his nephew. Carlo Caraffa, a reckless
soldier, full of grievances against the Emperor. His
other nephews, when after a time they rallied to his
anti-Spanish policy, he loaded with wealth and hon-
ours. In the war which ensned, "but for the self-
restraint of Alva, another sack of Eome might have
been perpetrated by Spanish soldiery, and the quarrel
pushed to an extreme issue ; for the cardinal-nephew
was already negotiating alliances with infidels and
heretics. But the Spanish occupation of Naples was
not to be shaken, and the great Spanish victory of
St. Quentin (lOth August 1557), put an end to all
further hopes of French aid. When Rome was once
more threatened by a Spanish army, the Pope was
universally execrated as the source of all these ills.
Fortunately for Paul IV., the judicious moderation of
Spain gave him an undeserved opportunity of retreat ;
but though appearances were saved in the peace re-
spectfully offered him by Alva (September 1557)? the
Spanish power stood fixed more firmly than ever in
both the North and the South of Italy.

The vehement political efforts of Paul IV., and

their failure, could not in the end but damage the

position of the Churcli in Italy. Elsewhere

The Marian. r __ rt -IT* i

reaction m m England Spain and Kome were about

England. .

this time supposed to be co-operating for the
restoration of the orthodox faith. The people at large
acquiesced in Queen Mary's measures, the majority

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 77

perhaps with a comforting suspicion that her religion
was, on the whole, from more than one point of view,
the safer to prefer. At first, indeed, as Mary herself
confessed to Pole, the mind of her people remained so
strongly prepossessed against the Pope, that Lis supre-
macy was more difficult of acceptance to them than all
the other tenets of her creed ; but before long many
were cured of their hesitation by the bull which Pole
as Papal legate brought with him to England, con-
firming the possessors of monastery lands in their
tenure. The impression created by tho persecutions
which ensued upon the formal reconciliation of England
to Home (3Oth November 1554) was probably neither
so deep nor so widespread as has been frequently
supposed. The real cause of Mary's unpopularity lay
in the obstinacy with which she forced upon the
nation first the Spanish marriage and then the Spanish
policy. By the end of her reign the fruits of her
infatuation were bitter as ashes in the mouths of
Englishmen ; so that when under Elizabeth, the doings
of the Spanish Inquisition formed the staple of news
brought home in ships, and when sentiments of
patriotic indignation gathered round the nucleus of posi-
tive Protestant sentiment, strengthened by the return of
religious refugees, the memories of Smithfield, Oxford,
and Canterbury added very notably to the blaze of
popular resentment. Thus public feeling, not less
than the consistent counsels of her foremost statesmen,
steadied Elizabeth's faltering hand ; and under her
England became Protestant, not indeed as yielding
to any great wave of national opinion, but neither in
mere passive obedience to a fresh series of statutes and

78 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

ordinances. The disciplinary measures recommended
by Pole, more especially at the synod held by him
towards the close of 1555, bear a striking resemblance
to some of the decrees passed at Trent in the first
period of the council. His very acceptance of Canter-
bury he made conditional on residence. Manifestly the
submission of the English Church to the Pope in Pole's
eyes formed only half of his task Here, as elsewhere,
the Church must by reformation be brought nearer to
his lofty ideal. But this it was not given to him to
accomplish. As there is nothing to show that Paul IV.
objected to the proceedings of Pole in England, his
recall (subsequently modified in form rather than in
substance) might be regarded as part of the Pope's
general policy of offence against Spain, were it not for
apprehensions of CarafiVs ill-will towards him, avowed
by Pole before the elevation of the former to the
Death of car- Papacy. In any case, Pole's death (iSth
dmaipoie. November 1558), which followed that of
Charles V. within less than two months, seems to
close a distinct page in the history of the Counter-
Reform ation. A politic assumption of confidence on the
parb of the Pope towards Queen Mary's successor might
perhaps have delayed the re-emancipation of tlie Church
of England, and thus also have retarded the complete
victory of a more advanced type of Protestantism on
the other side of the Border. Bat Paul IV. dreaded
no step which Elizabeth could take so much as her
marriage with Philip of Spain. It was the same
hatred and fear of Habsburg which led him to drive
the new Emperor Ferdinand I. halfway into the arms
of tie German Protestants, or at least into a system

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 79

of government by compromise irreconcilable witli the
principles upheld at Rome.

In the states of the Church, however, and within

the range of his Italian influence, time was still left to

Paul IV. for the assertion of these prin-

P.iul IV. and , , , , , , . ,

T he Counter- ciples ; nor is there anything more extra-
Reformation. or( j- nar y j n kjg j i; f e t j iaiL the exertions of

the last two years of his reign. At first it seemed as
if he would need some time to steady himself after
the collapse of his political schemes, and as if he were
unprepared to adopt Cardinal Pacheco's outspoken
advice and let reform begin at home. Bat of a sud-
den, as if in another gust of passion, he made a clean
sweep of the obstacles which his own perversity had
placed in his path; banished his nephews, changed
his whole administration, and then took up in terrible
earnest the work of Church reform. He would allow
no appointment savouring of corruption to any spiritual
office ; he would hear of no exception to the duty of
residence ; he completely abolished dispensations for
marriages within prohibited degrees. Into the general
management of the churches of the city, as well as into
that of his own Papal court, he introduced so strict a
discipline that Eome was likened to a well-conducted
monastery. But the agency which above all others he
encouraged was that which his own advice had estab-
lished in the centre of the Catholic world, the Inqui-
sition. From the Sacred College downwards (as in
the case of Cardinal Morone), no sphere of life was ex-
empted from its control ; and his intolerance extended
itself to the very Jews, whose privileges in the Papal
states he ruthlessly revoked. On his deathbed he

So THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

recommended the Inquisition with the Holy See itself
to the pious cardinals surrounding him. It was after-
wards observed that many reforms decreed in its third
period by the Council of Trent were copied from the
ordinances issued by Paul IV. in this memorable lien-
mum. Bat inasmuch as during his Pontificate the
Church of Rome had lost ground in almost every
country of Europe except Italy and Spain, his death
(i 8th August I5S9) naturally brought with it a wide-
spread renewal of the demand for remedies more effec-
tive than those supplied by his feverish activity and
by the operations of his favourite institution.

Personally, Pius IV. (1559-66) was regarded, and
probably chosen, as an opponent of the late Pope ; his
family history inclined liim to the imperial
PlusIV " interest, and he was understood to favour
concessions to Germany with a view of bringing her
stray sheep back into the fold. He possessed, with a
genial disposition, a reasonable mind ; and though an
excellent canon lawyer, was far too little of a theo-
logian to love dwelling in extremes of dogma. He
showed no disposition to follow his predecessor in pro-
hibiting the sale of spiritual dignities, benefices, and
favours of all kinds ; but in general he farthered rather
than arrested the religious reaction. Above all, the
Inquisition, though he is not known to have done any-
thing to intensify its rigour or augment its authority r
went on as before. For himself, he avoided the nepo-
tism of which, in the pursuit of his political ends,
Paul IV- Had made himself guilty. In contrast with the
Carafi^r nephews, on whom he allowed a terrible venge-
ance to descend^ Carlo Borromeo., the nephew of Pius

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 8r

IV., served the Holy See in a spirit of unselfisli devo-
tion, and began those efforts on behalf of religion
which in the end obtained for him a place among the
saints of the Church, a position not reached by many
Pope's nephews. With the aid of this influence, Pms
IV. came to perceive that the future, both of the Church
and of the Papacy, depended on the spirit of confi-
dence and cohesion which could be infused into the
former ; nor had he from the very outset of his pon-
tificate ever doubted the expediency of reassembling
the council at Trent.

The Emperor Ferdinand and the French govern-
ment, who still persisted in treating the reunion of the
Church as the primary object of the council, at first
strongly urged the substitution for Trent of a genu-
inely German or French town, where the German
bishops, and perhaps even the Protestants, would feel no
scruple about attending. But a totally free and new
council of this description lay outside the horizon of
the Papacy ; and Pius IV. might have let fall the
plan altogether, but for the fear of the entire separa-
tion in that event of the Gallican Church
condition of from Rome. In France Protestantism bad
made considerable strides during the reign
of Henry II. (154759), more especially of late under
cover of the war with Spain, although that war ad-
vanced the influence of the Guises, represented in the
Church by the Cardinal of Lorraine. The introduc-
tion of the Inquisition ( 1 5 5 7) had remained a futile
attempt ; and though after the peace of C&teau-Cam-
br^sis Henry II. actually proposed to Philip a joint
attack upon Geneva, Protestantism flourished, especi-
C.H. v

82 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

ally in the south and west of the monarchy, in spite
of persecution ; and about six weeks before the death
of Henry II. the first national synod of Protestants
was held at Paris (May IS 59). Under Francis II.
the Guise influence became paramount, the persecu-
tion of the Protestants continued, and was expedited
by the edict of Romorantin (May 1 560). But though
the suppression, just before this, of the so-called con-
spiracy of Amboise had temporarily added to the
power of the Guises, it had also made the Queen
Mother, Catharine de' Medici, resolve not to let the
power of the state pass wholly out of her hands.
Hence the appointment of the large-hearted L'Hopi-
tal as chancellor, and the Assembly of Notables at
Pontaineblean (August), where the grievances against
Rome found full expression, and where arrangements
were made for a meeting of the States-General and a
national council of the French Church. This resolu-
tion determined Pius IV. to lose no further time. He
succeeded in overcoming the objections of both Ferdi-
nand and the French Government to Trent, and ad-
journed the more difficult question as to whether the
new assembly should or should not be regarded as a
mere continuation of tlie former, which France had
never acknowledged. On 29th November 1560 he
issued a bull summoning all the prelates and princes
of Christendom to Trent for the following Easter. The
invitation included both Eastern schismatics and
"Western heretics, Elizabeth of England among the
rest; but neither she nor the German Protestant
princes assembled at Naumburg, nor the kings of the
Scandinavian North, would so much as receive the

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 83

Papal summons. In France, the death of Francis II.
(5th December 1560) further depressed the Guise
influence ; and Catharine entered into negotiations
with the Pope with a view to concessions such as
would satisfy the Huguenots while approved by the
French bishops. She considerably raised her demands
not long before the Colloquy of Poissy, (September
1 561), which, however, notwithstanding its array of
ecclesiastical notabilities on both sides, came to nothing,
owing in part to the active intrigues of the Papal
nuncio. But the Edict of January' (1562), which
followed, long remained a sort of standard of fair con-
cessions to the Huguenots*

Under these circumstances there was little prospect

of France being for some time to come represented at

Trent except by ambassadors with instruc-

Re-opemng of x *

the Council of tions very unacceptable to the Papal policy.
From the Empire, too, neither Catholic nor
Protestant princes could be prevailed upon to attend ;
and a commission appointed by Ferdinand carried its de-
mands for ecclesiastical reforms so far (September 1561)
that he had to moderate their tone before incorporating
them in his Lilelhis de reformations, afterwards presented
to the council. Even King Sebastian of Portugal about
this time formulated a series of very substantial articles
of reformation for presentation at Trent. Philip II. of
Spain completely approved of this proceeding, and sup-
ported the demand of the other powers for a free council.
At the same time, however, both he and the Spanish
bishops were resolved to maintain the rigid standard
of doctrine proclaimed in the earlier sessions of the
council, and to allow no concessions to Protestant

84 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION,

claims or sympathies. Thus, after all, the new as-
sembly was not likely to be altogether unmanageable ;
and Pius IV. took care to keep up the numbers of the
Italian bishops, besides appointing not less than five
legates to conduct the proceedings. These legates were
mostly moderate men. Such was pre-eminently the
character of Hercules Gonzaga, cardinal of Mantua, the
presiding legate, a persona gratissima to the Emperor.
With him, Cardinal Puteo 3 an accomplished canonist,
had been originally named, but he was disabled by
illness just before the meeting of the council. The
others were Cardinals Seripando, formerly general of
the Augustines, and now archbishop of Salerno, a
learned and moderate -miuded prelate ; Simonetta,,
whom Sadolet extols as unanimously acknowledged to
be the greatest lawyer of the age; and Cardinal Hosius,
afterwards the principal figure in the Polish Coimter-
Eeformation. He was probably selected as having for
some time held the nunciature at the Emperor's court,
and being well acquainted with his views. Simonetta
seems to have been regarded as the representative proper
of the Papal policy. Por Puteo was afterwards substi-
tuted the Cardinal of Hohenems (Altemps), bishop of
Constance, a young nephew of the Pope. Soon after
the re-opening of the council Pius IY. characteristic-
ally directed another relative, the able Bishop of Venti-
miglia (Visconti), to watch the proceedings of the two
senior legates, who with their colleagues seem in their
turn to have employed the same agent to watch the
conduct of the Cardinal of Lorraine.

Was the council which held its first public session
on 1 8th January 1 562 to be regarded as a new council,

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT* 85

or as a continuation of that which had previously sat
in. the same locality ? This was no merely theoretical
question, for on the answer would depend two issues
inseparable from one another. In the first place, would
the new assembly resume the labours of the previous
one at the point they had reached, more especially in
the enunciation of true Catholic doctrine ? and, again,
would it refuse to reopen the door deliberately shut by
its predecessor upon a policy which aimed at recon-
ciling the Protestants to the Church? To ensure
affirmative answers to both these questions was natu-
rally the desire both of Rome and of the Spanish
bishops, and those who were, like them, intent upon
the establishment of a vigorous Church discipline
rooted in a strong episcopacy, but, above all, upon
the definitive declaration of a rigid body of Catho-
lic doctrine. The opposite view was, however, long
favoured by the Emperor Ferdinand, supported by a
public sentiment practically universal in the Empire,
and by France, where bigotry and faction had not yet
quenched the national desire for ecclesiastical inde-
pendence and political unity. Not very dissimilar
were ^ e issues turning on the further ques-
^ on ^ fo ^ Q acceptance of the new prin-
ciple of conducting the business of the council. This
principle, which the legates sought to introduce by a
procedure the reverse of straightforward, reserved to
themselves the initiative of proposing subjects of dis-
cussion to the council. Vehemently resisted by some
of the Spanish bishops, the formula was maintained,
even after Philip II. had sought the assistance of the
Emperor and the kings of France and Portugal for

86 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

bringing about its removal, and after Pius IV. had
himself agreed to concede the point. Thus the council
was, down to its close, very effectively prevented from
enlarging the scope of its proceedings at the risk of
interfering with their deliberately designed plan. For,
though amidst many vexatious delays, at the last pre-
ceded by all but reckless haste, the original plan of the
conncil was actually carried out, and this with a degree
of success of which it is futile to lose sight because
of the intrigues and manoeuvres, and the struggle of
interests and passions, obscuring it in the pages of
partisan historians.

In this concluding period the Italian bishops pre-
ponderated more than ever; nest to them the Spaniards
composition were a gain the most numerous; but though,
of the couuca as a ^^ st iu faithful to their programme,
both on questions of doctrine where they agreed with
tlie Papal party, and on questions of discipline where
they differed from it, they no longer voted as a solid
phalanx, and their leader, Archbishop Guerrero of
Granada, commanded no unbroken allegiance. More-
over, the Jesuit Salmeron, who discharged the duties of
Papal theologian, and a little later the Jesuit general
Lainez, who bore himself as the intellectual master of
the assembly, represented an element in the religious
life of Spain which claimed attention in spite of either
bishops or king. No prelates attended either from the
Empire at large or from Poland, the proxies whom
they sent being naturally enough refused a hearing
by the majority. Hungary and Bohemia were repre-
sented by a few bishops. The French prelates, .with
the Cardinal of Lorraine at their lead, did not arrive

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 87

till late in the day (November 1562). Thus the
opposition to the Papal management of the council
was daring the greater part of this year conducted
by a co-operation between the * imperial and French*
ambassadors, occasionally productive of brave words,
but ineffectual in its final results.

The first deliberations of the reassembled council
wore barren, for the definitive adoption of the index
of prohibited books was deferred to the close of the
council, when it was, after all, handed over to the Pope ;
and though a safe-conduct was granted to Protestants
desirous of attending at Trent, no Protestant govern-
ment or^ prelates availed themselves of it, while the
heretical subjects of Catholic states were expressly
Principal qnes. excluded from its use. Hereupon, however,
tionsatofcsue. ttLe counc ii attempted again to proceed pari
passu with dogma and discipline. On the latter head
in particular, the imperial and the French ambassadors
at different times presented very distinct demands, in
the so-called 'libels of reformation' laid by them
before the council* but in neither case were these
programmes seriously taken up. One disciplinary
question of paramount importance might, however,
have speedily been carried to a satisfactory issue, could
the manifest advantage of the Church have prevailed
over the baser interests of the Roman Court. This
was the question of -residence and of its divine origin,
as constituting an obligation upon bishops and priests
charged with a cure of souls. On this head a complete
agreement existed between the Governments and fche
episcopal party, and the Pope himself was known to
have declared to the cardinals at Eome his conviction

88 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

of the divine origin of the duty. Thus two of the legates
(Gonzaga and Seripando) were prepared to give way
to 'ultramontane' opinion on the subject, though Simo-
netta unfalteringly upheld the Roman view. "When
(April 1562) they actually put the question to the
vote, nearly half the assembly affirmed the divine
origin, while about a quarter voted in the negative,
and another quarter (or slightly more) for referring the
matter to the Pope. Hereupon the latter changed
his attitude, and when the question, which had seemed
shelved, was once more revived, threatened to dismiss
the presiding legate for sacrificing the welfare of the
Holy See. But though he for a time talked of re-
moving the council once more to an Italian city, Pius
IV. had no real reason for fearing a dangerous show
of independence at Trent, and Philip II. himself gave
orders that the question of residence should for the
present be allowed to slumber. In the meantime
another struggle had begun in connexion with the
formulation of the dogmatic decrees concerning the
sacraments, on the subject of the concession of the
cup to the laity. This, the chief concession made to
the German Protestants in the Interim of 1548, was
demanded both in the imperial and in the Trench
libel ; and it was known to be viewed without disfavour
by the Pope himself, whose predecessor, Paul III.,,
had formerly, at the request of Charles V., empowered
a commission of bishops to accord it to individual
claimants in the Empire. The denial of the Cup to
the laity was a relatively modern practice in the
Western Church, and its use was accordingly now, as
it had been at Basel, a mere question of expediency.

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 89

The Spanish episcopate, however, herein thoroughly in
harmony with Philip II., would listen to no such pro-
posals, while in the eyes of the Papal party more
Papal than the Pope, and encouraged in its persistency
by the ruthless oratory of Lainez to yield on one
head seemed the preface to yielding on all. When
the vote was taken (September 1562), only 48 were
found ready to allow the concession of the cup some
to the laity of the Empire and its dependencies, some
to that of Hungary and Bohemia only, while 52,
with or without qualifications, refused the proposal, and
65 relegated the matter to the decision of the Pope.
Not many days afterwards, a previous effort in the
same direction having failed, this course was finally
agreed upon by an overwhelming majority, composed of
members voting from, very different points of view.

The question which really came home to the fathers
of the Church assembled at Trent presented itself again
when the sacrament of orders Lad in due course to
be debated. The imperial and French ambassadors
still co-operated as actively as ever, and the episcopal
party, the Spanish prelates in particular, entered upon
the struggle with a full sense of its critical importance.
If the right divine of episcopacy could be declared,
with it would be established the divine obligation of
Residence. Pius IV. accordingly showed considerable
shrewdness in instructing the legates at once to for-
mulate a decree on residence, which, while leaving the
question of divine obligation open, imposed penalties
on non-residence (except for lawful reasons), sufficient
to meet practical requirements. But though such a
decree was passed by the council, the debates on the

go THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

origin, of the episcopal office, which involved nothing
less than the origin and nature of the Papal supremacy,
continued (November) ; and the critical nature of the
discussion was the more apparent when in the midst
of it there at last arrived nearly a score of French
bishops, headed by the Cardinal of Lorraine. Hitherto
Trance had been represented at the council by spokes-
men of the French court and of the Parliament of
Paris ; now, the foremost among the prelates of the
monarchy, whose abilities, however, unfortunately fell
far short of his pretensions, announced in full conciliar
assembly the demands of his branch of the Church.
The recent January edict proved the strength of the
Huguenots in France ; and though the Cardinal's first
speech at Trent breathed nothing but condemnation of
these heretics, it suited him to pose as the advocate
of as extensive a series of reforms as had yet been
urged upon the council. Further additions were made
in the c libel ' already mentioned, which was shortly
afterwards (January 1563) presented by the French
ambassador, and perfect harmony existed between the
French and the imperial policy at the council. What
decision, then, was to be expected on the crucial ques-
tion as to the relations between Papal and episcopal
authority ? How could a recognition of the Pope's
claim to be regarded as rector umwrsalis ecdesice be
expected from such a union of the ultramontane forces?
The current was not likely to be stopped by the pro-
visions for checking some of .the abuses of the Papal
court, which about this time Pius IV. announced on his
own account at Rome ; it seemed on the point of rising
higher than ever when (February 1563) the Cardinal

THE COUNCIL OF TSENT. 91

of Lorraine and some other prelates waited upon the
Emperor at Innsbruck. In truth, however, a turning-
point in the history of the council was close at hand.

The Cardinal of Lorraine had left Trent for Inns-
bruck with threats of a Gallican synod on his lips.
Ferdinand i Ferdinand I. had arrived there veiy wroth
fhePa^T ^ th the council, and had received the
policy. Bishop of Zante (Commendone), whom the

legates sent to deprecate his vexation, with marked
coolness. The remedies proposed to the Emperor by
the Cardinal were drastic enough ; the council was to
be swamped by French, German, and Spanish bishops,
and the Emperor, by repairing to Trent in person,
was to awe the assembly into discussing the desired
reforms, whether with or without the approval of the
legates. But Ferdinand I., by nature moderate in
action, and taught by the example of his brother,
Charles V., the danger of violent courses, preferred to
resort to a series of direct and by no means tame
appeals to the Pope. The latter, indisposed as he was
to support a fresh proposition for the removal of the
council to some German town, urged by France but
resisted by Spain, which at the same time persistently
opposed the concession of the cup demanded by both
France and the Emperor, saw his opportunity for taking
his adversaries singly. The deaths about this time
(March i 5 63) of the presiding legate, Cardinal Gon-
zaga, and of his colleague Cardinal Seripando, both of
whom had occasionally shown themselves inclined to
yield to the reforming party, were likewise in his favour.
Their places were filled by Cardinals Morone, formerly
a prisoner indicted by the Inquisition, now an eager

92 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

champion of Papal claims, and Navagero, a Venetian
by birth, but not in his political sentiments. Morone,
though he had left Eome almost despairing of any
favourable issue of the council, at once began to nego-
tiate with the Emperor through the Jesuit Canisius.
The leverage employed may, in addition to the distrust
between Ferdinand and his Spanish nephew, and the
ancient jealousy between Austria and France, have in-
cluded some reference to the heterodox opinions and
the consequently doubtful prospects of the Emperor's
eldest son, Maximilian. In a word, the Papal govern-
ment abont this time formed and carried out a definite
plan for inducing the Emperor to abandon his conci-
liar policy. The consideration offered for his assent-
ing to a speedy termination of the council was the
promise that, so soon as that event should have taken
place, the desired concession of the cup should be
made to his subjects. Ferdinand L, without becoming
a thoroughgoing partisan of the Papal policy, accepted
the bargain as seemingly the shortest road to the end
which, for the sake of the peace of the Empire, he had
at heart. Thus, notwithstanding the continued oppo-
sition of the French bishops, the decrees concerning
the episcopate began to shape themselves more easily,
and the Pope of his own accord submitted to the
council certain canons of a stringent kind, reforming
in a similar way the discipline of the cardinalate
(June). And when, in the course of a violent quarrel
about precedence between the kings of France and Spain,
the latter, enraged at his demands not being enforced
by the Pope, had threatened by insisting on the ad-
mission of Protestants to the council indefinitely to

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 93

prolong it, the Emperor intervened against the pro-
posal. But the conflict between the Papal and the
episcopal authority seemed still incapable of solution,
and though Lainez audaciously demanded the reference
of all questions of reform to the sole decision of the
Pope, and denounced the opposition of the French
bishops as proceeding from members of a schismatic
Church, this opposition steadily continued in conjunc-
tion with that of the Spaniards, and still found a leader
in the Cardinal of Lorraine.

Yet at this very time a change began to be percep-
tible in the conduct of this versatile and ambitious
prelate. The Cardinal was supposed to have
of Lorrame himself aspired to the office of presiding

gained over. 1,1 11 i i i .1

legate, and though he had missed this
place of honour and power, the condition of things in
France was such as naturally to incline him in the
direction of Eome. The assassination of his brother
Francis, Duke of Guise (February 1563), deprived his
family and interest of their natural chief, and inclined
Catharine de 3 Medici to transact with the Huguenots.
The Cardinal accordingly became anxious at the same
time to return to France and prevent the total eclipse
of the influence he had hitherto exercised at court,
and to secure himself by an understanding with, the
Pope. A letter which about this time arrived from
Mary Queen of Scots, declaring her readiness to sub-
mit to the decrees of the council, and, should she
ascend the throne of England, to reduce that country
to obedience to the Holy See, may perhaps be con-
nected with these overtures, Pius IV., delighted to
meet the Cardinal half-way, sent instructions in this

94 TH.E COUNTER-REFORM ATioh 7 .

sense to tlie legates, "whom the recent display of
Spanish arrogance had already disposed favourably
towards France. Thus the decree on the sacrament of
orders was passed in the colourless condition desired
by the Papal party, in a session held on July 1 5, the
Spanish bishops angrily declaring themselves betrayed
by the French cardinal. Other decrees were passed in
this memorable session, among them one of substantial
importance for the establishment of diocesan semin-
aries for priests. Clearly, the council had now become
tractable, and might speedily be brought to an end.
In this sense the Pope addressed urgent letters to the
three great Catholic monarch s, and found willing
listeners, except in Spain.

