Full text of "The Country Gentleman's Magazine"

See other formats

Google

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project

to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject

to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books

are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other maiginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the

publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing tliis resource, we liave taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.
We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain fivm automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attributionTht GoogXt "watermark" you see on each file is essential for in forming people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liabili^ can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http: //books .google .com/I

> <> - ^i^ ' . vV'/* - ^^: >^ - .s <:r ' ^ /t - \\' -/^ ■ ■■■■

.^\

.:>v V

■"o o^-

C-

-, s ^*

.^-

>N ^»-

x^^ ^-

.0-

V. ' *

fj. •?

1 \

V^'

O .1 k

■■>

^ " I,

1 '

■* ~» \ >

^Y>

■<■'

\ ■

•\

^V-'

>k'

-.S;

■-;

^ 1 *

■^

K^>

* -.t

<^-

»^

/•

/ , ^

, \

■x.VV^

.' P

> If

'-■^f^:,-^.^

" "^^
'^ A

' 'I f ,

^V--

XN^

•\

:X^^

-' \

">.

HIT V- / '-^ ^ ' Lj^---^

■ \

o n ,

'•^'

-V

*^'

^ ^ " /

. tr— '-vS. - -^ V , r/*rx ■■■" '^ 0^ : .... i-'-^vi . •^- > .* /-•■:;: . • - o o^

^-^■■■- I s u '■'-•■-^y: ^^^'-- 'V~---' .- <> -.■■-4', v^^'^.

_ - _ ^ . , - ,'.',* "^ A r »**,v»' / •'.r-^

\" *

■* ;y

' ■'h

■'^.

V-

THE

COUNTRY GENTLEMAN'S

MAGAZINE

WI2H ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIVE ENGRA VINGS

VOL X

COMPLETING THE FIRST SERIES

LONDON

'> SIMPKIN, MARSHALL & CO

EDiMBUItCH : JOHN MENZIES & CO. DUBLIN : M'GLASHAN ft GILL

HDCCCLXXIII

CONTENTS.

- - . *

't^

GENERAL ARTICLES.

The Productioii of L^rgc and Small Farms

Ftaedom of Cultivation

Minnesota, a Field for British Farmers

Stumping the Game-laws

Agricultural Societies and Benefit Clubs

Game and Game Preserving

Scientific A^culture and^jicultural Education...

Agricultural Matters in Parliament

The Agricultural Situation and Food Supplies . . .

Tenant-right Investigated

The Grievances of an Irish Landlord

•• Water. Water, Everywhere," and More Wanted

Tenant-right Reform

The Land Question in Ireland

The Emperor Napoleon III. and Agriculture

The Question of the Day for Farmers

Cruelties in Live Cattle Traffic ...

The Foot-and-Mouth Disease

The Vienna Exhibition

Lord Walsingham on Unions and Strikes

Mr M'Combie on Farm-Servants

Simplification of Land Transfer

Agricultural Valuations

z Education of Agricultural Children

zi Agricultural Benefit Societies

Z9 Agricultural Progress of Athy

3Z False Notions about Foreign Cattle

33 The Land Tenure Question

^ Mr J. S. Mill on Land Tenure Reform

81 Land Conveyancing (Scotland)

84 Tenant-Right in Norfolk

87 Agricultural Great Britain

90 Agriculture in the United Kingdom and Abroad ...

93 House Accommodation of Agricultural Labourers

95 Emigration of Agricultural Labourers

i6z The Cattle' Disease and its Regulations

Z65 Irish Cattle Traffic and the Spread of Disease

Z67 Land Transfer ... ...

Z69 Free Trade in Land .^.

17Z Settied Estates Act, 1873

Z73 Landlord and Tenant Bill

Z75 Labourers' Cottages Bill

24Z Education of Agricultural Children

24A Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act

246 Death of Baron Liebig

848

.••t

ftSo
35a

356
3az

3^9
331
333
339
34a
343
345

347

401

403
40s
406
409

4x1
4za

413

On the Economical Use of Coal
Water Supply and Storage .,T

AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING.

Z04. 3591

zox The Improvement of old Cottage Property ... Z77

447 Economization of Fuel in Steam Engine Furnaces 443

Davey's Tum-Wrest Pk>ugh
Mr Hughes' Patent Com Lifter

AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.

98 A New Reaper

99 Greenslade's Self-Acting Anchor

3^
4SX

FARM ARCHITECTURE.

The Ventilation of Farm Buildings

THE FARM.

Cultivotkm of Sugar^Beet

Farming this Seuon— Illustrated by East Lothian

Adulteration of Artificial Manures and Feeding Stuffs

v^nevioc oneep ... ... ..• ••. ... ...

Ap^ication of Lime to Agricultiue

utuization of Peat

I Pinger-and-Toe in Turnips

• Turnips and Turnip Management

t Sewage Works at Ealing

Agricultural Produce, Labour, and Rent

Economy in Feeding Turnips

Professor Bnckman on his Farming Experience ...

The Farmer's Position and the Labourer's Capital

Good and Bad Farming

Selection as a Means of Improving Seed

Turnip Growing in the North

Horse-Bieeding in America

Labour suid Capital

Cultivation of Potatoes

East Lothian Agriculture

LoUum temulentum

Agricultural Customs of Surrey and Cheshire

Tull's Theory about Land Productiveness

THE OLD FARMER'S NOTE-BOOK

Increase of Diseases among Stock

Border Leicesters

Feeding and Management of Horses
Potatoes as they are, and as they may be ...

Yield of Wool

Agriculture in Ireland

Supplv and the Price of Meat

Lord Malmesbury and Rabbits

Horses and Men ... ... ... ...

Labourers' Cottages and Farm-buildings . .

The Great Question on Meat

La* Plata as a Field for British Farmers
Agricultural Produce of Great Britain

Dorset Homed Sheep

Black-faced She^

Sewage Grass ... ... ...

Notes fi-om Tiptree

Turnip Cultivation

Economy of Artificial Manures

Comparative Trial of Artificial Fertilizers ...
The Breeds of Cattle for Beef or Milk
Present Aspects of Steam Cultivation

Labourers' Cottages in Scotland

East Lothian Prospects of Crop Z873
Adulteration of Feeding Cakes and Manures
Southdown Breed of Sheep

143. ^h 29s. 37a. 45^

ao3

964
367
370
273

275

376
a8z
383
384

35*
354
357
361

363

421

424
436

439

430

438
440

Contents

THE FARMER'S FOES.

Weeds and Hurtful Plants

•I*

13s, ai7. aSg

Insh Landlords •*• ••• ... ,..

••Clodhopper Cracks"

Good Advice about Agricultural Strikes ...
Dr Crisp and the Royal Agricultural Society

Summer Heats

Earl of Airlie and the Law of Hypothec ...

Earl of Shrewsbury and his Tenantry

Disfiguration of Roadside Trees by Telegraph Wires 213

Growth of Australian Wool 3x4

Duke of Somerset and Land Tenure 214

Eccentricities of Weather 316

RANDOM

137

140
138

141

NOTES.

Effects of Cold on Milch Cows

Fattening Chickens

Carbolic Acid

.Supposed Dangers of Sewage Farms

Chicken Raising in Sussex

s86

387

370
370

An American on English Agricultural Implements 371

Emigration for Farmers 453

Baskets for Bouquets 453

Marquees and Tents 454

Strawberiy Trimmer 454

Raising Heavy Turkeys , 455

The Diseases of Sheep
Influenza in Horses ..
"Strangles" in Horses

THE VETERINARIAN.

••t

155 Prevention of Cattle Disease
236 Is Sheep-pox a Fatal Disease?
315 Cattle Disease in Australia ...

389. 39S
... 391

-. 394

Peach and Nectarine Trees ...

ARBORICULTURE.

... 38a The Salix or Willow ...

... SI7

Feeding Bees ••«

THE APIARIAN.

••• ••• vit ft* «ta ••• •••

••• ••• ••# tt«

399

THE NATURALIST.

Salmon Breeding in America

OUR LIBRARY TABLE ...

•t« ••• ••• ••• ••• *••

••• •%• •■• •••

••• •••

• •• ••• •••

... aa6

3»9

DAIRY AND POULTRY-YARD.

Winter Butter Making

Best Feed for Milch Cows ... f

Suggestions to Poultry Raisers

Keeping and Marketing Butter

How to Improve Cheesensuring Rooms ...

••• ••• ••• ••

* •• B • •

• •• ••• ••• •••

• • • • • •

74 Making Butter ...

75 Fattening and Preparing Poultry for Market
... 239 The Derbyshire Cheese Factory
... 240 Whey as a Feed for Calves ...

••• 317

• • • « • •

... 318

..• 397

... 47a

... 474

THE GARDEN.

Rendle's Patent " Rustic " Rosery 69 Asters in Variety 300

Patent " Rustic" Orchard House 70 Mr Bulls New Plant House 304

Cheap Orchard House 71 Balsams 375

New and Rare Plants 1471230,306,379,469 Choice Vegetables 377

Dennis & Co. 's Villa Greenhouse 153 Designs for Flower Beds 461

Messrs Dick Radclyffe A: Co. 's Weed Extirpator ... 154 Modem System of Bedding 463

Richardson's Patent Hortkniltural Buildings ... 227 Plants remarkable for Beautiful Flowers 466

Improved Water-Tap 229

THE COUNTRY GENTLEWOMAN.

Designs in Virgin Cork for In-door Decorations ... jj Begoniasfor House Culture ...

Grass Bouquets ... ... 80 Plants for the Dinner Table ...

Fashionable Bouquets ' 158 Our Conservatory

.. 320

. 47S
. 476

THE

JNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

JANUARY 1873

THE PRODUCTION OF LARGE AND SMALL FARMS,

By Mr H. M. Jenkins.*

the close of a year, during which ques- familiar with statements of a similar nature
tions relating to the supply of food in respect of other countries, and in the ab-
people have occupied an unusually sence of such statements it has been some*
lare of public attention — and at a time times assumed that they are self-supporting.
Jie Show of the Smithfield Club an- Now what I shall endeavour to do is simply
invites public criticism of our own at- to shew what Great Britain, Ireland, Holland^
to furnish that supply — a discussion Belgium, and France respectively do towards
subject which I have the honour feeding their own population, having due re-
oduce this evening, will, doubtless, be gard to the density of that population in re-
ared appropriate to the occasion. The ference to the cultivated area, and indicating
n to which I wish to direct youratten- what discount or premium on the results ar-
ly be stated as follows : — How many rived at, the habits of the people, the nature
are fed per hundred acres on home- of the soil, and the character of the climate
e in certain countries, how many of seem to require in each case,
u-e employed in obtaining that pro-

om the soil, and how numerous in each population.
the surplus population that remains to To avoid being misunderstood, I shall
on imported com or meat ? Before commence by explaining the meaning which »
ng further, it is necessary to say a few I have foimd it necessary to attach to certain
IS to the manner in which I propose terms, such as "population." The statistician
with these questions. We are all of who endeavours to estimate the production
iliar with the broad general statements of a country by the population which it
e commonly current, as to the enor- nourishes cannot confine himself to the men,
[uantity of com which we annually im- women, and children who inhabit it ; he
) make up for the deficiency in our must consider what other animals are also
;rown supplies. We also know that fed on the native produce. In England, and
ngenious calculations have been made indeed all over Westem Europe, we have
rence to what might possibly happen if practically only human beings and horses to
duced at home every peck of grain and feed, for although cattle, sheep, and pigs are
pound of meat consumed in the fed on the produce of the land, it is merely
Kingdom. But we are not so to bring them into a fit state to be eaten by
man, or otherwise to furnish food for him.

Read before the Central Farmers' Club. Men and horses, however, represent the
VOL. X. B

2 Tke Country Genilemaiis Magazine

working power of the nation ; they have to ture in providing food for the people, i

be fed by the produce which some of them at first sight seem absolutely necessarj

help to obtain, or else by imported food, cover the quantity of each crop produ

But in them we have two factors of very acre, at any rate on an average of yea

different values, and if we treated them as English farmers know perfectly well t

equivalents, we should be nearly as far out as almost impossible to do more than j

a man who exchanged sovereigns for an the average production of the coui

equal number of shillings. Still, it is clear propose, therefore, to calculate the

that horses, as well as men, are fed on the tion by means of the excess import;

produce of the land or on imported com '; it ports, as the case may be, in each <

is also clear that a certain number are re- coupled with the quantity of food, red

quired for the tillage of the land, and that the bushels of wheat, which an average

remainder of the horses are used, and the re- being consumes in the course of a yea

mainder of the men are occupied in manu- this is the safest course will doubt

factories or mines, towns or cities, business granted, if it is considered that not o

or pleasure, and every conceivable manner uncertain what is the actual yield

unconnected with agriculture. It is also crop, but also what is the proportion

evident that if fewer non-agricultural horses crop used for human or equine food

existed, a smaller quantity of the produce of already stated, to calculate that e

the land would be required for their sus- cattle, sheep, or pigs, which are the

tenance, and pro tantOy a larger quantity used as human food afterwards, wou

would be available for the support of the calculate the same thing twice over,

human population. Therefore, it is only fair com, &c, and once as meat. The

to include the food required for the horse sion used above — " the quantity of fc

population in estimatmg the quantity of food sumed, reduced to bushels of wheat '

for the people produced by means of the not be taken to mean that so many

system of agriculture of any nation. The of wheat are actually consumed p

only difficulty of doing this lies in the of the population. For instance,

question. How many average people will eat Journal of the Royal Agricultural

as much as one average horse? and the of England for 1868, Mr Lawes ;

answer must vary with the interpretation put Gilbert published an elaborate series

upon it, viz., whether it refers to bulk of culations which led to the conclusion

food, expense, nourishing power, &c. For average consumption of wheat per

my purpose, however, the fairest question the population per annum was, i

appears to be. How much land of a standard Britain, 6 bushels per head (viz. —

quality will it take to breed and feed a given 6.3, and Scotland 4.2), and in Irela

number of horses, and how many average 3.3 bushels — these figures being the

persons would the same land otherwise keep, of the eight harvest years from i8(
the culture being in each case appropriate to 1867-68. But wheat is only one in

the object in view? At first, I was inclined in the human dietary, and every ir

to say that one horse required the same man would at once infer that the d

quantity of land as seven persons ; but after of 2 bushels in the average consun

consulting my eminent colleague, Dr wheat in Scotland, and of 3 bu

Voelcker, and discussing the matter with the average consumption per head in

him, I have yielded to his opinion, that it is is made up by the use of an equivale

more fair to reckon that one horse requires tity of some other food, such as oa

as much land for its sustenance as eight the former case, and potatoes in th

people. Then again, there is the consum

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. meat, and Mr H. S. Thompson has
T^o estimate the results ofa system of agricul- quoted Mr J. Algernon Clarke a

The Production of Large and Small Parens 3

shewn that during Ihe four years 1867-71, the the general prosperity, a larger number of

annual consumption of meat in the United people being under such circumstances able

Kingdom was slightly under 7 stone (of 14 to pay a high price for a luxurious article of

lb.) per head of the population. It thus diet, the importation of which, of good quality

seems necessary to take a chemical standard and in good condition, is very difficult Our

of consumption of flesh-forming materials per knowledge of the quantity of land actually

head of the population, as one of the factors devoted to each kind of culture in the

m the calculation of the relations existing countries which I have selected is derived

between consumption and production in each from the returns issued by the respective

country. It will then be easy to shew by a Governments, and published on pp. 74 and

simple calculation what proportion of the 75 of the "Agricultural Returns of Great

quantity required by theory is imported into Britain," issued by our own Government for

each country, in excess of the quantity ex- the year 187 1. For facility of reference, I

ported from it, or vice versa. Or, to put the append the columns to which I shall have

same fact in another way, it will be easy to occasion to refer, and will only remark in

shewjby dividing the excess imports or exports reference to them, that, although they are

by the number representing the theoretical not all taken for the same year, it is most

annual consumption of one person, the num- unlikely that any considerable error will

ber of people fed on the excess imports or result from accepting them as fairly repre-

exports, as the case may be. senting the actual state of things at the pre-
sent time. With regard to the imports and

THE THEORETICAL ANNUAL CONSUMPTION ^^p^rts of the Several Countries, I may say

has been very much debated of late years by that I have found it necessary, in order to

political economists, chemists, and physio- avoid the disturbing effiects of the late war

Jogists ; and after a great deal of argument between France and Germany, to take those

and experiment, it is, I believe, now generally for 1868 and '69 as the basis of my calcula-

admitted that an average member of the tions. The mean of these two years should

community consumes food equal to i qr. of give a fair average result, because the im-

wheat per annum, or, say 480 lb. of com. ports and exports of 1869 depended chiefly

The food consumed belongs to two great upon the harvest of 1868 (a warm and dry

classes, the animal and the vegetable, the season), and those of 1868 upon the harvest

fomicr being the result of a much more ela- of 1867 (a cold and wet season),

borate process than the latter. Meat is not, I may state at once that, in my opinion,

however, weight for weight, as a common if it takes three men to achieve a result under

article of diet, so nutritious by itself as wheat one system that can be equalled by two men

or other grain. It is essentially a luxury, or under another system, the former is distinctly

JDore properly, a stimulant ; and the quantity the more expensive to the nation, as it leaves

of land devoted to its production in most so many men the fewer at liberty to increase

countries is one result of the well-known the national riches by the winning of coal,

6ct that national prosperity produces and iron, or other mineral substances — so many

fosters luxurious habits, and at the same time men less to manufacture the wool, the cotton,

enables the people to pay five times the price and the flax, or to devote themselves to any

for a less nutritious though more palatable one of the numerous industries that are the

•nd stimulating food. index of the national wealth and prosperity.

The same thing is equally tnie of horses as

AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS. Qf jjjen, and although, in the following paper,

If the proposition just stated is at all the number of horses employed in agriculture

accurate, it must follow that, climate and in the several countries will be calculated at

other conditions being equal, the proportion the rate per 100 acres shewn to be the

tf green crops to white must tend to increase fact in Great Britain by the agiicultural re-

GREAT BRITAIN.

4 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

turns issued by the Board of Trade, it must to ascertain how the thousands of lots o

not be forgotten that under a national system acres each, which constitute the culti

of small farms more horses are required per land of the country, are cropped. In i

hundred acres than under a national system numbers we may say that, of each k

of large farms. It is well known that under acres are in grass and green crops, and

a national system of small farms there is very com and potatoes. In other words, on

little scope for the use of steam power and are intended to supply food that may at

other expensive kinds of labour-saving ma- if required, be eaten by man, and as

chinery. I have not considered it necessary as 66 are intended to supply food tl

to trouble you with statistical data in re- most adapted to the production of meat

ference to the average or prevailing size of number of people per loo acres of con

the farms in the selected countries, as I be- potatoes— viz., 10,302,952 acres— is

lieve that it is thoroughly well understood 253; and the proportion per 100 acr

that Ireland, Belgium, and France, so far at land in grass and green crops —

least as arable farming is concerned, are 20,150,344 — is not much more than

essentially small-farm countries, while Eng- namely, 130.

land is essentially a large-farm country, and The net mean imports of com into

Holland should go into the same category. Britain during the yeais 1868 and

amounted to 57,692,770 cwt, and the
meal and flour to 4,585,729 cwt, equ

If we pursue the method already described, 5,732,161 cwt of com, at the rate tak

and take as the basis of calculation the tables the Government statistical department-

already quoted, we shall find that thepopula- i cwt of flour or meal equal to i^ ci

tion of Great Britain numbers 26,062,721 com. In addition, the net mean impo

souls, and that the total extent of land under rice amounted to 3,092,719 cwt ; sc

cultivation is 30,838,567 acres, giving a pro- the total imports of cereals received

portion of 85 persons per 100 acres. Accord- Great Britain, and retained there for

ing to the census of 1 861, about 2,389,063 consumption, during the years 1868

persons were retumed as engaged in agricul- 1869 shew a mean of no less

ture, or as following it as a professional pur- 66,517,650 cwt, or 286 lb. per head (

suit For some twenty or thirty years the human population per annum. Takin

number of persons thus retumed has re- quantity already mentioned (480 lb.) £

mained nearly stationary, though slowly de- average consumption per head of the

dining ; but the percentage has varied in lation per annum, it shows that the co]

consequence of the increase of the total ported is sufficient to feed 60 per c€

population. Taking this fact as still valid, the English people. Great Britain, ho^

we shall find that the proportion of the popu- is a nation of merchants and manufaci

lation of Great Britain that may properly be and is full of workshops and warehouse:

deemed agricultural is now 9 per cent This sequently the number of horses require

9 per cent, may therefore be regarded as the various purposes unconnected with agric

bread-winners and meat-getters of the nation, is very considerable. According to the a]

so far as the nation is fed by its own produc- tural returns for 187 1, there were last y

tions. That is to say, that of every 85 per- many as 2,110,590 horses in the count

sons who live on each 100 acres of land, no less than 7 per 100 acres. Of these 91

about 7;^ are engaged in the cultivation of (including ponies) were retumed as "used

that land, and of course are fed with part of for purposes of agriculture,&c." Whatthe

the produce of it Now, before estimating may mean isnotclear; but as the total qi)

>«ow many of the remaining 77^^ persons are of land under tillage (including grass

lied on home-grown provisions, and how many rotation) is only 18,000^000 acres, it

n imported com and meat, it is necessary something more than five horses pe

The Production of Large and Small Farms

acres of tillage (or three per loo acres of
cnltivated land), as used for purposes of agri-
cnlture. We have already seen that two-
thirds of the land of Great Britain is under
grass and green crops ; and the agricultural
statistics issued by the Board of Trade tell
OS year by year that these 20,000,000 of
acres are so cropped for the sustenance of
between five and six millions of cattle, about
twenty-eight millions of sheep, and more than
two millions of pigs, in addition to the two
millions of horses already mentioned. Mr
E S. Thompson, Mr Algernon Clarke, Mr
Caird, and other writers have estimated the
proportion of this live stock that we kill every
year and its relation in quantity to that im-
ported Taking Mr Thompson's estimate
as the latest, and as sufficiently near for our
purpose, we find that we kill every year
about 25 per cent of the recorded number
of cattie, 42 per cent, of the sheep, and 116
per cent of the pigs. These figures refer to
the United Kingdotti ; but they are, as factors,
probably as accurate for Great Britain as
they are for the whole of the United King-
dom. Pursuing the subject for the whole
kingdom, Mr Thompson finds that, of our
total consumption of meat, 87.51 per cent
was last year supplied by home-bred animals,
S.64 per cent by imported foreign animals,
and 6.85 per cent by imported provisions.
The quantity of meat imported from Ireland
and foreign countries does not amount to
nwre than 2^ per cent of the food aimually
consumed by horses and men in Great
Britain. £very hundred acres under grass
and green crop in Great Britain produces an-
nually about 8iji cwt. of meat (about 91 lbs.
per acre), in addition to the wool of 89 sheep,
*s well as its due proportion of the keep of
<xir horse population, and a very important
quantity of dairy products. In order to check
tins statistical result, I asked several practical
fanners to answer the following question ac-
cordmg to their own experience : — " How
nmchmeat ought an average 100 acres of
hndto produce per annum, supposing them to
be cnltivated exclusively for the purpose of
^neat-production, and taking into account the
Vantity required for breeding purposes, so

as to keep the supply of animals to the
butcher uniform year after year ?" In reply,
I received several estimates, varying from 83
to 88 cwt per 100 acres. According to the
foregoing data the total population of Great
Britain per 100 acres may be classified as
follows : —

Human
beings.

Horses

equal to

human

begins.

Total

reckoned

as human

beings.

Engaged in agriculture.
Fed on surplus home-
products

3X
5'

3=24
4=32

Ziyi

3X
51

Fed on imported meat.
Fed on imported com..

Total population per )
100 acres J

7 = 56

141

It is hardly necessary to point out that the
assumption of all the horses being either
engaged in agriculture or fed on home pro-
ducts is purely one of convenience, and
that the result would remain precisely the
same if it were assumed they were all fed on
imported com. Now, taking horses and
men together, and reducing the 141 people
per 1 00 acres to percentage of inhabitants,
we find that, of the food consumed in Great
Britain 22;^ per cent, is required for the
nourishment of the tillers of the soil, 39^
per cent consists of the surplus production
of our own agriculture, 2}( per cent consists
of imported meat, and 36 per cent consists
of imported corn.

IRELAND.

The extent of land under cultivation is
iS»7ii>39S ^cres, of which 3,182,366 acres
are in com and potatoes (more than one
million being devoted to potatoes), and
12,482,425 acres in green crops, fallow, and
grass. The population, 5,402,759, is there-
fore at the rate of 170 per 100 acres of com
and potatoes, 43 per 100 acres of grass and
green crops, or 34 per 100 acres of the total
extent of land under cultivation. As four-
fifths of the land is devoted to meat pro-
ducing crops, it will be at once inferred t

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

even in so thinly peopled a country the
actual number of persons employed in agri-
culture per 100 acres of land under cultiva-
tion is smaller than in Great Britain, where
not more than two-thirds of the land is in
grass and green crops. The return of the
actual number of persons engaged in agri-
culture, as ascertained by the last census,
has not yet been published, but in 1861 the
proportion was found to be 17 per cent.
Since then, however, the population has de-
creased by about 400,000 people, a fact that
would tend to render the percentage larger
unless the agricultural population emigrated
in the same ratio as the rest of the people.
Assuming that this has been going on to a
somewhat greater extent than that, and
that the gradual consolidation of hold-
ings has still further reduced the agri-
cultural population, I think that we shall
not be far wrong if we allow these causes
to have reduced the proportion by i per
cent., namely — to 16 per cent, of the total.
With a population of 34 persons per 100
acres, this reduced percentage would give
5>i persons per 100 acres of cultivated land
as the number actually engaged in agriculture.
The number of horses returned is 537,633,
or 3^ per 100 acres of land under. cultiva-
tion ; of these exactly one-half would be re-
quired to work the $% millions of acres that
are under the plough, at the rate of 5 horses
per 100 acres. The i J^ horses thus required
absorb the produce of as much land as 14
men ; while the other half, also equal to 14
men per 100 acres, are employed in other
channels than agriculture. In 1868 and '69
the mean imports of com and meal into
Ireland, from all sources, were equal to
14,213,841 cwt. of com, taking i cwt. of
meal to be equal to iX cwt. of com. The
mean exports, similarly calculated, were equal
to 4,202,000 cwt. of corn, leaving a balance
of excess imports equal to 10,011,841 cwt,
or 202 >^ lb. per head of the population. On
the other hand, we must credit Ireland with
a large excess exportation of live stock,
amounting to an average, for the two years,
of 414,104 oxen, bulls, and cows, 49,389
<:alves, 898,626 sheep, and 253,521 swine.

Pursuing the same calculation as in th<
of the English imports, we find that
animals would nourish 549,145 perso
rather more than one-tenth of the popu
for one year at 550 lb. per head. Con^
this into com per head, it is equal to
^M lb. per head per annunu The net
imports per head are, therefore, equal
lb. of com, or 32 per cent, of the coi
tion of the Irish people. The yi
100 acres of land in Ireland may,
fore, be summarized as follows, in te
the persons fed on the produce : —

Engaged in agriculture..
Fed on surplus home-
products

Fed on imported com...

Human
beings.

Horses

equal to

human

beings.

1^ = 14
1^ = 14

3^ = 28

Thus, of the total food consumed in ]
3 1 >^ per cent is required for the til
the soil, 50)^ per cent, is the surplus c
agriculture, and iT}( per cent, is im
com.

BELGIUM.

We now come to that thriving
country, which in the last generation ^
often the battle-ground of warrior
statesmen, and in our day has becor
Arcadia of agricultural philosophers,
the country of which it is popularly b(
that it feeds, at least, " a man to an a
not " eveiy rood its man." I want tc
you what Belgium does with its sys
agriculture and its favourable climai
what it does not. I shall attempt t
using the same method that I have ;
applied to the agriculture of Englan
Ireland, just pointing out one or two i
stances that differ from those with wh
are familiar, and I think that the result
to shew that although we have little tc
from Belgium in reference to the econ
production, it would be well for us

The Production of Large and Small Farms

possessed her economy of consumption. Our
oft-quoted table shews that the cultivated
land of Belgium consists of 6,579,470
acres; but the details do not account for
more than 4,604,260. It therefore seems as
if the 1,073,452 acres of woods and forests
had been inadvertently included in the total,
and that the remaining difference is owing to
the large extent of garden ground that is one
result of the system of excessive subdivision
of land. However, taking the facts as re-
presented to us by our own Government, and
deducting the woods and forests, we find that
of the remaining 5,506,018 acres of cultivated
land, 2,905,795 are under corn and potatoes,
and 1,698,655 under grass and green crops.
The total population, according to the latest
returns, is 4,827,833, being in the proportion
of 166 per 100 acres of com and potatoes,
no less than 284 per 100 acres of grass and
green crops, and 88 per 100 acres of culti-
vated land. Now these figures, as com-
pared with the equivalent ones applicable to
England, shew the following facts : i. That
the density of the population, as 'compared
with the area of land under cultivation, is
practically the same, both in Great Britain
and Belgium. 2. That the proportion of land
under corn and potatoes to the total land
under cultivation is about one-third in Great
Britam, and about three-fifths in Belgium.
3. That the number of persons per 100 acres
of com and potatoes in Great Britain is 50
per cent greater than in Belgium. 4. That
the proportion of population to the extent of
land devoted to the production of meat is
in Great Britain less than half the number in
Belgium. The consumption of food by the
people differs enormously in the two coun-
tries, as may be proved by taking the num-
ber of cattle (1,242,445), sheep (586,097), and
pigs (632,301), in Belgium, and applying the
same calculation to them that has been done
with the English live stock, namely, that 25 per
cent of the cattle, 42 per cent, of the sheep,
and 116 per cent of the pigs are killed every
year. This calculation, with an average
weight of 500 lbs. for cattle, 30 for sheep,
smd 100 for pigs will give an annual con-
sumption of 53 lbs. of meat per head of the

population, as against 59 lbs. consumed in
England. But as a matter of fact, consider-
ing the number of oxen used for draught pur-
poses, the age at which cattle, sheep, and pigs
are killed in Belgium, and the powers of repro-
duction of the native races, it is impossible to
credit the Belgians with eating so much meat
as this. I, therefore, reckon that one-fifth of
the cattle, one-third of the sheep, and a num-
ber equal to the whole of the pigs are killed
annually, and thus make the average con-
sumption of meat in Belgium to be equal to
43 lb. per head of the population per annum.
The converse conditions existing in Belgium,
confirm the generally received opinion as to
the frugality of the Belgian people. It must
also be remembered that the Belgian climate
allows one-eighth of the whole cultivated land
to grow a catch-crop after the harvesting of
the com grown on the same land in the earlier
part of the year, so that the area of land
available for the production of meat is one-
half the cultivated area instead of two-fifUis.
However, taking the facts as they are, and
giving Belgium every advantage of climate,
we turn to the imports and exports, to learn
how far the little kingdom is self-supporting.
In the years 1868-69, the mean of the im-
ports of cereals and flour was equivalent to
6,407,946 cwt. of corn, and that of the ex-
ports to 256,065 cwt of com. The mean
excess of imports over exports of cereals and
flour in these years was therefore equal to
rather more than 140 lb. per head of the
total human population of the country,
or 30 per cent, of the total human
consumption ; that is to say, just one-
half the proportion imported by Great
Britain. In the same years, the imports of
live stock gave a mean of 68,286 head of
cattle and 117,780 head of sheep; and the
exports gave a mean of 50,008 cattle, and
71,683 sheep. These figures shew an excess
of imports over exports, amounting to
18,278 head of cattle and 46,097 sheep ; but
on the other hand Belgium exported about
61,175 cwt of meat (chiefly in the form of
poultry and rabbits), and 22,605,238 eggs. I
therefore intend to consider that the imports
and exports of animal food balance one

The Country Gmtlematis Magazine

another. Now, out of the total human
population of Belgium, 1,502,345 persons, or
31 per cent, are engaged in agriculture.
Therefore, of the 88 persons who inhabit
each 100 acres of land under cultivation,
2*1% are engaged in tilling the soil. The
official returns also shew that Belgium pos*
sesses 283,163 horses, or 5 per 100 acres of
land under cultivation. Of these 3X per 100
acres are employed in agricultiure, calculating
them at our previous rate of 5 per 100 acres
of cultivated land. Assuming that our calcu-
tion of I horse requiring as much land for
his keep as 8 men still holds good, we
get the following result per 100 acres : —

Engaged in agriculture
Fed on home products
Fed on imported com

Human
beings.

- 3 c

^S.

21%

3^=26
1^=14

Total
reckoned
as human

beings.

53^
49X
25 >i

5=40

128

Comparing this table with the equivalent one
for Great Britain we find that our own country
requires to import com for fifty people in-
stead of twenty-five and a half, exactly double
the number that Belgium has to provide for
from foreign sources ; but on the other hand,
as already stated, Belgium has 50 per cent,
more land in com and potatoes per head of
the population than Great Britain has, and
Great Britain feeds more horses than Belgium
to an extent equal to sixteen persons per 100
acres.

HOLLAND.

The facts relating to the production and
consumption of food in Holland are soon
told, taking our previously used tables and
averages as a guide. The total extent of
land under cultivation is 5,128,197 acres, of
which exactly one-third (1,700,405 acres)
is under com and potatoes, and the remain-
ing two-thirds under grass and green crops,
'^he proportions are thus the same as in

Great Britain, but the populatio
country is not so dense. In Holl
are 217 persons per 100 acres of
potatoes, as against 253 in Grea
and the number per 100 acres of
green crops are therefore 108 ar
spectively. The total human pop
Holland is thus 72 per 100 acres
ted land, while in Great Britain it i
excess exports of Holland for the 3
and '69 give a mean of 125,8
322,640 sheep, and 68,455 I
49,596^ tons of meat, 18,480 tons
and 27,866 tons of cheese. Put
figures together in the same way
and reckoning lbs. of cheese and
equal to so much meat, we get
exportation equal to 53 lb. per he
population. On the other hand, t
and exports of com and flour ^
mean excess of imports equal to
corn per head. This latter item \
balances, in nourishing power, the
portation of meat, but is by no
valuable. It will, therefore, be si
our purpose to consider Hollan
turally speaking, a self-supporting

FRANCE.

The average crop of wheat in F
not, it is said, exceed the product
Lawes' experimental plot that has
unmanured for more than twenty
cannot therefore expect that a re\
quantity of food produced and cc
France should furnish a very
lesson, while the great range of cli
the English Channel to the Mec
and the consequently great variety
render a comparison exceedingly <
was, indeed, inclined to omit F
gether ; but fearing that the omij
be constmed erroneously, I have
better 10 give the following short
— ^The area under com and potj
less than 42,130,432 acres, and
grass, green crops, vines, and oth
measures 53>577>S78 acres, ir
mountain pasture. The populat
last census amounted to 38,067,0

The Production of Large and Small Farms 9

or 90 people to every 100 acres under com nearest to the standard of agricultural perfec-
and potatoes, and only 40 to every 100 acres tions. Its population is considerable, and
tinder cultivation. If we strike off 10 or 11 although it feeds men and horses equivalent
million acres as representing the mountain to more than one person per acre, it devotes
pasture, we shall find that one-half of France only one-third of its land to the production
is annually in com and potatoes — a result of the cheaper kinds of food, its importations
perfectly in accordance with the prevaiHng of which are, nevertheless, insignificant. On
triennial system of husbandry in the com- the other hand, it exports a modest number
growing districts, viz., two white crops in of cattle, sheep, butter, and cheese as the
succession, followed by a bare fallow, surplus of its production of the higher-priced
The number of persons returned as actually agricultural commodities. Great Britain
engaged in agriculture at the last census seems to be distinguished from other coun-
^^ 7>333>2S9, or nearly 20 per cent tries by the density of its population, com-
of the total population ; and the number of bined with the small proportion engaged in
horses in the country amounted to 3,312,232, agriculture ; it imports food for 25^^ people
of which 1,500,000 are estimated to be em- per 100 acres more than Belgium does ; but
ployed in agriculture, or less than 2 per 100 13 out of that 25^^ do not exist in Belgium,
acres of land under cultivation. Taking the while the remaining i2>^ as well as another
total human population to be 45 per 100 9-^, or 21^ in all, do nothing but "eat their
acresof land under cultivation (thus making heads off" in the small farm country (being
due allowance for mountain pastiue), and " engaged in agriculture "), while in England,
counting the four horses to be equal to 32 though they are fed on imported food, their
people per 100 acres, the total burden on the energies are free to be utilized in manufactures
land is only equal to 77 persons per 100 or commerce, arts or sciences, or in the en-
acres. The imports and exports of 1868 and joyment of that " leisure " which Englishmen
'69 shew that in those years there was a so actively pursue. But the contrast between
mean excess of imports of live stock and dead the two countries does not end here, for in
meat amounting to about 2 lb. per head of Belgium 53X theoretical persons produce
the population; and a mean excess of im- food, other than their own, for 6 fewer
ports of com amounting to about 7 lb. per people than 3i>^ do in Great Britain. If
head of the population. On the other hand I am right, we cannot regard the Belgian
the mean exportation of wine amounted to system of agriculture as the most perfect,
about 7 litres per head of the population, because it is so expensive — expensive to the
Therefore, notwithstanding the comparatively nation in men, if not to the individual in
sparse population of France, and its variety money. Notwithstanding this, we have, if
of climates and cultures, we cannot regard niy calculations are correct, something to
the country as being much more than self- leam from Belgium, for she does contrive to
supporting, from an agricultural point of view, feed, though poorly it is tnie, the equivalent
and I shall consequently not trouble you of one man to the acre ; and we have not
with any further remarks on the productive- yet the ability of feeding more than 86 or 87
ncfis of its agriculture. to the 100 acres. Belgium can teach us

fmgality if she cannot instmct us in agricul-

CONCLUDING REMARKS. ture. On the whole it may be affirmed that

The foregoing analysis of the production English farmers need to be ashamed of a fair

and consumption of food in Great Britain and comparison of their achievements with those

Ireland, and the countries on the other side of their neighbours, notwithstanding that the

of the Channel, present many pomts of in- regions of la petite culture are cultivated

terestto the agriculturist as well as to the either under a system of peasant-pro-

Political economist Of all the countries prietorship, or under a system of leases

"mentioned, Holland seems to me to come backed by tenant-right customs. I do not

The Country Gentkmatis Magazine

wish to be misunderstood on this point, and
therefore I say that I believe that English
agriculture has attained its present position in
spite of the want of legal security for the
tenant-farmers' capital, owing mainly to the
confidence induced by a knowledge of the
pride which most Englishmen feel in the
possession of a character for unblemished
honour. The reasons why Continental and
Irish agriculture have not progressed further,

notwithstanding their peasant propriet
their leases, and their tenant-right, I ne
now inquire into ; and I will therefor
elude this paper by expressing my con
that just as Englishmen have led the
progress in other useful arts, in manufs
and in commerce, so will they take
lead in agriculture whenever they are
equal terms with their competitors.

ACREAGE OF LAND UNDER CULTIVATION. &c., IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

Description of Crops, &c.

Population, according to the latest
Returns

Total Area (in English Statute Acres).

Britain (1871).

26,062,721

55.856,643

(exclusive of

lakes & rivers)*

Woods and Forests

Total Acreage under all kinds of
Crops, Fallow and Grass, &c

'' Com Crops :

Wheat and Spelt
Barley or Bere ...

Oats

Rye

Beans and Peas

Buckwheat

Maize

Mixed Corn

Other kinds

Total under Com Crops.

Green and other Crops :
Potatoes

l-H

a
U

'Carrots, Turnips, Mangold, Kohl-

Rabi, and Cabbage

Beetroot for Sugar

Chicory

Rape and other Oil Seeds

Hops

Tobacco

Madder 1...

Flax

Hemp

Vineyards

Rice Grounds

Cotton

Sugar Cane .

Bare Fallow

Grass, under Rotation

,, Meadows and Permanent
Pasture

2. 175.471

30,838,567

3.571.894

2.385.783

2,715.707

71.495

930.382

9,675,261

627,691

2,610,049
1.884

113.285
60,030

17,366

542,840
4,369,448

12,435,442

Ireland (1871).

5,402,759

20,322,641
exclusive of
lakes & rivers)

324.285

15.711.398

246.954
222,604

1.633,960

9.647
10,914

2. 124,079

1,058,287

396,016
10,622

156,883

Holland(i869).

3.688,337

8,123,363
(exclusive of
lakes & rivers).

Belgium(i866)

4.827,833

7,241,000
(exclusive of
lakes & rivers)

22,323
1.827.733

10,068,848

565.761

5,121,493

224,019
114,912

259.394
508.571
115,648

168,992

15.507

1,407,043

293.362

130,228

18,113

5.246

30,754

571

3.730

6,711

63,007

3,186

52.549
114,566

2.999. 131

1.073.452

6.579.470

859,271

107.734
567.465
713.7"*"
93.632

52.944
87,652

2,482,444

423.35J

27,664

44.643

11.653

87.344
9,781

4,182

140,901
7.205

716

133. m
416,474

8i4,99it

Franci

38.0

130.S

(excli

lakes 4

22,3

103,8

17.3

2.7
8,1

4.7

1.6

1.6
1.3

39.C

3.C

(I
I."

' ten

6.C

(I
16.6

6,8
28, c

Haricot Beans.

+ Including Mountain Pastures.

Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazine

FREEDOM OF CUL TIVA TION.

By T. HORLEY, Jun.*

IN reviewing the discussions that have
taken place by the Club from its com-
mencement in connexion with the subject
either directly or indirectly, we may safely
call it the pioneer. And although we cannot
daim either to having brought it before our
legislators, or that any recognized system of
security or freedom has become general, yet
considerable progress has been made; and
its not being further advanced only shows
the indefatigable and persevering energy re-
quisite to give to the British tenant-farmer
security for his capital and to release him
from the trammels and antiquated rules laid
down for the cultivation of the soil in ages
gone by, when our country was thinly popu-
lated, little or no attention paid to the arts
and sciences in connexion with either agri-
culture or manufactures, and when the com-
merce of the country was in its infancy. But
I believe the time is come when more de-
cisive steps must be taken if the tenant-
^er is to hold his own in the race with his
fellow-men. The high price of provisions,
and I may say the scarcity of meat through-
out the country, is setting people to think of
these matters who never thought of them
before, and to inquire if everything is done
in a country like this to produce all that can
be produced from our own soil. The ques-
tion must be answered, and I think all practi-
cal men will give but one reply to this in-
quiry, namely, that the produce of our land
may be very materially increased if all the
resources of the soil are developed by the
science, skill, an4 capital that is, in but few
instances, brought to bear upon agriculture.
The experience and the changes which each
year, each day I may say, brings must cause
the most prejudiced to admit that a change
is necessary, and after many years of thought

* Read before the Fanners' Club.

and study, I feel thoroughly convince
absolutely necessary that compensati
unexhausted improvements should I
versal and compulsory, whether land I
under lease or yearly tenancy, and su<
dom of cultivation allowed as to e
tenant to make the best of the land h
pies ; and until these conditions are 1
about little progress will be made in i
ing our produce of food for the peoph

RESTRICTIONS UPON AGRICULTUR
INCREASE.

The large quantity of land that is
hands of trustees, corporations, and
for life, &c., would alone render leg
necessary, and this would give a fe<
security for capital hitherto unknowi
great bulk of British farmers, and i:
curity is obtained, we shall never see
of England produce that amount of f
the people which they may fairly expe
it. It is generally admitted that t
nothing so grateful as land ; but h
men depart from the beaten track am
a large amount of capital in raising th
of anocher person's land, without
either to pay for the improvements
selves, or let others reap the benefit
fact cannot be disputed that the int
the tenant in the soil is at present su
he would not be justified, unless un
ceptional circumstances, in maintain
maximum fertility of the soil. The
circumstances of the times in which
will not allow agriculture to be an ex
to the laws which govern other gi
terests; the large amount of capital
sary for the thorough cultivation an<
pation of the soil is more than doub'
it used to be, for it is no uncommon
rence for as much capital to be invesi
in the machinery and dead stock

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

farm, as was considered sufficient to occupy
the same a few years ago ; and all who have
paid attention to the matter will, I think,
concur in the opinion that steam, science,
and mechanics will occupy a still more pro-
minent part in agriculture than they have
hitherto done. These circumstances com-
bined necessitate not only more security for
invested capital and compensation for unex-
hausted improvements, but greater liberty of
action generally, to allow the occupier to
make the best return he can from his occu-
pation ; and so long as good crops are grown
and a heavy stock of sheep and cattle is
maintained upon the farm, landlords need
have no fears for their estates nor inquire
into the details. C^n it therefore be believed
that a system which requires j;^6o,ooo,ooo
worth of corn, beef, mutton, &c., imported
annually into this little island as food
for the people is satisfactory; and is
not this reason sufficient for inquiry ? Can
anything be done to remedy it ? Does our
land produce all that it is capable of doing ?
Is that security given which will cause capital
to flow to the cultivation of the soil, and leave
the occupiers that freedom of action neces-
sary to allow them to make the greatest re-
turn from the land ? I fear these questions
must generally be answered in the negative.
AVe may fairly assert that as much is paid to
foreigners for articles we might as well grow
at home, as the whole agricultural rental of
the United Kingdom amounts to. A fact
like this ought to strike the landowners of
this country. AVhy is their property not
made more productive ? Is it because they
don't take a sufficient personal interest in
their estates, and in those who dwell upon
them and cultivate them ? On the contrary,
they display an interest most anxious and
particular. They regulate, administer, direct,
and superintend, know, and praise or blame,
every person, process, or thing. Prizes are
offered for the best farms, for the best gar-
dens, for the best cottages, for the best ser-
vants, for the best families. No one can say
that there is not the most earnest interest
taken by the landowner in the welfare of his
■»eiphbourhood. At every agricultural meet-

ing there is ample evidence that th'
tion of the farmer and hi^ labourers <
his earnest and most anxious thougl
their opinions are cared for and <
and we see it announced that th
owner of large estates in one of the
counties has thought it necessary t(
his tenantry in reference to a fort
political contest, that they may ^
whichever candidate they please. ]
is the upshot of this system ? Has
dition of the agricultural labourer be
factory under it? Is it satisfacto:
Are the tenants of the land all as pr
and as energetic as we see those en
other manufactures or trade to be ?
land as productive as it ought to be ?
stated indeed by Mr M*Neil Caird i
ceedingly able lecture before the
Chamber of Agriculture, that in
twenty years an advance to the e
;^i 6,000,000 has been made in th<
productiveness of the country by m
horting the farmer to effort. But th;
more than 6s. an «ncre over its cultiva
and in that time the money paid for i
corn alone has increased ;^2o,ooo
nually, or nearly los. an acre. It
that the system of personal interfere
hortation, and guidance, has been ;
Is it not worth while to try the othe

LANDLORDS AND LEASES.

What, indeed, is the feeling on thi:
uppermost at every agricultural
where there is any outspoken ind<
thought ? If Mr Mechi addresses ai
tural meeting in Essex on deep ci
and steam ploughing, he is immedi
lowed by a speaker on the need of
for tenant's capital, if additional c
required from him. If Sir Micha
Beach delivers a thoughtful; kind, co
address, as President of a Chamber
culture in Gloucestershire, up g
Snowsdell to say, "There is or
omitted in Sir Michael's excellent
which is of the most vital importan
as tenant-farmers, and that is the re
for all unexhausted improvements.

Freedom of Cultivation

:tical farmer like Mr Burnett, of

discusses before a club the ques-
idvisable to increase the working

the agriculturist? after pointing
mense scope for such an increase
ts, he gives this answer to the ques-
der the present system of holding
nd yet it is only by increasing the
:he farm that its productiveness can
jd. Thus only can more labour be

employed, more food produced,
rent be paid. We venture, there-
ubmit to the landowners of the
at, instead of trusting so much, as

to their own superintendence and
of ajQfairs — instead of insisting that
, and the other shall be the
cultivation, and of management

estates — instead of standing in
is to all upon their land, and deter-
at is right for all, and seeing that it
Dut, they had better stand aside a
trust rather to the efficiency of those
ommon to all men, which are found
ly to guide human conduct in other
ts of life. They have land to let,
illy desiring good neighbours, they
nsist on care in the selection of
But, having accepted him, let them
he land for a term of years at the

rent, following Lord Leicester's
and leaving him to cultivate and
le farm as he pleases, buying and
I dealing with his produce as he
Require him, if you will, to revert
r-course rotation of cropping during
ur years of his lease, or agree upon
f which the value of whatever is
ed of his outlay on manures and
I be repaid him when he leaves. Do
2ver, follow the example of the

lease, in respect of all the petty
ervices it requires of the tenantry ;
g chosen a good man with capital
ave him free to make what profit
Jt of a twenty-one years' holding.
It the landlord, if any one, will in
Lin have reasons enough to join in
; of praise which we are told on the
)rity will greet him if he does well

unto himself Men of observation and
thought, who have paid great attention to,
and studied the subject, and from their
business habits or desire to be well-informed
upon the matter, will, I think, agree that a
very large proportion of the land under cul-
tivation in the British Isles does not produce
more than one-half what it is capable of doing
in the shape of food for the people, and that
a very small portion indeed is farmed up to
the capability of the present occupier, for
fear he should have to pay for his own im-
provements in the shape of an increased rent,
or in case of removal or death, he should
leave behind him a large amount of capital
upon which he would have no legal claim.
Facilities for the sale of encumbered estates
and the simplifying the transfer of land would
be more beneficial to the owners and oc-
cupiers of land, and to the labourers in this
country than anything connected with agri-
culture that has for a long time engaged the
attention of the legislature.

SECURITY FOR THE TENANT'S CAPITAL*

The increasing wealth of the country,
without any extension of our broad acres,
has tended to make the possession of land
eagerly sought after, more for the sake of
position than income ; therefore the nominal
possession of larger estates than the owners
have means to perform the proper duties of
landlord upon, so that the property may
yield all that it can to the country, is as de-
trimental to the welfare of the state as the
half-cultivation often carried on for the want
of freedom and security. The law of dis-
traint for rent is also one that is occupying
a great deal of attention among thinking
men. So long as there was a difficulty in
finding capital in the country this law might
be necessary, but now when capital is every-
where seeking profitable employment it is
certainly open to many objections, and the
opinion that this should not be the security
for rent is increasing. It is certainly not so
objectionable as the law of hypothec in Scot^
landj but doubtless has a tendency to cause
undue competition for land. Mr Horley
quoted from Mr Hope, Fenton Bams, and

14 The Country Gentleinati s Magazine

Mr Wilson, Edington Mains, to shew the under which the British tenant-fermer c

evil effects of such law, and then proceeded, on his business at the present time. I

We must not forget that although our popu- the first we may consider all that intei

lation is annually increasing, the quantity of with the security of his capital ; and i

land available for the production of food is the second, all that interferes with free

diminishing, the large number of acres ab- tivation, and his obtaining the largest am

sorbed by pubUc works, the increase of towns, of produce fi^om his occupation. A fe

suburban and country residences, are no each of these difficulties I will notice. '.

small deductions ; and I gather from the re- let us then inquire how the great bulk c

port of the agricultural returns for the Board land of England is held, and we shall

of Trade for 1872 that the quantity of waste it is with six months' notice to quit, an

land available for cultivation, although con- claim for compensation for any capita

siderable, is not so large as generally com- pended, and which the tenant has ha

puted ; we must also remember that with the opportunity of benefiting by, or only

present state of the labour market much slightly. I contend that the capital

extra cost will be involved in reclaiming it. tenant used in the cultivation and imp

We often hear surprise expressed that, with ment of the farm he occupies ought to

the large amount of capital that is ever seek- well secured to him as the fee-simple

ing employment in this country, more does the owner ; and if the increasing popu]

not flow to the land ; but those practically and the circumstances of the times in 1

acquainted with the difficulties do not wonder, we live require alteration, it is the di

Capitalists require security, and ' this can our legislators to attend to such ; for

seldom be obtained ; then, again, should any, upon it, the less we depend upon fo

for special requirements on large under- nations for the supply of food for the pe

takings, or faimers who have not sufficient the better for Old England. We kno

capital at command, need temporary assist- bitter experience that a large proportii

ance, they cannot expect to obtain it on so the food imported has to be paid for in

good terms as others, because they have no cash,
security to ofier, and the knowledge that the

4. ♦. •« 4.i,« ^ •« -4. r 1, 1 • OLD AGREEMENTS ADVERSE TO SKILFl

tenant m the majority of cases has no clami
upon it, if spent in improvements, in case

the landlord chose to put in force his legal The conditions upon which farms ar

rights, or if the farm should change hands and the stereotyped agreements genera

or death ensue. Merchants, persons in force, although very often without an)

trade, or even speculators, find no difficulty that they will be carried out, cause a fi

in obtaining advances on far less tangible of insecurity it is scarcely possible tc

security than the occupiers of land ought to mate ; and although it may be said

be able to offer ; but as things are at present party ought to make half the bargain

constituted it cannot and will not be obtained known to be impossible, except in a vei

by the occupier for the advancement of instances. Every practical agricul

agriculture, however much we may be de- knows there are no other means excepi

pendent for our daily food on foreign pro- application of skill and capital by 1

duce ; and should we ever be engaged in produce can be increased and the effie

broils with foreign states this will present it- untoward seasons rendered less disas

self in a much more serious form than it has Unhappily there are many hindrance

ever done before ; the requirements of the tending to prevent the full developme

people are greater, and our increasing popu- the resources of the soil by tenant-far

lation finds us every year making less pro- to the loss of both landlords and tei

vision per head of the necessaries of life. These hindrances are becoming moi

We may divide into two parts the difficulties parent every day, particularly to the

Freedom of Cultivation

cnagetic and skilful of the practical agricul-
turists. As a body tenant-farmers are com-
pcUed to think seriously of the position in
idiich they are placed, as it becomes more
and more necessary to apply greater skill
and a larger capital to land in order to raise
increased crops with which to pay steadily
advancing rents to landlords and higher
wages to agricultural labourers. It might
naturally be supposed there was nothing very
&r wrong when landlords are able to obtain
larger rents, and labourers higher wages; but
a little examination will shew that tenant-
fermgrs have good reason for feeling discon-
tented at the unfair conditions under which
they are compelled to conduct their business.
Here are first the terms of agreement under
which land is almost universally let; and
secondly, the effects produced by the common
law of the land, and various Acts of Parlia-
ment on the business of farming, and on the
dass who follow agriculture as a profession.
Beginning then with the terms of agreement
entered into between the contracting parties
who let and take land. Practical farmers
are well aware that the amounts of landlords'
rents and tenants' profits largely depend on
the terms of the contract entered into
between the parties. It might naturally be
supposed that self-interest would be an
unerring guide to the true solution of the
problem of what was best for both parties.
This, however, is far from being the case.
The terms of agreement, and the form of
leases, are almost invariably stereotyped on
every estate. Singularly enough in each
separate district they will be found to be
nearly uniform, and even taking the kingdom
as a whole, whatever modifications of terms
there may be, these seem to depend more on
situation and climate than on principle.
Ahnost imiversally there appears to be the
saine evident desire to prevent the tenant
exercising his skill beyond the ordinary
prescribed routine. The rotation of crops
which the tenant is bound to follow is
generally carefully stated ; and no deviations
are allowed under heavy penalties without
the written sanction of the proprietor. More
frequently the production of the most valuable

and best paying crops is restricted in quantity
or prohibited altogether unless imder condi^
tions impossible to fulfil. Scotch farmers are
right in holding it as an axiom as true as
any in Euclid, that security of tenure is abso-
lutely necessary and essential to produce
profitable husbandry. Again, it would be a
great encouragement to continued good
farming, and thus a benefit to the country,
if all tenants under leases were entitled by law
to allowances similar to those granted in the
Lincolnshire agreements, whereby payments
are made for improvements executed, and for
manures left in the ground by the outgoing
tenants. Common honesty dictates that
when a tenant is compelled to leave his farm,
the presumption in law should be that pay-
ment should be made for his property left on
or in the land, and without this provision no
lease or agreement can be truly liberal or
even a fair arrangement

BUILDINGS, VALUATIONS, &C.