Meanwhile the remaining decrees, both of doctrine
and of discipline, were eagerly pushed on. The sacra-
ment of marriage gave rise to much dis-

The business of . 1,1 -. i * ,1

the council cussion ; but the proposal that the marriage
of priests should be permitted, though for-
merly included in both the imperial and the French
libel ? was now advocated only by the two prelates who
spoke directly in the name of the Emperor. But in
the decree proposed on the all-important subject of
the reformation of the life and morals of the clergy,
the legates presumed too far on the yielding mood of
the governments* It not only contained many ad-
mirable reforms as to the conditions under which
spiritual offices, from the cardinalate downwards, were
to be held or conferred, bat the Papacy had wisely
and generously surrendered many existing usages
profitable to itself. At the same time, however, it
was proposed not only to deprive the royal authority

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 95

in the several states of a series of analogous profits,
but to take away from it the nomination of bishops
an4 the right of citing ecclesiastics before a secular
tribunal. To the protest which the ambassadors of
the powers inevitably raised against these proposals,
the legates replied by raising a cry that the " refor-
mation of the princes " should be comprehended in the
decrees. It became necessary to postpone the objec-
tionable article ; but now the fears of the supporters
of the existing system began to be excited, both at
Eome and at Trent, and it was contrived to intro-
duce so many modifications into the proposed decree
as seriously to impair its value. Then, though the
Cardinal of Lorraine himself, during a visit to Rome
(September), showed his readiness to support the Papal
policy, the French ambassadors at the council carried
their opposition to its encroachments upon the claims
of their sovereign so far as to withdraw to Venice.
And above all, the Spanish bishops, upheld by the
persistency of their king, stood firmly by the original
form of the reformation decree, and finally obtained
its restoration to a very considerable extent. Thus
the greater portion of the decree was at last passed
in the penultimate session of the council (nth Nov-
ember).

With the exception of Spain, all the powers now
made known their consent to winding up the business

closing- of the ^ ^ ne council without further loss of
council time> But Cotmt Luna gtill i mmova biy

resisted the closing of" the council before the ex-
press assent of King Philip should have been re-
ceived ; nor was it till the news authentic or not

g6 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

arrived of a serious illness having befallen the
Pope that the fear of the complications which might
arise in the event of his death put an end , to
further delay. Summoned in all haste, the fathers
met on December 3rd for their five-and-twentieth ses-
sion, and on this and the following day rapidly dis-
cussed a series of decrees, some of which were by no
means devoid of intrinsic importance. In the doctrinal
decrees concerning purgatory and indulgences, as in
those concerning the invocation of saints and the re-
spect due to their relics and images, it was sought to
preclude a reckless exaggeration or distortion of the
doctrines of the Church on these heads, and a corrupt
perversion of the usages connected with them. (Thus
the abuse of the so-called * privileged altars 3 was not
revived till the papacy of Gregory XIII.) Of the dis-
ciplinary decrees, the most important and elaborate
related to the religious of both sexes. It contained
a clause, inserted on the motion of Lainez, which the
Jesuits afterwards interpreted as generally exempting
their Society from the operation of this decree. An-
other decree enjoined sobriety and moderation in the
use of the ecclesiastical penalty of excommunication.
For the rest, all possible expedition was used in
gathering up the threads of the work done or at-
tempted by the council. The determination of the
Index, as well as the revision of missal, breviary,
ritual, and catechism, were remitted to the Pope.
Then the decrees debated in the last session and at its
adjourned meeting were adopted, being subscribed by
234 (or 255 ?) ecclesiastics; and the decrees passed
in the sessions of the council before its re-assembling

THE COUNCIL OF TXENT. 97

under Pope Pius IV. were read over again, and thus
its continuity (154563) was established without any
use being made of the terms ' approbation ' and ' con-
firmation.' A decree followed, composed by the Car-
dinal of Lorraine and Cardinal Madruccio, solemnly
commending the ordinances of the council to the
Church and to the princes of Christ en dom, and re-
mitting any difficulties concerning the execution of
the decrees to the Pope, who would provide for it
either by summoning another General Council or as
he might determine. A concluding decree put an
end to the council itself, which closed with a kind
of general thanksgiving intoned by the Cardinal of
Lorraine.

The decrees of the council were shortly afterwards
(26th January 1564) ratified by Pius IV., against the
Reception of wish of the more determined Curialists, while
itb deciees. others would have wished him to guard him-
self by certain restrictions. These were, however, unne-
cessary, as he reserved to himself the interpretation of
doubtful or disputed decrees. This reservation remained
absolute as to decrees concerning dogma ; l for the
interpretation of those concerning discipline, Sixtus V.
afterwards appointed a special commission under the
name of the Congregation of the Council of Trent.
While the former became ipso facto binding on the

1 The Catechismus Romanus, drawn up by a commission of cardinals,
and published by direction of Pius IV. (1566), cannot claim an autho-
rity equal to that of the Canones et decreta, Ooncilu Tridentini (Rome,
1564). The catechisms composed by Canisins (1554 and 1566), though
not sanctioned by the Pope, enjoyed a more widespread popular accept-
ance than the Catechismus Romanus.

C. H. G

98 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

entire Church, the decrees on discipline and reforma-
tion could not become valid in any particular state
till after they had been published in it with the
consent of its government. This distinction is of the
greatest importance. The doctrinal system of the
Church of Eome was now enduringly fixed ; the area
which the Church had lost she could henceforth only
recover if she reconquered it. Many attempts at reunion
by compromise have since been made from the Pro-
testant side, and some of these have perhaps been met
half-way by the generous wishes of not a few Catholics ;
but the Council of Trent has doomed all these projects to
inevitable sterility. The gain of the Church of Eome
from her acquisition at Trent of a clearly and sharply
defined c body of doctrine' is not open to dispute, except
from a point of view which her doctors have steadily
repudiated. And it is difficult to suppose but that, in
her conflict with the spirit of criticism which from the
first in some measure animated the Protestant Refor-
mation and afterwards urged it far beyond its original
scope, the Church of Eome must have proved an un-
equal combatant, had not the Council of Trent renewed
the foundations of the authority claimed by herself and
of that claimed by her head on earth.

The effect of the disciplinary decrees of the council,
though more far-reaching and enduring than has been
on all sides acknowledged, was necessarily in the first
instance dependent on the reception given to them by
the several Catholic powers. The representatives of
the Emperor at once signed the whole of the decrees
of the council, though only on behalf of his hereditary
dominions ; and he had his promised reward when 3 a few

THE COUNCIL OF TRENT. 99

months afterwards (April), the German bishops were,
under certain restrictions, empowered to accord the
cup in the Eucharist to the laity. Bat neither the
Empire through its diet, nor Hungary, ever accepted
the Tridentine decrees, though several of the Catholic
estates of the Empire, both spiritual and temporal,
individually accepted them with modifications. The
example of Ferdinand was followed by several other
Powers ; bat in Poland, the diet, to which the de-
crees were twice (1564 and I 5 7 S) presented as having
been accepted by King Sigismund Augustus, refused to
accord its own acceptance, maintaining that the Polish
Church, as such, had never been represented at the
council. In Portugal and in the Swiss Catholic can-
tons, the decrees were received without hesitation,
as also by the Seigniory of Yenice, whose represen-
tatives at Trent had rarely departed from an attitude
of studied moderation, and who now merely safe-
guarded the rights of the Republic. True to the
part recently played by him, the Cardinal of Lor-
raine, on his own responsibility, subscribed to the
decrees in the name of the King of Prance. But
the Parliament of Paris was on the alert, and on
his return home the Cardinal had to withdraw in
disgrace to Bheims. Neither the doctrinal decrees

o

of the council nor the disciplinary, which In part
clashed with the customs o the kingdom and the
privileges of the Galilean Church, were ever pub-
lished in France. The ambassador of Spain, whose
king and prelates had so consistently held out
against the closing of the council, refused his sig-
nature till he had received express instructions. Yet

ioo THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

as It was Spain which, had hoped and toiled for
the achievement at the council of solid results,
so it was here that the decrees fell on the most
grateful soil, when, after considerable deliberation
and delay, their publication at last took place, accom-
panied by stringent safeguards as to the rights of
the king and the usages of his subjects (1565).
The same course was adopted in the Italian and
Flemish dependencies of the Spanish monarchy.

The disciplinary decrees of the council, on the
whole, fell short in completeness of the doctrinal.
But while they consistently maintained the
Papal authority and confirmed its formal
pretensions, the episcopal authority too was streng-
thened by them, not only as against the monastic
orders, but in its own moral foundations. More
than this, the whole priesthood, from the Pope down-
wards, benefited by the warnings that had been
administered, by the sacrifices that had been made,
and by the reforms that had been agreed upon.
The Church became more united, less worldly, and
more dependent on herself. These results outlasted
the movement known as the Counter-Reformation,
and should be ignored by no candid mind.

CHAPTER IV.

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT.

THE period during which the movement of the Coun-
ter-Reformation arrived and maintained itself at its
height may be reckoned as covering the thirty years
or thereabouts that ensued upon the close of the
Council of Trent. This period coincides

The religious . A

pohcy of with the main course or the great attempt
of Philip II. of Spain to extinguish Pro-
testantism in Europe. During these years, the few
advances still made by Protestantism were more than
counterbalanced by its losses elsewhere, while the
Catholic reaction, on the other hand, fully developed
its resources. It had now become an integral part
of the ecclesiastical policy of Rome, which during
far the greater portion of this period closely followed
that of Spain, and never so much as contemplated a
return to less direct and active courses.

From Spain, then, the entire movement, as before
and at the Council of Trent, so during the preceding
generation, received its chief impulses. The absolu-
tism of the new Spanish monarchy enabled the will of
Philip H. to reflect itself in the whole character of

102 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Iris government at home, and of its action and influence
abroad. Whether or not he had momentarily winked
at Protestantism in England, in his own kingdom he
was the uncompromising champion of orthodoxy. His
jealousy of his royal prerogatives, although it led to many
troublesome differences between him and the Holy See,
did not interfere with his fidelity to its interests and those
of the Church. What he demanded was that even the
Pope should only exercise power in Spain through and
by means of him, the king. Of Ms European policy,
which involved him in so much combative intrigue
and aggressive war, the objects were no doubt largely
fixed for him by the mere geographical conditions of his
inheritance ; but though these may have "been, the origi-
nal causes of the chief contests of his reign, religions
enthusiasm sustained the resolution of Philip in both
instances, as it sped the galleons of the great Armada
to their doom, and bound the arms of the Leaguers
with the Castilian red.

The ecclesiastical agency on which Philip's system
of government above all depended was that of the
phiiip ir a*d Inquisition, which had not only altogether
tlitiln< i ulslutm - subjugated the Spanish nation, but did its
utmost, as cases like those of Luis de Leon ( 157176)
and Archbishop Carranza show, to terrorise over the
Spanish Church. At the same time it persecuted with
unabated zeal whatever unusual efforts of learning and
scholarship provoked suspicion, such as those of Fran-
cisco de Sanchez (El Brocense), the learned editor of
early national poetry (1582). Moreover, the prohibi-
tions of the Index were rigorously enforced by Philip,
the penalties of confiscation of property, and even of

THE Co UNTER-REFORMA TION AT ITS HEIGHT. 1 03

death, being denounced against those who infringed
them. Popular feeling, no doubt, continued to meet
this system of repression more than half-way. The
Lutheran Keformation, if it had penetrated into Spain
at all, had left no traces behind it ; the Scriptures
remained virtually unknown ; nor is the absence of
independent theological speculation disproved by sucli
exceptions as that of the Navarrese Servetus. The
universities were falling into decay. Alcala appealed
to the Pope against Salamanca (i 574), and Salamanca
dwindled to half its former number of students, though
an early edict of Philip II. (1558) had prohibited his
subjects from resorting to foreign seats of learning.
Inasmuch as the same condition of intellectual sub-
jection prevailed in the reign of Philip III. (1598
1621)5 its impress is perceptible during a long period
even in those branches of literature which might seem
farthest removed from theology and moral philosophy.
Thus the Spanish theatre was subjected to a rigorous
censorship (1587), and would have corne to an end
through the fiat of the dying Philip II. (1598), were
it as easy to suppress as it is to control the estab-
lished amusements of a people.

But though the co-operation of the monarchy and
the Inquisition could effect much, it could not sustain
The spiritual ^ Q spiritual enthusiasm to which, as a
Spanish movement, the Counter-Keforma-
t - on owe( j its origin. In a revival or up-
rising of this description, ideas must find personal
representatives capable of satisfying the imagination
of the people ; and such were, in this period, the
leading figures among the Spanish mystics, to the

iO4 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

earlier of whom reference lias already been made.
Such, above all, was the holy woman whom the national
assembly of Spain saluted as a saint before
she was canonised by Borne (1622), and
whom many generations after her death insurgent
patriotism named generalissimo, of the armies of Spain.
The chief historical significance of the reformatory
movement begun by St. Teresa after all lies in its
having in a large measure met the religious aspirations
of the national mind, thus occupying the ground else-
where seized by dogmatic dissent or sectarianism.
Teresa de Ahumada, or, as she afterwards called her-
self, Teresa de Jesus (151582), was of ancient Cas-
tilian lineage, and brought up to a love of chivalrous
romance. She ran away to become a nun, but soon
found the inside of the convent walls almost as worldly
as the world without. Long years of poignant spiritual
sufferings taught her the power and the rapture of
prayer, and transformed without unhinging her mind.
Towards the end of this period her Jesuit confessor
and other members of his Society settled in her native
town of Avila, encouraged her aspirations, and accepted
her accounts of her visions. Yet the fire of action
was after all kindled in her by the earlier example of
St. Peter of Alcantara, whose bare-footed friars cer-
tainly suggested the foundation of the house of the
discalced Carmelite nuns at Avila (1562), the begin-
ning of a reform which, before Teresa's death, extended
over seventy-three, and within about two centuries over
more than seven hundrtsd, convents. She was assisted
in her labours by kindred spirits, such as Juan of
the Cross, the reformer of the male Carmelites., and

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT. 105

Jerome Gratian of tlie Mother of God, whose appoint-
ment to the visitorship of all the Carmelites of Anda-
lusia gave rise to the conflict between the reformed
and the unreformed sections of the order which so
greatly troubled St. Teresa's later years. She would
not have been victorious in the end, when Gregory
XIII. severed the discalced from the mitigated Car-
melites (1580), had it not been for the support of
King Philip. From the charges brought against
her a few years earlier, by personal spite or folly,
and taken up by the Inquisition, she had easily cleared
herself.

The efforts of St. Teresa during the last fifteen years
of her life, and their hard-won success, would go far to
account for the influence exercised by her upon her
contemporaries. But she had also found time to com-
pose those prose manuals of devotion more especially
the Interior Castle^ a kind of Catholic castle of Man-
soul which might almost be described as the popular
text-books of Spanish mysticism. Far removed alike
from quietism and from pantheism, she is practical in
the midst of her elevated piety, and a ' mild and
milky J humankindness percolates the intensity of her
enthusiasm. Thus the ecstatic visionary who beheld the
Saviour at her right hand may be numbered among
those who, with clear eye and humble heart, have toiled
to advance His cause among men, because the divine
love of which she thought herself a chosen witness was
the love that bears fruit in action.

The spirit of unworldly and unselfish piety which
animated much of the religious life of Spain in this
period was likewise actively at work in the very centre

106 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

of the hierarchical system of the Church of Rome. The
reforms of the Council of Trent proved far from ineffec-
tive, and Rome herself, amidst all the dangers
uefonn itiou and disturbances through which that city
passed, assumed and maintained an aspect
befitting her religious pretensions. The Tridentine de-
crees, with tbeir prohibitions of non-residence, pluralities,
and other profitable abuses, could not, in the nature ot
the case, be generally popular at Rome. But they found
loyal upholders in the Popes, encouraged as they were
in their attitude by the Spanish king, upon whom the
three predecessors of Sixtus V. consistently leant. The
simplicity under Pius V. it might be called austerity
of the Papal court in this period contrasts with the
easy luxury of earlier and the formal grandeur of later
days. If the Papal government under Gregoiy XIII.
pressed its feudal rights home with undue vigour, the
Christiaa world at large was no longer aggrieved by
a system of scandalous exactions* The College of
Cardinals underwent a similar change, and not only in
externals, as to which Cardinal Borromeo had set a
salutary example. The restrictions imposed by the
conciliar decrees combined with the large increase in
the number of the members of the Sacred College to
diminish simultaneously the importance and the attrac-
tions of the dignity ; and even under Clement VIII.
(l 5921605), according to Bellarmine, the households
of most of the cardinals were established on no extra-
vagant footing.

As a matter of course, the strength of the current
varied according to the circumstances of the successive
pontificates, and more especially according to the cha-

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT. 107

racter of eacli successive Pope. Pius V. (156672)
carried into St. Peter's chair the traditions of the
order of St. Dominic. As Cardinal Ghis-
lieri, he had held the office of Inquisitor-
general at Eome during the two previous ponti-
ficates, and no break in the activity of the Inquisition
ensued on his elevation. Under him the Tridentine
decrees became a working test, from which he allowed
no prelate, priest, or monastic order to remain exempt ;
while the Inquisition was encouraged to call to account
even the highest dignitaries of the most loyal churches,
such as the Archbishop of Toledo. The Pope's reli-
gious zeal knew no bounds as to the duties which he
imposed upon either himself or others ; and such were
the purity and holiness of the conduct of his life, both
public and private, that his canonisation in later days
(1712) admits of no cavil. He was the sworn foe of
nepotism, and his bull Admonet nos (1567) prohibited
for ever the alienation of any fief of the Church, thus
setting the example of the non possumus since steadily
maintained. In his foreign policy, too, he was essen-
tially consistent. In 1568 he reissued with additions
the bull In ccend Domini, which explicitly asserted
the claims of the Papacy to the supreme control of the
states of the world. He congratulated Alva on the
efficiency of his Council of Blood, and exhorted Charles
IX. to pull up the Huguenot heresy by the very fibres
of its roots (i 569). He took part in the French wars
with money and men ; and while he spared no pains
to animate the lukewarm loyalty of the Emperor Maxi-
milian II. towards the Church, he was ready to cut
off from it a rebellious member like Queen. Elizabeth

roS THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

(1570), and to interest himself in the plots directed
against her life. The supreme effort of his European
policy was the formation of the league between Spain
and Venice, which resulted in the naval victory of
Lepanto (1571), memorable to Catholic Christianity
for all succeeding times, nor, to do Pius V. justice,
barren of practical results by his fault.

Gregory XIII. (Buoncompagni),who followed Pius V.

in the Papal chair, was chiefly occupied with the fearful

excesses of the banditti, and with the preten-

Gregory XIII. , . A

sions of their good friends and patrons, the
baronage of the Roman States. Thougli unsuccessful in
his attempt to put an end to the anarchy around him, he
gravitated back in some measure towards that propitia-
tory system from which it was difficult for the temporal
power to shake itself free, even when, as in his case, it
no longer had dynastic aims in view. Yet, as he pru-
dently refrained from seeking to maintain the full
rigour of the discipline introduced by his predecessor
into the life of Church and laity, Rome, which under
him largely increased in the numbers of its inhabitants,
no longer felt doomed to decline, but could more easily
reconcile itself with the reformatory movement. By
the spirit of that movement Gregory's ecclesiastical
policy was essentially animated. Not only did he
encourage life-long labours like those of Philip of Neri
(1515-95), which clothed in a garb of humorous
cheerfulness the heroism of self-sacrifice, but he neither
concealed his belief, nor spared expenditure to prove
ft, that the Papacy ought to be a combative power.
He hailed with open satisfaction the news of the
Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572), and sent forth

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT. 109

the mission to England (1580), of which no historian
has as yet fully demonstrated the significance. He
was active both in advancing the propagation of the
faith in distant lands and in the endowment of
churches and the establishment of colleges nearer
home. His interest in the promotion of clerical
education was more especially noteworthy ; and, herein
thoroughly in accordance with the Jesuits, whom he
specially favoured, he helped to carry into effect one
of the most important of the principles approved by
the Council of Trent. Even the promulgation of the
Calendar which bears his name (1582) would suffice
to disprove his having been the papa negativits, the
Pope of mere intentions, as which he was derided by
Roman wit.

It was, however, with Sixtus V. (Montalto) that, as
the very legends clustering round the history of his
origin and election seem to testify, the full
vigour and self-reliance of the Papal govern-
ment once more renewed themselves. Already in the
earliest years of his manhood, when known throughout
Italy as an eloquent and fearless popular preacher, he
became one of the most active labourers in the cause
of the Catholic Reformation, and excited the interest
of the future Popes Paul IV. and Pius V., as well as of
Loyola and of Philip of Neri. The severity with which
he afterwards reformed the convents of his brother
Franciscans at Siena, Naples, and Venice further
raised his reputation at Rome ; but at Venice, where
he for a time acted as Inquisitor, the Seigniory in the
end demanded and obtained his recall. He was after-
wards appointed vicar-general of his order at Rome,

i io THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

and lost no opportunity of continuing his strife against
the backward and the lukewarm. His journey to Spain
as theologian to Cardinal Buoncompagni (afterwards
Pope Gregory XIII.), on his mission for the settlement
of Carranaa's case, led to disputes which long left their
sting. When Montalto, whom Pius V. had raised to
the cardinalate, came forth from the retirement into
which he had withdrawn under Gregory's pontificate,
the change in him was assuredly due to no previous
dissimulation. Indeed, of hypocrisy there was no trace
in his brusque and coarse nature ; for such it cer-
tainly remained, notwithstanding his delight in books
and the arts, especially architecture, which under him
added so largely to the grandeur as well as to the
orthodoxy of the aspect of Rome. His earliest suc-
cess was the complete restoration of order in the Papal
states as against the banditti and their protectors.
His financial arrangements in conjunction with the
frugality of his expenditure secured to his government
a large annual surplus. His bull Immensa ceterna Dei
reorganised the whole pontifical system of govern-
ment by a careful distribution of its functions among
fifteen Congregations or committees of cardinals, of
which the first was the Holy Office, charged with the
control of all matters of faith, and presided over by the
Pope in person. Another bull (Postqitam vcriis ille)
fised the number of cardinals at seventy. Though
on the whole his creations wero confined to men of
eminent piety and reforming opinions, he was unable
to escape altogether the avdyxi} of the temporal power,
and his nephew, the youthful Cardinal Montalto, came
to be his chief minister for foreign affairs, and indeed

THE COUNTER-REFORM A TION A T ITS HEIGHT, in

for matters of state in general. For the rest, no sove-
reign was ever more his own master. He endeavoured
to maintain an active communication with the bishops
without constantly interfering with their diocesan
authority, and he was not afraid of modifying on
occasion even the privileges of the Inquisition. As
for the Jesuits, he treated them coolly, and placed on
the Index a work of their redoubtable controversialist
Bellarmine.

Sixtus V. frequently declared his desire for a great
crusade against the Turk, but he can hardly be sup-
posed to have intended the treasures hoarded by him
to be exhausted by this object. His first overtures
were inevitably made to Philip II., whom, however, he
found to be intent upon very different aims. He could
not gainsay the logical necessity of a Spanish invasion
of England, though he would have preferred, had it
been possible, the conversion of Queen Elizabeth, be-
tween whom and himself there prevailed an odd kind of
mutual regard. He promised a large annual subsidy
to Philip ; but the failure of the Armada materially
diminished his respect for the King, whom, together
with his ambassador Olivarez, he heartily disliked, and
who had offended him by his claim to regulate ecclesi-
astical titles in Spain. At the same time Sixtus V.
never thought either of making war upon Philip or of
attempting, like Paul IV., to wrest Naples from his
hands* His foes were the foes of the Church, such
as Geneva, which he at first encouraged Charles Em-
manuel of Savoy to attack, and his friends were her
friends, such as King Stephen Bathory of Poland (1575-
86), on whose death, followed by the accession of the

ii2 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Swedish Sigismund, he warmly interested himself in
the maintenance of Catholicism in Poland at its re-
establishment in Sweden. But nowhere had the poli-
tical energy of Sixtus V. so difficult a field of action as
in France, which he was anxious both to preserve to
the Church and to prevent from becoming a depen-
dency of Spain.

Whether or not it be true that the first of the re-
ligious wars of Prance (156263) preserved Prance
from becoming a Huguenot countrv, at all

The rehcious " / _ .

struggle m events after the Convention 01 Amboise
(March 1563) such a result was no longer
possible. Pius IV/s angry schemes of revanche were
dropped at the instance of the French crown ; nor is
there any evidence to show that at the Conference of
Bayonne (June 1565) a plan was concocted for the
complete recovery of France for Catholicism with
the aid of Spain and Eome. But the -extirpation of
Protestantism throughout the monarchy was certainly
counselled there, and before long auxiliaries were
sent by Alva from the Netherlands, and a large sub-
sidy was promised by Philip if Charles IX. would con-
tinue the war (January 1568). Thus the struggle
against the Huguenots soon assumed a complexion in
harmony with the conceptions of Philip of Spain and
with the Counter-Reformation movement. A league
for the extirpation of heresy was established at Toulouse
under the name of a crusade (September 1568), and
the fanaticism of the Catholic preachers was revived
on no less primitive a type. The victory of Jarnac
and the death of Cond (i3th March 1569) elicited
from the delighted Pius V. admonitions to Charles IX,

COUNTER-RZFORMA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 1 1 3

to tear up not only the roots of the evil, but the very
fibres of the roots. But the cool selfishness of Catharine
de' Medici and her sons contributed almost as much as
tlie heroic pertinacity of the Huguenots to avert such
a doom from France. The Peace of St. Gei miin ( 1 5 70)
was sincerely meant by Charles IX., the policy of
whose government was at this time so far removed
from subservience to Spain as to be in direct contact
with Elizabeth of England, with William of Orange,
and with Coligny himself. The friends of the Catholic
reaction felt that so dangerous a tendency must be
arrested; and the proposed marriage between the
sister of the king and the young Huguenot King of
Navarre was as odious to Pope Pius Y. as it was to
the bigoted populace of Paris. Yet the immediate re-
sponsibility of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (24th
August 1572) cannot be shifted from the shoulders
where it rests. The origin of the crime has to be
sought, not in the fanaticism of the Guises, but in
Catharine de' Medici's jealousy of Coligny's influence
over the King, and in the momentary impulse which
stirred up Charles to act for himself; The fire once lit,
found inflammatory matter in abundance in the bigoted
capital and in other parts of the country. The news
of the massacre, received with joy and thanksgiving by
Philip II. and the new Pope, Gregory XIII., could not
fail to intensify with unprecedented force the bitterness
of the religious conflict in France, and in Europe gene-
rally. But the religious policy of the French Govern-
ment continued wavering, and during the remainder of
the reign of Charles IX. by no means identified itself
with the aims of the reaction. On the accession of

C\ H. H

H4 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Henry III. (1574), there was much uncertainty as to
what influence would establish itself over his shallow and
unstable mind, whether that of the tolerant Maximilian
II. and the Doge Mocenigo, or that of Pope Gregory
and the Cardinal of Lorraine, now near his end (De-
cember 1574). At first he seemed prepared to use
force against the Huguenots, and -Jesuit and other in-
fluences induced him to set on foot a kind of Counter-
Reformation on his own account, during which the
Flagellants were violently brought into fashion. But
this, of course, could not last ; and in the so-called Peace
of Monsieur (1576) terms were granted to the Hugue-
nots that caused a loud outcry at Paris and elsewhere,
to which the Guises were no strangers. Thus arose
the Holy League (1576), which had been preceded by
analogous associations, but soon, with the aid both of
the Jesuits and in more popular spheres of the Fran-
ciscans, absorbed in itself all the minor confederacies.
Whether or not the League from the first pursued the
design of supplanting the King by Henry, Duke of
Guise, its origin was certainly native, though the name
of Philip of Spain was before long associated with its
operations.

The changes in the attitude of the wretched Henry III.
towards the League and towards the Huguenots which
ensued show him. writhing under an unbearable incu-
bus. The death of his even more contemptible brother
Anjou (1581), shortly after, in the Peace of Fleix,
favourable terms had been granted to the Huguenots,
gave to the Protestant Henry of Navarre the next here-
ditary claim to the throne, and at the same time seemed
to call upon the League and its supporters to accom-

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT. 1 1 5

plish both tlieir avowed and their secret objects. Thus
the understanding agreement plot was matured, to
which the chiefs of the League, the Guises in particular,
and Philip of Spain were parties. In 1 5 84, they, to-
gether with Charles Emmanuel of Savoy, entered into a
compact amounting to a scheme for subduing France, in
part by foreign arm s. Only a year earlier, Pope G regory J s
demand for the introduction into France of the whole of
the Tridentine decrees had been accompanied by a large
influx of Jesuits, and an organisation of the League had
been established at Paris, which, in complete understand-
ing with the Guises, evoked the spirit of the commune
to aid in the destruction of the national monarchy.
Henry III. now entreated Henry of Navarre to abjure
the profession of the Protestant faith which barred his
succession to the throne ; for in the Treaty of Joinville
(January 1585)5 Spain, the Guises, and the Cardinal
of Bourbon united in support of the Cardinal's candi-
dature for the now vacant throne, and of the exclusion
of all heretic princes, while the aid of Spain was pro-
mised to the League.

Sixtus V., surrounded by Hispaniolising cardinals, at

first continued to aim at a reconciliation between the

Catholic League and Henry III., and was

SixfusV., ... f J .. .' .

Henry iy, even induced to publish a depriving bull
9X1 iMUn " against Navarre and Conde (September
1585). But he had been gradually cooling towards
the League, which so openly menaced the independ-
ence of the French monarchy, when the assassination
by the Bang's orders of the Guises changed the
aspect of affairs (September 1588). The Pope could
not avoid calling the unhappy King to account at

n6 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

least for the murder of the Cardinal ; but the assassina-
tion of Henry III. himself (August 1589) once more
introduced a change in the situation. For a time it
seemed necessary to go hand in hand with Spain in
opposing the accession of Henry of Navarre. c The
Catholic faith/ said Sixtus, ' is even nearer to our heart
than France/ But Henry had resolved upon his course,
and the assurances of his agent, Luxemburg, found a
ready listener in the Pope. During the lifetime of the
Cardinal of Bourbon, whom the Leaguers recognised as
King Charles X., the policy of Sixtus was accordingly
one of postponement. On the Cardinal's death (May
1 590)5 no escape remained from one of two alternatives
Henry IT., or some vassal pure and simple of Spain.
It was then that Philip II. proposed to the Pope a de-
finitive treaty of alliance, of which the latter delayed the
signature till his hand was cold in death. Before Sixtus
Y, passed away (27th August 1590) it had become
clear that he would be no party to the Spanish bargain.
So far as in her lay, Eome had saved France from Spain.
During the thirty years covered by these pontificates
the movement of the Count er-Eeformation in Italy
had thus in the main followed the lines and
intellectual employed the agencies adopted by it in the

effectsoftbe *\ J . _ T

connter-Befor- previous period. The results produced were

mation in Italy. *,,.., , .,, -,. , ,.

of that mixed character with which parti-
san history has no patience, combining as they did
the edifying influence of lives and labours like those of
St. Charles Borromeo and St. Philip of STeri with the
morally and intellectually deadening effect of Inquisi-
tion and Index. Doubtless examples of saintly lives
are to be found in many periods of Italian history

THE COUNTER-REFORM A TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 1 1 7

besides this; but, on the other Land, neither was the
decay of learning and letters in Italy entirely owing to
the Holy Office, or even to the complete establishment
in this period of the control of Spain over a large part
of the peninsula. The Renascence had to a great
extent worked itself out ; nor is there sufficient reason
for the assumption that the Italian mind in general
was prepared to turn with compensatory zeal to those
scientific studies which the reaction held in especial
abhorrence. The steady progress and extension of the
operations of the Jesuits, more especially in the sphere
of higher education, which reached its height under
Gregory XIII., indisputably contributed to diminish
the mental vigour of the nation. For the freedom of
the Renascence, or the license into which it had too
easily degenerated, was substituted a system even less
defensible than the hard exclusiveness of the Inquisi-
tion a method of reduction, expurgation, emasculation,
which shrank from nothing because it could assimilate
everything. Italian literature shows unmistakable
signs of this influence, though it may savour of ex-
aggeration to attribute the blending of sensuousness
with pietism in Torquato Tasso (1544-95) to the
principles instilled into him as a boy by the Jesuits.
Nor has it proved difficult to show that Italian art,
plastic, pictorial, and musical, begins in this period to
exhibit the same impress. Even more wide-reaching
is the question, whether the continuance (for it was in
any case a continuance) of the moral corruption of
Italian society is to be ascribed, as it has been from
Fra Paolo downwards, to Jesuit misdirection of con-
sciences. Statistics (even when perfectly trustworthy)

iiS THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

of crime and immorality, of brigandage and piracy, of
social disorganisation and superstitious remedies hardly
less pernicious than the disease, must be viewed as
results of many contributory causes. The yoke of the
foreigner and the ascendancy of his influence over all
national aspirations, the weakness of native, and, espe-
cially before Sistus V., of ecclesiastical government,
the contempt, of which the later Italian Eenascence had
set the fashion, for mere moral restraints, and the in-
eradicable tendency of human things to go from bad
to worse all these causes should be taken into account
together with the deteriorating influences attributed
with good reason to much of the Jesuit teaching of
this age. No authoritative exposition of its principles
sanctioning any more advanced developement of them
was, however, in this period put forth by the Society,
which had good reason to be on its guard under Popes
so unfavourable to it as Pius V. and Sixtus V.

In the great struggle carried on by the Counter-

Eeformation from these centres the resistance opposed

to it varied alike in character and in results.

The Counter-

Reformation in France the end was a compromise or

and the revolt .... _

of the Nether- which time alone could test the value ; m the
i Netherlands, an enduring schism ; in Eng-
land and the Scandinavian North, national defiance.
There remained the debateable land of Central Europe.
The progress of the conflict in France has been already
touched Tipon. From first to last, the struggle here
was much affected by the course of the revolt of the
Netherlands, which largely owed its origin to religious
causes. It has been asserted that the real cause of the
insurrection was the selfish discontent of the nobility.

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION AT ITS HEIGHT. 1 19

Moreover, it has been argued that Philip merely carried
out the edicts periodically promulgated by his father;
nor, in truth, had the Reformation at the time of his
accession obtained much real hold over the inhabi-
tants of the Provinces at large. The slowness of the
earlier advance of Protestantism in this quarter is,
however, sufficiently explained by the character of
the population, while the religious Peace of Augsburg
helps to account for the comparative rapidity of its
extension about the time in question. Again, how
could the increased activity of religious persecution
early in Philip's reign, when the government of the
Provinces was becoming wholly Spanish, fail to ex-
cite the most serious fears that, notwithstanding the
King's denial (1562), the establishment of the Spanish
Inquisition was actually intended? For a moment it
seemed, under the government of Margaret of Parma,
that a measure of concessions might be obtained by
Egmont at Madrid (1565). But Philip protested
before the crucifix that he would never call himself
master of recreants, and sent instructions for the con-
tinuance of the persecution, and for the enforcement
(with the usual reservations) of the Tridentine decrees.
An. emigration of some 30,000 persons ensued, and
the troubles began (1566). By midsummer all
seemed over, and the May edict, demanding summary
immediate death against the preachers of the reformed
religion, triumphant. Yet it was Alva's arrival (August
1567), and the excesses of authority ensuing, which
led to the outbreak of the real struggle (1568). The
c Council of Blood,' to whose extreme penalty, by the
sentence of the Inquisition and subsequent royal pro-

120 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

clamation, all the inhabitants of the Netherlands were,
as declared heretics, rendered obnoxious (Feb. I568J,
is reckoned to have during the seven years of Alva's
government doomed 1 8,000 human beings to death by
the executioner's hands. In Alva, even had not the
Papal blessing expressly descended upon the symbols
of his military authority, popular feeling recognised the
agent of Kome not less than the servant of Spain, and
through him the revolt of the Netherlands was defi-
nitively stamped as both a popular and a religious up-
rising. The peace negotiations at Breda (15 75) came
to a speedy end on the religious question, and it was
as exclusively Protestant communities that these Pro-
vinces formally emancipated themselves from Spanish
control under the stadtholderate of William of Orange
(157576). It was again the religious question that
largely helped to break up the wider confederation,
which, in the Pacification of Ghent (1576), included, to-
gether with these northern, fifteen southern provinces.
After the emigration in Alva's days, the large majority of
the inhabitants in the southern provinces were Catholics.
They were found ready to abolish the Inquisition and
to annul the obnoxious edicts of Charles V. ; but they
conceded no more than the liberty of private worship
to the ProtestantSj and thereby shut the door upon the
emigrants. Under the administration of Don John of
Austria (1576-78), whose mind was wholly set upon
a great naval expedition for the liberation of Mary
Queen of Scots, Orange attempted to maintain the
national union against Spain on the basis of mutual
tolerance between Protestants and Catholics (Decem-
ber 1577; but his noble and unique endeavour must

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 1 2 1

have failed even had it not been, for Alexander Far-
nese's victory of Gemblours (January 1578). Under
Parma's own administration (157892) the separation
of North and South was accomplished. The Union
of Utrecht (1579), though it left the door open to
the Catholic provinces, announced the inevitable
The dualism dualism, and in the same year the sack of
established. M aes t r i c ht decided the Walloons to return
to their allegiance to Philip of Spain, and to exclude all
forms of faith but the Roman Catholic. The Peace
Congress at Cologne dissolved itself (1580), and the
United Provinces renounced the sovereignty of the
c tyrant ' who claimed to be their ruler. The events
which followed made no change in these general rela-
tions. In 1584 the victories of Parma led to the sub- *
mission of Flanders and to the restoration of Catholicism
there, with a reservation to the Protestants of the right
of private worship. The death of Anjou, whose con-
temptible part had been played out, and the murder of
William of Orange, were indeed followed by farther
negotiations with France, but they were cut short by
the capitulation of Brussels to Parma (March 1585);
and the fate of the whole of the Southern Netherlands
was decided by the fall of Antwerp (August). The
city was speedily re- Catholicised with the help of the
Jesuits, and with it the Belgic provinces were perma-
nently lost to the Union and to Protestantism-

During nine further years the struggle continued
before, by the restoration of the whole of the United
Provinces to independence, the balance between them
and the Spanish Netherlands was finally adjusted. In
the earlier of these years Parma's powers were crippled

122 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

by the armaments for tbe invasion of England, in which
he was to have taken part. During the remainder
of his life the intervention of Spain in the French
civil war obliged him to postpone the reconqnest of
the Netherlands, as well as the conquest of England ;
and his death (December 1592) closed the prospect of
any further advance of tlie Counter-Reformation in the
Low Countries. From 1594 the war against Spain
becomes an international war. If in the very province
(Holland) which had been the mainstay of the great
revolt may be descried, half a century later, the traces
of a Catholic reaction powerful enough to command the
adherence of the favourite national poet (Joost van den
Vondel), this movement must be viewed as an inevitable
intellectual revolt against the rigid Calvinism which
triumphed over the Arminians at Dort (1618-19).

Both Rome and the Escurial convinced themselves
very slowly of the delusiveness of the hope that Queen
Elizabeth would adhere to the Church re-
established in England by her sister ; nor
COII j^ gixtus Y. bring himself to despair
of her conversion. Whatever may have been the secret
wishes of the majority of the English clergy, the
pendulum of public opinion after her accession swung
strongly in the Protestant direction. Even in Lanca-
shire it needed the personal exertions of William (after-
wards Cardinal) Allen to arrest the practice of confor-
mity in his native county (1562). From this time
forward the English mission periodically attracted the 1
efforts of Catholic zeal, and English Jesuits were spora-
dically engaged in missionary labours in this country.
But the first enduring impulse in this direction was

THE COUNT ER-REFORMA TION AT ITS HEIGHT. 123

given "by the establishment, through the zeal of Allen
and others, of an English College in the University

The English f Douay in 1568. This was the year in
colleges. w k ich Mary Q ueen of g cots became a fugi-
tive and a prisoner in England, after in Scotland the
Parliament which had accepted her forced resignation
had done its utmost to accomplish the extirpation of
the Roman faith. Before the year was out, the first
plots for her liberation had been formed, and the strug-
gle for the English throne had begun. Her release
formed part of the programme of the rebellion of the
Northern Earls, who took up arms for the restoration
of the Catholic religion under the banner of the
Five Wounds of Christ (1569); it was she who was
to take the place of Elizabeth, excommunicated by the
bull of Pius V. (15/0), and doomed to a violent death
by the Ridolfi plot (1571). The manager of this
latter scheme was armed with credentials from the Pope
to commend him to the Catholic nobility of England.
The foundation of the English College at Douay, sig-
nificant as the earliest result of the Tridentine decree
on clerical seminaries, was of special moment for the
course of the religious struggle in England. Driven
away for some years from Douay (i57S~93) 5 "^e
college was speedily re-established at Rheims under
the protection of the Guises and with a subvention
from Philip II. To Allen, who superintended the man-
agement of the college in both places, was likewise
due the reorganisation of the English College at Rome
(1579), originally an offshoot of Douay. And it was
under his influence that Gregory XIII. allowed the
Jesuit mission to go forth, which in April 1 5 80 left

124 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION*

Rome for England under the leadership of Robert
Parsons and of Edmund Campion, afterwards (De-
cember 1581) its protomartyr. Most of
missionof its members had been trained at Douay ;
15 many, before they had resided here, or at

Rheims, Paris and Rome, had been members of an
English university, more generally of Oxford. Large
numbers followed in their wake; according to an
authorised computation, 250 Catholic priests were
sent into England within the years 1575 "to 1585
only; and sixty of these suffered martyrdom. Those
who suffered death in these years were executed for
denying the Queen's ecclesiastical supremacy ; they
were therefore punished as traitors, though many of
them, when interrogated on the subject at their trials,
steadily professed their recognition of the Queen as
their lawful sovereign. The rigour of these persecu-
tions was increased by the discovery of the plots
against the Queen's life, which in 1584 led to the
formation of the association, sanctioned by Act of
Parliament, for the protection of her life, and, if need
were, for revenge upon those who had taken it. Many
suffered under another Act ordering Jesuits and other
seminary priests to leave the kingdom within forty
days, under the penalty of treason. With the Jesuits
the memories of Catholic martyrdom in England pre-
eminently connect themselves ; the special rigour shown
towards the members of the order surrounded it with
so glorious a halo in the eyes of the zealous, that many
caused themselves to be received into it when actually
face to face with death.

And as the English propaganda of the Jesuits con-

THE COUNTER~REFORMA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 125

tinued, their colleges in Flanders, Lorraine, Spain, and
elsewhere increased and multiplied, till a whole series of
refuges stood open to the expatriated. Yet the Jesuits
had no monopoly of martyrdom ; many other priests
suffered death and the tortures which preceded or ac-
companied it, while the recusancy statutes of this and
the following reign placed a considerable proportion of
the gentry of the land within the walls of its prisons.
To what extent the steady endurance shown "by so many
Catholic families in England was due to the Eliza-
bethan propaganda, and to what extent the Catholic
revival of the days of James I. and Charles I. was
prepared by it, cannot be easily determined. In any
case, the fruits of the Counter-Reformation in England
were not all gathered in when the great issues of the
European conflict seemed to decide themselves when
Duessa was caught in the toils, and the great Armada
came and was dissipated.

Among the designs elaborated at Rome, in the Jesuit
colleges and in the family council of the Guises, had

been the intrigue of which Esm^ Stuart,
reaction m Count d'Aubigny, whom James YL created

Earl of Lennox, was the central figure. Its
object was to lestore French influence, and thus
gradually to re establish a Catholic ascendancy in Scot-
land, to be followed by the association of the liberated
Mary with her son in its government, and perhaps
by a marriage between Lennox and Arabella Stuart,
always a possible claim aoat for the English throne.
The plan was, however, misliked by Philip 11., and
extinguished by the Raid of Ruthven (1582), which
had at its back a solid popular resistance.

126 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Very different, of course, was the state of religious
feeling in Ireland, where a long series of popular in-
surrections (Ulster 1565, Munster 1569,
Connaught 1577) had exposed the hollow-
^^ ^ jjlizabeth's Protestant Establishment.
But though, the eyes of the Irish had long turned to
Spain, Philip hesitated about taking any measures
tending to sever the connexion between England and
Ireland; nor was it till 1579 that the outrages of
Drake effectively supplemented the arguments urged
upon the King two years before by Nicholas Sanders.
After Sanders and his companions had landed in
Kerry and the insurrection of Desmond had broken
out, Philip connived at the despatch of a slight re-
inforcement from Spain (1580), but only with the
result of causing the massacre of Smerwick. In
Tyrone's insurrection Spain co-operated late and in-
effectively (1602). Thus the Counter-Reformation
cannot be said to have availed^ itself to much purpose
of the vantage-ground offered to it by the loyalty of
the Irish people to the Church of Eome.

In one of the Scandinavian kingdoms an attempt
was made within this period to bring about a reaction
towards Rome, but under conditions almost
prohibitory of permanent success. Gustavus

im ?! ifof Vasa (1523-60) , the liberator of Sweden, had
w en " atWesterasin 1529 completely transferred
to himself the supreme authority in matters ecclesias-
tical. The episcopal system came to a virtual, and the
monasteries to an absolute, end. The nobility was
largely gained for the Eafe^mation by being allowed a
share in the spoils, and the people's assent was won

THE COUNTER-REFORM A TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 1 27

over ratter than forced ; for in the reign of Gustavus
I., which counts so many political victims, the penalty
of death was never undergone for the sake of religion.
But nnder John IIL (1569-92) a reaction was at-
tempted. John had overthrown his elder brother, the
unhappy Eric XIV., in alliance with his younger
brother, Charles, whose authority, though he had for-
mally renounced his claim to a share of the throne,
more or less overshadowed it till he actually seated
himself there. While Charles steadily professed his
adherence to the national Church as founded by their
father upon the Bible, the attitude of John towards the
religious question contributed materially to endanger
his tenure of the throne. Possessed of some theo-
logical learning, John at first showed a desire to
unite the contending religions on the basis of the
tenets and usages of the primitive Church, and of
concessions such as those contained in the Augsburg
Interim, which had been already rejected by Sweden
in i 549 ; but the result was, that while the nation re-
mained unmoved, the King himself, largely influenced
by his beloved consort, Catharine, a daughter of Sigis-
mund I. of Poland, drifted nearer and nearer to Rome.
As early as 1572 Cardinal Hosius was full of his
praises, and in 1576 he commissioned two Jesuits,
under the guise of Lutheran preachers, to work upon
Swedish opinion. Hereupon the Counter-Beformation
began, favoured by King John, but in so uncertain a
fashion as to disquiet Pope Gregory XIIL, who dis-
approved of the tortuous proceedings of the Jesuits,
and called upon the King openly to profess the Catho-
lic faith. He preferred, however, to promulgate his

128 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

Liturgy or Bed Book (1576), which was based upon
the missal approved at Trent and edited by the
Jesuits, with a view to preparing the complete resump-
tion of the mass. At the diet of 15 77, the most
violent of the recalcitrants having been removed, both
clergy and lay estates, with few exceptions, gave in
the required adhesion. But the King's special envoy,
Pontus de la Gardie, failed to obtain Gregory XIII/s
assent to the policy of gradual conversion, accompanied
by interimistic concessions (the marriage of priests and
the Communion in both kinds for the laity), and by con-
formity on the part of the King to heretical worship ;
and the Jesuit Possevin was sent to Sweden to urge
a more decided course. Whether or not he actually
received John into the Church of Eome (at Wadstena
in 1578), the Counter-Reformation now progressed
with much greater openness. Luther's Catechism was
banished from the schools ; the Bishop of Linkoping
was publicly divested of the insignia of his office for
calling the Pope Antichrist ; the archiepiscopate was
kept vacant for four years, and while Jesuits conti-
nued to preach with so much audacity as to incur
reprimands from the Council of State, a number of
Swedish youths were sent abroad to be trained in the
faith of Rome. But before long the King's zeal began
to cool. He had been disappointed in the political
expectations he had founded on the influence of Rome
(especially in the matter of the peace between Russia
and Poland, concluded under the mediation of Possevin
in 1582), and the death of Queen Catharine (1583)
completed the estrangement. Soon the Jesuits were
expelled the realm, and all converts to Rome were

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 1 29

threatened with banishment. When John's heir, Sigis-
mund, was elected King of Poland (1587), his father
exhorted him not to bind himself in obedience to the
Pope. John himself, after indulging in the fleeting
project of union with the Greek Church, clung to the
compromise of his c Eed Book.' But now this liturgy
met with widespread resistance ; clergymen who shrank
from it were deposed, imprisoned, or banished, and
more turbulent opponents paid the penalty of their
lives. While the King embittered the conflict by per-
sonal violence, his brother, Duke Charles, openly stood
forth as the adversary of his innovations. In i 592 King
John died, sick at heart of the results of his futile en-
deavour to reconcile extremes by his royal fictt. On his
death Lutheranism was reintroduced, and a kind of cove-
nant for its maintenance adopted by a mixed clerical
and lay assembly at Upsala (1593); nor "^ere its results
permanently affected by the coronation visit (159394)
of the Catholic King Sigismnnd, accompanied by the
Papal legate Malaspina. The struggle between Sigis-
mund and his uncle Charles which followed forms part
of the European religions conflict, Charles IX., as from
1604 he formally consented to be called, had before
this maintained a diplomatic intercourse with Eliza-
beth and Henry IV., and in 1608 sought an alliance
with the United Provinces. His attempt to establish
Swedish Protestantism on a broader basis than that of
the Augsburg Confession was defeated by the decree
of the Upsala Assembly of 1 607.

No attempt at a Catholic reaction followed upon
the establishment of the Eeformation in Denmark by

Christian III. (1536); and both in his reign and in
C.H. i

130 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION,

that of his successor, Frederick II. (1559-88), Danish
Protestantism grew typically intolerant. In 1^54?
the year after John a Lasco and a large
intoieiance m number of other fugitives from the Marian
ennui * persecutions had been refused shelter at
Copenhagen, Christian III. prescribed that all strangers
should satisfy the authorities on the subject of their
faith before being allowed to settle in Denmark ; and
in 1559 Frederick II. promulgated a confession of
faith which was to serve as a uniform test on such
occasions. It had been drawn up at the suggestion
of Jacob Andrea?, a rigid Lutheran theologian, re-
commended to Frederick by his brother-in-law, the
Elector Augustus of Saxony. Yet the celebrated For-
mula concordice, by which the latter sought to extin-
guish all Protestant disunion, King Frederick threw
into the fire.