I am quite of opinion that leases renew-
able, if agreed upon, some years before the
expiration, give the best encouragement and
security for capital ; but certainly whether
land is held under lease or yearly tenancy,
the capital of the tenant expended in improv-
ing or keeping up the fertility of the farm to
the end of the term, and from which from
want of time he cannot have received the
benefit he is entitled to, ought to be his own,
and as easily obtainable as the payments for
acts of husbandry, and this security is even
more necessary under yearly tenancy, which
I know is preferred by many when accom-
panied by fair allowance for unexhausted
tenants* capital, and a much longer notice to
quit than is usually given. Another source
of insecurity is the state of the law as regards
buildings, which in a great many instances
are required, and can only be obtained
by the tenants* erecting them himself.
It certainly does appear very hard that when
this is done, he has not only no claim upon
them, nor can he remove them, but in ac-
cordance with many agreements he is bound
to leave them in good repair. One or two
things the tenant is fairly entitled to, either

1 6 The Country Genilentmis Magazine

that they be taken to at a valuation by the of cultivation, and this in many inst

landlord, or that he may sell or remove them, is very considerable, and is daily bec(

making good any damage done by their erec- more so.

tion. The continual re-valuations that have _ , .^

, , . _ r T- I J 1 GAME AND LABOUR.

taken place m many parts of England, aJso

give a feeling of insecurity to tenants, that I must now call attention to game,

none but those acquainted with these matters in many instances is a serious prevent

can imagine, and no wonder ; for they justly the free and full cultivation of the soil

feel that in a large number of instances ten- impossible and futUe it is to endeavi

ants are placed at a great disadvantage. A farm well, and grow good crops, where

stranger is called upon to value an estate, is preserved to any great extent, the 1

Let him be ever so competent and ever so having no controlling power. The p

careful, what is the result ? He taxes the fashion of sporting, viz., the battue s]

energy, industry, and capital, of the improv- is entirely incompatible with growing fo

ing tenant, who feels that he must either sub- the people. And although many of us

mit or leave his capital for some one else to be very sorry to see game done awa;

reap the benefit of; but if he had a legal entirely, something must be done to st

claim for what is fairly his own, he would progress of over-preservation, and gi^

then be placed in a different position, and occupier some control over the quantit

could calculate nearly what he would have to feeds upon his farm. Some very stron

receive in case he gave up his occupation : dence on this subject was given befo

this would also enable him to make fairer Bright's committee. One passage fro

terms for the future occupation of his farm, late Lord Hatherton*s evidence I wil

It is in many instances, and will continue to quote. He said : — " I soon found,

be, a cause of great anxiety to occupiers, and farmer desirous of introducing among

produce an effect very detrimental to the ad- tenantry a better system of cultivatioi

vancement of a^culture. No doubt many it was utterly hopeless to do so un

here present can call to mind estates and completely destroyed the hares, for 1

farms that are yearly getting into a worse tempt to reduce them was useless, as a

condition, and more impoverished from the season repaired their number to such

want of greater freedom and security. As tent that I found there was no effectua

regards freedom of cultivation, I think the but destruction." Many startling factj

agreements generally in force do not allow brought to light also by the committe

sufficient latitude for the energy and skill of sat during the last session, and whose

improving tenants ; and as it is known how are not yet concluded, but the result of

entirely dependent we are upon seasons and inquiries will be looked for with ar

circumstances, they prevent our agriculture And we cannot but note the paramou

advancing in the way it would do, if the portance that has lately been given 1

tenant were left to do the best he could for matter in Scotland, not only by the c

himself, binding him to pay, upon giving up tors of the arable land, but by the Hi^

the occupation, for any damage he had done sheep-farmers. The subject which has

to the land, or for any mischief he had occupying the attention of all clasj

causedby the course he pursued to the future people throughout the land during tl

crops to be grown the year following the six months — the condition of the laboi

termination of his tenancy. Small enclosures connexion with the land — is also one

and hedge-row timber are also no small exercises a large influence in free cultiv

hindrances to freedom of cultivation, in some the numbers of cottages that were

instances absorbing something like one-tenth down in close parishes before the Unic

of the produce. It is not only the damage sessment Act came into operation has c

'l^'^y do, but the amount they add to the cost a scarcity of labourers widiin a modera

Freedom of Cultivation \*j

tance of their work, that materially interferes nearly all agreements is, that they are

wi4 the modem system of farming. I believe hampered with conditions to protect the

that long before the present agitation and un- landlord against bad tenants, and bad culti-

settled state of the labour market appeared, vation, without any encouragement or in-

Ihc want of any tie between the employers ducement to clean and high farming, and I

and employed (except the mere wages re- consider it both hard and unnecessary that

coved) tended to add to the difficulty, and the good should have to suffer for the

foand subjects for the agitators to make more negligent — ^not only so, but the production of

of tban It deserved. The extent to which food for the people is thereby diminished. I

this topic has occupied the attention of oui feel sure we shall be told it is necessary to

great territorial possessors is certainly very protect landlords, and this no one will deny ;

remarkable ; and I think (after reading most but I would say how can you do this so well

of the speeches that have been made upon it) as by giving encouragement by free cultiva-

nradi more good would have arisen if, in- tion and security for capital, reserving for

stead of the question of wages between em- arbitration any claims that may arise during,

ployers and employed, co-operation, and or at the end of a tenancy, for bad cultiva-

other experiments, attention had been drawn tion or injury to future occupation ? Properly

more to the condition of the labourers* homes, constituted boards of arbitration established in

and their habits, with a view to teaching everycountyordistrictwouldbeverybeneficial.

them to appreciate good dwellings, shewing Some inducement is necessary to make it the

them that any material improvement in their interest of the tenant to farm well to the

condition must spring from tJuniselves^ from end of the tenancy ; this requires compensa-

habits of thrift, economy, and temperance, tion for good, and a penalty for bad farming,

and a proper spirit of independence, that will A committee appointed some time since in

cause them to provide for themselves and the Vale of Evesham, for the purpose of con-

thdr families, instead of seeking relief from sidering the best means of protecting land-

the parish immediately they are out of em- lords against injury to their property, and

I%ment or incapacitated by temporary sick- giving compensation to the tenant for unex-

ncss, which has certainly been encouraged to hausted improvements, and more freedom to

a great extent by the lax administration of the cultivation, and of which Mr Holland

outdoor relieC was chairman, state in clause 3 of the agree-
ment they propose that there should be no

THE HOLKHAM LEASE : ARBITRATION. stipulation as to Cropping, but if any dispute

The need of the alterations necessary for arose it should forthwith be settled by arbi-

the fuller development of our agriculture, par- tration. The report of the committee that

ticularly as regards the points to which I sat in 1848 on "Agricultural Customs" (a

have alluded in this paper, has been forcibly condensed digest of which, by the late Mr

brought forward by many men in all stations Shaw and Mr H. Corbet, should be studied

of life. The speeches of Lord Derby, at by us all), is a source of astonishment to

Liverpool last year, and at Preston lately, everybody who reads it. I cannot but be-

shew the deep interest he takes in the matter, lieve that even with the small direct repre-

«id the thought he has bestowed upon it, sentation the tenant-farmers of England now

and cany with them a weight and conviction possess, we should have on a committee ap-

Bot easily estimated. The lease Lord pointed on such a subject at the present day

Uicester has provided for his tenantry is men who would arrive at a very different

*bo another instance of the importance at- conclusion to the one set forth in that report,

^cd in high stations to these matters, even upon the same evidence, and this I be-

aldioiigh to a few of the leading points and lieve could be made much stronger now than

some of the minor details strong objections it was then. I wish before I conclude to

•tty be raised. I believe one great failing of draw your attention briefly to the reasons

1 8 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

adduced by the committee of this club in would increase and confirm the mutual confidena

1847 in support of Mr Pusey's Tenant-Right ^^^^ would exist between landlord and tenant, b)

T>*ii X !-• u T xi.* 1 '^ J • ui X r domg away with all cause for doubt, distrust, or dis

Bill, to which I thmk it very desirable to refer ^u^

at this time. The Club address was very ex- i^t^. Because uncertainty must always impede

tensively circulated in the following shape : — energy ; and justice made subservient to caprice is ik

1st. Because occupiers of land having a very large Justice ^t all, as it assumes the charity of might, lathfl

amount of capital engaged in the cultivation of the *^^ Uie dami of right.

soil, bearing a considerable proportion to the fee- '5th. Because m letUng every other descnpticm ol

simple of the land, have a right to as full security for P^P^rty, advantages and improvements are so rccog.

their capital as all the other industrious classes of the "^f f *° ^^°°^^ * remarkable mvestment ; where

communitv. ^ improvement is not recognized, and conse

2d. Beca'use the nature of the tenant-farmers' occu- ^"^f J^ is of no marketable value,
pation is such as to render it impossible to carry it on 'T' f*^'^ *^* .""^ ^"^^ T ?'

advantageously without investing capital, to be reim- P^^^.^^ ^""^^"^ competition, justice demands th^

bursed at a future period; and hence security of every impedmient to the unfettered application of hu

tenure with compensation for miexhausted improve- ^P^*^ "^^ ^^ ^^°^^ ^^ removed.~HENRl

ments is absolutely necessary. Cojl^^i, Secretary.

3d. Because at present security of tenure is the ex- Let every practical man test by his own eX"

ception, not the rule, in England and Wales ; the perience the soundness of the reasons here

greater part of the land being hdd on yearly tenancy. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ if (as it is beUeved k

4th. Because compensation for unexhausted im- ,v . jri.*' ex.

provements would, by affording security to the mvest- must be) convmced of the justice of the

ment of capital, induce a far more extended applica- Tenant-Right, let him at once take the onlj

tion of it to the cultivation of the soil. Step now needed to secure it. Let him asl

5th. Because security to capital would stimulate openly and firmly the support of his repre

thecultivatorsof the son generally to adopt a better sentatives for the principle of the Tenant

and a more improved system of husbandry; thereby _,., _.,, ,,, ^ ,^. ,,

greatly increasing the gross produce of the soU-a ^^^ ^""^^ ^'^^ ^^^ *e farmeis' fiiends b(

matter in which the public at large is deeply in- known and numbered by this question, per

terested. haps the greatest, and certainly the mosi

6th. Because the gradual increase of population and directly affecting the tenant-farmers* interest,

enlarged demand for produce render all available im- j^ ^^^^^ ^^ impossible, and far tOO weari
provements m agnculture no less acts of private duty ... ^ ,/ , , v

than public policy. ^ome, to dUate upon all or even the leading

7th. Because where land is held for a term of years, discussions that have taken place during the

either under lease or by agreement, compensation for last year^ buL if any one present had not read

unexhausted improvements at the end of the term them I woUld refer to the paper read by Ml

would put an end to the system of injuring the land, ^.^-^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ g^^^^-^j^ Chamber of Agn
now necessarily adopted by occupiers m self-defence. j -l -fcir t t_ • r«u

8th. Because the forced and ungrateful system of Culture, tO Ohe read by Mr Latham m Che

so exhausting land is a bar to permanent advancement, shire, by Mr Ruston in Lincolnshire, and tC

and a loss equally great to the owners and the public, the report of an influential meeting in Glou

9th. Because every measure which may render the cestershire, Where it was unanimously agreec

occupation of land generally more beneficial to the ^^^^ ^^^ tenant-farmers' position at presen
tenant-farmer must be productive of proportionate . ^ ^

benefit to the owner. was not such as to induce or render it pra

10th. Because a more extended application of capital dent for him tO invest more capital in th<

in the cultivation of the soU would afford increased cultivation and improvement of his land

employment to the labouring classes. These are a few only of the meetings at whicl

nth. Because increase of labour would be accom- ^v«» _^*. i_'^i. u j- ^^A

panied by decrease of poor-n.te, and consequently that ^^^ important subject has been dlSCUSSed

land being less taxed would be more profitable. ^"^^ ^ careful Study of the reports Will teacr

1 2th. Because in some districts a custom exists of many useful lessons in reference to it The

giving compensation for unexhausted improvements knowledge of the superior and advanced Stat<

to tenants on the termination of their tenure, the ^f agriculture in the only portion of the king

beneficial effect of which is shewn in the highly culti- j v •*. / 4. *. » •*.«! ;.

vated state of the land m those districts. ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^"^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^P^^^! '

13th. Because the making such a custom general general by a custom ahnost more bmdinf

ostead of suffering its advantages to be partial only, than law, and the good understandiOj

Freedom of Cultivation i^

I talked of is perhaps stronger we can at home for the sustenance of our in-
jTwhere in England, should tend creasing population, and keep as many people
ove the doubt so often ex- as we can here, or to send the sinews of the
IS to the desirability of this system nation abroad, and leave the remainder to
J universal. I think all who will depend largely on a foreign supply of food ?"
subject the fair and impartial con- No one would more regret than myself any
a it deserves must conclude that measure being advocated that would in the
occupiers, and the public at large slightest degree interfere with the rights of

II be benefited to an enormous ex* property, but I firmly believe that greater
d the ties between the different freedom of cultivation and legalized security
naterially strengthened. I will con- for capital invested in the improvement and
f requesting those who take part in occupation of land would tend more than
ission this evening to ask themselves anything else to cement a more genuine feel-
stion : " Is it desirable to produce all ing of confidence between all parties.

MINNESOTA, A FIELD FOR BRITISH FARMERS.""

[By our Special Cottrespondent.]

NO. II. land. The products of Minnesota exhibited
DUGH the country all behind Du- there, both in quantity and quality, were to
li is a rough woodland, the fertility of me very surprising, consisting of grain of all
may be imagined from the fact that kinds,wheat,com,oats, rye, barley; with roots,
•ney in the city, from whose lips I fruits, and live stock in great variety and
it, had strawberries in his garden this abundance. I saw stalks of com 14 feet
bur inches in diameter. high. The display of fruits was rich and
)on as I reached Duluth I was in- beautiful, splendid apples and pears, wild
that to-morrow was the last day of the apples and wild plums about as large as our
5tate Fair, or Agricultural Exhibition, ordinary apples at home ; and many kinds of
lul, the capital city of the state ; and grapes, some of them large and plump, all
)rtunate I had come in time to see grown in the open air. The show of roots
I country could produce. So I left and vegetables, too, was very remarkable to
J evening train, had a run of 156 miles, me. Some potatoes weighed 3K lb.; and
due time next morning found myself pumpkins and squashes 91 lb. and 94 lb.
lir, which was held in a large field, There was a lot of very large beets ; and
ng many great wooden erections and some turnips, which were but small. Onions
res, about three miles out of the city, and cabbages were very big and good look-
was introduced to Major Hibbard, of ing, and so were the melons and cucumbers.
)rk, who takes a warm interest in the There was also an excellent turn out of
ity of this fast rising State, a most ex- cattle, bulls, cows, calves, and oxen, of the
and kind hearted gentleman, who Shorthorn, Guernsey, and other breeds ; also
> my friend and guide during the day, horses and sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry,
several days after. The fair was a The sheep were chiefly of the Cotswold and
splay, and a great success. We should Leicester breeds. I noticed with special in-
ought so, had it been held in the old terest a number of Merino sheep and Cash-

mere goats, on which high prices were set.

Duedfrom page 428, vol. ix. The department of manufactures was stocked

20 The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

with a most extensive assortment of very a fraction of taxes, and in a year he will hj

superior articles, such as blankets, shawls, a clear title to his farm by merely paying

furs, upholstery, saddlery, carriages, sleighs, dollars for commission and other fees.

pianos, and harmoniums (several of which told him he would have waited long ere

were magnificent instruments.) The fine arts found a farm on such terms in the fatherlai

were also well represented by fine paintings, to which he smiled a significant assent ]

engravings, and photographs of persons and had just got his harvest over, and was goi

scenes. The Northern Pacific Department to Illinois to see his father, brother, and th

had special attractions for me, as I had sisters, each of whom, excepting the old m

come to examine the lands along that line of has a farm in that state. The male memb

railway ; and certainly the display of fruits, of the family, when they left Scotland, w

rootSj and grain sent in from these lands was coal-miners, and had for a long time follov(

, in all respects highly satisfactory, proving, that calling in the United States. The p(

beyond dispute, the natural wealth of the tion of comfort and independence to wh

country, and the wonderful fertility of the they have attained is equally within the res

8oiL For a list of the cereals grown in the of any man, unmarried woman, or wid(

new North-West, see page 26. For ** Uncle Sam " is not only " rich enoi

I was highly pleased with the city of St to give us all a farm," but he is as willing

Paul. It is finely laid out on the banks of he is able, and has arranged that to all si

the Mississippi ; and its principal streets are as I have indicated, who promise to beco

well built with substantial houses of bluish citizens of the United States, he will g

grey stone, something Hke Aberdeen granite, farms each of 80 acres within railway lim

Many of the houses are very elegant; and and of 160 beyond, by merely paying, in b

its public buildings, such as hotels, offices, cases, the trifling sum of 14 dollars for fe

and churches, would do credit to any city in after five years' residence and improvemei

the old world. The same, I understand, is and these farms are on rich virgin pi*ai

true of Minneapolis, a sister city 1 2 miles soil, needing no clearing. Then if you n

farther up the river, which I had not the to have an immediate title to such lands, )

pleasure of seeing. It is said, indeed, to can purchase them from the railway or

be very pretty, and I was informed that they Government, from 2 J^ to 8 dollars an a(

have grown so rapidly, that St Paul, though according to their quality and position.

only twelve years old, contains 30,000 I returned to Duluth the next momi

people; and Minneapolis is not far behind very pleased to think that among all

that number. They are now within 4 thousands who attended the fair at St Pai

miles of meeting, and are expected soon to had seen only one man the worse for dri

unite and form one vast city. At present and I have seen only another in Amei

there is no little rivalry between them. Mr since that time. A fair in our own cour

Seward, the late Secretary of the United would have shewn a different state of matt

States Government, predicted some time ago, No wonder I have a strong impression t

that the " ultimate seat of government on the people of the New North West, at le;

the continent " will be near St Paul, and are more sober than ours at home. In <

the position and growth of these two cities of the buildings connected with the St

seem to indicate that the thing is not im- Fair there was a capital refreshment st

probable. managed by half a dozen members of

At St Paul I met a man from my native Women's Christian Association, which suppl

town, Kilmarnock, who has been homestead- tea and coffee and various softs of excell

ing for four years in Minnesota, on 160 acres eatables, and which was well patroniz

of land, and was very comfortable, and well crowded, indeed, by hungry visitors. Sue

pleased with his position and prospects. He temperance establishment at a fair was qi

^as not yet paid a farthing for his land, nor a novelty to me, and I thought it set a g(

Minnesota^ a Field for British Farmers 21

o the mother country. I spent a got to Brainerd they were so disgusted that

sant bunday in Duluth ; and on they turned back — resolved to go no further

morning started westward for west ; struck down by the branch line to St

and certainly I was wearied long Paul, and were making their way home again

Lched it. The ride was dull and to Massachusetts. I told them that they had

rough what seemed an interminable stopped short with their survey of Minnesota

iefly pine, growing on a very poor just where it ought to have properly begun—

f soil. And yet such an extent of at least where the most interesting part of

been, and will continue to be most the country begins to open up to view. So

for railway and other purposes, I have found it. One of them, however,

tself has grown in two years into means to return to St Paul and settle there

tie town among the trees, the land in the Spring on account of his two daughters,

eing yet only partially cleared. It who are threatened with consumption. He

jespaper, railway works, including a liked St Paul, and had discovered that the

; round house for engines, a big climate was wonderfully fitted to cure pul-

hotel, and a commodious reception monary diseases when taken in time. He

emigrants, where they can reside told me he knew a young man in his part of

ntil they make their arrangements the country who was spitting blood, and who

ig on the lands of the railway, went to Minnesota and stayed three or four

similar reception-house at Glyndon, months, and came back 35 pounds heavier

le same dimensions. In erecting and fit for work.

>es the company liave shewn them- It was an immense relief to find ourselves

e to the necessities of emigrants ; emerging fi^om that dreary woodland and

less their wisdom and philanthropy sandy soil, and gradually entering into rich

lyed will act as a strong inducement open glades and gently rolling prairies some 10

to make their homes along this line, miles west of Brainerd. Ere long the scenery

rmed that there is plenty of work at became, quite charming, being diversified by

for engineers and blacksmiths, who numerous lakes, large and small, encircled

from 5 to 6 dollars a day ; and a with heavy belts of trees, glowing in all the

intleman connected with the com- glory of autumn's myriad hues, and arrayed

he would employ as many of these in the same gorgeous coloured drapery were

as I could send him at such wages, many groves of oaks, elms, and maples stud-

(lowever, will have to depend upon ding the wide prairie lands, which like fine

r and the lumber trade for its pros- natural parks waving with rich, variegated

nd for the latter it has special grasses, give the country a very beautiful

»n account of its nearness to the appearance. Only a little trinmiing of the

i as well as to the Railway. But grass, and a little clearing of the trees is

)r farming purposes would ever needed to make you believe that you are

settling there. The run of 160 passing through the parks of some lordly

ward was relieved of its miserable mansion. This continues for many miles on

only by the Falls of St Louis, both sides of the line ; and the gentle, oft-

•e very romantic, and reminded me recurrmg undulations of the country give a

f our own Highland river scenery ; beauty to the landscape most refreshing to

now and then by a lake studded the eye, such as is not to be found on

l-crowned islands. One required the broad level prairie. The soil, however,

th in a " better land " still further though it is of the same kind, does not offer,

earer the setting sun, to keep him in my opinion, the same inducements to

ing back. Afterwards, I met at farmers as that found farther west, large

wo gentlemen who sailed with me tracts of it not being more than 12 inches

IS, and they told me that when they deep, but its fertility, nevertheless, seems in-

The Country Gmtlanan's Magazine

disputable from the luxuriant crops of grass
growing upon it. Any person may cut as
much hay as he likes on these prairie lands
without interference. Human dwellings are
yet few and far between in this region, but
they are evidently increasing, and are likely
to do so very fast, thQ beauty of the scenery
and the plentiful supply of wood and water
being strong recommendations to settle there.
It is in this district where the Rev. George
Rogers and a party of practical farmers from
Dorset have selected land for their colony,
to the extent of 24 miles in length by 12 in
breadth; and on which they expect 200
families from the south of England will settle
next spring. In making this choice I believe
they had special regard to the water power
which the locality affords, and to the rich
supply of grass suited for stock-raising which
it yields.

The country retains its undulating cha-
racter westward to Muscoda, but loses
more and more the charm of lake and
grove till you reach Glyndon, 10 miles from
the Red River, where it opens out into the
vast level prairie, the monotony of which, at
that point, is relieved only by the trees which
fringe the banks of the Buffalo River some 3
miles away to the north.

Moorhead was our next centre from
which to make observations and excursions,
it spreads out as far as the eye can see,
almost as flat as a bowling-green, and is
broken only here and there at considerable
distances with some of the beautiful little
lakes with which this State abounds. There
is real poetry in many of the names given to
places by the Indians. It is so with Minne-
sota, which means "sky-coloured water."
There are 2000 lakes in this State ; of these
I saw a good number, and all of them were
as blue as the azure sky which was smiling
down so calmly and brightly upon them.
They looked like bits of the sky, that had
fallen down, and were left there to add a
fresh charm to the beauties of earth. It was
easy then to understand the appropriateness
and the poetry of the name, when the poetry
of the facts from which it was derived was so
manifest.

We called a halt at Detroit Lake settle-
ment, and spent a day and a night there.
At the beginning of this year only two houses
were at this place; now there are 150, with
about 400 of a population. It, too, has its
newspaper, a chapel, a bank, and several
hotels, the latter, like those at other places
along the line, being cold-water establish-
ments. On the borders of the lake on a
gentle elevation, Mr M* Arthur has built his
house, and a finer site he could not have
chosen. He has an excellent farm lying
between the lake and the railway ; some of
it is already fenced, and he had a good crop
of wheat standing in sheaves. The lake is
really beautiful ; pure and clear, having a fine
beach and bottom of sand and gravel, and is
surrounded, except at one corner, with a wide
plantation of various kinds of trees. It seems
to be about 4 miles in length and 2 in breadth.
It is somewhat semicircular in form, being
rounded on the one side and curved hollow
on the other. About the middle of the curve
a sandy bar, raised by the action of the water,
runs about halfway across, and when one
takes his stand upon it the lake assumes the
shape of a heart. It abounds with various
kinds of fish. Our company caught half a-
dozen that were large, one of them being a
pike and another a bass, which was con-
sidered a great prize ; it resembled a turbot
in shape, and its quality was highly relished
by us at dinner.

During the absence of my companions, as
I wandered along the shore of the lake, I
found just washed ashore what I supposed
was a young eagle newly shot. When ex-
tended his wings were about 6 feet from tip
to tip. I stretched them out for a while to
dry, then tied them together and carried him
to the landing-place of the boat, and hung
him on a little tree in front of a rude shed,
the dwelling of a soldier who lost his arm in
the war between the North and South.
Early in the morning I had been conversing
with this man, who owns 26 acres at the edge
of the lake. He took me round behind his
shed to see his garden among the trees, the
only piece of ground which appeared to have
been broken up and cleared pf wood. I

Minnesota^ a Field for British Farmers 23

: was a queer garden. It was so land for them in that locality. And he said

I with great coarse weeds that I if all our friends could get pictures of the

no signs of any useful crop. The country, he was sure every one of them would

imitted that he was no farmer ; but come and settle here.

nth his hand from little hillocks Our next resting place was Glyndon,

le weeds some very fine white where the line to St Paul via Breckenridge

and which for size would be con- and the line to Pembina and Fort Garry

ood in Britain. Their whiteness have their junction with the Northern

I well with the soil ; and there they Pacific. The latter is open only 80 miles

a without manure, and scarcely any yet to the north of Glyndon ; and the former

that black mould, which had in addi- wants 50 miles of reaching the junction,

iced such a luxuriant crop of sturdy but both are being rapidly pushed, forward.

Vhen my friends returned with their Glyndon is the centre of a vast grassy plain,

Lsted that I had caught a grander as I have said, almost as flat and as smooth

le person of " the American eagle as a bowling green, to the west of which is

►ped the universal game cock of the RedRiver as its boundary, and to the

So I cut off the wings at the outer north the winding and well-wooded Bufialo.

c them to the hotel, dried them at At first the prairie soil appeared very strange

and pulled out the longest and to me, being quite black and strongly re-

ers to take them home in triumph sembling peat moss. But on examination

d, telling my fisher friends what a it proved to be a rich loam or mould, the

it would be to be able to say that I product of countless crops of decayed grass,

ed the wings of the noble American which for thousands of years have been form-

[y triumph was short-lived, and their ing immense harvest fields to supply the

as complete, when the soldier met necessities of futiure ages. The soil is

noming at the station, and, amid mixed with a good proportion of fine sand,

5 laughter, told us that it was only which makes it open and warm, easily absorb-

buzzard," a great undignified fowl ing moisture and easily throwing it off and

on carrion. I took my humiliation preventing it from being hardened by the

best grace possible, and declared action of the elements like clay soils. The

eathers would do quite as well as loam varies in depth from 18 mches to

the genuine article, and might yet several feet, and rests on a subsoil of fine

s plumes in " Hielan bonnets " on bluish clay. So level is the surface and so

r hills of Scotland. dean is the soil that a furrow might be run

roit Lake I met a gentleman from from 10 to 20 miles without any obstruc-

on whose acquaintance I had made tion to the plough. Ploughing is easy

' at the State Fair in St Paul. His work here, on account of the construction of

Mr Darling. He had come out the plough and the nature of the land

sota three months before, in hopes There is none of the tugging, twisting, and

restored to health which had been lifting needed such as falls to the lot of the

some time ; and he so enjoyed the ploughman at home ; merely keeping the

nd climate that he meant to remain line, the plough and the team will do the

* longer in the vicinity of Oak Lake. rest.

h had been restored, and he looked Glyndon itself is already quite an enter-
ruddy and strong. He had been prising little town, having several good stores
i with farming in his youth ; but and hotels, a chapel, school, and newspaper,
ome a civil engineer. He was besides it has its large reception house for
tters almost every mail from fiiends settlers. It is here where the lines from the
lintances, who had received accounts north and south meet, and cross the Northern
of the country, asking him to select Pacific. This gives great importance to the

24 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

place, which is apparent from the goods prairie soil, yielding a wondrous wealth of
sheds, the Round House, and other railway natural grasses, which any person might cut
works at the junction. When it is considered down for hay at his own sweet will, without
that all this has been realized in less than interference from another. Here and &««,
two years, an idea is got of American enter- at great distances, this had been done, and
prize in the past, and a glimpse is caught of the hay piled into ricks ; but as a whole, the
what is sure to be achieved in the not very wide landscape, tinged with the mingled
distant future. A fair for that district and colours of autumn, rejoiced in the imsubducd
another for Detroit Lake were being organized beauty and freedom of nature. Major Hil>
when I was there, and high hopes were enter- bard owns 640 acres of the land through
tained of their success. Serious complaints which we passed, and which lies on both
had been made regarding the water there, sides of the Buffalo. He had never seen il
which was said to have produced sickness till then. It has not yet been touched by
among the people. It was found that the the hand of labour, but is one of the richest
wells had not been sunk deep enough, and sections of land in the district During oui
that it was surface water which had been long and interesting drive we saw counties!
causing the evil. Deeper wells were then numbers of wild geese, but the gun which wc
being bored, and better water found, and it had being only loaded with small shot, feiledtc
was hoped that the result would speedily re- bringanyof them down, and instead of them wc
move all cause of complaint We made were content with killing 20 blackbirds "to
several excursions with teams into the country bake into a pie," not being able to secure the
round about Glyndon, and were delighted " 24" These birds are superabundant on
with the soil, climate, and products. Several the prairies. Next day we made another ex-
gentlemen who came out with us preferred to cursion in a southerly direction for 10 miles,
run by ballast trains as far as they could get over the same rich, wide-spreading prairie j
into Dakotah, and along the Pembina line, the soil still black and deep, and its fertilitjf
We took what we deemed a more practical manifested by the abundance of natural
method of judging the country. We talked grasses. We enjoyed a hearty repast in«
with the farmers, and found them comfort- prove on the banks of a pretty little lake, auc
able, and all seemingly satisfied with their feasted with delight on some fowl which wc
claims, which is the term used for their lands, had shot on our way — no game-laws beinj
One of them thrashed a sheaf of first year's there to interfere with us. The worthy In
wheat and gave me the grain to take home, dependent minister of Glyndon, Mr Williams.
The yield was 30 bushels to the acre. Like performed the duties of cook to perfection:
all American wheat, it is smaller in the grain and the scene, as the six of us stood round
than English wheat, which may be ac- the fire, eating our fowl from the long oali
counted for partly by the fact that it ripens twigs on which it had been spitted, was
quicker than ours under a warmer sun, but worthy of being photographed,
the quality is excellent, and the sample Here I was pleased to renew the acquaint
that I have weighs heavy. This farm was anceship which I had formed at St Paul anc
on the banks of the Buffalo, 3j^ miles Duluth with Mr Douglas, the worthy post
north of Glyndon, and the name of the master and judge of probate of Moorhead
owner, Ole Gunderson. With a basin of and a fine specimen of a Scotchman, firon
splendid milk fi-om his dairy we washed down Hawick, in Roxburghshire. When he cam*
our lunch in a wood by the river side ; then here, to use his own words, "there wa
drove a long way farther north ; and crossed nothing and nobody." Now there is tb
the water and returned along its eastern bank, railway instead of the stage coach which h
In domg so we had ample opportunity to see had to use for some hundreds of miles ; an
the land It was still the same rich, black, instead of the open tenantless prairie, ther

Minnesota y a Field for British Farmers 25

I town with all the advantages and village, could human habitations be seen ;

progress which distinguish the other but these indicated that the solitude of ages

) which I have referred. Mr Douglas was being invaded gradually for practical

re partly on account of his health, purposes ; and we could not but wish that

liad while in Montreal a serious such an extent of fertile land might soon

of the throat, and now he bears a be thickly settled, and yield its harvest

nd grateful testimony to the healing treasures to the hand of industry. Doubtless

)f the Minnesota climate ; and his ere long it will be so.
rroborate his words, for he is quite a We dined with Colonel Gaw, of the

istration of health and strength. He Engineering Corps, in his tent; and after-

ifies to the wonderful productiveness wards, having been kindly supplied with his

»il, and affirms, from personal obser- excellent team of horses and carriage, we

hat it is quite the same all the way took an excursion for 10 miles into Dakotah,

e Red River Valley to Fort Garry, partly along the Red River and partly along

{ 260 miles farther north in the one of its tributaries. Far out on the open

Province of Manitoba. The Rev. prairie we came to a place called " Holy

r Bryce, of Fort Garry, whom I met Cross." No habitations were near, but there

h, testified to the same effect. Mr stood a long wooden cross, unpainted and

expressed his willingness to answer weatherbeaten, and close to it were half a

tions which might be asked him by dozen graves, enclosed with simple fences of

;arding the country and how to settle wood, planed but impainted, too, and on

; thinks the land along the Shezenne each grave was erected a small cross similar

the richest in this locality, and re- to the large one. I felt quite interested to .

is it strongly to his countr3rmen, as find myself ** in the land of the Dakotahs,"

eady for the plough, and only wait- where Hiawatha found his wife, sweet

;ed to produce splendid crops. In Minnehaha, " fairest of Dakotah women."

) the want of wood on the open But I was still more intensely interested to

says that a fine plantation could be see these Christian symbols standing in that

four or five years, so rapid is the vast solitude, on which for ages, occasionally,

r plants and trees here ; and fencing only the foot of the wandering red man had

le can be had for about 10 cents the trod. A Roman Catholic Mission has been

h is 16 feet. He recommends that established for many years among the Indians

ers should unite to place at a meet- in Dakotah, and here was proof that it had not

;ir lands a well, worked by a wind- been in vain. Here was proof that the

>erve their cattle with water, as a prophecy of Hiawatha had been fulfilled —
Ld cheap plan.

)ssed the Red River on the great From the farthest reahn of mourning

.J J • V J T^ 1- • 1- • Came the black-robe chief, the prophet,

tldge, and visited Fargo, which is a jje the priest of prayer, the pale-face,

illage of white tents, the head- with his guides and his companions,

3f the railway officials, but ha.vingin With the cross upon their bosoms.

a number of good plain houses,

r more permanent dwelling. The These simple crosses, standing there on

I beautiful building, intended for a these lowly graves, were very suggestive of

[ the future head-quarters, was nearly the zeal of the missionaries,
and from thetov^er on the top of it we The following is the list of cereals grown

r-reaching view of the surrounding in the new North West, to which we referred

and still it was the same wide- at page 20, and which are to be seen at Mr

, flat, and uncultivated, but fertile Sheppard's office, 34 New Bridge Street,

Only at vast distances, out from the Blacldriars, London : —

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

Descriptioii.

Spring Wheat

Do. Scotch...

Rio Grande Spring Wheat

Spring Wheat

Wheat

White Treadwell Wheat

Wheat

Russian Winter Wheat

Wheat

Spring Wheat, Odessa

Winter Wheat, Tappahanock ...

Rye

Oats

Scotch Fife

Spring Scotch Fife

Oats

Russian Oats

Barley

Spring Wheat

Winter Wheat

Rocky Mountain Spring Wheat..

1st Premium Wheat

Do.

Mediteranean Red Wheat

Michigan White Wheat

Oats

White Poland Oats

Barley

Montana Rye

Sonora Spring Wheat

Mammoth white Spring Wheat..
White Australian Do.

Australian Club Do.

Chili White Do.

Chili Club Wheat

White Wmter Wheat

Mammoth White Winter Wheat
Golden Amber Do.

White Towzell Do.

Common White Com

Common Club Wheat

Surprise Oats

Side Oats

Excelsior White Oats

Surprise Oats

White Oregon Barley

English Brewing Barley

Surprise Oats

Spring Club Wheat

Spring Barley

White Dent Com

Where grown.

Weight per
Bushel.

>>
II
II
II
II
II
II

Minnesota \

Oak Lake, Becken Co., Minnesota...

Glyndon

Alexandria, Minnesota

Oak Lake, ,,

Glyndon, Clay Co. „

Do.

Alexandria, Douglas Co

Glyndon, Minnesota

St Joe Settlement,
Rush Lake,

Do.
Hobart,
St Paul,

Do.
Maple Plain,

St Paul

Maple Plain

Do ^

Rush Lake, Minnesota

Brandon, „

Pelican Rapids, Becker Co....

Brindere, Douglas Co

Oak Lake, Becker Co... .....

Brandon, Minnesota

Glyndon,

Do.

Do.
St Joe Settlement,
Brandon,
Manitoba, British N.A.

Fargo, Dakota

Deerlodge Valley, Montana.

Prickly rear Valley,

Helena,

Harrison,

Hamilton,

Helena,

Prickly Pear Valley,

Helena,

Deerlodge Valley,

II
II
II
II
II

If
II
}>
II
II
II
II

Oregon

Lane Co.,
Linn Co.,
Salem,
Albany, Linn Co. ,

Do.
Lane Co.,
Salem,
Albany, Linn Co.,

Do.

Do.
Lane Co.,

Do.
Albany, Linn Co.,

Do.

Salem,

Eugene City

Albany, Linn Co.

Wallawalla, Washington

Do.

II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II

.........

Pounds.

63
62

60
62

62
62

32
62
61
40

63
65
46

47
49
60^

63
60

65
62

47
40

44
62

57
75

Product per
Acre.

Bushels.

^%
28

45
40

30
30
30
35
50
30
30
25
50
25
25
25
30

50
42

30
70

45
45
80
40

102

74
28

1
113^

60
40

36
35
50

55
40

50
60

50
40

50
50

Minnesota^ a Field for British Farmers

of the new farms where we called,
ch is owned by two Norwegian
I was presented with four fine
Indian com, first year's growth,
the soil without ploughing or hoe-
:hese I have brought home with me
:al proofs of what this strange black
)roduce. We also visited a young
xi from Canada, named M*Kenzie,
; some 240 acres here. He recom-
strongly the country around his
I soil of which, he said, was from
6 feet deep, and wondered why
district should be preferred by so
it. That preference may be ac-
br partly by the fact of the Dakotah
et being so well known, and partly
her fact that Glyndon is in the State
50ta, where law and order prevail,
ity for life and property is enjoyed ;
3akotah is as yet only a territory
)cial organization. But a few miles
;t of the boundary line cannot make
"erence, and those who have made
le there do not seem to have any
• for life or property, and are as well
n\h their settlements as those in
I. Mr ArKenzie told us that he
is season 40 bushels of potatoes fi*om
of seed. He took us across the
;e the garden of a French neigh-
)wn not having yet been cultivated,
we saw splendid cabbages, beets,
IS. The potatoes had been too
mted, and had grown mostly to
it 6 feet high. A crop of tobacco
een raised, and was cut and drying
I was quite surprised to find it
» far north. I tasted the green leaf,
?rness be any test of its quality, I
it was excellent. On this excur-
accompanied by the correspondent
ndon Times. On the way back I
if the country had come up to his
1, and he replied that it had far ex-
and he wished that we had a mil-
f emigration fi-om the old country
n it rather than the driblets that
coming. I quite concurred with
aid, if we had the fanners of Eng-

land and Scotland here, their teeth would
water when they beheld such a vast country
with such a rich soil, where farms can be had
so cheap, are so easily cultivated, and yield
such large profits.

On my return passage from Quebec to
Liverpool I got on intimate terms with a
young gentleman farmer from Norfolk, who
rented a farm in that county and another in
Norfolk. He and a fiiend, a medical man,
had been out in Canada looking for farms to
purchase, but were returning quite dis-
appointed with the land and the prices asked
for it. I told them they should have gone
as far west as the Red River, and they said
they had learned so fi'om others when it was
too late, and regretted much that they had
not gone directly there at first; meantime
the propriety of doing so yet was evidently
seriously engaging their attention. They
complained bitterly of the high rents and
heavy taxes which they had to pay in this
country.

While at Moorhead we experienced a
sudden change of weather, which up till that
time had been delightful, the pure, clear,
dry atmosphere producing a most exhilarating
effect on our spirits. The very first day in
Minnesota made me feel quite light and
buoyant. But we had a storm from the
north-west for two nights and a day, with
driving snow during the daytime, which
melted, however, as it fell. It was very cold
and piercing, and all the more so because it
blew across such a stretch of open and un-
sheltered country. Still, I was glad of the
change, as it gave me some experience of the
contrast of the climate to be found there.
But candour constrains me to state that, at
the same season of the year — namely, the
equinox — I have felt it as cold and piercing
in Scotland, and even in some parts of
England. High and keen as the wind blew,
it did not prevent Major Hibbardand myself
from walking along the great bridge which
spans the Red River at Moorhead in order
to visit the head- quarters in Fargo. But it
told so sadly on the feelings of a gentleman
from New Orleans, who was staying in the
same hotel with us, that he declared he woul

The Country Gentlemafis Magazine

leave this place and be off to his home in the
south-east as soon as possible. It seems to
me that our American friends do not give
themselves a fair chance of standing the cold,
for they heat their houses with their stoves
imtil they are almost as unbearable as
Turkish baths. Several times I was glad to
get out and walk in the cold fresh air. Not
only do they contrive to have an excess of
dry artificial heat in their houses, they also
seem to take great care that it shall not find
any avenue of escape. The effect of this is
manifest in severe headaches to some, and
sallow, shrivelled faces to many more.

Those who have been in the country some
time told me that the cold of that stormy day
was as keen almost as any they have had in
winter. Such being the case, it is evidently
a climate that will suit the people of Great
Britain well. Next day the storm was over,
and we had the beginning of what promised
to be a long and beautiful Indian summer,
which continued during my sojourn in
America, very different firom the weather
that had been prevalent at home.

In regard to the climate of Minnesota
generally, it may be well to give here a few
authorized facts and figures. The average
summer temperature is 70.6 degrees, and
agrees with that of New Jersey and Central
Pennsylvania. The mean yearly temperature
is 44.6 degrees, and coincides with that of
Wisconsin, Michigan, Central New York,
Vermont, and New Hampshire. The sum-
mers are like those of Central Pennsylvania
and Ohio ; while the winters are like tiiose of
Canada and New England. Frost begins
about the middle of September, but the
streams are not frozen till the end of Novem-
ber. The winter mean temperature of the
State is 16.1 degrees, which is about 4 de-
grees lower than in New Hampshire, Ver-
mont, and Northern New York. But while
its winter is much like that of the middle
States, it has less moisture in the atmosphere;
and though the mercury often falls 10 and
even 20 degrees below zero, as it does in
other States, on account of its pure, dry, and
generally still atmosphere, the cold is not
**dt to be so disagreeable in Minnesota as it

is in them. Besides it has usually le
snowfall than they have. Those wt
spent several winters in it freely decla
winter is really the most enjoyable
The Rev. Horace Bushnell, D.D,, wl
tered there for his health, says : —

The winter climate is intensely cold, and y
and clear and still, for the most part, as to <
very great suffering. One who is properlj
finds the climate much more agreeable than
phibious, half- sloppy, grave-like chill of t
Real snowstorms are rare : there were i
winter. A littJe more snow, to make better j
would be an improvement. As to rain in wi
almost unknown.

I have adverted to the healthfulnes
climate, as manifest in one or tw
which came under my own observati
few additional sentences fi'om the
those who have been longer acquaint
it, and have experienced its healing
may not be out of place. The Rev
Boardman, D.D., of Philadelphia, s
garding Minnesota ; —

In the stores and shops, in the streets, ar
firesides, it is an every-day experience to n
residents who came to Minnesota, one, twc
ten years ago for their health, and having rq
decided to remain. I have talked with so
having recovered, went away twice over, ;
made up their minds that to live at all they
here. There are witnesses here by the hi
testify to the healing virtue of this climate
cipient stages of pulmonary disease.

Dr Bushnell, already quoted, gives
lowing additional testimony : —

I went to Minnesota early in July
mained till the latter part of the May f
I had spent a year in Cuba without be
had spent also nearly a year in Califomi
ing a gain in the dry season and a partia
the wet season, returning, however, sufficii
proved to resume my labours. Breakmg do
from this only partial recovery, I made the e>
now of Minnesota, and submitting myself, c
ing, to a very rigid examination by a physi
did not know at all what verdict had been ]
other physicians before, he said, in accords
their opinions, **You have had a difficult
right lung, but it is healed."

In regard to the difficulties and drs
connected with settling in this new
few remarks are necessary. There is.
all, the difficulty of getting there ;

Mumesoia, a Field for British Farmers 29

tance and the expense. Well, to the right unite to form a colony, the difficulties will be
sort of persons that difficulty, is not insur- still more easily vanquished, for such a sys-
mountable. From Liverpool or Glasgow you tem is adapted to supply the needs of all the
can reach Minnesota in seventeen days ; the members of the community, and to furnish
cost of cabin and first-class carriage ticket employment to the various trades. They
being covered by ;^2o j steerage and second will require the blacksmith, carpenter, mason,
class by jQi 1 ; and, if companies go together, shoemaker, tailor, storekeeper, the post-office,
a reduction of fares is anticipated. To go in the school-house, the church, and the Sunday-
colonies, and settle together in one locality, school. Such a company may secure, on the
is greatly preferable in every way to the old most favourable terms, all the land held by
system of each man choosing a solitary spot the railway in a township ; and may ensure
for himselt Then there is the difficulty of for themselves all the elements of civilization,
getting a house erected and furnished. That, good society, education, morality, security to
too, is soon overcome ; for during the sum- property, comfort and prosperity,
mer months in that delightful climate a can- Some one may be ready to ask, '* Is there
vas tent is often used and found to be very no likelihood of any difficulty with the In-
comfortable. But there are building firms dians?" Well, I saii^ only three Indians
who keep on hand a variety of houses ready while I was there ; and I am told on good
made, and requiring only to be put together, authority that there are only some few Chip-
Theymaybe ordered even in advance of your pewas in Minnesota altogether, that they
atrivaL And as to furniture of all kinds, that have always been friendly, and are now living
can be had at all the principal railway sta- in houses on their own reserved lands, which
tions. ITiere is also the difficulty of getting they are engaged in cultivating. These lands
oxen, and ploughs and other agricultural im- lie a long way north of the line of the North-
plements, so as to make an immediate start, em Pacific. I met General Howard on his
That, too, is easily overcome ; for all the way to their reservation to pay these Indians
requisite fanning utensils and implements can their pensions from the Government ; and he
be got at these railway stations. And Mr very kindly invited me to accompany him,
Douglas informed me that, with a week's which I should have been glad to do, had
notice, he could supply as many oxen as time and other engagements permitted. I
could be required by any company of settlers, was glad to learn from him that he has great
A pair of oxen would cost about 125 dollars, hopes of the Indians, under the kind treat-
a waggon 75, a plough 25, a house with one ment of the Government, and the influences
room 100, a stove 25, chairs, axe, shovel, of the missionaries, to which they are quite
grindstone, &c., 25; total 275 dollars, or open, rising in the scale of civilization,
about £tS> But any man with from ;^ioo In regard to the actual drawbacks of the
to j^2oo on hand when he arrives there can country, I must not fail to tell that Minnesota
start under very favourable auspices by pur- was visited early in the season with a swarm
diasing land for ready cash, or paying of grasshoppers, which, like the locusts of
for it in instalments, extending over seven Egypt, ate up almost every green thing, so
years ; in which case he will have to pay 7 that those who had newly settled suffered
per cent interest on the outlying money, very severely. One man came to Mr Douglas
Living will cost him, until he has raised his in utter despondency over the loss of his
own produce, about 3 dollars per week. entire crop, and expressed his intention of
The difficulties connected with settling giving up his farm and leaving the country,
there are clearly reduced to the lowest degree as he was completely " strapped." Mr
by the azrangements now made, and may all Douglas urged him to try again, and he
be overcome by the end of the very first would supply him with seed on condition of
season by any one prepared to rough it receiving the third of the produce. This
lor a litde. Bat when 50 or 100 persons was about the middle of June. The offer

30 The Country GmtUmafis Magazine

was accepted, and in three weeks the man object to such a movement because

returned in high spirits, and reported that tend to drain the home labour-mark

his second crop was six inches above ground, raise the wages of those who remain

Though this visitation of grasshoppers was why should these farmers not avail

so severe, it was quite an exceptional one, selves also of the opportunity now

and those who are best able to judge are of their reach of becoming proprietor

opinion that it may not occur again for 20 would be very easy for them to reduc

years. rents at home, were they to go out ii

There has been another drawback to the cient numbers, and take labourers with

prosperity of the settlers, in the form of the to cultivate their own lands. In a fev

potato bugs, which have proved a sore scourge these men would also become farmei

to that crop. Yet it has been found possible then a fresh supply would be brough

to check their ravages by employing small the old country who would have the y

boys to pick them off the young plants, to improve their condition in the sam

gather them into pans, and then bum them. Farmers with some means have thi

And suck crops of potatoes are worthy of power themselves, and they could put

being preserved though it should be at con- the hands of their sons, to become ext

siderable expense. But it is not fair to judge blessings to their fellow-men in this an(

a country by an exceptional season, and lands while promoting their own interej

such adverse influences as operate there at those of their families. Were they bi

distant intervals. Tried by such a standard ously to consider that, for a single year

when rust and mildew waste the giain, and of his present land, every one of them

the potato disease runs riot though the fields, become the possessor of a large and

Great Britain, so famous for tbe perfection of freehold farm, we should soon learn thai

its agriculture, would make a sorry figure, of them were adopting the American n

indeed! And yet this is the standard by and putting it into practice, **^z/^rj;y

which Minnesota has been tried and con- his own landlord; every tiller of the so

demned in the pamphlet to which reference own master! "

has been made. Justice requires both the A certain Yankee, it is said, when as)

advantages and the drawbacks to be fairly define the geographical limits of Am

weighed, and an honest average struck, replied — "America is bounded on the

When this is done in regard to the climate by the aurora borealis ; on the soul

and the soil of Minnesota, I am certain that warm weather \ on the east by all crei

the verdict of unprejudiced and intelligent and on the west by sundown ! " W

men will be in favour of it as one of the subscribing to his definition, one is per

best fields for British emigration under the safe in asserting that it is an immense

sun, affording an ample sphere where industry splendid country, and all but literally ju

will find a rich reward, where the small the remark made to me by a gentlemar

capitalist may soon be a well-to-do farmer, sailed with me up the lakes. When \

tilling and reaping his own ground, and trying to account for his countryman

where the man of larger means may speedily aggerated style of speaking, he re

amass a fortune. I have been credibly " Well, I don't know that the reality cs

informed that there are men there wealthy to- exaggerated ; for there seems to be

day, who, when they arrived five or six here, and work for everybody." And, d

years ago, had scarcely a dollar in their less, this feature of the country alone, th

pocket. there was not another, entitles it to be c

Two colonies, an English one and a ** the land of the future'' Another fe^

Scotch one, are projected with the view of however, which is very apparent to a stra

settling in Minnesota next spring. is the honour which is everywhere pu

I know that some farmers will seriously honest labour. In that land is emphati

■

Minnesota^ a Field for British Farmers 3 1

proved the maxim of Bums, that " The the tide has contmued to roll in the same
man's the gowd for a' that ! ** and all else is direction ; and it will continue to flow west-
nothing and nowhere. ward with increased volume and velocity in
It is nearly 150 years since Bishop Berke- spite of all attempts to check it, just as the
Icy affirmed that "Westward the tide of waves kept rolling up on the beach in defiance
empire holds its way." Since that time of Canute's imperial command.

STUMPING THE GAME-LA WS.

WE cannot well believe that many serving the right, then the lessee or occupier has the

people of sense will appreciate the ^S^^ ^° ^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ *** ^^^^

remarks of the Rev. Mr Murphy, at the Lam- ^ ^' ^'^^> "^^^ '" '"ll! ?.V'''' ^""^ *' Game-laws

,, %_ V "*^^® made it necessary that the owner, or other per

bethBaths on the 13th November, to the effect son having the legal right, shaU, before doing so, take

Aat the Game-laws are the cause of the high out a game licence— in other words, pay a tax to the

price of food. We can well believe, however, State. Not only is a game licence necessary in all

that not a few wiU be astonished at the state- ^^^* ^^^ ^^^^ " * ^^^"^ s^^°°» ^^^^ ^® ^^°^®

ment of a Christian nrearher that. « if h^ had ^^°''' ^"^^ "^^^^^ '^ "^ unlawful for every person,

ment 01 a f^nnstian preacner tnat, it he had ^j^-^^j^^^ j^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ j^

not been a cockney, he would have been a g^me. Game is defined to include the following

poacher." To us it seems that the circum- animals only, viz.— hares, pheasants, partridges,

Stance and topographical condition of his grouse, heath-game, moor-game, black-game, and

birth, are extremely trivial in the great ques- ^^^^rds. The close season appUes only to the winged

tion of Tenant-right that will shortly be dis- ^^^ "^'^^ ^'' ^ ^/r^f ?Jf ""^ f '^'ZZ

.^^ ., .. . ^ ,. round. But no game must be killed on Sundays or

cussed m Parhament. Mr Murphy, as he is Christmas-day ; to do so, subjects the offender to a

presented to us in the newspaper paragraphs, penalty of;^5. Though the above animals alone are

does not appear, even if he had been bom in game, the Game Act also protects certain other

suburban locaHties, of a calibre dangerous to ^^^^^is, viz. -woodcocks, snipes, quaUs, landrails,

« and conies ; that is to say, any person illegally tres-

° ' " passing in pursuit of these may be fined ;^2. The eggs

Mr Murphy has taken up the popular cry of game are also protected. In general, the Game-

about Game-laws, without ever having stayed laws consist merely of a network of penalties directed

for a moment to consider what the bugbear against these illegal trespasses,
name means. There are no Game-laws in since the above was written, other birds

England beyond those which tenants unpose have been made the subject of protection by

upon themselves. The game on the farm, as the Legislature, in order that they might not

we have over and over again pointed out, be- be wholly exterminated by the wanton. But

longs to the tenants. If they pay a Hcense, y^hat we wish more particularly to impress

they are entitled to shoot it at all times, save upon orators of the Lambeth Baths stamp is

in the close season. It is pamful to have to this in reference to England. We quote

reiterate this so often — it is more melancholy from the same authority :

to notice from such meetings as that at Lam- , , , „ ^ , . . .1. 11

, ,, ^, ^ , , , , /. , As between landlord and tenant, the general rule

beth, that a clergyman should so far have ^^^hat, if there is no provision to the contrary in the

forgotten hmiself as to wish that he wore vel- lease, the tenant has the exclusive right to kill the

veteens instead of black cloth. Here is the game, and not the landlord ; hence the landlord, m

law as it is laid down in " Chambers's Ency- order to preserve the right, must always introduce an

dofXKdia-" express clause in the lease for his protection.

It is now well setUed that at common law the owner In Scotiand the matter is different, and so

of the soil, or, if he has granted a lease without re- also iu Ireland. In these countries the game

32 The Country GentlentatCs Magazine

presumptively belongs to the landlord, and the forward with little hope of good accniii

tenants are liable to be treated as poachers either to the farmer or the general publ

— ^as the Rev Mr Murphy would have been from meetings like that at Lambeth ; but v

had he been brought up in the country expect much from the passing of a measui

instead of within hearing of Bow Bells. such as that which Mr James Howard hs

These being the facts, it is manifest that foreshadowed with reference to Tenant-rigl

alteration in the Game-laws, about which and Compensation for Unexhausted Improv<

there is so much ignorant prating, will never ments. Farmers should endeavour by ever

effect any good to agriculturists, who are as means in their power to strengthen his hand

badly off in England, where the game is and those of his colleague, Mr Clare Sewei

theirs by right, as they are in Scotland, where Read, in their attempt to make leases les

it belongs solely to the landlord. We look stringent, and farmmg-capital more secure.

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES AND BENEFIT CLUBS.

By the Rev. J. L» Brereton.*

I HAVE often wished that the Royal Agri- conscious of this necessity of providing agains

cultural Society or one of our country so- sickness that in every village one or more club

cieties, or somebody of influence enough to are to be found, and yet that very many of thes"

secure reliable information, would take a few clubs are unsound. The labourer in fact shew

districts in England, and ascertain by the only that he can put by and does put by, but fron

satisfactory test what the real value of the agri- error of management, from miscalculation o

cultural labourer's occupation is. All that is other causes, what he puts by he in too man;

wanted is to shew how much oil the average the cases loses the benefit of. But while the laboure

farmer is spending per acre for manual labour, has been struggling, too often ineffectually, t

and what number of families on the average are keep out of pauperism, there has been a stron]

earning that expenditure — in short, what pro- feeling among many of his employers and neigfa

vision is put on the tables and how many guests hours that he has a claim to every encourage

there are to partake of it. The result will shew ment on their part in his efforts to maintain him

what the average labourer may expect to earn self and bring up his family in independence,

for the maintenance of his family. I am myself Many associations have been long in existenc

persuaded that it can be shewn in any district in the agricultural districts, and notably in thi

of England that, so far from the agricultural county and neighbourhood, whose object is t

labourers being necessarily dependent on the raise money by subscription in order throug]

Poor Law, when out of work, or sick, or infirm, various premiums and rewards to keep up th*

they are as well able as any class in the country labourer's spirit and enterprize. But just a:

to pay their way and to reserve something for prizes for stimulating study among youth, oi

the future. On the other hand, it must be re- prizes for the encouragement of stock or hors(

membered that there is no class who ought more breeding, may sometimes fail in their object anc

carefully and prudently to provide for the con- become inoperative or superfluous, so it is th<

tingencies of sickness and infirmity ; for health case with these agricultural labour premiums

and strength are the labourer's capital, and if the time comes when they need to be partiall)

other capital needs to be insured against wear discontinued or re^arranged and combined afresh

and tear and risk, above all does the labourer's* I believe that that time has come, hastened b^

Now it is at once a very gratifying and a very the recent labour agitation. Many, without say

melancholy reflection that the labourers are so ing that these societies do harm, feel that th<

^ good they do is inadequate to the real exigenciei

* Read before the West Norfolk Chamber of Agri- of the case, and disproportionate to the preten

cttltore. sions that are put forward. There is a fedini

Agricultural Societies and Benefit Clubs

nany that the labourer's position is not have been paid and received — to help the
ially improved by these societies, labourers, the best thing they can do is to en-
he is represented by them (in spite of 'courage them to persevere in putting by some

itrary intention) as being dependent on
mt assistance, and as condoning with
loyers for an under-payment of wages by
g a bonus in the guise of charity. Be-
larity which fails to awaken gratitude
really beneficial ; it does moral harm
s worse than any material good ; and,

of those wages as an insurance against sickness
and old age ; and the best encouragement they
can give with this object is to shew them where
their present clubs are unsound, and, one step
further, to help them to make them sound.

In order to grapple with this great evil, — the
unsoundness of those benefit clubs in which the
truly or not, it has been felt by many labourers are actually investing, — a combination
labourers have, as a class, shewn in the of many societies seems desirable, if not neces-
igitation not only a want of gratitude to sary, in order to obtain a sufficiently wide area
ho have tried to be their benefactors, for the distribution of the cost or risk, and in
eant of common truth and fairness in order to secure the services of one or more com-
countenance to misrepresentations by petent officers who could be relied upon to in-
he name of agricultural employers has vestigate the state of such clubs as might apply
:ld up to odium. " Let us get rid of for the proffered assistance, and ascertain
J," is the feejing of many employers, whether and at what cost they could be placed
lot allow sentiment to be any longer in a sound position. No small district could
ip with very serious matters of business." furnish such officers, but the county could
myself, I acknowledge, sOme sympathy command their services without any great strain,
s feeling. Things have been said and My proposal is that the various agricultural as-
about the employers, which, generally sociations in the county should, without neces-
(as they have been), are as offensive as sarily relinquishing all or any of their present
e untrue ; and the labourers have too operations, combine in some form of union in
allowed such things to be said when order to raise a fund, partly by donations and
ew them to be false. It does not seem subscriptions, partly by fees chargeable to the
Jierefore, to be a mere spirit of cowardly renovated clubs, sufficient to bridge them over
ion that makes many a farmer say — from a state of presumed insolvency to one of
if the labourer lets me be gibbeted as a reasonable security. I do not undertake to say
when he knows that I have been in every that an adequate sum could be raised, for tit
; friend, I shall decline for the future, or there has been an investigation it is impossible
t for the present, to subscribe for his to know what would be required ; but I am ^''i

clined to think that in many clubs the contribu
tions required to put their members in the posi-
tion they ought to hold in order to fulfil theii
mutual engagements would not be formidable
I assume, of course, that no such contributiom
would be made without a guarantee taken thsf:
becomes the duty, as it is the interest of the club thus restored would be maintained fgir
ensible man, to give no occasion for them, the future on sound principles ; that the contn-
/e, in short, that to suspend the action of butions of the members would be in full propov
ricultural societies, and still more, to tion to the expected benefits ; and also that tte

management would be under such reasonable
control and inspection as to prevent fomfer
errors from being once more introduced,
short, no effort would be made to restore an in-
valided club except on condition that for tl£
future it would submit to the ascertained require^-
ments of a healthy life. In some cases, perhapf
in many, it might be hopeless to restore the clubu
In those cases it would be a proper operation of
a county benevolent union to assist the individual
members to obtain a place in other clubs on less
unfavourable terms.

But though this is a very legitimate
I venture to submit to those who enter-
that its practical indulgence may be mis-
tood and misrepresented, and that mis-
landings and misrepresentations are in
Ives such nuisances and so mischievous

Jiem up at the present time, will put the
5 and landowners in a bad position before
jhc — that impalpable tribunal which more
3re decides — and not always fairly — the
5t issues. It is one thing to draw off in a
ad another thing to come forward and say
ter what has occurred we must come to a
understanding both as to our economical
to our friendly and social relations with
K>urer. And my contention is that, if the
classes are still as much disposed their
were to do the best they can — after wages
VOL. X,

34 Tlie Cotmtry Gentleman's Magazine

GAME AND GAME PRESER VING.