Beyond a doubt the variations of Protestantism

which both these princes desired to reduce or to remove

are to be reckoned among the causes which

The divisions , -t , , ,-t i* ii n i

among Prote- contributed to the progress or the Uounter-
tiie counter- Reformation. The Catholic reaction of the
eormai . gj^g^^ ce ntury benefited by the disunion
produced among the Protestants through variety of
dogma, just as it profited by the scandals of the Re-
formation, (the divorce of Henry VIII., the bigamy of
Philip of Hesse), and by the greed of Church lands
patent in many of the princes who adopted it. With
regard, however, to the variations of Protestantism,
their illustrious historian, Bossuet, assuredly vindicates
their right of existence when he traces them to their
real source. Luther, by insisting on the doctrine of

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 1 3 1

the universal priesthood of Christian believers, laid
the axe at the root of the mighty growth which had
for centuries overshadowed the religious life of the
nations. Henceforth, accordingly, theologians of every
Protestant sect emulously strove to find a generally
acceptable definition of the visible Church, Neither,
however, could the Catholic definition, according to
which the Church has always professed the same truth
through all its members, any longer be upheld with-
out a great vaiiety of explanations and interpretations,
by no means always obviously consistent with one
another. Still, even before the Council of Trent had
promulgated its dogmatic decrees, it was on the Pro-
testant, side that the variations of doctrine had been
most striking, most frequent, and most perplexing to
pious souls. The very Augsburg Confession (1530),
while in a sense conceived in a spirit of concilia-
tion towards Rome, marked with perfect distinctness
the divergence between the doctrinal position of the
Lutherans and that of the Zwinglians, and

Lutheramsm .-,. -,, . ,-. yv /

.-,. -,, . ,-. yv / , .

led, as if designedly, to the Confessw tetra-

e. 5 D . J> * ,

pohtana, which in its turn denned the
Zwinglian standpoint with unprecedented plainness
(1531). Bucer's surrender on the cardinal subject of
the Eucharist in the Wittenberg Concordia (1536) was
not ratified by more than a section of the Zwinglian
Churches. Calvin, who about this time began the
work of his life, exerted himself at Ratisbon (1541) to
keep Melanchthon firm against concession to Rome ;
but the schism remained unhealed, and two years be-
fore his death Luther did his utmost to render it per-
manent by reasserting in their harshest form his views

132 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

on the Eucharistic question (1544). Luther's death
itself encouraged the tendency to disunion with which
the application to religious matters of the principle
of territorial sovereignty so completely fell in. Even
among the Protestant princes and cities of the Augs-
burg Confession each claimed the right of determining
the precise nature of their subjects' creed, after caus-
ing it to be defined by the court or city preacher, or
by the divinity faculty in the local university. In
short the principle, < Cujus est regie, ejus est religio'
was asserted with perfect frankness. As between the
Lutherans and Calvinists, the fact that the religions
peace of Augsburg included the former alone created
an unprecedented bitterness, while their political inte-
rests began to diverge as widely as their confessional
tenets. Hence a desire on both sides to find the
clearest formal expression for existing dogmatic differ-
ences an eagerness quite in harmony with the spirit
of the contemporary Inquisition in Spain and Italy to
purge each territorial or local Church from elements
regarded as strange or intrusive, and a persecution at
last too frequently carried on for its own sate. In the
Empire, the religious division among the Protestants
soon acquired a very marked political significance, more
especially after Frederick III., Elector Palatine, had, by
the promulgation of the Heidelberg Gatecliism in 1562,
taken his natural place at the head of the Calvinists,
and had sent a large force under hie son, John Casimir,
to aid the French Huguenots (1567), thus opening
the long political drama which ended with the catas-
trophe of his great-grandson, Frederick V. The
Calvinist era- iu the Palatinate is marked by ruthless

COUNTER-REFORUZA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 133

intolerance, and the execution of Silvanus at Heidel-
berg (1573) is Lardly less typical than is the burn-
ing of Servetus at Geneva twenty years before. The
headquarters of the most rigid Lutheran orthodoxy
were for a time at Jena, where Flacius, to whom the
systematisation of Lutheranism is largely due, resided
till 1561, in the service of the ill-used Ernestine
line of the Saxon house. He found an unrelenting
enemy in the head of the Albertine line, the Elector
Augustus, who in the earlier part of his reign (1553
86) attempted to maintain a moderate Lutheran atti-
tude ; but his opinions afterwards stiffened : he became
The formula ^ke p r omulgator of the Formida concordice
toward** of I5 8o, and harried his own ' crypto-
Calvinists 1 with so deadly a zeal, that hopes were in-
dulged at Home of his ultimate conversion to the Catho-
lic Church. In the case of the Brandenburg Albert,
who, before converting East Prussia into a secular duchy,
had introduced the Reformation there, the Lutheran
bigotry displayed by his clergy and nobility against
Osiander and the Osiandrists, culminating in the execu-
tion of his own confesbor(Funcke)in the midst of a psalm-
singing mob, lent more colour to the report that he
had died a Roman Catholic (i 568). These currents of
feeling perverted even the very attempts made to com-
bine them into a common stream. Of the numerous
formulae of belief composed, in more or less sincerity, with
such a design during the latter half of the sixteenth
century, the earliest was Melanchthon's (l559)> w ho
died in the following year, without having accomplished
Lis long and much-misunderstood endeavour to reunite
Christendom. Soon the hope passed away of a recon-

THE

eiliation, such, as miglit have warranted the schemes of
a general Protestant League, which prompted Queen
Elizabeth's message to Heidelberg (1577) a ^ S^gur's
German mission when the French religions struggle
was at its height (15 84). For the object of the noto-
rious Formula concord ice of 1580 notorious because
of the means employed to enforce it was speedily
perceived to be the repression of all Philippist and
trimming as well as of Galvinist doctrine. It was
signed by the majority of the Protestant Estates of the
Empire and by several thousands of theologians ; but
the Galvinists, who refused it, had the moral support
of Elizabeth of England, of Henry of Navarre, and of
Augustus of Saxony's own brother-in-law, Frederick II.
of Denmark ; while a significant comment upon it was
furnished by the breach opened about this time (1585-
87) in the Netherlands between the Calvinists and
the less rigidly disposed adherents of the Reformation.
Protestant Meanwhile a school or tendency of Protestant
heterodoxy, thought and opinion began to become percep-
tible, of which the seeds had been blown hither and thither
northwards at first and westwards by the blast of
persecution, and on which the anathemas of the Churches
both old and new called down the repressive force of
the secular arm. During the earlier times of the Re-
formation these often isolated efforts had been officially
and popularly lumped together as Anabaptism ; in this
later period more than one noteworthy endeavour of the
kind came from those Latin countries where the activity
of the Counter-Reformation had nipped resistance to
Rome in the bud, and left independent thinkers to
confront her in isolated defiance, The cities which had

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 135

formerly offered a refuge to Protestant free tliouglifc
now rigidly formulated their specific creeds, or, like
Strasburg, had themselves to submit to the Catholic
reaction. Thus it canie to pass that these varieties of
religious thought found a home on the eastern boun-
daries of European civilisation, in Poland, where they
were welcomed by members of an educated, and to
a large extent self -governed, aristocracy. Yet even
here, as will be seen, Anti- Trinitarians were carefully
excluded from the 'Consensus' of Sandomir (1570),
Thus was isolated the sect or community associated
with the name of Paustus Socinus (1539-1604), like
his uncle, Lselius Socinus, a native of Siena and a re-
ligious refugee. In Transylvania a Unitarian Church
arose about the same time, not, however, organically
connected with the Polish c Socinians.'

Of course the advocates of Rome laid their finger

apon these divisions, and Bellarmine dissected c Librum

quern Luth&rawi wcant Concm*dic& ' in the

Protestant _ - N . , . . , -i i i -i

tendencies of same year (1586) in which he published
the first volume of his chief controversial
work. The manifest disunion among the Protestants
was the main negative cause of the progress of the
Counter-Reformation in this period, and went far to
neutralise whatever advantages the Protestant cause
might have derived from the accession of Maximilian
II. to the imperial throne (i 564). During the reign
Advance of of Ms father, Ferdinand I. (1558-64),
wn 3 Spanish though he was, strove to rule
j n fae Interests of peace and unity, the
advance of Protestantism throughout the Empire ad-
mitted of no doubt. In Francojua, on the Rhine 3 and

136 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

in Westphalia the Reformation progressed ; and even
the orthodox Duke Albert of Bavaria informed the
Pope that a great part of his nobility would rather
forego religious worship altogether than return to the
Roman rites (15/0). The Archbishop of Salzburg
told the fathers at Trent (1563) that no power on
earth would force many of his subjects to forego their
demand for the sacrament in both forms ; nor was it
till the election of Wolf Dietrich von Raitenau (i 590)
that the reaction which led to an emigration was here
carried out. In Austria no movement has ever so
powerfully seized upon both the German and the Slav
elements of the population as that of the Reformation ;
and Ferdinand's home-rule was from the Peace of Augs-
burg onwards consistently tolerant. In 1 5 64 Pope
Pius IV. was as good as his word, and confirmed the
concession of the cup which the Estates of Lower
Austria had obtained in 1555, and those of Upper
Austria in the following year. In Styria, Carinthia, and
Carniola, the great majority of the nobility, together
with nearly all the burghers of the towns, were Pro-
testants. In Bohemia, where Utraquism was tending
to merge into Lutheranism, while the more advanced
doctrines of the Bohemian Brethren continued to be
widely cherished., Ferdinand I. likewise soon found a
policy of mere repression impossible, and in 1 5 64
the Papal concession of the cup to the laifcy was here
also proclaimed. In the Empire at large, where, after
a futile religious discussion at Worms (15 5 7), the
Diet of Augsburg (1559) had declared its adhesion to
the Pveligious Peace, Ferdinand's government allowed
this agreement to be interpreted with considerable

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 1 37

laxity, and the notorious " Ecclesiastical Reservation. "
"by which it was accompanied to be treated with scant
respect. Protestant administrators enjoyed the revenues
of Catholic sees, and a system of imperial " indulgences "
even made it occasionally possible for married prelates
professing Protestant opinions to sit and vote as spiritual
estates at the diet. All this was hard to bear for Fer-
dinand I. ; for although he had long advocated a liberal
religious policy at Trent, he was a true Catholic at heart.
Thus he fell in with the plan of a gradual recovery
of lost ground, and was persuaded to introduce the
Jesuits into the Austrian duchies and Bohemia. But
the Catholic reaction had not yet taken a firm footing
in these countries, when here and in Hungary Maxi-
milian II. succeeded his father as ruler, the remainder
of the hereditary dominions being assigned to the two
younger brothers.

Maximilian II. (156476) played only a negative
part towards the religious movement of his age, but this
Negative P ar ^ was ^Y no means without importance.
MaxxmlaniL About the year of the religious Peace of
asEmperoi. Augsburg (i 555), the rumours of an incli-
nation on his part towards Protestantism began to take
definite shape. The outward conduct of the young
King, who was at this time much under the influence
of John Sebastian Phauser, a married ecclesiastic, lent
colour to the report, and he was denounced to his
father by the Jesuit Canisius. Although, notwithstand-
ing his grievances against Spain, he is not known to
have interfered with the strictly Catholic life of his
Spanish wife, and although he did not withdraw from
the observance of the ordinary usages of the Church,

138 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

lie kept away from specifically Catholic solemnities,
and insisted on receiving tlie sacrament in both kinds ;
while he engaged in the study of Protestant works and
in correspondence with Protestants. Every effort was
made by Ferdinand I. to turn his son back from the
path on which he had obviously entered, though at the
same time the Emperor remained deaf to the admonition
of Pope Paul IV. (which he had every reason for re-
senting as well as mistrusting) that he should disinherit
his eldest son. Maximilian found himself in a position
in which only a heroic type of character would have
borne itself with steadfastness. There is no proof
that he ever changed his opinions, and some note-
worthy evidence to the contrary 5 but he henceforth
outwardly conformed to the Church of Rome, heard
orthodox preachers, and even permitted three nuncios
in succession Hosius, Delfius, and Commendone to
prove their zeal by attempts to complete his conver-
sion. Inasmuch as, notwithstanding his declarations,
both public and private, the Protestant Electors con-
tinued to look forward to his adoption of the Confes-
sion of Augsburg after he should have ascended the
imperial throne, his election as Roman king in 1562
must be looked upon as the result of an unworthy
double game. For Maximilian had now no intention
of abandoning either the creed of Rome or the renewed
intimate co-operation of the Austrian with the Spanish
branch of the House of Habsburg. Dynastic ambition
prevailed over all other motives, and just before his
father's death Maximilian was in sufficiently good odour
of orthodoxy for his claim to the imperial succession to
be recognised by the Pope in full consistory.

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 1 39

Thus it came to pass that no such changes as had
been at one time anticipated resulted from the acces-
sion of Maximilian II. to the imperial throne. While
the imperial authority grew weaker and weaker, tin-
strengthened by any effective foreign policy., which
might have shared the glory of Lepanto, or have
achieved an earlier Lepanto by land, and while the
perverse doctrinal disputes among the Protestants con-
tinued, the Catholic propaganda steadily went its way.
Maximilian's mind, impatient of nice theological dis-
tinctions, and offended by the quarrels of bigotry, seems
gradually to have settled itself very near the centre of
the balance, though it would be grossly unjust to charge
him with religious indifference. Tolerance, in the true
sense of the word, was the guiding principle of his
conduct. He stood firm against the pressure put upon
him by Pope Pius V. to become a persecutor of heretics.
On the other hand, he likewise refused the demand of
his Austrian Estates for the expulsion of the Jesuits ;
his business, he told them, was to expel, not the Jesuits,
but the Turks. While, however, at the beginning of
his reign he had remained in touch with the Protestant
interest, he latterly, without abandoning his principle
of tolerance, turned in the opposite direction. Spanish
marriage schemes, and perhaps speculations on the
Polish crown, added their influence, and fears were
even entertained that the disappointment caused among
the Protestant Estates by the Emperor's bearing might
lead to tie outbreak of a religious conflict. These
fears however proved premature.

In his hereditary dominions, Maximilian, while ex-
acting securities of fair treatment for the Catholics,

140 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

permitted the Estates of the laity to order the services
of the Church in accordance with the Confession of
protestantism Augsburg. But even in Lower Austria
in the asceu- ^ e refrained from establishing a Protestant

cLuic in the _ ~ _

heredi^ry Consistory under his own headship, and m-
dommiojia. structed the Lutheran Chytrseus, who drew
up the service-book both here and in Styria, to in-
clude in it as many passages as might be from the
Roman ritual. In Austria above the Enns the Estates
maintained a more complete religious independence.
In. Carniola the tide continued in favour of Protes-
tantism for some years beyond the close of Maximilian's
reign. In Bohemia, by declaring the Hussite Com-
pactates out of force, he put an end to the established
dualism of Catholics and Utraqnists, and hastened the
amalgamation of the latter with the Lutherans, while
the Bohemian Brethren spread more than ever. In
Hungary, too, in so far as Maximilian's authority was
acknowledged there. Protestantism continued its course
unchecked, and deemed itself distinctly countenanced
by the King. Among the German temporal princes
since the death (1568) of Duke Henry of Brunswick-
Wolfenbuttel (Luther's "baser Heinz) , none adhered to
Catholicism but Dukes Albert V. (15 57-79) and
William V. (1579-97) of Bavaria, and, more fitfully,
Duke William of Julich-Cleve-Berg ( 1 5 3 9-9 2 ) The
former, though by no means fanatically disposed (he
had obtained the concession of the Cup for
Reaction m his nobilitv), opened the door to the Catholic

Bavaria, &c. _ , . * y \ t , . . . , ,.

Reaction in his dominions ; sanctioned the
establishment of a very active Index Commission at
Munich under the Jesuits Canisius and Peltan (1561),

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A r ITS HEIGHT. 141

and encouraged the opening of a Jesuit College at
Munich (1559), which soon emptied the higher Pro-
testant schools, and of another at Landshut (1578).
In the University of Ingolstadt the Jesuits were not
established on a solid footing till 1576; but nnder
the bigoted William V. the entire faculty of arts in this
university was committed to them in perpetuum,. The
Duke of Cleves, albeit proverbially 'papa in suis terris,*
could not withhold from the greater part of his subjects
the desired right of attending Protestant worship. In
Wurtemberg the ascendancy of the Lutheran clergy
and the representatives of the towns in the dominant
Committees of the Estates assured the stability of the
Reformation. But in the neighbouring Margravate
of Baden Catholicism was restored (157071) under
Margrave Philip, whose father, Philibert, had fallen
on the Huguenot side in the battle of Montcontour.
(1569). Naturally, however, the regions in which
tn ^ Counter-Eeformation made the most
ra P^ advances were the territories ruled
foy spiritual potentates. One of the first
ecclesiastical magnates to exert himself in that direc-
tion was the Abbot of Fulda (Balthazar Gravel), whose
six predecessors in succession had allowed the Refor-
mation to spread unhindered among their subjects.
Encouraged by Pope Gregory XIII. , but appealing,
like Albert V. of Bavaria, to the territorial principle
established by the Religious Peace, Abbot Balthazar
summoned the Jesuits to Fulda, and expelled all the
Protestant preachers, together with all the officials,
clerical or lay, who refused to accept the Tridentine
decrees. Within three years (i 573-76) the Catholic

142 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

restoration in Iris territories was complete ; and a long
and bitter conflict, in the course of which lie was ex-
pelled from his abbacy, ended with his reinstatement
and the complete victory of the reaction (1602)
The Protestant clergy were likewise driven out of part
of the dominions of the Elector of Mainz (the so-called
Uichsfehfy, and Jesuits introduced in their stead, who
thence found their way into the diocese of Paderborn
and the much-reduced diocese of Hildesheim (1576).
In the important Westphalian bishopric of Munster,
after two bishops had resigned rather than submit to
the Council of Trent, the election of John of Hoya,
bishop of Osnabnick (1566), led to the beginnings of
a reaction which was arrested by protracted disputes
as to his successor's rights (1574 scqq.\ but resumed
after the election to the see of Duke Ernest of Bavaria
(1585). Into Wurzburg the Jesuits were introduced
in I 5 64, although the intention to connect them witli
the university (founded 1567) was not carried out
till at the time of its second and more enduring
foundation by Bishop Julius Echter (1587), when all
the chairs of the philosophical faculty were filled by
members of the Society. In 1564 Dillingen, the
newly-founded University of Augsburg, was completely
Jesuitised under Cardinal-Bishop Otto Truchsess, whom
Pius IV. had (1560) appointed his legatiis a latere in
Germany; and not long afterwards the Fathers found
admission into the free imperial city itself, The
bishops of Bamberg and Worms were likewise active
in suppressing Protestant worship, and in 1570 the
Jesuits entered the Electorate of Treves. Thus in
nearly all the c lands of the crozicr' the further reac-

THE COUNT ER-REFORMA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 143

tion of the following reign was prepared under the lax
rule of Maximilian II.

All these endeavours glaringly contravened the decla-
ration made by Ferdinand I. at the religious Peace of
Augsburg, that there was no desire on the part of the
Catholic princes to force their creed upon their Pro-
testant subjects. At the diet which met in 1575 to
elect Maximilian's eldest son Roman king, there was,
however, a palpable disunion between Lutherans and
Calvinists, and the Emperor, keenly alive to the dan-
gers threatening his authority from the increase of
the territorial power of the princes by the seculari-
sations, was able to resist the demands of the more
active of the Protestants. In his last message to the
diet he declared himself to be of no party ; but the
conditions of the religious conflict were now compli-
cated with foreign alliances and their interests, and thus
the germs of the Great War which swallowed up into
it all the wars of Europe are already visible during the
reign of an Emperor whose heart (be it said to his
honour) was from first to last for peace. Eudolf II.
(l 576 1612), who succeeded on the Bohe-

Progre=softlie ^ . J/ __ /J .

cithohcHe- mian and Hungarian as well as on the

action in the . >,-, in , -i ,T

Empne under imperial throne, had not occupied them

Rudolf II i i A -,_ i j.j.1 j_i ^i

long before it became apparent that beneath
his silent and solitary ways lay concealed a deep reli-
gious bigotry, which had been fostered by his early
Spanish training. Almost from the outset of his reign
(1577) he resided continuously at Prague, while the
government of Austria was left in the hands of his
brother Ernest, who had been brought up with him
in Spain, till the Archduke's death (i 595). For tho

144 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

time no attempt was made to touch the privilege of
the Austrian nobility of determining for themselves the
form of faith they would allow on their own estates ;
but a strict Catholic uniformity was enforced on tbe
towns/ with the result of provoking serious resistance
at both Vienna and Linz. In 1578 all persons the
orthodoxy of whose religious opinions was doubtful
were dismissed from the service of the Court. In
Styria Archduke Charles (1564-90), the husband of
Maria, sister of Duke Albert V. of Bavaria, in his
latter years followed suit, instituting a kind of Catholic
visitation throughout his duchy, and admitting into it
a Papal nuncio and active sympathisers from Bavaria ;
but it was not till the actual accession to power (i 596)
of his son Ferdinand, whom his pious mother would
have fain seen a Cap D chin friar or a Jesuit father ; that
religious persecution seems to have begun. Budolf's
own attempts at a Counter-Eeformation in Bohemia
opened in 1581 with the royal ordinance exiling all
the Bohemian Brethren from the realm. The Bohe-
mian nobles were not yet accustomed to receive, much
less to obey, commands from their King, and the ordi-
nance remained a dead letter for a full generation (till
1602). The inflictions of Turkish invasion and occu-
pation did not save Hungary from, the brutal bigotry
of Rudolf, although they deferred its active opera-
tions till a comparatively late period of his reign.
Meanwhile in the Empire at large the conflict grew
more and more acute ; nor was it only in the prela-
tical regions of the Bavarian circle that the Protestants
were subjected to a process of extrusion. Unusual
interest was excited at the diet, when the Protestant
population of historic Aachen defied not only its ortho-

THE COUNTER-REFORM A TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 145

dox town council, but the very imperial army of exe-
cution (158182). The religious agitation extended
along the Rhine, and communicated itself to two cities
so different in the character of their religious history
as Cologne and Strasburg. In the eyes of pious
Catholics no graver scandal had ever been brought
upon the Church than that arising out of the conduct
of Gebhard II. (of Waldburg-Truchsess), Elector and
Archbishop of Cologne (15/7-83). Resolved both to
marry his mistress and to Protestantise his electorate,
he issued an edict (January 1583) granting to his
subjects freedom of religious worship, and accomplished
the marriage (February). Soon afterwards (April) he
was deposed by a Papal bull, and the Catholic majority
of the chapter elected his former coadjutor, Ernest of
Bavaria, bishop of Luttich (Liege), archbishop in his
stead. Very widespread consequences might have fol-
lowed, as Ernest was supported by Spanish as well as
Bavarian troops, while Henry of Navarre sought to
utilise the situation for a Protestant combination.
But the Lutheran princes refused to take part in the
struggle which ensued, and which did not end till
1 5 89, when Gebhard threw up the game. He now
retired to Strasburg, where he was dean. Here the
chapter was so hopelessly divided, that on a vacancy in
the bishopric in 1592 a schism took place, the Catho-
lic and the Protestant party each choosing a bishop.
After a contest of several years, the Catholic bishop
(Cardinal of Lorraine) retained the see, and his Protes-
tant rival was compensated in money.

As the reign of Rudolf II. wore on, it seemed for
a time as if the Protestant interest would oppose a
C.ff. K

46 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

nore united front to the advance of the Catholic Re-
iction. The successor of Augustus of Saxony, Chris-
tian I (1586-91), was either inclined to
SummTof the Calvinism, or at least he and his Chancellor
Protestants. ^^ as p^ppfe^ objected to the rigour

of the Formula, concordice. But the union between
Saxony and the Palatinate, where John Casimir, the
ally and comrade in arms of the Huguenots, held sway
as regent during the earlier years of Frederick IV
(1583-1610), was a mere daydream. In 1591
Christian I. died amidst a storm of religious excite-
ment provoked by his abolition of the exorcistic for-
mula in baptism, to which the great body of his
subjects passionately clung; the guardians of his
youthful son and successor, Christian II. (1591-1611),
proceeded by means of a visitation to uproot Calvinism
and Crypto-Calvinism in the electorate, and Krell
suffered death. While the two main divisions of Pro-
testantism thus went farther asunder than ever, the
Catholic propaganda continued with unabating zeal.
In 1590 the Church of Rome made her first convert
among reigning Lutheran princes in the person of
Margrave James III. of Baden-Hochberg, through the
exertions of Pistorius, himself a convert, and afterwards
court-preacher to Rudolf II. The joy was great at
Rome, where Pope Sixtus V, went on foot to and from
the Te ^im at Santa Maria de' Tedeschi As a rule,
wherever in this period the Counter-Reformation was
at work, the Jesuits were in the van, more especially
at the courts and in the sphere of higher education.
On the other hand, Rome was during this period not
rich in representatives of eminence in popular Ger-

THE COUNTER-REFORM A TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 14.7

man polemics, where the bare-footed Franciscan Nasus
(Nas), \vhose chief works were produced about 1570,
could hardly be reckoned the equal of the Protestant
Fischart.

The Jesuit organisation, which in three provinces
(Austria, Upper Germany, and the Rhine) covered
TheBowomean ^^ tlie ^ole of the south and west of
League m the Empire, was likewise strong on its

Switzerland. x

south-western and north-eastern frontiers.
In 1 574 the religious autonomy possessed by the several
Swiss cantons enabled the Jesuits to find a welcome
at Lucerne, and soon afterwards they reached Freiburg.
But the most important Catholic achievement in Swit-
zerland during this period was the conclusion in 1586
of the Golden or Borromean League between the
ancient cantons, together with Solothurn and Frei-
burg, logically followed in the same year by an
alliance between these confederates and Spain. The
author of the league was the illustrious Archbishop of
Milan, who not only established a Collegium, Hefoeti-
cum in his cathedral city for the reconversion of
Switzerland, but himself laboured actively for the
same purpose in the northern districts of his province,
which were subject to Swiss cantonal authority. One
of the truest representatives of the Counter-Refonna-
tion, he consistently combined the persecution of here-
tics with endeavours at Catholic reform. Inasmuch as
the Protestant cantons about the same time united
more closely together, especially in view of the danger
threatening Geneva from Savoy, the Golden League
might have brought about au enduring conflict in the
confederation, of which the Muhlhausen troubles (i 587)

148 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

would have been a mere foretaste, had not the failure
of the schemes of Philip II. in France and elsewhere
gradually inclined the Catholic as well as the Protes-
tant interest in Switzerland to lean upon France ; so
that the confederation was included in the Peace of
Vervins (1598).

In Poland, where the Jesuits were gradually intro-
duced in the latter years of the last representative of
the male Jagellon line, Sigismund Augustus
(1548-72), they made but little progress
during his reign. Before their arrival the
Eeformation had on the whole steadily ad-
vanced, notwithstanding the efforts to the contrary of
the Catholic clergy, assisted by the Queen-mother,
Bona Sforza (d. 1558). While Lutheranism had
spread in the towns chiefly inhabited by German
settlers, the doctrines of Zwingli and Calvin gained
more ground among the nobles, among whom Anti-
Trinitarian speculations also largely found admission.
After the decrees of the ecclesiastical courts had been
deprived of civil effect (1552), full liberty of religious
worship was granted to the nobility by another vote
of the diet (1556). While in Poland the cry arose
for a national synod, which it was hoped would result
in the organisation perhaps under the experienced
guidance of the reformer LasH (John a Lasco) of a
national Polish Church, Sigismund Augustus proffered
to the Pope demands for concessions similar to those
so long urged at Trent by the French and Imperial
Governments. The decrees of the council itself, as has
been seen, were never accepted by the diet j and in
riefiance of the labours of Archbishop Hosius, Protes-

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION A r ITS HEIGHT. 149

tantism continued to flourish in a great variety of forms,
Eeformed (Helvetian), Bohemian (Waldensian), and
Lutheran. In 1570 the Synod of Sandomir at last
established that union between the Protestant Churches
which had alone seemed wanting for the victory of
their cause ; but those holding Anti-Trinitarian doc-
trines were excluded from the c Consensus.' It was,
then, into so unpromising a field that, after a visit
of enquiry by Canisius (1558), Lainez, at the request
of Hosius, sent a mission of Jesuit fathers, wio estab-
lished themselves at Braunsberg, and thence, though
not favoured by the King, spread over the country at
large. On the death of Sigismund Augustas, Henry
of Anjou was, after a complicated struggle, elected his
successor, the Catholic interest having been at last
thrown on his side, largely under the influence of the
news of the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The Pro-
testants having, by the * confederation ' adopted by the
Diet of Warsaw (January 1573), secured the principle
of the religious equality of all the Christian confes-
sions, forced the King before his coronation to swear
to maintain the religious liberties of the land. But
Henry's word was as water, and during his brief sojourn
in Poland the prospects of Koine brightened. After
his shameful escape to his new throne in Prance (15 74),
another struggle ended in the election of Stephen
Bathory, who married the late King's sister, Anna.
Like Henry of Navarre, Stephen, in order to secure
the crown, allowed himself to be persuaded to profess
the Eoman faith, though he unhesitatingly confirmed
and steadily maintained all the liberties of the Pro-
testant confessions. But with the aid of his consort

150 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

the Jesuits insinuated themselves into his favour, and
during his reign (157686) the influence of their
order was firmly established in Poland. Their colleges
and schools spread over the country, and the King
himself set up the central seat of their teaching, the
University of Wilna, among a population of which the
majority belonged to the Protestant or Greek Churches ;
while at the University of Cracow, which he opened
to all confessions, they contrived to neutralise this
liberality. Over the newly created elective judicial
tribunals, which were to administer justice to clergy
and laity alike, they are likewise said to have estab-
lished a dominant influence. Stephen Bathory was
conscientiously averse to religious persecution, but
more especially under the influence of the Jesuit
Possevin he allowed the Church of Rome to gain a
vantage-ground even in wholly Protestant Livonia^
where Jesuit colleges were established at Dorpat and
Riga. He even allowed the same influence to afiect
his foreign policy, and to arrest him in his victorious
career against Muscovy, by the treaty of peace negoti-
ated by Possevin (1582).

At the election consequent on Bathory J s death, the
Protestants by their disunion missed a last opportu-
ne Reforms- n ^J 5 the Lutherans, in accordance with the
^der intolerant spirit of the age, had already in
an early yeap of Hs peign ( IS7 g) declared

against the Union of Sandomir. Purely political con-
siderations led to the election of Sigismund III., son
of John of Sweden, who reigned over Poland for forty-
five years (1587-1632). Guided by the Jesuits, he
pursued a consistent policy against Protestantism, seek-

THE COUNTER-REFORMA TION A T ITS HEIGHT. 151

ing- to obtain by corruption what he dared not accom-
plish by force. The Catholic clergy were encouraged
to bring actions at law for the recovery of Church
property, and where possible the Catholic worship was
restored in edifices which had been appropriated by
Protestants. But what was specially characteristic of
the reaction in Poland was its worst feature. The
mob was repeatedly incited to acts of violence against
the Protestants, and prominent among the most infuri-
ated of the fanatics who shared in these manifestations
of bigotry and barbarism were the students of Cracow,
the pupils of the Jesuits. The Protestants made more
than one attempt by themselves ( I 5 9 5 ), or in com-
bination with the adherents of the Greek Church
(i 599), to oppose to these proceedings a unity of their
own, in which would have lain their best defence. The
enlightenment of the country even among Catholics,
such as the patriotic Zamoyski (d. 1605), was on the
side of religious liberty, but its partisans contented
themselves with protesting. Thus a new generation
grew up, largely, so far as the upper classes were con-
cerned, trained by the Jesuits. Sigismund III.,, who
had formerly lost his Swedish crown for the sake of
his faith, in his later years ranged himself and his
Polish kingdom against Sweden on the Catholic side
in the great European struggle. Poland no longer
knew how to control her own destinies ; the Counter-
Reformation had begun the extinction of a nation.

CHAPTER V.

THE RELIGIOUS CONFLICT MERGED IN THE
GREAT WAR.

OF the causes contributing to arrest the great religious
reaction of the sixteenth century, the most obvious

was the failure of Philip II. 's scheme of Euro-
Failure of the ,. _, T I , t* ,1 ,

schemes of pean policy. The cardinal points or that
lp scheme were the recovery of the Nether-

lands, the chastisement of England, and the subjection
of France. About the beginning of the last decade
of the century all these achievements had, humanly
speaking, become impossible. In the Netherlands the
United Provinces assumed the offensive two years before
the efforts of Parma, diverted by Philip's policy and
crippled by his jealousy, were quenched in death
(1592); and they had practically become an indepen-
dent power more than half a century before they were
acknowledged as such by Spain. As against England
ID England an( 3 her heretic Queen, though Philip by no
andiieiand. mems thought to have staked everything
upon the Grand Armada, yet with it the moment which
seemed his had passed away. The English Govern-
ment no longer shrank from intervening effectively in
France, while with Spain it began to dispute her own
ports as well as the waters of the Old "World and the

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GKEAT WAR. 153

New. Spain's reprisals in Ireland would have been feeble
flashes but for the unspeakable infelicity of England's
position between them and native disaffection. Still the
prospect of a settlement permitting a free exercise of
the Catholic form of faith (1599) passed away as rapidly
as it had presented itself. Essex's monstrous blunder
only hastened his doom, and the defeat of the hopes
founded by many English Catholics upon his wild
'plot' (1601) can hardly be reckoned among Rome's
lost opportunities. Hardly better founded were the
sanguine expectations which the Catholic, like other
interests, persisted in concentrating upon the person
of Queen Elizabeth's inevitable successor (1603). It
was an age of plots, and upon plots the more active
and unscrupulous spirits among the English Roman
Catholics had after all to fall back. They profited by
neither 'Main' nor ' Bye' (1603), while the discovery
of the Gunpowder Plot (1605), and of the acquiescence
in it of the head of the Jesuit organisation in England,
postponed indefinitely any mitigation of the recusancy
laws. The exaction of the oath of allegiance denying
the Pope's deposing power (1606) not only extin-
guished all hopes of the conversion of James I., but
induced Pope Paul V. to intervene authoritatively
against the acceptance of this test by the English
Catholic clergy. The result was a controversy between
King James and his apologists on the one side, and
the redoubtable Bellarmine (160712) on the other,
which, like all such controversies, necessarily impeded
the propaganda. Such conquests as Catholicism made
in England during the next dozen years were made
clandestinely and in the teeth of public opinion. Their

154 THR COUNTER-REFORMATION.

intrinsic importance was small, though they included
Queen Anne ; but they helped to show the power of
Spain, whose ambassador protected such agents of Rome
as Luisa de Carvajal (1613), at the very time when
James I. was gratifying popular feeling and his own
balancing instincts by marrying his daughter to the
'Palatine.'

The crucial part of the religious conflict in Europe

at the beginning of the last decade of the sixteenth

century lay in the affairs of France. On

ranee. ^ death, twelve days after his election,
of Pope Urban VII., the Papal chair was occupied
(December 1590) by Gregory XIV. (Sfondrato), who
adhered unhesitatingly to the policy of Philip II. and
the League. He could not reconcile himself to the
accession to the throne of Prance of 'Veiidome,' as
he called Henry IV, and unscrupulously expended the
treasure reserved by Sixtus V. for the extreme needs
of the Church on the hire of auxiliaries for the cause
of orthodox monarchy. This enthusiasm, and the
pressure put upon Henry IV. by the tiers parti in,
France to abjure Protestantism, might (1591) have led
to the establishment of the French Church as a really
independent branch of the Catholic, had it not been for
the inability of the Cardinal of Bourbon to assume^
the office of Patriarch. The interception of the Paris
Sixteen's letter to Philip II., begging him to relieve
Paris and assume the sovereignty (November 1591),
completed the unfolding of the situation. Mayenne,
who had no desire that the crown should fall to Philip,
overthrew the Sixteen, and began to base his calcu-
lations on the recognition of Henry IV. In December

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 155

1592 Parma died, and the time became ripe for Henry
to take the step for which he had long been prepared.
Meanwhile, after the brief reign of Innocent IX.,
Clement VIII. had begun his pontificate (i 592-1605).
Though no friend of Spain, he at first proceeded cau-
tiously. On the 25th July 1593 Henry IV. formally
abjured Protestantism, and the tide of national and
anti- Spanish feeling, marked by the publication of the
Satire Menippte, fully set in. On the 2/th February

1594 followed his coronation, which might almost
have seemed a defiance of Rome. But though Clement
VIII. still hesitated, it was becoming more and more
clear to him, as it formerly had to Sixtus V., that
France must not be allowed to cut herself adrift from
Rome. Unabsolved by the Holy See, Henry of Na-
varre, in the opinion of both the Sorbonne and the
Jesuits, could not claim to be King of France ; in the
opinion of Jean Chastel, whose design upon Henry's
life was discovered in time, he was a tyrant whom it
was right to remove. The result was the banishment
of the Jesuits from France (1594), which strained the
situation still further. Henry IV., who at the begin-
ning of 1595 felt himself strong enough as a national
sovereign to declare war against Spain, was at heart
anxious to gain the good-will of the Pope ; and the
Pope in his turn resented the constant pressure upon
him of Spanish influence. Curiously enough, the
Jesuits, though exiled by Henry IV., showed a sense
of favours to come, and some influential members of
the order exerted themselves for the absolution of the
King. When this was at last granted (i/th Septem-
ber 1 59 5), Philip of Spain's hope of mastering France

156 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

was finally extinguished, and before he died he con-
cluded peace (May 1598). The Edict of Nantes, which
shortly before (April) established the rights of the
French Protestants on much the same basis as the earlier
pacifications obtained and undone in the coarse of the
religious wars, was at first received very wrathfully by
Clement Till, j who even threatened to recall his abso-
lution of the King ; but the latter took little account
of these vapourings, being well aware of the interest
which (quite apart from the more special question of its
claims on. Ferrara) the Papacy had in keeping France
strong as against Spain. In the years which fol-
lowed, Henry IV. on the whole successfully preserved
system of khe balance on which his tenure of the
Henry iv. throne seemed primarily to depend. His
chief councillors were chosen from both sides, a natural
preponderance being allowed to the Catholic majority.
After a time (1603) he gave his consent to the read-
mission of the Jesuits into France, and even accepted
a Jesuit father as his confessor ; nor had the order
any corporate or collective responsibility for the crime
which put an end to his life. Tet his real sentiments
and sympathies remained Protestant to the last, and
his foreign policy was only biding its time, and the
time of France, who, however marvellous her powers
of recuperation, could not be herself again at once.
Thus he gradually laid down the lines of that policy
by which France ultimately succeeded in overthrowing
the predominant influence of the House of Habsburg
in Europe ; and the House of Habsburg had by this
time once more identified itself in both its branches
with the cause of Rome.

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 157

Undoubtedly the Catholic reaction had now more
than ever to reckon with an adversary whom a gene-
Caivinismto ration since it had suited Lutheran as well
the fore ag Catholic statesmanship to ignore. Calvin-
ism, now a militant creed, had determined to bring to
an issue the struggle against the common foe, with
whom the Lutherans were already again on speak-
ing terms. The centre of these aspirations and schemes
was Heidelberg, whence communication was easy to
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and France. Here
Frederick IV., during the period of his independent
government (i 5921610), remained true to the policy
of his uncle and guardian, John Casimir. Though
himself by no means (except in his potations) an ex-
traordinary man, Frederick IV. fell in with the de-
signs and intrigues of his advisers and agents, among
whom Christian I. of Anhalt, himself a convert to
Calvinism, was the chief. Between the half-mechanical
impetus of the Catholic reaction and the apathy of
the Lutherans, they foresaw, and by their efforts helped
to make inevitable, the Great War. In this spirit
Anhalt conceived and afterwards, though on a much
reduced scale, carried into effect, the plan of the Pro-
testant Union.

To this revival of combatant energy in its most
determined adversaries the Catholic movement no
The counter- longer opposed its former strength and in-
tensity. The very right arm of Rome, the
Order of Jesus itself, was lamed by internal
dissensions. Already Sixtus V. had cher-
isned projects of reforming the order, and
reducing, if not suppressing, its political influence. But

158 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

it was in Spain, the true home, as it was the original
source, of the order, that its disintegration began. The
appointment to the generalship of the Neapolitan
Claudio Acqnaviva (15811615) had excited much
discontent among the Spanish Jesuits, who began to
think of emancipating themselves in some measure
from his control. In return, the general, himself a
man in his prime, superseded many of the fathers of
more advanced age in the Spanish colleges by younger
men, and the consequence was a kind of revolt of the
adherents of the ancien rdffime. This movement, led
by Henriquez and Mariana, attracted the good-will of
Philip II., never at heart a friend of the Jesuits. At
Home, however, the imperturbable Acquaviva obtained
from Gregory XIV. (1590-91) a decision against the
contentions of the Spanish faction. But under Clement
Vin, the Spanish malcontents succeeded in bringing
abont the summons of a General Congregation of the
order as supreme over the general himself (1592);
and notwithstanding Acquaviva's success in influencing
the results of the discussions of this congregation, he
waa obliged to submit to an adverse Papal ruling.
The effect of these changes was slighter than had been
either hoped or feared, but the order inflicted a serious
moral loss upon itself by the internal divisions which
provoked Pope Clement's reforms of its system.' They
were followed (1599) by the same Pope's courteous
contravention of one of the most cherished principles
of the order by pressing the purple upon the great
Jesuit controversialist Bellarmine, the first volume of
whose magmim opus had been placed upon the Index
by Sixtus V. because of its refusal to acknowledge the

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR, 159

Pope's immediate lordship over the universe. The
death of Clement VIII. (1605) put a term to the
attempt, largely inspired by Spain, to undermine the
unique position which the Jesuits had hitherto main-
tained, but the struggle had been severe, and preju-
dicial to their credit in the Catholic world.

But there was yet another aspect under which the

great order seemed, more especially in the judgment

of Spaniards, to fall away from its former

Molmism.

self-consistency. YY hen, in 1581, Acquaviva
authoritatively promulgated the educational course
(Ratio studiorum) of his Society, and therein showed
an evident desire to relieve it from the duty of adher-
ing to pure Thomist dogma, a great shock was given
to the conservatism of the schools, and a quarrel pre-
pared itself between Jesuit teaching and the traditions
of Spanish theology as especially cherished by the Domi-
nicans. This quarrel came to an outbreak when the
Jesuit Molina at Ooimbra, in his Concordia gratice et
lileri arfatrii (1588), pushed to an extreme the doc-
trine of free-will as formulated by the Council of Trent.
Other Jesuits Wrote about this time on the same sub-
ject, but Molina's deductions were the most ambitious
and the most complete. The members of the order
were by no means unanimous in his favour, but the
large majority, including the general, Acquaviva, took
his side. As a matter of course the Dominicans began
a crusade against Molinism, in which Bannez was
their leader; equally of course the Inquisition, now
under Manrique, set up its claim to intervene, and a
serious crisis seemed imminent in the history of the
order. Denounced as heterodox in Spain, the Jesuits

160 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

gave so much, offence in France by their political theories >
and the supposed consequences of these for the safety
of the sovereign and the welfare of the state, as to be
about this time (1594) expelled from the country.
Acquaviva accordingly contrived to have the settlement
of the controversy removed to Rome itself, where it
passed through several interesting and perilous phases,
to be finally quashed by Paul V, ( 1 606). Half a century
afterwards it was asserted on the one side, but solemnly
denied on the other, that this Pope had drawn up a
bull in support of the pure Thomistic doctrine.

The political doctrines imputed to the Jesuits excited
even more misgivings and mistrust than their specu-
Jesuit teachings lations on the central mystery of moral
on tyrannicide, theology. Lainez had at Trent insisted
on the theory, subsequently developed by him in
several books, that while the Papacy derives its autho-
rity from direct divine institution, the power of princes
emanates from, and is therefore in the last resort subject
to, the sovereignty of the people. The right of the
spiritual authority to bridle the temporal, which Lainez
deduced from this contrast between their sources, was
extended by Bellarmine to the case of heretic as well
as orthodox princes. These principles were consis-
tently elaborated in Mariana's book De rege et regis
institutions, not published till after the accession of
Philip HE., to whom it was dedicated. As to the re-
lations between prince and people, the theory here
adopted is the familiar fiction of a contract between
them. As to the relations between prince and Church,
he is bound to support her privileges, but the Church is
not in return bound to bear with him, if, as a tyrant, he

J.HR CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 161

ruins the commonweal or brings religion into contempt.
Should he act thus, the people is entitled in the last
resort to treat him as a public enemy, and individual
members of the commonwealth may come to the rescue
of the whole. Thus Mariana approves of the assassi-
nation of Henry III. of France by Jacques Clement,
whom he praises as resembling the heroes of antiquity. 1
The substance of Mariana's theory was broached as
early as the fifteenth century, when it was explicitly
condemned by the Council of Constance. Views not
unlike to it were expressed by Calvin, and gained ground
accordingly among the French Protestants ; while its
practical consequences were approved by Pius V. in
the case of Ridolfi's plot, and by Sixtus V. in the case
of Henry III/s murder. Moreover, the theory has been
denounced by many Jesuit, as it has been held by many
non-Jesuit, authorities. Still, the question remains
open whether or not Mariana's teaching was in general
accordance with the principles of his order, and formed
a necessary development of the views of Lainez and
Bellarmine. Acquaviva is asserted to have condemned
it, but there is a good deal of reservation in his extant
declaration ; nor in truth could he well have afforded
to treat the subject as settled, or have done more than
insist (as he did) upon the proper supervision of every
doubtfnl publication on the subject. On the other
hand, the elaboration of the doctrine of justifiable
tyrannicide indisputably interfered with the progress

1 Clement himself never doubted the Intrinsic lawfulness of his deed,
though he had scrupled about committing it as a priest; and Kavaillac
took up much the same ground in stating his motives for taking venge-
ance on Henry IV.

C.ff. L

1 62 r THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

of the Catholic reaction in countries where a Protes-
tant, or a Catholic snspected of Protestant leanings,
sat on the throne. In France, Mariana's book was
prohibited by the Parliament of Paris after Henry's
murder (1610), though the Queen Regent suspended
the decree. In England the enforcement of the oath
denying the Pope's right to authorise the deposition
of kings led to a split among the Eoman Catholic
clergy, to which Paul Y. sought to put an end by a
declaratory brief (1606). After (in 1610) Bellarmine
had fully elaborated the conclusion that the Pope pos-
sesses the power of releasing the subjects of temporal
princes from their allegiance and transferring it to
some other quarter. King James I. himself descended
into the arena. One thing at least was clearly demon-
strated fcy the famous controversy which ensued, viz.,
Rome's real want of foothold in England, notwithstand-
ing all the efforts of the advanced guard of the Papacy.
It may be noticed in passing that Clement VIII. in
1 599 declined to entertain a proposition for the cano-
nisation of Ignatius Loyola.

But the Papacy itself seemed no longer able to
sustain the movement of the Counter-Reformation at
Decline of the i ts Previous height. Clement VIII. (1592
spmTat U Kome. I( 55) was by no means unsuccessful in
element via j^ g p ra i sewor fchy attempts at c making peace
between the kings 9 (Vervins, 1598); but he was
content with adjusting where his predecessors would
have claimed to arbitrate. In matters religious, he
sought to maintain the purity of the faith by the
customary methods ; the Inquisition was by no means
inactive at Rome during his reign, and immolated a

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 163

few heretics, one of whom, as it seems no longer pos-
sible to doubt, was Giordano Bruno. But under Cle-
ment VIII. a lower tone once more begins to char-
acterise the whole system of government and life at
Rome, though he did what he could to maintain some
of the reforms of Sixtus V. The Vatican swarmed
with nepoti, and nearly two-thirds of the Sacred Col-
lege were pensioners of foreign courts. Well pleased
with ah acquisition long coveted by the Papacy that
of Ferrara (1598) Clement in his later years, when
the great jubilee of 1600 lay behind him, showed
little disposition to carry on the religious movement
aggressively. He refused to have any part in the
attempt of Charles Emmanuel of Savoy to " escalade "
Geneva, the citadel of Calvinism (1601), and in vain
exhorted the English Catholics, rendered desperate by
apparently interminable injustice, to refrain from such
remedies as sedition and conspiracy ( 1 604). Yet when,
after the brief pontificate of Leo ST. (Medici), Paul V.
(Borghese) was seated in St Peter's chair (1605-21),
Reveal under a change seemed once more to come over
Pduiv - the spirit of the Papacy. The new Pope

seemed as it were transformed by his election, in which,
having contributed nothing to the result himself, he
saw the finger of God bidding him follow the examples
of the most conscientious and the most zealous among
Ms predecessors. Nor should it be forgotten how
mighty a position the Church of Rome now 'occupied
through the successful activity of the Catholic, and
more especially of the Jesuit, missions in the New
World, and in the remotest regions of the Old in
the East Indies, China, and Japan. At the very time

164 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

when in Europe Catholicism was preparing for a final
struggle against the Protestant revolt, the idea arose of
a reunion nnder the Papal supremacy of a whole series
of Eastern Churches between the Indus and Euphrates
with the Church of Borne ; and to this lofty dream
neither Philip III. of Spain nor Paul V. himself re-
mained strangers.