MR C F. SPACKMAN, of Eastbury, read tions apply, of course, more particularly

a paper before the Hungerford Chamber but the moral is equally applicable

of Agriculture recently, on ** the evils caused species of game. Lord Derby said th

to tenant-farmers by the over-preservation of convinced that if landowners and the

ground game." There are very many instances would content themselves with the kini

where the landlords may rise in the estimation which satisfied their forefathers up to

of the tenants and labourers, he remarked, on forty years ago, there would be very 1

their estates, without suffering any loss of sport, troversy about it. The tendency of <

And being myself occasionally employed as in that direction now, and I hope will

valuer and land agent, I have had additional so. " For my part," he says, " I woi

opportunities of seeing the evils and their ef- rather give up game altogether thai

fects, which, with the remedies I would re- with my tenants," and the force of this

commend, I will now describe to you. I do tion and the reality of the truth on

not intend to condemn the body of Game-laws, rests, is often seen when a tenant '.

or to advocate the suppression of rational sport ; account of the game, and the landlord

believing that it is the abuse of the powers difficulty in reletting the farm,
conferred by such laws of which tenant-farmers I shall not enter into the merits of

have to complain. As the law now stands, repeated question, "Why do men ta

the tenant has the right, without license, to where game is preserved?" Sufficiei

kill hares and -rabbits in whatever manner he that such farms are rented, and were

chooses, and at any time of the year, and is perhaps the evil to the nation, as wel

it possible that in a free country such as this, dividuals, namely, the landlords, ^

a law can be passed to prevent landowners greater, and probably to the latter

from doing, in this respect, what they like astrous. For as far as my observation

with their own, provided they do no personal when a landlord has taken up the cult

injury to others ? Sir J. D. Coleridge, Attor- an unlet farm, and even when he farn

ney-General, in a speech before a large and of free choice, the result is seldom sa

influential public meeting at Liverpool, on to him in a pecuniary point of view, :

November 7th, said " He had always regarded farms for profit, a few years' experi

with sheer amazement that, in the nineteenth vinces him of the wisdom of securin

century laws should be maintained, whereby we tenant, — in other words, landlords ai

turned into criminals, and kept at a vast ex- rent-makers. We know how often

j;)ense to the whole country, those who in- are made to the new tenant that 1

;erfered with the amusements of a class, shall not do damage ; and there

vhen those amusements — so far as ground game, but it is now destroyed, and

ame was concerned — interfered with the be allowed to get ahead again. Anc

roper cultivation of the land." The know that when the tenant is fairly ;

ubject of complaint now before us is by in possession, the promise previousl)

5 means the preservation of ground or other forgotten or repudiated, and the old

ime in a moderate degree, but its excessive revived and encouraged to his great

mltiplication upon estates whose owners, and loss. At the present moment 1

revious to our generation, were contented if, more than one farm, belonging to more

fter a day of tolerably hard walking — most large landowner, for which tenants ai

•eneficial to them in point of health — they were It is a gr^at grief to a farmer to be dr

ible to display such a bag as they could feel a good farm by vermin. A poorer

hey had fairly earned. But the times and from them is preferable. The dam

lotions of sport are changed, and the landlord lound covers, where abundance of gro

and his friends care little for the exercise so that is preserved, is enormous, but to re;

they may boast of hundreds of victims for scores damage fully it must be seen at all
that satisfied their ancestors. These observa- the year. In years gone by I have

Game and Game Preset ving 35

my regular quantity of wheat by 20 acres yearly when before they could not help rejoicing to see
on account of the game, leaving it for spring or hear of poachers killing a good hatch of game
com, because I would not be annoyed all the occasionally, now they would not allow such
winter by seeing my crop eaten up. Is not that fellows about on their land ; on the contrary,
an instance of individual and national loss ? Is they would want the game for their landlords
it just that land should be thus thrown out of and themselves. " The sooner," they would say,
giving a crop of that grain which, above all " such men as you get a regular place to work
others, we are continually importing? How can the better. All our men have orders to take the
a landlord expect his rent paid when, after the names of any trespassers on our land, and we
tenant has been to the expense (and none but won't have you about at any rate." I believe
farmers know the expense) of preparing the farmers have a strong objection to see fellows
land and sowing it with wheat, he finds at about their farms, unless when they are driven
harvest nothing but weeds left, and such a mass to desperation by such treatment as I have been
of them that the land is rendered quite unfit for speaking of. On the other hand, did the land-
a succeeding crop ? Hence many a man gets lords make such an arrangement with their
the name of being a bad farmer when he is tenants, and constitute them their keepers, it
doing his best, and being ruined by vermin, would be incumbent upon the latter, and I am
Not com alone, but roots also, they, destroy, convinced they would feel themselves strongly
going miles to get at them, and taking a bite bound to act honourably, to consider their land-
here and there, so what they leave is destroyed lord's wishes, and not to offend ; but to acknow-
by the wet and subsequent frost. ledge his fairness of dealing by taking care that

I have read arguments about the number of he had good sport when he sought it.
hares required to eat as much as a sheep. Such Then with regard to the cottager, I will read
questions are, in my opinion, simply ridiculous, what an old vicar writes : — ** Upwards of forty
unless we could put the former in confinement years' experience has proved to me the impos-
es we do sheep, and make them eat what we sibility of convincing my poor parishioners in
wist eaten — instead of going all over the farm, four distinctly placed parishes of the sin of
carrying destruction everywhere. Let game be poaching, or making them feel that they have
reduce.d to such a fair sprinkling that it shall broken a commandment of God when they
not be worth the attention of the poacher, that killed hares which were destroying their garden
it shall no longer pay the peasant better to catch produce. I believe that my rural brethren
hares than to perform ordinary farm labour. He will agree with me herein, and also in the
would then cease to poach ; not till then. Yet, lamentable conclusion that a labourer who has
with such a moderate amount of game, the land- once been in gaol for such an offence is by that
lord would find more healthy exercise and more ruined, hardened, degraded, and yet thinks
genuine sport ; the game would be more valued himself a martyr. From this I would appeal
when found, and more enjoyed at table. The to the game pteservers, and ask them whether
necessity for large capital, and the want of they can justify their conduct which lays a
capital employed in agriculture is a frequent snare for the conscience of a weak brother }" 1
ittatter of observation, but is there anything think we can but endorse the sentiments of the
which hinders its employment so much as exces- " Old Vicar," and feel for him in his fruitless
live preserving ? This is sufficiently proved by desire to do his duty. The truth is, that game
the frequency of many game farms being to let. preserving, such as it is in too many parts at
If game-preserving landlords would give the this day, is altogether unsuited to the state of
farmers an interest in the game, and say to society and the condition of husbandry in this
thcm,"Now,gentlemen, I make you my keepers, country, and the sooner the practice is aban-
aad I expect some good sport when I come for doned the better for all connected with, or em-
it," why, he would make new men of them — . ployed upon, lands — and, may I not add, for all
they would view game in quite a different light, consumers of the produce of our soils ?

36 The Country Genttematis MagdzuU

^animtt ^e0.

Desart himself holds views different

IRISH LANDLORDS. . r iir -c j u .. ^i. i ^k

those of Mr Froude about the slavery oi

LORD DESART is very sore about Mr tenants /—

Froude'sremarks in America about Irish ... . ^^^ i »»t. --. «i*t, **i,««„^^n

, ,, , -^ 1 . • .t /Tt. r* "Idonotthink,"hesays, «*thattheaverag

landlords. He complains m the Tttnes of tenant looks upon his landlord as a tyrant. 1 1

Friday of Mr Froude's designation of owners my very limited sphere found nothing but ki

of the soil in the Emerald Isle as " croco- and good feeling among the farmers and peas

dUes." It is a description which his lordship and I have had the luck to see and to exp

resents almost with tears. Lord Desart T'^'IJ^' ^"ir^f '' P^^^^^^^^

-fciT -r. J I 1 • J t.1 TLZ.y^ been able to do, which I am sure was nol

objects to Mr Froude s logic, and blames gioned, as Mr Froude somewhat unworthily

him with inconsistency. In one place the by the fact, that " they had experienced so li

great historian says that the landlords and the it." Where I am proud to live I believe tl

priests conspired to divide the land into small P^^P^^ ^^^^^ ^f^ much astonished tf Mr^^rouc

portions " for the more the people the higher [J^^ J i^ wSd'L^t^^^^ ' As a

the rent" Yet m another part of his lecture ^rmer in Ireland, when he hears all the vap

he mentions that the famine had taught land- nonsense of the Fenians, or the silly rhapso

lords a lesson, and that afterwards " small the Home Rulers, smiles disdainfully, seeing t

holdings were discontinued." It is too bad, ^^^ ^^^^^ sophistry ; but when it is whisp<

,. ij,. . /r^ji M. ijhis ear, ** What we really mean is that you sha]

his lordship m effect declares, to accuse land- ^^^^ ^;^ ^^^^ ^^^^ „ j^ .^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^

lords of greed for letting small patches of the same thing to an English or Scotch farme

land, and then when they alter the system — if he believes you, he will join the Patriotic C

when they join field to field — to turn round once. I apologize for taking up your space,

and denounce them as oppressors. " Every "^^ ^ ^r Froude once again, " Why, oh, wh

J f J If ^ LL ' ^ ' '^ II a crocodile?"

rood of ground cannot " maintain its man,"

and Mr Froude ought to know it. It will not For his lordship's peace of mind we wi:

enable the cultivators to make money enough Froude would be more explicit, and fc

to pay their rent, and landlords have nothing peace and prosperity of the counti

else to depend upon. We were not aware sincerely desire that all tenants in Ii

before that Mr Froude's " crocodiles " were were as contented as those by whic

reduced at the famine time to such a wretched lordship is surrounded. Agrarian ou

state of destitution as Lord Desart assures us Point to wrongs unredressed or to hea:

tl^ey were. He says, " I could mention cases conceivably wicked.

where crocodile landlords would at this -«

miserable time have been paupers without ^ „

the assistance of English friends.^' Lord clodhopper cracks.

Desart does not, so far as we can gather, think From beginning to end of a par

very much of the Irish Land Act, which in we have received with the above

our opinion has wrought a considerable it is manifest that the reporter of

amount of good in Ireland, and he complains ** cracks," or conversations, is by no :

that at the same time Mr Froude calls it "a a clodhopper in the usual acceptation <

healing measure," he insists that the "eman- designation. He is a man, we should

cipation of the Irish tenant from the yoke of who has profound sympathies with th(

nndlordism" has yet to be achieved. Lord with whom he has conversed, and wl:

Random Notes 37

not much appreciation of those who, know- weather. But while we respect the plough,
ing little about agricultural matters, endea- we have nothing whatever to say against the
vour to sow dissension between master and cultivator, and confess that we should like to
man. Scotchmen are accused of not being see it more in use than it is. It has advan-
able to appreciate a joke, and scanty credit tages, in many instances, over the plough,
is often accorded to them as to their posses- whether swing or wheel We should like to
sion of humour. Notwithstanding Sidney see the rotatory spade in favour, and the day
Smith, there are Scotchmen who not only can will come when it will supersede the plough
notice jokes without the assistance of a boring and the cultivator alike. There are many
apparatus applied to the caput, but who can who will not agree with the author that
make them ; but they generally do so at the Scotchmen are the crack ploughmen of the
expense of their own countrymen, as witness world. They are undoubtedly good, but the
Punch and Fun, The writer of this champion ploughmen of the principal Eng-
hrochure has a great sense of humour lish implement manufacturers cannot certainly
about him, and in his homely way supplies be considered inferior to them,
facts in a style best adapted for his listeners We are not going to follow the authoi
or readers. He starts well to begin with through all his science made plain (and he
'* A ploughman should aye see afore his nose, does make the philosophy of farming com-
His craft calls for /?r<?sight and /zr-sight He prehensible to the meanest imderstanding),
must see his plough from head to hands, or we have only space to note two points in
he will till ill ; and he cannot till well if he his volume that are well worthy the attention
does not see a-head of his plough to the end both of farmers and labourers. We have no
of his bout, for without that he cannot doubt that the writer will be accused of being
with all his cunning make the straight furs too much a landlord's man, and in one or
[fcnows] he delights in. The ploughman is two instances not without cause. On the
essentially a fore-seeing and a far-seeing crafts- whole, however, the pamphlet is written very
man ; but both avail him little, not because judiciously. We wish, in the interest of
he does not do his work, and do it well, for readers on this side of the Tweed, that
the Scotch are the crack ploughmen of the a considerable portion of it had not been
worid, but because his foresight and far-sight printed in very barbarous Scotch,
are thrown away on a wrong implement, upon What " A Fife Scot " — the mm de plume
a didng whummiller [turn over] and not a the writer of this pamphlet has taken — ^re-
cultivator.*' commends to farmers is deep drainage and
From this sentence we gather that the plenty of manure on some lands, and the
anthor is no friend of the plough. The mixture of heavy clay lands with moss on
rtummilling sheer, as he calls it, has ether others. He does not think that the abolition
enemies besides himself, and in bygone times of the law of hypothec, of the Game Laws, or
it deserved the contumely heaped upon it. the law of entail, would much conduce to the
But science in the hands of the principal benefit of the farmers. " It's not civil laws,"
manufacturers has made awonderful difference he says, "that keep back the tenant farmer,
Qpon the implement It is no more like the but his inattention to the laws of nature,
old article than the Queen of Sheba was like There is scouth [room] enough for us all if
the Witch of Endor. Within the last quarter we will but work with nature, and aid in the
of a century vast improvements have been creation going on before our noses. That* s
made upon it It does not now sUce out the hte true tenant-right that is to make you a
fcmow in an angular fashion as it was wont laird, and more, for it gars [makes] the laird
to do — shirking half the work it ought to depend upon you, and when ye git that
have performed ; it leaves the ^' sole '' square position, ye may find all the l^id-laws are
and dean, turning over well nigh a third more not so very wrong after all Lairds do not
of the earth to die ameliorating effects of the generally complain of them." This is one of

38 Tlu Country Gentlematis Magazine

the pieces of special pleading in the pam- His logic about the labour question

phlet,ofwhich we complain; but almost in the rather merciless. His political economy

next breath the author through a mouth- almost too bitter. The pill is good in thi

piece, Corriebeck, qualifies the statement days, but he might have sweetened it a lit

thus : — " It may be confessed, however, that A thin coating of sugar would not have

lairds barely do their part* nae mair than tracted from its efficacy, and would b

tenants, and that there's some malpractices made it more agreeable to those who had

atween them. Lairds only give the swallow it We reserve for a future occas

factory. Now, to my mind, that's no a fiiUer consideration of this part of the s

enough ; they should complete it by ject, which is one of the most important

giving the big machinery. They give the the present time, merely mentioning n

land, but they should beild [shelter] that the author is decidedly in favour

both crop and cattle, or pay the tenant if he piece-work applied to all the operations

does it If I make a doo-cot [dove-cote] the farm,

into a dwelling house and styes into byres, it

is an ill law that takes these frae me at the ^ood advice about agricdltural strik
end of my nineteen years without pay." In

reply the author va propria persona remarks : The Duke of Richmond, with regard

" The nation has a deep interest in this ^^^ agricultural labour question, made sc

question. If you improve land for five years, very sensible remarks at the annual dinnei

feed it for five, and bleed it for the rest of the Sussex Show. Coming from the lips of

the lease, the nation loses eight or nine good president elect of the Smithfield Club, tl

crops, and the folk are starved to the extent ought to carry with them great weight, for

of the difference between good crops and Duke of Richmond is not only an excell

stinted ones. The laird is no gainer, because landlord, but one who takes much interest

he gets run out land to let in place of good the improvement of stock. He is descenc

land in grand fettle. The tenant is a loser, fro>» a race whose hearts have been in

because he has deaf heads and light weights work of improving the condition of the

to dispose of in place of prime fat Nature's mer, and with advancement in the tena

aye moving, and if man does his duty by lot, that of the labourer will be ameliorat

working with it, is aye improving — creating It was a Duke of Richmond who i

goodness for all. The bleeding system of the prime mover in the formation of

land is just bleeding nature's work, and all Smithfield Club, which has done so mu

the mouths depending on it, and playing the since the century commenced, to transfc

mischief with all sensible progress in meat- lean and ill-favoured kine into mas

growing trades. I agree with you, then, of flesh, and which, within recent years, \

that any law that hinders intelligent agricul- encouraged symmetry as well as size. 1

tural progress, ought and should be blotted flabby oxen, and the patchy cows, wh

out at once, and for ever, from the statute were wont to be poked about by umbre!

book of this great country, as a stain upon and parasols in Baker Street and whi

the common sense and common honesty of annually, to our almost terrified astonishm<

tiie people and nation." cast their shadows on vacant walls, are

This is sensible enough, and we hope that longer to be found in our show-yards,

so influential a gentieman as this Fife-Scot meat on the youthfiil monsters being a

appears to be, will exert himself in the north pacted in the most evenly fashion, and as f

lo strengthen the hands of Mr James Howard as it is juicy.

and Clare Sewell Read, when they introduce The Duke of Richmond, it is well kno

their bill in the coming session with reference has been active in promoting the erection

to unexhausted improvements and other healthy cottages upon his own estates, i

kindred matters. his example has given a stimulus to o1

Random Notes 39

landlords. Now what does he say about the The Echo, a clever little paper, which does
strikes which have occasioned an exodus of not seem to know much more about agricul-
agricultural . labourers ? This : — that he ture than the agitators whom the Duke of
thought it shewed good sense on the part of Richmond condemns, heads its report of his
the agricultural labourers in Sussex that they Grace's speech, " A Party Leader on La-
did not care to be despatched from their own bour." Our own opinion is that • the labour
country. They did not care to listen to the question is not one of party at all ; it is a
voices of those would-be sweet charmers, who pure matter, so far as political economy in-
told them that in far lands beyond the seas, forms us, of supply and demand. We are very
there was untold money to be got for the sorry that at present there seems more supply
lifting. Why do not those who tell the la- of oratory on the agricultural labour question
bourers so, go to these £1 Dorados, and than is sensible, and however much it may
possess themselves of ' the advantages be in demand for the fwnce, a year or two
which they declare exist across the seas ? will shew that it has been given, if not inad-
They know better. They know that it is visedly — we should be loath to accuse those
easier to indulge in rhetoric here than it is to who have been sent round the country of
be " hewers of wood and drawers of water " acting imprudently, they are better ac-
abroad. It is of these men who incite others quainted with their own interests — ^very de-
to go away to lands they know not of, and trimentally to the class whom they designate
who fatten upon the dissatisfaction they generally as " poor Hodge."
originate, that the Duke of Richmond jusdy We have a keen belief that this clod-
complains. He says, and we thoroughly hopper is now "a victim" — might we
agree with him, " that those who went about call him— of political intrigue. Hundreds of
the country as agitators trying to set class persons who never thought of him before are
against class were the most mischievous set beginning to take an interest in him because
of men to be found in the country ; and the time has come when he shall have a
when they had set class against class, and vote.

when they had succeeded — if they did sue- The agricultural labourers' wants are

ceed, which he did not believe would be the not the stilted commonplaces about the rights

case— in setting the tenant against the land- of labour uttered by those who labour not,

lord, and the labourer against the tenant, but what the Duke of Richmond declares is

they would not be regarded as the best their just claims — fair treatment and good

friends of the country." His Grace went far- cottages. " One of the greatest benefits

ther and declared that "instead of those which could be conferred on the labouring

agitators, who knew nothing of agriculture, classes \yould," said his Grace, " be to give

who knew nothing of the practical manage- them good, healthy, and proper houses to

ment of a farm or an estate, he would live in at a moderate rent, with a suitable

maintain, that instead of these agitators being quantity of garden ground for them to culti-

the friends of the labourers they could have vate." The Duke in saying this is only

no greater enemies, and that the employers preaching what he practises. Would that

were the greatest friends of the labourer." others would do likewise !

40 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

Jfarm ^xt\akdvixt.

THE . VENTILA TION OF FARM BUILDINGS.

THE necessity of better ventilating our along the ceiling to either of the walls as ma
agricultural houses is painfully evident, be most convenient, the funnel should gra
says a writer in the Aberdeen Journal^ by the dually taper to its external opening, whid
offensive smell, stifling heat, and wet window- should be about 5 inches in diameter, ani
panes, to all who have occasion from any such a funnel would be required about ever
cause to enter them. 15 feet of tlie length of the house. Thi
An atmosphere impregnated with the subtle mode of ventilation is equally well adapt©
emanations from animals does more than for byres with one row of stalls,
foster and aggravate the more insidious dis- By these arrangements a sufficiency of fresl
eases of the breathing organs, and contains air is conveyed into the building, while th
the essence of those disorders tertned con- animals are never exposed in a draught
tagious and infectious ; and what better pro- The ventilating system generally adoptet
tection has our stock from any contagious (especially in country stables and byres), i
atmosphere poisoned by the presence of ani- calculated more to injure the health of th
mals suffering from virulent disease, than animals than accomplish the end intended-
ventilation? I refer to pipes and apertures through th
Whilst due ventilation is so essential, yet wall immediately in front of the animal
excessive draughts and cold winds are most heads. By this arrangement the animal :
dangerous to animal health. As a means of directly placed in a current of air betwec
accomplishing the former and preventing the the door and such openings. The con»
latter, the following arrangements will be quences of exposure to such draughts aj
found very efficacious : — ^The fresh air should very prejudicial to the animals. Again, j
be made enter about midway between the the air becomes heated and charged wit
eave and causeway of the wall behind the carbonic acid and the ammoniacal effluvia <
horses — there being a window or door the stable, it ascends, and hence the necessii
situated in the wall mentioned in the most of of ventilation in the top. Several arrang
stables renders it an easy matter — and the ments of ventilation have been hit upon wit
foul air to pass out by an aperture in the little advantage; but the most magnifies
middle of the roof of the building, protected failure I have had the opportunity of seeii
by a cap so constructed that the ingress of rain in regard to ventilation, exists in the ne
is impossible. The majority of stables are steadings on the Strichen Estate, which a
either ceiled or lofted, and therefore prevent contrivances raised above the roo^ extendii
ventilation through the roof, unless to a great along a good distance, with bars betwe(
extent obstructing the usefulness of the loft, their top and the roof of the house. Hearii
However, by means of a funnel, with an various contradictory reports about them,
opening about 1 2 inches in diameter, sus- resolved to visit a few of tlie farms, for tl
pended from the ceiling immediately behind purpose of not only seeing them but hearii
the horse and above the urinal strand, the how they worked. At the first farm I visite
mouth of the funnel looking downwards, they were all stuffed with straw. The farm
which, turning with a sharp curve leading informed me that they were good enough

The Ventilation of Farm Buildings 41

nmmery but in winter they required all to be against the ventilation of the stable in the

itn£fed up, or the byre would be filled with first place, by the stable being so small, with

SDOw or flooded with rain ; as also, the wind good ventilation the many cubic feet of air

came in with such force, that they were the horse requires for normal respiration is

obliged to stuflf them up when they proceeded imperfectly supplied. And again, such being

to house their stock. At every farm which I used as a store-room for horse provender,

had occasion to visit, this evidence was cor- with an opening above each horse's head, is

loborated. I may state that they possessed considered very efficacious in feeding, and,

suflSdent ventilation to allow an engine to as a consequence of having the hay to carry

iteam in the byre if required. Another ob- from the rick to the stable by servants as the

jectionable method in very common use is horse eats it, would occasion a greater amount

ventilation in byres by means of skylights or of loss, comparatively speaking, than by cart-

loof windows. Independent of the fact that ing in at once a week or fortnight's supply-^

li^t in byres is very much against the a very plausible excuse indeed; but these

timving of stock, imperfect ventilation, or holes in the loft for putting down the hay to

ventilation with a vengeance, is the result, a great extent act as ventilators, and conse-

If the wind is in the front or the back of the quently the hay, by this means, is directly

hoase, as the case may be, and the window placed to act as a filter, and, as a consequence,

on the weather-side shut, the eddy will circle retains the poisonous effluvia of the stable,

over the house and enter by the window in which is extremely injurious to the horse.

the lee side left open for ventilation, and The following complaints amongst stock-

btoir down on the cattle ; if the wind is in owners can, in point of fact, be heard by

either of the ends of the house, it will also those having occasion to be often in con-

enter and blow down upon the cattle. Having tact with them. I have again and again been

inch an arrangement brings you in the same auditor to such, and I have every confidence

category with the Strichen farmers, starved to the great majority of my readers will bear a

death or suffocated in winter, but very effectual like testimony. My horses, says a fanner,

in sommer; then, however, the cattle are get very unhealthy when stalled during the

nwstly in the field. In " long," " short," or winter. They were not victims of any direct

"cross" byres ventilation should always be disease, but they were far from well, with a

ftrough the middle of the roof— the current dry staring coat, and impoverished appear-

of air so directed as not to place the cattle ance. However, they have been a month at

in it the grass, and have commenced to thrive

In lofted stables it is a firequent occurrence again, and take on condition. The cause is
to find them ventilated by means of win- obvious — ^bad ventilation, and, as a conse-
dows behind the horses, producing a current quence, the putrescent atmosphere portrayed
of firesh air, without interfering with the its effects. Another says, my growing stock
uimals. However, this is not the " cherry," did not at all thrive during the winter, I
because, as I have already stated, the impure had little enough room for su many, and I
air ascends as it is generated, and the fact don't think they could get proper rest. After
that in stables thus ventilated the loft and they were turned out in the spring they re-
wall before the horses' heads are continually cruited extraordinarily. However, two of
damp, with water drops standing on them, them have died of quarter-ill. The cause is
omst bear out that the ventilation is imperfect, again apparent, bad ventilation not only pre-
bat the funnel I have already suggested will vented the herd from thriving during the
cany off the impure air as it rises, would winter, but was the cause of the death of the
^ little trouble or expense give good venti- two in quarter-ill. I imagine I hear some
Istion. one saying, bad ventilation might have pre-

The scarcity of loftage about a farm neces- vented the stock fi-om thriving, but by what

States tte loftiDg of the stable, and though means could it have killed two of them by

The Country Gentleman s Magazine

quarter-ill, after they had been at grass for
some time, and nothing to breathe but the
very purest of air ? So far so good, but bad
ventilation in this case performed a strategic
movement, in so far as to be productive of
the unhealthy habit they were in during the
winter, and when turned out in the spring,
clear of its poisonous influence, they im-
mediately commenced to thrive very fast, and
hence the unhealthy habit is followed in many
instances by a habit pre-disposed to quarter-
ilL As the most of our readers are aware,
the most likely subject foi; quarter-ill is an
animal apparently enjoying vigorous health
after debilitation. A third says my stock
was rather healthy last winter, except a grow-
ing stirk and a horse, but I am not so much
astonished at the horse, as he never thrives
well in winter, and eats his food and does his
work well enough too, but is a capital sum-
mer horse. This cannot be bad ventilation,
or my horses and cattle would be all in bad
health, as well as these two. Not so, my
dear friend, it does not necessitate that your
whole stock should be " out of sorts " by im-
perfect ventilation, or in a like condition,
before you are convinced of the necessity of
improving it No the anima medicatrix of
your stock, with one or two exceptions, may
have been surprisingly high before they were

housed, and continue so. Only thi
tional one or two succumbed to th*
effects of a poisonous atmosphere,
tration of this fact:— Three m
perform a certain journey (say a
in company with each other, and 1
be exposed during the same tim
mediately after, one complains of
been the subject of a severe dos
cold in consequence. Another sus
very slight attack, and the third \ii
the worse for the journey. So he
men were all exposed to the same in
but only one was a thorough victin
is this? Because there is withi:
animals a certain power which opp
influence of noxious agents, and w
deavours to expel them when int
or, in other words, it may be d€
be that power in the healthy body 1
it is able to throw off" and withstan
which might operate prejudicially to
being, and at the same time nev
fering with, but assisting, the open
nature. So the pre-disposing causes
in the absence of sufficient power
This power is called anima naiura,
catrix. Therefore, as a friend to h
as well as your own prosperity, hi
fisirm-buildings properly ventilated.

The Country Gentlemafis Magazine

%\it Jfarm-

THE SOUTH WALES FIRST PRIZE FARM.

\ report of the judges, Messrs
rhomas Bowstead, Thomas Jenkins,
ey Dun, in die £surm-prize compeii-
»outh Wales and MonmouthshiFe, the
embraced by the Royal Agricultural
of England, is given in the second
Xh^ Journal for the present year, just

" Looking at the great breadth of
to which the competition was open,"

Bowstead, in his opening remarks,
e value of the prizes offered, the num-
ntries (only 19), struck the judges as
markably small. And while amongst
re found some very fine farms, and a
illent farmers, we regret to have to
t not a few of the entries were totally

an inspection of this kind." The
^ored the usual custom of inspecting
is during the months of May and
eming a winter inspection not only
J but of the utmost importance. Ac-
^, at the end of January the three
in commenced their labours, their
)ns being to especially consider, i.
management with a view to profit
uctiveness of crops. 3. Goodness
ability of live stock. 4. Manage-
grass land. 5. State of gates, fences,
id general neatness. The following
count given of the first prize-farm : —
Tysnunyd " is situated about 4 miles
he town of Aberavon, and is inter-
r the road leading from Port Talbot
end. The farm comprises 419 acres,
I 141 are arable, and 278 meadow
oanent pasture ; the latter including
3 acres of rough cattle ground, appa-
jclaimed fi-om the sea. The arable
noderately light and easily tilled, but
^land is of a colder and stiffer nature,
n has been held by the same family

since the year 1828, the present tenant, Mr
William Sanours Powell, having succeeded
his father four years ago as a yearly tenant.
Much of the subsoil being clay and rather
impervious gravel, a considerable portion of
the farm has been under-drained. This
operation was carried out by the late Mr
Powell, who, having pipes found by his land-
lord, did the cutting and carting of material
at his own cost. Most of the fields are of
large size, and suited to the acreage of the
farm, one or two small enclosures being con-
veniently placed near the homestead. The
greater part of the farm has a south-westerly
aspect, sloping gently towards the Bristol
Channel, from which Eglwysnunyd is only
two miles distant. Strong winds often pre-
vail from this quarter, doing considerable
damage to the ripe grain and newly-thinned
turnips, and also seriously checking the
growth of herbage, especially in the early
spring.

Mr Powell has no written agreement as to
rotation of crops, neither is he tied down by
any strict verbal injunctions. He could, like
some of the hill-farmers, take any number
of white crops in succession, and might, so
long as he kept up the manurial condition
of the land, sell off a portion of hay and
straw; but he has never taken advantage of
his privilege.

STOCK,

Besides a hackney, eight farm-horses are
kept, and these of a very superior descrip-
tion, combining activity, symmetry, and
power. Except when working the two-
furrow plough, they are always yolked abreast
in pairs. They are stabled in winter, each
man feeding his own team. Their food is
generally hay in the racks, with a libera

44 Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazine

allowance of whole oats, mixed with chaff, sheds in each. The calves are confin

In summer, if grass be plentiful, and the the number of five or six in a lot, ir

weather tempting, they are turned out day fortable boxes partitioned off" in these

and night ; if otherwise, they have green are let to the cows twice a day, remaii

food in the stalls. Mr Powell aims at breed- them fully an hour, and, as soon as th

ing a couple of colts a year, but, from some able to eat such food, are allowed a suj

cause or another, the mares often prove best hay, pulp roots, and a small quae

barren. When fortunate, however, in this meal composed of two parts of ground o;

respect, the young colts come in for work at one of peas. The cows during the

three years of age, older horses being sold of this time are fed upon straw,

off" to make room for them. Close proximity hay, and mangolds or turnips

to large collieries and iron-works creates a and, when seen last February,

brisk demand for good and well-seasoned in fine condition; in fact, they

cart-horses, and high prices are realized, from nearly fat. When weaned, usually in

£S^ to £60 being no uncommon figure the calves have an increased allowa:

for sound animals, when five or six years old. meal until about the middle of May,

After trying successively the Glamorgan- they are turned out to grass. After

shire breed of cattle, then shorthorns, and separated from their offspring the co

finally, about twenty years ago, the Here- tied in stalls, and milked for butt

fords, the late Mr Powell came to the con- cheese ; in summer they are grazed i

elusion that the '* white faces " were best fields day and night. The young heif

suited to the land and climate with which expected to calve in May ; the calves

he had to deal. In the summer montlis, them in the pastures until November,

shorthorns flourished almost as much as he they are housed for the winter, and j

could wish, but in the winter season the for the most part on pulp and hay. I

Herefords had a decided advantage. The time, also, the yearlings are brought

breeding of Herefords has proved a great divided ^^into two lots, and placed i

success, and there is at present on the farm loose yards, the older lot getting

a wonderfully grand herd, of pure blood, turnips twice |a day, and oat stra^

fine massive form, and faultless touch, and younger division pulp and rough ha;

generally numbering from 100 to 120 head. May they are again all sent to gra

The cattle stock at Eglwysnunyd are so much steers and less shapely of the heifers

superior to any we saw elsewhere that we stall-fed for the butcher the following

give a description of their management. The feeding beasts have swedes or ms

Mr Powell has as many of his cows as is three times a day, meal twice, and ha

possible dropping their calves during the times, the last foddering of hay being

autumn and beginning of winter. These at 8 o'clock at night. The meal con

calves are nursed by the mothers during the "Tinworks bran* (or sharps), two

first four or five months, a method which ~ t~ , , . , , . ^

, . . .t r . 't.r ♦ This fattening substance, so highly praise

gives them a start they never forget. More- p^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ possessing some peculiai

over, it is found by experience that losses ^^^ ^s being deserving of further notice. V

occur much less frequently where the calves fore applied to Dr Voelcker, who had, ^
are treated in this their natural way than aware, examined a sample, and he mos
when hand-fed from their birth; and if, as furnished us with the foUowing analysis :-

is Mr Poweirs custom, they are never Moisture

allowed to lose their calves' flesh, fully six XSffioSfo^iiico^p^^^^

months' keep is saved in a two or tWO-and-a- starch, digestible and woodyfibre

half years old beast. As long as the suck- Mineral matters (ash)

ling continues the cows are kept in large

open yards, having one or two covered Cent jiining nitrogen... -Too

The South Wales First Prize Farm

decorticated cotton-cake, one part;
ley or oatmeal, two parts. The daily
ce at first is 2 lb. each, and this is
ly increased to 6 lb. At our winter
on Mr Powell shewed us a row of
splendid fat beasts, weighing from 18
tone (of 14 lb.) per quarter; six of
e lot had been sold out at Christmas,
verage of ;£'43, 3s. a-head, and the
ler were only waiting a favourable
the market.

for use at Eglwysnunyd have for some
een purchased from Lord Bateman,
in Hewer, Mr Green, Mr Duckharo,
ber eminent Hereford breeders. By
lans, and by a judicious selection of
Qe-bred heifers, Mr Powell's herd has
for itself a name, and his young bulls
gerly sought after by other large
"s, one very promising yearling having
f been sold for exportation to Aus-

To meet this demand five or six of
t-bred bull-calves are reared each year,
ese, with a little indulgence beyond
ven to the heifers and steers, make,
it for work, ;^3o to ;^4o each.
Powell shewed us a lot of 150 breed-
is, chiefly Oxford Downs, very good,
I of wool. Until ten years ago Cots-
wrere tried, .but owing to the moist

they did not give satisfaction. The

management may thus be briefly
ed: —

It the 29th of September the ewes are
y sorted, the oldest, and those known
: shepherd to possess any particular
>eing drawn out for fattening purposes,
are then divided into three or four
id placed on rich forcing food for a
, a ram, selected to suit the wool and
peculiar features of the ewes given
eing put with each lot. Superior male
s, as required to change the blood,
irchased at Gloucester fair. At the
' about six weeks the rams are taken
nd the ewes run on the grass until
iber, hay being allowed as soon as
will begin to eat it, and continued
;hout the winter. They are then,
I fields are conveniently situated,

allowed to feed for a few hours each
day on a piece of swedes or common
turnips; or failing this, they have a load
or so daily given them on the pasture. The
lambs are dropped early in March, the crop
commonly averaging four lambs to three
ewes. At about a month old the ram lambs
(with the exception of a few reserved for
breeding purposes) are castrated, and the
whole are weaned early in July. They are
not shorn, but are twice dipped, and some-
times powdered also, during the summer and
autumn, and are run on the clovers and
seeds until September. They are then
placed upon white turnips, which they eat
uncut, and are given a liberal allowance of
hay, a few older sheep being mixed with
them until they get accustomed to their new
food. In December, or sooner if the supply
of common turnips has run out, the wether
lambs are separated from the ewe lambs, and
the whole are put upon cut swedes. In
January the wethers begin to have about a
^ lb. of a mixture composed of equal parts
of decorticated cotton cake and Indian com,
and, in March, this is increased to ^ lb.
The same mode of treatment goes on until
the swedes are all consumed, usually towards
the middle of April, when the wethers are
shorn and sent to market Mr Powell, like
most of his neighbours, is much troubled
with foot-rot in his flock. As a remedy he
uses sulphate of copper and alum mixed with
common lard. Fluke-worm, or liver-rot, also
prevails to some extent, and doubtless these
two diseases may be attributed to the low
and damp situation of much of the grass
land.

Three breeding sows of a large white breed
are kept, but Ihey call for no lengthened re-
marks. Their produce, with the exception
of those required for home feeding and re-
cruiting the breeding stock, are sold off, at
eight or nine weeks old, and generally bring
from 20S. to 26s. each.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

Mr Powell for the most part adopts the
five-course system of cropping, namely — i
roots; 2, wheat or barley; 3, seeds: 4,

46 Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazine

grass ; 5, oats. When this rule is departed per acre, and are never allowed to

from, it is mainly to leave the land a year imcovered over night.

or two longer in grass ; for here, as in most The land for swedes is treated ir

situations, the land is apt to become clover- the same way as that for mangolds.

sick, and an extension of the course of crop- Besides swedes, Mr Powell sows

ping lessens this tendency. acres of early white turnips for the

There is no material difference in the pre- the lambs from September until

paration of the land for mangolds, swedes, Christmas. Being all consumed <

and common white turnips. In the autumn, ground, there is less need for applyin

as soon as may be convenient after harvest, yard dung, from 6 to 7 cwt of 2

the stubbles are scarified or broad-shared, manure generally bringing an abundai

twice if necessary, well harrowed, and, there Besides stubble turnips, which succee

being seldom anything to gather off, left flat here when the autumn is moderately

until November. As great a breadth of the able, care is taken always to put in f

mangold ground as there is manure for is to 20 acres of other catch crops

then covered with farmyard dung, and dwarf white pea, sown in March, aft<

ploughed about 5 inches deep. In March it will, with the aid of 3 or 4 cwt of di

is harrowed, cross-ploughed, harrowed again, bones, yield 45 to 50 bushels per acre.

rolled, and left for sowing. About the middle is followed by white mustard, put in

of April, if the weather permit, the land is July, and on which the sheep are g(

set up in drills 26 to 27 inches apart, the penned in September or October.

portion left short in autumn being manured Wheat or barley (according to the

now, in the drills, at the rate of about 30 tons of the soil, and the kind of crop tal

of good rotten dung to the acre, and the the same ground in the previous coi

whole receives, besides, a dressing of 4 cwt planted after roots, the mangold groun

of dissolved bones or mangold manure per cross-ploughed in November, and the

acre, sown by broadcast drill after the manure ground stirred, to prevent loss of fei

is spread. The drills are then split up, and matter, as soon as the sheep have cl<

sown two at a time. Mr Powell prefers a few acres. With favourable weather

mixture of the long mammoth red mangold sowing begins the first week in Fe

and the yellow globe (4 lb. of the seed of and can, without risk to the crop, l

the former to 2 lb. of the latter per acre) as tinned until March. The seed is <

being convenient in storing, the long roots with sulphate of copper (i lb. to 5 ii

forming the walls of the store-heap, while the bushels) and drilled eight rows at ;

round bulbs fill up the centre. At our visit, and 7 inches apart, at the rate of 2j^ i

on the 14th of June, 8 acres of mangolds bushels to the acre. In April, or as 5

were looking extremely promising, and were the young com is able to bear it, all th*

being stitch-harrowed, two rows at a time, by crop is well harrowed and heavily rol

a very neat and easily-worked implement, docs not require hoeing. The kind

made by Smith, of Kettering. The plants monly grown are the Chiddam, K

were being well hoed, and singled at a Hallett's, and Biddell's imperial, a

distance of 13 or 14 inches, at a cost of 7s yield per acre is about 32 bushels.

per acre, a second operation being usually being apt to lodge, requires to be sow

done for another 4s. The weight expected The first planted receives 2)4 bush

per acre is 40 tons. The crop is stored at acre, while later in the season this is in<

the end of October or beginning of Novem- to 3 bushels. Halletl's Chevalier

ber, the fangs and roots being left on, and favourite sort, and the produce of an

the top not too closely cut They are pulled usually 40 bushels. Like the whe

and laid in rows of four drills each for 55. oats, barley is drilled 7 inches tetwe

The South Walts First Prize Farm

Clover and grass seeds are sown by
:ast drills on the barley and wheat after
and covered by thfe chain harrow and
The mixture commonly used on an
f land is as follows : — 4 lb. Cowgrass,
led Clover, 2 lb. Alsike Clover, i peck
ass (Pacey's), with the addition, if the
>e intended to lie down two or three
of 2 lb. to 3 lb. of white clover. After
ling down in grass one, two, or more
the clover-leas are for the most part
led for oats. This is done in Decem-
r January with Homsby's 2-furrow-
ti ; the land is harrowed in March, and
I with 3 bushels per acre, lengthwise
loughing. Black Tartar oats succeed
kably well, the yield seldom being

50 bushels per acre. This year, how-
«re were shewn a crop which cannot fall
of, if it does not actually reach, 70
Is per acre.

ABOURERS, WAGES, COTTAGES, &C.

Powell has a very intelligent and pains-
1; set of workpeople ; and, as he pays
well, and deals generously, yet firmly,
them, he has no difficulty in getting
led. He acts as his own bailiff; and
f itself fosters a kindly feeling between
)yer and employed. Below is given a
f the hands generally engaged on the

with the wages and perquisites of

ilification.

Weekly
Wages.

Perquisites.

Ploughman.

s. d.
14

Cottage and garden free.

1 Ploughman.

Board and lodgings free.

iboy.

Cattleman.

9 6

Board and lodgings free.

int Cattleman

Ditto ditto.

M-d.

13
7

Dinner on Sundays, col*
tage for is. per week.

rer.

(Cottage and garden free.

)urers (each).

aen (each).

iving three cottages attached to the farm,
*owell is, in this respect, better provided
han the generality of Welsh farmers.
Uuree men shewn as having board and

lodgings free live in the farmhouse. They
are engaged by the year, from the ist of May,
and are paid monthly; a month's wages
being commonly left in the master's hands.
The rest of the workmen are paid fortnightly,
on Fridays, Saturday being market day at
the adjacent towns of Aberavon and Taibach.
Women shew no unwillingness to perform
the lighter kinds of bam and field work : on
the contrary they gladly walk long distances
to and from the farm, though they expect
to be employed throughout the year, without
any lost time, at the wages quoted. No
cider is made, but the entire staflf of work-
people are allowed beer in harvest and a
fortnight's victuals ; the men boarded in the
house having, throughout the year, the further
indulgence of a pint of beer each with their
Sunday's dinner.

BUILDINGS, FENCES, GATES.

The tenant's residence at Eglwysnunyd,
although somewhat old-fashioned, is tolerably
good. Screened from the farm premises by
means of trees and shrubs, it is nevertheless,
in close proximity to them. Possessing an
agreeable aspect, tastefully laid-out flower-
beds, well - kept greenhouse, productive
kitchen-garden, and other pleasant surround-
ings, Mr. Powell's home is certainly one to
be envied. The farm-buildings, mostly of
stone and slate, are sometimes scattered, but
they are ample for the requirements of the
farm, and in good repair. Excepting main
walls and main timbers, Mr Powell is ex-
pected to keep the dwelling-house and build-
ings in good condition. Besides " tying up "
for forty-nine animals, there are six excellent
loose boxes, averaging 15 feet by 11 feet,
and a like number of conveniently placed
cattle-yards, with sheds attached. The farm-
horse stable is fitted up in the style com-
mon in the north of England, while engine*
shed, cart and waggon house, ample granary,
implement and artificial-manure shed, com-
plete a well-appointed farm steading.

The fences on this farm are, for the most
part, kept low, aad neatly trimmed. Some
of the whole wide banks have yet to be re
moved, and these are being reduced I*

48 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

year, the soil making excellent compost Mr the latter is found to answer extreme

Powell finds for himself wooden gates, which with sheep when consuming a large q

are of a very good pattern ; they are coal- of succulent food. It is often mixe

tarred or painted every season, and are by unground Indian com, and with good i

this means well preserved. About ;£^ioo a-year may be put down

Including the market value of home-grown usual outlay for artificial manures, whil

peas and com, Mr Powell expends, yearly, is annually paid for well-burnt lime. I

in extraneous feeding stuffs, about ;^25o. this last, Mr Powell is about to try the

Linseed cake is preferred to cotton-cake, but oi gas-lime mixed with his compost he(

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIl

IN the eleven months of the year we have of meat not enumerated in the above <

gone through, we find from the Trade we paid ^939,129, nearly a quartei

and Navigation Returns just issued, that there million sterling more than in the sam

is a gradual decrease in the supply of foreign the year before. For pork we paid

cattle. In the month alone we have a decline, ;^25o,ooo less than in, last year,

taking oxen, bulls,'and cows together, of more ;^4o8,o2o. On the other hand, \s

than one-half on the total importations, the pended more upon foreign j)Oultry and

number received being 9078 to compare with ^^176,301 as against ;^i3o,253. Th

18,967 — the receipts in November 187 1. On sum expended in the eleven months

the eleven months the decrease was 65,117. animal food was ;^9, 8 7 4, 5 90.
Calves came in smaller quantities in both Turning to dairy produce we note th

periods, and of sheep and lambs the decrease butter supplies from foreign countries

in the eleven months was upwards of 100,000, greatly fallen off, which we are not disp

the exact numbers being for this year, 782,224, to see, as it shews that more attent

for last, 882,260. Swine diminished from being paid to our home dairy stock.

84,669 to 15,777; in fact, live foreign porkers amount we paid for this article

appear to be altogether a drug in the London ;^5,62o,5i3, as against ;^6,4i 9,642

and provincial markets, and bacon takes their previous year. There was a falling o\

place. Our imports of this article amounted in cheese, ;^2,8o4,58i being paid this

to 1,698,109 cwt., as against 892,229 in the in comparison with ^3,141,402 in th

corresponding term of last year. Notwith- responding period of 187 1. The im

standing our diminished supplies, except in tion of eggs continues to increase. Thi

the case of bacon, the amount we paid for we have paid for them upwards of

the kinds of meat enumerated was nearly as million sterling more than we did up

much as that disbursed up to the end of last end of November 187 1, a fact which

November, viz., ;^7, 7 7 0,7 1 8 to compare with that, onuch as we have been encoui

;^7, 700,485. For beef salted or fresh or poultry lately by liberal prizes for good

slightly salted, we only incurred a cost, this there still remains much to be done for

year, of ;^38o,836, while last year we paid in the British homesteads. The amou

for the same commodity ;^57i,322. The pended upon eggs was ;^ 1,7 3 5, 2 5 7. Pot

imports of hams go on increasing. Up to as was naturally to be expected fror

the time to which the Board of Trade Re- failure in our own crops, have been rea

turns are made up, we had received quantities us from across the seas in much larger

mounting up to ^^375,887. For other kinds tities than usual The amount of mon

Import and Export of Agricultural Commodities

have paid for this esculent this year, so far as
ihasgone, is ;^i,3io,873, while in the like
period of the previous year we only paid

;fl9I,962.

Next, with regard to imported cereal crops,
we have had a considerable increase in wheat
alike on the month and eleven months.
About barley the same remark has to be
made ; but as to oats it has to be stated that
we received scarcely half the quantity last
month that we did in the preceding Novem-
ber. Wheat meal and flour reached us in
larger quantities during the month, but there
was only a slight increase in the eleven. In-
dian com was in much greater demand. The
following tables shew the countries from
which our imports came in the eleven months,
their character, quantities, and values, in
187 1 and '72 : —

QUANTITIES.

Eleven Months
ended Nov.
30. 1871.
Wheat Cwt.

Russia 14,859,232

Denmark 123,558

Germany 2,852,289

France 1349841

Austrian Territories ... 239,147

Tirkcy, Wallachia, ) , .„ ^.^
and Moldavia J ii4",74<'

JflTPt 711,179

United States 12,202,108

Chili 503*529

Britiah North America 2, 8 1 8, 1 95
Other Coontries 613,711

Eleven Months
ended Nov.
30, 1872.
Cwt.

16,324,297

399,903
3,649,164

2,468,500
54,732

•822,315

2,124,288
7,688,366

1,387,573
1,406,374

1,740,123

Total 36,469,535 38,065,635

VALUE.

Russia ;f 8,499,492

Denmark 73,838

Germany 1,884,109

France 72,345

Austrian Territories ... 158,475

Turkey, Wallachia, ) «

and Moldavia \ 733,»43

Egypt 394,274

United Sutes 7,353,6o5

^hUi 332,627

British North America 1,698,624

Other Countries 379,084

;f 9,677,921

271,098

2,478,065

1,591,789
33,979

444,898

1,064,839

4,989,432

916,280

927,096
1,165,335

QUANTITIES.

Eleven Months
ended Nov.
30, 1871.
Cwt

Barley 7,818,847

Oats 10,238,770

Peas 876,230

Beans 2,734,892

Indian Com or
Maize

\ 15,527,235

VALUE.

Barley ;C3,092,577

Oats 3,863,455

Peas 389,896

Beans 1,172,798

Indian Com or
Maize.

I 5,968,^50

Eleven Months
ended Nov.
30, 1872.
Cwt.

12,757,744
10,606,031

1,108,996

2,706,513

22,803,684

;C5, 163,465

3,853,712

481,226

1,091,034
8,103,902

QUANTITIES.

Eleven Months

ended Nov.

30, 1871.

Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt.

Germany 881,290

France 29,097

United States 1,674,306

British North America 348,285
Other Countries 712,106

Eleven Months

ended Nov.

30, 1872.

Cwt.

944,227
1,031,062

589,595
282,073

833,338

Total 3,645,084

VALUE.

Germany ;f828,794

France 25,615

United States 1,358,909

British North America 269, 126

Other Countries 705,152

3,680,29s

jt885,959
942,112
491,861

247,979
853,205

Total ;f2i,58o,3i6 ;{;23,56o,732

VOU X.

Total ;^3ti87,596 jt3,42i,ii6

Coming to manurial substances, we find
that bones have slightly increased in the present
year, the sum we paid for them amounting to
;^57o,6io, instead of ;^52 7,2i6. Guano is
gradually declining year by year in public
estimation, probably owing to the fact that
many of the samples sent into the British
market have not been of that excellent value
which farmers were entitled to expect, and in
some degree to the grasping tendencies of the
Peruvian Government in relation to its ex-
portation. In the eleven months of 1870 we
imported 239,046 tons ; in the same space of
1871, 174,118 tons; and this year only
111,401 tons; at a cost of ;£^2,967,992,

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

;^i,96o,886, and ;^i, 121,581 respectively.
Nitrate of soda shewed an increase of about
200,000 cwt, and the price was slightly less
per cwt. than in the previous year, ;^i, 555,663
being the sum we had disbursed up to the end
of November.

Oil-seed cakes, which form so important a
share in the production of the grand beasts
which we have seen this year so well
developed at Birmingham and Smithfield,
whose glossy sides and back and loins were so
perfectly covered with the primest of meat,
were not in such demand this year as last,
only 125,494 tons reaching us, in comparison
with 147,316 in 1871. Cotton was in greater
request, the quantity we received this year
being 158,201, as against 154,402 tons, at
a cost of ^^1,324,059, to compare with
;^i, 357,410, figures shewing, fortunately for
stock farmers, that the commodity this year
was somewhat cheaper than last. Rape was
much less in demand, not a third of the quan-
tity we imported last year being received. For
flax and linseed we paid this year ;^4,o69,47 1
which was ;^6oo,ooo more than last

There was an increase in the supply of
hops during the month, but a great diminution
in the longer period.

While the imports of wool have shewed
elasticity in the month, they have exhibited a
decline in the eleven as compared with last
year, as the following statistics shew. It will
be noticed that, with much smaller returns,
the prices have been greatiy enhanced.

QUANTITIES.

Eleven Months Eleven Months

ended ended

Nov. 30, 1871. Nov. 30, 1872.

Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb. lb.

From Countries in Europe 50,393,275 36,621,427
British Possessions

in South Africa ... 31,110,508 32,127,975

British India 18,882,877 17,486,130

„ Australia 182,280,720 170,425,103

„ Other Countries 29,773,855 32,730,010

»>

i»

VALUE.

From Countries in Europe ;^2, 781,649 £'.
„ British Possessions

in South Africa ... 11659,055 :

„ British India 674,389

„ Australia 10,812,190 K

Other Countries 1,125,574 1

}»

Total ^17,052,857 13

Turning to our export trade in agri
commodities, we find that it is gradu
dining, which is a matter rather
pleased with than grieved for, as w:
supplies of butter and cheese firom
countries and fewer exportations, it 1
taken for granted that we are improv
quality and quantity of home produc(
value of butter we despatched abroac
the end of November was ;^282,797,
cheese ;^74,i46, both less than in the
ponding period of 187 1. Only abc
the number of horses were exported tl
that was sept away last, 3136 to compj
7067, but the price per head was
the smaller number making ;£i63,266
the larger number's ;£269,845.

Our wool exports were very materi
duced in the year, and the values en
as the following table shews : —

QUANTITIES.

Eleven Months Eleven

ended enc

Nov. 30, 1 87 1. Nov. 3
Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb.

To Germany 2,083,944 l,^i

„ Belgium 2,445,129 1,0;

„ France 2,531,818 i,oc

„ United States 2,247,368 2,1c

„ Other Countries ... 1,486,157 1,04

Total 10,794,416 7,11

VALUE.

To Germany £iA^>02()

Belgium 158,847

£m

)»

»»

France... ,

United States...
Other Countries

I95»9i4
125,101

Ii5»400

c
c

Total 312,441,235 289,390,645

Total ;6"740,29i £S^

TJu Country GentUmaiis Magazine

THE CULTIVATION OF SUGAR-BEET.

BY J. S. COCKSEDGE.*

THE attention of this Club was directed July, states that the attention of the Ameri-
some time since to the growth of cans is now earaesdy directed to the produc-

sugar-beet, by a gentleman who visited this
town with the intention of establishing a
beetHSugar manufactory. The Company,
kowever, could not see their way clear to
obtaining a sufficient supply of roots, and
the plan was abandoned. There was an un-
willingness on the part of farmers to give a
guarantee as to the quantity of land they
would plant with beet, and indeed you could
kardly expect a farmer to give an under-
taking of this sort unless he was pretty sure
he could get as much profit as on other
oops^and of course no man of business
could venture his capital without being cer-
tain he could get the raw material to work
witL I was told by a friend of mine in
Hanover that many similar undertakings
&ilcd in that country formerly from the same
cause. At the present time, however, farmers
are the principal shareholders, and thus have
a direct interest in the success of the com-
pany. In 1868 it was estimated that the
Continent made about 670,000 tons of beet-
sugar per annum. It seems extraordinary
that an industry of this kind should not be-
fwe this have taken roOt in England, where
the spirit of enterprise is so predominant.
It is true that several years ago some dis-
tilleries were started to extract spirit from
beet, but they all failed, from being badly
managed ; but Dr Voelcker still recommends
that distilleries should be added to the beet
factory, so that in a season when the pro-
portion of the sugar in the roots is too poor
to yield much profit, they may with greater
advantage be used for extracting spirit. I
have never seen any factory where the two
have been combined. The Journal of the
Central Agricultural Society of Belgium, for

• Read before the Stowmarket Farmers' Qub.

tion of beet-root sugar ; and to encourage its
extension, a law was passed on April 4 this
year to exempt all buildings and articles
used in beet-sugar factories from all duties
for ten years.

THE LAVENHAM FACTORY: PROFITS OF BEET
CULTFVATION ON THE CONTINENT.

There can be no question but that another
branch of industry introduced into a district
must be a great good, and it will not be for-
gotten that in a sugar factory employment is
found for labour at the very time when it is
most wanted — in the long, dreary winter
months. Take Lavenham, for instance.
During the 100 days last year ;^i9oo was
paid for labour, ;^4oo for coals, gas, &c.,
about ;^5oo for railway transport, &c. ; and
lastly, by the reports, there were about 4500
tons of roots used. This makes ^4500 pjiid
to the farmers, and Mr Duncan says if he
could have obtained 8000 tons, his factory
would have given him a greater per-centage
of profit. A friend of mine, in Silesia, states
that the first question is whether the land is
adapted for beet-growing. Many soils grow
roots very large with but Httle sugar. Now,
all the reports state that the land in this part
is very well adapted for the purpose, and will
produce a greater per-centage of sugar than
many other parts. In Silesia they pay at the
rate of is. per cwt. for roots, and receive back
the pulp at 3d. per cwt. ; they plough about
10 to 12 inches deep, and would go deeper
if they could, and one large sugar factory
near Breslau has just purchased a steam
plough for this purpose. My correspondent
adds that it pays the farmer very well to grow
beet, and they always calculate on an average
crop of about 20 tons per acre. In Hanover
the price is also about 20s. per ton, and the

$2 The Country Gentle^nmis Magazine

fanner pays for the pulp about 13s. per cwt., brought into a fine friable condition when'

and there, also, they find it good to plough as land is broken up early in the autumn, and ]

deep as possible. In the Grand Duchy of in ridges as roughlyas possible during the wini

Brunswick the prices are about the same, and and not touched until the season of sowing

the trade is very flourishing ; the factories rives, when it sufllices to pass a pair of h

have no difficulty in getting a supply of roots, rows over the land, and, according to his (

and the companies pay good dividends- Voelcker's) own observations of the most s

Coming now to our own neighbourhood, Mr cessful of the heavy-land farmers, it is

Porter, of the Lavenham Sugar Works, says better not to touch the land after it has be

the proof that the growth of sugar-beet is put roughly into ridges, than to give ii

profitable to the farmers of that district is, second ploughing in spring. Super-ph

that the farmers continue to grow it. In a phate of lime and bone-dust are excelL

work published by Dr. Voelcker, the cele- manures for sugar-beet, and other phosph;

brated chemist, he remarks that it appears manures are suitable for every description

strange that, notwithstanding the favour with land, they never injure the beet crop. 1

which beetroot is regarded abroad, and the opinion of Mr Wm. Biddell will, I am su

great success which has led to the rapid ex- be listened to with great attention. So;

tension of beet-sugar industry in the Con- time since he gave the result of his o

tinent, few attempts have, in this country, practical experience in the growth of sug

been made to cultivate it for the purpose of beet ; it is as follows : —

extracting sugar or spirits. £, a

Common charges — rent 33s., tithe 7s. 6d.,

THE SOIL BEST ADAPTED TO SUGAR-BEET. rates 3s. 6d. , interest on capital los 2 I

The principal reason of the disinclination 2°"f J!'"'^' ""^ ''""j"^ '

r 1 -A • • 1 • , , . «"vr" Hand hoemg and smghng o I

of the British agricultural and industrial com- Seed, 9 lb o

munity to imitate the example of the Conti- Taking up and topping 01

nent, appears to have its foundation on the Filling, carting, say 2 miles, 15 tons, at is... 11

fact that their agricultural and industrial pur- Manure, 10 loads 2'

suits are more closely linked together, and V^;.^7^^^ I \

are more mutually dependent for success on Labour to manure o

each other than in England. In many of the

Continental sugar factories the proprietors ;f"

axe farmers, and raise a large proportion of On the other side, Mr Biddell gives £

the raw matenal required for the factory. ^3. ^3 ^he average total receipt for the b

1 his gives him the advantage of paying on one acre of land. One gentleman in

special attention to the cultivation of roots neighbourhood of Lavenham is so satisl

rich m sugar, great attention is paid to the ^i^h the results of beet for sugar that he :

selection of good seed, and the best roots for bought a farm at Waldingfield purpose!)

sugar are those weighing about 2 or 2y^ lb. beet Uiereon.
The tendency of the root to bury itself in the

soil is characteristic of good sugar-beet. Dr ^ change of system.