At home, Paul V. consistently, though without harsh-
ness, exacted from both bishops and clergy a rigorous
fulfilment of their duties. At the same time, with-
out shaping his foreign policy in subservience to either
France or Spain, he set about the restoration of the
authority of the Church where it seemed to have
been impaired, beginning with certain ecclesiastical
grievances in Spain and in Genoa. These successes
increased his ambition to an extraordinary degree,
and before the first year of his pontificate was ended
he Lad become involved in a serious quarrel with the
Republic of Venice, which had recently
quarrel with re-enacted, together with a kind of mort-

YeuiCtf. . , , , i - * /I .

mam statute, a law requiring the assent
of the temporal authorities to the opening of new
churches, and had asserted the jurisdiction of the
state over criminous ecclesiastics. Paul Y. replied
to these rather high-handed proceedings by threat-
ening to place Venice under an interdict, unless
within twenty-seven days these laws were repealed
and the imprisoned ecclesiastics given tip (April 1606).
Venice, not for the first time in her history exposed
to the Papal thunder, stood firm ; and the interdict
descended upon Doge, Seigniory, and city. The clergy,
under the orders of the State, continued to perform

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 165

their spiritual functions, and to administer the sacra-
ments ; where there was hesitation, more or less of
pressure was effectually applied ; and the Jesuits, who
refused submission to the civil authorities, were sum-
marily expelled from the territories of the Republic.
Hereupon the literary champions of Rome, headed of
course by the Jesuits, set in scene a futile blaze of
indignation, in which, after the efforts of their Ber-
gamesque printing-press had been met by the great
Venetian publicist and patriot Fra Paolo Sarpi, Car-
dinal Bellarmine himself took part. But it did not
suit Henry IV. of France to allow the conflict with
Spain to break out on this issue, for he had no wish
that the good- will of the Pope should be secured to
Spain beforehand ; moreover, Spain herself was too
much impoverished to be willing to enter suddenly
into war. Thus through the mediation of Cardinal
Joyeuse a pacification was patched up between the
Pope and Venice (1607). The imprisoned clerics were
indirectly given up to the Pope, and a semblance of
absolution was supposed to have been pronounced, but
the obnoxious laws were not repealed, nor were the
Jesuits recalled fcr half a century to come. The
weakness of the Papal authority even on the Italian
side of the Alps had been unmistakably exposed, and
rumour represented Rome as reduced to employing
the assassin's dagger by way of counter-argument
to the State theology of Venice. What if the Re-
public, still a great name, if no longer a great power,
were, under Sarpi's guidance, altogether to throw off
its allegiance to the Church and to become Protes-
tant ? Such thoughts accorded only too well with the

1 66 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

eager aspirations of eager Protestants like the Hugue-
not Dtiplessis-Moraay and his friend Sir Henry
Wootton, the diplomatic agent of England at Venice;
nor probably was Fra Paolo's own attitude on the sub-
ject of a purely negative character. But it was again
Henry IV. who declined to hasten a disruption of the
Church in Italy, and preferred tentatively to resume his
scheme of a union of the Italian states. Paul V., though
his reign lasted for nearly fourteen years longer, never
again allowed his zeal to outrun Ms discretion, as it had
in the Venetian imbroglio. He maintained the Papal
claims in theory, and humoured the Jesuits in their
theological controversy with the Dominicans; but the
spirit of combat had passed out of him, and instead
of re-establishing the Papal supremacy in Europe, or
even, in Italy, he founded the fame of the Borghese
family as the most splendid patrons of art at Kome,

Enfeebled at its centre, the movement of the Catho-
lic Eeaction still seemed in more remote regions to
catholic ad- follow a well- established impetus. This was
pS^nd tae period in. which the Catholic Church
Russia. regained her ascendancy in Poland under

Sigismund III., in which the same prince, c with the
same thorn in his foot' (Malaspina), sought to rein-
troduce Catholicism into Sweden, in which Borne
and her Jesuit vanguard actually founded hopes upon
the enterprise of the first false Demetrius in Eussia
(1605-6). But these were merely operations on the
outskirts. After the overthrow of the great plan of
Philip II., it seemed for a time as if the renewal of the
religious conflict must inevitably tate the shape of an
assault upon the European, ascendancy of the House of

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 167

Habsburg under the leadership of Henry IV. of France,
the last, and not the least successful, of Philip's adver-
cathoiic revi- saries. But Henry was determined before
Yai iu France. and al:)0ve everything to rally the whole
French nation round his throne, and to effect this, even
at the risk of offending his old Huguenot associates
and disappointing his most trusted counsellors, he made
concession upon concession to the Church of Borne. His
marriage with Maria de' Medici (1600) was followed by
the recall of the Jesuits into France (1604), and no
obstacle was placed by his government in the way of a
religious movement which recalls some of the most attrac-
tive features of the earlier stages of the Counter- Refor-
mation. Great activity manifested itself in the religious
orders of both sexes, many of which were reformed,
largely under the influence of the Spanish movement
identified with the name of St. Teresa, some putting
out fresh shoots, as did the Cistercians in the Fewillcmts,
who were ultimately, under Clement YIII., constituted
a distinct order. No name was more prominent in
these endeavours than that of Francois de Sales, after-
wards canonised (15671622), a mystic with whom
fervour of feeling took the place of subtlety, and per-
haps of depth, of thought. In conjunction with the
pious Baroness de Chantal he founded the female order
of the Visitantines (1610), modelled on that of the
Ursulines, which had come into France from Italy,
where it had flourished under the protection of Cardinal
Borromeo. Francois de Sales, when charged with the-
task of re-Catholicising the district of Chablais, of which
Charles Emmanuel of Savoy had in 1594 despoiled
the Genevese, had displayed extraordinary energy,

1 68 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

being credited in a Papal bull with having made
72,000 converts; and in 1602 he had been appointed
Bishop of Geneva in partibiis. Of hardly less import-
ance were the labours of Vincent de Paula, a native
of Gascony (1576-1660), the founder of the Priests
of the Mission (confirmed by Louis XIII. in 1627,
and by Urban VIII. in 1631), afterwards, from the
great Paris priory assigned to their use, known as the
LazaristSj and, in conjunction with Louise de Gras, of
the Sisters of Charity known as the Grey Sisters
(1634). He had been introduced to the sphere of
home missionary work, in which he accomplished so
much, by Pierre de Berulle, a kind of intermediary
"between France and Spain in the work of the great
Theresian reform. Henry IV. was thus pursuing a
cautious religious policy at home, but continuing at
the same time to carry on his designs for the exten-
sion of the influence of France both in Italy and among
the German Protestants, whose Union (1608) was
greatly in his favour, when his career was cut short by
the kuife of the Feuillant Ravaillac (May 14, 1610).
His widow, Maria de' Medici, now Regent of France,
did her best to preserve the public peace; but the
principle of national unity represented by Henry suf-
fered very palpably by his death. The great Huguenot
lords began to claim extended securities, and the
Guises once more sought to lay hands upon the helm.
The double marriage treaty with Spain (1612) implied
a Catholic political alliance; once more monarchical
and clerical ideas and interests were in unison, while
the Sorbonne, led by Edmund Richer, strove to uphold
the liberties of the Gallican Church. No alliance was,

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 169

however, effected between the national section of the
clergy and the Huguenots, who relied chiefly on the
heads of the great houses (Bouillon, Rohan, Soubise,
Sully), and were by them once more carried in the
direction of that aristocratic decentralisation, which
under Henry IV. the genius of France seemed to have
abandoned.

The course of religious affairs under Heniy IV. in

France had reacted upon Switzerland, where Catholics

and Protestants were far more evenly bal-

Catholic J

revival m anced. The Catholic propaganda had been

Switzerland. i a i

active at Juucerne, and a opamsh party
formed itself in several of the Cantons. But it was
in the Catholic district of the Valtelline, over which
the Protestant canton of the Grisons held sway, that
an imminently dangerous complication arose. Henry
IV.'s overtures to the Grisons, about the time of his
alliance with Venice (1603), were answered by the
construction of a Spanish fortress (F. Fuentes) in the
Milanese, hard by their frontier, and the eastern passes
of the Alps seemed in question. But when, after the
death of Henry IV, French policy changed, the Catho-
lic interest in Switzerland felt reassured, and Spain
secured to herself by a brutal massacre the control of
the Valtelline (1620) ; nor was it till many years later
(1635), when Richelieu, had resumed the policy of
Henry IV., that the Spanish and Imperial troops were
again ejected from this important valley.

But it was in Germany and in the kingdoms ruled
by the Austrian branbh of the House of Habsburg
The Reaction ^kat ^ ie relations between the confessions

under Budoif IT j^ long ^ QQn sucll as to ma fc e the open

170 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION,

outbreak of the conflict a mere question of time and
opportunity. As the reign of Eudolf II. proceeded,
his Spanish bigotry continued to make itself felt as
unmistakably as his political incompetence. He was
unmarried, but his brothers. Archdukes Ernest and
Albert, were successively connected with the Spanish
government and policy. Of his sisters, one was the
mother of Philip III., and another died as a nun in
Spain. Of Archduke Matthias alone, after his brother
Ernest's death (1595) Rudolf's probable successsor,
nothing could be predicted as to his religious or
general policy, except that it would be always dic-
tated by his immediate personal interests. Of the
side-lines of the House of Austria, the Styrian alone
Ferdinand of survived in numerous scions, of whom the
styna. head was Archduke Ferdinand. He had suc-

ceeded his father as a boy of twelve years of age ; and
to him, owing to the childlessness or celibacy of the
princes of the main line, a strong and widespread inte-
rest began to attach itself. When in 1596 he took
the administration of his archduchy into his own hands,
he at once began the experiment which at a later date
and on a larger scale he put into practice in Bohemia,
All Protestant worship was prohibited; all Protestant
schools were closed ; all Protestant preachers banished
under pain of death ; while to the laity was left the
choice between conversion and exile, accompanied by
harsh conditions as to the disposal of property. The
peasantry came in swarms to be converted before soldiers
were quartered upon them ; but though the pressure
applied was assuredly severe, even the Styrian Counter-
Reformation only partially accomplished its work. In

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 171

1609 Ferdinand is found replying to a < renewed
application 3 of the nobility and peasantry of Styria,
Carinthia, and Carniola for the free exercise of the
Augsburg Confession. Rudolfs own attempts at a
Counter-Reformation in his favourite Bohemia began to
take practical effect when, in 1602, Jesuit, Capuchin,
and cognate influences prevailed upon him, by reviving
and extending the operation of an ordinance promul-
gated in 1581, to deprive Lutherans, Calvinists, and
Bohemian Brethren alike of a settled religious status.
Much persecution and hardship ensued, including the
suppression of the Carmel of the Bohemian Brethren at
Jungbunzlau ; while the majority of the diet resented
the acceptance of the Trent decrees by a Catholic
synod, and their enforcement by the Archbishop of
Prague. These feelings were intensified by the pro-
ceedings of Rudolfs government in Hungary, where,
in the parts of the kingdom unoccupied by the Turks,
religious persecution was now added to a contemptuous
neglect of the national laws and usages. This policy
bore its fruit when Stephen Bocskai, after invading
the country (i 604), was by a numerous diet proclaimed
ruler of Hungary and Transylvania (1605). In order
to be able to conclude peace with the Turks, Matthias,
as the representative of Rudolf (though anything but
trusted by him), listened to Stephen Illeshazi and the
other Magyar nobles (1606), and afterwards confirmed
the code of laws in which the concession of free reli-
gious worship to both Lutherans and Calvinists had
been incorporated (1608).

Outside the Austrian dominions the best ally of the
.Roman reaction had long been the incurable disunion

i/2 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

among the Protestants. The endeavours of the Elector
Palatine Frederick IV. (from 1594 onwards) had been
Protestantism wrecked upon the refusal of the Saxon
SSSSfcJtS? Government to co-operate with him, and the
Empire. reaction seemed to be left without a check.
This was the time of the first efforts of Duke Maximilian
of Bavaria (1597-1651), afterwards called Max the
Catholic, and almost as important a factor in the great
Catholic effort of his age as Ferdinand II, himself,
to whom he stood successively in the relations of
brother and son-in-law. As the new century opened,
the endeavours of the spiritual princes to bring their
stray subjects back into the fold became more and
more alarming. In the three spiritual electorates, and
in other sees, such as Paderborn in especial (where
Bishop Theodore of Fiirstenberg in 1604 issued forth
completely victorious from a desperate struggle with his
nobility and burghers), an era of unrelenting intoler-
ance set in. Yet while beyond the frontiers of tlae
Empire allies were on all sides proffering themselves to
the Protestant cause, no Protestant grievance had a
chance of being listened to at the diet, and in the
supreme court of appeal (Reicliskammergerichf) all de-
cisions of cases turning on the disputed points in
the religious Peace of Augsburg were as a matter of
course against the Protestants. Secession from the
nexus of the Empire being regarded as out of question,
the sole expedient left was that of the union in imperio
which had so repeatedly been essayed in vain. Saxony
under Christian II., and under his successor, John
George I. (161156), whose counsels were inspired
by the court preacher Hoe von Hoenegg, still refused

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 173

to dally with Calvinism ; but in Brandenburg tie
latter form of Protestantism was in the ascendant under
Joachim Frederick (1598-1608), and actually estab-
lished (1614) under John Sigisraund (160819).

Brunswick, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, and Anhalt were
likewise more or less favourable to a scheme of con-
federation ; Wurtemberg too was gained over, and
it was chiefly the quarrel of Henry IV. with the
Huguenot Duke of Bouillon which for a time foiled
the indefatigable efforts of Prince Christian of Anhalt,
The Pautine tiie agent -in-chief of the Palatine policy,
policy of Thus it was not till the critical vear 1606

aggression. *

that an event happened which was to lead
to the accomplishment of his design. The Emperor
Rudolfs mania had now reached such a pitch, and the
impotence of his rule exhibited so shameful a contrast
with the severity of his ordinances, especially in mat-
ters of religion, that it seemed time to deprive him of
at least the reality of monarchical authority. Arch-
duke Matthias hereupon completely identified himself
with the Hungarian demands, while in Transylva-
nia, where, after a brief interval, Q-abriel Bathory had
succeeded Bocskay (1608), the Catholics, and the
Jesuits in particular, had now in their turn to undergo
persecution. Meanwhile, regardless of the counsels
of either friend or foe, with neither reason to steady
nor religion to console him, Eudolf was sinking deeper
and deeper ; and whatever power remained to him in
any of his dominions would clearly soon slip away from
his weakly grasp.

When the Palatine policy, embodied in Christian of
Anhalt, was straining every nerve to bring about, io

i/4 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

co-operation with the foreign enemies of the house, the
overthrow of the Austrian Habsburgs and the ruin of
the Church of Borne, in so far as these two objects
were .inseparable from one another, a pretext for action
was sure to be found before long. It was furnished
by the proceedings at Donauworth, where a riot conse-
quent upon attempts at a Counter-Reformation, insti-
gated by the Duke of Bavaria and the Bishop of Augs-
burg, had led to the city being first placed under the
ban of the Empire, and then left in the hands of Maxi-
milian, who, with Jesuit aid, now attempted a thorough
restoration of Catholicism in the city (1607). Early
in the following year the issue decided itself between
Eudolf and Matthias, who, besides being now at the
head of the national party in Hungary, had tampered
with the loyalty of the Austrian Estates, his efforts
being seconded by Bishop Khlesl of Vienna, a bigot,
but, as a pupil of the Jesuits, ready to take the side
on which most could be done for the glory of God.
As in Moravia, too, Matthias found support, an agree-
ment was, with the aid of Philip III. of Spain and
Pope Paul V., at last (June 1608) forced upon Eudolf,
whereby he resigned to Matthias Hungary, Austria,
and (for his lifetime) Moravia, retaining with the
imperial crown Bohemia, where, however, Matthias
was to succeed him, and the Catholic TyroL This
partial victory of Matthias was one of neither creed
nor principle, but it gave a tremendous shock
to the imperial authority, and added enormously to
the self-consciousness of the Protestant Estates, by
means of whom Matthias had climbed into power.
Taken together with the logs suffered by the Protestant

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 175

cause at DonauwSrth, these proceedings could not fail
to impress upon Christian of Anhalt the necessity
Establish- f r immediate action. Thus, even before the
pi e Jtest!mt e Habsburg compact was sealed, the Protes-
17111011 tant Union was concluded at Ahausen (May

1608). Though the number of its members rapidly
grew, Anhalt's proposal to extend it to the hereditary
dominions of the House of Austria was thought too
daring, and Henry IY. delayed to signify his adhesion,
Meanwhile Matthias, though desirous of remaining on
amicable terms with Spain and Eome, found himself
obliged still further to conciliate Protestant feeling in
Austria, while in Hungary he was king in little more
than name. About the same time in Bohemia Kudolf
in his turn was constrained by the Protestant majority,
both inside and outside the diet, to- grant the famous
Letter of Majesty (July 1 609), which, while restricting
the right of building churches or schools to certain of
the Estates, gave to all inhabitants of Bohemia absolute
freedom of choice between the Catholic faith and the
Confession of Augsburg. There was joy at these suc-
cesses among the opponents of Rome, from Christian
of Anhalt to Fra Paolo, but the victory was anything
but assured ; and two days before the sig-
catboiic e nature of the Letter of Majesty at Prague
eague * the Catholic League had been founded at
Munich. Yet, although the recent death of Duke
John William of Juliers-Cleves-Berg had, by reason of
the local situation of the disputed territories, opened
a succession question likely at last to set Europe in
flames, and although the Union was prepared to take
every advantage of the difficulty, the time had passed

176 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

for a cordial co-operation between the Catholic powers,
such as the Guises had striven to bring about half a
century before. Even the Pope hesitated, but Philip
III. of Spain became Protector of the League, which by
the summer of 1610 included nearly all the more im-
portant Catholic princes of the Empire. A few months
earlier (February 1610) the high-handed occupation of
Juliers by the Archduke Leopold had at last clinched the
alliance between the Union and Henry IV., who im-
mediately entered into effective negotiations with Savoy,
the United Provinces, and James I. of England. The
Scandinavian powers were friendly, and when early in
May Henry announced that he found himself under
the necessity of marching through the Spanish Nether-
lands in order to assist his ancient allies in the dis-
puted Duchies, he had virtually a confederation of
Protestant Europe at his back. His assassination once
more postponed what had now seemed the inevitable
outbreak of the great religious conflict. While the
Juliers dispute dragged its slow length along, the
question of the succession to Matthias, who took
Budolf's place on the imperial throne (1612), after
ousting him (161 1) from the Bohemian, became para-
mount. The choice of Ferdinand of Styria as the
future head of the House of Austria implied a policy
of combat against the Union as well as against Protes-
tant claims at home. For such a struggle, however,
Matthias made no preparation, allowing Bethlen Gabor
to seat himself firmly on the Transylvanian throne
(161315), and thus establish a firm anchorage for
Protestantism on the Bohemian frontier. Yet soon
afterwards permitting the flat violation of the Letter

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 177

of Majesty in Bohemia itself (1616), and inducing the
diet at Prague to recognise Ferdinand as his successor.
There only remained, when the time should come, the
imperial election, at which the opposition of the Palatine
policy would have to be overcome. The new Lead of
the Palatine house, the young Elector Frederick V. (from
1 610), was the son-in-law of James I. of England,
with whom (1612), as with the United Provinces
(161314), the Union had concluded treaties of alli-
ance. But its strength was apparent rather than real,
as was shown by the indecisiveness of its action in the
Duchies, and by the hesitation of its members, when
the time of its formal expiration drew near, to bind
themselves for a longer period than three years.

Like Henry III. of France, Matthias at this time
(1617) stood helpless against the association of the
imminence of two Confessions in the Empire, and utterly
Mto con- impotent against the forces which they,

though inadequately, represented. The'
collision between, these two forces, though postponed
by policy, by half-heartedness, and by apprehensions
which the event j ustified a hundredfold, was no longer to
be avoided. And such, notwithstanding many failures
and reverses, had been the persistent and indefatigable
activity of the Counter-Reformation movement such,
too, had been the caprices of fortune, which had substi-
tuted James I. for Henry IV., and was about to sub-
stitute Ferdinand II. for Matthias, that the case of the

Reaction was now anything but hopeless.

The Catholic i . f

in aspects of ranee and bpam were at peace with one

success.

.. _, i ,.

another, and the religious policy of the
former State was rapidly reassimilating itself to that

1 78 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

traditional to the House of Habsburg. Indeed, the
decree which in 1617 ordered the restoration of the
Church estates in B^arn was an anticipation in small
of the Edict of Restitution. Again, the spiritual head
of the Catholic world, Paul V., in his later years
anxiously strove to avert anything that might impair
its unity, through which, in the earlier years of his
reign, his arrogance had threatened to make a breach.
Moreover, Philip III. of Spain had been by his Minister
Lerma brought to perceive that the day had passed
for aiming at a hegemony over Western and Central
Europe, although king and people still believed in
the mission of Spain as the foremost of the Catholic
powers. At home, the Inquisition maintained its
authority, and asserted it by such acts as the expul-
sion of the Moors from Spain (1609) \ and at no time
has the influence of the Church over the minds of men
been more visibly omnipotent in Spain than in the
early half of the seventeenth century, the period of the
comedias de santos and autos sacramentales of Lope, Cal-
deron, and their contemporaries. Abroad, the Spanish
Government had for some time carried on a propaganda
alternating between conversion and corruption, directed
to the courts, rather than to the peoples, which was no
altogether ineffective preparation for the resumption
of more direct efforts for the aggrandisement of the
power of Spain and Eome. Among the German Habs-
burgs the miserable JBmdewwist was at an end, and
the day was soon at hand when they would acknow-
ledge as their head the most unflinchingly orthodox
of their number, Ferdinand II., intimately allied by
marriage and in religious policy with Maximilian of

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 179

Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League, and the
chief potentate of the German South- West. Even in
the North and East there was some reason for hopeful-
ness. The orthodox Sigismund of Poland had never
abandoned his claims to the Swedish throne, and was
about to make war on its Protestant occupant, Gus-
tavus Adolphus. In Denmark the signs of a Catho-
lic reaction were still few and scant, but the Danish
Princess Anne, who shared the English and Scottish
thrones, and whose sister Hedwig was about this time
suggested as a consort for Ferdinand of Styria, had
become a secret convert to Borne. Nor was the day
distant when further efforts would be made towards
the recovery of England for Rome, less direct, but
hardly less alarming to Protestant popular sentiment,
than those devised by Philip II. In the meantime, the
influence of Spain had never been more in the ascendant
with the English court and Government than now ; the
Spanish marriage negotiations were uppermost in the
mind of James I., and in 1 6 1 8 he sacrificed Raleigh to
the demands of Gondomar. The Protestants, on the other
hand, entered into the struggle disunited, and for the
Theii supeno- most part dispirited. They were without

ruy tothePxo- , _ r r _ , ,/, _, _ ,

testant ciiances a leader, except the youthful Elector Pala-
tine, Frederick V. France seemed lost as an ally,
and England hopeless. Never had the religious con-
troversies between the several Protestant parties and
sects been more bitter. The Synod of Dort met in the
very year in which the Great War broke out (1618),
Never had the labour expended, especially among the
Calviuists, upon the compilation of vast and provoca-
tive bodies of theological doctrine been more intense*

i So THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

In some quarters the democratic tendencies of advanced
Protestantism were alarming conservative sympathies ;
elsewhere its increasing narrowness was estranging cul-
tivated minds.

No attempt can be made here to narrate the course
of the struggle, which opened thus far from unfavour-

a W f r tne cause of the Catholic Reaction.

There were stages in the progress of the
war. Thirty Tears' War (i 6 1 8-1 648) when that

movement seemed on the eve of more notable advances
than any which have been recorded in the course of
this sketch. The one enduring gain of the Counter-
Reformation was the recovery by Rome of Bohemia,
where she had lost her supremacy for the better part
of two centuries. This gain would have undoubtedly
been far more extensive had it not been for the saga-
cious vigilance and untiring energy of the Prince of

Transylvania, Bethlen Gabor (161320).

BctblenGabor. T j . T 1J3 ,, i i u

In his endeavours to hold the balance be-
tween that house and the Turk, he naturally availed
himself of the Protestant feeling in Hungary and in
the hereditary dominions of the House of Austria : his
own temperament inclined towards tolerance rather
than confessional enthusiasm. Protestantism con-
trived to maintain itself in Hungary throughout the
reign of Ferdinand II. (1619-37), and after the
pressure of his and his adviser Cardinal Pazmany's
Catholic zeal had been removed, George Rakoczy's
insurrection led to a fairly satisfactory settlement of
the Protestant grievances and demands (164546).

The history of the Counter-Reformation, and that
of movements analogous to it, hardly contain a second

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. ir

passage resembling the record of the restoration of

Catholicism in Bohemia. After the so-called Bohe-

. mian War had come to an end with the

iae UonemiAn

counter-iiefor. battle of the White Hill at Prague (Nov-

motion. o v

ember 8, 1620) and the flight of Frederick,
Bohemia lay at Ferdinand's mercy, and by the spring
of 1621 his authority was restored throughout his
dominions. With his measures of political punishment
^and retaliation in Bohemia, Silesia and Moravia, and
in Upper Austria, we cannot here concern ourselves.
The religious reaction began at Prague so soon as King
Frederick and his caravan had turned their backs on
the city gates. It continued to rise even after (Feb-
ruary 1622) a general pardon had been issued. It
was still in progress when, after the first great victory
of Gustavus Adolphus, the Elector John George invaded
Bohemia as the ally of the Swedish deliverer (163 1) ,
and its operations were by no means at an end with
the Peace of Westphalia (165 I was a notable year of
emigrations). The general direction of the proceedings,
was entrusted to the governor of Bohemia, Prince
Charles of Liechtenstein, and to the Archbishop of
Prague, Ernest von Harrach ; while under them the
chief management fell to Count Paul Michna, a pupil
of the Jesuits, who had formerly, as secretary of the
kingdom, countersigned the Letter of Majesty. Their
joint action was characterised by that species of deli-
beration which is best calculated to ensure complete-
ness. On the closing, destruction, or reconsecration of
Protestant churches followed the expulsion, in succes-
sion, of the clergy of the Bohemian Brethren, of the
Calvinists, of the Bohemian (Utraquist), and finally of

1 82 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

the German, Lutherans. Commissaries, at times with
troops of dragoons at their back, effected this with
often brutal rigour. By Ferdinand's wish they
were, when possible, accompanied by Jesuits, so that
no opportunity might be lost of converting the in-
habitants. Jesuits and Dominicans took the places
of the expelled ministers. In Prague, Olmiitz, and
Breslau, and in other towns of Bohemia and the
dependant provinces, the Jesuits assumed a com-
plete command of higher and secondary education;
but in the villages ignorant Polish monks had often to
be put in the vacant incumbencies, or there was for a
time a complete solitude clericorum. As a matter of
course, a raid was made on all heretical books, especially
on German and Bohemian Bibles, indeed, to make sure,
upon, all Bohemian books whatever. Within about
fifteen years Catholic uniformity was re-established in
Bohemia; but*the forced emigrations of recusants,
which had begun in 1622, continued after the victory
had been outwardly consummated. In 1627 a royal
patent of reformation offered to the Protestant nobility
the choice between conversion and banishment, and
the majority preferred the latter alternative. A vast
transfer of estates followed. Nor was it only among
the nobles and in the towns that a steadfast spirit was
displayed, as is shown by some noteworthy peasants*
revolts. Though it should be remembered to the
honour of Ferdinand II. that he explicitly desired the
restoration of religious unity to be unstained by blood-
shed, yet the thoroughness of the Bohemian Counter-
Reformation remains without a parallel ; for it involved
& denationalisation of the government and official ad-

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 183

ministration, of the educational system, and to some
extent of the very literature and language of the land.
In the dependant countries, Moravia and Silesia, simi-
lar measures had similar results. In Upper Austria,
the Oounter-Eeformation began with an es>

The Counter- , .

information pulsion en masse of 'Anabaptists.' After the

ill Austria *

Protestant invasions and peasants' rebellions
which ensued the work thus begun was accomplished,
as was believed, to the extent of the complete extinc-
tion of Protestantism (1628). In Lower Austria the
procedure was much the same, though to the nobility
more consideration was here shown, and the propa-
Andmthe ganda had to content itself with a more
pautmate. gra dual advance. When, in 1 62 3 , the Pala-
tine Electorate, forfeited by the unfortunate Frederick
V., was formally bestowed upon Maximilian of Bavaria,
the prospect opened of yet another German land being
brought back to the fold by a similar series of opera-
tions. 1 At the close of the first period of the Thirty
Years' War (1624 c.), the progress of the Catholic Re-
action seemed assured, if the Emperor maintained his
ascendancy in Germany, which he had established with
the aid of Spain and the League; and, secondly, if
the good understanding between Spain and France
endured. The accession to the Papacy, early in the
course of the Great War, of Gregory XV. (1621-23),
had contributed to strengthen the cause of Rome.
Though an old and broken man, who left the entire
management of his affairs to Cardinal Lodovisio and

1 The Nuncio Caraffa at Vienna thus uuccmctly summarised the
normal process of counter-reformation ; Primo dttigens instructs
seductorum ; deinde mince, propositio immumtatis t prcepostta pramia ;
dentgue ob&tinatoi'um, ejectio.'

1 84 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

his otlier nepoti, he pursued a rigidly orthodox policy,
and exhibited a devotion to Spain unknown at the
pope urban "Vatican since the days of Clement VIII.
vlih Gz*egory XV. was succeeded by Urban VI1L

(1623-44). So far as the advancement of his family
(the Barbarini) was concerned, the new Pope followed
in the footsteps of his predecessor ; but his policy was
peculiar to himself. True, Urban was in principle
as consistent an adversary of Protestantism, and as
alive to the importance of Catholic effort, as were any
of the Popes of the Counter-Reformation. If Gregory
XV. had canonised Ignatius Loyola, he canonised
Francis Borgia. In 1627, at the very time of the
triumph of the Emperor, he renewed the bull In
ccend Domini, and he symbolised its claims by a
monument in St. Peter's to the Countess Matilda. But
he hereby likewise expressed his defiance of the imperial
authority, and emphasised Ms determination to treat
the Great War not as a religious conflict, but as turn-
ing on the political relations between the powers* He
accordingly viewed with undisguised displeasure the
overwhelming coalition of Spain and Austria, encouraged*
the efforts* of France to recover her influence in Italy,
and at least did nothing to hinder the victorious pro-
gress of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Protestant cause/
During the earlier years, however, of Urban VIII/s
papacy, the advance of the Catholic Beaction knew
no break : and the results of the so-called

Successes of _ . . * ,

theDaukh Danish war (102529) were such as to sug-
gest an attempt to undo on a large scale
the compromise of the religious Peace of Augsburg.
Christian IV. of Denmark had been unwillingly left

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 185

in the lurch both by Charles I. of England and by
Richelieu. The 'relations between King Charles and
his Parliament made it impossible for him to transmit
more than a fraction of the promised subsidies. As
for Richelieu, who since 1624 stood at the head of
affairs in , France, though the French Government
had taken serious note of the great increase of power
which had accrued to the House of Habsburg from
the results of the Bohemian and Palatinate wars, he
was first hampered by the aggressive movements of
the Huguenots, and then derided for having offered
them a conciliatory settlement (1625). Thus he had
to allow the Danish War to take its course, and even to
compromise the Valtelline question, in which his coup
de main had intervened, by the Peace of Mon^on
(March 1626). France seemed less likely than ever
to oppose the cause of Habsburg and Rome, when the
great plot was formed against Richelieu ( 162526), and
when the war against the Huguenots, in which Buck-
ingham's ambition had led to the futile intervention of
England, ended with the fall of Rochelle (1627-28)-
For the moment it might even seem as if a complete
Catholic restoration were possible in France. But Riche-
lieu, whose hand grew firmer and firmer on the helm r
was far removed from any such intention. He granted'
moderate terms to the Huguenots in the Edict of Nimes
(1629), and made peace with England (1630). His
desire was to resume the contest with Spain, and for this
the question of the Mantuan succession soon furnished
him with the desired opportunity.

The complete triumph in the Danish War of the
armies of Emperor and League, which were overrun-*

1 86 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

ning the whole of Lower Saxony, over the first sub*
stantial Protestant combination which had yet been
And the topes formed, intoxicated the Catholic world with
founded e on tiou J !- Even Pope Urban VIII. took up the
them. notion, which both Olivarez and Eichelieu

pretended to favour, of a new Grand Armada against
Protestant England, poor Queen Anne being assigned
the part of a kind of latter-day Mary Queen of Scots.
The air was fall of other visionary schemes; and
although the arrogance of "Wallenstein was defied by
the walls of Stralsund, never had the power of the
house of Habsburg been more imposing, or its exer-
tions on behalf of the Catholic Pteaction more varied.
Ferdinand IL had armies in the field in the Low Coun-
tries, in Poland, and before Mantua ; and soon Pope
Urban VIII. must have consented to crown him
Eoman Emperor on Italian soil. And rather more
than two months before concluding peace with his
vanquished adversaries at Liibeck (May 1629) he
promulgated that Edict of Restitution which sought to
carry back the religious history of the Empire more
than seventy years. Afterwards ? when the Edict of
Eestitution had proved to have been a fatal blunder,
it was declared to have been inspired by the craft
of Bichelieu. In truth, it originated in the desire ex-
pressed at Muhlhausen (1627) by the members of the
TheFdictof League, and by the spiritual electors in
Eestitution particular, that all Catholic complaints as
to violations of the reswi'atwrti ecclesiasticum should
be settled once for all by a general imperial rescript.
The moment naturally seemed propitious for redress-
ing those long-standing and bitter grievances, the

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 187

occupation by Protestant administrators of bishoprics
and abbeys held immediately of the Empire, and the
confiscation of smaller conventual estates by Protes-
tant, especially Calvinist, governments. The Elector
of Saxony at once showed signs of alarm, and it was
some time before the Emperor himself was gained over
to the scheme. But it opened too seductive a pro-
spect for rewarding his faithful servants, and for endow-
ing the cadets of his house, such as his son Leopold
William, for whom were destined the great North Ger-
man sees of Bremen, Verden, Minden, Halberstadt, and
Magdeburg. Neither, however, was the religious side
of the question lost sight of ; and the Emperor's con-
fessor, Lammermann, and the Papal nuncio, Caraffa,
looked forward not only to the restoration of wealth
to the Church, but also to the salvation of hundreds
of thousands of souls. In many Catholic eyes the
recovery of the whole of Germany was a mere question
of time, and Ferdinand IL's own mind was peculiarly
open to such ideas. Thus the Edict of Restitution pro-
mulgated by him (March 1629) was so radical in its
provisions as to render every archbishopric, bishopric,
or ecclesiastical foundation whatever immediate to the
Empire, that had not been in Protestant hands before
1552, liable to being forcibly brought back into the
Roman commmunion ; while the retrospective validity
of the reservatum ecclesiasticum for the period 1517
1552 was left a dangerously open question. Implicitly,
the exercise in the Empire of any Confession by the
side of the Roman except that of Augsburg was pro-
hibited; explicitly, the expulsion of Protestant in-
habitants from the territories of Catholic estates was

1 88 Tun COUNTER-REFORMATION.

approved. This latter proceeding, though at the time
of the religious Peace of Augsburg the attempt had
been expressly made to guard against it, had been per-
sistently resorted to by Catholic, especially spiritual,
princes.

The execution of the edict spread terror far and
near among the Protestant Estates, both those which
Remits of its k a< l taken part in the Danish war and those
execution w hi c h, like Saxony, had loyally abstained
from opposing the Emperor in arms. Material in-
terests, and religious and educational likewise, to a
very considerable extent, were threatened by its inci-
dence. In the imperial cities of Elsass, in the dio-
cese of Augsburg, in the feudal network of the Fran-
conian circle, the edict was carried out with relentless
rigour; and it was enforced in those parts of the
Empire which, like the Lower Saxon circle, were
still under the control of the Liguistic or imperial
forces, while passive and at times active resistance was
opposed to it in Wiirtemberg, Hesse-Oassel, and the
neighbouring districts, and elsewhere. By the autumn
of 1631 there had been recovered for the Church of
Rome two archbishoprics, Bremen and Magdeburg,
after fire and sword had overthrown this * Chancery of
God/ five bishoprics, two immediate abbeys, and nearly
150 churches and convents, with about 20O parson-
ages in villages and towns hitherto Protestant, and a
great increase of these numbers was in near prospect.
From the nature of the case, a large proportion of the
recoveries fell to the older and less active orders, the
Benedictines and the Cistercians ; but the Jesuits were
vigilant, and would probably in the end have been the

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 189

chief gainers. On the other hand, great indignation
was excited among the members of the League by
the application of so many of the gains to the purposes
of the Habsburg dynasty, and by the unscrupulous
action of the imperial general, Wallenstein. These
differences, which led to the dismissal of Wallenstein
(June 1630)5 did not interfere with the operation of
the edict, but they encouraged John George of Saxony
to manoeuvre against it, and at the Fraukfort Con-
vention (autumn 1631) to demand its revocation.
Had this demand, or that of Bavaria for a postpone-
ment of execution for forty years, been granted, the
revolt of Saxony and the Estates following her lead
might conceivably even now have been averted. As
it was, after the fruits of the alliance between Saxony
and Gustavus Adolphus had been swiftly secured by
his great victory at Breitenfeld (September 17, 1631),
the Edict of Eestitution become a dead letter. About
half the operations taken in hand under its provisions
had been actually carried out before the close of the
year 1631. The collapse of the victorious reaction
marked by the edict was due to the sword of Gustavus
Adolphus, but it was prepared in no small measure by
the fears and jealousies excited by the edict itself.

The year notable for the issue of the Edict of Eesti-
tution is also marked by the last Huguenot rising in
France. When its leader, Rohan, accepted
Gustavus the agreement known as the Peace of Alais,

p us " a chapter closed in the history of France
and of French Protestantism. The latter ceased to be
an imperium in imperio, and Richelieu began to feel
his hands free for a national policy of opposition to the

190 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION*

House of Habsburg, and in the first instance to Spain.
Skilfully availing himself of Italian feeling and of Pope
Urban VIIL's growing opposition to the Habsburg
policy, he intervened with a high hand in the question
of the Mantuan succession (1630-31), effected secret
understandings with Savoy and Bavaria, and concluded
an agreement with Gnstavus Adolphus, of which he of
course intended to keep the development in his own
hands. During the wonderful years 1631 and 1632
the European problem seemed at last to have found
its master in the great Swedish king. But neither
the deeds nor the plans of Gustavus Adolphus belong
to the subject of this sketch. After his death
?2tanatta (November 16, 1632), Eichelieu preceived
in the new condition of things the real oppor-

f. un jf ( y O f Prance ; and by entering upon the
deliberate execution of his great political plan, cut off all
prospect of a revival under any conditions of the Catho-
lic Eeaction in the Empire. The Convention of Heil-
bronn (1633) kept alive the Protestant alliance^ and had
Wallenstein, aggrieved and ambitious, been actually
tempted into an alliance with the foes of the Emperor,
it might have proved possible to detach Bohemia and
its dependencies tinder a national king from the Habs-
burg rule, and they might have recovered their religious
liberties in due sequence. But this was not to be.
Wallenstein's assassination. (February 1634), though it
removed a serious obstacle to the complete reunion of
the interests of the two branches of the House of Habs-
burg, helped to secure to France the decisive voice in
the affairs of Europe ; and France neither would nor
could assent to any pacific settlement, which, by restor-

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 191

ing to tlie Catholic reaction the advantages formerly
gained by it, should have crowned the Habsburg
policy with success. Thus, though the great victory
of Nordlingen (September 1634) made the Emperor
master of the whole of the south-west, it only led
to the Treaty of Paris, which threw into the arms of
France the German members of the League of Heil-
bronn (November), unwillingly followed by Sweden.
On the other hand, the Protestant princes of the
northern part of the Empire, headed by the Elector
The Peace of ^ Saxony, soon concluded with the Em-

Prague. p eror ^ p eace Q f p rague (May 1635).

This treaty left in the hands of the Protestants princes
included in it all their mediate acquisitions, and all
the immediate territories obtained by them before 1627
in other words, the greater part of the Northern
bishoprics and therefore, in substance, undid the
Edict of Eestitution. No mention was, however,
made either of the Bohemian liberties or of a pos-
sible restoration of Protestant rights in the hereditary
dominions of the House of Austria ; and the benefits
of this treaty, as of the religious peace concluded
eighty years before, were not extended to the Cal-
vinists. This compromise with the Lutheran interest,
which the Edict of Restitution had so unwisely
offended, was strongly opposed by Urban VIII. and
the Jesuit influence at Vienna, but supported by P.
Quiroga and other leading Capuchins,

During the weary and awful years which remained of
the Great War (1635-48), the religious
character of the struggle was nearly alto-
gether lost. In the real forefront of the

192 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

fight stood on opposite sides the two great Catholic
powers France and Spain, and the attitude of the head
of the Church contributed to the confusion of accus-
tomed conceptions. While Richelieu was unfolding his
designs for the overthrow of the Habsburg ascendancy.
Urban VIII. was quarrelling with Cardinal Borgia,
who represented Spanish interests at the Vatican ; and
the more fiery adherents of Spain bethought them-
selves of setting the cumbrous machinery of a General
Council to work against the Pope, Gradually, how-
ever, his eyes were opened to the futility of his devices
for counterbalancing the power of the House of Habs-
burg without damaging the Catholic cause ; and before
long he once more paid subsidies to the Emperor. The
Pope inno- election of his successor, Innocent X. (Pam-
centx. g^ 164455), was accounted a victory for

Spain ; but he was a pontiff of slight personal signifi-
cance, and his support proved of very secondary value
to the House of Habsburg in the last phases of the
struggle. The task of Ferdinand III. (1637-58)
was simply to preserve as far as possible

Ferdinand III , -, r- j , i ..

the integrity of his dynastic inheritance,
and to save what he could save of the remnants of the
imperial authority. He succeeded better in the attempt
than his father might have done, being readier to
temper zeal with discretion, and though blameless in
his life, standing less under ecclesiastical control.

The contest had not yet been fought out to its final
issue when Eichelieu died (December 1642). But
^ m ig^y impulse which he had given to
the policy of France must have survived,
even had his dying recommendation of Mazarin as his

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 193

successor failed to be respected by Lewis XIII. Tims,
though after the young king's death (May 1643)
the regency of France was in the hands of a princess
of Spanish birth (Anne of Austria), the policy of
France pursued its consistent course, encouraged by
the great victories of Cond4 and Turenne, the successes
of the Swedes, and the stir created on the eastern
frontier by Prince George Rakoczy of Transylvania.

Peace had become an absolute necessity for the
House of Austria, as well as for Bavaria, who sought by
doubtful manoeuvres to hasten its conclusion, and for
the other parts of the Empire, which foreign invasion
and occupation had sucked dry of their very life's blood,
Spain had been likewise unfortunate in her struggle
against France, with whose ally, the United Provinces,
Philip IV. concluded peace In January 1 648.

The Peace of Westphalia, which followed in the
autumn of the same year, did not put an end to the
persecutions whereby the Catholic powers
continued from time to time to assert
tteir right of counter-reformation; the
Bohemian Protestants suffered anew in 1651 and
1652, aud the Yaudois in 1655. Neither, of course,
did it arrest the propaganda of private conversion,
which was peculiarly active among the princely houses
of the Empire and in other quarters in the latter half of
the seventeenth century, nor allay the spirit of religious
animosity between the Confessions. Oa the other hand,
it pafc an end to the long-sustained endeavour, begun
under Philip II., renewed under Ferdinand II., but
never resumed after him, to re-establish the dominion
of the Church of Eome over the whole of "Western

194 THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

and Central Europe. So far as the Empire was con-
cerned, the progress of Catholicism was very definitely
arrested at the point which it had reached on January
I, 1624, the date now fixed as regulating the tenure
of ecclesiastical lands. Bohemia and those
SotestLS 1 hereditary territories of the House of Aus-
gams tria which had more or less fallen away

from the faith were now secured to Borne. In Hun-
gary, however, as has been seen, Protestantism had
obtained a measure of concession, Bavaria retained
the Upper Palatinate as the reward of her efforts, but
the Lower was restored to the Protestant Palatine line.
The other territorial changes in the Empire, including
the cessions made for the "satisfaction " of the Swedish
and French crowns, effected no violent alteration in
the balance of the Confessions; but the Protestants,
Calvinists as well as Lutherans, kad gained the full
acknowledgment of the right of every territorial sove-
reign to determine the established religion of his lands,
the toleration of private worship b'eing except in the
hereditary dominions of the House of Austria secured
to all three forms of faith alike. At the diet religious
questions were henceforth to be settled by arrange-
ment, or not at all ; and the securities thus obtained
derived additional strength from the recognition of the
right of the princes of the Empire to form alliances
as territorial sovereigns with other powers. More
dubious was the advantage accruing from the locus
standi for intervention in the affairs of the Empire
granted to France and Sweden.

Richelieu's services to Protestantism were not
limited to the changes wrought in the religious con-

THE CONFLICT MERGED IN THE GREAT WAR. 195

dition of the Empire. His policy had indirectly con-
tributed to the success of the English Revolution, and
Mazarin's alliance with the Protectorate (1655) was
in full accordance with the system continued by him.
In unhappy Ireland, the great insurrection of 1 64 1 had
served as a pretext to victorious Puritanism for estab-
lishing an abnormal and unnatural religious as well
as proprietary ascendancy. It is said that in France
itself Richelieu at different times hoped to restore re-
ligious unity to the nation by conference, by conces-
sions, even by corruption ; but on such designs afc
least Rome and the Holy Office could place a sufficient
veto. That he hereupon aimed at a schism in one or
another form was denied by himself; but he constantly
combated the pretensions of the clergy to independence
as towards the state, and in the struggle which ensued
the Jesuits allowed themselves to be played off by him
against the Sorbonne. These difficulties descended to
his successor, notwithstanding the victories of France
over Spain. In Spain itself, as in Italy and the Catho-
lic cantons of Switzerland, Catholicism had maintained
its position ; but the intimate alliance between the
two branches of the House of Habsburg was drawing
to a close, and the day of Spain's greatness in Europe,
which had made the Counter-Reformation possible, was
vanishing for ever.

The Treaties of Westphalia furnished a durable
End of the guarantee of religious peace in Europe,
because, notwithstanding much in them
tnat was unnatural and much that was un-
j^^ ^ Q j on ^ e w h o i e corresponded in this,
as in other respects, to the actually existing balance of

THE COUNTER-REFORMATION.

opinions and sentiments in Europe. The Papal pro-
test against the peace remained unheeded, and this
not merely because canon law makes it impossible for
the authority of the Pope to dissolve a public treaty
between Catholics and non-Catholics, but also because
the religious conditions of the peace agreed with the
necessities of the case as generally recognised. In
other words, the endeavour of the Counter- Reformation
to dictate a revision of the religious map of Europe was
by common consent allowed to have come to an end ;
nor was it within the power of any pope, emperor,
or king to revive this attempt. Yet in a less specific
sense the Counter-Reformation maintained its con-
tinuity in much of the enthusiasm and energy percep-
tible in the religious life of Western and Central
Europe during subsequent generations. JsTor can the
movement ever wholly come to an end so long as the
Church of Eome retains the character formed for her
by the course of her history as well as by the principles
of her existence.

INDEX

AACHEN, the religious conflict at, 144.

Acquaviva (Jesuit general), 158; bis
alleged condemnation of Mariana's
teaching, 161.

Admonet nos (bull), 107.

Adrian VI. (Pope), the earlier career of,
7 ; significance of his election to the
Papacy, 8 , his relations with Charles
V , tb ; demands urged on, by the
Sacred College, 9 ; the attempt of, at
a counter-reformation, 10 seq ; bis
failure and death, 13 ; luqmsitor-Geue-
ral, 48

JEguhus of Vlterbo, g.

AUis, Peace of, 189,

Albeit, Archduke, 170.

Albert V. of Bavaria, 44, 136, 140.

Albert of Prussia, 133.

Alexander. ePAKMA.

Allen, Cardinal, 123.

Al temps. See HOHENEM3.

A l\tmbrados t the, 50.

Alva, Duke of, concludes peace with Paul
IV., 76, 112; in the Netherlands ira.

Amboise, the Conspiracy of, 83, the Con-
vention of, 112.

Anabaptism, a common term for Protes-
tant heterodoxy, 134

'Anabaptists' expelled from Upper Aus-
tria, 183.

Andrese, Jacob, 130.

An]ou, Francis Duke of. 114

Anne of Austria, Queen of France. 193.

Aune of Denmark, Queen of Scotland
and England, a convert to Borne, 154,
179, 186.

Antwerp, the fall of, 121.

Arabella Stuart, 125.

Araoz (Jesuit), 41.

Armada, the Great, in, xa, 125.

Augsburg, Cardinal OttoTruchsess, Bishop
of, 143; diets at, 136, 142, 184; Interim,
the, 44, 69 eg. ; Kebgious Peace of,
tlie, 73.

Augustus I of Saxony, the Formula Con-
^yrdias of, 133.

Austria, Jesuitfl in, 44; Protestantism
prevails in, 136; the religious policy of
Maximilian II in, 140 ; the measures ot

Rudolf IL in, 144 ; the counter-reforma-
tion in, under Ferdinand II , 183.
A villa, Juan de, 31.

BJLDBW, Catholicism restored in, 141.

Bamberg, 142.

Bannez (Dominican), 159.

Baruabites, the, 29.

Bassi, M. de, 26.

Bathory, Gabnel, 173.

Bavaria, Jesuits in, 44 ; the counter-refor-
mation in, 140.

Bayonne, Conference of, 112.

Beam restoration of the Church estates
in, 178.

Belgjc provinces, the, lost to Protes-
tantism, 121.

Bellarmine, Cardinal, in, 135, 153; made
cardinal, 158; his controversy with
J times L, 162, 164.

Berulle, P de, 168

Bethlen Gabor, Prince of

176,180
Bobadilla (Jesuit), 33, 44.

Bob ,

Bocskai, Stephen, 171.

Bohemia, Jesuits in. 45; advance of
Protestantism in, 136, repressive mea-
sures of Uadolf II in, 144, 171; the
Letter of Majesty signed in, 175^ tlie
counter-reformation iu under Ferdi-
nand IT., i87, 194.

Bohemian Bretliren, the, 136, 144.

Bologna, the agreement of, is ; the Coun-
cil removed to, from Trent, 68, 70.

Boua Sforza, Queen of Poland, 148.

Borgia, Cardinal, 192.

Borgia, Francis, St , 41, 184.

Borromean or Golden League, the, 147.

Borromeo, Cardinal, 80, 106 ; lis CoLleyium
Hdvfticum at Milan, 147, 167.

Breda, peace negotiations at, 120.

Breiteufeld, thebattle of. 189.

Bremen, archbishopric of, 188.

Bronsset (Jesuit), 33-

Bruno, Giordano, 163.

Bnissels capitulates to Parma, in.

Bucer, Martin, 131,

198

INDEX.

Buckingham. Duke of, 185
Burlamacclii, Francesco, 142

CAJETANO (de Vio), Cardinal, 12

Calvin, 131

Calvinism, the militant policy of, 157,
conflicts of, with Saxony and Biaurteii-
bnrg, 172 seq , dogmatic labours of, 179

Camalilohtes, the Reformed, 26.

Campeggi, Cardinal, 14.

Campion, Edmund (Jesuit), 124.

Caniams (Jesuit), 111 Austua, 44, nt the
Conference of Wormi, 45 , his Sinntna,
DoctrwcB Chi istwncB, ib , in I'olaud,
tb ; his Gatedivma, 97, i37i '49.

Capuchins the, 26 seq

Caraffa, Carlo, Cardinal, 76

Caraffa, Carlo (Nuncio), 183 vote, 187.

Cu.raff.i-, G .111 Pierro. See PAUL IV

Cardinal^, the College of, reformel, 106

Canntbia, 136

Carmelites, the Discalced, 104. (

Chtrmola, 136

Carranza, Archbishop of Toledo, 50, 63,
66, 102

Carvajal, Cardinal, 9,

Catharine de' Medici, Queen of France,
82, Ler trimming policy, 83, 113

Catharine, Queen of Sweden, 127.

Cervino, Cardinal, at Treut, 62.

Chambord, Alliance of, 72

Chautal, Baroness de, 167,

Charles, Archduke of Styna, 144

Charles V., Emperor, and Artriau VI , 8 ;
loses Ins great opportunity of reforma-
tion, 15, adheres to the scheme of a Gene-
ral Council, 24 ; the relations of, with the
Inquisition, 48 *$ ; deinanda a General
Council, 59, receives the Cardinal of
Lorraine at InnsVirnck, 91.

Charles I. of England, 185

Charles IX of Sweden, 127, 120

Charles Emmanuel I of Savoy, in,
115 , attempts to escalade Genera-, 163,
167.

Chattel, Jean, 153,

Chieregati, Francesco (Papal Legate), 13

Christian I of Auhalt, 157; the chief
agent of the Palatinate ivohcy of aggres-
sion, 173.

ChnstianlTI of Denmark, 129 sea

Christian IV" of Denmark 184.

Christian I of Saxony, 146

Christian II of Saxony, 146, 172.

Ohytraeus, David, 140

Clement VII , Pope, the policy of, 14 xeg

Clement VIII., Pope, grants absolution to
Henry IV , 155, 156; the religious policy
of, 162

Codure ( Jestut), 33

Coimbra, the Jesuit College at, 42,

Cohgny, Admiral, 113.

Collegium Germaniown^ 40, 45.

Collegium Romanian, 40.

Cologne, Archbishop Gebhard IT of, at-
tempts to Piobe^tantise his electorate,
145 ; Ernest of Bavana, Archbishop of,
ib ; Peace congress at, 121.

Commendone, Bishop of Zante, 91, 138

Conde", Lemis L, Prince of, the death of,

Courts', Henry T , Prince of, 115

Gonde", Louis n , Prince of, 190

Conferences, religious, in Germany. 24 *eq.

Confessw Augu&tnnu, 31

Confessio Tetravolitana, 31

Congregation, the, of the Holy Office, v ;
of the Index, 57 ; of the Couucil of
Trent., 97

Concihiun de emendandA ecclesiti 58

Contaimi, Caidmal, warns Clement VII ,
x6, 19 , the first of Paul III 's new cardi-
nals, 22 , the soul of the reform commis-
sion, 23 , nt Ratisbon, 23

Council of Blood, the, in the Netherlands,
119

Councils, the great, of the fifteenth cen-
tury, and projects of reformation, 2

Counter-reformation, the, attempted by
Adrian. VI , 10 seq ; the, in Bavarm,
140 . in Baden, 141 , in Ftilda, ib , m the
Kichsfeld, 142, in the spiritual elec-
torates and principalities, i6seq , pro-
gress of, under Rudolf II , 143 ^<J , in
Poland, 149 seq , in Bohemia, 181
seq , in Austria, 183 , in the Palatinate,
ib , further hopes of, after the Danish
war, 186 , m what sense ended by the
Peace of Westphalia, 196

Cracow, Jesuit influence in the Umversry
of, 150 seq

Crescentio, Cardinal, 73 , dies, 73,

C'respy, the Peace of, 60
CiyptoC

Ciypto Calvinism in Saxony, 146.