Voelcker says that well-worked clay soils. It must be remembered that a farmer c

especially calcareous clays, are well adapted not lose much by growing sugar-beet in pi

for beet cultivation, provided they are of mangold, as, if he can't dispose of th<

properly drained and of sufficient depth, and he can always use them for his stock, j

some of the finest crops of beet he ever saw although he does not grow so large a crop

were grown on clay soils. It is, however, will be richer in saccharine, and, accordin]

true that a badly-worked, half-drained clay Dr Voelcker, i ton will be equal Xo \% \

soil does not bring beet to perfection. But of the ordinary mangolds. I have spokei

^ven stiff clays, when weU drained, may be many farmers in this neighbourhood at

Tlu Cultivation of Sugar-Beet S3

growing sugar-beet, and many are willing to fertility of the land much improved. If this
do sa But an obstacle appears in that be true, and there is no doubt I think, about
covenant in the leases, which says that root it, can you suppose that the landlords of this
crops may not be moved from the farm ; but country would stand in the way of any great
in answer to my enquiries from all parts of improvement? Is it at all likely, especially
the Continent, the general opinion agrees when an industry of this kind must increase
with Mr VV. Biddell, of Lavenham, that after the value of their property in the neighbour-
sugar-beet, the land is left in a better state hood ? Of course, gentlemen, no one can
than it was before, and I am sure those who blame them, and no one can blame you for
have gone on the Continent will fully endorse not taking up with new ideas and new
Mr Duncan's opinion, viz. — that wherever notions. Englishmen do not go out of a
the beet is cultivated, more cattle are fed, beaten track in a hurry, they want to look at
larger crops of wheat are obtained, and the a thing, turn it over, and see the other side,

FARMING THIS SEASON— ILLUSTRATED BY EAST LOTHIAN.

IT is now nearly a quarter of a century acres; of oats, 16,000 acres; and of beans
since Free Trade became what we may and peas, a little under 2000 acres. The
call the guiding principle for the mercantile wheat crop will not average 6 bolls (/.^., 3
enterprise of this our " tight little island." qr.) per acre, instead of 5 qr. ; therefore
Many wise and far-seeing men foreboded evil we have a deficiency of 24,009 qr. of wheat,
or disaster from its effects. A strong, intelli- The barley crop has suffered more. Its yield
gent party, even after defeat in Parliament, may be estimated at 4 J^ qr. instead of 7 qr. ;
still opposed its further progress from a dread say, in round numbers, at least 42,000 qr. of
of its transition stages. Like many a good barley. The oat crop is a good one, but
measure which it is impossible to pass with- owing to the untoward character of the sea-
out seriously affecting some branch of our son the loss here may be taken as a qr,
commercial enterprise, this measure pressed per acre on 16,000 acres. Exception may
heavily for a time on many farmers who now be taken to this estimate on the ground that
recognize the great boon it has proved to the the present is the best oat crop we have had
class supposed to suffer most from it Time, for the last four years, but we are estimating
we all are aware, conciliates many difficulties, damage done from wet weather. The bean
Wise men who foresaw what might probably crop is good, and large enough to balance
ensue from Free Trade, recommended high with the average of seasons. Here we have
fanning as the antidote, and they were right a clear loss to the revenue of our county of
so far; but here comes the danger. Will not 24,000 qr. wheat, 42,000 qr. barley, and
the loss be far greater when a calamitous 32,000 qr. oats. It is impossible to state
year like the present falls upon us ? The ex- with perfect accuracy the money value of all
penses of farming have increased a hundred- this. In regard to the loss sustained in the
fold. A bad crop long ago could not affect case of the green crops, it is far more serious,
the purses of tenant-farmers in the same ratio Potatoes being largely grown — say 9000
as it does now. We can best illustrate the acres — with this crop alone there is a dead
heavy losses from this disastrous season by loss of ;£'i6 per acre, besides all the expense
giving the acreage of the various crops grown incurred in the lifting and pitting. Bad crops
in £ast Lothian. Of wheat we annually grow of all kinds are invariably found to be more
about 12,000 acres ; of barley, about 14,000 expensive in mafiufacfurin^ into money thar

54 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

good ones. Turnips have improved of late, sufferings of the poorer classes were

but are only half a crop ; there are excep- treme. We might have been in the s

tions. Now we are prepared to prove every position now, had it not been for the en

word ; there is no exaggeration ; and we of two men.

naturally ask the question, how is this heavy All our fanners are fighting bravely

loss to be met ? Farmers have all along but it is no easy matter to do so now ;

been a disunited class, and can never com- if energy, enterprise, and skill can red

bine for any movement which would benefit this great loss, the qualities are not wani

themselves, but we hold that it is the duty We have endeavoured to give a true s

of Government to make a thorough inquiry ment of affairs, and incline always to

into this national disaster. It should be one cheerful side of the picture, but it reqi

of the leading features of the opening and all one's pluck to keep up a jolly ap^

closing speech from the Throne — the state of ance under the long-continued rain — i

our agriculture ; and the strength of our two rain, incessant rain, under which we su

great parties in the State might advan- More than two-thirds of the potato crc

tageously be tested by their liberality in fos- to lift, and many fields of beans are

tering the agriculture of our land. exposed, and the chances of getting wi

We alluded, in our opening sentence, to the wheat sown are extremely bad. The

benefits of Free Trade, because we feel that advice is to practise patience. In for

it has saved the nation at this time. Exactly years all our best wheat crops were sp

one hundred years ago, viz., November sown. This season has taught us a ^

1772, the Com Laws had to be repealed for severe, but at the same time, useful les

two years, owing to the high price of bread, that it is not in ourselves to command sua

&C. Coals were £^^ per ton, and the — -S".

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

THE ADULTERATION OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES AND

FEEDING STUFFS.

THE following report of the Chemical
Committee of the Royal Agricultural
Society was unavoidably withheld from our
aocoont of the Council meeting last week : —
I. Mr Henry McLaren, of Oflferton Hall,
Sonderland, has sent two samples of com-
pound cake (Nos. i and 3 in tiie following
analysis), which had been supplied instead of
Ae pure linseed cake ordered. In each Dr
Voelcker found but little linseed, and, ap-
parently, a large proportion of hard olive
kernels, locust meal, cotton cake, and starchy
matter. The hard woody shell of the olive
kemels was too coarsely ground to be useful
for feeding purposes. Another sample sent
by Mr M'Laren, and sold to him at ;^ii,
IDS., was a pure linseed cake (No. 2), and
appears to be cheaper at that price than the
compound cake No. i would be at jCS, 8s.,
or No. 3, if sold at £9^ 9s., yet the actual
prices paid were ^£16 a ton for No. i, and,
he believes, ;£^io, los. for No. 3.

Composition of Two Samples of Mixed or Compound
Cies, sent by Mr H. M*Laren, Offerton Hall,
Sunderland : —

Moisture

*Albaminoas compounds (flesh-

forming matters)

Modlage, sugar, and digestible

fibre

Woody fibre (cellulose)

**Mineral matter (ash)

^Containing nitrogen

Containing sand

No information has been received as to
^ names of the parties from whom the cakes
'^ere purchased.

2. Mr Stephen H. Allen, of Eastover,
Andover, has sent a sample of artificial guano,
sold at £3f xos. per toa The following

No. I.

No. 3.

10.76
8.60

11.58
9.96

19.69

22.12

33.99

18.84

8.12

32.22

15.16

8.96

icaoo

100.00

3. IS

3.54

^ 3.24

3.40

are the results of the analysis of the
sample : —

Composition of a Sample of Artificial Guano, sent by
Mr Stephen H. Allen, Eastover, near Andover.

Moisture 17.57

♦Organic matter 17.84

Phosphoric acid 12

Equal to phosphate of lime [.26]

Oxide of iron and alumina 7.66

Carbonate and sulphate of lime I5*3i

Alkaline salts and magnesia (chiefly com-
mon salt) ... ... ... ... 5.64

Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 35*^

100.00

♦Containing nitrogen 82

Equal to ammonia 99

This so-called guano contains merely traces
of phosphate of lime, and consists of a mix-
ture of some nitrogenous organic refuse
matter, with a preponderating proportion of
sand and other useless earthy matters. Its
strong smell is due to bone oil, which has
no value whatever as a manure ; and although
sold at £^, I OS., this guano is scarcely worth
15 s. per ton. The committee believe they
have already noticed this worthless com-
pound in previous quarterly reports, but
abstain from referring to it by name on the
present occasion, as there appears to be some
httle doubt as to its identity.

3. The next case is one of nitrate of soda,
a sample of which was sent by Mr Alfred de
Momay, Cold Harbour, Wallingford, who
states that he bought it of Messrs Frederick
Edgington & Co., as standard nitrate, at ^^17
per ton.

100 parts of this nitrate of soda contained :

Moisture 3.98

Cloride of sodium (common salt) 22.73

Sulphate of lime and magnesia 30

Insoluble matter 14

Pure nitrateof soda 72.85

100.00

Tlic Country Gentleman's Magazine

Genuine commercial nitrate of soda con-
tains from 94 to 95 per cent, of pure nitrate
of soda, and from ij4 to 4 per cent, of
common salt

4. A sample of adulterated guano was sent
to the laboratory by Mr Edward Knight,
Smallrise, Sandon Stone, Staffordshire, and
found to contain in 100 parts :

Moisture 13-57

*Organic matter 25.71

Phosphate of lime, iron, and alumina 18.49

Sulphate of lime 11. 16

Alkaline salts 7.01

Insoluble silicious matter 24. 06

ICX).00

supply. I may add that in letting a farm this year I
have taken a higher rent, and bound myself to expend
a certain amount in bones or lime, so that I avoid the
difficulty which now occurs. — Yours faithfully,

Robert Rawunson,

The following are the results obtained in
the analysis of this bone-meal : —

Composition of a Sample of Bone-meal, sent by Mr
Robert Rawlinson, Ulverston. Sold at jC9» ^s. 6d.
per ton.

Moisture I9'73

•Organic matter 32.91

Phosphate of lime (bone phosphate) 26.8a

Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 6.99

Sulphate of soda (glauber salt) 9.24

Chloride of sodium (common salt) 2.60

Insoluble silicious matter 1.72

♦Containing nitrogen 5.76

Equal to ammonia 6.99

This guano, it will be seen, yields only 7
per cent, of ammonia, and is adulterated with
a considerable amount of sand and gypsum.
In reply to a letter of inquiry for particulars
respecting the price of this guano, name of
seller, &c., the following note was received : —

Smallrise, Sandon, Stone, May 30, 1872.

Sir, — I am in receipt of yours of the 22nd inst,
with analysis of guano, and in reply to your inquiry
as to whom it was purchased from, and the price, I
beg to say that as I did not purchase it as genuine
Peruvian guano, I do not think it will be necessary to
provide you with the names, &c. — I am, Sir, your
faithful servant, Edward Knight.

Dr Augustus Voelcker, London.

5. The last case is one of bone-meal, a
sample of which was sent by Mr Robert
Rawlinson, Graythwaite, Ulverston. Mr
Rawlinson writes to Dr Voelcker: —

I should much like an analysis of the sample I sent
you, but I doubt if I am entitled to it by the rules of
the R.A.S.E., as the circumstances of the case are
somewhat peculiar. The bone-meal was not directly
bought by me, but by a tenant, who is bound by his
lease to expend a certain sum annually in either bone
or lime. By obtaining your opinion I protect myself,
and could come down on the tenant if I wished, but
my inclination is to protect him, I should be grati-
fied by your advice how further to act in the matter,
and any further information I can get I will willingly

loaoo

•Containing nitrogen 3.05

Equal to ammonia 3.70

Genuine bone-meal seldom contains more
than 10 to 12 per cent, of moisture, and
yields from 45 to 48 per cent of bone-phos-
phate, and from 4 to 4>i per cent, of am-
monia. The sample sent by Mr Robert
Rawlinson, it will be seen, contains not quite
27 per cent, of bone-phosphate, and is con-
taminated with sulphate of lime and glauber
salt, which substances do not occur in
genuine bone-meal. It is, moreover, mixed
with some organic refuse matter, and is not
worth more than ;^6, 6s. to ;^6, los. per
ton. In a subsequent letter Mr Rawlinson
writes : —

" In reply to yours of the 22d instant, I beg to state
that I intend to get redress for my tenant at my own
expense, as this country is over- run with agents of
manure manufacturers ; and the farms being small,
and the tenants men of very small capital, they are,
consequently, at the mercy of dealers."

This bone-meal was sold to Mr Rawlin-
son's tenant by a local agent of a large
Liverpool firm, who state that they have
imported as much as 10,000 tons from
Americ^, that tliey gave no guarantee further
than thiit it is the meal it is represented to be.

Uie Country Gentleman's Magazine 57

CHEVIOT SHEEP

THE Scotsman has an interesting article weight of fleece, the size and aptitude to

upon Cheviot sheep, from which we fatten; and the dash of Leicester being slight,

make the following extracts : — it did not materially affect their activity and

Perhaps no animal —certainly none of the hardiness. About the year 1850, a large

Aeep species — has contributed more to the size of sheep having become fashionable,

prosperity of Scotch farmers over a large dis- most of the great ram breeders tried a second

trict of the country, than the Cheviot sheep, dash of Leicester blood, but this did not

They have grazed more profitably than any answer so well, as the sheep became too soft

other stock the greater part of the moorlands for the climate on the hills, and too big for

m the south of Scotland, compose nearly a their coarse pastures. There was conse-

half of the sheep stock in the Highlands, and quently great loss when a cycle of cold years

have supplied to arable farmers a profitable came round in 1859-60, and most farmers

animal to fatten upon the root crops. hastened to retrace their course by breeding

Besides the moorland Cheviots, reproducing from more compact sheep than the long-

their own kind, there are large numbers of backed animals which topped the ram sales

Cheviot ewes on the enclosed lands, which previous to 1859.

breed very valuable lambs by the Leicester The weight and fineness of the fleece
ram. Of the 6,750,000 sheep in Scotland, seem to depend mainly on the description of
about half are Cheviots. In the counties pasturage. On the short, sweet herbage of
south of the Forth they may be estimated at the comparatively dry eastern counties, the
about 2,000,000, and in the Highland coun- wool is fine, bringing fully id. per pound
ties about 1,600,000. Besides these, there more than the heavier, stronger-piled fleeces
are probably about 500,000 Cheviots in the of Dumfriesshire and the western counties,
north of England. but the fleece is lighter. The heaviest
A succession of open winters after 1848 Cheviots, both in carcase and wool, are pro-
induced many Highland farmers, especially bably those reared on the deep strong lands
those from the Lowlands, to cross their stocks of Eskdalemuir. Taking Scotland on the
of blackfaced sheep with Cheviot rams, and whole, regular hill stocks of Cheviot sheep
for some years the speculation seemed sue- will clip barely 3^ lb. each of white washed
cessfuL The hard winter of 1859-60, and wool. A very few farms run as high as
succeeding cold years, however, caused very nearly 5 lb. per fleece. The stocks in the
great loss, and many farms were again re- best parts of the Highlands clip fully as much
stocked with the hardier blackfaced. This is as the Lowland sheep, but this arises from
one reason for the high price of blackfaced the number of wedders kept in the northern
lambs for the last ten years, as the process of districts. Cheviot wedder hoggs, wintered
rc-stocking with that breed is hardly yet on turnips, will average fully 4 lb. per fleece,
finished. From the supply being comparatively limited
The Cheviot sheep in its original state was and not increasing, and from its fitness for
a small light-woolled sheep, generally with making tweeds, now so generally worn, the
some grey or yellow markings on llie face price of Cheviot wool has advanced in greater
and legs. About the beginning of this cen- proportions of late years than the finer cloth-
tury they were much improved by careful ing wools, the supply of which is much more
selection, and by an infusion of the blood of elastic.
the Bakewell Leicesters. This increased the In the south of Scotland sheep farms gra

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

from 400 to 4000 sheep, but a very common
size is from 800 to 1000, Each sheep re-
quires about 2 acres of average moorland
pasture. The shepherds have each about
600 sheep to attend to ; they are paid gene-
rally by the grazing of a cow, about 42 sheep
of their own amongst their master's, and an
allowance of meal. Theu: emoluments of
late years have been about jQ^^ a-year, be-
sides a free house, and generally peats for
fuel. As a rule, they are a superior thought-
ful class of men, and theu: sheep and cow
represent either amassed capital or a reputa-
tion sufficient 'to get credit The rams are
put to the ewes about Martinmas, and the
lambs are dropped in the end of April and
beginiling of May. The sheep are shorn
early in July, and the lambs separated from
their mothers in August. The farmers' sales
are all in autumn, and consist of the wool,
all the wedder lambs, such of the ewe lambs
as are not required to keep up the stock, and
the six-year-old or draft ewes. On a farm of
1000 sheep, about 150 six-year-old ewes will
be sold and about 200 of the best ewe lambs
kept, the difference of 50 representing the
annual casualties, or about 5 per cent of
the whole. On an average, from 46 to
48 lambs in all are sold from each 100
sheep, hogg, and ewe on the farm. Fully
a larger number used to be sold, but since
the last infusion of softer blood the propor-
tion has come down from 4 to 5 per cent
Either from that or some other cause few
farms feed as many sheep now as they did
five-and-twenty years ago. The ewe lambs
are sold to farmers on lower grounds, to be
crossed with the Leicester ram. The wedder
lambs are sold to arable farmers, are wintered
on turnips, grazed and clipped next summer,
and after being again put on turnips, are fit for
killing about Christmas. They are then
about twenty months old, and weigh from 17
lb. to 20 lb. per qr. The draft ewes are sold,
and a crop of half-bred lambs taken from
them on low land. They are then fattened
for the butcher.

In the Highlands the farms are largei
in the Lowlands, from 2000 to 5000
being about the usual holding, and
extensive flockmasters have from io,o<
20,000 sheep. Each sheep requires
double the land allotted per head ii
Lowlands, or fully 4 acres each. Few <
farms keep purely breeding stocks,
generally wedders are grazed on the 1:
ranges of the farm, and there are a
many large farms where wedders onl;
kept, the lambs being purchased each aul
The wedder lambs are rarely winter
home, but grass and turnips are take
them on low-lying farms. The morta
much greater than in the south, espe
among young sheep, and the death-ra
much heavier on the west coast than i
drier eastern counties.

The improvement most required in CI
sheep farming is probably providing a
liberal supply of food in winter. Mr A
son, of Linhope, a well-known and e:
enced sheep farmer, has long pointed ou
this can be done by the regular mowi:
hay in summer to be given the flocks ir
ter. On farms where there is any exte
deep clay land this can be easily done
out enclosures, as there is greater growl
summer on this land than the sheep car
sume, and a large portion of the hei
only falls down and rots. On the dry
it is not so easy to adopt this syste
enclosures are necessary in order to ge
swathe of grass, and in many cases
dressing with lime, which it is often dif!
or even almost impossible, to get cartec
Bones, are, however, more portable,
quite as effectual. On high-lying :
especially, the landlords ought not to gi
the cost of enclosing portions for me^
as on these farms the whole stocks hav(
quently, from heavy snow, to be remov
low-lying land, at a great expense to th
mer, and the sheep would do much bet
home on theu: own familiar run, if ther
hay with which to feed them.

The Country Gmtlematis Magazint 59

THE APPLICATION OF LIME TO AGRICULTURE,

By Mr Allan, Danvamic*

AMONGST the many advantages which great classes — (i), new land or land that is

an extended and enlightened com- being reclaimed from a state of nature ; and

merce has conferred on the north of Scot- (2), old land, or land that has been arable for

hnd, the introduction of lime, at a cheap rate a number of years. First then, new land — It

and in sufficient quantities from those dis- is in its effects on this, when applied, as is

tiicts where it is found in the greatest abund- usually done in its caustic or quicklime

ance, has not been the least important to the state, that lime gives the most decisive evi-

agriculturist The Ross-shire farmer of the dences of its greatest powers as an agricul-

present day in many instances possesses tural agent We all know how admirably it

steadings, the elegance and handiness of acts upon moory, peaty, healthy, clayey, and

which contrast favourably with the uncouth other soils, * which contain a large portion of

and ancient lookmg " squares " so conunon coarse vegetable matter — ^how quickly and

in the Lothians ; in these steadings he is thoroughly it pulverizes them and brings

able to rear stock of which he has got no them to that earthy state, which is most

reason to be ashamed ; and he is also able favourable for the production of green cereal

to produce grain — in some places wheat — crops. In ordinary circumstances, by the

which holds a high position in the market — slow process of putrefication and insect

being second to no other produced in Scot- digestion, this state could only have been

land. It would not be a whit too much to brought about in a very slow and imperfect

say that in those districts of the north where manner. Lime, also, from its well-known

lime has been used in a proper manner, the property of destroying diflferent kinds of in-

harvest has been hastened on by from ten to sects^ such as worms, snails, slugs, grubs, &c.,

fourteen days. When it is added that the which are most abundant in rich fresh soils,

qoality of grain has been greatly improved, niay thus furnish much nutritious matter for

aye, and the quantity greatly augmented, it the support of vegetation. Furthermore,

will be seen that a change for the better has from its having a greater tendency to com«

been produced by liming. That lime im- bine with mucilaginous oily matters than with

proves the quality of grain is a well-known fixed alkalies, a kind of calcareous soap may,

fact Grain grown on land that has been in some cases, be formed, which may contri-

limed has a thinner skin, and yields more l>ute in its liquid state, to the nourishment

flour or meal than that produced on similar of plants. With regard to the quantity of

land that has not been limed. The reason lime that should be applied to new land, that

fiv this is that lime, which has the power of depends in a great measure on the nature and

converting mucilage into starch, does so in quality of the soil or soils of which it is con-

tiiis instance by hastening on the process of stituted. On stiff, tenacious, heavy, clayey

iq)emng of the seed. Since, therefore, lime soils from twenty-five to thirty-five bolls per

is such an important agent in the hands of imperial acre may be used with advantage,

the agriculturist, the subject is one which d^ ?ut really there are so many diflferent kinds
serves his dose and careful study. . of clayey soil — some have such a large pro-

TH« EFFECTS OF LIME : QUANTITY REQUIRED. P^^^° ^^ ^"^' ^^^^" ^^"'^ ^^ ^ ^^e

proportion of animal and vegetable sub-

^e lands m this quarter on which lime is, stances in their composition, and yet bearing

iBcdm^rbe convementiy divided into two such a general resemblance to each other—

* Read bdbie the Wester Ross Farmers* Club. thit they would need be carefully examined

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

and tested before fixing on the quantity of
lime to be applied. On other kinds of soil,
generally speaking, a smaller dose of lime
will suffice. From seven to fifteen bolls, in
proportion as the soil is shallow and poor
or deep and rich. If the soil be so poor as
to contain little or qo vegetable matter in it
— as in the case of some of the upland
moorish crofts, where such new land is being
ploughed every year — it is a great mistake to
use more than six or seven bolls on the acre ;
while, in the case of land having a subsoil of
pan, I don't think it is desirable to use hme
at all. Finally, let it be noted that new land,
if wet, should be thoroughly drained before
the application of lime ; otherwise I fear, very
little benefit will be derived fi-om the experi-
ment

APPLYING LIME TO THE SOIL.

Some practical farmers, indeed, go the
length of asserting that artificial manures now-
a-days perform all the essential functions of
lime on land, and therefore that the latter
might safely be dispensed with altogether.
This is a view, however, in which, having all
the facts of the case before me, I cannot
concur. I admit that the use of artificial
manures, which is now so universal, and
which, within the last thirty years has drawn
a revenue from this country, which, if added
up, would strike every one here with astonish-
ment — I admit, I say, that the use of these
has, to a great extent, revolutionized agricul-
ture, and largely modified the normal
condition of the soil. I admit, too, that,
inasmuch as certain kinds of artificial manures
contain small quantities of lime in their com-
position — very small quantities they are —
they may so far perform the functions of
lime. But we must bear in mind, as I
mentioned already, that the main operations
of lime, and of these artificial manures, on
land are almost entirely distmct. Lime does
not enter to any great extent into the actual
composition of plants, and therefore its action
on the plant must be mainly from without.
Before applying lime to old land, a farmer
should ask himself several questions. Was
Ihis land ever limed before ? And if so-

how long since? What quantity was
applied? Is the land clayey, loam]
light ? Is it in good heart, or in an exha
state ? The answers to these queries si
largely influence him in the quantity 1
applied per acre. I should say that on 1
clayey soils from 25 to 30 bolls per
might be applied— to be repeated
eight years ; while on light or loamy
the quantity should not exceed 8 or 10
an acre — to be repeated every ten ;
The more dormant vegetable matter
contains, the more lime does it ne
awaken such matter to life and activitj!
in like proportion will lime be more ben(
to it When, on the other hand, la
hungry and run out, while a very
quantity of lime may do it some gOi
large quantity acts on it precisely the
way as too much whisky or brandy do(
the stomach of a hungry man. With re
then, to the manner of applying lim
far as my experience has gone, I have f
it to answer best when put on the land I
laying down the green crop. In anticip
of this operation, the land should be
ploughed, then harrowed and rolled,
finally squared in lines, so as to form
36 yards square each, for the guidance c
men who are to spread the lime. Whe
lime is taken from the ship or railway st:
it should be laid on the land in heaps
allowed to slake before being spread.

THE PREPARATION OF LIME.

The use of lime has sometimes bee
jected to by farmers, on account of iti
posed tendency to sink down in thi
below the reach of the plough, and th
becoming of no use. This can prol
however, only be the case where the lin:
not been sufficiently burnt, or afterwar
its application properly reduced to a poi
state, and spread out equally over the
Where these points are well attended t
such consequence can take place, fc
very simple reason that lime is lighter
most lands, and therefore does not sink,
is especially the case with the finer kir

The Application of Lime to Agriculture 6i

Hme; but, when it is coarse and gritty, no of mineral substances in looo lbs. grain is 17

doubt it may occasionally fall down, when lbs. 11^ oz., of which lime constitutes 9^^

collected on the surface during the time of oz., or less than one twenty-ninth of the

rdterated ploughing, or othenvise stirring the whole; and that the total in 1000 lbs. straw

ground, and rest upon the more stiff and firm is 41 lbs. 6 oz., of which lime constitutes 2

sabsoil below the track of the plough, while lbs. qJ^ oz., or less than one sixteenth of the

in the other cases it is coarse and gritty ac- whole. Again in the grain there arc ten

OHiding to the different degrees of impurity, times as many parts of phosphorus as of lime;

Gene]:ally speaking, that which is softest, and and in the straw about ten times as many

smoothest, and whitest, is best for the pur- parts of silica as of lime. And this stands to

poses of agriculture. Although Hme exercises reason ; for if plants were to consume a great

such a powerful influence upon vegetable life, quantity of lime — as -great, for example, as

it does not enter so largely as several other they do of phosphorus, silica, and potash — ^it

minerals into the actual composition of plants, is quite evident that a dose of lime would not

If we take 1000 lbs. (one thousand pounds) continue to operate much longer on the soil

of the grain, and the same quantity of the than a dose of Peruvian guano or other

straw of wheat, and bum them, the following similarly constituted artificial manure. It is

mineral substances will, according to the best by its operations on other substances, animal

authorities, be found in the ashes : — and vegetable, with which it comes in contact,

Grain. Straw. resolving and preparing them for entering

• lb. oz. lb. oz. iJito new combinations, that lime exercises

Potash 58 4 4 those influences which are so beneficial to

Soda { o 9^ I 3 vegetable life. Lime extracts the carbonic

^, * V o 9>i 2 9^ ^zv\. On these accounts, great attention

Magnesia 23 i i|i 1 1 1 t • , 11 ,• r

Silica (Flint) ... o 5 28 12 ^^^uld be paid not only to the quality of

Sulphur o 5^ I 3 linfie one gets, but also to the reduction of it

Phosphorus ^ 3 • 2 5 to the most perfect powdery state, as well as

the spreading it out over the land with the

Totals 17 11% 41 6 g^^^^^3^ ^q^^y^y^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^gg ^^^^

It will thus be seen that the total amount lumpiness.

THE UTILIZA TION OF PEA T.

IN our November number, under the head
of " Improvement of Waste Lands in
Satherlandshire,'' we adverted to some in-
teresting experiments that were being made
by the Duke of Sutherland for utilizing sur-
fisu:e peat, and making it into composite fuel,
by mixing it with sawdust or small coal,
pointing out the great value of such cxperi-
mentSy and we now purpose dealing with the
topic at the greater length which its useful-
ness deserves, in the hope of inducing those
of our readers who may be interested in this
very important subject, to give it their prac-
tical consideration.

From the humid nature of the Irish climate,
which offers one of the greatest obstacles to
the successful drying of peat, perhaps it
would be more convenient if we were briefly
to review the subject from its Irish aspect

The superficial area of bog in Ireland is
estimated at 2,830,000 acres, and turf can be
obtained in all directions. Roughly speak-
ing, it is supposed to contain about half the
heating power of coal. The bogs of Cloon-
sas-cargh, Ballindeery, Sylane, and Wood-
quay in the neighbourhood of Tuanj, are rich
in calorific power ; there are those of Kerry
and Cork in the south, and the bogs of

62 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

Antrim, Monaghan, Tyrone and Down in been in use of late years, for drying

the north, through all of which districts rail- in circular kilns under cover, wher

ways pass ; so that there would be no bricks are dried with great rapidity by

difficulty on the score of transport, if it were of heated air. Wherever the bricks ai

sought to make it a marketable commodity, made by this method, the necessity ex

instead of being usied merely as a local fuel bringing the coal to the site of operi

supply j and as the Bog of Allan is crossed which is often done at a very heavy <

by the Grand Canal, the turf could be easily but in the case of drying peat by this pi

cut all along that line from Robertstown to the fuel is to be had lying imder fo

Ballinasloe, and thus give employment at nothings for it needs only the first insLa

their own doors to great numbers of the of dry fuel, to keep on continuously d

Irish people. The two great turf saving Such a system would also be compara

months are August for cutting, and Sep- inexpensive, if the peat were dried in a

tember for drying and stacking. Accord- state. It is needless for us to enter in

ing to the method by which turf is got description of such a process here, as

now, it depends entirely upon the season, are those in plenty whose experience

whether it be wet or dry, what the mea- qualify them at once to put a plan o

sure of success may be, in thus securing sort into immediate working, when ono

the turf harvest, and a fuel famine in re- had a hint of the sort of thing tha

mote districts in Ireland is by no means an required. Being under cover, this p

uncommon circumstance, even with a com- could be carried on independently c

paratively inexhaustible store lying under foot weather, by the assistance of on

in every direction, and with a superabundance labourers, when it was too wet to allow

of labour, because during a wet season there to work upon the ground, and would <

is no means of drying it. Under such quently afford them occupation at

conditions there is the utmost difficulty ex- when many of them would be otherwi:

perienced even by the most active and pains- employed.

taking, to secure a sufficient quantity in a diy This, we take it, is the proper

condition for winter consumption, while in tion to which efforts should be directec

dry seasons the business can be accomplished not in those of the costly experimentj

easily enough. have hitherto been mostly made, a

If then, it has been pertinently asked, there simple plan of the nature we have indi<

are such difficulties at times, in obtaining could be put into practice in almost

even a local supply for the actual needs of a farm throughout the United Kingdom ^

few people, what are the chances of success peat is to be found,
of the manufacture of peat fuel, rewarding From the abundance of coal tha

commercial and private enterprise, in pro- hitherto been readily got at in these n

viding large quantities for a continuous ex- there is no doubt but that the value of

traneous consumption ? But this difficulty is as fuel has been very much overlooked,

not nearly so insurmountable as it is gene- great ironworks in Sweden make use

rally represented to be. Although a great as do also many in Germany and Fi

many experiments have been made with peat The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada

fuel, unfortunately the experiments have not all the State railways in Bavaria also u

been made in the right direction. We can It is worthy of remark that it has also

recal to mind the improved system that has sold, to a limited. extent, even in Lo

Tlie Country Genitematis Magazine 63

FINGER'AND'TOE IN TURNIPS.

By Mr T. F. Jamieson.*

I AM inclined to think that finger-and-toe ploughing, and also why it is generally neces-
13 caused by a bad chemical condition sary to apply lime to newly reclaimed lands
of the soil, which acts as a poison upon the before crops can be got to thrive on it. The
roots of the plant. This state of the soil is lime decomposes these poisonous compounds
often brought about by working it when too of sulphur and iron — the 'sulphur combining
wet The effect of doing so is to close up with the lime to form sulphate of lime or
the pores of the soil, and thereby exclude gypsum, which is useful to plants. The lime
the proper entrance of the air, so that the also combines with any free acid, and re-
land becomes soured, and forms an unhealthy moves the sourness of the soil, and I have
medium for the roots to spread in. The air no doubt it is for these reasons that lime is
itself, and more especially the oxygen of it, found to prevent finger-and-toe. Good fertile
is a chemical agent of considerable import- soil, as Dr Voelcker has told us, should have
ance, and its access to the interior of the no acid reaction, it should be either neutral or
soil is necessary for many of the changes that slightly alkaline. Now, I have found the soil
go on there. One principal reason why we about the roots of turnips which were badly
plough and break up the ground is just to ex- smitten with disease to be actually sour or acid,
pose it to this action of the air. If air is by testing it vAih litmus paper. The reason
denied, the decomposition of the farm-yard why the headlands or end ridges of fields are
manure and vegetable matter of the soil can- generally most diseased is no doubt because
not go on rightly, and they produce chemical they are more trampled on, and are generally
compounds of a different nature, which are ploughed and drilled and sown all at once,
often injurious and poisonous to plants, so that the soil is not exposed to the action
This is the case in regard to oxide of iron in of the air in the same way that the rest of
the soiL The decaying vegetable matter the field is. Ground that has been much
must have oxygen, and if it cannot get it trodden, or has formed a road track, or has
from the air, it takes it from the mineral been flooded by water, is apt to produce
matter of the soil, and robs the oxide of iron finger-and-toe, and in all these cases we have
of part of its oxygen, producing the greenish the same causes at work — namely, exclusion
protoxide of iron which is injurious to plants, of the air. The soil being compressed or
The sulphur, also, of the decaying organic covered with water, of course has its pores
matter, for want of oxygen forms com- closed up, and the air finds no admission,
binations of a poisonous nature, such Although the unsightly excrescences on the
as sulphuretted hydrogen, and unites bulb of the turnip are the most prominent
with the iron to form the black sul- feature of the disease, yet this evil seems to
phide of iron and proto-sulphate of iron, all commence much lower down, with the fine
of which are injurious to vegetation. It is fibrous roots. When a turnip is in a healthy
chiefly in the lower part of the soil or subsoil thriving state, it throws out a quantity of fine
where the air does not reach, that these com- fibrous roots like cotton thread, which run
pounds are formed, anJ this is the reason through the soil in all directions, and are the
why it is often mischievous to bring up much organs for absorbing food and moisture from
of the bottom stuff all at once by very deep the ground ; but when the plant is attacked

by finger-and-toe, it will be found that the

* Introdnctory Address at the Aberdeen University, find fibres perish first, and the plant thus

64 The Country Gaitleman's Magazine

loses its hold of the soil. These rootlets weather bright and scorching, the plan

cannot grow or even live in the sour un- more likely to perish. I therefore coi

healthy soil. The disease, properly speaking, the excrescences to be the effect produc

commences with them. The plant, when it the diseased state of the fibrous roots,

brairds, often flourishes exceedingly well at fine rootlets are killed by the noxious

first, so long as the roots are near the surface, of the soil ; this cuts off the supp

but when they meet with the sour soil below, moisture, so that the tissues of the

they recoil from it — they refuse to enter it, become too dry, and the sap being too

and become corroded and die off. It is the commences to deposit woody matter i

function of these rootlets to supply water and bulb. This obstructs the channels

sap to the plant. Almost all the water im- which the fluids of the plant flow,

bibed by the plant goes in at the roots ; the matter is continually deposited formi

leaves take in little or none ; their office is tumour which soon breaks, owing t(

different; they give out moisture and expose pressure of the fresh stuff deposited i^it

the sap to the action of the Hght and air. forcing its way out. This matter is

Now when the roots perish, the supply of drier and more woody character thai

water is cut off. and the leaves begin to droop tissue of a healthy sound turnip is. Altl

in a hot sunny day, which is one of the first dry weather and a parched state of th(

symptoms that attract notice. This indicates may cut off the supply of water to the

a want of action in the roots, and a deficiency yet they do not act in the same way.

of water in the plant. The sap consequently plant, no doubt, suffers from want of moi

becomes too thick. Under ordinary circum- and its leaves wither, but the roots ai

stances, the sap, after being passed through killed. A strong drought may kill ma

the leaves, descends to aid the growth of all the leaves, but it stimulates: the roots, ^

parts of the plant, and at its young stage goes push out farther in all directions in sea:

in a considerable degree to increase the water. But in finger-and-toe the reve:

fibrous roots. the case — the leaves are healthy, bu

Root fibres and leaves are the first necessity rootlets are poisoned and killed.
of the young vegetable. But the demand The past season (1872) is one calci

for sap to the roots being qhecked, it accumu- to teach us a good deal regarding the r

lates in the bulb, and commences to deposit of this disease. It shews us very unmi*

woody fibre there, probably because the sap ably how much depends upon the con<

is more dried up and thicker than it ought to of the soil, and how necessary it is to

be. The tap root, therefore, becomes gorged it when dry so as to admit the air in

with woody tissue, which by its deposit forms Finger-and-toe, therefore, in my opinic

tumours that grow rapidly, and soon burst caused by a bad chemical condition c

through the skin of the root, forming those soil, this bad state of the soil being proc

unsightly cauliflower-like excrescences which in most cases by want of air or oxygen, '

are the most remarkable feature of the leads to the formation of compounds

disease. The growth of these tumours is nature poisonous to the roots of the ti

often very rapid, the stuff forcing its way out These injurious substances may, howev

by the pressure of fresh matter deposited present from the original constitution •

within. At first they are smooth skinned, soil, owing to the nature of the m

but the skin cracks and becomes more and matter from which it has been derived,

more fissured as they enlarge. If the weather in Oxfordshire, the lower green sand f

is moist and warm, the plants struggle hard tion is notorious for producing finger-ai

against the disease, and the leaves continue in the turnips grown upon it. This

green and vigorous, and often become sand takes its peculiar hue from the pre

luxuriant, even when the roots are much of a mineral called glauconite, which co:

affected ; but if the soil is dry, and the a very large amount of protoxide of iro

Finger-and-Toe in Turnips, 65

The best practical advice I can give to the. years in grass. Get the soil as well exposed

fiumer regarding the prevention of finger- to the air as possible, and to this intent it

«nd-toc in his turnip crop is to avoid plough- will be beneficial to form the drills some time

ing and working his land when too wet ; to before the crop is to be sown. We shall

give a good dose of lime, and to interpose as probably find that, the longer we cultivate the

long an interval as possible between the sue- turnip, the more precarious and delicate the

cessive turnip crops. Where liming cannot crop will grow, and the more difficult it will

be accomplished, either from its too great be to obtain large weights per acre. This is

eq)ense, or from its likelihood of proving partly owing to our imperfect knowledge of

injurious to the oat crop on certain light soils, all the elements required by the plant The

then avoid the common five years* rotation, gradual improvement in the processes of

which is now so usual in Aberdeen, and is so chemical analysis will no doubt teach us

often prescribed in the regulations of estates, more of this subject, as well as of many

and allow the ground to lie three or more others.

TURNIPS AND TURNIP. MANAGEMENT.

FROM a paper upon the Management of where farmers have not steam tackle of their
Green Crops, read by Mr H. Newby own, I should strongly advise them to hire
Fraser, before the Brampton Farmers' Club, we from the steam-cultivating companies, which
make Uie following extract regarding the culti- are at present being formed throughout the
valion and management of turnips : — I mean county, and which are now about to commence
to lay down as a great and fundamental rule, operations. Having had my stubble all deeply
he said, for the successful cultivation of all turned over in autumn, I have allowed it to
green crops, deep autumn cultivation, and to remain rough, after which I have had the land
more thoroughly ensure success, the land ought harrowed and cultivated, or grubbed by steam,
to be turned over as soon after harvest as and after each of these operations have left the
possible, while in a dry state, say in September remainder to be done by horses. The first thing
and October. I know in making this assertion to be done necessary to ensure success in the
I shall lay myself open to the contradiction of turnip crop is to obtain a fine mould at any cost
many skilled and successful farmers, who hold As the old adage says, " Where clods prevail
that land intended for the growth of green crops the turnips fail ;" and this having been accom-
ought not to be touched in autumn at all, and plished by the means just mentioned, a pair of
that two light furrows in spring is an applicable horses are immediately put into the double
management to all classes of soils. With regard mould-board plough, and drills drawn for swedes
to the cultivation and general management of 28 to 30 inches apart, and about 6 inches deep,
the turnip crop, I have always proceeded as I always have the whole operations going on at
fcdlows : — First, since becoming possessed of a once, the required number of hands putting
let of steam tackle, I have had the land dug as dung into the carts, leading, drawing out th
deeply as circumstances would permit immc- dung, spreading it, others sowing artificial
diately after harvest, and before I had steam manure, after which the second plough is kept
appliances of mv own and that mode of culti- close up, covering in the n.anures ; and last of
vation came into such general requisition as at all the turnip drill follows up, sowing the seed,
present, I used a very strong iron plough, into It takes about 15 or 16 hands to carry out these
which four horses were yoked abreast, and kept various operations at once, consequently it is
this going until thie whole of the stubble was only practicable on large farms, where the re-
turned over, which was generally accomplished quired number of horses and hands can be ob-
hy Martinmas. I have, however, no hesitation tained ; but where it can possibly be carried out
in saying that the operation known as steam there is no doubt that it is by far the best plan
diggiog is by far the best, and in every case more especially in dry seasons, .as the dung is

vol- X F

The Country Gentlemaiis Magazine

at once covered in while in a sappy state, and
the seed deposited while there is moisture in
the ground, thus giving it a much better chance
of germinating. As to the time of sowing tur-
nips, I am not aware that any rule can be
laid down for this operation, although for swedes
May is generally considered to be about the best
season ; the first part of June for yellows ; and
the last part of that month for white and Grub-
tom globe. I have sown seeds during the last
days of April with good results, and also ob-
tained satisfactory crops from sowing on loth
June, so that it is entirely a question of seasons,
and certainly this year there was no growth until
the end of May.

THE MANURIAL MANAGEMENT OF TURNIPS.

With regard to the manurial management of
the turnip crop, there can be no doubt that,
more especially for swedes, a liberal application
of well-rotted dung for it is highly advan-
tageous, but I am of opinion they cannot be so
successfully, and I may add, profitably grown,
without the addition of some artificial fertilizer,
such as guano or bones, the latter in the nume-
rous forms and compounds under which they
are manufactured and sold. Since guano has
become so scarce and dear, and inferiqr in
strength and quality, to what it was ten years
ago, I have used very little of it, believing that
bones, although not as quick in their action at
the start, carry out the crop much longer at the
latter stages of its growth, and the benefit de-
rived from their use in the succeeding grain and
grass crops is very marked. My usual practice
for swedes has been to apply 15 or 16 cartloads
of farmyard manure per acre in drills in the
spring, to which has been added 4 or 5
cwt. of the best dissolved bones ; and the
general results I have obtained from this mode
of management are such as I have every rea-
son to be satisfied with. I have, and always
have had, strong and decided objections to lead-
ing out farmyard manures into the unturned
stubble in autumn, and have invariably preferred
to carry out the practice of spring manuring,
because when you lead out the dung in autumn
you delay the ploughings of your stubbles,
which, as I before said, to get down in a dry
time is of the utmost importance. Next, after a
wet and open winter, such as last, the rains wash
the liquid portions of the manure into the sub-
soil, which it is not our object to enrich, but
rather the upper or top portion of the soil. I
also consider it a wasteful plan, because it does
not^ ^o so far as when kept under cover all win-

ter, and led right out into the drills ; andanoth
disadvantage it has is, that if your land is at s
foul and dirty, there is the tendency to make tl
twitch and other couch grow much more vigo
ously in an open winter. Not being able
make as much farmyard manure as will go ovi
the whole of my green crop, although I hope i
time to do so, I give 10 cwt. of dissolved bone
alone, taking care to manure all that portion (
the crop upon the ground with sheep. Commo
turnips do not require such liberal managemei
as swedes, unless intended to be pulled, and i
cartloads of dung together with 4 carts art
ficial per acre ought to be sufficient.

VARIETIES.

Having now got the question of manurin
exhausted, the next point, and a very importat
one it is, is — there being many varieties of tui
nips — which are the best kinds to sow? an
here, I may remark, while on the question (
seed, that I think it would be very much to th
advantage of all of us, if we were to grow a
much turnip seed as would be adequate to cii
own requirements, seeing that there is so muc
inferior seed upon the market, and it would b
an easy matter to transplant a few of the besi
grown bulbs, thereby insuring new and genuin
seed, and good stock. There are a great man
varieties of turnips, most of which are ver
good, and I have been in the habit of usin
Sutton's Champions, a variety called Bangholn
and Skirving for swedes ; for yellow tumipi
Tortertom hybrid ; and for whites the Pome
ranian white globe, which come in at differei
seasons for their various uses.

OPERATING UPON THE GROWING CROP.

Having chosen new seed, and got it sown, th
next operation is that of thinning or hoeinj
which ought to be carefully and well doni
cleaning the sides of the drills well down, an
leaving the plants at a distance of from 10 t
14 inches apart, according to the quality an
condition of the land. I have sometimes 1<
the hoeing of turnips to a contractor in Penritl
especially if pushed for time, and by bringin
out 20 or 30 in a gang they go over a larg
breadth in a day, at a cost of, in ordinary year
6s. 6d. and 7s. per acre, but this year they d(
manded and obtained 8s. and los. per acr
The young turnip plants having been goi
through a second time, to see that none hai
been left too close together, and to correct ai
other mistakes, all that is further required
horse work, such as stitch grubbing, scufl
harrowing, &c., the amount required of wlii<

Turnips and Turnip Management

Is upon the cleanness and fineness of the
If the land is heavy and wet, it is advi-
;o use the double mould-board plough
n the drills, in order to carry off any
but in light and friable soils this is posi-
njurious, as the more moisture that can
ined the better.

ENEMIES OF THE PLANT.

tender turnip plant has many enemies to
d with during the earlier stages of its
, but that which gives us most annoy-
nd anxiety is what is commonly called
which settles upon the young plants as
s they appear above ground, frequently
and punishing them to such an extent
le process of hoeing is delayed two or
reeks, and often proving so very destruc-
at re-sowing with the common varieties
be resorted to, thus not only causing the
» be late, but entailing upon the farmer
5 of his most valuable varieties. Some
es are very much more subject than
to this troublesome pest, but, as a rule,
is worse in its ravages on farms where

there are wood and big, cumbersome hedgerows
round the field ; but even those farms which lay
open and exposed are not exempt — as, for in-
stance, my own farm, which lies high and open^
is very much troubled with the fly, while, on the
other hand, a parish in Dumfriesshire with
which I am connected, where the soil is par-
ticularly well adapted to the growth of turnips,
such a pest as the fly is unknown. To prevent
the ravages of the fly upon farms where the
turnip crop is grown to a large breadth, is next
to an impossibility, without entailing a very
heavy expense indeed, and has baffled the at-
tempts of able experimenters. That it can be
mitigated upon a small scale I am open to ad-
mit, by the use of newly-slaked lime, sulphur,
soot, and lime mixed, applied along the coulter
rows in showery weather. Sometimes, however,
in very dry summers, such as 1868, we have no
showers, and then the fly is worst ; and in very
wet seasons — such as the present has been — the
rain washes off the application. And then
imagine the expense and trouble of thus treating
50 or 100 acres. Therefore, I say it is almost
impracticable.

THE SEWAGE WORKS AT EALING.

:NERAL SCOTrS plan for the deodo-
rizing and utilization of sewage, which
re previously described, is being tested
ling, a town of about 10,000 inhabi-
The scheme of the gallant inventor, it
remembered, consists in a process which
tates little more than the suspended
and leaves the effluent water available
[gation, or capable, by additional pro-
of being sufficiently purified to be dis-
d into streams or rivers. He adds to
/age either lime alone or lime mixed with
Qd suspended in water, and he obtains a
tate which contains all the lime and clay
^ed, all the sludge of the sewage, and
if the lime which the sewage water held
ition. The large excess of lime which
recipitate contains serves to arrest or
t putrefaction, so that it can be dried
t offence, and stored as long as may be
uy for the purposes to which it is
sdly to be apphed. These purposes are
d ; first, the making of cement ; secondly,
king of agricultural lime.

From an account which appears in the Titms
we learn that the tanks at Ealing are arranged
in two sets for alternate use, and when a
sufficient quantity of slush has accumulated in
either set, it is drawn out below and received
in a reservoir for the purpose. Formerly it was
dried in a sort of furnace, but this plan has been
abandoned in favour of pressure. The slush,
while still sufficiently liquid, is pumped into a
press such as is used in the preparation of clay
for pottery, and the liquid that is squeezed out
is pumped back to rejoin the entering stream of
sewage. The press consists of a series of
channeled wooden boards, placed side by side
in a frame, and each furnished on one side with
a double sheet of calico capable of being folded
into a sort of bag. The slush is pumped into
all the bags simultaneously through a stand
pipe, which connects with a nozzle fitted to
each, and the calico retains the solids while it
suffers the fluid to escape. The continued
pumping at last not only fills the bags with solid
matter, but compresses them between the boards
in such a way that this matter is formed into a

The Country GmtlematCs Magazine

cake, something after the fashion of oil-cake,
and firm enough to be cut into pieces of suitable
size, which are stacked for future use. The
"cake" so prepared undergoes no further
change beyond losing a little moisture in dry
weather. It emits no offensive odour or nothing
beyond a faint mouldy smell ; and large heaps
of it may be collected together without any
nuisance being occasioned. For burning it.
General Scott has employed a kiln with down-
ward draught, so that no foetid gases escape
into the atmosphere ; and with a single small
kiln at Ealing he has made all the products
which have been mentioned — hard cement,
tender cement, and agricultural lime. The
cements have been fully tested in practice, and
have been found to be of excellent quality, but
the lime has not yet been applied in any quantity
to land. Analysis of its composition, however,
shews that it would be exceptionally valuable for
this purpose, by reason of the amount of phos-
phate which it contains ; and General Scott
calculates that every ton would carry to the soil
a quantity of phosphate of lime equal to that
contained in 535 lb. of bone dust.

An important element in so dealing with
sewage as to obtain from it the minimum of an-
noyance, is to subject it to chemical re-agents as
soon as possible. Under ordinary circum-
stances, however, a portion of the slush is de-
posited on the walls of a sewer, lining them with
a viscid coating, which is far advanced in de-
composition, and is the chief source of noxious
and offensive gases, with the result that, after
rain, the works do not receive, as might have
been expected, a larger quantity than usual of
a diluted sewage, but a larger quantity that is of
unusually bad character. In order to obviate
this difficulty, General Scott has tried the effect
of introducing his milk of lime into the sewer far
above the outfall, and he has had the gratifica-
tion of finding that this plan not only checks
putrefaction and arrests the development of gas,
but that it also mechanically scours the sides of
the sewer, and prevents the accumulation of de-
posit. The main sewer at Ealing, when thus
treated, can be traversed without inconvenience;
and General Scott has lately suggested that the

milk of lime employed should be charged with
chlorine, so as to fill the sewer with a more or
less chlorinated atmosphere, which would find
its way into the side drains also, especially if
any gas from them found its way into houses.

The exaggerated notions of the value of
sewage which were even recently entertained are
now well known to have rested upon fallacious
reasoning, and they are rapidly passing away
before the hard teachings of experience. We
have at last come to realize that sewage is essen-
tially a noxious thing ; and that, although it
contains materials which may be turned to good
account, yet the conditions under which these
materials exist are such as to prevent their
being made generally or largelyprofitable. Local
authorities must regard it as their first duty so
to dispose of the sewage of their districts as to
render it innocuous ; and as their second duty,
to do this at the smallest possible cost If any
margin of profit can be made, it should, of
course, be seized upon ; but this, at present, is
only likely to be the case under quite exceptional
circumstances. General Scott estimates that
the plant necessary for this process, for a popu-
lation of 25,000 persons, will cost ;^35oo, of
which sum about ;^iSoo will be required for
tanks, and may be saved where tanks are
already in existence. The cost of wages and
maintenance for such an establishment would
be about £^\^ per week, and the lime or cement
obtained should be sufficient to cover this ex-
penditure. For larger works there would be a pro-
portionately smaller outlay, and a larger amount
of production, so that the interest on the invested
capital might probably be paid. The process
removes from the sewage everything that is
coarsely ofifensive, isolates it in useful or harm-
less forms, and is not attended by any odours
or exhalations which would be productive of
annoyance even in the immediate vicinity of
the works. The freedom from offence is greatly
due to the fact that the lime is put in with a
liberal hand. In other processes it is not
wanted in the precipitate, and is therefore used
sparingly ; but in this it is entirely recovered,
and in enhanced value, whether for agricultural
purposes or as an ingredient in the cement.

The Country Gentleman's Ma^sine

%)iM €arb«n.

RENDLE'S PATENT "RUSTIC" GLASS ROSBRY.

NOTHING adds a greater charm to a critical. The cut we give shews Mr Rendle'a

well-kept and judiciously arranged Patent " Rustic " Rosery, and it will be seen

garden than a Rosery. Its picturesque ap- at once that it is neatly constructed, and de-

pearance, the soft blending of colour with signed on the most approved principles.

which it is embellished, and the air of refined Tfiey are made in various sizes, from to to

rusticity (if we might use th? term) which it 109 feet in diameter, and also in long con-

Kendlc s Rustic Gloss Koserr

casts over the landscape, combine to make it tinuous lengths. The design i§ adapted to
a most desirable acquisition to amateur the growth of Vines and other choice &uits.
gardeners. Mr W. Rendle has succeeded in These Roseries deserve a wide acceptance ;
prodacuig a Roseiy which, we feel sure, will they are moderate in price, strongly con-
nect with favour in the eyes of the most structed, and are of an artistic ippearance.

The Country Gmlleinat^s Magazine

PATENT " RUSTIC ORCHARD HOUSE.

MR K.ENDLE has put his excellent
glass protectors to good use in the
Patent " Rustic " Orchard House. The en-
graving given illustrates a novel arrange-
ment of a very useful character. This is
simply a glass roof, supported on each side
by rustic trelhs work. This design has
been exhibited during the summer at the

fallacious idea to keep them in confined air-
tight glass houses. All the leading hotti-
culturists are of opinion that too much air
cannot be given to Peaches and Nectarines
after the fruit is set. In the spring of the
year, when the bloom bud is firet bursting,
canvas or netting (oiled canvas if necessary)
can be put up against the sides of the house.

Rendle's Patent Rustic Orchard House.

great Horticultural Exhibitions at Birming- This can be put up or taken down as easily

ham, Cardiff, Dorchester, and Kelso. It is and simply as a window bHnd. When the

considered by all who have seen it to be one fruit is set and all danger of frost is past, then

of the best houses for growing Peaches, Nee- the netting or canvas can be taken down,

tarines, and other tender fruit ever introduced, and the health of the plants secured by a

Peaches and Nectarines, after the fruit is set, thorough circulation of air. We can safely

should have plenty of fresh air. It is a most recommend the " Rustic " Orchard House.

The Country Gentleman's Magazine 7;

CHEAP ORCHARD HOUSE.

Dly to a correspondent who desires but to insure their ripening properly. The

xmation how to build a cheap or- shoots of such trees also require a dry and

ouse, we give Mr Rivers' advice warm atmosphere in the autumn, even after

rom " The Orchard House," as being the fruit is gathered, or they will not ripen j

ly practical and sound. We agree and consequently they will not put forth

ith the author's remarks on ventila- vigorous fruit-giving blossoms,

d the needless expense incurred in A small span-roofed house is so simple in

ventilating roof-sashes in an ordinary its character that any self-taught builder or

use. Top ventilation is not required amateur may erect one. • The way to do it is

naple provision is made at the sides as follows : — Two rows of Oak posts, 5 inches

ds. Gardeners only seem to be by 3, and 9 feet long, should be firmly fixed

to the value of this fact quite 2 feet in the ground ; 6 feet out, 14 feet row

: — firom row, and 5 feet apart in the rows. On

ive a rough pen-and-ink sketch of each of these rows should be firmly nailed a

urite sort of orchard-house, the span- plate 4 inches by 2, to receive the lower ends

In houses of this kind Peaches and of the rafters. The rafters should b^ 8 feet
les do not, perhaps, ripen so early as long, and 3 inches by i J4 : they can be
to houses, but quite as early as on bought at any sawmill, planed and chamfered,
Owing to their being detached, they for los. or 12s. per 100 feet The ridge-
more thoroughly ventilated, and the board should be 5 inches by i, to which
n them is generally piquant in flavour, the upper ends of the two rows of rafters,
lation cannot be too light and airy after being sloped, should be nailed. As

2 span-roofed houses. I believe that the glass cannot be made to fit on the
houses on Epsom Downs would yield plate at bottom, a drip-board, 5 inches by i,
st Peaches in the world ; still they placed sloping to receive the lower ends o

ineligible even for low and moist the pieces of glass, must be fixed on the

)s, where they always give a compara- plate the full length of the house. On the

ry climate. ridge-board a smdl ledge must be nailed, for

tuations near the sea, or in valleys the upper ends of the pieces of glass to rest

ery humid air, or in the cool moist on. On the upper edge of the ridge-board,

i of many places in the north, a single a cap, 3 inches by i, shaped thus V should

dpe with hot water, to be kept heated be nailed, to shoot ofi" the water and prevent

)looming season, will be found most its entrance at the ridge,

al, as dry air prevents the pollen Description of my Small Span-roofed Or*

ued to the anthers, and much facili- chard-House. — Height at sides, 6 feet ; height

3 setting of the fruit. In autumn also to ridge, id feet; width, 14 feet The roof
1 be useful to hasten the ripening rests on Oak posts, 5 inches by 3 inches,*

5 feet apart (the usual way of building with

e Highlands, and in the cold stormy brick foundations and sills may be employed).

; of the north of either Scotland or

it will perhaps be quite necessary to

:e hot-water pipes into houses in * Oak posts of this sixe. I find, on referring to Ae

. '^ J A • wooden tombs in the churchyards, last from 50 to 60

^caches. Nectarines, and Apncots are years. Deal posts let into iron sockets are preferable

ultivated, not exactly to force them^ to any other mode of building orchard-houses of wood.