Cruz, Jnau de la, 104

Cup, the concession of the, to the laity, 82,

DANISH war, the results of the, 18.1 ;

the Cathohc satisfaction at, 185
Dejados, the, 50,
Delfius, J (Papal Nuncio), 138.
Demetrius, the false, 166
Denmark, Protestant intolerance in, 130
Desmond, the Earl of, the insurrection of,

126
Diet, the, of the Empire, religions qned-

tions at, af tei the Peace of Westphalia,

194

Dil ingen, the University of, 142.
Dio, J nan di, 31
Dominicans the, and the Inquisition, 47;

and the Index, 55 , coutioversy of, with

the Jeswts, 159.
DOUO.U worth, the counter-reformation at,

Dorpat, the Jesuit College at, 130
Dou, the Synod of, 170
Douay, the English College at, 123.
Duplesais-Mornay, Philip, 166.

EASTERN Churches, the proposed re-
union of, under Pap.il supremacy, 164.

Etchsfeld, the, 142

El zabetU of England, 77 ; and Paul IV .
78, 82, excommunicated, 107, hopes of
the conversion of, 122 seq , plow
Against, 124, 134

England, the Marian reaction in, 76
seq ; the Catholic propaganda in, 122 ,
Catholic efforts in, under James 1 , 153

INDEX.

199

Erasmus, D,, Ins idea of reformation, 6 ;

and Adrian VI , 12
Eric XIV of Sweden, 127.
Ernest, Archduke, 170.
Ernest of Bavaria, Bishop of Miinster,

143 , Archbishop of Cologne, 145
Essex, Earl of, 153.

FAENZA, Jesuits at, 40.

Ferdinand L, Emperor, 44; urges the
assembling of a General Council in a
German town, 81, Ins LibeWus de lefor-
matwne at Trent, 83 ; appeals for a set-
tlemeiit to Pius IV., 91; his bargain
with Pius IV , 92 ; the advance of Pro-
testantism under, 135

Ferdinand II , Emperor, his counter-
reformafcion m Styria, 144, 170 ; chosen
as future head of the House of Austria,
176, 178, his schemes and hopes, 186

Ferdinand III , Emperor, the character
of, 192.

Ferrara added to the Papal dominions,
163.

Fewllante, the, 167 sfq.

Fischart, Johann, 147.

FJacius, Matthias, 133

Flagellants, the, in France, 114

Fleix, Peace of, 114.

Fontamebleau, Assembly of Notables at,
82

Foiinula Concoidits, the, 130, 133 seq

France, the religious condition of, under
Henry II , 81 , under Francis II , 82 ,
the religious wars of, 112 seq ; the clo-e
of the religious conflict in, 154 , under
Manade' Medici, 168 seq ; under Riche-
lieu, 185 , under Louis "XTTT , 193

Francois de Sales, St , 167

Frankfort-on-Mam, Convention of, 139

Frederick II. ot Denuiaik, 130

Frederick HI. t Elector Palatine, 132

Frederick IV., Elector Palatine, 157, 172.

Frederick V., Elector Palatine, 154, 177,
179

Fregoso, Cardinal, 22

Fulda, Abbot Balthazar, of, 141 ; counter-
reformation in, 141.

Fuucke, J. F , 133

GAETANO of Thiene, 28.

Gau dam us, N , 44.

Gurdie, Fontus de la, 128

Gebhard II. See COLOGNE.

Gemblours, the battle of, 121

Geneva and Savoy, in, 147, 163

Germany, the disunion ot the Protestants
in, 172, the attempts at union amoug
the Protestants m, 173

Ghent, the Pacification of, 120.

Ghiberti, Cardinal, 19, 22

Guistmiaui, P., 26,

Gondomar, Count, 179,

Gonzaga, Cardinal, 88 ; dies, 91

Granada, Archbishop Guerrero, of, 86.

(iranvelle, Cardinal, 24*

Gras, Louise de, 168.

Gregorian Calendar, the, 109.

Gregory XIII , Pope, 105 , the govern-
ment and policy of, 108 scq.^ 127.

Gregory XIV., Pope, adheres to Spain

and the League, 154
Gregory XV , Pope, 183
Giey Sisters, the, m France, 168
Grisons, the, 169.
Guise, the House of, 81, 113.
Guise, Cardinal, assassinated, 115.
Guise, Francis, Duke Of, 93
Guise, Henry, Duke of, assassinated, 115.
Gunpowder Plot, the, 153 ,
Gustavus L Vasa, 126.
Gustavus n Adolphus, 184 , the Gennwi

victories of, 189, his relations with RiLha-

heu, 190.

HABSBURO family compact, the, 71.

Hedwig, Pnnctss, of Denmaik, 179

Heidelberg Catechism, the, 132.

Heilbronn, Convention of, 100.

Henry II of France, 69, 72, 81.

Henry HI, of France, the instability of,
114; in Poland, 149,

Henriqtiez (Jesuit), 158

Henry IV. of France and Navarre, 113;
a claimant to the French throne, 114,
negotiates with Sixtus V,, 116, 154 ; ab-
jures Protestantism, 155; his religious
policy on the throne, 156 ; his schemes
against the House of Habsburg, ib , 165 ;
the Catholic revival in France under,
167 seq . assassinated, 168, 176.

Hvldesheim, 142,

Hoe von Hoenegg, 172.

Hohenems, Cardinal, 84

Hosius, Cardinal, Legate at Treut, 84, 127,
138, 148

Huguenots, the last insurrection of the,
189

Hungary, the advance of Protestantism in,
140; repressive measures of Rudolf II.
in, 144, 171 j revolution in, ?6. , Protes-
tantism maintains itself in, throughout
the Thirty Tears' War, 180.

ILLESHAZI, Stephen, 171.

Iwmensa cetemaDei (bull), no

In ccena Dowww* (btdJ), 107, 184.

Index, the, m Spam, 55 ; earliest examples
of the compilation of, by Papal autho-
rity, 56 teq. ; in 8i>tun, 102

Jngolstadt, Jesuits at, 44, 141,

Injunctum nobis (bull), 35.

Innocent JX, Pope, 155.

Innocent X., Pope, 192.

Inquisition, the, the Spanish origin of, 47 ;
the relations of, with the Popes in the
penod preceding the Reformation, ib. ;
under Ximenez, t&. , Adrian, 48 , Man-
nque, b , Valdez, 49, Plnhp IL under-
takes the protection <f r ib. , powers con-
ferred on by Paul IV,, ib , 79; crushes
Protestantism out of Spam, ib *w ; at-
tempts to introduce, mto the! Nether-
lands, France, 50 seq , and Naples, 52 ;
effects of, in Italy, 54 *tq , maintamg
its authority m Spurn uwder Phihp III.,

Ireland, early Jesuit mission to, 39 ; insur-
rections in and Spanish attempts uixni,
126, 153; Protestant ascendancy estab-
lished in, 195.

20O

LVDEX.

Ikily, spiritual movements in, during the
earlier part of the sixteenth century, 18 ,
moral and intellectual effects of the
counter reformation 011, 116 seq.

jAitCd I of England, Catholic expecta-
tions of, 153 , plots against, tb. ; contro-
versy of, with BelUrniiiie,t& , 162; allied
with the Protestant Union, 177.

James II L, of Baden-Hochberg, a con-
vert to Catholicism, 146.

January Edict, the, 83.

Jarnac, battle of, 112

Jesuits See JESUS, THE COMPANY OJT.

Jesus, the Company or Order of, 31 seg ,
indigenous to Spain, 32; its earliest
members, 33 ; their arrival at Rome, 34 ;
confirmed by Paul III., 35; its Consti-
tutions, ib. ; Declarations, 36 ; so-called
Secret Institutions, ib ; the cardinal
points in its system, i& seq. ; it* early pro-
gress iu Italy, 39 seq. ; in Spam, 40 eeq. ,
iu Portugal, 41 seq.; in Prance, 42 seq ;
in the Netherlands, 43, in Germany, t&.
seq. in Poland, 45, its distant missions,
46 ; the condition of, at the time of the
death of its founder, ib.; fully estab-
lished at Borne, 52, 109 ; influx of mem-
bers of, into France, 115 ; influence of, in
Italy, 117 ; missionary propaganda of, in
England, 117; the mission of, in Eng-
land (1580), 123 seq. ; colleges of, in Flan-
ders, &c , 125 ; members of, in Sweden,
128; Bavana, 140; the spiritual territo-
ries, 141 ; Switzerland, 147 ; Poland, 149,
i<3 ; banished from France, 155 ; read-
mitted thither, 156; internal dissensions
in, 157 feq ; the Molimst controversy in,
160, teachings on tyrannicide in, 160
seq. ; missions of, into remote parts, 163 ,
recalled into France, 167; actmty of,
m the Bohemian counter-reformation,
182; and the Edict of Restitution, 188.

Jews, the, persecuted by Paul IV , 79

Joachim Frederick of Brandenburg, 173.

John, Don, of Austria, 120,

John III of Sweden, attempts a counter-
reformation, 127 ; his Red Book, 128.

John Casnnir, Count Palatine, 132, 146.

John George L of Saxony, 172, 178, 187.

John Sigitround of Brandenburg, 173.

Joyt-use, Cardinal, 165

Juliera succession, the question oE the,
175 aeq.

Juughuuzlau, 171.

Justification, decree on. at the Council of
Trent, 67.

KHLESL, Bishop of Vienna, 174.
Kxell, Chancellor, 146.

LAINEZ (Jesuit general), 33, 37 ; succeeds
Loyola as general, 46, at Trent, 86, 93.

Latninermanu (confessor of Ferdinand
ID, 187.

Landshut, the Jesuit College at, 141.

Lasco, John a, 130, 148

Lateran Council, the fifth, 3, 5.

Lazarists, the, 168.

league, the Catholic, in Germany, founded,
I7S.

League, the Holy, in France, 114

Le FSvre (Jesuit), 33, 43 , iu Germany, ib.

Le Jay (Jesuit), 33, 37, 44

Lennox, Earl of (Esnie" Stuart), 125.

Leo X M Pope, and the religious move-
ment, 18

Leo XI., Pope, 103.

Leoti, Luis de, 102

Leopold, William, Archduke, 176, an
ecclesiastical arch-pluralist, 187.

Lepauto, the battle of, 108.

Lerrua, Count, 178. t

Letter of Majesty, the, granted, 175 ; vio-
lated, 176

Licet ab imtio (bull), 52

Liechtenstein, Prince Charles of, 181.

LipiK>mano, A (Papal Legite), 72.

Livonia, the Catholic reaction in, 150.

Lodovisio, Cardinal, 183

Lope de Vega, 50.

Lorraine, tlieCaidmalof, 42, 51,81; urges
reforms at Trent, 90; visits Charles V.
at Innsbruck, 91 , gained over by P t ua

T IV , 93, 97, 99

Los Angeles, Juan of, 31,

Louis XIII of France, 193.

Louvain, the Jesuits at, 43 ; the Index of
the "University of, 56

Loyola, Ignatius, St , 31 seq ; his Spiri-
tual Exercises, 36, the pioi>osal to
canonise. 162; canonised, 184

Lucca, the Inquisition at, 54; the meeting
at, between Charles V and Paul III , 59.

Lucerne, 169.

LUbeck, Peace of, 186.

Luna, Count, 95.

Luther and the Papacy, 6 tr 13? ;, Affects of

Lutfieranisin, the rigidity off 131.
Luxemburg, Duke of, at Rome, 116.

MAJ>RE de Dios, Jerome Gratian de la,
104

Madruccio, Cardinal, 6r, 66.

Maastricht, the back of, 121.

Magdeburg, 188

Maiaspma (Paial Legate), 129, 166.

Manrique (Inquisitor-General), 48, 159.

Mantuan succession, the, 185, 190.

Marcellus LT , Pope, 74

Margaret. S<JPABMA

Maria de 1 Medici, Queen of France, 167;
her policy as regent, 168 t,fq

M inana (Jesuit), 158 ; his De rege et reyis
vn&titvtwne, 160 seg*

Mary I. of England, the religious reac-
tion under, 76 seq

Mary, queen of Sots, and the Council of
Trent, 93, 120 ; a fugitive in England, 123.

Matthias, Emperor, as Archduke, 170; in-
trigues against Rudolf II , 173; acquires
the greater part of his dominions, 174 ;
succeeds as Emi>eror, 176, his htjlpless*
ness, 177

Maurice of Snxony, 71, 73.

Maximilian I. of Bavaria, 172, 176.

Maximilian II , Emperor, 92, 107 ; his incli-
nation towards Protestantism, 137 , re-
strained from renouncing OathoTicwn,
138 ; the tolerant character and

INDEX.

201

Mayenne, Duke of, 154

Melanchthon, Philip, 133.

Mendoza, Count, 59, 64

Michna, Count Paul, 181.

Minims, the, 26

Missions of the Churcli of Rome Juto re-

mote parts, 163
Mocenigo, Doge, 114
Molina (Jesuit), 159
Moncon, Peace of, 185.
Monsieur, Peace of, 114,
Moor-, the, expelled from Spain, 178.
Moravia, 183.
Moroue, Cardinal, 59, 78 ; Legate at Trent,

QI

Milhlhausen, 147, 186
Minister, the counter-reformation in, 142;

Job ii of Hoya and Ernest of Bavaria,

Bishops of, ^b
Mumcb, Jesuit college at, 141.

, Edict of, 156

Nasus (Fianciscau), 147.

Naumburg, Convention of, 82.

Navagero, Cardinal (Papal Legate), 92

Netherlands, the revolt of the, largely due
to religious causes, 118 ; the progress of,
119 ; final adjustment of the struggle in
the, i2t

Nimes, Edict of, 185.

Nordlmgen, battle of, 191

Northern Rebellion, the, in England, 123.

NUrnberg, Dieb of (1523), 13.

, Bernardino, 22, 27, 40, 33.
Olivarez, Count, m, 186.
Oratory, the, of Dmne Love at Borne, 19;

the precedent of, followed at Viceuza

and elsewhere, t& r the Congregation of

the, at Rome, 30
Orders, new monastic, from the latter part

of the fifteenth century onward, 26 *eg.
Oaiander, Lucas, 133

PACHECO, Cardinal, 63, 66, 79,
Paderbom, 142, Bishop Tneodore of Fur-

steuberg of, 172

Padua and the religious revival, 20, 54.
Palatinate, the, the Galvmist era in, 132

seq ; the aggressive policy of, 173 tea ;

bestowed upon Max of Bavana, 183;

the Upper, retained by Bavaria, 194.
Pans, the Parliament of, and the Inquisi-

tion, 51 ; Treaty of (1634), 191.
Parma, Alexander of, 121 ; dies, 122, 155.
Parma, Margaret of, 43, 119.
Parsons, Robert (Jesuit,), 124.
Pasquier-Brouet (Jea-ut), 39.
Pastoralis offidt euro, (bull), 35.
Puul III, Pope, motives of the policy of,

17; creates new cardinals, 22; appoints

a commission on Church reform, 33;

confirms the Order of Jesus, 35, sum-

mons a General Council to Mautua, 59 ;

to Vicenza and to Trent, ib, ; the mo-

tives of, in assembling the Council, ib. ;

the rupture of, with Charles V., 68;

PaulIV. (Pope), supports the ecclesiasti-
cal policy of Adrian "VX, 12, 19. the
earlier experiences of, 20; a founder of

the Theatines, 28; confers new powers

on the Inquisition, 49, 52, significance

of the election to the Papacy of, 74 ;

his hatred of Spain and the Emperor,

75 J failure of his anti-Snamsh policy,

76; the counter-reformation of, 70;

dies, 80, 138. '*

Paul V., Pope, 162; the religious revival

under, 163; his Quarrel with Venice, 164

teq. 178.

Paulines, the, 29.
Pazmany, Cardinal, 180
Peter Martyr (Venmgh), 53.
Peter of Alcantara, St , 30, 104.
Phauser, Sebastian, 137
Philip of Baden-Hochberg, 141.
Philip IL of Spam, 42; his policy at

Trent, 83, 88 ; his religious policy, 101 ;

his relations with the Inquisition, 102 ;

with Sixtus V., in ; intervenes in the

French religious conflict, 112, 115; fail-

ure of his schemes, 152, 156.
Philip III. of Spam, 176; the religious

and political ideas of, 178.
Philip IY of Spam, 193
Philip of Ken, Sc , 29 seq , 108.
Pighino, Albert! (Legate), 72.
Pisa, the so-called Council of, 4.
Pistornis, Johaun (Catholic divine), 146
Pius IV , Pone, the character and gov-

ernment of, 80 ; his procedure at Trent,

91 &Q
Pins v , Pope, 5-5; the religious policy

of, 107 ; Poispy, Colloquy of, 86.
Poland, the Reformation m, 148; resto-

ration of Catholic ascendancy f Bj Z 65

.

Pole, Cardinal, at Padua, 21 j at ,

44; at Trent, 59; proposed for the
Papacy, 70 ; 111 England, 77 , dies, 78.

Popei, the, of the century before the
Reformation, 3.

Possevm (Jesuit), 128

Postel (Jesuit), 42-

Postynam verus die (bull), no.

Prague, the battle of, 181 ; Peace of,
191; Archbishop Ernest von Harroch
of, 181.

Pi otestantism penetrates into Italy, 21, 24;
the progress of, in Germany and the
neighbouring countries, 47 ; crushed out
Of Spain by the Inquisition, 49 seq ; and
out of Italy, 53 seq ; the variations of,
130; disunion between the chief divi-
sions of, 132 ; attempts at a dogmatic
union of, 133 scq ; heterodox movements

151; attempts at a union of, in Ger-
many, 173 , the prospects of before the
death of Henry IV. of France, 176,
disunion in, before the outbreak of tha
Thirty Tears' "Wnr f 179 &q.
Puteo, Cardinal, 84.

QUIBOGA (Capuchin), 191.

RKO*CZY, George, Prince of Transylva*

ma, 180, 193.
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 179.

2O2

INDRX*

Batisbon, religious conference at (1541), 25

Kafcisbon, Francois, Iwttn/ft, the, 25,

Ravaillac, 168

Reform atioa in the Church of Rome, at-
tempts at, before and m the Oouciluxr
period, i ; tlie general desire for, lu the
nfteeiith century, 3; the idea of a, by
Papal authority, Abandoned, 6

Reformation, the Protestant. See FBQ-

-

RfOimin.i (bull), 35,

Itvchtftammeryencltt* the, treatment of
Pi otestanfc grievances by, 172.

Reii6e of I?errAr<, 54.

Reservatum eGGl&nastvyum, the, 137, i86s<><y

Residence, decree on, at Trent, proposed,
67 ; resumed, 87 seg.

Restitution, the Kdict of, 186 S&Q, , results
of its execution, 188 wg , become? a
dead letter, 189 ; undone by the Peace
of Prague, 191.

Rheims, English College transferred to,
123

KidiehexL, Cardinal, at the head of affairs
m France, 185: th cautious foreign
policy of, tb ; unfolds his> policy against
Habsbnrg, 189 sey ; dies, 192, his ser-
vices to Protestantism, 1^4 *e&

Richer, E Imond, 168.

Ridolfi. plot, the, 123,

,,

Jttoilnguez (Jesuit), 33

fcohan, Prmce of, 189

Home, tlie sack of, 15 ; its significance m
tlie history of the Church of, ami of tlie
SeiiaMeuce, 16, 19 , the counter-refor-
mation at, 106; tlie English. College at,
123.

.Rotnorarctin, the Edict of, St.

Rudolf II , ISmperor, the training and
character of, 14.3 , the Catholic reaction
under, 169 t.e$ ; the brothers and sisters
of, 170 j the mauu and impoteuce of,
173 : deprived of most of his dominions
Ity At duttLias, 174.

Rutlvven, the Bald of, 125.

SAJDOUETT, OardmaL 19, 22,
B.Umerou (Jesuit), 33, 39, 86.
Salzburg, Protestantism iu, 136 , religious

reaction, in* under Archbishop "Wolf

Dietrich von Raitenaoi, z&.
St Baxtholomew, Massacre of, 108; the

resi>ousibility of tlie, 113.
St GennaiD, Peace of, 113.
St Quintin, battle of, 76
Stiuchez, Fnmcisco de, 102.
Handera, Nicolas, 126
S-irpi {Fra Paolo), the mouthpiece of

Venice in her quarrel with Paul V. aud

the Jesuits, 165,
RvljAStian of Portugal, 42, 83.
Segur, Count, m Germany, 134.
Seripando, Ourdinal, 84 1 dies, 91.
fcterretus, Micbael, 103
Sigrmmnd II. AugustuB of Poland, 99,

148.
Siffismtrnd HI of Sweden and Poland,

129: fully restores Catholicisin in Po-

Luid, 150 &eq, t i66 t 170.

Silesia, 183.

Silvauus executed, 133.

Siraonetta, Cardinal, 84

Bixtus V , Pope, the earlier career of
109 , the icligioufe and foreign policy of,
no ifig, ; becomes favourable to the in-
dependence of France, 115* by keeping
out of a,u alhauce with Philip II. pre-
serves France from Spam, 116, 146

Sinalciildic War, the, outbreak of, 66.

Smerwjck, nuiasacre of, 128

Sochuauiam, the rise of, 135

Sodenm, Cardinal, 12.

Somascmes, the, 20

Sorbonue, the, and the Jeauits, 42, 60,

Soto, Donuiuco de, 63

Spain and the couuter-reformatiou, 101 ;
the nitellectUiil condition of, under
Philip II , 103, under Philip III , 178,
after the Thirty Tears' Wa.r, 195

Spunsh mysticism, early efforts of, 30
spq. ; the spintual influence of, 103.

Spauish theatre, the, under Puihp II,
103, under Philip III,, 178

Spa,imh uiiivtirsities,the, under Philip II,
dndPhihpIII, 103

Stephen Ba-tliory (ot Poland), in, 149 seq

Scuilinud, 186

Strasbuig, 135 , schism lu the chapter at,
i45

Qty u, advance of Protestantism in. 136 ;
the religious visitation of, under Arch-
duke Charley 144, Archdxike Ferdi-
nand's counter-reformation lu, 170

S\\etlen, counter -reformo,tioii attempted
in, 126 sea

Switztsilaud, Catholic revival in, 160.

TASSO, Torquato, n6

Teiesai, St , 104 2 ; her TnUrfar Castle,
iS

Temtonal principle, the, xu religion, 132.

Theatmes the, 28

Thirty YeArs' War, the, Catholic and
Protestant prospects of success in, 177,
*eg t ', the general piogress of, 180 ; the
latter years of, 191 $e<i,

Toulouse, League of, 112

Transylvania, tlie Unitarians of. 135, 171,

Trent, the Council of, farist summoned by
Paul IIL, 59 ; dispersed, t6 ; summoned
afresh, 60 , circumstances of the assem-
bling of, 61 , the legates presiding over,
62; composition of, il> seq ; order of
business at, 64 , work accomplished m
the fiist eight sessions of, *6 seq :
conflicts between the Imperial and
Papal parties at, ib decrees passed
at, 68, removed to Bologna. a& ; re-
opens at Trent, 72; the second series of
the sessions of, ib. stg ; Piotestant
ambassadors at, 1* , again R\ispeuded,
73, reassembled Vty Pius IV, 82, re-
opeus, 83 , the new presiding lega-tea at,
&4, question as to the continuity of,
8ji , question as to the legates' ini-
tiative at, tZ> ; composition of, in its
concluding period, 86; discusses the
questions of residence and of the con-
cession of the Cup to the laity, 88 aeg ;
the French " liltel" presented at, 90 , uie

INDEX.

203

new legates at, 91 ; the policy of Pius
IV. prevails at, ib seq ; business of,
wound up, 94 , closing of, 95 seq , re-
ception of the decrees of, m the several
States of Europe, 97 seq ; the results of,
summarised, too

Treves, counter-reformation at, 142

Turenne, Marshal, 193

Tyrannicide, Jesuit teachings on, 160 sfq.

Tyrone, Earl of, the insurrection of (1602),
126

Unam $anctam (bull), 5.

Union, the Protestant, 157 ; its relations

with Henry IV, 168, concluded at

Ahausen, 175 , the foreign alliances of,

176, 177.
United Provinces, the, allied with the

Protestant Union, 177; conclude peace

with Spain, 193

Upsala, religious agreement at, 129
Urban VII , Pope, 154
Urban VIII , Pope, the anti-Habsburg

policy of, 184, 186, 191 seq
Ursulmes, the, 30.
Utrecht, Union of, 121

VALDEZ, Fernando (Inquisitor-General),

Valdez. Juan, 22.

Valtelline, the, Spanish occupation of, 169 ,

Richelieu intervenes in, 185.
Venegaz, Alejo, 31
Venice, and the religious revival, 19 , Pro-

testant sympathies surviving at, 54 ;

the quarrel of, with Paul V , 164 seq
Veutunigho, Bishop Visconti of, 84
Vervms, Peace of, 148
Villauueva (Jesuit), 41.
Vincent de Paula, St , iSS
Visitautmes, the, 167

WALDENSES, the, 55

Wallensteiu (Duke of Fnedland), 186,
dismissed, 189 , assassinated, 190

Westphalia, Peace of, its effects upon the
couuter-ieformatiou, 193 ; Catholic and
Protestant gains in, 194 ; a durable
guarantee of religious peace, 195 seq ,
Papal protest against, 196

William IV. of Bavana, 44, 140

William I of Juhers-Cleves-Berg t 140

William I of Orange, 120.
Wilna, the University of, 150
Wittenberg Concordw, the, 131
Worms 0J aiamtiwr, the, 4, the religious

discussion at, 136, 142
Wtirtemberg, stability of Protestantism

in, 141.
Wurzlwrjf, Julius Echter, Bishop of, 142 ,

the University of, ib.

X-VVIER, Francis, St , 33, 41, 46.
Ximeuez, Cardinal, 4, 47.

ZAMOVTSKI, J. S. t 151.
Zapata (Jesuit), 39.

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