•

72 The Country Gmtleman's Magazine

It stands north-east and south-west, so that centre, and th^ borders for the trees on each

the sun shines all the early part of the day side. It may seem strange that no egress for

on the south-east side, and in the afternoon the heated air should be in the roof, and not

on the north-west side. quite as it ought to be ; but I deal only with

The rafters are 20 inches apart : it is glazed the result of much experience, and find that

with i6-ounce glass, in pieces 20 inches by by simply leaving a triangular aperture 9

15 inches, and has a row of glass 18 inches inches deep close under the gable of the

wide (in pieces 20 inches long placed end to roof, over the doorways at each end, no

end, without putty where they are joined) on stagnant air ever exists m my houses. These

each side under the eave-boards. Under the apertures are closed only on frosty nights in

glass also, on each side, is a ventilating shutter the spring, when the trees are in bloom, by a

of ^-inch board, i foot wide, on hinges piece of matting ; all the rest of the year they

opening downwards.* Below and above are left open. When the sun shines brightly,

this are boards (31^-inch), the former to the the heated air rushes out at each end rapidly

ground. The two ends are glazed, down to enough almost to turn a small windmill ; the

the lower edges of the glass at the sides, leaves of the trees are all in motion, and no

The rafters are 3 inches by ij^ inch, and scorching takes place. This low lateral ven*

are tied together at the apex of the roof by tilation is so perfect, that in two large houses,

a light flat iron tie screwed to every fourth 70 feet long and 20 feet wide, the only ven-

rafter. Besides these ties, and to prevent tilators are shutters i foot wide, on each side,

the posts going out, oaken spurs are fixed about 2 feet 6 inches from the ground. One

underground to every fourth post on each of these houses is heated by hot water all

side. This may appear to the eye a homely the summer for the culture of young Vines

structure, for there are no sashes, and the and Figs, yet no scorching ever occurs. I

roof is fixed ; but it is really light and most have ceased to think roof-ventilation neces-

cheerful-looking, sary in houses under 30 feet in width.

Now, as to ventilation. There are no The great saving effected in doing away with

apertures in the roof, for I have long roof-ventilation by the usual sliding sashes

since found my houses perfectly venti- will be apparent, if an estimate for buildmg

lated without them, and the shutters are i an orchard-house 14 feet wide be procured

foot 6 inches (the lower edges) from the from any of the regular hothouse builders,

ground. In sunny weather the air in the I have seen one which was at the rate of £^

house, from the great quantity of sunlight los. per lineal foot, making a house 100 feet

admitted by the large pieces of glass, becomes long and 14 feet wide cost ^1^450 ; whUe one

soon rarefied ; and then the comparatively built as I have described can be well finished

heavy cool air from without enters below in for something considerably under ;^ioo. I

two continuous currents. This, of course, say this advisedly, for I have built one — with

soon becomes warm and light, and ascends to niy own skilled labourers — of the above

the apex of the roof rapidly through the dimensions for ;^5o.

leaves and branches of the trees which are This cheapness of construction is entirely

placed on, or planted in, each border ; for in owing to the simple way in which ventilation

this description of house the path is 2 or 3 is provided for. The borders in a small span-

feet wide— which may, or may not, be sunk roofed house need not be raised, nor the path

2 or 3 inches, according to choice— in the be sunk, except as a matter of choice ; the

expense of a brick edging is thus saved. The

• If shutters or sashes on hinges are used as venti- ^^^,^f ^ ^^^"^^ ^^^® ^ dressing of manure

lators, they should always open downwards ; if sus- ^ . ^°^"^» ^"^ ^^ ^^^^ forked over and mixed

pended over the apertures, ihey prevent the down- ^^^ the dressing to 6 inches in depth • the

---Td current of air entering. surface should then be firmly rammed down

Cluap Orcfiard-House 73

Two rows of trees may be placed on each small span-roofed houses, the trees placed as
border thus * — in adjoining column form a charming avenue,

and are looked down upon by the cultivator,
so that every leaf and fruit is seen.

A very light and elegant small span-roofed
3 feet from stem to stem, so that the sun may house may be built with sashes 2 feet in depth
shine on every leaf. This is most essential ; (from the eave-boards) hung on pivots, and
for I have occasionally had some of my beneath the sashes strong 32-ounce glass to
Peaches deficient in flavour, and on examin- the ground, so that roof and sides and ends
ation have always found the trees too much are all glass. By having strong glass to the
crowded, so as to shade each other. In these ground, instead of brickwork or boards, some
•Ahoiise2o feet long and 14 feet wide will hold extra expense would be incurred, but the
twentj-fonr trees. effect would be excellent.

TIte Country Gentlemmis Magazine

^air^ anil Poultrg Jarii-

WINTER BUTTER MAKING.

SOME diversity of opinion seems to exist
among American Agriculturists — or at
least the literary authorities which represent
trans-Atlantic farmers — on the question of
the best feed for the production of winter
butter. One authority, the Rural New Yorker^
recommends carrots as a capital ** feed for
cows in milk during winter or spring when
a nice product is sought for," while the Boston
Cultivator doubts the assertion that any
special virtue for the production of good
winter milk is contained in that root. We
make a short extract of the article in the
Rural New Yorker, but should like to have the
opinion of some of our readers on this very
important matter : —

In winter butter making, what we seek to
obtain is a quality or character of milk that
shall approximate as near as may be to that
made when the cows are upon good, sweet
grass. In the first place, the cow must be in
a healthy, thriving condition, and when suc-
culent food, like roots, are fed with early cut
hay, they seem to produce an effect very
similar to fresh grass. The carrot, too, con-
tains an element in its composition (pectic
acid) which, when mingled with the other
foods, enables the animal to assimilate their
nutritive parts more readily and more effectu-
ally. The carrot does not carry an objection-
able flavour into the milk, like the turnip, but
simply assists the animal in secreting milk that
has a flavour like that produced from pasturage.
The orange carrot gives colour to the milk, as
we have repeatedly verified by experiment.
We have never heard of any one who could
detect a carroty flavour in the butter of cows
fed upon them. Still it is possible that when
cows are fed to excess on such roots, the
flavour might be objectionable.

Some butter makers use the juice of carrots

for colouring winter butter, (we have so used
it), and, when properly prepared and used
we have never heard it objected to as impart-
ing a bad or carroty flavour to the butter,

Mr. J. B. Lyman, of the New York Trihune,
reports Isaac A. Calvert —a noted m^nufec-
turer of Philadelphia butter — as saying that
he (Calvert) uses no roots for his cows
except it be carrots. He obtains a dollar per
pound for his butter in the Philadelphia
market ; and if there was any objectionable
flavour resulting from feeding carrots this noted
Philadelphia butter maker would most as-
suredly have discovered it when making sales
to his most fastidious customers.

In another American Exchange winter
butter making is the heading of the following
remarks: —

"Anybody can make good butter in the
summer." So they say; but we do not find it
a true saying. The other part is true, though :
" It is the winter that tells the tale." Not one
dairy woman in five hundred can make really
good butter in cold weather ; that is, butter
that will remain good a week after it is made*
The difficulties are numerous, thus : the cows
have not the best butter-making feed; they have
little, if any, colouring matter in their feed,
the temperature at which the milk is kept is
very unequal ; the danger of mixing in the
flavours of the kitchen with the milk, the
cream or butter, is very great ; and the butter
is too apt to be allowed to become too warm
or too cold before it is finally worked into
shape.

Over the matter of feeding we can have only
a limited control. Nothing that we can
devise is so good as the natural green forage
of summer. Our chief attention should be
given, then, to temperature, pure air and
artificial colouring, without relaxing in any

Winter Butter-Making 75

way the indispensable care with regard to should be thoroughly stirred to the very
perfect cleanliness and perfect working. bottom, every time a fresh skimming is added,
The milkroomhadbetter be entirely by itself that is, twice a-day. The churning, which
—where it cannot be pervaded by the odoiur of should be as often as once (and better twice)
boiled cabbage and fried onions — and it must a week, should be done either in the milkroom
be kept warm. A kitchen closet is the worst or in some place not much colder. The
place to set milk in ; a sitting-room closet is butter should be worked in the warm milk-
better, but not so safe as an isolated room room and it should be kept there while
with a stove in it that can be made to Jceep ** soaking up the salt" between the t^vo work-
its fire all night. After frost sets in regularly in ings. After it is moulded or packed away,
November, the milk should be scalded as soon it may be kept in a colder place, but it would
as it is brought from the stable. This is done be better never to let it become so cold as to
by standing the vessel containing it (after strain- get very hard — not colder than it would
ing) in a larger one on the fire, in which water become in a snug cellar.
is boiling, stirring the milk occasionally and About colouring we have given frequent di-
removing it when its surface begins to rections. Carrot juice or a decoction of
" crinkle " and to throw off a little cloud of annotto may be put in the chum with the
yapour, or when it " begins to smoke." To cream, or an extract of annotto in melted
allow it to become warmer than this will do butter may be worked through the lump after
harm. In this condition it may be poured it is taken out of the churn. Unless the cows
into the pans — to a much greater depth than are fed very largely on rowan hay or on carrots,
is usual in summer — in a closet or room in some artificial colouring is important
which the thermometer never e;oes below It should be borne in mind that these direc-
55 deg, rarely below 60 deg, and never remains tions are only supplementary to those so often
long above 65 deg. This milk can safely stand given on the general management of the dairy.
24 hours, and by that time all the They by no means supersede them; they only
cream should have risen. The cream should refer to conditions which are necessary to
be kept in a jar, in the same room, not too far make winter butter from hay-fed cows as nearly
from the stove, nor yet too near it, and it like summer butter as possible.

BEST FEED FOR MILCH COWS.

THE following is from an essay read be rich milk, but unfortunately, the lady who

fore the Vermont Dairymen's Associa- presides over our household has keen senses,

tion, by Alexander Hyde, of Massachusetts : — and detects in the hiilk the least flavour of

The circumstance that most affects the cabbage or turnip. We have sometimes

quality and quantity of the milk is the food, evaded detection by feeding cabbage leaves

The luxuriant and succulent grass of June moderately at first and immediately after

produces a great flow of milk, but the per milking, but the increased quantity and

cent of water in it is much above the average quality of the milk, if not the taste, are apt

of 87. Take a cow from a green pasture and to call out the sly question, " What are you

feed her on dry hay, and the quantity of milk feeding your cows on now ?" Sweet corn

will be greatly diminished, while the quality fodder, we are confident, gives a richer milk

may be improved. Everything a cow eats than common com. Indian meal all farmers

affects her milk directly. We have great faith agree, gives a rich milk, while buckwheat in-

in cabbages as producing an abundance of creases the per cent of water more rapidly

76 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

than It does the more valuable properties, and give them nothing but dry hay from
Clover, cut green, greatly improves the which to manufacture it If cut before ma-
quality of milk. Being a leguminous plant, it turity, this hay contams all the elements of
should add to its casein rather than to its milk, but it is dry fodder, and if it constitute
butter. Pea vines, also leguminous, are ex- the only food of the cow, day after day, for
tensively used at the South, where the six months, there is a sameness about it
grasses do not flourish, as food for cows, and which is not provocative of a good appetite,
are said to produce excellent milk. There As men crave and need a variety of food, so
can be no question but that grain cut before do cows. A few beets, or turnips, or carrots
it goes to seed will produce more and better should be fed to them each day, and the
milk than after all its virtues have been sleek coats of the animals and the improved
spent in their legitimate purpose of produc- quantity and quality of their milk will in-
ing seed after its kind. If the hay has been dicate their appreciation of these roots. One
made from grass as dry and woody as oat of the best and most economical kinds of
straw, it may be benefited by being cut and feed for cows, both in summer and winter,
moistened, but can never be restored to its is the bran of wheat and rye. The inorganic
original nutrition any more than the daugh- part of grain resides chiefly in the husk or
teis of Tobias could rejuvenate their aged bran, as may be seen by burning similar
father by cutting him up and boiling him* quantities of fine flour and bran. The ash
All the roots add to the flow of milk and of the latter, will, on the average, be six
improve its quality. They furnish both food times that of the former ; the ash of dry, fine
and drink, being largely composed of water, flour being about i per cent, and diat of
The feeding of roots do not save as much bran 6 per cent of the weight of the whole,
hay as some suppose. They keep the Bran, therefore, though a dry-looking sort of
animal in good health and appetite, and are fodder, is rich in those elements which form
valuable in their sanitary and manurial the fiumework of animals, and Dr Graham
effects rather than as an economizer of hay. was doubdess correct when he advocated
The increase of milk and manure is very making bread fix)m unbolted flour. Many
manifest from the feeding of roots. Potatoes dairymen practise putting a couple of quarts
make the best of milk, but at present prices of wheat bran into six or eight quarts of
we can hardly afford to feed those of a whey, and feeding it. to their cows night
merchantable size and quality. The small and morning, thereby improving their milk,
potatoes can be put to no better use than their cows, and their pastures. Theimprove-
food for young stock and milch cows. They ment of the latter is specially manifest, as the
furnish much saline matter, thus adding to bran restores to them the phosphorus, sul-
the specific gravity of milk and to the mate- phiur, potash, lime, soda, &c., of which our
rial for building up the framework of the old pastures have become exhausted, these
young animal As an observing dairy wo- manifestly essential constituents of a good
man once said to us, " Potatoes give body to soil having been carried off" in the bones of
milk." the animals, and the grain and dairy products
It is cruel to tax cows in winter for milk sold.

The Country Genllentan's Magazine

%\it (Emmtrg (H^ntktomnan.

DESIGNS IN VIRGIN CORK FOR INDOOR DECORATIONS.

SEVERAL correspondents are desirous
to know how they may, in the simplest
and best way, have plants in their rooms and in
conservatories appear to the most effective
advantage. There seems, we apprehend from
the various queries put to us, especially by
OUT fail correspondents, a growing taste foi the
appropriate and the beautiful, not only in

majority is got up in accordance with some

well-devised principle. Tilson aptly enough
put it when he remarked that, " True taste,
like good breeding in behaviour, seems to be
the easiest thing in nature to attain j but yet,
where it does not grow spontaneously, it is a
plant of all others the most difficult to cul-
tivate. It must be sown upon abed of virgin
sense, and kept perfectly clear of every weed
that may prevent or retard its growth."
Nature, certainly, does not dispense her gifts
so profusely as to favour all alike — to give
each the same sense of the ridiculous or of
the sublime ; and it is to the comfort of the
human race that it is so. One is quite con-

Fig, t.— HanBiog Basket in Virgin Cork. Fig. a.— CompouDd Hanging Basket in Virgin Cork

flowers, but in the way in which they are tented to live among disorder, and dirt, and

placed. There are various degrees of taste, confusion, while another is quite uneasy in its

of course, some preferring one thing, some presence, and would sacrifice much to get rid

another, but we may take it for granted that of it Plants in pots are well enough in cef-

the Uiing least offensive to the eye of the tain places, but the red-burnt day, 1

The Country Gentlewoman

with slime and blackDess, is not quite a
fit receptacle for a beautiful plant, even in a
parlour. And what shall we say of such a
thing in dining or drawing rooms ? The
plant may be all that any one could wish,
but if within such a vessel it is even worse by
comparison than a beautiful face, a sleek
head of air, and the elaborate accessories of
niodera toilette with the nether garments in
disorder, and filtb, and rags.

The caterers for the appropriate and beau-
tiful have devised the setting of plants for
beautifying rooms and conservatories in many
ways, and not the leaat plastic article in the
hands of those who have studied at the
school of taste is Virgin Cork. It can be
made to assume almost all the intricacies of
outline of terra-cotta or tiles, and withal look

receptacles for Fern cases, away we hie to the
Cork, and cover up everything that is un-
seemly, make smooth places rugged, and our
plants look amazingly the better for it

The Hanging Basket, fig. i, is a newstyle,
combining elegance and lightness with perfect
adaptation. It is a first-rate fashion for orna-
menting high conservatories. Suspended
firom the girders it adds to the general
attractiveness of a well-filled house, and is
therefore one of the first and best we would
recommend. The receptacle can be made of

Fig. 3.— Fern Basket in Virgin Cork wilh Shade.

something like nature itself. It has this
advantage therefore over clays, &c., that can
be turned out of moulds, and it answers all
the purposes which plants cooped up in an
artificial state demand. The more, indeed,
we see of it, the more we are inclined to use
it ourselves and recommend others so to do.
If we want to vary the features of our fernery,
,got up to imitate a state of wildness, we
go to cull from our bales of Virgin Cork ; if
we want baskets for the lawn, baskets for
suspending, pots for niches, stands from the
tripod to the pot itself, basins for aquariums,

Fig. 4.— Flower Tripod in Virgin Cork,
block tin, or of earthenware, or of wood.
The first is most lasting, and is best for getting *
the cork fastened to — not better than wood,
certainly, but deficient of that clumsy appear
ance of a wood box of this formation. The
hexagonal limbs, with triple bead at bottom
and top are particularly eye-pleasing. If the
basket be placed in a conservatory, any
flowering-plants can be introduced, brought

Designs in Virgin Cork for Indoor Decorations 7g

the perfection of inflorescence, and then For entrance hall or corridor, or vestibule,
placed in the vestibule or entrance hall, or at the proper season, the Tripod Stand with
other place where decorations were wont to Circular Basket, fig. 4, is far in advance of
be, and still are made. If the party has not that we see offered in wire. There is a
a conservatory, but an encased glass window, clothed appearance about the whole that is
something of this kind, filled with bulbs, commendable. Indeed, our engraving shews
would be a charming item in the fiimishing what might be a wire design or frame-work
within. covered with cork. Wire needs continual
Take yet another fonn, the Compound painting, and Virgin Cork only needs dust-
Hanging Basket, fig. 2, and here you have ing to look as fresh as new, and with the
a design in Virgin Cork, squared on top and inner receptacle keeping the water fi-om the
polished-like, with pockets for setting in cork itself, it is lasting. A constant ebb and
plants when they are in full bloom. The flow of water wears down even a whin-stone,
centre piece is intended for the growth of and would rapidly wear into mouldiness or
Ferns ; these Ferns to be surrounded with rottenness the cork, especially if in contact
flowering plants throughout the season, with earth, but this never need be, and never
Imagine a few of these baskets kept continu- ought to be, the case. There is as great
ally beautiful with flowers in a conservatory, economy in after-keep as there is in appro-
attached to a drawing-room ! The plants priate selection of the thing needful for the
would look ever so much better, because of thing needed. These stands, we need scarcely
the appropriate design. Like a well-planted say, have often to be replenished from the
flower garden, each would improve the ap- little growing stores ; but they being within
pearance of one another, and so elicit words one focus, possibly all that is beautiful in the
of admiration. There is a thrill of pleasure houses without — and that is consideration for
when something perfect-looking meets the many ladies and gentleman too, who are not
gaze; it may be a beautifiil landscape, a invalids.

lovely portrait, or the perfecrion of cultivated The Fern Basket or Pot with Shade, repre-

plant association. Handsome as the stand is, sents what we have been discussing recently.

as we have described it, the little extra ap- We illustrate it here principally to shew ladies,

pendages make it more handsome still, that there are other things than earthenware

The little baskets looped on the protuber- and terra-cotta for the growth of Ferns under

ances of the design, give an airy grace to the Fern Shades. The very Cork seems to be-

whole, which everybody sees when they are come the Ferns within the shade, and so do

attached, but which only the few can see in the Ferns the Cork. There would seem to

their mind's eye before they are attached, be a mutual satisfaction between the things

This adaptation shews the genius of true taste, living and the thing life-like, and the owner

These basket portraits will give our enquirers must share the satisfaction. We are indebted

an idea of how they may improve the aspect to the Virgin Cork Company for the illustia-

of their conservatories at no great cost tions.

The Country Gentlewoman

GRASS BOUQUETS.

THE introduction of a number of annual
flowers, which, when dry, retaia their
form and colour, has made winter bouquets
vety popular. These everlasting flowers, as
they are called, when carefully dried and
made up with skill, form pleasing ornaments
for the drawing room ; but at their best they
are not, to our taste, so desirable as bouquets
of dried Grasses. Many of the Grass bouquets
that we see are &ilures, for the reason that
the makers of them try to crowd too much
into ±eni. A collection of the rarest and

A Bouquet of Dried Grasses and Ferns.

most elegant Grasses, if tied into a bunch and
crowded into a heavy vase, will fail to be
pleasing. The beauty of Grasses depends
upon their ease and freedom from restraint.
Some colour the Grasses or encrust them with
alum crystals, processes which we do not
hesitate to denounce as barbarous, and not
adding to their beauty, however much it may
to their showiness. Seeds of several kinds
>f " ornamental " Grasses are to be had of the

■eed5man,[but few of these produce anything
more beautiRil than those found growing in
the wild state. There are numerous wild
Grasses which are suitable td use in bouquets,
but as they, as a general thing, have no com- .
mon names, it is not worth while to enume-
rate them by their botanical ones. The best
way is to collect whatever Grasses seem suit-
able that we meet with in our rambles, tie
them in small parcels and dry them in the
shade in a place &ee from dust Some
berries of the Celastrus, and Ferns, dried
between paper, or in a lai^e book, will be
useful to combine with the Grasses. For a
Grass bouquet the great trouble is to find a
suitable vase or receptacle. Those sold as
flower vases are altogether too heavy in style
to correspond with the airiness of the Grasses
they are to hold. In a former number, we
figiu'ed a stand for cut flowers ; something of
this kind is most suitable for a bouquet of
dried Grasses. As no water is needed, some
such a stand could be very easily contrived.
A glass tube or solid rod of glass, H inch
or a little more in diameter, and 2 feet loi^
may be procured of the druggists or instru-
ment makers. This is to be fitted into a
round block of wood, heavy enough to
answer for a firm base, and at its top
furnished with a funnel or trumpet-shaped
receptacle to hold the stems of the Grasses.
Tliis receptacle may be covered with paper
of some neutral tint, or may have Mosses and
Lichens gummed upon it.

The aim should be to avoid all appearance
of crowding, and allow each kind of Grass to
shew its natural habit. The wooden base
of the stand can be concealed by the dried
Fern-leaves ; and cones, berries, and nuts
may be introduced. Those who are fortunate
enough to find the delicate Climbing Fern
can add much to the beauty of such an
ornament by twining one of its stems around
the glass rod. We give an illustration of a
bouquet of Grasses arranged in the manner
we have suggested. — A,

THE

COUNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

FEBRUARY 1873

SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE AND AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

THE Rev. J. Smith, Newhills, Aberdeen- Members ofParliament, obtains an accidental
shire, has recommenced his excellent and adventitious importance of the most
series of lectures upon agricultural topics to exciting kind, though the results are often
the farmers of his parish. Last week he quite trifling. I need hardly say that party
opened the course by a paper upon the above politics are entirely beside our present pur-
subjects. At the present time, he remarked, pose. There is another class of agricultural
agricultural topics are the order of the day. topics less obtrusive, but not less important,
Go where you will, the landlord, the tenant, rather, I should say, of much greater intrinsic
and the faitn-labourer are common texts on importance, which merit the serious attention
which everybody in country and town has of practical men. For, however the cards
somewhat to say, and the social atmosphere may be shuffled between proprietors and
is charged with assertions and theories in re- tenants, and between farmers and labourers,
gard to Game Laws, Land Laws, Tenant- the earth will yield her increase only to
Right, and the like. I think every reflective skilful treatment — that is to say, treatment in
person must be pleased to see the agricultural accordance with natural law. Let those
interest, on which the welfare of the nation parties settle their diff"erences as they may,
depends so largely, and which has been till Dame Nature has to be propitiated all the
recently a bundle of traditions, brought fairly same. She holds the golden key that can
within the sweep of modem ideas, and alone unlock the treasures of the soil, and
obliged to give an account of itself to an she will lend it only to those who approach
inquiring age, to prove its worth and its her thoughtfully and reverently. So that,
adaptability to present and prospective cir- start from whatever point, and make what
cumstances. And that man has little insight circuits we please, we must come at last, and
or feith who anticipates any thing but a balance we cannot come too soon, to what Liebig
of good from the process of accounting which calls " the Natural Laws of Husbandry," to
is going on, and is likely to go on for a con- the principles that determine the growth of
siderable time. But I would have you note oiu: farm plants and animals.
that the discussions which are loudest in the

market-place and lengthiest in the newspapers landlords and leases.

are quite as much political as agricultural, and Though the notion is spreading that agricul-

that "the food of the people" is, in the tural science must be an equipment of the tenant

meantime, to a large extent, food for party of the future, I am not aware that much has

politicians. Whatever trenches on party been thought or said regarding the proprietor's

politics, whatever helps to make or unmake interest in the subject And yet it is easy to

VOU X. G

S2 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

perceive that a landowner or agent, who is soil, while the tenant could have interest on
ignorant of the mysteries of agricultural his capital, and the farm would have an in-
cheraistry, may sometimes be placed at a creasing reputation much to the proprietor's
disadvantage in dealing with a tenant who is gain, the public at the same time getting the
versed in those mysteries. No doubt the full benefit of the green crop break. But,
proprietor may insist on a hard and fast line alas, all these advantages must be forfeited,
as regards rotation of crops, sales of produce, and the counter disadvantages submitted to,
and the like. But in drawing this line, he is because of the arbitrary prohibition regarding
guided by tradition, custom, or more em- potatoes in the lease. Now the case I have
pineal practice ; and, at the present rate of depicted is, I hope, an uncommon one, but
change in matters agricultural, he may find, it is a fair enough illustration of the possible
. at the end of the lease, that his conditions operation of empirical conditions in leases,
have barely prevented the deterioration of Progressive fertility depends on obedience to
the soil, whereas more rational conditions natural law, and in the present flux of ideas
might have insured an increase of fertility, to as regards the operation of natural law, in
the gain of both tenant and proprietor. Take many parts of agriculture, it savours of dog-
a case not very usual, I dare say, but quite matism rather than faith to prescribe a bard
sufiftcient to illustrate the proposition I am and fast line of rotation, and the like for
now maintaining, the case of a light land nineteen years. But there can be no doubt
farm, on which tl>e tenant is prohibited from that a knowledge of the chemistry of soil,
growing potatoes beyond what may be used plants and manures, taken in connexion with
in the farmhouse, under an impression or local circumstances, would enable a pro-
theory, which is very generally entertained prietor to frame rational conditions, which
hereabouts, that potatoes are "a sookin would effectually prevent the deterioration
crap." We shall suppose this farm to be of the soil, and at the same time give full
divided, fenced, and worked on the five-shift scope for the tenant's capital and enterprise
system. Well, what happens ? The turnips in the light of every accession to agricultural
fail year after year from finger-and-toe, and knowledge,
the farmer is satisfied that turnips cannot be
grown to advantage on his soil so often as
once in five years. As a consequence of this The expense of manures and feeding-stuffs
state of things, he is losing the interest has done more than anything else to force the
of his capital, the country is losing the importance of the principles of chemistry
full benefit of his turnip-break, and as and physiology on the attention of practical
regards the proprietor's interest the farm farmers. The clubbing together of farmers
is getting more and more turnip-sick, which for the purpose of having their purchases
must diminish its market value. What would analysed and estimated by a chemist is a
be a rational course, perhaps the most rational tribute to the claims of science of the most
course, to adopt in the circumstances ? Why, emphatic kind. But this is only half the benefit
to divide the turnip-break into two equal science is capable of conferring on the tenant
parts, and to grow turnips on one-half and of the soil. The analyst secures him against
potatoes on the other, so that turnips would fraud and overcharge in his purchases, but a
recur only once in ten years, which is surely question as serious remains. What is the best
a long enough interval to insure a sound crop, manure or food for the immediate purpose,
so far as that depends on infrequency of re- and how should the manure or food be used,
petition. If the potatoes were consumed by so as to obtain the best results at the least
cattle, or, in the event of their being sold off expense ? Now, an acquaintance with the
the farm, if a manurial equivalent, which principles of chemistry and physiology (in
chemistry can determine, were bought and connexion, of course, with personal ex-
<DDlied, there could be no exhaustion of the perience and observation) cannot but throw

TENANTS.

Scicniific Agriculture and Agricultural Education

light on this question. So that, besides
availing himself of the services of an analyst,
the farmer needs a certain acquaintance with
science to enable him to answer questions of
practice regarding manures and food questions
that lie beyond the province of the consulting
chemist. Nay, I cannot but think that if
our younger farmers do not proceed to qualify
themselves thus, the pressure of trade will ere
long be such as to compel them to have
frequent recoiu'se to skilled individuals to
advise them as to the use of special manures
and foods, land-doctors of a new type, whose
office it would be to prescribe for crops and
animals in given circumstances. At present
this office is performed to a certain extent and
in a rough and wholesale way by manure manu-
&cturers and agricultural companies, who
prepare and advertise special mixtures, but,
as the farmer finds cost increase and profits
diminish, he will need either to judge for
himselfi or to be advised by a competent
disinterested authority.

FARM-LABOURERS.

Farm-labourers are, as a rule, quite igno-
rant of the rationaU of most of the operations
which it is their business to perform. This
is to be regretted for many reasons. It is a
pity that rational beings, largely developed
in hand, should be so little developed in
head as to work like dumb catde or lifeless
machines, instead of finding in their work a
continual intellectual feast, and a continual
moral culture. I do not know any class of
workers that stand more directly in the cur-
rent of natural law, operating on a magnifi-
cent scale, and presenting the most beautiful
and varied combinations, than do ploughmen
and cattlemen, if they only had eyes to see
beneath the surface, and to discern the forces
of natiure at their beneficent work. Truly
the farm-labourer has a high vocation, if he
were but awake to the dignity of his calling.
In the present and prospective condition of
agriculture, viewed especially in connexion
with the increasing demand for milk and
meat, I think the country requires two classes
of skilled farm-labourers, farm-overseers,
versed in the natural laws of husbandry,

and head cattlemen, acquainted with the
principles of chemistry as applicable to cattle
food, and >vith the principles of physiology,
as applicable to the growth and perfection of
cattle, and the prevention of disease. I ven-
ture to predict that both classes will ere long
be in considerable request, and that the latter
especially will command high remuneration.
And I repeat, what I insisted on last season,
that there is not at present a finer and fairer
field open to robust, intelligent country lads
than the care of stock.

AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.

Agricultural education must, I think, at no
distant date, occupy the attention which at
present is given to the politico-agricultural
questions I have alluded to. Meanwhile, it is
the duty of all believers in the utility of agri-
cultural science, to do what they can, by
agitation and otherwise, to hasten the advent
of that time. Sooner or later we must have
local teachers of the elements of the subject,
and also thorough systematic instruction in
all the branches at convenient centres. When
I spoke to you in the spring, I expressed a
hope that the proposed Education Act would
make it possible to get the A B C of the
subject introduced into country schools, and
now that the Act is about to be put in opera-
tion, farmers have no reason to complain of
the influence assigned them. In very many
parishes the agricultural interest will be
supreme, and in most of the remainder it will
have much to say in the formation of the
local School Board, and if a school board
wishes the elements of agricultural science
taught in any of its schools, it has full power
to make provision therefor. Then the
Government Department of Science and
Art might reasonably be expected to en-
courage evening classes for agricultural
science, as it does classes for mathematics,
mechanics, electricity, and the like. And, as
to the teaching of the subject in all its
departments at convenient centres, might
not something be done by the Highland
and Agricultural Society with its vast funds ?
The new School Boards, the Department of
Science, and the Highland Society seem to

The Country Genttemdfis Magazine

me to contain the elements of a solution to till they had solved it. Anyhow, the probl

the problem of agricultural education in must be solved with as little delay as possit

S' otland. What we want is a man, or a if the agricultural interest is to thrive, a

few men, in a position to solve the problem, benefit the country to the limit of

and who, having taken it up, would not cease capability.

AGRICULTURAL MATTERS IN PARLIAMENT.

ByT. H. Byers.*

I SHALL simply give you a short sketch
of each act, pointing out as clearly as
I can where I think agriculture has not had
equal justice with the other great interests of
our common country. I purpose, with your
leave, to take the acts passed, as nearly as I
can, in the order they became law. The
repeal of the Corn Laws I should not have
mentioned, as I believe that we are all now
agreed on the advantage of their repeal, but
I think some of our present burdens are a
legacy left us from having protection. The
Tariff Bill has had a contrary effect to what
Sir Robert Peel intended. He never thought
when he introduced foreign cattle, that he
would also bring with them foreign disease,
to ruin many an English farmer, and to pretty
well double the price of meat to the con-
sumers. The Union Assessment Act was
forced upon us by the action of some rate-
payers, who, to lessen their rates, even went
so far as to pull down the cottages, and drive
the poor to other places, and into the large
towns, where they became, in many instances,
a burden on the rates. We, as agriculturists,
complain of being compelled to maintain our
own labourers to the end of their agreement,
if sick and unable to work, and contribute
our share to every other employer's labourers
in the union, if in similar need. That, gen.
tlemen, can scarcely be right.

HIGHWAY LEGISLATION.

The Highway Act comes next— an Act
vhich I aip sure you will agree with me wants

Read before the Staindrop Fanners* Club.

some serious alteration before we can quiel
adopt it. Under the old Act, every pari
or township maintained its own roads, subje
to a kind of superintendence by the magistrac
The Act is still much the same in towns
more than 3000 inhabitants — any one can 1
surveyor, clerk, &c. — but in any smaller pla<
we are obliged to form highway boards, wi
paid officers, and unpaid waywardens fro
each parish, who, if they do their duty, are
a very great expense in time and monej
much more than the old surveyors, who:
duty they have to fulfil, except paying tl
wages. Two years ago the Home Secreta:
also put all the commissioned roads onwhic
there was no debt, under the care of Xk
highway board in each district, excluding tli
towns of more than 3000 inhabitants on sue
district road from any share in the maintei
ance. Mr Bruce has also proposed some oth(
alterations for next session, as follows : ".F(
the purpose of facilitating the abolition c
tolls on any turnpike road within, or passin
through a highway district, the highwa
board and the trustees of the turnpike roa
may mutually agree that the highway boar
shall take upon themselves the maintei
ance and repair of such turnpike roac
or so much thereof as is within the;
district, and thereupon the highway boar
shall pay off and discharge, where th
turnpike is wholly within the highway distric
the debt that may remain and be subsisting
on the trusts of such turnpike road, or sud
sum by way of composition, but in full dis
charge of such debt, as the Local Govem
ment Board may^ after inquiry, detennine

Agricultural Matters in Parliamettt

and where the turnpike is not wholly within
such district, such sum as the Local Govern-
ment Board may in like manner determine
as an equitable proportion of such debt or
composition for the same. The abolition of
such tolls shall be deemed to be an improve-
ment of highways within the meaning of sec-
tions 47, 48, and 50 of the "Highway Act,
1864,** and for such purpose the highway
board may borrow money in accordance with
the provisions of those sections, subject to
the following provisions, viz. : That the im-
provement shall be deemed to be on behalf
of all the parishes within the district, and
each parish shall contribute thereto in the
same proportion as it contributes to the dis-
trict fund." I think that will add the last
straw to the load of injustice in the New
Highway Acts to the agricultural interest.
Here is the case in a short form. A lot of
gentlemen get an Act to make a road, and they
borrow money on it as low as they can. In-
stead of paying that off, when they make a
profit, they divide a good dividend. When
railways lower the value of their property,
Mr Bruce comes to their aid, and says : —
"Those highway boards must take your
debt and pay your creditors their interest"

NEXT session's GAME BILLS.

We all had the impression that if we paid
only our fair share of the burdens of the na-
tion, were allowed to hire our land on the
best terms we could, to manage it as we
thought best for our own interest, to be free
to make the best use of the produce (barley
not excepted), to have the control of all the
stock on it, and when we left or died, to be
like a clergyman, liable for all and every
dilapidation, we wanted little with Acts of
Parliament. According to the members who
have stumped the country this autumn, we
want the Game-Laws repealed, we want
Tenant-Right, we want the Malt-Tax repealed,
we want land laws of various kinds, we want
a cattle disease prevention bill, the factory
acts applied to agriculture, a rating bill, com-
pulsory school boards in rural places, and a
host of others. I will first make a few re-
marks on the Game-Law bills. There is a

promise of a good covey of them, but can
the member for Leicester put any clause in
his Total Repeal Act to meet a case like
this? — A gentleman says to his tenant,
"Here are those hares and rabbits, they are
not game now, but I intend to have
as many as ever, and if you touch one
you quit my farm next term." All
the Game-Laws that can be devised
will, in the end, be a contract between land-
lord and tenant. I do not think we shall
arrive at any cure by keeping out of sight
the cause of the disease. In my opinion, as
long as trade is good, lots of men, who make
money, want to be farmers, and those added
to the already large number of farmers, make
a lot of men for each farm that is to let, and
give the landlord the power to reserve the
game. I don*t believe many of us in this
vale have any idea of what a lot of game is.
I read an account a few days ago of a few
gentlemen in a leading farming county who
had a day's shooting — it said they had pretty
good sport; they bagged, or, I think, it
should have said, carted 2026 head one day.
I wondered if the owner farmed it himself or
let it. I know nothing of that county ; but
here in a year or two I have great hopes that
hares and rabbits will be given to the tenant
— that the landlord will be as glad to meet
his tenant with his gun as he is now in the
hunting-field — that the keeper will not treat
and look on the tenant as a kind of privileged
poacher. The tenant "would then see that
his cur-dogs were not running about, and
would not set his labourers to take the weeds
from the fences in the breeding season.

THE TENANT-RIGHT BILL.

Tenant-Right comes next under our obser-
vation. You will agree with me that the
Irish bill would not work. Its courts, counsels,
and costs we should not like. The Scotch
system of leases is very little better ; about
nine years out of the twenty-one the land is
not bearing its full quantity, the tenant know-
ing he will have to leave if he will not give
as much or more than other people, and even
if he is willing to pay what the landlord
charges (as in the case of Mr Hope, of

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

Barns), he cannot always end his
ere he spends the best years of his
le tenant, I was saying, as a prudent
nts all out of the farm he can get
le expiration of the lease, and those
ses often cause a spirit of contention,
f with goodwill and dependence on
her between landlord and tenant,
Dout a kind of civil war, which is
)enefit of neither. The Oxfordshire
)f Tenant-Right we should not like,
pounds per acre are locked up during
incy, which the tenant ought to be

his business. Our yearly tenancy is
the best after all. We see around
«vho have been bom where they now
I in some cases, their fathers before
I do not suppose twenty-one years
e the full average that the farmers in
n have lived on their farms under a
snancy. I have often thought that
iCt we wanted was power to form a
", say, three leading men in each
) settle all claims on both sides at
ration of any tenancy in that union,
quite aware that a landlord has the
n on the goods of his tenant, after
sen's taxes and servants' wages,
ticiple can be abused, or carried too
ately came across an agreement that
Ay an unregistered bill of sale. The
ad given power to his landlord to
)lute possession of all the farm and

at any time if the tenant was in
►f rent; by keeping the tenant a
irrears, no other creditor could touch
1 the place. However prudent a man
2, to see the tenant had his farm
ked, his horses and carts, furniture,
n order, before he gave him credit,
avail ; the landlord can say " all
line, I want a few pounds of arrears,
come on my farm at your peril."

T-TAX, CATTLE DISEASES, THE LAND
LAWS, ETC.

alt tax is next. I must say I feel so
igainst it as perhaps to be biassed.
Dwerful body of men should quietly
Lx on their produce in the course of

manufacture, of nearly 8o per cent, is to me
quite a mystery. What would our friends at
Middlesborough say if, when they get their
ore into pig iron. Government were to say,
" You shall not make it into rails, or bars,
cannon, or any ether saleable state, because
it might be abused, without you pay a duty
of So per cent. ? " Would the argument that
men make beasts of themselves by killing
each other by war, ruin their country, and
make thousands of widows and fatherless
children, with the assistance of iron, be
listened to for a moment ? Yet that is what
we hear in support of the Malt Tax.' Beer
would be cheap, and men would drink more,
and ruin themselves and families. I now
take the Cattle Diseases Prevention Act
What we want to see in any act is all foreign
cattle slaughtered at the port of landing. Let
them keep the lean ones at home till they are
fat, as they are of little use to the English
feeder. The consumer says this makes meat
dear, but how do the Scotch fleshers make it
pay, to send meat from a remote part of
Scotland to the London market, in pre--
ference to sending them alive? We also
want full pay for cattle ordered to be
slaughtered. Till you pay a man their
value, he will not give information, as long as
there is the chance of the animals recovering,
and, as it is for the national good, the rate
should be national to pay for the healthy
cattle slaughtered by the authorities. All
trade ought to be stopped in home cattle, the
same as it was in the time of the rinderpest
Wherever there is lung and foot-and-mouth
disease, we must suffer some present loss for a
chance of future gain ; but if foreign cattle are
allowed to travel again we shall see meat
still dearer — that is, if trade keeps good, and
the working man as well paid as he is at pre-
sent. The Factory Act would not apply, as
we have no children employed in agriculture
of that tender age the Act applies to. The
Land Laws, I now refer to. I do not
understand what can be done. If a rich man
wants to add to his acres, and will give more
than any one else, he will always be allowed
to do so. If the large estates were to get
divided, we, as farmers, would want more

Agricultural Matters in Parliament

security for our capital Larger the estate,
as a rule, fewer the changes of tenants. The
Rating Bill that we hear of, to divide the
rates between landlord and tenant, is of no
use. What you will say we require is a very
much extended basis of rating, to include the
whole of the property of every description.
Woods, mines, game where sold, and a good
part paid out of the national funds, and a
direct control of the county expenditure by
the ratepayers. Lastly, school boards as in

Scotland— <:ompulsory in all places. Here I
think you will agree with me— thanks to the
ministers of all denominations — we have
more school room than scholars. If there
are any who do not attend schools, I don't
think the school-board could make them,
because the minister of the religion to which
their parents belong will have used his en-
deavours, and it will only be adding to the
rates in the rural districts to no beneficial
purpose.

THE AGRICULTURAL SITUATION AND FOOD SUPPLIES.

By J. W. Wilkinson. •

THE great development of trade and sumer by such less quantity that is offered
manufactures, by finding profitable for sale, as no class have less influence in
employment for an increasing population, keeping up markets than at least the pro-
has created a demand for fpod which the ducer of live stock. They are not, when
present agricultural resources of the country ready, so easily laid by for better markets, as
cannot supply at satisfactory prices to the the produce of mines and manufactures,
consumer ; yet no agricultural body will con- Well-finished stock do not spring into ex-
template, with any satisfaction, a lower list of istence in a day, it takes capital, skill, and
prices with the present cost of production, industry to profitably produce them ; and the
The necessities of our working population, farmer is not a philanthropist working for
although in receipt of high wages, seem to the benefit of the great British public, but
keep pace with their incomes, and fi-om them devotes his skill and capital to the cultivation
as well as from those with more limited re- of the soil for the sake of the return it will
sources, come demands for better land laws give him ; and the importance of his occupa-
and greater freedom to the foreigner, as the tion to the human race, ought to give him,
means that is most likely to supply their at least, that security that is extended to
wants. The continual presence of contagious other branches of trade and manufacture.

disease among our flocks and herds, making
the business of the English agriculturist a
very precarious one, is, it is maintained,
causing greater waste at home than our whole
importation from abroad. The cattle plague,
clearly imported, cost the country a sum

If any importations from abroad placed in
such continual peril the property of any
other class, how long would it be tolerated ?

STOCK DISEASES AND THEIR REGULATION.

In considering the regulation of diseases,

variously estimated i\. from five to eight the prejudices of the consumers with respect

millions sterling, besides totally deranging to interference with foreign importations may

the plans of the farmer ; and his misfortunes, be removed, if it can be proved that the

let it be in the loss of his stock by disease, dangers of free importation are greater than

or in the destruction of .his crops by an un- the benefits we are likely to derive from it ;

fortunate season, eventually affect the con- besides, there seems something absurd in de-

— — pending on foreign countries for our supplies,

• Raul before the Hexham Farmers' Club. which at any time may be closed to us,

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

while, by carelessness, we are wasting more
at home. A large portion of our supplies
come from Germany, and the changed con-
dition of that country, coupled with the wis-
dom of her rulers, is likely to develope trade
manufactures ; therefore, at any time their
supplies may become more limited. The
returns issued for the year ending October
1872, shew a decrease on the previous year
in declared value of live stock imported, of
nearly one million sterling — there being a
decrease in numbers of every class of stock
imported. High prices had prevailed during
the whole of that year, and the restrictions
are not severe oa healthy stock ; all, at least,
of quality are readily bought, even when pre-
vented from being shewn in a public market;
and I have often seen, after a slight lall in
prices, foreign supplies were sent more spar-
ingly. There is, thus, more dependence
placed on foreign supplies than there is evi-
dence to warrant, while the freedom given
to them have placed more than once in
danger the permanent supplies of our native
land. The strongest of all motives — personal
interest — ought to suggest means for dealing
with diseases at home. Any one who has had
personal experience of foot-and-mouth disease
during the last two years has no wish to have
that experience increased. Will any restric-
tions cost as much as the annual presence
of contagious diseases ? What plans can be
carried out during the summer season ? How
much stock has been sold in a half condition
by disease appearing over the fence, perhaps
within it.^ The large number affected by
foot-and-mouth disease has caused a loss in
flesh almost equal to foreign importation.
Experience has taught us that restrictions
can keep it in reasonable bounds, the only
difficulty being how far we shall surrender our
individual liberty for our mutual welfare.
It is not the mere passing of formal resolu-
tions, but giving them practical effect that
will produce any results. We may justly
claim that foreign stock should be slaughtered
at the port of landing, and not put into the
sea when diseased. The carrying out of
local regulations ought to be entrusted to
'ome other body than the police— men with

no previous experience of disease. No
doubt, it would not be an agreeable office
for any other party ; but it is said, what you
want well done, do it yourself. So, if a com-
mittee of justices and occupiers could be
formed in every parish to keep disease out,
if possible, and take care of it spreading
when in, the sanitary authorities might have
it handed over to them — it is rather in their
line. But it is not reasonable to expect any
very prudent regulations for the whole
country as long as agricultural interests are
looked after piecemeal by different members
of the Government To keep the school
boards in order must be sufficient work for
the Vice-President of the Council without
regulating disease. The nature of the two
occupations is difficult to imagine — ^the
necessity of a minister of agriculture is more
apparent; with less inquiry by committees
of the Commons — hon. members taking trips
in quest of personal experience.

ARABLE AND GRASS FARMING.

The cheapness Avith which corn can be
grown on the virgin soil of other countries,
and the facility with which it is imported
here, prevent its profitable cultivation in this
country, at least, with the present price of
labour. But, if in altered customs and better
systems of cultivation, any portion of the
wealth sent abroad could be used, it would
be to that extent a national gain. All the
essentials necessary to the management of
arable land have greatly increased in price.
Other manufactured goods, the produce of
labour and capital, have increased in price in
proportion to the cost of producing them,
but no such results have favoured the tillage
farmer; and, apart from an unfortunate
season, he has to compete in the same labour
market as the more fortunate manufacturer,
while it is only his flesh and wool that he
can sell at a higher price. But the produc-
tion of flesh meat does not seem to form in
every district such an important element as
it ought to do; consequently, every one is
not benefited by what pays best. The grass
farmer is supposed to reap the best harvest,
but is it not possible to transfer arable ferms

The Agricultural Situation and Food Supplies 89

into a more mixed character ? Well culti- duce if foreign countries could supply their
vated tillage land will profitably grow grass demands at a cheaper rate. The large
for at least three or four years, which would capital invested by landlord and tenant gives
enable the farmer to rear more stock to them a great interest in any change that may
properly consume the produce of his arable be proposed ; besides, I do not think it
portion^ or at least to purchase it in more would be prudent to upset agricultural ar-
fcivourable markets ; for where an almost rangements, for the present relations of land-
entire system of tillage is pursued, stock has lord and tenant have not been altogether a
to be bought and sold at almos^ fixed times, failure. It would be better to look where
The dangerous and costly turnip crop would good cultivation exists, and try to extend
be safer after a few years in grass. Although the system that has produced it. We are not
valuable where stock is kept, yet I question face to face with a starving population, that
whether it pays the cost and labour of pro- revolutionary schemes are needed to remove
ducing it; at least as far as breeding and the abuse, for they often become the normal
young stock is concerned, they might be condition of society, and of too frequent oc-
more profitably kept on dry fodder, with the currence for those who have anything to lose,
addition of cake and other ingredients, and a More popular land laws are being daily ad-
portion of land in grass to enable them to be vocated by a section of the press ; those of
kept for feeding purposes; and if the same Germany and France are pointed to on ac-
results could be had from a lesser quantity count of their peasant proprietary, but neither
of land in turnips, it would help to solve the the climate, soil, nor circumstances of Eng-
labour question. I do not recommend an land are similar to those countries. Our
entire system of grass, for certain descriptions population find more profitable employment
of com may be profitably grown if account in trade and manufacture than they
is taken of the value of the fodder it pro- would in tilling the uncongenial soil
duces, but not to scratch over too much, but of England with the spade. To com-
properly cultivate a portion. It may be said pare the cost of living of an English artizan
that out-lying districts are more suitable for with a French peasant proprietor would be
the breeding and rearing of stock. I think rather interesting. If by any means that
that draining and liming on the surface, and, class of landlords could be increased who see
in some instances, cultivation, will enable no harm to themselves in orderly home-
tliat party to look after themselves, the great steads, well-tilled fields, and prosperous
difficulty being how far our strong clay soils tenantry, it would help to solve the land
may be made more productive. question, for if the landlord is declared no

longer fit to manage his property, who are
the parties that are to be entrusted with the

It may be said that the tenant has not selection of those enterprising tenants that

sufficient security for his capital to secure have to farm to such great national advan-

proper cultivation* of the soil, the tenure of tage? Are the present occupiers the best

which will shortly be raised in parliament in that can be found ? Who will put every one

the interests of some party. Mr Howard, into his proper place, abolish the law of en-

M.P., speakmg before the London Farmers' tail, and make perfect free trade in land ? I

Club, said the question was no longer a land- can see no evil in large estates ; no one will

lord-tenant one, but that upwards of say that they are worse managed than small

25,000,000 of consumers would have some- ones, and a large revenue is as likely to afford

thing to say on the question. With the the means for permanent improvements as a

markets of the world open to that body, their small one, and when we consider that valua-

interests are difficult to define, for I think ble stock and high-priced machinery are ne-

they would not shew the English agricul- cessary to the farmer, his capital would be

twist much charity in purchasing his pro- more beneficially employed in stocking and

THE LAND LAWS AND TENANT-RIGHT.

Ttie Country Gentleman's Mngazifte

properly cultivating his holding than in
executing drainage and buildings. The I^ands
Improvement Act furnish the means, and no
impediments ought to be placed on a tenant
availing himself of them — at least with the
consent of his landlord. A long lease is the
best security for the tenant, with proper
compensation for unexhausted manures at
its end. It may be said that no lease is
needed where proper compensation clauses
exist, but as unexpended manures are not
altogether evidence of the general fertility of
a farm, few farmers would like their improve-
ments carried into the market at six months'
notice.

GAME.

The abuse of the game laws is one of the
rights of property, or rather the abuse of that
right, and it is thd keeping of large quantities
of game for excessive sporting and sale pur-
poses at the expense of the tenant that has
created the violent demands for the total
aboHtion of these laws. They are such bad

stock to keep in order that no one will farm
with them for profit that wishes to live on
good terms with his neighbour, and the valu-
able food they waste could be profitably em-
ployed in producing flesh meat. Little esti-
mate can be formed of their importance for
human food, but no good cultivation is com-
patible with ganie in large quantities, even if
compensation is given to the tenant, as a
certain amount of pride and pleasure is
necessary in good cultivation, and it is a
market to which few take their produce ; yet,
I believe, moderation is generally conceded
in this district, although it may be refused in
all until it will be no longer accepted. A
man may turn his estates into a game pre-
serve, but such a proceeding will not make
justice and moderation more safe in dealing
with the land laws, for it is not altogether
prudent to set aside the political power and
importance of the working classes, who in
time of open danger might assert their wants
and necessities if the many were sacrificed to
the pleasures of the few.

TENANT-RIGHT INVESTIGATED.

THE Wisbeach Chamber of Agriculture
appointed a committee recently for
the purpose of ascertaining the terms upon
which land is generally occupied in the
district, and the allowances which are usually
made to outgoing tenants. The committee
state, with some regret, that they have re-
ceived very few replies to the numerous
circulars which they sent out; and that,
either from indifference to the subject, or
from some suspicion of the motives of the
committee, they had but little assistance
from the members of the Chamber. The
committee were thus compelled to narrow
the field of their inquiry, and to obtain their
information from such other sources as were
open to them. The district, which the
committee assigned to themselves for the
purpose of this inquiry, included the North

Witchford and Wisbeach Poor-law Unions,
containing sixteen parishes in the Isle of Ely,
and thirteen parishes in the county of
Norfolk. The area (according to the Union
valuation lists) and the nature of the soil are
as under : —

Acres.

1. N. Witchford About 5-6ths fen land, a large

Union (in part of which has a subsoil

Cambs.) 7 of clay. The high land is

parishes. 56,350 partly gravel and partly clay.

2. Part of Wis- About i-3d peat, with day

beach Union subsoil ; about i-3d alluvial

(in Cambs.) loam and silt; about i-3d

9 parishes. 50, loi strong alluvial clay.

3. Part ©f Wis- About 2-3ds strong alluvial

beach Union clay; about i-3d alluvial

(in Norfolk) . loam and a sraaU quantity of

13 parishes. 56,880 peat.

Total acres 163,331

By the courtesy of the Lords of the Com-
mittee of Privy Council for Trade, the Com-

Tenant-Right Investigated

mittee were furnished with details of the
agricultural returns for the district. These
returns show an area of cultivated land, i.e.
land under all kinds of crops, bare fallow,
and grass, of 147,629 acres, of which 28,418
2W3:cs, 19.15 per cent are in permanent
pasture, and 116,043, 78.60 per cent, are
arable. The per centage for England being
— pasture 41.66, arable 55.97. The distinc-
tive features of the agriculture of the district
are shewn by the following tables, the totals
having been extracted from the Board of Trade
Returns.

Crops.

Average.

Per centage
to total
acreage.

Average

per centage

for England.

Com orops ...
Green crops...
Wheat

82,264

25.179
49,156

18,773
9,118

55-72
17.05

3329
12.71

6.17

32-39

12.21
13.96

Oats

6.13

Potatoes

1.65

LIVE STOCK.

Agri. Horses...

Cattle

Sheep

Pigs

Proportion-
ate No. to
every 100
acres.

5,635

14,320

103,381
12,841

3.81

9-7

70.02

8.69

Proportionate

No. for every

100 acres for

England.

4.1

15.5

73-9

8.8

" The agricultural returns are, the report
continues, as is well known, based upon such
information as the officers of the Inland
Revenue are able to obtain ; and as a great
number of farmers still refuse to fill up the
schedules sent to them for that purpose, the
statistics cannot be relied upon as strictly
accurate. But your Committee see no reason
to doubt that the figures given for this dis-
trict are fairly correct. These iiguies indicate
a great corn-growing district, with a very
large breadth of wheat, oats, and potatoes,
with considerably less than an average quantity
of cattle, and barely an average quantity of
sheep, as compared with England generally.
A large proportion of the land may be said
to be artificially drained : much of the arable
land has been hollow-drained, and the peat
landSy which have a clay subsoil, have all

been clayed. Of no other district in England
can it be said with greater truth that " the
land itself is the product of invested capital."
The farms in the district are many of them
from 300 to 600 acres in extent, but there
are a considerable number of small occupiers,
and many owners who farm their own lands.
Owing to the great subdivision of land, and
the absence of large estates, the conditions
under which tenants hold their lands, and the
nature of the allowances which they receive
on quitting, vary exceedingly. Even in the
same parish, and sometimes on the same
property, the widest possible difference will
be found. It is in fact impossible to lay
down any general principle but this — that, in
the absence of any agreement to the contrary,
or in respect of any point not provided for by
an agreement, the tenant quits as he entered.
In default of any evidence as to the terms of
entry, the tenant can claim according to the
custom of the country. The said custom is
not well defined. It varies considerably in
different parts of the district; it alters from
time to time ; but on the whole it advances
in a direction favourable to the tenant, and
it may perhaps be fairly described as equity
administered by arbitrators. The amount of
the allowances to the outgoing tenant is in-
variably ascertained by two valuers or their
umpire. One of these valuers is appointed
by the outgoing tenant, and one by the in-
coming tenant ; but where any claim for
dilapidations or breach of covenants is made
by the landlord, the same valuer usually acts
for both landlord and incoming tenant The
compensation awarded to the outgoing tenant
is always paid by the incoming tenant. The
Committee proceed to give detailed informa-
tion on the various points of the inquiry.

TERMS OF OCCUPATION.

A large proportion (in the opinion of the
Committee, ^ in extent) of the land in the
district is let from year to year, with six
months' notice to quit at the end of the cur-
rent year. About two-thirds is entered upon
at Michaelmas, and one- third at Lady-day.
Management : The cultivation of the land is
usually prescribed to some extent In many

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

;s a course of cropping is laid down,
sre such is the case, the five- course
(/>., first year, fallow or green crops ;
year, oats ; third year, wheat ; fourth
Dver, beans, or peas ; fifth year, wheat)
; frequently adhered to. A more
1 form of agreement insists upon a
proportion of fallow or green crop in
ar, and forbids the growth of two
Tops, or three white straw crops in
on. These conditions are not often
i during the continuance of the
; but in the event of a tenant

his farm, any breach of covenant
id, and where actual damage has been
e is liable to the full extent of such

The growth of brown mustard seed,
eed, and rapeseed is frequently pro-

and occasionally the area of the
crop is limited. Sometimes the
of these otherwise forbidden crops is
id, provisionally, on the tenant apply-
ain quantity of artificial manure to

upon which they are grown. Some
nts contain a condition that certain
I crops shall not be grown, except

permission in writing of the landlord
jent. But such restrictions are now
imon than they were in former years ;
growth of seeds, which were a few
o generally regarded as pernicious,
ite years very much increased. The
lay, straw, and roots (except carrots
atoes) is generally forbidden. Re-
Substantial repairs are usually per-
by the landlord. For ordinary re-
j landlord finds rough materials, and
nt pays for labour. In many cases,
, the landlord covenants to put the

and premises in repair at the com-
ent of the tenancy, and the tenant
:o keep them in repair. Hedges,
and fences are generally kept in re-
the tenant; but in some instances
lord repairs all outside fences.

>WANXES TO OUTGOING TENANTS.

nent improvemen ts : Buildings erected
*nant, if attached to the freehold, be-
e property of the landlord, without

any compensation to the tenant ; if not so
attached, the tenant can remove them if the
landlord or the incommg tenant refuse to take
them at a valuation. The same rule applies
to trade fixtures. No compensation is al-
lowed for fences and hedges made, orchards
and gardens planted and stocked, or roads
constructed by tenants. Unexhausted im-
provements — artificial manure : On Ladyday
farms where wheat is paid for at cost of seed
and labour, any such manure put on for wheat
would be paid for at cost price ; and occa*
sionally some allowance is made for artificial
manures put on for green crops which have
been consumed on the land. On Michaelmas
farms no allowance is usually made for such
manures applied to corn crops or to root
crops when they are taken at a valuation ;
but wherever root crops are paid for at cost
of seed and labour, artificial manures would
be paid for at cost price, and some
recent agreements secure to the tenant
payment for a certain proportion of all
the artificial manure used during the last
year of the tenancy. Artificial food : From
one-quarter to one-half the cost of oilcake
consumed in the last year of the tenancy is
allowed where the farmyard manure is not
paid for ; but a claim for oilcake consumed
in the field is sometimes disputed, and no
allowance is made for corn used in feeding.
Field drainage is usually done by the land-
lord and tenant conjointly, the landlord find-
ing tiles, and the tenant labour. In these
cases the tenant would not usually be
allowed compensation at quitting. Where,
however, the tenant finds both tiles and
labour, the whole cost is supposed to be
spread over a certain number of years (usually
seven), and the outgoing tenant is paid for
so many of these years as are unexpired.
Claying is allowed for either by reckoning
the number of years which have expired, or
the number of crops which have been taken
since the work was done. Four years, or
four crops, as the case may be, are supposed
to compensate the tenant. Growing crops,
etc. : Green crops and roots are usually
valued at consuming prices (i. e, two-thirds
of market value), but occasionally they are

Tenant-Right Investigated

paid for at cost of seed, labour, artificial
manures, and half-year's rent, rates, and
taxes. Hay is valued at consuming prices.
Straw, on Michaelmas farms, is valued at a
nominal price per acre. Farmyard manure is
not paid for except under special agreement,
but the cost of any labour expended upon it
is allowed. Growing wheat, on Lady-Day
farms, is by the custom of the country
valued. In many instances they are taken at
cost of seed, labour, and half-year's rent, rates,
and taxes. New seeds, clovers, and artificial
grasses are paid for at cost of seed and sowing.
Tillage: — ^The full cost of all tillages performed
by the outgoing tenant for the benefit of the
incoming tenant is allowed. In cases where
dead fallows are part of the regular system
of the farm, the costs of cultivation, with the
one year's rent, rates, and taxes are paid.
Steam cultivation, subsoiling, &c. : — No

compensation for deep cultivation, by steam
or otherwise, is allowed where a crop has be«n
taken, except in cases where green crops are
paid for at cost price, and where fallows are
paid for at a cost of cultivation. Having re-
gard to the terms upon which the committee
was appointed, they have felt themselves pre-
cluded from offering any suggestions for an
amendment of the law or custom which regu-
late the relations of landlords and tenants ;
they have simply confined themselves to a
statement, based upon such information as
was at their command, of such facts as seemed
to them material to the question submitted to
them. Should it be the pleasure of the
Chamber to re-appoint the Committee, they
will be prepared to take into consideration
the facts above reported, and to make such
suggestions and recommendations as may
seem to them desirable.

THE GRIEVANCES OF AN IRISH LANDLORD.

IN the Times of Thursday there appears a ticns. If translated into plain unvarnished

letter from Mr Peter Fitzgerald, Knight words, the language of these land agitators

of Kerr}% upon the relations existing between would be found saying to the Irish tenants,

landlord and tenant in Ireland. No one " We, by our agitation, have obtained for you

with the many years* experience I have had in the Land Act no inconsiderable slice of

in this country', he says, and of affairs of this the property of the landlord, but if you will

nature, even if he did not know the Duke of only help us to get the steam again up to

Leinster to be one of the very best landlords high pressure, we promise you a much larger

not merely in Ireland, but in the whole of slice."

British dominions, could have any doubt as AVe are now blessed with a Farmers* Club

to the ficutious character of the agitation on in almost every county town in the south of

this particular occasion, or of the still more
important fact that it is but an e\*idence of a
very widely-spread and systematic organiza-

Ireland. You, in your .Saxon ignorance of
such matters, may suppose that these associa-
tions devote their attention to such low ob-

tion. I think, then, I am justified in sapng jects as the improving the condition of the

that you have done good ser\'ice to Irish farm-labourer, or endeavouring to induce the

landlords by exposing the dishonesty of this least instructed of the farming class to a better

agitation, and a service at least equally great cultivarion of the soil or to more provident

to Irish tenants by explaining to them that habits for themselves. I believe that, as a

it is not only unprincipled, but absolutely rule, these are almost the only subjects from

without any chance of success. And yet I which ihey rigorously and scrupulously ab-

doubt whether you yourself fully realize its stain* I can speak with some experience of

intensity or how extended are its lamifica- these institutions, for I have already be

Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazine

denounced and vehemently abused by two
. in this county ; and it may, perhaps, illustrate
the matter, and help to enlighten public
opinion as to their objects and working, if I
briefly recount the particulars of these cases.
I have a small estate near the town of Lis-
towel, where one of these farmers' clubs has
been within a itvf years established. A
farm of 40 acres on this estate came out of
lease in 1869. It had been leased by my
grandfather in the year 1778 to one Talbot for
thirty-one years and three lives. A tenure
which lasted 91 years might be supposed long
enough to recoup a tenant or his representa-
tive for even a very considerable outlay in im-
provements, if such had been made ; but in
what state did I find this land ? The greater
part of the 40 acres resembled a thoroughly
saturated sponge. The " permanent build-
ings " consisted of two mud hovels, but only
one could boast of a roof, and in this,
although I can assure you that I could not
have had the conscience to ask a pig of any
improved breed to take up its abode there, I
found located an unfortunate old man, who,
by a cruel piece of practical irony, was called
"the caretaker." The representative of
the tenant, I found, moreover, was an ab-
sentee. He was, indefed, a shrewd and
intelligent man, but residing several miles
away, on the estate of another proprietor,
and because I refused to renew the tenure to
him, the Farmers' Club of Listowel thought
fit to denounce me as an "exterminating
landlord." My next offence was of a totally
different nature, and one which you will
think very unpardonable. I had written a
letter (and I fear rather a long one) to
the limes, condemning the habit prevalent
in this country of conacre letting ; for this I
was dealt with by the Farmers' Club of our
county town, Tralee— a club generally one of
the least violent of the class, but in my case
the members were exceptionally severe. I
cannot call to mind any arguments employed
to meet those which I brought against the
system of conacre, but " Abuse the plaintiff's
lawyer " was fully acted on ; each speaker in
his turn had his slap at me, but the coup dc
pracc was given by one 6f the most eloquent

of the members, who said "he had lately
visited Valencia, and had found that, though
the Knight of Kerry had a slate quarry on his
property there, and though he pretended to
be so improving a landlord, there was only
one slated dwelling to be found on his en-
tire estate, and that was one occupied by his
Scotch steward."

This, of course, set me to count roofs, and
I found on my Valencia property, as well as
I can remember, something about 130 slated
dwellings.

I am now threatened in a case of more
importance — namely, my intended dealing
with a number of tenants in a townland in
Valencia of 540 acres which has just come
out of lease by the death of the late Sir James
O'Connell, to whose father it was leased by
my father seventy-seven years ago, and a
newspaper in Cork of the largest circulation
of any in the south of Ireland has challenged
me to exculpate myself from charges brought
against me by an anonymous correspondent,
and hints that if my proceedings are found
to be within the provisions of the Land Act,
that statute will have to be amended. If
these gentlemen knew how very ready I was
to be put on my trial, it might, perhaps, cool
their ardour. But I think I have shown
that I am entitled to "change the venue"
from Farmers' Clubs of this county, and, as
I wish not to end this letter without a prac-
tical suggestion which may be of some utility,
I would advise these gentlemen as follows : —
My crime in this case is one of intention;
my intentions have been most distinctly
stated in an address to my tenants which I
have printed, and of this I send a copy to
the editor of the paper in question. Let him
and the Farmers' Clubs test the facts in anyway
they please, and having verified or corrected
them, let them send the case to Mr C. S. Read,
M.P., who is, I understand, the representa-
tive of the tenant class in the House of
Commons. Ask him to lay it before a jury
of twelve English or Scotch tenants ; let
no landlord approach within a mile of them,
and let them give their opinion, whether,
under the circumstances, I could adopt a
course more considerate and humane towards

Tlu Grievances of an Irish Landlord 95

the tenants — ^and by their decision I will myself seen the latter, but I have been as-

gladly abide. And now, as I am in a prac- sured on the best American authority that

tical and suggesting mood, I would venture some of the clauses in their leases are such

to ask his Grace the Duke of Leinster to as would make every individual hair of

lay before the public the obnoxious clauses the head of every individual member of

in his leases about which all this sensational our Farmers' Clubs to " stand on end.**

agitation has been got up, and to give My concluding suggestion will be to Mr

alongside of them the clauses to be found in Froude, that when coming to Europe to

an ordinary Scotch lease, and, above all, to "finally" extinguish us poor Irish landlords,

procure and publish also, the clauses to be he should bring one of these American leases

found in American leases. I have not in his pocket.

''WATER, WATER, EVERYWHERE;' AND MORE WANTED!

WE never yet heard of a man in reservoirs, and dams, and conserve water
thorough possession of a hobby when the great desideratum of all agriculturists
who did not ride it to death, and, stranger are outflows and tunnels to carry the surplus
still, gallop its life out under the most waters away ! Such an idea could never occur
ludicrous circumstances. John Gilpin's ride except to agricultural engineers. Agricul-
was done in private, at least only casual turists now are losing thousands of pounds
passers-by enjoyed the treat which the daily by the influx of water and they are
poetical narrator had not the opportunity invited in the greatest of good faith, we
of seeing ; but he devoutly wished to be have no doubt, but with a melancholy want
present at another similar entertainment, of the knowledge of ** the fitness of things" —
We do not think the train-band Captain, to lay out money in'keeping more fluid about
Gilpin, ever gave Cowper the desired invita- them. The prayer of the Archbishop of
tion. He was too modest. Not so those Canterbury for the cessation of rain was ob-
who caracole on hobby horses. They court jected to on the ground that the excessive
the quiz of all men, having no notion of the rain of this season was only counterbalancing
comicality of their position. For instance, the dearth of former years, and that, there-
in the midst of all the terribly ^deluging rains fore, we should take advantage of the present
we have had, which have surcharged all our excess to be provident with our supplies.
rivers and swept over the country, de- The argument is one of the most jejeutie we
vastating it for miles on all sides, carry, have ever heard. It is hardly worthy of the
ing off cattle and sheep and rotting the most recently established debating society.
seed in the ground, Mr Bailey Denton As well tell us to bottle up the sun's rays in
gravely advises farmers to store their water years when inordinate heat dries up our
for a period of drought. The humour of the meadows, scorches our grasses, cereals, and
proposal, sad though it be, is so self-evident roots, and leaves them at the mercy of
that we believe even a Scotchman will be insect pests for fiiture seasons such as
able to understand it, without the necessity this, as advise us to keep water that, if we
of a surgical operation. Store water artifi- may be permitted a kind of Irishism, we
dally, when every place where it can possibly cannot get to retain its proper level,
congregate, or lodge, is full to overflowing — Mr Bailey Denton, we are glad to notice,
when receptacles in which it ought to be con- has been replied to by various correspondents
fined are bursting plethorically! Erect who, if not quite so professionally philo^

The Country Gentlefuan's Magazine

ical as he is, are not yet deficient of circumstances, the oak invariably buds before

non sense. These letters have appeared the ash. This is a fact not only known to

he Times under the heading of " A practical naturalists, but to poets. Tennyson

tnma for the Clerg}'," only we cannot see has immortalized the fact.

what dilemma they have got through the

bishop's intervention.

le first letter we shall notice is from an

Why tarrieth my love ?
Delaying as the tender ash delays,
To clothe herself when all the woods are green.

grazier, who does not indulge in invec-
but who places, as we think, the matter
I proper and practical a light that we
take the liberty of quoting the principal
3n of his communication. He says : —

nting for a moment that the prayer has reference

agricultural operations, does either of your
pondents realize what the consequence of con-

1 the ** watering-pot " is to farmers alone ? In
juntry, where we usually get our share of rain,
here a much greater quantity of cattle and sheep
.0 find their living in the open air in winter
1 England, the incessant rain is, I may say, de-
ng our stock, and so impoverishing the survivors
any of them will never live to see the spring,
isult is a much greater consumption of food in
to maintain the heat of the body. The natural
uence, both of the increased cost of production
e diminution in numbers, will necessarily be a
ncrease in price both of beef and mutton, and,
ing the laws of supply and demand — if of them
irely will there be an increase in the price ot

potatoes, and all such necessaries ; for when
necessary " rises beyond the reach of the many,
lust then fall back on the commoner articles
, thereby increasing the demand, and, there-
he price. Thus much for beef and mutton.

Denton first admits the excessive rainfall, and ^°"" <=^<=" ^""^ ^P""5 *'"^'>' "^'' year. This
1 to say " that, with ordinary discretion in the ""^"^^ ^ '^'= ''='^"' °/ "''^-=" ""'« ""'y ^ ^°'™' """^
.n of time for tillage operations, much of the \ ^^^ general resu.t is high prices, much money taken

out of the country for large importations, and conse-
quent suffering to the poor. I cannot agree with any
one who thinks all this a matter for congratulation,
surely it is rather for deprecation ?

I do not know where the deep wells may be which
Mr Denton speaks of as not yet supplied with water.

Dropping this part of the letter, we come
to the practical point Mr Morris says (and
he has ample opportunities of judging, as
he mixes much among farmers and takes
great interest in their well-being, as well as
in that of theu: servants) that " they one and
all complain grievously of the serious
damage the wet weather has done them."
We are quite agreed with the Rector that
farmers, as a rule, know quite as well as
Mr Bailey Denton can tell them, when to
sow their seed to advantage. They do not
usually deposit it when the ground is not in
proper tilth.

" I think," says Mr Morris, ** you may trust them
for taking advantage of the most proper time, ap-
parently, to sow their seed, as suggested to them by
Mr Denton, and the consequence of their having done
so this year has been that it has rotted in the ground,
and they will have to do their work and sow their
seed over again to a very great extent, at a heavy ex-
penditure of labour and money. They cannot even
now get upon the land to sow, except here and
there, and a vastly less acreage than usual will be

in-

now in jeopardy might have been planted. It
less entering into recriminations after the mis-
5 done ; but I may venture to think that had

possible to plant the wheat when it should
een planted, our farmers would not have lacked
irdinary discretion." Do wc not hear of dis-

floods on all sides, interrupting all kinds of ^^^ ^ ^^^^^ '" ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^'^ ordinary wells, ponds,
ies? If, as I venture to predict, the heavy &c., about here have been fuU to overflowing months
f this winter are the forerunners of high prices ^^^'
ring, will not your correspondents wish they

ned in praying for fair weather ?

A Layman in -the Canterbury Diocese is
not comforted by Mr Bailey Denton's
i Rev. F. O. Morris, Nunbomholme idea of " Compensation." Mr Denton
ry, Yorkshire, also writes about the has not managed this doctrine so well as
1. We wish he had not quoted that Emerson did. "The Layman" says that
old adage about the oak and the ash both Mr Denton and some other correspon-
g into leaf, sooner or later, affecting dents ** make very light of the evils that this
Disture. Except under very abnormal plague has caused, and mention only the

" Watef, Water, Everywh^re^ aftd More Wanted 97

^^cultural calamity of the autumn wheat- and in others the mortar washed away and

sowing being lost But I have been going woodwork rotted, out-door labour stopped,

about a good deal this autumn in the south- and families thrown into poverty thereby. I

eastern and western parts of England, and should think that there were certainly most

know what a dire misfortune the excessive preponderating reasons for the Archbishop

rains have been to all classes. Not only is directing his clergy to supplicate the Almighty

the autumn sowing almost totally lost, but Ruler of the Universe to stay such a plague,

most low-lying land has been flooded, stacks I am sure that by far the larger part of the

washed away, cattle destroyed, sheep attacked nation earnestly desires its cessation."

by foot-rot (as if there were not already enough It only remains for us to decide that Mr

diseases among our cattle), houses falling, Denton is *' out of court."

VOL. X tt

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

Jlptcdtural ImpkmentB anii JKachrnes.

DAVETS TURN-WREST RLOUGH.

AT the show of the Smithfield Club there
was exhibited on the stand of Mr
John Davey, of Crofthole, Sl Germans,
Cornwall, a plough which has attracted con-
siderable attention since its introduction.
The double-furrow turn-wrest plough is a
novelty of a practical and ingenious nature.
It works easily, and effects a considerable
saving of labour. In his article in the Journal
of the Bath and West of England Society re-
garding the implementsat Dorchester, Mr John

rising thereby the whole frame clear oft
ground, and at the same time unlocking
the stirrup being in connexion with a sprii
which is the locking power ; the position
the frame is made rigid by a stop, whi
turns over with the frame, being connect
with it by a short chain. The most in]
nious portion of the mechanism consists of 1
self-acting shoes, which, as soon as the plou{
are raised out of the ground, drop down
their weight and take a bearing, on which '

Coleman specially mentions this implement
as being excellent in design and workman-
ship. The cut given will illustrate the de-
scription of the plough, which is as follows ;
— The frame carrying the mould-boards
revolves upon a central bearing, which being
hollow, allows of a chain passing through it
to the vertical shaft of the fore-wheel carriage.
The workman actuates this chain by placing his
toot on a stirrup situated between the stilts,

Plough.

plough can be turned. When the implem
is thus raised out of the ground, and rest
on the shoe, the whole can be locked ;
rendered rigid by dropping a lock bar from
top of the upright fore:carriage axle ; thi
worked by a connecting rod from the banc
Mr Coleman remarks of the plough
which is very true. " We are lost," he s
" in the apparent complexity and ingeni
yet the whole is simple and workable."

Dave^s Turn- Wrest Plough

MR HUGHES'S PA TENT CORN LIFTER.

ONE of the greatest novelties in the saving of labour ought to be right heartily
show of implements at Smiihfieid welcomed. The apparatus, it may be men-
was the com lifter invented by a farmer, tioned, can be attached to any machine,
for enabling a machine to cut without diffi- " There is no doubt but that the expedition
culty a twisted and a tangled crop. We have with which reapers do their work, has caused
not yet seen it at work in the field ourselves, a great deal of waste to be overlooked, espe-
but those who have express themselves highly cially in those districts where high feeding

Hughes Com Lifier altaclied 10 Reaper.

pleased with its performance. Theoretically and the application of artificials to cereals,

it looks as if it could accomplish what the produces a bulk that rarely keeps its legs

inventor claims for it. We know that several until harvest,

influential machine makers expressed their The reaper is then set close to the ground

approval of it, and in this variable climate of and forced through the tangled and prostrate

ours, and in the present state of the market, crop. By this means, great quantities of ear.

eveiy mechanical contrivance adapted for the ends are cut off short, and much is lost alto

Tlie Country Gentleinafis Magazine

*r, and much which should be tied in
heaf is collected by the horse-rake. By
iiughes* lifting process this loss is saved,
e same time that the expedition is accel-
id by the assistance afforded to the cut-
apparatus."

irectly the machine is put in motion, the
s insert themselves beneath the crop, the

clods, clover, and creeping weeds, thus mak-
ing as much separation as possible between
the ripe com and the growing stuff, and
keeping the knives out of danger. Nothing
more than necessary is cut, and nothing can
be cut twice. All doubled straw and tangled
stuff must pass over the lifters, never passing
through the knife, while the stalk of the com

Hughes* Cora Lifter.

le bulk of which is then pushed up the
e of the lifters, and being severed from
ground by the knife beneath, is landed
the platform clear of the cutting appa-
3. By this simple process many import-
advantages are gained. The certainty
eing able to raise the crop, enables the
ing apparatus to be set high, above stones.

and the stems of weeds are severed by the
knife while lifted, and to a great extent
strained by the action of the lifters; thus
affording great freedom of cut and effectually
preventing any tendency to choke. Tangled
peas, barley, or oats, laid in a heavy growth
of clover, can be cut wet as well as dry, in
the early dew as well as at noon-day.

TJie Country Gentleman's Magazine loi

^^ricttlttiral CngitwmnQ.

ON THE ECONOMICAL USE OF COAL.

WE all know the pleasantry of the Joe lower than it at present is. To ensure, then,
Millerism, that when a coal mer- good stoking, carefulness is requisite; and here
chant was congratulating his customer on comes in the proverb, that " a master's eye
some change of circumstances in trade by is worth a hundred pair of hands," to
saying, " Coals are coals now. Sir," was remind us that unless the master sees that
met by the reply, " I'm glad to hear it, for this carefulness is exercised, it will not> as
the last you sent me were slates." True it a rule, be so. We write this with no desire
is that so far as price goes, coals may now to be captious as to the labourer's honest
be said to be diamonds. It is then of the intentions to do his duty, but simply from
greatest practical importance to economize a knowledge of what men are, and indeed,
consumption as far as possible. We do not for the matter of that, what human nature is.
here refer to economy in household con- The master, therefore, should insist upon his
sumption of coal, though we might say some- foreman doing his duty ; and in place of at-
thing on this point carrying with it practical tempting' to secure this by the system of im-
value, but it is in the economical use of coal posing fines, we should be inclined to re-
in the firing of steam engine furnaces that commend as the better system, the adoption
we wish to give a note or two. There is, as of reward. It may be said, however, that
Mr Trench would say, stoking afid stoking ; the master cannot be always at the furnace
that is, there are two modes of carrying it out, door to see that the stoking is well done, but
a bad and a good one, to whiph we might fortunately there is in this department one
add a third, which is perhaps the worst of the method of ascertaining easily whether the
three, that is, the indifferent — that is, using work is being done well or ill, and that is, by
the word here as indicative of the indifference looking from time to time at the chimney-
which is in the minds of many, as to whether tops. If from this, huge masses of dense
their men do good work or bad work. black smoke be seen issuing, it may at once
Between good and bad management of be settled that the stoking is full, and that
engine furnaces, there is a great difference in this being so, that coal is being wasted ; this
point of expense. We do not say that good is a rule with no exception. We make it a
management will affect a very large saving, xule to see to this, and we have found the
but we do say it will efiect an important one, benefit in a large decrease of coal consump-
and we may venture to say that the saving lion. But how to prevent the smoke so
effected by good stoking will range from ten ssuing in dense black clouds ? A very simple
to twenty-five per cent, of the cost of the matter, and one easily secured. The first
fuel ; and that either of the savings in- essential to be arrived at is getting coal of as
volved is a matter of great importance, no uniform a size throughout as possible. Large
one will dispute, when the price of coal every- lumps are not economical, neither is the very
where is taken into consideration. And high smallest dross ; the best size is what in the
as that price is, there are indications abroad south are called " nuts," and in the north
which lead us to conclude that it will be " churls," that is, pieces about the size of a
higher still, certainly that it will not be much goose-egg. Watt was very early convinced

The Country GentlematCs Magazim

important part size played in stoking a rule, fire frequently. For if large masses of
engine furnace, for he made it one of coal be hurled into the furnace, this may last
inted directions for economical working for a much longer time than if the quantity
s steam-engines, " Break every coal be smaller ; and just because this system does
5 bigger than a goose's egg." This away with the necessity of frequent attend-
; is excellently good, only that it is not ance at the funiace, it is precisely the one
it enough, for he meant to say that which lazy or careless firemen adopt We
)als should be broken so as to be of or have said that the coal should be evenly sup-
the size of the t,gg of the goose. This plied over the furnace, the thinner this is
•ation of the coal may be objected to done the better. The perfection of stoking
olving the expenditure of time. True ; is giving thin layers of fuel frequently, and it
ow can time be better spent in work is best exemplified in Juke's method of mar
so arranging that the work be econo- chine firing, the principle of which is the
y and well done ? But as coals can carrying regularly and continuously to the
aght riddled, of nearly the size required, furnace, a very thin layer of coal, which,'spread
best way is to buy that class of over the hot clear burning fuel below it, fires
Where there is much very small up into flame at once with little or no smoke,
or dross, let this quality be placed But although it is the right thing to
separate heap. We intend this to be supply the coal uniformly and thinly over
in conjunction with the other coal in the whole surface, it is not to be presumed
ly presently to be indicated. Having that the clear burning coal below or that
led the coal of the best size for use, which is lying on the bars is in itself
:xt point to be observed is the mode of thin. On the contrary, the great object to
it And here the first rule is, fire be attained in good stoking is to have what
rly. It should be the aim of the fire- may be called a permanent layer of dear
D keep the pressure guage always at the burning fuel, spread evenly over the whole
point It is a certain sign that he is furnace level of at least five or six inches in
ring well if the guage indications are depth. We say uniformly spread, for all
ar. Having decided what is the pres- holes or hollows in. this are prejudicial, and,
,t which the steam should be, never therefore, wasteful. Some good stokers
le furnace-door without looking at the prefer the depth of the clear burning layer to
and to draw the fireman's attention to be less than the above, say four or five inches,
lid it be more than two degrees either Well, there is this to be said of the lesser
or below the pressure. Regular firing depth, that it is less apt to become clinkered,
sure this when conjoined with the other and more likely to admit the free access of
o be yet given. Regular firing is never air tlirough the mass from the ash-pit.
iirite with lazy or careless men, for it While the bars are kept uniformly covered,
es a steady application to the work ; it it is a good practice to have a mass of clear,
luch easier to tlirow on a large quan- red-hot fuel banked up pretty thickly
coal and then to leave the furnace to against the bridge of the furnace at the
:k, that a lazy or careless man will do far end. The presence of this mass of
preference to a systematic attention, burning fuel at this point will ensure the
lere may be regularity in doing bad flashing into flame of such smoke as may
IS well as in doing good, so that in pass from the body of the fuel or part of it j
>n to regular firing, it is necessary that although if the stoking be well done, there
ing be of the proper kind. will be comparatively littie smoke to be con-
first point is to supply the coal sumed. In plunging the coals into the fur-
11 quantity, and this evenly distributed nace they should be shovelled in the first in-
le whole surface of the fire-place. This stance far in, so as to begin from near the
uily, as will be seen, involves the third bridge, gradually approaching the furnace-

On the Economical Use of Coal 103

door. The clear burning fuel should never of the air between them by a judicious use

be allowed to get low and dull; this, however, of the sharp-pointed tool used from below.

will never be the case if the rule ahready But by far the most eflfectual way to prevent

insisted upon be kept, that is, of firing fre- the formation of clinkers is to have some

quently. Some stokers keep up the bank "moveable furnace bars." These are very

of red-hot fuel at the bridge already alluded economical in use, and the saving of fuel

to, by throwing the fuel back by the fire- effected by ihemwillverysoon repay their cost

bars j this is a bad plan, and wasteful : the One word as to the economization of

storing up of the fuel causes a great deal of waste substances as fuel for steam boilers,

unconsumedcoaltobepassedthroughthefire- A very fair artificial fiiel may be made by

bars, and otherwise disturbs the mass, making mixing the coal cakes with the finest or

it irregular and full of holes and hollows which smallest of dross or dust, otherwise and

we have said are things to be avoided ; the as a rule thrown away, spent tanners* bark,

only true way to keep up the bank at the and dust peat, and the like. We have kept

bridge is by throwing the coals back with the the pressure guage steady for hours stoking

shoveL The supply of coals must be done with nothing else but a mixture of waste

quickly. The slow dawdling way some have substances, and those too in the main in

of throwing in the coals, is very wasteful, it anything but a dry condition. With damp

keeps the furnace door too long open, ad- materials it is a good plan to adopt the

mitting cold air, which not only cools the system of what is called " alternate firing,"

fiimace but does injury to the boiler by the that is, supplying the fresh fuel at the side

unequal expansion of the plates which it of the furnace, above the mass which has

thereby causes. attained a red clear heat, and which has burnt

A great deal of fuel is wasted by the habit low. The mass at the other side being in

which some stokers have of perpetually full combustion dries the damp material at

poking with the rake. They say when the other side, and also tends to fan into a

spoken to about this that it is to get rid of flame the smoke which arises from it

the " clinkers." No doubt the presence of Another point in the economical use of

** clinkers" in, on, and between the bars is coal in steam-engine furnaces is keeping the

a bad thing ; but nothing is so well calculated water guage at a uniform level. By not

to secure the formation of clinkers as frequent attending to the water supply in boilers,

poking amongst and raking to and fi-o the irregular supply of steam is sure to result, and

burning fuel from the inside of the furnace, this brings about irregular and forced firing

The bars may be kept clear for the |)assage which we need scarcely say is wasteful

104 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

WATER SUPPLY AND STORAGE.

THERE has been much discussion of since that a very dry season was our lot, as to

late as to the excessive rainfall of the have made it pass quite from the memory of

last few months, more correcdy, we might man, and the recollection of the loss that was

say, of the many months which have pre- then incurred and the suffering through which

ceded this in which we write ; and that rain- we passed should'makeuspause before we make

fall is in no way in many places diminishing, up our minds so completely to groan over a

ifindeed, it be not increasing in some districts, season such as the present, and to decide

Not here to enter, for this is not the place, into that it is altogether bad for us. It is but a

any of the points which have given rise to trite thing for us to say, what has indeed been

such a diversity of opinion, and in conse- often said before, and apparently to very little

quence to such a keen discussion of their practical purpose, that water is an absolute

outcome, or probable outcome, we shall necessity of physical existence; without it

not fall across any opinion in a cross or con- life expires, with a limited supply it

trary way when we give this one, that the languishes. If, then, worth having, it is

fact of a large, and all will admit, an unusu- surely worth saving, so that the excess of

ally large, rainfall having been our lot, it is a supply of the one season shall make up for

practical and not by any means, therefore, a the deficiency of that of another. Do we

silly thing to do, to ask ourselves what good nationally so save the water which nature so

can we derive from it ? It might be by some bountifully supplies us with? — too bounti-

objected to, in these the days of objection fully perhaps, as some few farmers with

and of cavilling, to say that there is nothing flooded fields may now groan out The

which happens in a natural way, or perhaps reply may be instant, for it is ready without

we should say in the way of nature carrying any controversy. We as a nation do not so

out her operations, but what carries with it save it. In isolated cases it is true that wise

good. Keeping away, however, from this means are devised, and well-executed plans

point of view, it is nevertheless, as we say are carried out, by which water, in times of

above, a practical thing to do, to see what plenty, is stored up to meet the times of

good we can get out of this evil, or so-called scarcity. But these cases are met with but

evil, for that there is in things evil seldom, and as a rule we allow millions upon

a soul of good, is what surely even millions of cubic feet of water to pass from

the man most disposed to look at the our soaked pastures or flooded fields and

black side of things will admit ; and if the wide range of our hilly countries, to flow

it be so, it cannot be a waste of time to look unheeded into our rivers and thence into the

for the good in things that may be said to be ocean, and when the time of drought comes

evil. We may all yet, we may say en passant^ we raise woful Jeremiads as to the pastureless

come to see that the very evil which we now condition of our fields, the languishing state

deplore, has been, and is a good thing for us of our flocks and herds, the filth and un-

nationally, and therefore for those interested watered streets of our towns and cities ; de-

in agriculture as well. Thus, it may be a ploring all this, and yet seeing not, that in

fair question to ask, Which is the greatest large measure we have but ourselves to blame

loss to us agriculturally, a positive want of for it. Surely the times of pelting and

waterarisingfromyears, it may be, of previous continuous rains give their lesson to us as

dry weather, or an occasional heavy rainfall widely and as forcibly as do those of the

during a whole season ? It is not so long times of drought, when the " heavens are as

Water Supply and Storage

105

brass." It cannot, therefore, be a bad thing
to see what one lesson is and how best to
learn its practical outcome.

It is unnecessary to offer any remarks to
our practical readers as to the vast advan-
tages which are" derivable from having a
supply of water upon the farm, which can at
all times be depended upon. Some localities
are very favourably situated as regards sup-
plies of water. Some have a never-failing
supply from river, springs, and wells ; others
are not so favourably situated, even their
rivers, springs, and wells [fail, and then may
be seen all the evils which result from a short
supply, or, still worse, of a total failure of water.
But apart from the benefits derivable from a
steady supply of water, so far as the more
obvious wants of the stock are concerned ; we
venture to say that there is a use for water in
the ordinary work of the farm, which is of
vast importance, but which up till recently
has been singularly overlooked ; was, indeed,
only within the last month or so, so to speak,
but hinted at, and that is the application of
water to grass lands and to crops. We do
not here allude to the customary and time-
honoured plan of irrigation — which by the
way, like many time-honoured things, is more
honoured in the breach than in the observance
— but to the method recently, as we have
above said, suggested by Mr I. Brown, and
carried out with marked success in several in-
stances — of applying water frequently, and in
small quantities, after the manner of " light and
grateful showers," or acting as the " gentle dis-
tillation of the dew." From the investigations
we have made into this system, and from the
results we have been witness to in its appli-
cation, we do not hesitate to say that it
would pay to secure a regular supply of
water upon a farm ; for carrying out this plan
as a part of the regular work of a farm, ir-
respective altogether of the other and obvious
advantages which would arise from having a
supply for other purposes.

The most obvious and what we may call
the natural way of securing stores of water, is
to take advantage of the inequalities of
the ground to form reservoirs. There
^e few localities^ indeed, which are

not possessed of valleys more or less
deep and "pronounced," as the French
say, which can at once be utilized and formed
into reservoirs by throwing across dams or
weirs at convenient points ; and this without
greatly, or in the majority of cases, scarcely
injuring the value of the land, or taking away
from it much that might be cultivated. At aU
events, if but a few of the valleys, the sides
of which are now utterly unused for farming
purposes, were used in this way, the result
would be that in the aggregate an enormous
amount of water would be saved up, and
which might be availed of for purposes
other than those we have already alluded
to, useful as those are. To these other pur-
poses we may hereafter allude, referring only
to one, namely — a source of power for many
useful purposes. This method of storing up
water possesses the merit, as with some,
we suppose, it will be so considered, of ex-
treme antiquity — an antiquity which, if it has
no other merit than this, has proved
beyond a doubt the ease with which the
system can be carried out. We know of •no
inquiry, indeed, which would open up so
many points of interest to our practical
readers, as that connected with what was
done in former days and amidst far off coun-
tries in the way of storing up water for agri-
cultural purposes. In some countries whole
districts were watered by a system of storage
reservoirs, which embraced within its limits,
almost the smallest depressions in the surface
of the land, mere holes as well as the larger
and more imposing valleys which intersected
the country, and cut it up into picturesque
alternations of hill and dale, mountain and
valley. And what has been done before can
surely be done again ; all the more that there
is now in the wants of an increased and ever
increasing population, a pressing necessity for
us to do everything in our power to meet
these wants by a ready supply of all available
material aids.

On the majority of estates it may not be
necessary for ordinary farming purposes ;
although no doubt for scientific reasons it
might be advisable to calculate the probable
quantity of water which might be obtained

io6 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

from the land, so as to proportion the extent pressions in the land, so to arrange and
of storage surface or capacity to the probable connect them that the aggregate supply will
supply. The rough and ready plan will no be large. One advantage of this system will
doubt be most likely acted upon — should the be that each dam will be small, and, there-
plan ever be acted upon at all — of simply fore, will require in its construction no large
taking a convenient valley, forming in it a amount of engineering skill,
reservoir by throwing at some convenient It is very difficult to give even approxima-
point a bank or dam across it, leaving the tive estimates of the amount of water which
question of capacity to decide itself; so that may be collected from a given area of land,
whatever it can hold will be looked upon as so many conflicting circumstances coming
so much saved, and therefore so much got ; into play. It may serve some useful purpose
and upon what cannot be retained as so if we give here what we may call the
much lost, and, therefore, just what will be to " scale of efficient supply " of various districts,
be regretted. It will be a very small reservoir Assuming the supply in any given mea-
indeed which will not hold some thousands sure from a given acreage of "steep sur-
of gallons; and what the value of a few faces of granite, gneiss, and slate" to be
thousands might be in such seasons of drought loo or the "standard," moorland and hill
as we had not so long ago, let those say who pasture land will stand at 60 to 80, and flat
lost and suffered so much by them. Further cultivated country 40 to 50. In a future
it will take no great amount of engineering note we shall give a few hints to be availed
skill to avail oneself of the peculiarities of of in the construction of dams across valleys,
ground met with in some localities, and by as also in that of ponds and reservoirs in
damming up a number of small valleys or de- fields, on flat or moderately flat land.

The Country Gentletnatis Magazim 107

^he Jfarm.

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES.

IN the year which has just passed we out since the new arrangement made last
notice a great falling off in the imports year,
of live stock. Whether this is a matter to be The number of cattle we received last
rejoiced over or to be deplored is a question year, adding oxen, bulls, and cows together,
about which there is a considerable diflference was only 139,377 to compare with 208,472.
of opinion. It is insisted upon by many that The cost to us this year was ;^2,56i,698,
from the Continent come all the ills that which we find is about £1^, 7s. per head,
bovine and ovine flesh are heir to, and that while in 187 1 we paid for the larger number
free trade in cattle, unlike free trade in com, ;£^3>439>754> which was only about jQid, los.
works mischief instead of conferring benefit, per head. There has, therefore, been a rise
On the other hand, it is stated that much of £1, 13s. per head in foreign cattle, which
more disease is imported from Ireland than is no inconsiderable amount, considering that
is brought across the German Ocean, and facts the quality of a large proportion of them was
are given in proof. At all events, we know not equal to former supplies. The imports
that meat has been dearer, which indicates of calves were also fewer than in the previous
that it has been scarcer this year than in any year — 33,525 to contrast with 40,139. This
other we have experienced for a very long year we paid for this kind of meat (we should
time. And consumers naturally think that like to see it much less frequently than it is
the restrictions imposed upon the introduc- at table, as besides being rather insipid eating,
tion of foreign cattle tend to enhance the its use reduces immensely the weight of good
price of meat We do not say that we agree roast beef and increases its price), ;^i 12,841,
with them, but we should like to see a more or about £1, iis. 9d. per head, last year we
satisfactory system of inspection both at home paid for veal ;^i4o,553, or £^y los. per head,
and abroad. For the prevention of disease There is a large falling off to be noticed in
our veterinary oversight has proved at once a the supplies of sheep also, the number re-
farce and a tragedy. Were the consequences ceived up to the end of December last year
not so painful, we should be forced to laugh being only 809,187, to compare with 916,799
at the incompetency of science to cope with in the previous year. Last year the sum we
disease during the past year. But it is not disbursed in payment was ;^i, 666,85 7 > i^
so much the veterinarians who are to blame, 187 1 we paid ;£i, 789,826, which gives for
as the system under which they work, the this year a rate of £2^ is. 2d. per
manner of their instructions, and their mode head, and in last year ^^i, 19s. per
of payment Parliament should devise, next head. The decline in pigs is specially re-
year, some better plan of dealing with dis- markable, the number we received last year
eased stock than that which the cumbrous, being only 16,101, as against 85,622 in 1871.
cumulative, and complicated Orders in The sum we expended mpon the porkers was
Council decree. Before proceeding to sum- ;^5 1,582; in the previous year pigs cost us
marize the statistics, we take occasion to ;£'292,o89. The rate per head last year for pigs
thank the Board of Trade for the unfailing was, therefore, lower than in 187 1, being in
r^olarity with which the Returns have come that year jQz^ 8 s., while last they were f

I08 The Country Gmtlemaiis Magazifte

j£^, 4S. This is the only instance, it will be with ;£ 3,343,574 in 1871. These are gratu

noticed, in which live stock was cheaper, and fying figures, as they shew that more atten-

the consumption was so small as to have tion is being paid to dairying at home. Still

little effect as a counterpoise to the higher ;£^9,o66,536 seems rather too much to pay

values in other animals. . By-the-way, tables for dairy produce, when our coimtry is weU

of rates per head, ton, cwt., lb., &c,, would adapted for making it

add much to the interest of the Returns. It The advantages of paying more attention

could easily be introduced, and it would save to poultry is strikingly shewn in the figures

a world of trouble to those whose duty and the Returns give with regard to the import of

business it is to wade through the statistics. eggs. The great hundreds in the year reached

There was a great increase in the quantity no less than 4,650,676 or 558,081,120 in-

of bacon received — 1,841,392 cwt., to com- dividual eggs, which gives to each man,

pare with 1,017,907 in 1871, and the prices woman, and child 186 eggs in the course of

paid were respectively ;£'3,773»665 and the year. The price of these was ;^i, 83 7,886.

£^i5^7A7o. The total we expended on live The supplies of wheat from foreign ports

stock and bacon last year was ;£'8,i66,643, last year were in excess of those of last, but

as against ;£'8,i69.692, about ;^3ooo less, not so much so as those of 1871 were over

but then in the case of live stock, as we have the imports of 1870. The total quantity we

seen, we had much less for our money. received during the past year was 41,990,228

In addition to these items of animal food cwt, for which we paid ^26,046,876. In
enumerated, we spent ;£42 1,122 for beef the preceding year we received 39,407,646
«* salted, or fresh, or slightly salted." In cwt., and disbursed for it ;£ 23,345,630.
1 87 1 the sum we expended under this head- The difference in the price per cwt be-
ing was ;;^635,92i. Our imports of hams tween last year and the previous one
were much more liberal than in the previous ^as about 2d. per cwt. This year we
year, the cost being ;^402,964 to contrast paid, in round numbers, 12s. per cwt, and
with ;^i9S»325- For other kinds of meat in 187 1, iis. lod. Our imports of barley
not enumerated, our expenditure was much were very much larger than in 1871 ; so also
larger than in 1871, the augmentation being Indian com, and wheat meal, and flour, as
chiefly owing to the mcreased consumption the following tables will shew. We give also
of preserved meat, which we should like to the respective values of the commodities,
see in greater demand than it is. The sum with the names of the countries— in the case
we paid was ;^i,o45,325 ; in the previous of wheat, and wheat meal, and flour— fi-om
year, ;^774,42 7. Pork was in less request, whence we derived our supplies, and a com-
the sum we disbursed being ;£'449»i85, parison of the quantities and cost of them, in
against ^£"698,032. Upon poultry and game, 187 1 and 1872 :—
rabbits included, which indeed formed the quantities.
principal portion of the imports, we expended /^^'^ Year

\r^ . , \ r ^ ^ r> ended Dec. ended Dec.

^217,542; in the year before, ;;^i 76,082. 31,1871. 31.1872.

The total sum our animal food cost us last year Wheat. Cwt. Cwt

was ^10,702,781; in 1871, ;^io,649,479. J^'l^T '5.629.43S 17.840.640

-^ , . , -.rt- 1 1 l-JenmarK. ^30>370 43i>^7o

So there is not much diff^erence on the actual Germany 3,049,031 3,887,746

outlay, but we received less quantity for the France 134,841 2,843,016

expenditure. We have been thus minute about Austrian Territories ... 239, 147 54,732

the meat-question, as it is one of the most '^^*^^f^T?r Y^l^^^^^^ | 1,418,886 838,073

important of the day, and the statistics may Kg7pt...!..!r.^*Z.. 884,396 2,337.208

give rise to discussion. United States 13,405,057 8,606,403

Coming now to dairy produce, we find Chili 549»529 if434»i25

that for butter we paid in the year gone by British North America 3»279.264 i,7i9,378

;£6,o3o,893, as against ;^6,9s8,96i, on Other Countries 687,690 i,997,73i

'^^^ » we expended ;;^3,03S,643 to compare Total 39,407,646 41,990,228

Import and Export of Agricidttiral Commodities

109

VALUE.

R^ia ; ;f8,940,597 jf 10,591,335

Denmark 77,791 290,812

Germany I 2,018,292 2,646,469

France 72,345 1,840,271

Austrian Territories ... 158,475 33,979

Turkey, Wallachia, ) ^^^ ^.o ^ ^,^

and Moldavia ! { 737,7i8 454,269

Egypt t 489,741 1,178,675

United States 8,062,414 5,593,5oi

ChiU 358,427 947,538

British North America 2,005,698 1,138,437

Other Countries 424,132 1,331,590

Totel ^£23,345,630 ^£26,046,876

QUANTITIES.

Year Year

ended Dec. ended Dec.

31, 1871. 31, 1872.

Cwt Cwt.

Barley 8,589,059 15,078,140

Oats 11,007,106 11,567,058

Peas 1,021,950 1,290,076

Beans 2,975,651 2,937,514

^ MaL!:^"!.!!' ! '6,832,499 24,563,334

VALUE.

Barley ^3»407,425 ;f6,l94,i55

Oats 4,141,687 4,212,086

Peas 459,624 561,007

Beans 1,269,424 1,186,066

^°M^?.™..*!' i ^'470,789 8,696,362

QUANTITIES.

Year Year

ended Dec. ended Dec.
31, 1871. 3t, 1872.

Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt. Cwt.

Germany 967,892 l,o54,574

France 37,^50 1,341,465

United States lj794,8o5 743,4^2

British North America 403,989 339,300

Other Countries 780,802 9^7,308

Total 3,984,638 4,396,059

VALUE.

Germany ;f9i4,275 ;f990,S58

France 32,950 1,229,376

United States 1,461,826 627,825

British North America 317,862 298,257

Other Countries 775,87^ 946,175

Total ^£3,502,784 £4,092,189

Ttiming now to the manurial substances,
we note that there was an increase in the
quantity of bones received, this fertilizer ap-
pearing to rise in favour year by year. Pro-

bably the quantity used would be greater
could the bones be obtained at a reasonable
price. Peninsular battle-fields have been
harried, and from Egypt many remains of old
heroes have come. At least so we are in-
formed, and to South America we are now
greatly indebted. The quantity obtained last
year was 97,778 tons, to compare with 94,212
tons in 187 1, and the cost ;^642,7i5, a.s
against ;^59i,998. In brimstone an aug-
mentation is also noticeable. In guano there
is a large falUng off, for reasons we have had
occasion to explain before — the rather grasp-
ing character of the Peruvian Government,
and the deficiency in quality of not a few of
the cargoes of the manure itself. All that
we received in the course of the year was
117,089 tons, as against 178,678, which
means that a large amount of acreage in this
cbuntr}' has been manured with manufactured
"artificials." The sum we expended last
year was ;£i, 183,294, in 187 1 it was
;^i,994,i45. Of nitrate of soda we received
1,592,346 cwt, at a cost of ;£i, 2 19,071 ; in
the previous year 1,444,341 cwt., at an ex-
pense of ;^i, 1 2 9,990;

Referring to feeding-stuffs we find a con-
siderable decrease in oil-seed cakes — 2. differ-
ence of 28,000 tons in round numbers, the total
receipts last year being only 134,441 tons. The
cost was ;£'i,2S4,iii. Cotton cake also
seems to have diminished in favour with
feeders to the extent of nearly 7000 tons,
and in rape also there was a great decrease,
the respective quantities of each, and the
prices, 167,936 ton and 249,284 qr. at costs
of ;^i,404,724 and ;^625,048. The di-
minished demand must be accounted for, we
think, by the plentiful supply of grass in the
early part of the year, and to the great amount
of disease which put cattle off their food.

The miserable crop of potatoes in our own
country has caused foreign importations to
increase more than seven-fold, the quantity
received last year being no less than 6,029,908
cwt, which is the largest on record. The
price was ;^i, 654,240 ; in 187 1 we only ex-
pended ;^225,732 for 852,125 cwt

Wool is wool now-a-days. With receipts
much less than those of 187 1, we had to pay

The Country Gmtlefnatis Magazine

more money for this commodity. Last year
we landed 302,909,882 lb., in the previous
one, 319,511,336 lb., at the respective ex-
penditures of ;^i8,o57,io8 and ;^i7,436,8o6,
a difference, we find by calculation, to be
nearly aXd. per lb., the cost per lb. last year
being is. 3/^d., and in 1872 is. id. and a
slight fraction.

The following tables shew the countries
from which the wool came, the respective
quantities, and th«ir values ; —

QUANTITIES.

Year

ended

Dec. 31, 1871.

Dec. 31, 1872

Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb.

lb.

From Countries in Europe 54,276,417

48,885,863

„ British Possessions

in South Africa 32,643,785

34,791,038

,, British India 10,4.04,000

18,420,175
173,266,435

„ Australia 182,753,585

, , Other Countries ... 30, 343, 540

35,546,371

Total jf3i9»5"»336 302,909,882

VALUE.
From Countries in Europe ;f 3,000, 602 ;f2,37o^i87
British Possessions
in South Africa... 1,744,952

British India .. . 697,523

Australia 10,846,342

Other Countries ... 1,147,387

,»

2,316,603

822,139

10,825,788

1,722,391

Total £17,436,806 ;f 18,057,108

Turning to the export side of our ledger,
so far as it relates to purely agricultural
products, we note a decrease in the quantities
of both butter and cheese sent abroad, which

shews that we are beginning to appreciate
the manufacture of our own country better
than we formerly did, which is a gratifying
fact. For butter we received ;^307,4i8, and
for cheese ;^82,866.

Horses are now much less in demand for
the Continent than they were immediately
after the Franco-German War. Last year
we only sent away 3383, as against 7172, but
the prices were much higher, as will be
observed by comparing the aggregate sums
;^i79,472 and ;^273,9i3 respectively.

Our exports of wool, as will be noted from
the annexed figiu*es, were very much smaller
than in 187 1, but the value much enhanced,
the price per pound this year being nearly
IS. 8d., as against is. 4^d., a difference of
3Xd. per lb.

QUANTITIES.

Year Year

ended ended

Dec. 31, 1871. Dec. 31, 187a.
Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb» lb.

To Germany 2,150,424 1,911,343

„ Belgium 2,864,238

France 2,773,912

United States 2,412,598

„ Other Countries 1,756,110

1,120,366

1,025,377
2,489,171

1,116,514

Total ;f 1 1,957,282

VALUE.

To Germany ;fi5i,779

„ Belgium 187,531

„ France 216,876

United States I35i489

Other Countries 137,124

>»

;f7,662,77i

;fi58.923
100,683

92,863

177,678

102,679

Total .;^828,799 >i:632,826

Tlu Country Gentkmaiis Magazine 1 1 1

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE, LABOUR, AND RENT.

*? STATISTICAL Notes on the Price of Arthur Young, writing in 17 71, bases some

O Agricultural Produce, Labour, and estimates of 24s. per qr. The former writer

Rent, tfom the Early Part of last Century to quotes 12s. per qr. as the price of oats, and

the Present Time," formed the subject of a the latter i8s. The highest average price of

paper containing some interesting information, barley was 4ss. 8d. per qr. from 1810 to

read by Mr W. Sturge, before the Institution 1819 ; and the lowest 31s. 6d., from 1850 to

of Surveyors last week. 1856; and the average of the last seventy-

In the course of his remarks, Mr Sturge one years, 355. 9d. The highest average

said that it was much to be regretted that price of oats was 30s. 4d. per qr., from 1810

statistics of prices prior to the commence- to 1819 ; and the lowest 20s. 6d., from 1843

ment of the present century are very incom- to 1849 ; and the average for the last seventy-

plete, and must be collected from various one years, 24s. 3d. The general result may

authorities. The average price of wheat from be stated to be, that in the coiu^e of a cen*

1700 to 1800 was 41S. 8d. per qr., the lowest tury the price of barley has has advanced

average being 32s. 7d., from 1740 to 1749, from 24s. to 3ss. per qr., or 46 per cent, and

and the highest average being 565. id., from that of oats has advanced from i8s. per qr.

1790 to 1799. The lowest price in any one i4S', or 33 percent

year was 22s. 9d. in 1744, and the highest Statistical information on the prices of beef

price was 76s. 6d. in 1796. The average during the last century is scanty and incom*

price of wheat from 1800 to 187 1 was 62s. plete. The prices of beef per stone of 8 lb.

per qr., the lowest average being 50s. 4d., from 1740 to 1748 was is. 6|^d. ; 1749 to

from 1857 to 1863, and the highest average 1754, is. 5>^d. ; 1755 to 1762, is. 7d. > 1763

being 88s. 8d. from 1810 to 1819. The to 1774, is. 8>4d. ; 1775 to 1782, 2s. o>id. ;

highest price in any one year was 122s. id. 1783 to 1792, 2s. o^d. The fluctuations in

in 181 2, and the lowest price was 38s. 6d. in particular years as to the price of meat,

1 85 1. Taking the period of 40 years from dating from 1790 is as follows: — ^The lowest

183 1 to 187 1, the average price was 54s. per quoted price in 1790 was per stone 2s. 6d. ;

qr. The leading fact to be deduced from the highest during the war, 18 14, 6s. 4d. ;

these tables is that the average price of wheat the lowest since the war, 1823, 3s. 2d. ; the

advanced from 4 IS. 8d., the average for the lowest during the agricultural depression which

last century, to 6'2s.,the average for the last followed the repeal of the Corn Laws, 1850,

71 years, or about 50 per cent; and 3s. 6d. ; the present price, medium quality,

to 54s. for the last 40 years, or 5s. id. ; prime quality being 6s. 3d. These

about 30 per cent; and this, notwith- figures shew a rise between 1790 and 18 14

standing the fact that, from 1700 to 1754, of 150 per cent; a fall, 1814-1823, of 50

England was an exporting country, under the per cent ; a rise, 1850-187 2, medium quaUty

stimulus of a bounty on the exportation of 45 per cent, prime quality 65 per cent The

com, and that, on the contrary, enormous greater rise in the price of prime, as com-

importations have for many years been re- pared with middling and inferior meat, in the

quired to feed her increasing population, last twenty years, shews an increased demand

Relative to barley and oats, no statistical for meat of prime quahty. The price of stock,

tables of their prices have come to hand on a long series of years, may be assumed to

prior to 1 791. In the Landholder's Com- fluctuate in proportion to that of beef and

pofuon, published by Mr William Allen, in mutton. The prices of stock are so various,

1734, 20S. per qn is quoted for barley; and according to size and quality, and statistics

112 TJte Country GentUmaii s Magazine

are so scanty, that it is difficult to obtain produce prevailed, consequent on the French
much reliable information as to the past ; war, and (during a great part of the time) an
but judging from the present price of stock, inconvertible paper currency, there was an
the increase in value in the course of the advance in rent of land. In seven years,
century from 1770 to 1870, may be roughly from 1816 to 1822, during which prices
estimated at 150 per cent Cheese has ad- rapidly fell, notwithstanding a Com Law
vanced in the century from 29s. 6d. to 68s. intended to maintain wheat at 80s. per qr.,
per cwt., or 125 per cent \ and butter ad- it gradually advanced. This relapse, conse-
vanced during the same period from 6>^d. to quent on the exhaustion caused by the long
IS. 4d. per lb., or 133 per cent The highest war and the resumption of cash payments,
price of cheese quoted during the present reached its culminating point in 1822, when
century was 77s. 8d. per cwt in the years the price of produce fell fully 50 per cent
18 13 and 1814 ; and the lowest price was below its maximum ten years before. This
51s. 4d. in 1852. The advance in the price was a period of great agricultural distress,
of cheese from that date to 1870 is about 33 Landlords struggled to maintain their ad-
percent, and that of butter about 45 per cent vanced rents; tenants were unable to pay

Inregardtolabour,MrAllen,writingini734, them. Therefore, the fall of rent from
tells us that " harvest people and servants had its war maximum may be estimated
then become much dearer than heretofore;" at about 33 per cent In twenty-six
and Arthur Young, writing in 1772, publishes years, from 1823 to 1848, exhibiting a
a table of the wages current in most of the gradual recovery in the prosperity of the
southern counties at different seasons of the country and in the prices of produce, there
year, which table shews great fluctuations was a recovery of (say) lo^per cent, in rent
between different parts of the country. He In four years, from 1849 to 1852, exhibiting
prepares an abstract shewing the average a very low range of prices of all articles of
wages paid during the whole year, at various agricultural produce, consequent on* the re-
distances from London, including an estimate peal of the Com Laws, rents were generally
of the value of victuals and drink supplied, reduced about 10 per cent In some cases
Wages probably reached their maximum in landowners were obliged to submit to a re-
the years of high war prices, from 1803 to duction of 15 to 20 per cent Twenty years,
1815. A great fall took place concurrently from 1852 to 1872, during which an unex-
with the decline of prices, which commenced ampled extension has taken place in trade
soon after the peace of 1815, and reached and manufacture, and the consumption of all
its lowest price in 1822. In the twenty kinds of agricultural produce has enormously
years from 1850 to 1870 a rise took place of increased, the price of 'com has been kept
IS. to 2s. per week. The result of the re- down to nearly its present average by foreign
cent agitation has probably been to establish competition, but the prices of meat, stock,
a further general rise of is. to 2s. per week. and dairy produce have advanced upwards

Statistics of the fluctuations of rent are of 50 per cent, and is now as high as it was

more difficult to obtain than those of the .during the French war. The rent of arable

prices of produce, and it is almost impossible land has advanced 10 to 20 per cent, but it

to obtain accurate data for comparison on a has not generally reached the maximum at-

sufficiently large scale for reliable average tained during the war ; nor is this surprising

results. There is a rise of three to four fold when we recollect that during the twenty

in a period of forty years. In the twenty- years, from 1800 to 181 9, the price of wheat

three years ending 1794, during which there ruled more than 50 percent higher th^ dur*

was no great increase in the price of produce, ing the last twenty years. The high priced

there was a gradual advance in rent In of meat and dairy produce are due to the

twenty years, from 1795 to 1815, when a increase of the population and to the increased

•^nge of high prices of all kinds of agricultural consumption of the working-classeSi

The Country Gentleman's Magazim 113

ECONOMY IN FEEDING TURNIPS.

THE economy of turnips is a question of able fact that some portion at least of our

much importance to farmers at the oat-straw is, this season, not very sound

present time. A writer in the Aberdeen Jour- That, however, is the case only, we trust, to

wU records his opinion that one-half of the a very limited extent. We will not cite here

turnip crop is lost over the greater part of the results of chemical analyses which have

the north-east of Scotland, and we know that been made of oat-straw, in order to shew the

in the south* of Scotland and England roots amount of feeding material which it contains,

are not conserved with that care which their Suffice it to say, that its value in this respect

importance as food for stock would justify. is much greater than is commonly supposed.

This is, indeed, remarks the writer alluded But much, very much, depends upon the
to, a " heavy blow and great discouragement " degree of ripeness to which it has attained
to the fanners of this part of the country, for before being cut. ^^^len cut somewhat green,
it is by the turnip crop mainly that they live or or before being fully ripe, its feeding value
prosper. But when a calamity more or less stands very high ; when allowed to stand till
heavy falls upon men of energy and intelli- " dead ripe,' its value as fodder is greatly
gence, such as the farmers of Aberdeenshire reduced, and the loss in that respect in the
and the adjacent counties are, their first straw, when allowed to stand till fully ripe,
thought is, how it may be met, and, as far as appears to be much greater (by the trans-
possible, repaired. True it is, however, that formation of certain vegetable products) than
when the soil has foiled, from whatever all that is gained in the grain. " But, what-
cause, to yield its produce, the loss is abso- ever chemists may have found,*' the prac-
lute and irreparable. Nor is it only that, the tical farmer will say, "we know very well
farmer has to pay rent for the land that has that cattle cannot be fed on straw alone,
yielded nothing ; that is the least considera- and, whatever our grandfathers may have
tion. He has in a great measure lost his found a century ago, with such cattle and
manure — a heavy item ; and he has lost his with such straw as they then had, we do not
labour — ^an item scarcely less heavy. He is see how our cattle now-a-days could even
obliged to sell at a disadvantage cattle which live upon straw alone. And what shall
he should have fattened. But he has pro- we do then? Make the turnips we have
vender in his stackyard which ought to be go as far as possible. But can we make
"consumed on the premises," and (partly) one acre of turnips equal to two?" No,
turned into manure. If it be not so con- certainly not ; at least not by the ordinary
sumed, where is his manure heap for next mode of feeding, by which turnips are given
year ? All these considerations perplex us ; ad libitum to the exclusion of almost every-
and simply to say that it is of no use to re- thing else ; but it has been asserted, and we are
pine over them is a trite remark, and leads to partly inclined to believe it, that, by the aid
nothing. All that we can do is to make the of a little cake, and good oat-straw judiciously
best of what remains to us, to make what used, two acres of turnips may be made to
turnips we have go as far as possible, and to go as far as three, even in the feeding of
turn our oat straw to the best account. cattle for the shambles. That such is the

We are so much accustomed to an abun. case with respect to the keeping of vounpr

dant supply of tumips for our cattle, that we stock or " store cattle " generally appeaib to

do not sufficiently appreciate the value of be pretty well established as the result of

good sound oat-straw as a feeding material, some experience. Nay, further, it may be

But here, again, we are met by the disagree- asserted with some confidence, that, by " pulp«

VOL. X. I

J J4 ^^^ Couniry GentUmatis Magazine

ing" turnips, and mixing them with chaff or cake or grain, or of both, along with one-hatf
cut straw, and allowing the animals at the the quantity of turnips that we have been
same time a small amount of oilcake, say from accustomed to use. The writer of this en-
one to two pounds per head per day (or if deavoured some years ago to shew that the
that cannot be had pure, a smaller amount of common method of feeding cattle in winter
crushed linseed), a given number of young in this part of the country, is not only to
stock may be better kept upon 6 acres of tur- some extent at variance with what nature
nips, than the same number would be kept seems to dictate, but is exceedingly wastefiil
upon 9 acres, if in the latter case, the tur- in so far as the materials used are concerned,
nips and straw be put before the beasts in What may be called the normal plan of
the ordinary way. " No doubt," some may winter feeding is to give the animals as many
say, " but then you have the trouble of pre- turnips as they can devour along with oat-
paring the food, and also the expense of the straw ad libitum. Taking the size of the
cake or linseed ; and, besides, there is the animals fed to be such as is indicated by a
expense of the necessary machinery." On weight of from 6 to 8 cwt. each, the quan-
each of these points we desire to offer a few tity of food consumed under this S)rstem will
remarks. With respect to the trouble, suffice be, on an average, i6o to i8o lb. of turnips,
it to say in the meantime that we are often and some s lb. of straw, by each beast per
frightened at trouble and labour because it day. Now, we are persuaded that this is a
is such as we have not been accustomed to wasteful mode of feeding, even in ordinary
undertake. About some things we now take seasons, when turnips are tolerably abun-
an amount of trouble that our forefathers dant ; but, be that as it may, it is a mode
would have deemed superfluous, if not in- that very few in the north-east of Scotland
tolerable, while, in other things, they had to can afford to pursue this season. No doubt,
expend an amount of labour that would now the desired end is attained by it ; and three
be still more intolerable tons. It is to be year-old bullocks, in excellent condition for
observed that we have said that the stock the Metropolitan market, are turned out — or
would be better " kept " in the one case than rather, we should say, have been turned out
in the other. We believe it will be found, — by those who have pursued this simple
that by the use of such means as we have in- plan, for there are now very few, we believe,
dicated, we could, in such a season as the who do not give their fattening stock a cer-
present, keep a given number of young stock tain allowance of cake for at least two or
in, at least, as good condition as they are three months before turning them out But
commonly kept, upon one-half of the usual the same thing might be accompUshed in the
allowance of turnips. Even in ordinary same — if not less — time, and with less ex-
seasons, when the supply of turnips is not penditure of food ; or, provided good straw
deficient, many parties who have made trial is sufficiently abundant, a greater number of
of the system of feeding now referred to, have cattle might be advantageously fed on a given
found it advantageous in the case of young extent of turnips.

stock. No one can fail to be struck with the im-

With respect to fattening stock the case is mense disproportion between the quantity of

somewhat different. These cannot be fat- turnips and the quantity of straw usually con-

tened within the time which we commonly sumed by each beast : i6o lb. of turnips, and

allow for the purpose, unless they are sup- s lb. of straw, per day. Nature obviously

plied with, and induced to eat, a large amount intended that the ox should feed on bulky

of nutritious food of some kind. But " 'tis food : that is, on food of which the whole

a question left us yet to prove," whether even mass is large in proportion to the amount of

the process of fattening cannot be success- actually nutritious matter which it contains,

fully and advantageously carried forward by His large paunch must be filled with a cer-

^e use of a certain moderate amount of oil- tain buUc of food. He differs consideiably

Economy in Feeding Turnips

m this respect, even from some of the other
graminivorous animals — the horse, for in-
stance. Nature intended that his food should
contain a considerable amount of water and
of woody fibre in proportion to the amount
of albuminous compounds, and of oil, starch,
and saccharine matter existing in it It would
be an outrage on the economy of the animal's
system to attempt to feed him upon oilcake
and grain alone, even with water ad libihinu
But it is scarcely less of an outrage upon his
system to make the bulk with which his
capacious paunch is filled to consist almost
entirely of water ; or (as is done by the mode
of feeding on turnips and straw to which we
have referred), to throw into it some i6 or
17 gallons of cold water per diem, along with

only 18 or 20 lb. of solid, nutritious matter.
Such a bulk and weight of water acts (as
every one must have observed when cattle
are first put " upon turnips "), to some ex-
tent, as foreign matter on the animal's in-
testines, and, for a time — till he has become
habituated to it — diarrhoea is the natural con-
sequence. No doubt, after the lapse of some
time, the animal's system becomes, in some
measure, accustomed to be the daily recep-
tacle of this quantity of water, and to dispose
of it as best it can. But the mass of water
satisfies for a time the animal's stomach for
bulk of food, and prevents it from eating that
amount of dry bulky food which it would
otherwise devour, and from which a large
amount of nutriment would be eliminated.

PROFESSOR BUCKMAN ON HIS FARMING EXPERIENCE.

AT the last meeting of the Maidstone Far- possible. They had also a little touch of

mers' Club Professor Buckman gave fuller's earth in the matter, and where that

an address on " The Results of Seven Years' was the land was a little stiffer ; but taking

Practical Farming of a Man of Science." the land as a whole there was no need of a

Some people, he said, spoke of practice drain from one end to the other. A mill a

and science as things opposed to each other, little below his farm was allowed to bank up

but what was science but an explanation of the water to any extent, and that circum-

[)ractice ? He could not conceive why prac- stance sometimes caused him rough thoughts

ice and science should be separated. The with regard to mills in general. He believed

*arm he was about to speak of he took on that water mills were a very great mistake,

he remnant of a lease ; the remnant being and that they ought not to exist. The water

or seven years. When he took the farm he mills bayed up the water in every direction,

lad not too much capital, and not having and in his part of the country ruined thou-

lad much experience in practical farming, sands of acres of land. What did those

natters at first appeared to be somewhat mills do ? They did very little business in-

iwkward. Still he believed that he never got deed, and it would not take much to buy

;o much pleasure in all his life as he did during them all up. These mills were invariably

hose seven years. The farm was situated short of water in the summer, and then they

)etween two towns, one of them being Yeovil, had to use steam. He believed that if water

uid the other Sherbourne, and was not very mills were entirely abolished, it would be a

ar distant from Southampton. The soil was very great blessing. They might infer from

generally a very light sandy loam, broken up what he had said respecting the soil, that

)y a brashy soil of the white freestones of they had a quantity of lime. Now, wherever

he Midland counties, and notwithstanding he found a quantity of lime in the soil he

he floods of nun they had had, they had there found the greatest quantity of weeds.

)een able to work on this soil as steadily as His faVm consisted of somewhere about 400

1 1 6 The Country Gentlemafis Magazine

acres, being 360 acres of arable and only he could do exceedingly well with them in

about 40 acres of meadow land. As far as his farm, and when he told them that he

crops were concerned, the principal grown had 46 J^ lb. to the bushel, they would see

on his farm were barley and oats. They did that he was not much behind in oat growing,

very well indeed with regard to barley, and He had tried black oats, and had got crops

when he told them that this year his barley of from 38 lb. to 40 lb., but those, though

average was from 48s. to 503. per qr., they tolerable crops, did not satisfy him, and he

would understand that the quality was not said he would try white ones. Well, he went

bad. to market and got some 48 lb. lor seed, and

the resnlt was, that he got 47 lb. per bushel

THICK AND THIN SOWING. .^ ., ' ^ . 1 j a,,-

from them. That was not bad. This year

When he went into the neighbourhood he he was rather late in the market, and although

found that the people there were sowing 4 determined to buy the heaviest he could get,

bushels of barley per acre, and some people he was not able to buy any heavier than 45

there said they thought 5 ought to do lb. — of course white oats. Well, the result \

better, for the reason that if ihey did not put was, that his oats this year were 46)^ lb. per \

it into the land they could not expect to get bushel, that being i^ lb. heavier than the

it out He wished particular attention drawn seed. Now, he thought this shewed that

to this matter. Well, the first season he was they should get the best seeds they possibly '

there he followed the advice given him, and could. With regard to wheat, he had experi-

sowed a sack of barley per acre. Well, on mented very considerably. The distance

going over the barley crop, he found that it wheat was sown apart in his district was

was not at all bad, and the price also was 7 inches. He had sown wheat at that dis-

very good. But instead of having twenty or tance, and 8 pecks to the acre, but his

thirty stalks to a single root he had only ultimate conclusion was, that 10 inches and

three or four, and he thought there must be 4 pecks to the acre was the best ; he had

some mistake. Well, he said, this must be got better results from that arrangement He

sown too thickly. Consequently the second had got some nursery wheat, with which one

year he tried 3 bushels to an acre, and there might take a little liberty with regard to the .

was a decided improvement in the number time of sowing. It was a very bad sample

of stalks. Hfe then went on step by step of the wheat he had sent to him ; a great

lessening the quantity of barley sown, and part of it was small, but the other was

the result was that he had got the very best healthy looking. He sifted the small from

crop of barley in the neighbourhood, and the large, and planted the latter at 4 pecks

that last year when he had sown 5 pecks per acre, and got a tolerably good crop,

instead of 5 bushels, he found that he had He also sowed the small at 4 pecks per acre,

twenty-five stalks to a single seed, instead of and what was the result, although sown in

two or three. If what he had stated was the very same field as the large seed ? The

the case, then what a quantity of barley seed was so small that two or three went

they wasted by sowing so thickly ! He could where one ought to have been, and the crop

tell them this, that he had got the best was an utter failure. It was so thick that

price for barley in his district, and he believed it came up as nothing but little " bee-wheat,"

that he had got a better price than his neigh- as they call it With regard to roots he 1

hours, because he sowed less to the acre had had a great deal of experience during

than they did. There was another thing, he the seven years, especially mangold wurzels ^

was exceedingly particular about the seed he and swedes. His average was from 40 to \

sowed, and took care that he did not use 50 tons per acre of mangold, and about 40

inferior barley for the purpose. He never tons of swedes. He had found that it was

sowed barley without first knowing the ger- not advisable to sow poor seed roots ; if they

minating power of it With regard to oats, were small or looked withered they had

Rrofessor Buckman <m his Farming Experience 117

efuse them, and, if needs be, pay beasts was not a very profitable proceeding,

the price for good seed. With re- As to manure, he put it all on in the autumn,

seeds they endeavoured to sow clover except a little top-dressing which he put on

jparation for wheat But they knew in the spring. The manure should be put

;y could not always do that. The on and the land then ploughed up as roughly

lad not yet been explained why they as they could, and then the insects and other

ot grow clover oftener than they did. things died and the manure mixed with the

ras the cause of this clover sickness ? soil. His idea of manure was that it should

)ver sickness was one of the greatest be so mixed up with the soil as to form part

*s. He had ploughed deep, and put of it. With regard to using straw as manure,

dressings to prevent it, but without his science told him that it was not worth

So many years must elapse before 12s. per ton to him as manure. Well, the
uld get another good crop. There result of the matter was that when he got
; a scientific reason why there must the new lease, under which he was now
X years instead of four before they holding the farm, he prevailed upon the land-
row two crops of clover. It had been lord to allow him to sell his straw, and now
plained why they could get a good he was selling it at £2 per ton, which he

wheat after clover, but it had not considered was much better economy than

plained how it was they could not using it as manure when it was only worth

xop of clover sometimes. He had 12 s. per ton to him. As to pigs, his idea

3ured to find out an explanation, but was to get them on as quickly as possible

d not succeed. and then send them up to London. The

agricultural labourers would not eat pork.

rocK-FEEDiNG AND MANURING. ^hey talked a great deal about high prices,

) stock, he employed somewhere about but really people would not eat things unless

horses, and he thought there was no they were high priced. His pigs were

vay of feeding them than a good pro- improved Dorsets. He could sell lean pigs

of breweis' grains. An old brewer better than he could fat ones,
d him that he did not 'think there was
til in those grains for horses after the
J had done with them, but he had There was one point on which he must
;rains exceedingly useful for his horses speak, although he did so reluctantly. They
laff and oats. His meadow land he had heard very much about the agricultural
r the feed of sheep, but he vvas sorry labourer lately, and in his district this irre-
that this meadow was not so sound pressible labourer had been the bane of
mght to be. The miller below him society in agricultural life for some time.
. up the water, and a great part of his Now, in Dorsetshire it was said they only
V was occasionally flooded. With paid 9s. per week. He (the speaker) hap-
to feeding of stock, he did not buy pened to be the vice-chairman of the board
:ake, except cotton-cake. Instead of of guardians in his district, and he knew a

linseed-cake, he bought the linseed great deal about the Dorsetshire agricultural

I, ground it in a mill he had for the labourer. Now let him point out to them

e, and mixed it up with a variety of the cause of this 9s. per week, as they called

sometimes with crushed peas and it. He would gladly give another fjs. to

hings. He did not believe much in every man in his employ if he would forego

-cake as it was sold. He had taken everything else he received besides that 9s.

fancy to black Aberdeenshire beasts, per week for his services. A man applied to

black beasts had always done very the guardians in his district the other day for

ih him, and he found a ready market a truss, and stated he had only 9s. per week.

SL In his part of the world ^ttening He also stated that he had a family, namely,

THE AGRICULTURAL LABOURER.

1 18 The Cauntry Gmtlematis Magazine

his wife and three children. Now, the man ment of his harvest last year he gz>

was questioned pretty closely, and it came men the price they asked, being so

up that besides this 9s. per week he had a per acre ; but then they said that if 1:

cottage to live in, a bushel of wheat per week, speaker) did not give them as much ci<

a potato ground, and coals and wood, and they wanted, they would go where they

everything brought to his door, and he cal- get it. Thus they got their own wages

culated that, including the earnings of his they asked for, and they took to ci(

family, he was in receipt of an income of congenially that their work got prob

about 30s. per week; and yet they had a man and they did not do as much as they

who was paid only 9s. per week. Now he otherwise have done in the time. Th

thought that they ought not to pay a man at sequence was that, instead of makin

all in kind. They wanted to get rid of paying additional wages during the harvest i

in this way, and they tried their best to get rid of might have done, they, taking the a^

this custom, but the men would not have it. hardly made more than they would

The agricultural labourers ought to leave off done at their ordinary work, all, he be

drinking so much intoxicating liquor if they because they would have as much ci

wanted to be in a better position. The they were minded to. These matters i

drink was the only difficulty he had during to be well looked into to be rightly

his harvest last summer. When the labourers stood. He was mad when he heard

came to him (the speaker), he said he would say that the farmers wanted to oppr<

give them a shilling a week more wages, but poor. He knew that there was not ;

if he did so they must knock oflf some liitle in that room who wished to oppr

stupid thing they were now having in kind, labourer. A farmer had hitherto

and which they did not call wages, and did been regarded as one of the most

not think anything about. Well, he got hearted of men. What he wanted

them gradually to leave off some little thing, generally with regard to the labour

and then they got the los. per week. The this, that his wages should be paid in 1

labourers . were now being taught that the and nothing else but money. A

farmers were oppressing them, and doing all believed this would never come about,

sorts of things to them. In his district he it was made penal for a farmer to \

could shew them labourers better dressed on agricultural labourer in any other shaj

a Sunday than he was. At the commence- money.

The Countfy Gentletnan^s Magazine 119

THE FARMER'S POSITION AND THE LABOURER'S CAPITAL.

FROM a paper read by Mr R. A. Howard, injurious to the agricultural interest, and they
before the Dorchester Farmers* Club, should resist frequent charges. If they got a
on the above subject, we extract one or two tax removed there would sure to be a readjust-
of the more salient points. In the outset he ment of rent at the end of their current term ;
justified the general interest taken by all and a tax taken off one interest must be put
classes in agriculture by the fact that if a farm on another, so let them take care they did
is badly managed and only grows one blade not lend themselves to free land firom taxa-
of com where two should thrive, it affects tion which indirectly comes out of the land-
not only the farmer or his landlord, but the lords' pockets, and tax themselves as the
nation at large. Practical forming, he said, ratepayers of the country. They must see
required skill and training ; but everybody that rates cannot affect agricultural produce,
had a right to discuss those questions in con- although perhaps to a very slight extent they
nexion with agriculture whicli affect the na- may retard the development of the cultiva-
tional wealth. Consequent on the high price tion of certain lands. As to tithes, let them
land realizes, the farmer has to pay high rent when discussing it get rid of the old
Their interest, therefore, was in the direction hackneyed notions about original donors and
of all measures tendmg to the cheapening of the wills of people, and apply the principle
land, increasing its supply, and freeing the of the exigences and requirements of the
large extent now tied up. When such land State overruling everything. He favoured
was liberated, the large holders might en- their removal as an incubus on the land,
deavour to absorb it, but as success in agri- and a hindrance to its free transfer. Then,
culture involves an increase to the wealth of as to the game-laws, let them look the subject
the nation, the State had a right to control boldly in the face. They loved and honoured
private wills. Next consider the position of and respected the resident gentry, and the
the farmer towards the incidents of the land, more they saw of them the better not only
one of the chief being taxation. WTien a man for the tenant-farmers, but for the country at
takes a farm he calculates the rent and taxes, large ; yet, looking at the occupation of land
and the two would form his estimate of the as a commercial contract, he said all that was
outgoings. If he let a house for jQ^o a-year, no immediate benefit to the fenant, and he
and the taxes were generally £20^ the pro- maintained that real and legitimate sport
perty should be worth to the tenant £60 ; would be promoted by the game being in
and if the taxes increase to £z^, the rent the hands of the occupiers of the land, as at
would have to be reduced £10 ; unless from present it could not be pleasant for a farmer
other circumstances the value of the property whilst he was asleep to have all along the
had increased ; so there seemed truth in edges of his fields the crops eaten or de-
the observation that taxes may ultimately stroyed by game for the landlord's sport,
come out of the landlords' pockets, and Game consumes a greater quantity of food
any reduction thereof is a benefit to them, than the value of the game for meat pur-
If the landlords could be benefited with- poses, and, applying the prindple of the re-
out any detriment to the tenant-farmer quirements of the nation — ^leave alone all
and the requirements of the State, it that increase of taxation connected with it —
ought to be done. But taxes affect a tenant- it ought to be abolished ; and he maintained
former for the term of his holding, conse- that total abolition was the position that
quently the practice of the legislature in con- ought to be taken by the tenant-fanner and
tinoally ad(Ung new charges to the rates was the general public. In addition to this, just

I20 Tlte Country Gentlematis Magazine

let them think whether the protection of the price of goods, so it would in that of
game had not had a great deal to do with the labour. Another reason why the la-
the desire of some people to purchase land, bourer's capital went up in the market was
Then the tenant-farmer ought to have se- the decline in the purchasing power of money,
curity of tenure and security for invested and the standard of living being higher 'and
capital — tenant-right But the position of the education and moral condition of the
the farmer was never better than now. For- working classes better ; and the result will
merly the fancied charms of agricultural life be more perfect solidity between the in-
forced up rents, but now its difficulties were dustrial classes throughout the civilized world,
more understood, and it is not unusual to And we have no right to blame or find fault
hear offerms going a-begging. Let the land- with a working man for selling his labour at
lords consider this, and observe that across the best price, any more than a landlord would
the Channel large tracts of land are cultivated have to blame a farmer for sending his sheep
at a nominal rent, and easier means of transit where they could realize most. He pointed
are being invented, which will bring that out that high wages did not necessarily imply
produce into competition with the crops of dear labour, quoting from Mr Brassey's book
the English farmer ; and if he cannot make a his experience that, in carrying out extensive
profitable return for his capital he will employ contracts in all parts of the world, though the
it in another way ; and, as the land must be daily wages paid varied as much a^ possible,
cultivated, the rents will have to be lowered almost invariably the same amount of work
to induce the English farmer to do it. Finally, was done for the same money. High wages
he said, if the tenant will stand by his posi- meant fewer hands employed. In Russia and
tion, it was never better, if he will look at Prussia, where labour is cheap, one person
things without being hoodwinked. is employed to about eleven acres, whilst in
Turning to the second part of his subject, Pennsylvania two men with two horses
"The Labourer's Capital," he said the manage about loo acres. In the shipping
strength of body in the labourer was as much trade, on English ships one man was employed
his capital as money and mind to the trading to every 15 tons; and in American ships the
community; and if that capital was not get- average was one to 25 tons ; so that though
ting its fair return, it was certainly as much in the latter case the individual wages were
the fault of the capitalist as of any other higher, the cost of working the ships was not
person, provided no undue advantage had greater. With higher wages they must have
been taken of his distressed circumstances, more work done ; they would only keep able
He attributed the depression of the la- men, and the charities — blankets, clothing
bourer*s capital here and throughout Europe clubs, coals, and benefit clubs — would be
to the supply being greater than the demand swept away. Then higher wages stimulated
— the labourers being confined to the imme- the invention of labour-saving machinery,
diate neighbourhoods where they were born He quoted statistics of American patents in
and labour-saving machines. The glut in the proof. From these facts he did not believe
labour market occasioned low prices, and no high >yages would lessen the income of the
single individual could be blamed for it. farmer and landlord. Then they must re-
The glut continued a long time for want of member that high wages increased the meat-
means of removal to places where labour was consuming population ; and to the increased
required. Then the country favoured emi- wealth of the artisan classes he attributed, in
gration ; millions went from this kingdom — a measure, the present high prices of stock.
Ireland especially — to America and other He deprecated a union being formed on
parts of the globe. Cheap railway travelling a rising market, and said wages had
in England enabled the labourer to take his risen from the circumstances to which
capital to the best market, and as cheap he had referred, and not through the
transit bad produced a certain equality in union. It was the same all over Europe.

Tlie Farmet^s Position and the Labourer's Capital 121

bought it to the general interest that to read A man living in such a place must

upply of and demand for labour should be the refuse of the labouring class, or be

>t upon a par. The tenant-farmer got a well compensated for it. If compensated it

per-centage for his capital than any came out of the tenant's pocket, and that farm

class ; but men became agriculturists must be " wonderfully well let." This state

leir comfort and ease, and the feeling of of things it was the bounden duty of the

; their own masters. Having remarked landlofds to amend. If they do not, they

le desire of the farmer for a comfortable will drive labour capital from the market,

stead, he went on to say that the labourer and ultimately the loss will fall on themselves.

t to have a cottage with comforts and The landlords cannot take their lands to

sniences suited to his life. Lord Napier distant climes, but the fisurmer can his

there were 700,000 cottages, which capital, and where there are good openings

i cost at least ;^7,ooo,ooo, requiring to for labourers there are advantages as great

)uilt forthwith. To shew the neglect for the tenant-farmers. He dwelt on the

1 had prevailed, he quoted from the trials and privations labourers must endure in

ier a description of four cottages at a strange country, and said they would sacri-

anton, the property of a considerable fice anything fair rather than go away ; but,

►wner living in the neighbourhood. They let it be remembered, it was not the tenant's

in a fearful state of ruin, dirt, and fault; it was the landlords had not dune their

or ; and Mr Howard said it was frightful duty.

GOOD AND BAD FARMING.

By Mr Henry Wells.*

VIUST first touch upon a very tender drained, and in many cases not drained at all,

point to shew you that I understand and with too shallow cultivation, partly be-

Qature of the disease for which I am cause it has never been ploughed deeper, —

t to provide a remedy. This disease is while he allows all kinds of stock to go over

"arming, which causes a cry throughout the farm to feed upon anything which does

ountry that much of the land does not not cost money, and to bite the heart out of

uce half what it is capable of producing. All the grasses, he must not complain of the

also contended that this must continue meadows being fit for neither winter feed nor

e the case until there is freedom of summer mowing. In the stackyards of such

.ration and security for outlay. I desire farms the straw stacks are not half-topped up,

>w to be distinctly understood that I am and the water is running through the straw

opposed to progress or agricultural im- from top to bottom, taking all the virtue of

ement in whatever way it may be brought the straw, which is afterwards carted into the

t, but I sincerely wish the ordinary or stack-yard a waggon-load at a time, and

[ling farmer not to deceive himself by littered a yard deep to get it into muck,

ng till something wonderful turns up without either corn or cake. Fearing the

lis benefit through any legislative enact- straw may not be got into muck, they litter

- He has the remedy in his own hands, all the roadways round the buildings, and
: chooses to adopt, it ; but while he is when gathered up and united with the sopped
ied to cultivate his land not well under- straw out of each yard and put lighdy upon

large heaps so as to ferment like a

ead before the Stowmarket Farmfirs* Gab. lime kib, and rotted down to about half

122 The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

its original bulk, they call it rare stuff,

„„ . °.^ *i.^ • r THE REMEDY FOR BAD FARMING.

and go to the expense in some cases of

putting 20 loads of it per acre upon wheat In providing the remedy for bad farming

land, and wonder at threshing time why the on the lands previously named, the first thing,

crop produces only five to six coombs per as you are all fully aware, is to under-drain

acre in the best of seasons. The fact is, this in the cheapest and most effectual way

sort of muck keeps the young wheat plant according to the means at your disposal,

warm all the winter and cold spring, and when The next matter, about which I need not

May or June arrives there is literally nothing take up your time, is to give the arable lands

to stimulate the plant to produce corn. I fair cultivation and keep them clean. I now

have often witnessed this method of fcuming come to the all-important part of the remedy,

heavy land, and have occasionally talked the which is the making of good farm-yard muck,

matter over with the occupier, when the reply without which, in my opinion, taking the

has been, " Every farm ought to baste itself." present expenses into account, and future

This system of farming cannot be tolerated prospect of farming, no man can possibly

by the most indulgent of landlords for any succeed. In the first place you all know the

length of time, as it is an injury to the country present price of wages, the value of cart

at large, and no benefit to the farmer, for, horses and carriages, and the increased cost

taking the present expenses into account, the of all tradesmen's bills, so that it is expedient

whole produce of such farms will be wanted that the greatest care and economy should

to pay the actual outgoings. As I really have be considered on this point. It must be

no other desire but to see all the wheat and universally admitted that it costs as much to

meat produced on every farm that it is fairly fill a cart and spread a load of worthless muck

•and reasonably calculated to do, and, as I as it does a load of the very best And

speak to the country generally on this subject, what is the effect? Why, twelve carts of

I trust I may be excused mentioning another com or cake-fed muck judiciously made w^ll

class of farmers who occupy more extensively, produce two coombs per acre more wheat of

and are considered neat and fair farmers, who the same quality on the same land than

have plenty of means, but are content with twenty carts per acre of the ordinary muck

growing about seven coombs per acre of such as has been previously alluded to.

wheat on land which, if well farmed, is cal- Thus the saving of manual and horse labour

culated to grow from nine to ten coombs per on eight carts of muck per acre, added to the

acre in fair seasons, and, at the same time, value of the increased yield per acre, ought

calculated to produce a fair quantity of meat to open the eyes of any reasonable farmer,

for the public. But the fact is, that they will Nor can there be any question about this

not loose their purse strings, but make up result taking place season for season, and

their minds to jog on in the same way and when it is further considered for a moment

get what they can for a time under existing that we have no more rent, tithe, rates, and

circumstances, giving up their farms when other expenses to pay per acre for a good

they can get no more out of them. Should crop than for a bad one, save and except

it be considered that I have struck too hard a the making this good muck, which, in an

blow at the bad farmer, it is in no unkindly average of seasons, with discretion and good

feeling, as I shall endeavour to shew you, by judgment, can be done to a profit ; for the

advocating good farming, that what is worth man who will not try this system in the best

doing at all is worth doing well — and no one way adapted to his means, there can be no

will accuse me of not having struck bad pity. Then let us see what further benefit

farming at the tap-root — simply with the desire would easily accrue from having this good

that whatever extent there may be of such luck. After pursuing this plan for two or

remaining at the present time may soon dis- three years, growing more com, which must

appear like dew before the sun. mean growing wealth, let him try his hand

Good and Bad Farming

on carting and well spreading (with subse-
quent harrowing) the extra eight carts of this
sort of muck per acre in the autumn, upon
one of his half-starved meadows, for a trial,
and I will undertake to say that even from
the result of the first dressing, if left unnoticed
till the latter part of June following, that
seven out of ten of the bad pasture farmers,
if they saw this meadow anywhere else, would
think that they must have stepped upon some
fairy land. This kind of muck would tell in
the same ratio on every portion of the farm,
and would not be fully exhausted by one
crop. Supposing this to be the case, why
are farmers afraid to graze a good fat bullock,
or sheep, or even a yard of fat pigs ?

THE BENEFIT TO SMALL FARMERS.

Now, I will take a farm of about 40 acres,
simply to shew how any bad farmer of this
extent can benefit himself and his land by
keeping stock well instead of half-starving
them. Now it cannot be supposed that a
farmer of this class and of this extent has
capital to buy bullocks or sheep with, but
taking the general leading feature of cases
like this you will find not less than four to
five cows, according to the extent of pasture,
and about four breeding sows are kept. Now,
look upon them as a whole, probably badly
kept ; the chances are that if any business
calls you to the house oh a windy day in the
winter months, you will very likely hear some
intolerable shrieking, such as would lead you
to suppose that there was a pig hung on a
gate, but on reaching the spot you will pro-
bably see three out of four of the sows appa-
rently half-starved, shrieking round the yard,
looking like two deal boards clapped together,
and their backs reminding you of a circular
saw. Now, if the cows and the rest of the
stock there may be on the premises be all
kept on board wages, just picture the scene.
TsJce the cows next : probably three out of
five would be in profit during the winter
months, and if you tell this farmer that he
must give all the cows in profit 4 lb. of the
best oilcake per day he would fancy that he
must be quickly ruined. Suppose these three
cows in profit are only sparingly kept, they

would make 5 lb. to 6 lb. butter per wee
at IS. 4d. per lb. sold at the door for casl
Let us further suppose that they have 4 11
per diem of the best oilcake at is. 6d. p<
stone, that would be 3 s. per week ; any co
in profit with this additional keep ought 1
make 3 lb. extra butter, which would be 4
— so that supposing each cow to do the sam
there is at once a clear profit of 3 s. per wee!
after paying for the cake. Even if the cov
did not make that extra quantity, there can t
no doubt that they would make 2X lb. extn
which would then pay for the cake and lean
the increased value of the muck free of cos
This does not end here, as I have dealt wit
only three sows out of the four. The fourt
sow will probably be suckling pigs. No^
the oilcake would make an increase in th
quantity as well as the quality of the milk
and this litter of pigs could probably soon b
made to produce ^^12, sufficient to buy
whole ton of cake; and taking what otiie
store pigs there may be on the farm, if kep
well, could be made up to London jointer
to pay to a certainty by keeping an eye t
the markets. If he has buds or weanels, the
also will pay much better for high keep, wit!
less risk of losses than by half-starving then
Supposing for the size of the farm two hea(
of horse stock must be kept, let him sele<
two useful mares, and try to breed one if nc
both, and keep the mare and foal we
enough either to sell at the verge of harves
or take off the mare. If this system is puj
sued out of doors by the farmer himself, as
steady deserving man, and he happens V
have a frugal and economical wife who ai
tends well to the dairy and poultry, there i
every chance for such a man to better hi
condition. I imagine there are few parishe
where there are not some few of the well-tc
do farmers with kind hearts, in cases (
serious losses, to assist such a man.

SUBSTITUTE FOR STEAM CULTIVATION O]
MEDIUM-SIZED FARMS.

The second part of my subject, respectin.
the best substitute for steam cultivation
which you, probably, are anxiously expectinj
to hear about, is the easiest part of m

124 . The Country Gentleman's Magazine

paper. The best farmers are the most

anxious to make use of eveiy opportunity "=^°»« O'^ cultivation.
for autumn work, and the great advantage of As to the great call out in the country for
steam (at this season) over horse power is freedom of cultivation in rural districts where
the ability to execute rapidly and efficiently no town muck can be easily had, and your
the autumn culture of strong land ; but where straw and roots must be consumed on the
steam cultivation cannot be brought into farm, I beg of you not to be misled by trying
general working on medium-sized farms or in to cross-crop your land, thinking it to be a
certain districts, I propose, as a substitute, to paying game. There are but few instances
shew you that the proper cultivation of the where it can possibly answer in the long run.
fallow course can easily be carried on in a My plan isone-fourth wheat, one-fourth barley,
dry March or April where not wanted for one-fourth clover and beans, each growing all
beetroot, so as to place such farmers in a that I can reasonably and possibly expect,
fair position in the absence of steam cultiva- Then as to the fallow shift — that portion
tion, both as to the production of roots as which I do not require for either roots or
well as corn, without any extra outlay. The green crops for my horses, instead of the old
system is simple and effective, and can be system of the long fallow, I put on either
carried on stetch farming as well as flat, if peas or beans, and consume both com and
the usual plan be to give five earths on stetch straw upon the farm to help to make meat
work, instead of running the stubble back, for the public. I can then grow, with
Let the first crossing be a double ploughing, the application of 3 cwt. per acre of
the second plough following with a breast oft barley manure, two coombs per acre more
with two horses out at length, breaking up barley than I do upon any of the root lands,
the pan of the subsoil about 4 or 5 inches But you must turn in the wheat stubble as
and leaving it where it is, the next furrow of early as possible, and break up the pea stubble
the surface soil turning over and lying lightly before the next wheat cutting period or in the
upon it. Certain particles of the mould will harvest time. But I wish you also to under-
run amongst the dead soil, and form air tubes, stand that my wheat crop is always well
which will admit the sun, and assist the per- mucked for leaving plenty of heart in the
eolation of the water after a heavy rain, and land lor growing a slout crop of peas or
if you can serve that portion of the land re- beans. You may tell me that you are not
quired for mangolds in the same way early in allowed to do it, and I must admit I do not
the autumn, in the course of four years you wonder at it, according to the usual style of
can have all your farm virtually steam culti- farming. But landlords generally would not
vated without any extra outlay, which, in my object to this plan, if they could see you
opinion, is a great object at the present day, desire to improve the soil instead of rob-
or you can by spending money accomplish bing it.
the same object in dry weather with one of
Ransomes' double-furrow ploughs, substitut-
ing the subsoiler for one breast. This method As to the last part of my subject — " Security
of cultivation is equally good for both corn for capital" — I will first refer to various
and root-growing as the steam cultivator, but observations recently made at several farmers*
of course it cannot be done so quickly. I clubs. One of these especially referrmg to
am no advocate for bringing to the surface a this subject, and agriculture generally, was a
quantity of dead soil to be exposed to the most comprehensive, telling, and practical
atmosphere ready to eat up the good muck address, delivered by Lord Derby at Preston
I have advised you to make, and then not to on the 5th October last, which ought to be
produce any more corn or roots than the in a pamphlet form in the hands of all farmers
single method which I have successfully and farmers* clubs in the country. At the
peopled over twenty years. Central Farmers* Club on Monday, 4th of

SECURITY FOR CAPITAL.

Good and Bad Farming 125

November, Mr Horley read a paper respect- will, of course, always have the choice of
ing the short production of com, bee^ selecting their tenants and making their own
mutton, &c, in this country, and he argues bargains j and wherever the law of tenant-
that it arises in a great measure from the right may be passed compelling the landlords
want of security which is necessary in order to pay /or this and for that, which they ought
that capital should be fully applied to the not to be called upon to pay with the present
cultivation of the soil, and expresses a system of letting, be assured they will then
desire for tenant-right by law. N ow sup- be compelled to sever the old connexion of
posing a law of this kind should be the ordinary and even the middling farmers
passed, it would do no good to the great on their respective estates, and look out
bulk of the occupiers who, at the present for men of ample means and energy
time, make neither beef nor mutton, &c., who can take care of themselves and
without which they cannot grow com. Yet produce plenty of food for the public in the
these are the people who are calling out for shape of meat as well as com without troubling
security of capital ! A well-adjusted form of the landlord. The custom of this country
security may be worthy of consideration, but and neighbourhood might easily be adjusted
it is a very difficult thing to legislate upon, so as to remunerate the high farmer without
unless the whole system of practical farming any injury to either landlord or incoming
be thoroughly understood. The landlords tenant.

SELECTION AS A MEANS OF IMPROVING SEED.

THIS was a subject of a paper delivered bability is that both are cultivated selections

before the Kincardineshire Farmers* from a wild and valueless original. Not-

Club recently, by Mr James Burgess, withstanding the long and careful cultivation

Laurencekirk. The following extracts are that these grains have received, there are

worthy of attention : — varieties continually observable, and by

The longer and the more carefully that selecting those coming nearest to a given

any special variety of crop has been cultivated, standard, and cultivating and re-selecting, the

the less likely are further spontaneous varia- desired result will at length be reached. Ot

tions to occur, and this is specially tme of thpse who have devoted themselves to the

our cereals, which depend on cultivation for improvement of our cereals during the pre-

their very existence, and whose origin is lost sent generation, the most distinguished is Mr

in obscurity, although it is highly probable Patrick Sheriflf, of East Lothian ; and on the

that they are simply a result of selection and occasion of a dinner given in his honour by

cultivation. Professor Buckman tells us that his friends and neighbours three years ago,

he has, by selection, produced in four or five that gentleman thus described his first at-

years, oats weighing 40 lb. per bushel from a tempts in the field of labour, which has since

common wild oat, and also that he has ob- been so successfully worked by him. " When

served the progeny of good seed, when left walking over a field of wheat, on the farm of

to seed itself for a year or two, become Mungoswells, in the county of Haddington,

similar to the wild oat in appearance, and in the spring of 181 9, a green healthy plant

quite as valueless, so far as grain is con- attracted my attention — the crop generally

cemed ; and although we may not have so then looking more dead than alive firom the

near kindred native in this country to wheat severity of the previous winter — ^and next

or barley as we have to the oat, the pro- day measures were taken to ensiure its

Tlie Country Genttemafis Magazine

; growth. In the course of summer seed-bearing roots being selected from the

stalks were nibbled off by hares, but, most perfectly-developed specimens procur-

standing, 63 ears were gathered at able. The cultivation of the potato would

yielding 2473 grains, which were also be more satisfactory, and pay better,

J propagated — the fourth harvest pro- were more attention paid to the selection

about 40 quarters of grain. This and preparation of the so-called seed, which,

roved to be a new variety, and was it need hardly be said, is no seed at all, but

iungoswells. In the summer of 1824 simply a form of underground stem, and the

alk of oats was observed growing on planting of which is more akin to propaga-

wells, and in the following spmg tions by cuttings, as practised by gardeners,

ids were sown, besides several than a sowing of seed. To illustrate what

varieties, the plants at harvest may be accomplished by the careful selection

till conspicuous for height This and cultivation of true seed in the improve-

became the Hopetown OaL" ment of this valuable crop, we need only

IS been accomplished by Mr Sheriflf refer to the well-known story of the long and

Lothian may be also attained in the patient labours of the late Mr Patterson oi

> and improved forms, having special Dundee, and to the many excellent varieties

for the soil and vigoiu* to stand the which owe their existence to him. The

of the district, might doubtless be slowness of the process, however, and the

[ by intelligent observation from years that must elapse before fixed results

t the varying kinds at present cultiva- are attained, throw a serious obstacle in the

)ur fields. Of great importance also way of those who might wish to try this pro-

t the seeds of forage crops be care- cess, and it is to the horticulturist we chiefly

ected. The facility with which clover look for improvement worked out in this way.

n be adulterated, and the readiness of To notice even a fraction- of the many im-

to profit by this facility — as evinced provements that have been made by selec-

inquiries of a Select Committee some tion upon garden seeds would occupy too

;o, resulting in the Seed Adulteration much time. Suffice it to say, that there are

[869 — make it imperative that every many workers in this field,

taken in the quantity of the seed The horticulturist has long been impro\ing

And though by the said bill, the the subjects under his care, both by selection

of old or killed seed is now illegal, and cross-breeding. Possibly, from the fact

ould be advisable for every purchaser of his attention being more concentrated

fy himself by actual experiment of the upon individual specimens than that of the

of the article supplied to him, the agriculturist, who is more accustomed to

t plan being to spread a given num- overlook the individual in the general mass,

he seeds thinly between two folds of he is in a better position to observe and

led flannel, and keep them for a few estimate any deviation from the normal type,

the temperature of an ordinary sit- and thus to seize on, and perpetuate, an

im, when germination ^vill take place, improvement However this may be, the

3 per-centage of good seed will be annual catalogues of the garden-seed trade

seen. Were this plan resorted to abundantly bear out our statement; and,

merally, it might be found that the though all modifications or varieties sent out

)riced seed is often the dearest to the as improvements may not really prove great

ler, and possibly there might be fewer advances on the present stock, this is very

f " clover sickness." often attributable to the circumstance that, in

ip seed being so easily ripened, and their haste to turn the improvement to a

ig so little care in its preparation, money equivalent, the raisers or selectors too

be grown with advantage by every frequently send out the variety before it has

to the extent of his own needs, the become fixed by repeated selection, and the

Selection as a Means of improving Seed \2*f

is, that the bulk of the progeny in the progeny, yet careful watching will

5ts that inclination, so frequently certainly attain this, and re-selection will

able in nature, to return, or " cry secure a pure strain in the end. And so of

to the original type. There is, how- eveiy other crop. But many will be content

ufficient evidence of advancement in with the old plan of sowing what they have

.ct that very few of the varieties of seen sown before, without any desire to

I produce now in cultivation were in secure new varieties. To these we say, let

ice a generation back j while, in some the best obtainable seed be sown in every

the change has been eflfected in a case, for it is only from well-developed, well-
shorter time. Peas, for instance, have, matured samples that the best results can
; labours of Mr Laxton, of Stamford, be attained. The beneficial effects of a
le late Dr Maclean, of Colchester, been change of seed are well known, but probably
: revolutionized during the last ten or the measure of the benefit from one change
I years. as compared with another, and the reasons
'ar we have treated on selection, and that determine the benefit, are more rarely
ults in general ; we now come to refer thought of. Professor Buckman, holding
f to the principles which ought to guide that our grains are but cultivated examples
he wide differences that exist in soils, of grasses once existing somewhere in a wild
ires, and climate, make exact details state, shews that change of soU is one of the
sible, or, at least, inapplicable to every " cultivating processes " which have made
but, generally, it may be advanced as and kept them what they are, and that
principle, to select the fittest for what- neglecting this cultivative process of change
bject you may desire to attain — that is, they will degenerate, and ultimately revert to
idividual possessing most nearly those the original types from which they sprang,
es which it is the object to develop. So that the more frequent of change
gst the cereals, length or stiffness of the better in every respect for the crop,
size of ear or of grain, colour or bright- The system of rotation, almost universally
may each be attained by selecting, in practised, secures this necessary change so
St instance, a single plant shewing in far, but the greater one of procuring seed
r measure than its fellow the quality from a different soil, at least at intervals of
d, and by perpetuating year after year a few years, is also very generally practised,
of the progeny shewing most advance and until the laws regulating conditions of
\ same track, a well-defined sample will growth are better known, experience is
)tained, whose pedigree will exercise perhaps the safest guide as to what changes
rtionately as great an influence on give the most satisfactory results; but, as

stock as does that of a high-bred already remarked, there is nothing better in

lorn, and the money value of which the form of a rule to act on than that "like

e also in proportion to the time and produces like," and that whatever charac-

r expended — also supposing those have teristics may have marked the sample selected,

expended intelligently — in producing it such will, as far as altered circumstances will

ssing through a turnip field a specimen permit, also mark its produce. Thus, seed

)e observed remarkably well developed grain brought from an earlier district to a

: bulb and small in the top, or after a later will ripen before the produce of seed

* winter one may be found green and saved in the later district ; and, on the other

while the bulk of those round are hand, seed from a late district to an early

I and useless. These represent im- will probably give a heavier yield fi-om the

It qualities to seek to perpetuate, and naturally slower progress it will of necessity

jriculturist should note such cases, and make towards maturity, enabling it to benefit

h it may take many sowings probably to the fiillest extent from the improved con-

ninate all the rogues that may appear ditions of climate.

128

The Country CeniUmatis Magazine

TURNIP GROWING IN THE NORTH.

AT the annual meeting of the Garwich
Turnip Growing Association, held
lately at Inverurie, the report of this year's
examination was presented. The meeting
awarded the Highland Society's silver medal
to Mr Willian Bisset, Ardtannes, for the best
crop of Swedish turnips, and the second and
third money prizes of the Society of same
variety to Messrs John Maitland, Bal-
haggardy, and John Tait, Crichie, and for
green-topped yellow and all other common
turnips, the Highland Society's medal was
gained by Mr William Philip, Lofthillock,
and the second and third prizes of same
variety fell to Messrs John Annand, Upper-
boat, and John Tait, Crichie. The following
is the report of the inspectors, Messrs Milne,
Bisset, and Duncan.

From the beginning of March up to the pre-
sent time, the season has been one of the most
exceptional on record for the large quantity of
rainfall. The laying down of the cereal crops
was accomplished with difficulty, and much more
so the in-gathering. The sowing of the turnips
was not got commenced so early as usual, and
in several cases where the land was naturally
wet, the month of July was reached before a
conclusion could be effected. The first and
medium sown came early forward to the hoe,
but the amount of disease observable in many
fields is, doubtless, owing, in a great measure
to the wet state in which the ground was pre-
pared. It will be seen by subjoined list that the
crop of this year is the worst the Society has had
to report upon, not excepting the year 1859,
which was unusually dry. Taking an average of
last six years, the weight of Swedish turnips is
21 X tons, and green-topped yellow nearly i8>i
tons, which shews a deficiency this year on the
average of these seasons of Z}i tons on the former,
and 6% tons on the latter. The extent of land
under turnips in Aberdeenshire appears, from the
Board of Trade Returns, to be 93,605 acres, and
if the same deficiency (of say seven tons per
acre) exists in other parts of the county, it will
amount to 655,235 tons. Assuming that quan-
tity to be worth, for ordinary feeding purposes,

8s. per ton, Aberdeenshire sustains a loss frpm
that crop alone of upwards of ;^ 160,000.

The usual tables are appended to the report,
and from these we learn as regards Swedish
turnips, that the heaviest crop, being 16 tons i
cwt I qr. per acre in a field of 7 acres, was
grown at Ardtannes. The manure applied con-
sisted of 22 yards farmyard dung, and ^}i cwt.
of Langdale's challenge manure — cost,;^6, 3s. 2d.
per acre. The next heaviest crop was grown on
Crichie, 15 tons 17 cwt. per acre ; field of 12
acres ; manure, 18 yards farmyard dung, 8
bushels mixed bones, and i cwt. guano ; cost,
£6^ OS. 8d. per acre. The next heaviest crop to
this was grown on East Balhaggardy, 15 tons
15 cwt. I qr. per acre ; manure 14 yards farm-
yard dung, 10 bushels mixed bones, and 2 cwt.
turnip manure; cost, £s^ i8s. 8d. per acre.
Another field of 3 acres at Ardtannes, yielded
15 tons II cwt. I qr. per acre ; manure, 18 yards
farmyard dung, 10 bushels bone dust, 2 cwt. of
Langdale's challenge manure ; cost, £6^ 13s.
per acre. The lightest crop reported is on
Blackball, 5 tons, 8 cwt., 2 qr. per acre, on a field
of 8 acres ; manure in this case being 12 yards
farmyard dung, and 10 bushels mixed bones per
acre.

Of green-topped yellow turnips the heaviest
crop was grown on West Balhaggardy on a field
of 30 acres. The weight per acre in field was
19 tons, 8 cwt., 2 qr. ; manure, 14 yards farm-
yard dung, 6 bushels bone dust, and 3 cwt.
Langdale's challenge manure ; cost per acre,
£$y 9s. 4d. The next heaviest crop was on
Upperboat ; the weight per acre on half-an-
acre being 18 tons, 2 cwt., 3 qrs. ; the manure
was 18 yards farmyard dung, 2 cwt. dissolved
bones, and 2 cwt. Langdale's challenge manure ;
cost, ;^5, 7s. 8d. per acre. Next to these comes a
field of 15 acres on Lofthillock ; weight per acre
17 tons, 8 cwt., 2 qr.; manure, 18 yards farmyard
manure, 2^ bushels bone dust, and 3 cwt.
superphosphate]; cost not stated. The crop
that comes next is on Conglass ; extent of
field, 4 acres ; weight, 15 tons 17 cwt. ; manure,
17 yards farmyard dung, 7 bushels bone dust,
and 2 cwt. Langdale's challenge manure : cost
per acre, £^, i6s. 8d.

A field of ii>^^acres on Crichie, gives 15 tons,
II cwt., I qr., per acre ; manure 15 yards farm-

Turnip Growing in the North

129

yard dung, 4 bushels mixed bones, i cwt. guano,
and I cwt. Langdale's challenge manure ; cost per
acrc,;f5, 13s. lod. AfieldonCollyhillof4acres,
averaged 1 5 tons, 8 cwt., 2 qr. ; the manure
was 16 yards farm-yard dung and 3>i bushels
dissolved bones ; cost ;^4, i6s. 5d. per acre. The
lightest crop, 4 tons, 15 cwt., 3 qr., was on
Blackball too, in a field of 9 acres ; manure, 10
yards farm-yard dung and 2 cwt. guano ; cost,
;^4, 9s. per acre. It is noticeable that on the
same farm, a field of 12 acres yielded 1 1 tons, 4
cwt per acre, the dung in this case being 1 2
yards farmyard dung, and 9 bushels mixed
bones ; cost, £\^ 4s. 6d., or 4s. 6d. per acre less
than the crop which did not bulk half as much.
We give the table of average weights for sixteen
years.
Average weight of Swedish, green-topped, yel-

low, and other c ommon sorts of turnips, for last
sixteen years, and cost of manures : —

SWEDISH TURNIPS.

Tons cwt qr £ ^. d.

1857.. .21 14 3. ..4 18 I

1858. ..21 I 0...4 10 5

1859... II 10 3. ..4 6 9

i860.. .21 19 3. ..4 12 3

i86i...26 13 3. ..4 16 3

1862... 19 7 2. ..4 18 5

1863. ..21 14 3. ..4 14 4

1864.. .21 17 2. ..4 15 o

1865. ..20 7 0...4 17 8

1866. ..24 2 2. ..4 II II

1867... 17 18 0...4 14 7

1868. ..17 19 2.. .4 12 5

1869. ..22 18 2. ..4 15 9

1870.. .23 I I. ..5 2 II

1871...21 12 2.. .5 2 3

1872. ..12 15 0...S 7 I

GREEN - TOPPED,
BELLOW, &C.

Tons cwt qr ;f s. d.

857. ..16 7 I. ..4 12 2

858... 18 14 2.. .4 6 I

859-13 7 2.. .4 6 9

860.. .20 9 3. ..4 5 II

861. ..20 6 2. ..4 9 3

862... 18 14 2.. .4 7 4
863... — ... —

864. ..20 9 0...4 12 3

865... 18 I 0...4 15 9

866. ..23 7 o .4 4 2

867... 16 5 0...4 5 8

868... 14 7 2. ..4 6 2

869.. .21 10 3.. .4 12 3

870... 17 5 I. ..4 17 7

871... 18 I 2.. .4 16 o

872... 12 I 0...5 1 4

HORSE-BREEDING IN AMERICA.

FROM the New York Spirit of the Times we
extract the following excellent remarks
upon horse-breeding across the Atlantic : —

Too much praise cannot be awarded our
liberal horsemen, who, in paying enormous
prices for good horses, have stimulated such
great enterprise in our breeders that the horse
stock of the country comprises no inconsider-
able portion of our national wealth. From the
Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Lakes to
the Gulf, we find the spirit of improvement per-
vading our farming communities. The mongrel
stock is fast being crowded out, and everywhere
do we find the tiller of but a few acres rivalling
his wealthy neighbour in the quality of his horses.
This is as it should be, for good blood is within
the reach of all. In too many cases our farmer
friends are penny wise and pound foolish. Un-
like other business men, we find them calculat-
ing for the present and paying no heed for the
future ; hence, in breeding horses they are in too
many instances supinely indifferent to good
Mood and the profits that must necessarily ac-
crue from investments in fashionable strains.

Farmers raise more or less horses, breeding
often from a favourite mare which has proved
her £Eiithfulness and superiority ; but more fre-
quently from mares used up and worthless for
other purposes. In the first instance, the owner
of tlie favourite mare, if he is a man of sound

TOL. X.

sense, will have her served by the best stallion
his section affords, no matter what the cost,
being confident that the enhanced value of the
progeny from such a cross will amply repay the
extra outlay of money ; while on the other hand
owners of mares that have always been worthless
breed them to horses without the first recom-
mendation — no blood, or no appearance, in fact,
with nothing at all to commend them but their
cheapness.

If a thing is worth doing at all it is worth
doing well, but our economical farmers overlook
it, they are so intent on saving a few dollars for
the present at the sacrifice of a handsome profit
in the future. Blood will tell. Therefore our
advice is, if the mare is of no particular blood
and nothing extra, by all means have her served
by a good stallion. If she is as finely bred as
any mare in the country, do not neglect the
quality of the horse, for none of us can get too
much good blood into our stock.

Many men with capital business tact and love
of the science of breeding have expended thou-
sands of dollars in producing blooded stock, and
while they benefited the country they have en-
riched themselves. They embarked in the busi-
ness with a clear, well-defined idea of its require-
ments, and being liberal in their views they were
generous in their outlays. It costs large sums
of money to obtain the best strains of blood,

130

The Country Gmtlematis Magazine

but it was expended cheerfully, aud the result is
that in almost every instance the investment has
proved highly remunerative. This success proves
that if the same sagacity and business talent
that is applied to the commonest mercantile tran-
sactions be devoted to a thorough and complete
system of breeding, ample pecuniary reward is
the certain result. As an instance in support of
this assertion we mention the great Middle Park
establishment, one of the largest, if not the
largest, stud of blood horses in the world, which
was conducted on a commendable sound-sense
basis. The prices realized at its sale under the
hammer shew the enterprising breeder's estimate
of the value of first-class blood. Thirteen stal-
lions, 197 brood mares, and 129 foals, a total of
339 head, sold for over 500,000 dollars in gold.
"But the Middle Park stock was thoroughbred,
whose ancestry is as traceable as that of my lords
and ladies of * Merrie England,' " we hear some
of you exclaim. Granted that they were thorough-
breds of the purest and fashionable strains of
blood, and raised in a country whose nobility
and gentry patronize the glorious sports of the
turf, and contribute to their wealth and popu-
larity. We of the United States love the Ameri-
can trotter. He is an institution with us, and
our men of taste and wealth will and do have
him in his highest perfection. That they pay
for first-class horses princely sums all must ad-
mit, Goldsmith Maid, the queen of the turf, and
the pet of the people, than whom no gamer
horse has yet graced the quarterstretch, whose
record of lAty^^ made in a public race, drawing
full weight, is an unparalleled performance, cost
the gentleman who first discovered her remark-
able speed 650 dols. He sold her for 20,000
dols., and Mr Henry N. Smith, the eminent New
York banker, who now owns her, has said he
would not sell her for 100,000 dols. Mr Smith
being a gentleman of wealth, and an ardent lover
of horses, generously permits them to engage in
public contests of speed ; not so much for the
money there is in it, as from an enthusiastic
desire to ascertain to how high a degree of per-
fection the trotting horse may attain. Mr Smith
will not be excelled by any one in the quality of
his horses, consequently he has the most valu-
able lot of animals, kept for trotting purposes,
in the world. Among his most notable purchases
we may mention the fine, fast, and well-bred
young stallion Socrates, who cost him 40,000
dols.; Hotspur, the noted trotter, 10,000 dols.;
General Knox, the famous progenitor of the
celebrated Maine Knox family of horses, 10,000
^ols.; Jay Gould, the famous trotting stallion,

30,000 dols.; and many more clippers, all pur-
chased at liberal prices, and well worth what
they cost. This is but the stable of one gentle-
man, but it serves to illustrate that good stock
commands extravagant figures.

George M. Patchen, the brilliant representa-
tive of the justly celebrated Clay family of horses,
the fastest stallion of his day, and the worthy
rival of Flora Temple, sold for 25,000 dols.;
the superb trotter Lucy, his worthy daughter,
who took a heat at the last Buffalo Meeting in
2.18X, and in the opinion of competent horse-
men can trot much faster, is worth, at the lowest
calculation, 50,000 dols.; American Girl, another
Clay, who gamely fought for the supremacy in
the magnificent contest between the trotting
wonders of the world last summer at Buffalo,
taking a heat in 2.1731^ — the fastest time ever
made excepting that of Goldsmith Maid — could
not be bought for any less than 50,000 dols.

But it is not our province at present to enter
into any lengthened statement of the value of
the many eminent trotters in the country,
but rather is it to endeavour to impress upon the
minds of those who breed in the anticipation of
enjoyment or profit, that to attain success we
must breed from those families whose marked
superiority is apparent in every trotting contest.
We should breed with the object desired in view.
If we desired trotters, pure and simple, with only
the ability to go upon our tracks, and trot fast
in harness, we should look for the horse produc-
ing the largest proportion of this sort of stock,
and breed to him. But our aim and ambition is,
and always has been, to raise horses that com-
bine every element requisite in a perfect horse.
Give us beauty of appearance, fine style, big ac-
tion, good colour, large size, amiable disposition,
with plenty of spirit, iron constitution, and
speed, and we have a combination of the most
valuable qualities. By breeding in this way, we
cannot make a mistake. We produce horses that
command good prices for the track, coach, road,
or work.

Too many have set out to produce a type of
horses possessing but one feature, and therein is
the secret of their failures. They breed for
speed, for instance, from some horse that has
proved his prowess in many and warmly-con-
tested races. He is small, but he can trot. The
trotting ability is the allurement, and size is \%
nored. From such a union, in nine cases out ot
ten, wc produce stock that has no value. It
can trot some, perhaps, but it is too small — ^so
small that it is worthless. Better that we should
breed from horses larger and not so fast, uiilctt

^orse Breedittg in A merica 1 3 1

6tii' mates are unusually large, than run the risk To those farmers who imagine that, in their

with a worthless pony with nothing but speed to hands, blooded animals would not have much

recommend him. more value than common stock, we most un-

Our breeders who can produce a stock of hesitatingly say, produce your trotters, your

horses possessing style, action, speed, and size, roadsters, and your coachers ; shew the public

will certainly make money. If their stock has in the bloodlike appearance of your now valu-

speed, size, and style, it is doubly valuable. In able stock, that you have sought the purest foun-

any event, the man who can produce this sort tains of blood, and certain and ready sales await

of stock has a certainty for nonpareil trotters, you at prices rivalling those of our Backmans

superb roadsters, or magnificent coachers. and Alexanders.

LABOUR AND CAPITAL,

By J. J. MeCHI.

T is not surprising that great lamentations The high price of labour in the United States
and angry feelings should have been caused of America has always caused a much more
by the unexpected union and strike of the agri- general use of labour-saving machinery in agri-
cultural labourer, but is it not desirable that culture than we have here ; so much so that
the question should be calmly considered as re- more than 120,000 reaping and mowing machines
gards its probable future effects upon British are sold in a single season. We are slowly but
agriculture ? We have, I think, ample evidence certainly approaching a similar conclusion, for
to enable us to form a correct opinion. necessity is the mother of invention.

To an impartial observer it must appear re- We have a most striking evidence of the

markable that this union and strike have not oc- cheapness and profit of steam-power in the fact

curred long ago, especially as we have had, for that a single pound of coal will, in a Cornish

some time past the ready means for its accom- pumping-engine, raise 1,000,000 lb. of water i

plishment, such as railways, the penny post and foot high. At the trials of implements at Wol-

press, the telegraph, and especially a pressing verhampton, a pair of Fowler's 20-horse power

demand for labour in our mining, manufactur- steam engines cultivated, to the depth of 8X

ing, and commercial districts. Almost every inches, 3 acres in 43 minutes.

other industry has, long ago, had its unions and In our manufacturing and other industrial

strikes, and we know what has been the result pursuits the great bulk of inventions and im-

How will it affect agriculture ? Will it prove a provements have been forced on by the necessity

blessing or a curse "i for providing cheap substitutes for human and

I have good grounds for believing that, ulti- animal labour. To the use of steam we are
mately, the general agriculture of the country indebted for so multiplying, improving, and
will be, by its means, greatly improved and cheapening our wares, that we have become the
benefited. No doubt, in the first instance, workshop for the world. By similar means we
considerable inconvenience and some loss must shall, and must, increase and cheapen our home-
occur, over and above the rude and disagree- grown food. To accomplish this, many of our
able disturbance of those kindly feelings and old notions and prejudices as to land must give
harmony that should prevail alike in all well- way and be changed. Land must be free, and
managed industries between master and man. our Land Acts reformed ; our landowners will

The farmer, like the manufacturer, will now adapt themselves to the altered circumstances,

calculate how he can best meet the difficulty, and encourage the greater necessary investment

and will look to " labour-saving machines " and of capital by liberal covenants, leases, and valua-

new implemental inventions as a protection or tion of tenants' unexhausted improvements.

remedy. Many such are already in use by for- Our land improvement companies are ready

ward wide-awake farmers, whose landlords do to pour into the agricultural stream that flood of

not care to have small, irregular-shaped, un- accumulated capital which will be required by a

drained fidds, encumbered by great hedgerows general improvement in agriculture. Our legis"

aad timber trees. lators, who are mostly landowners, have it in

132 llu Country Gefttlcfnan^s Magazine

their power to amend our very defective Land- each amount to about ;^300,ooo,ooo sterling

laws, if they choose to do so. There is no want annually.

of capital for necessary agricultural improve- The people of this country will not be content

ments. Our country is rich almost beyond with short supplies of dear food while the land

belief. If we doubt it, here is the proof from the of Britain is but half farmed, and availed of.

money article of the Times of November 22, The present tenant capital of the United

1872. Kingdom, on its 46,000,000 of available acres, is

" The Clearing House returns for the past two only about £$ per acre, and its produce available

weeks have indicated the extraordinary extent as human food and drink only ;^3, los. per acre;

of the financial transactions in progress, the the landowners' capital only ;^3o per acre. We

total having been ;£22 2,278,000, or about 26 per know that these amounts might be nearly or

cent, in excess of the total for the corresponding quite profitably doubled— millions of acres, too,

fortnight of 187 1." of waste lands remain uncultivated, while this

So much for the cheques and bills of our year nearly one-half of our population are de-
London bankers. Our imports and exports pendent on foreigpiers for their daily bread.

. The Country Gentlematis Magazine 133

Ultc Jfarnier'0 Jfoe0.

WEEDS AND HURTFUL. PLANTS.

By Andrew Murray, F.L.S.

LIFE has been often likened to a state weed. It is only relatively to some other
of continual warfare. This is that it can be so called. As dirt is matter
especially true of the farmer. He shares the in a wrong place, so weeds are plants in a
struggles of his fellow-men, and in addition wrong place. The same plant may be a
has special, literal, and practical contests of weed when on the right hand, and not a
his own. He wages a perpetual strife with weed when growing on the left A rose-
multitudes of substantial living rivals and bush in a wheat-field is a weed, transplant
enemies who seek to deprive him of the fruit it to a garden it ceases to be one, but trans-
of his labouis, or cheat him out of his hopes, plant the wheat into the same place, and.
An account of these enemies and of the best presto, it is a weed. It is the place and the
mode of dealing with them ought to be use- crop that makes the distinction ; but to deal
ful, and in that expectation we propose to with weeds in this wide sense would take in
devote a series of papers tcf their considera- the whole vegetable kingdom, except the one
tion. These enemies are of all kinds ; some plant cultivated for the nonce. That is not,
belong to the animal world, some to the however, the sense in which the word is
vegetable. We shall take weeds for our generally received, or in which we here re-
starting point, not from any idea that they are gard it It is its ordinary and less accurate
entitled to pre-eminence, either from the acceptation which concerns us. In that
amount of mischief they do or the difficulty sense a weed is a common uncultivated plant
of counteracting it, but rather because it which habitually or frequently intrudes itself
seems to us that they have been least studied, into cultivated crops. With a few exceptions
The subject was broached some thirty years too, the weed is distinguished neither by
ago by an author who was well qualified to beauty nor use, further than that amount of
deal with it, viz.. Professor M*Gillivray, of both which every organic thing necessarily
Aberdeen ; and it was in the pages of partakes of. The object of all cultivation
The Farmer (then the Scottish Farmer)^ being to obtain a crop of a special plant or
and in the first year of its existence, that plants, it is true that every olher plant which
he opened it. Unhappily, ere he had well shews amongst it is an intruder or weed,
commenced, his untimely death cut short but unless it intrudes in quantity, and in-
the work. A few pages were all that ap- creases rapidly,and is difficult of eradication, it
peared. We know of no other author who does not trouble the cultivator, and is rather
has taken up the subject — we wish we did. classed by him as a wild plant or a wander-
It would save us a deal of trouble, and we ing garden plant than a weed, and that
trust that if any of our readers should know name is reserved for plants which have these
of any they will, in their own interest, draw obnoxious qualities. It is of them that we
our attention to it, and we promise to make speak in the following pages,
the fullest use of it Although in some degree anticipatory of
Strictly speaking, there is no plant that can what we shall have to repeat more in detail
m itself and by itself, be properly called a and with special application hereafter, we may

134 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

here note a few generalities regarding to meet that contingency. It will in any view
weeds, and the various modes of intercepting be necessary for other weeds than annuals,
or extirpating them. They are either annual, Supposing, then, that the task before
biennial, or perennial. Of course the annuals us is to destroy the weeds by prevent-
are most easily controlled. If they can be ing them seeding, how is this best to
prevented seeding, the mischief is, if not be done ? The means must vary with the
limited to the year in which they appear, at crop. In pasture all that is necessary is to
least greatly restricted \ and in general the eat or cut down the flowers before they go to
farmer would be contented to compound with seed. In fallow or ploughed land frequent and
them for one year's toleration if he could shallow ploughings and harrowings is another
insure their disappearance the next. If it and a goodmode, and the reason is this. Every
depended upon himself alone, he might cultivator knows that exposure of the roots
perhaps bring things to that point ; but it to the air is a most injurious thing to the
does not depend on himself, for, in the first plant. We hear of the evils and dangers
place, in this country there are few places of transplanting, but it is not so much the
where the surrounding fields are all in the transplanting, that is, the mere removal of the
farmer's own hand, and so within his own plant from one place to another, and the con-
power to keep as he wants them. Every one sequent unavoidable disturbance of the roots
has neighbours, and a careless or slovenly in the operation that does the mischief, as
neighbour may perpetually inundate your the unnecessary and avoidable exposure of
fields with weeds fi-om his ill-cleared land, the roots which too often accompanies it.
and all your care and skill be entirely We are sure that no one who has not been
neutralized. taught by personal experience has any idea
Of course, here, one of the preventives of the susceptibility of the roots to injury
must be the enlightening your neighbour, from exposure to the air. We have seen
and getting him to see the mischief which young trees which have been taken up and
his want of care inflicts both on himself and replanted within an hour's time close by, die
you, and equally, of course, the means from the effect, while others of the same trees
of opening his eyes, which we would re- from the same bed, lifted at the same time,
commend, would be to get him to subscribe and despatched to Ireland or Scotland, re"
to our magazine. There he is sure to be mained for three weeks out of the ground in
taught things he should know. But there their packages, and when then planted have
are other ways by which weeds get into suffered no injury, and come away with per-
one's land than from their own or their neigh- feet readiness ; and the only diff*erence be-
bour's neglect. We may get the seeds tween the treatment of the two cases was,
among the seeds of other crops which we that in the first case the gardener had thought
purchase and sow. The remedy for this it unnecessary to put himself to any trouble
is, first, to purchase from none but first-class to protect the roots, as the plants were to be
dealers, who have a character to lose \ and immediately again put in the ground, and
second, to inspect the seed carefully our- they had for a certain time (short but suffi-
selves, and not buy it unless we are satisfied cient) been left exposed to a hard drying
that it is clean. But there are other difficult- wind ; while in the other case, as he
ies which such care will not reach. The vitality knew that they were to be long out
of seeds is not limited to a single year, but of the ground, he took the precaution
extends over many, so that a renewal of to cover the roots with a matting or
annual weeds may take place year after year some protection as soon as they were lifted,
from old seeds deposited in the earth at some This susceptibility of the roots and their im-
former period. A long continued persever- portance in the vegetable economy indicates
ance in well-doing — a constant destruction the Hne of treatment. Expose the roots of weeds
)f rhe weeds as they re-appear is necessary as much as possible, and nothing does this so

Weeds and Hurtful Blants 135

wdl as frequent and shallow ploughing and tion is not capable of general or indiscrimi-
hanrowing. Deep ploughing buries the plants nate use, neither are its principles and pecu-
roots and all, and by-and-bye they shew liarities sufficiently ascertained to permit us to
their heads again, but shallow scraping leaves say that it will be of much practical use ; still
the weeds bare and their roots exposed, and the idea is not to be lost sight of, and where it
in a few hours kills them. If this is the seems capable of special application to par-
case with perennial plants, it is doubly so ticular i^ants, it will be our business to bring
with annuals. They, as a rule, have less sub- it under the consideration of the reader,
stance and stamina in them than perennials In pastures again, Messrs Lawes & Gil-
or biennials. They have not had the same bert's experiments have shewn us how by a
time in which to store up materials, possibly long continuance of one particular manure or
they have not the same faculty of doing so, other application, the growth of cerlain plants
even were as long time given them in which can be so encouraged as to end in their oust-
to do it, consequently they are thinner, feebler, ing all others from the land so manured,
and more flaccid. We imagine there are few Flooding, irrigation, and draining, are other
of us who have not heard some of our friends means of getting rid of particular weeds which
say that they don't like annuals, because they have special constitutional peculiarities,
are " straggling and leggy." This legginess Fields infested by weeds peculiar to wet sour
means a drawn-up habit due to a deficiency land can be freed from them by drying the
of substance and an excess of watery sap ; land ; and other plants which are only found
in other words, a greater demand for in dry situations may be routed out by a
moisture than the less flabby perennials: — super-abundance of moisture (temporary or
and as the plant depends on the roots for otherwise, as may be found necessary),
these, the exposure and drying up of them is In like manner, planting regulates
more speedily fatal than in a plant composed to a certain extent the kind of plants
more of substance and less of water. Another that thrive in its neighbourhood, and the
means of dealing with weeds, annuals as well geological formation has a perceptible influ-
as perennials, is by treating the soil with ence on the character of the vegetation which
certain manures or mineral substances which grows about it. Man can imitate or modify
are unfavourable to the life and growth of the both.

weeds without being so to the crop under Of biennials we have a few general remarks
cultivation. Caustic lime has long been sue- to make. One is, that the word biennial does
cessfully used for this purpose. The experi- not exactly mean a plant that lives two years
ments of Mr Lawes and Dr Gilbert at Rotham- and two only. It rather means a plant that
stead and at Chiswick (the former of which flowers only once and then dies, but whose
were printed by them for private circulation, flower does not usually come until the second
and found their way into almost all agri- year. If, however, by any chance the flower
cultural periodicals, and the latter of which is prevented coming the second year, it will
were published by the Royal Horticultural flower in the third — or it may possibly be de-
Society in the Proceedings for 1870 or 187 1) ferred until the fourth by being again pre-
havc also shewn that the application of cer- vented flowering in the third. To what ex-
tain compounds (which if appHed to animals tent or number of years this might be pro-
would be called medicines or drugs) has the longed we do not know ; but the truer light,
effect of discouraging the growth of certain perhaps, in which to look upon sucli plants
families or tribes of plants, while they en- is to regard them as single flowering, and so
courage that of others. 'Ihus one compound regarded, we can only treat them all as ex-
had the eflfect of driving oflf all leguminous ceptionally long-lived annuals, whose year is
plants, while it encouraged the cereals and not regulated by days but by the flowering of
graznineous plants. Of course such a prescrip- the plant. The longest Uved of these an-

136 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

nuals would be the agaves and aloes, which ment generally succeeds in getting rid of

only flower once in a hundred years. So far biennials.

as special treatment is concerned, the prin- No general remarks beyond those we have

cipal point to be attended to with biennials is already made in speaking of annuals occur to

therefore, not to keep cutting them always us in regard to perennials. Their greater

down before they flower, in the expectation strength and substance and hardier constitu-

that it will be sufficient to do so for two sue- tion, make them more difficult to eradicate,

cessive years, and that then they will die, but but the same principles regulate the growth

rather to allow them to flower, and then to of annuals, biennials, and perennials, and it

cut the flower stems down before they ripen must be left to every one to apply them to

their seeds. Two or three years of this treat- each particular case as it presents itself.

The Country Gentleman's Magazine 137

^aniiom ^^crteB.

DR CRISP AND THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL Continually displayed all this animus towards

SOCIETY. the Royal Agricultural Society of England

DR CRISP is not only always crisp, but A pamphlet gratuitously distributed to the

ever crusty in his remarks when they reporters at last meeting dissipates our

have reference to the proceedings of the astonishment. We dare say we heard of the

Royal Agricultural Society of England. No- circumstance at the time, but it had passed

thing that the Society can do is right, out of our memory that the Dr had applied

" Whatever is, is— wrong" Not even the for the scientific editorship of the Journal at

IfCeds trial, which has guaranteed, as far as a salary of ;^5oo a-year, and did not obtain

may be, pure instead of adulterated cake in it. That was one of the things that the

future to the farmers, met the approval of Society left undone, although Dr Crisp

the irate M.D. The noble stand which the urgently entreated it. Would it be un-

Society made, and is making against chi- generous to say : — " Hence the low opinion

canery in the trades which farmers rely upon which Dr Crisp has of the Journal under

for a heavy crop of roots or of cereals, the editorial care of the Secretary, Mr H. M.

for making rapidly and safely animal food Jenkins."

for the million, was denounced by Dr Crisp Then it is a fault that the Society do

at the last meeting of the Society as a useless not appoint a committee to inquire into the

expenditure of money; and this notwithstand- agricultural labour question. Had they done

ing that all agricultural societies throughout so we should have considered the expendi-

the country, which can afford it, are subscrib- ture of money for obtaining information that

ing to defray the expenses incurred. Dr we have at our finger-ends already a more

Crisp, like Coriolanus, stood alone in the wasteful one than the outlay on the trial

assembly, but he did not by any means whose effect has been to induce, or compel

" flutter the Volscians." The Society re- perhaps is the better word, manufacturers to

solved to continue its course of exposing un- sell their stuffs under proper names, not to

fair dealing at any cost, and for this all far- palm off" with a colourable disguise substances

mers but Dr Crisp — who perhaps does not as genuine, when they well know they are

use much oil-cake or manurial substances — adulterated.

will heartily commend them. But the Dr Dr Crisp, however, has one new and ex-

not only disagrees with the course taken in ceedingly good suggestion to make, and that

the Leeds trial, but he finds fault with the is that the Royal Agricultural Society should

Journal^ which most readers are agreed in take into consideration the formation of an

thinking is much better recently than it was agricultural museum. This was an idea

before, and that it is not only instinctive but which he conceived when he was an unsuccess-

interesting reading. In Dr Crisp's eyes it ful candidate for the scientific editorship of

has been degenerated from a practical to a the Journal^ and which he embodied in a

** padded " magazine. The Society has done pamphlet in i860 — thirteen years ago — 2l

everything that it ought not to have done, hochiire which he now reprints in a manner

and left undone all those things which Dr that seems to imply that the idea of agricul-

Crisp assures us they ought to have done. tural museums was a novelty, and that for its

We have often wandered why Dr Crisp originality Dr Crisp is entitled to immense

138

The Country Gentlemaiis Magazine

credit. It ought to have secured him the
post of editor in i860, and crown him
with hon9ur now. Sixteen years before
Dr Crisp recommended an agricultural
museum — which we should much like to see
formed — such institutions had been described,
and their educational value dilated upon in
the columns of The Farmer. So long ago
as 1831 there was a museum of the kind
Dr Crisp desiderates established in Stirling,
and one of these important aids to scientific
farming was recommended by Mr Ravens-
croft for the north of Scotland. Not long
after, one of great merit was organized by
the Messrs Lawson & Sons, of Edinburgh ;
and the Highland and Agricultural Society
of Scotland had one of much excellence.
Under the curatorship of Mr Ravenscroft,
the museum of the Highland and Agricul-
tural Society, which has now been trans-
ferred to the keeping of the Industrial
Museum of Edinburgh, was got up
to great perfection, the models of roots
being admirably manipulated, and nature
was never sacrificed to mere beauty of
form ; and under the same direction there
was also a museum formed in the Crystal
Palace four years before Dr Crisp's pamphlet
is dated ; and one of the most complete
shortly after at Cirencester College, through
the exertions of the Rev. John Constable,
the able principal of that institution. Dr
Crisp's statement, therefore, that in t86o
he found " that with one or two ex-
ceptions, and these of a very limited kind,
and confined to a few of its branches, that no
such institution existed," is not quite true in
fact. In ignorance of this museum, Dr Crisp
must also have been unaware of the condi-
tions of the finances of the Highland and
Agricultural Society, or he would not have
described the Royal Agricultural Society as
** one of the richest and most prosperous in
England or perhaps in the world." The
Highland Society is vastly wealthier than the
Royal, and more good might be done with
its funds.

Having said this much, however, we thank

Dr Crisp for bringing this matter again before

^t^ Society, as a good story is none the

worse for being twice told, and a carefully
formed museum would be of red importance
to agricultural students. It might not be so
largely taken advantage of as expected by
the sanguine, but it would be a great boon
to the few who desired to thoroughly master
their profession in all its phases.

THE EARL OF AIRLIE AND THE LAW OF

HYPOTHEC.

The Earl of Airlie is apparently a some-
what reluctant convert to the abolition of
the Law of Hypothec as it applies to
agricultural subjects. He tells us that he
has been reticent in the controversy which
has for so many years been waged about the
question, which has given rise to piles of
blue-books, and a vast amodnt of ill-feeling
between merchants and landlords — ^for that is
really putting the matter in a nutshell, the
farmer standing as a sort of middle-man be-
tween. So much had to be said about the
question on one side and the other, that the
Royal Commissioners could not agree upon
their report. The evidence of large farmers
shewed that the Law of Hypothec was
disastrous, that it gave landlords the chance
of dispossessing a man upon very arbitrary
terms who had spent his all upon the land in
drainage and manuring ; that it not only se-
cured him against all loss, but it enabled
him to profit out of the tenant's purse by let-
ting the well-cultivated soil at a much higher
rent, on account of the ruined man's enter-
prize and energy. It was complained that
with such a safeguard as the Law of Hypo-
thec, the proprietor could with impunity let
his land to " men of straw," who having no
capital could afford to offer a price beyond
that which a practical man would be justified
in giving, well knowing that upon the
strength of the holding they could have
credit for seed, manure, and feeding-stuffs
from the merchants and the manufacturers.

On the other side it was given in evidence
that but for the lien which the Law of Hy-
pothec gave the landlord, the poor and small
farmers — the industrious bees of the agricul-
tural hive — who work with their own hands,
would be left without a home in this country,

Random Notes

139

necessity be compelled to seek a habi-
in some land far away from the place
T birth. It was alleged that the Law
pothec enabled land-owners to encour-
en of this kind. They could give fifteen
hteen months' credit to these respect-
lard-working agriculturists, which they
not do if such a law were not in exis-
This has always appeared to us a
argument on the part of the advocates
landlords. It implies that the land-
while they profess the greatest admira-
)r the character of the small farmers, have
feelings about them in their hearts,
y are hard-working, thoroughly honest
but proprietors should like — as a gua-
; of that good faith which they pro-
them to have — on the farm some of the
ating machinery from implement makers,
from the grain merchant, manure and
Tom the manufacturer, and cattle from
aler. They trust them eighteen months
:nt, but their security must be on the
ses, either underneath or above the
d. The implement makers, and the
Lants, and the cattle-dealers may lose,
le proprietors cannot We think the
ates injudicious, who thus represent
he abolition of the Law of Hypothec
[ be the death-blow of the small farmers,
licates that the goodness of the land-
the kindly feeling towards his tenantry,
ly depend upon the confiding charac-
the people with whom the latter deal,
do not think proprietors so bad as the
ders of the Law of Hypothec represent
and as we have put it here, on the au-
y of the Blue-Books,
e question of hypothec is a wide one,
:onfining it strictly to the rural dis-
we do not think harm could be done
tenant by its abolition, neither injury
to the landlord, and benefits would
nly accrue in the case of financial
rtune to the trading creditors of the
rs. It may, and has been urged, that
lants knowing that farmers are subject
is law, should not trust without due
ty; but to find out who was
iighly reliable would involve a

more inquisitorial investigation than that
of the Income - tax Commissioners —
against which there has been so influential
a protest in the City of London, and by
deputy from some of the principal centres
of the country. The Earl of Airlie's view
we think a very sensible one on the whole.
As regards agricultural hypothec, he says :—
He has always thought that it was much more
a tenant's than a landowjier's question. The
landlord, he thinks, never had any claim to
have a law of this kind maintained for his
special benefit, nor that injustice would be
inflicted on him by its abolition, provided
current leases were exempted from the opera-
tion of the Act by which the law was
abolished. The landlord could protect him-
self, and he would not have to submit to
any serious rent reduction where land was
let on fair terms. He was not insensible to
the weight of arguments favourable to the
abolition of the law. He was reluctant to
abolish theLaw of Hypothec before considera-
tion, and fairly testing the opinion of
the agricultural community. It was impos-
sible, whatever his individual opinions
were, to shut his eyes to the fact that the
great majority of the farmers of Scotland
were opposed to the law. The circumstance
that Aberdeenshire returns members pledged
to its abolition, had great weight with him,
because small holdings were very numerous
in that county. The members of Fife and
Perthshire were pledged to its abolition,
while Mr Barclay owed much of the large
majority in Forfarshire to the fact that he
had long been known as an uncompromising
opponent to hypothec, and the new Kincar-
dineshire member had declared against the
law. As, therefore, he believed the great
majority of Scotch tenant-farmers were in
favour of the abolition of the law, as he
was bound to give them credit for being
the best judges of a matter which affected
their interests much more than those of any
other class, and as he did not think that
the abolition of the law would inflict injustice
on any one, he, for his own part, would
not seek to interpose any obstacle in the
way of the final settlement of the question.

140 Tlie Country Genilemafis Magazine

We hope other landlords will look upon In the jungle of Afghanistan, in the deserts

hypothec from the same point of view. Its of Africa, and along the Abyssinian coast the

abolition would inflict, as his lordship says, maximum temperatiure is i lo deg. — n tempe*

injustice upon no one, and would remove rature not absolutely fatal to the existence

from the farmers a grievance of which for of white men, but almost completely des-

long many of them have bitterly complained, tructive of all healthy activity. It is a curious .

and would prevent outsiders from making circumstance that the same high temperature

political capital out of the subject. We wish is reached in some of the inland valleys of

that the Earl of Airlie had spoken earlier in California, though the average of the State

the same strain, when there was not any is much lower than this. In Cape Colony,

chance, as at the present juncture, of his the African diamond diggings, and in parts of

motives being misconstrued. the Territory of Utah the midsummer heat

is 105 deg. Next comes Greece, with 104 d^.,

and the deserts of Arabia, with 103 deg.

SUMMER HEATS. Next to Arabia — extraordinary as it may

We are indebted to the Scientific Ameri- appear — comes Montreal, with a summer heat
can for the following facts : — Probably of 103 deg. The State of New York follows
the hottest country is one which most with 102 deg., but the other Northern States
people would imagine to possess a mode do not exceed 98 deg.; Spain, Lower India,
rately cool and pleasant temperature — name- China, Jamaica, and the Southern States of
ly, Thibet. Constituting, as it does, a vast the Union average 100 deg.; Mauritius
and elevated plateau of table-land, and situ- registers 96 deg., and Sierra Leone in Africa
ated between the 30th and 38th parallels — so terribly fatal to Europeans — ^hasnota
of north latitude, one might have thought that higher summer temperature than 94 deg. For
its inhabitants must have been more comfort- France, Denmark, and Belgium, at St Peters-
able in summer than the natives of the steam- burg, at Shanghai in China, in Burmah, the
ing plains of Bengal or of the sun-baked Sandwich Islands, Buenos Ayres, and Trini-
deserts of Northern Africa, On the contrary, dad, the average is stated as 90 deg. In
the unfortunate Thibetans suffer from an Nova Scotia and in the Azores the maximum
extreme summer temperature, which is stated is 87 deg. Great Britain, Siam, and Peru, do
to rise to the almost incredible heat of 150 not exceed 85 deg., while Portugal, Pekin in
degrees in the shade. It is not known by China, and Natal in South Africa, have an ex-
what devices the natives escape the effects of treme temperature of 80 deg. In Siberia the
this frightful temperature. Their condition summer heat is as comparatively high as 77
must be greatly aggravated by the fact that deg., whereas in Western and Southern Aus-
the night temperature, even in the hottest tralia, as in parts of Scotland, it isonly 75 deg.
seasons, often sinks as low as the freezing In Italy, Venezuela, and Madeira, 73 deg. is
point. In Senegal and the West India the maximum. In Prussia and New Zealand
Island of Guadaloupe, the summer tempe- the thermometer rarely rises over 70 deg., and
rature often reaches 130 deg. This is, per- in Switzerland and Hungary not over 66 deg.
haps, as high a temperature as any Europeans In Bavaria, Sweden, Tasmania, and Moscow in
are habitually exposed to, both regions being Russia 65 deg. is the maximum, while 55 deg.
commonly visited for commercial purposes, is the summer heat of Patagonia and the
and the latter being largely inhabited by Falkland Islands ; and the midsummer heat of
white men. In Persia the temperature rises to the greatest portion of the Arctic regions ig
125 deg., and appears to be the cause of only 50 deg. In Southern Iceland, lastly, the
most destructive epidemics. At Calcutta summer temperature is sometimes reaches as
and throughout the delta of the Ganges the high as 45 deg., while Nova Zembla has
mercury rises to 120 deg., and a similar an extreme midsummer heat of 34 deg.—
*'*nQperature is attained in Central America. 2imes,

Random Motes I41

»,•.« •,«•., ^« ^„«^„,r.r.TT«,r * xTT> «»o bctweenthem. He held in his hand an agree-

THE EARL OF SHREWSBURY AND HIS ^ , u *i. c. /r j i.- -r-v iT r

TFNANTRV Hient, drawn up by the Staffordshire Chamber of

. Agriculture, for adoption between landlord and

The Earl of Shrewsbury met his Worcester- ^^^^^^^ ^^^ j^ ^j^j^ ^^^^ ^3^^^ j^ ^^^1^ j^ ^^^^ ^

shire tenantry the other day at the half- be superseded by another agreement between the

yearly rent audit. In respondmg to the toast of p^^^j^^^ ^^ j^ ^^^ impossible to have a public

his health, his lordship made the foUowmg re- agreement to suit the circumstances of all cases,

^^^'^^ • and the public agreement would be set aside by

If ever there were a time when there were the private agreement which must exist between

reasons why a landlord should meet his tenants, them. He thought the best agreement was a

it was now, for it was a very precarious time proper understanding between the landlord and

indeed. He was afraid they were not making so tenant, and where the tenant had the word of a

much money as they should do. They had had landlord (of good name and estates, and of good

three bad seasons, and other drawbacks, and the family), he would be secure, as such a landlord

present seemed more particularly a time when a would never break his word. The Earl instanced

landlord should meet his tenants, and have a the case of a deceased tenant of his in Worces-

talk with thenL As a young landlord, he would tershire, whose widow had received compensation

tell them his experience. He believed every for the unexhausted improvements upon the

landlord should have some land in his own farm. In that case, he said, it would have been

hands, and farm it, and he could then try ex- foolish if faith had not been kept, for other

periments, and would be able to tell his tenants tenants would have lost confidence in him, and

what to do. Well, he had been at farming four his farms would not let so well. He confessed

years, and the accounts had been very strictly he did not like the tendency of the day. He did

and accurately kept. He would advise them all not like the Irish Land Act, and should be sorry

to keep accurate accounts. Those at Ingestre to see it in England. H^ liked to live on his

were at the service of any of his tenants who estates upon friendly terms with his tenants, and

chose to look at them. The result of his four if he chose to have a little sport, and to jump

years* fanning, as shewn by the accounts, was over the fences on a farm after the game, he

that he had lost thirty sovereigns by it. Well, thought the tenants had better encourage him to

that was not much to lose, but if he had to live do that than drive him away to live elsewhere.

by his farming, where should he be ? The times Much had been said about game, and he ac-

were very ticklish, and he thought landlord and knowledged that he was fond of sport and pre-

tenant should have a feeling for each other be- ser\'ed to some extent, but he trusted his tenantry

yond the " jolly-good-fellow " feeling, and this would never have reason to complain of excess.

feeling did exist between them. He liked his He treated rabbits as vermin, and the custom on

tenants to have confidence in him, and to know his estate was to allow the destruction of them

that if they had anything to complain of, or by his tenants on their respective farms at all

anything to say to him, they could come to him times. After again expressing the wish that if

and say it. He was not in favour of Chambers his tenants had anything to complain of they

of Agriculture. They had these Chambers in would come to him — and so long as they met

Worcestershire and in Staffordshire, at which the together he had no intention of going to a Court

members met and talked over business matters, of Arbitration — his lordship asked his tenants

but personal subjects were introduced and re- how they managed with their agricultural

marks made, and if one of the members changed labourers. There was one essential thing he

his landlord, he went to the Chamber and let out thought should be done for every agricultural

his bad temper over it. He (the Earl) did not labourer — each one should be provided with a

believe in changing his tenants, if it could be good cottage on the estate upon which he worked.

avoided, for every change of tenant was as bad Some of the gentlemen present mentioned cases

as a year's rent lost. He should be glad, however, in which there was a lack of cottage accom-

to see some points between landlord and tenant modation on their farms, and Earl Shrewsbury

settled — for instance, the question of unex- replied that the want should be supplied as soon

hausted improvements. If there were any differ- as possible, but he found he could not do all at

ences between himself and his tenants, he con- once. He thought it better to set one estate

sidered common good feeling and good sense thoroughly in good order than to do a little

would do more good than any legislation, in on each. The Cheshire estates were now under

creating and maintaining a right understanding hand, and he believed were about half done, and

i4i The Country Gentiematis Magazine

good labourers' cottages would be there provided labour. His lordship deprecated the agitation

on every farm. Speaking again of the agricul- which had taken place in Warwickshire, upon

tural labourers the Earl said he had raised his one of the best and most liberally managed

own labourers and gardeners from 13s. to 15s. estates in England, and asked why agitators

a-week, and he kept them at work always. He should go about setting class against class, in-

did not know whether his Worcestershire tenants stead of getting them together. He was informed

could keep their labourers employed every day, by Mr Cinders (his agent) that a pleasant and

in the weather they had lately had, but he cordial feeling existed amongst the tenants on

thought it best to keep them in full employment, his Worcestershire estate, and he hoped that

There was a struggle between capital and labour, feeling would long continue to exist, and the

No doubt it was intended that men should work more they knew the more they would like each

six days in the week, but capital oppressed other.

TAe Country GentUmatis Magazine

143

Ihe (Dlb Jarmtr'0 ^ott-fook.

AVING bten requested by (he proprietors of
(his nuguine to give my experience u an
Bgricnltnrist throughout n long and chequered
CBieer, I gladly comply with the invitation in
the hope that extracts Irom my Note-Book —
which ia in reality a perfect Otta-podrida, mingling
t^ things new and old, matters directly
bearing upon fanning, and othen collaterally so
—may prove interesting and instructive to the
readers of this magazine. In the course of my
life I have wandered far and wide, noting the
difierent systems of cultivation in one county,
and also in one cotmtry and another, and wher-
ever I went I found (like my great predecessor,
Atthni Voong, who gave a stimulus to inquiry
and effect to observation in the way of
Gnltiralion), something to take an example
ftom or something to avoid. Believe a
garmlons old man, you youngsters, who think
yoo arc cleverer far than your " governors "—a
new-fashioned tenn which 1 have not yet got
to care for, althongb I hear it so often ; there
seems a sort of want of respect in it — that age
dea bring with it, if not wisdom, at least longer
experience of the world. I dare say some of you
will say, '* Oh, we see as much in a day now
as yon half-a.century-ago old fogies could have
seen in a week." Probably so ; but the exist-
ence of railways does not appear to have much
improved the science— if I may so call it (every.
thing is science now-a-daysl^-of observation.
Bnt I shall not say more in pre&ce, but simply
poll from my store, and give it as it comes.
Ah 1 it turns out to be something new, for
it must be remembered that while occa-
sionally drawing upon the past, I am not
old enough yet to be heedless of the present.
I shall take note of all novelties nnd matters that
are interesting ndw-a-days as I did in the days of
my youth. What I present you with this week
isa good plan of loading hay and also of fastening

Dor American cousins bave at all times since our
cmde ideas were carried across the Atlantic, been able
to " better our instruction. " They did so in the reap-
ng machine ; they have assisted us very materially
since the great Exhibition of lS;i in perfecting this
harvesting implement, which does in ordinary seasons
betlei work than can possibly be accomplished by
haad, at • tmallec cosL In these days economy in

fann-labour, always important, is now rendered im-
perative by the increased price of labour, and the un-
favourable character of the season. Our climate,
always variable, has been more than ordinarily so of
late, and every appUance that can enable farmers to
dispense with manual labour and save time is of the
highest value. For time, in the case of agriculture,
is more than money. It is so, we are told, "m all pro-
fessions, but peculiarly so in farming, where the loss
of two good days may involve, in the case of tillage,
weeks of idleness, and in the case of harvesting, weeks
of wasteful loss. This season has proved so.

The hay harvest is one which, to a considerable ex-
tent, is neglected in this country, more particularly in the
north. It is often left standing in the lield long alter

Fig. I,— Hay.

it ought to have been cut, and until it has been robbed
of much of its nutritious qualities by the atmosphere ;
and then when it has been mown and put into ricks
it is left out winnowing and wasting far too long. I
give here illustrations quoted from the American
Agricullurisl, in the hope that they may be of use to
farmers in our own country. The bay-bolster
especially appears to me a very good idea, and one
to be utilized with advantage at home. This paper
says, and I agree, that there is nothing more valu-
able in a farmer's work than rapidity and eSective-
ness at any time, but more especially at harvest time,
when so much depends on the sudden changes of the
weather. Thus, in loading hay or grain upon the
wagon, it is important that it be done quickly, and
in such a manner as to economize space, for it is
scarcely possible to get more hay or straw at a load
tlun a team will draw, and my often not half a

!44

load is made b^ leason of bulty loading. A far-
mer needs good hay'tacks in the first place. An-
other needed thing is a bolster of a good shape on
which to place the rack. We figure a bolster espe-
cially adapted for a hay-rack (Rg. I). It is made
of a stout piece for the bolloin of suffirietif length to fit
the nagon, and 4x4 inches thick. Standards of 3 x 3
are moiliced in an outwardly sloping position near
the ends of the biltom piece, filling closely and pinned
lightly. Short braces are then morticed in, fitting
loosely, so that they may be easily icmoved and held
in their places by pins ; also easily movable, A hole
is bored in the bolster for the king-bolt which retains
it in its place. To place the rack, whi:b is tnade of
two ordinary hay-ladders, remove the braces, put the
ladder in position as shewn in the engraving, replace
the graces, and put in the pins to retain them.

liie ladder (fig. i) may be made of spruce poles,
which are light and strong, peeled, and bored at dis-
tances oT Z feet apart with ^-inch holes. In these
holes are placed the rungs of hickoiy or white-oak,
which should be tough and strong, because they are

T/ie Country Gentletnmis Magazine

As I have itidicaled before, I bare alwafs made
a practice of putting down in my Note-Book every
matter that comes under my observation that I think

(^_

— H

Fig. 3.— Hay Ladder.

needed to be lighL The upper part of the rungs pro-
ject 6 or 8 inches through the upper pole, and
wrought nails are driven into each pole and through
the rungs to keep them in their places. The ladders
may be made 14 or 16 feet long, and are kept spread
by means of a stout board at each end, in which are
bored holes to receive the ends of the rungs over which
they are placed. A long, narrow slot is made in this
board, through which is passed another narrower piece
of board which stands up in front of the load, and is
used to carry the lines on, so that they will not annoy
the leader nor trail on the ground. Holes are bored
in the upper end to receive the lines, where they can
always be reached in a moment when wanted.

When there is no convenient place to fasten a horse
which you have to leave for a few minutes, the follow-
ing plan, of which we give an engraving.will be found a
handy and useful one. Take the reins and pass tbetn
round underneath thw hub outside the wheel, and give
them a hitch on to one of the spokes as shewn in the
cut. If the horse starts, the reins are drawn up, in-
■'.antly checking the animal, and at soon as he com-
lences to back they are quickly loosened. It is
-uite impossible that a horse can get away under this
method. A fixture to attach to the hub has been
lalenled in America, but without the
•lot. .ihi^rn here is as effeclnal as it b simple.

Pig. 3.— Method of Fastening a Horse itt HainesL

likely to be usefiil, the reader of these notes will find
many things transcribed which do not bear directly
on forming. For instance, having been suffering from
a cold, I was led to ask the doctor something about
these troublesome afflictions, and his description of the
different kinds was deemed by me to be worthy d a
note. Here it is, and in seasonaUe time, too : — If
a cold settles on the outer covering of the lungs, it
becomes pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs, or
lung-fever, and in many cases carries off the strongest
man to the grave within a week. If cold falls opon
the inner covering of the lungs it is pleurisy, with its
knife-like pains and its slow, very slow re-
coveries. If a cold settles in the joints, there is
rheumatism, with its agonies of pain, and rheumatism
of the heart, which in a instant sometimes siups
asunder the cords of life with no friendly wanting.
It is of the utmost practical importance, then, in
wintry weather, to know not so much how to cure a
cold as how to avoid it. Colds always come
from one cause, some part of the body being colder
than natural for a time. If a person will keep lus
feet warm always, and never allow himself to be
chilled, he will never take Cold in a lifetime ) and
this can only be accomplished hy due care in warm
clothing and avoidance of draughts and exposure.
While multitudes of colds come from cold feel, per-
haps, the majority arise from cooling off too quickly
afier becoming a little wanner than is natural from
exercise or work, or from confinement to tt warn

"When a workman knows the use of his toolt,
he can make a door as well as a window.'*
I have found out that there ue men who think thqr

T/u Old Fanner's NoU Book

145

bow their work wondcifully well, who do not
Sixa^tt that it has been veiy badly done until such
lime OS it is pointed out lo them — thit the panel
does not fii well into the door, and that the window
ihakes in the sashes when the wind blows. It is
George Eliot who WTiies about the workman, iis I
hare qnoted. Few women have wiitten so well {
few have raised novel literature to such a height oK
perfection a* she has done. Theie is a grasp of
(bought, a knowledge of human nalure, in its human
phases, as well as in tdat when " the old Adam,"
Dialling it despair {vidt Adam Bede), comes 10 usurp
the prerogative that ought to belong, not to "the
baiien voice," but (hat other belter and more distinct
tountl which says, " Rejoice, rejoice."

It U only the other day ihat I look up the " h^ill
on the Floss " Toi the fourth or the fiflh lime. There
ii one good thing about all the rovels of this authored,
Ihat you can never lift them, however oflen you may
have read them, without finding in them something
joii can be pleased wilh — something to delight and
inslracl. It was well-nigh twenty years ago when
"Adam Bede " came from her pen. 1 call George Eliot
" her " now, for some of my friends, when I came to
London, told me that the writer of this book was a woman.
Does not she know the country well? Surely there
never was a writer equal to her in descriptions of the
luidsope. " Old School " as I am, I like her works
better than those who wrote even in my early days.
Haniet Martineao in my time ivrote some beautiful
Dories about " Political Economy," chiefly in con-
nexion vrith agiicullural matters, so far as I can call to
mind now. Hannah More was thought much of, but
the never seems to have had the same innate love for
the counliy that Geo[ge Eliot has, nor can she de-
Ecribe her knowledge of it in such fine language.
GUnce at this charming little photograph, " Outside
DorlcoteMill".-—

"A wide phdn where the broadening Floss hurries
on between its green banks to tbe sea and the loving
tide, lushing to meet it, checks its passage wilh an
impetaoDs embrace. On this mighty tide, the black
ifaipt — laden with the fresh-scented Gr.planks, with
rounded sacks of oil-braring seed, or wilh the dark
glitter of coal — are home along to the town of St
0^'s, which shews its aged, fluted red roofs, and the
hroad gabl-rs of its wharves, between the low, wooded
hiU and the river brink, tinging the water wilh a soft
purple line under the transient glance of this February
sun. Far away on each hand stretch the rich pastures
■ltd the patches of dark earth, made ready.for the seed
of brOBd-leaved green crops, or touched already with
Ihe tint of the tender-bladed autumn-sown com.
There is a remnant still of the last year's golden clus-
lers of bee-hivB ricks, rising at intervals beyond Ihe
liedge-rowi, and everywhere the hedge-rows are
itndded with trees, the distant ships lo be seen lifting
Iheir masts, and stretching iheir red-brown sails close
unong the branches of the spreading ash ."

IsBOt this a nice descHptioD of the country? I w4sh
tkit the lain Ihii year had not spoiled the autuma
WWB cmi. I have said before that I un • gatnilons
-TOL. X,

old man. I note down matters just as they piesent

themselves to me at the time, and I note Ibis on the
present occasion, that it would be better for agricnlltlTe
if ihere were fewer hedges and fewer timber trees
interspersed among them than there are- Hedges
have been uprooted to a considerable extent in my
time, and trees have been removed from the fields.
But there are Slill too many of them, as Mr Mechi has
told you, and as I tell you now. The steam-ploogh
cannot do ils work so well as it would do if there were
not so many interrupting hedges.

In connexion wilh machinery I will just give a note
of a tilUe oilcake mill (or hand power, manufactured
by Southwell & Co., of the Albion Iron Works,
Rugeley. It took my fancy when I saw it at the
Oxford meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England in 1S70. I think the inventors justly claim
for it several important improvements over other ma-
chines of a similar kind. Amongst these may be
specially mentioned, the new registered fluted roller
or breaker of which 1 here give an illustraljoa. It

Southwell & Co.'s Fjlent Oilcake Mill, C.A.
will be noticed from the cut that the teeth instead of
being V shaped wilh flat sides, are perpendicular on
the front edge and rounded at the back to impart
greater strength, the sides being (luted. This ar-
rangement causes the teeth to make a less indenta-
tion in Ihe cake, and, from the almost hookcdformof
the teeth, to pull the cake in pieces without compress-
ing it into hard lumps, and ihus making it
more easy of consumption, especially by lambs and
calves. This, in my opinion, b a very important
matter. The breakers are so well finished that
scarcely any dust is made in breakmg the cake. In
its working this machine is very true, and the hoppers
are capacious and readily adjustable to various sties
of cake. ' I am glad to hear that Ihis liiile handy
machine has given much satisfaction lo farmers bolh
in this country and abroad.

I have seen in my travels a very good way of
ringing a pig. ^though not exactly novel, it may
interest some of my younger readers, and afford infor<

The Country Gentleman's Magazitu

uation to tkose who may, perhaps, be uoacquainted nail The rope is loosened, and slips oH the pig's

with the plan. I have oHen found out that much )aw in an instant, (iood-sized hi^s may be thus

infoimation is held back, because those in possession linged by one man vrilbout the need of any help

of it simply think, "Oh, everybody knows it ; " and

so many good things sre allowed to slip. The best

ring for a hog that I know of is a horse nail beaten

out at the thin end until it is as fine as a wire, which

may be passed through a hole in the snout made with

a common awl, and twisted two or three times around

the head of the nail. This will eifeclually prevent

"gmmpy" from rooting, and at the same time does

not hurt the pig with sliarp points.

The main difficulty in ringing a hc^ is lo hold him
doring the operation. This is done very easily by
coaxing him up to a trough, and taking him by one
ear ; he immediately squeals, and when the mouth is
open a noose is slipped over the upper jaw back of
the tusks and drawn tight. The end of the rope is
passed round a fence-posi or anything which may be
handy, and the pig will hold back, steadily banging
on the rope, without making any other movement.

It is then the work of an instant, having everything besides the tools. The annexed illustration il
all ready, to pierce the snout and insert and fasten the how the nnging is easily and expeditiously done.

Ihe Country Gentleman's Magazine ^47

%\it %\\x^txi.

NEW AND RARE PLANTS.

D^fiMONOROPS PALEMBANicus. the problem admits of a solution. As om*

PALMS are about the most useful tribe of excellent correspondent, who speaks par-
plants ever introduced into Great ticularly on this subject, remarks, there are
Britain. In times past they were confined to Palms and Palms — one fit for parlour growth,
the lofty houses set apart for the tribe in and another not ; one set fit for parlour deco-
Botanic Gardens ; scarcely ever did one meet ration grown under glass; another that will
with them in noblemen's or gentlemen's private look well that has nothing but the peep of
establishments. No one seemingly could get day through a glass window to keep it in
ridoftheideathattheywerelofty-growingplants a state of health. Mostly every Palm in a
—trees, in fact, or something like them — and young state is fit for being taken from its
consequently requiring a vast space to raise home, and made to do the decoration work
their heads and extend their fronds ; and of gala days and festive board, &c ; therefore
little wonder, after all, when we read Lindley, we hail every novelty in that way as a great
quoting from the most accomplished traveller gain to the horticulturist. It may be, or it
of our own or any age, thus speaking of them may not be, in its native home valuable for
in " The Vegetable Kingdom," p. 135 : its farinaceous secretions, such as the Sago
" While some (Kunthia montana, Aiphanes for instance, or it may be useful for its oils,
Praga, Oreodoxa frigida) have trunks as slen- as the Coco-nut ; or, as Von Martins says,
der as the graceful Reed, or longer than the one or other of them may be valuable
longest cable (Calamus Rudentum, 500 feet), for producing " thread, utensils, weapons,
others (Jubsea spectabilis and Cocos buty- food, and habitations." We don't want
racea) are 3 and even 5 feet thick; while them in this country for such purposes;
some grow collected in groups (Mauritia we wish rather to take our money value
flexuosa, Charaserops humilis), others (Oreo- out of them from a decorative point of
doxa regia, Martinezia caryotaefolia) singly view. They are much too cosily to grow
dart their slender trunks into the air ; while and keep with the ultimate idea of mak-
some have a low caudex (Attalea amygdalina), ing weapons of them, or string, or food,
others exhibit a towering stem 160 to 180 and so we are quite contented with their em-
feet high (Ceroxylon andicola) ; and while ployment as objects of interest, or elegance,
one part flourishes in the low valleys of the or beauty. Nothing excels the race for
tropics, or on the declivities of the lower the decoration of apartments, and it has ever
mountains, to the elevation of 900 feet, been the object of this magazine to find out
another part consists of mountaineers border- everything suitable in that way, from the
ing upon the limits of perpetual snow." garden Ivy to the stately Palm tree.

Imagine the idea of any one attempting to The subject of our present illustration, fig.

grow a Calamus in a window that reaches in i, is a great gem in the ornamental character

its native country to tlie height of 500 feet ! of its alternate leaves on a Noli-me-tangere

Once get over the idea, however, that these rachis. The fronds are elegant from the time

giants are beautiful in a young state, and they begin to unfold their leaflets until they

won't grow very fast in a parlour climate, and are fully developed. We are less under the

148 Tlie Country Gmtletnatis Magazine

necessity of describing the species at length appropriate for table decoration anJ other
from the excellent portrait of it annexed, and ornamental purposes. The leaves are broadly
also from the particulars subjoined, given by ovate, pinnate, consisting of numerous narrow

Da:monarop5 patemkinicus.

Mr Buil, from whom we have received tlie elongated segments, and they are supporte

woodcut : by leaf-stalks which bear numerous deflexe

" One of the most elegant of Palms, and spines, which are thickened at the base. Th

■■•i^ether with D, periacanthus exceedingly young leaves are of a bright dnnamon biowi

New and Rare Plants

149

and the contrast between this wann colour
and the deep green of the matured leaves
renders the plant exceedingly beautiful at the
time they are in course of development. It
is a native of Java."

KENTIA CAKTERBURYANA,

If the Diemonorops palembanicns be one

greenhouse, conservatory, enlrance-hall, or
boudoir. What more elegant object could
the caterer of dinner-table decoration want
than some such thing as ' this Kentia from
Lord Howe's Island? It is truly a Palm
giving one an idea of protection or shade, and is
well named the Umbrella Palm by the settlers.
As seen here it has not attained the stately

of the most el^ant of stove Palms, so is dimensions enabling it to protect mankind

Kentia Canterburyana, fig, a, one of the from sun and shower ; but its outline seen in

most el^ant-growing, wide-spreading, green- Mr Bull's plant-house is exceedingly pleasing.

bouse Palms. In truth all pinnate Palms It is quite lilcely to be one that will be

are beaotiiul to look upon either in the stove, selected for boudoir cultivation, and not one

150

Tkt Country Gtntlematis Magazine

indeed that will disappoint the grower. For of Palnn, obtained from Lord Howe's Island,

decoration of all kinds, both under glass and where it is called the Umbrella Palm by the

within the walls of mansions, vdlas and tene settlers It has large pinnate leaves, which

ments, it will pro\e a most valuable mdividual m the young plants consist of about seven

Fig 3.-Cynthei Smi.hii. l-'ig, 4.^^yathKi dealbata.

Fig. 5.— Dicksonia antarctica.

We append Mr Bull's description of the pairs ol linear acute leaflets, 7 to 8 inches

plant, and present the illustration from his long and an inch broad, supported by

stores: stoutish smooth terete petioles, the lamina

" A. very beautiful, rare, and novel species spreading horizontally, and the leaflets droop-

Nnv ami Rare Plants 1 5 1

ing. This Faim produces a branched spadix, them to present before the notice of our
bfiiring lai^ Flum-Iike fruits, which are of a readers. They are well-known plants to the

reddish colour when ripe,"

OICKSONU CANTERBURYANA.
CYATHEA SMITHII.
CYATHEA DKALBATA.

Although neither of these subjects c

gardening fraternity, but our constituents are
not so favoured as to see all that is portrayed
even in nurserymen's catalogues, and so we
only do them a service in presenting illus-
trations of this kind from time to time before
them. These Ferns, we may state, are found

distinctly under the category of new and rare in quantities in Australia and New Zealand,

plants, they are so pre-eminently beautiful and are brought home by enterprising nurser>--
faf conservatory decoration, that we gladly men to replenish their plant stores. Grandly
*™i onrsclres of Mr Bull's illustration of effective, too, are these Ferns towering high

152

Tlu Country GentUmatis Magazine

above their fellows in the conservatories of the
country. They are not only grand of themselves,
but they impart a grandeur to the lesser fry
with which they are surrounded. They give a
dignity, indeed, to vegetation — especially
that squat vegetation which is selected for
greenhouse adornment. Nothing, indeed, in
the whole Fern world is so majestic and
grand as the samples of plant life now por-
trayed before our reader's eye. They look
well by way of contrast to other plants in a
mixed miscellaneous assortment, and they
look equally well associated with their own
kindred in a Fernery. We prefer, however,
to see them grouped in pairs, in the centre of
a large conservatory — there they look the
pictures of symmetry, and compel, not only
the admiration of mankind, but a tacit ac-
knowledgment that we ought to feel proud
and happy that we are permitted to live and
enjoy life among such truly beautiful com-
panions. The Cyatheas never reach to the
stature nor girth of the Dicksonias, but they
are superb in their long arching fronds.
There is possibly no better picture of beauty
in a house than a well-grown Cyathea deal-
bata. It is the silver Fern of New Zealand,
and densely clothed with the silver coating
on the under part of the fronds it is imparting
a loveliness to the tints of sombre green of
many of its fellows. The Cyathea Smithii is
more rare, more difficult to be had in tree
specimens, but it is being imported in quan-
tities, and will soon find its way to the plant
houses of the affluent over the country. The
Dicksonia antarctica is in hundreds, and in-
cludes many very stately plants, quite equal
in beauty to the very beautiful illustration
annexed. It grows without much trouble or
attention, only requiring moisture at the root,

and moisture in the fronds by way of ridding
them of the deposits of filth that do accumu"
late where stated washings and cleanings are
not attended to.

CURCULIGO RECURVATA VARIEGATA.

In Mr Bull's New and Rare Plant-house
are many gems in the novelty way, and the
chief among them, to our thinking, is this
variegated recurved - leaved Curculigo, i\g,
6. There is a distinctness about its charac-
ter that is quite relieving after one sees
multitudes of beautiful Crotons and beautiful
Dracaenas. It is quite Palm -like in its
character, being shrubby-like and hard in the
petioles. Moreover the green is relieved by
alternate bands of white, not formal, but
sportive-like in character. The surface of
the leaves is not plain, but wrinkled or
corrugated, and it altogether presents features
of distinctness that entitle it to be ranked as
one of the first novelties of its year. It re-
quires the same temperature as the Crotons
and Dracaenas, and growing in solitude among
these plants it oflfers features which the
decorator of the in-door apartment will not
be slow to avail himself of when he can
command it of the proper size and in suf-
ficient numbers.

The introducer thus speaks of it : ** A
plant of noble aspect, producing from a tu-
berous rhizome an arching head of recurved,
plaited, oblong, lanceolate leaves, upwards of
2 feet long and 6 inches broad, on stalks a
foot and half in length ; the leaves are green,
banded in a varying manner with clear white
stripes. The rich Palm-like foliage of this
plant renders it of the highest ornamental
character. The flowers are yellow and grow
in short racemes at the base of the leaves."

The Cmnirj! Gmfletmin's Magazine

DENNIS AND CO.'S VILLA GREENHOUSE.

THE engraving we give of Messrs T. H. struction is a combination of wrought J and
P, Dennis & Co.'s Portable Villa Green- U ir^n an<l best red deal, carefully arranged

ticuse represents a very excellent arrange- and finished. It is well made and fitted and
ment for tiie conservation of plants. Its con- thoroughly ventilated. A lattice stage and

154

The Country Genilemafis Magazine

perforated wood floor are provided to the brick-work, as represented, render it in every
interior, and galvanized moulded water gutter way complete. Its elegant appearance recom-
and down pipes, mortice locks, hinges, two mends it for suburban gardens, and its ex-
coats of paint, 1 6 oz. horticultural sheet cut tremely low price (from ;£6o to £fio) to all
to size, and improved wood sides in lieu of purchasers.

MESSRS DICK RADCLYFFE & CO:S WEED EXTIRPATOR,

AN implement, very light, and yet strong
enough for all the work it is intended
to perform — the pulling up of weeds — has
lately been introduced by Messrs Dick Rad-
clyflfe & Co., of Holborn. The implement
which this enterprising firm has sent to us is
represented in the accompanying engraving.
It may be described as a blunt pair of

Weed Extirpator.

shears with long handles. Instead of cut-
ting edges, the blades are formed of well
tempered iron rounded at the edges; the
points of the blades touch, and then curve

outwards, and again are brought together
about two inches from the points, when they
again separate. Below the joint is fixed a
projecting wooden knob or button, the use
of which will be presently described.

In using the implement, the points are
slightly opened and inserted into the ground
on either side and under the plants to be
operated upon. The handles are then closed,
pressed downwards, and the weed is gently
lifted from the ground, the knob acting as a
fulcrum for the operation. Thie tool is then
removed from the ground, and the weeS is
taken hold of by the points, when it will be
found to come away with the roots unbroken
and little or no soil adhering to them.

This tool is adapted for use on lawns,
croquet grounds, &:c., at all seasons of the
year, except during frost. It affords a light
and pleasant occupation for ladies and gentle-
men, and thoroughly extracts the roots of the
weeds, whether of a fibrous or tap-root cha-
racter, without materially disturbing the sur-
face.

The Country GentlematCs Magazine

:>5

^he IB^terinarian.

THE DISEASES OF SHEEP*

INFLAMMATION OF UTERUS AND INFLAMMA-
TION AFTER LAMBING.

THE disease may arise from an unhealthy
condition of the ewe, or from bad
lambing, and it generally comes on from the
first to the fourth day. The ewe gets restless,
getting up and lying down ; there is an arch-
ing of the back, a dejected countenance, a
scraping of the feet, with other symptoms
which, as practical men, you know. As soon
as the symptoms appear, give as a dose

Castor oil 4 ounces

Laudanum %, ounce

And also half-pint doses of good gruel. If
these remedies do not appear to check the
symptoms, I would strongly advise you to
add to each dose of gruel a quarter of an
ounce of laudanum, and give every three
hours. Also an injection as recommended
under head No. 2, made warm. When once
the straining sets in you may doctor all you
like, but there is very little chance for the
ewe's life. Still it is worth trying. In this
case feeding often does much as a preventive.
After lambing give cooling food and endea-
vour to keep the ewe's strength up. For this
purpose you may give them cabbage, bran,
and cut hay.

WATER GARGET.

This is seen by a swelling of the udder,
which becomes large and flesh-like, the swel-
ling extends up the body, and although not
a dangerous complaint, still, if the ewe be not
relieved, it will die. It is therefore advisable
to lance the udder, and also the belly, to let
out the water. All the parts affected should

Extract from Mr Wood's lecture at Watton.

then be rubbed with salt, while the ewe
should be given

Epsom salts 3 ounces

Sulphur I ounce

In nine cases out of ten this will effect a
cure.

BLACK GARGET, OR INFLAMMATION OF THE

UDDER.

This much more formidable and extremely
dangerous disease is caused by chills and
severe colds. The first symptom is that the
ewe refuses to let the lamb suck. It also
holds up the hind leg, walks stiff and lame.
The ewe should be at once removed to a
sheltered place, and given

Epsom salts 4 ounces

Ground ginger i ounce

Spirits of turpentine i tablespoon

Then bleed freely from the large vein run-
ning up the belly— taking at least half a pint
— pin up the vein with tow, bathe the udder
for one hour with hot salt and water, and if
no improvement take place, and udder turn
black, then it is a good thing to lance it in
four or five other places, something in the
shape of a star ; and when doing so, work
the lancet between the outer skin and the
fleshy part of the udder. When this is done,
fill the whole of the places with salt ; and as
the discharge works out from the wound, add
more salt. This is generally a very effectual,
although a very severe remedy. By bathing
with salt and water, and by bleeding, we
have generally been successful in saving the
udder ; but when the lancing and the using
of the salt are resorted to, of course it is
known that, as a general rule, the udder will
be lost. If there should be much fever, I

156 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

advise the giving of from a quarter to half and will not feed. It may appear strange to

ounce doses of sweet spirits of nitre in gruel many of my medical friends that I should

every two or three hours. Necessarily the advise bleeding when the ewe is so weak,

lamb should be removed from the ewe. But practice tells me that the first thing to do

^ ^^^^_ in this case is to take away a small quantity

MILK GARGET. - , , <, ^/. « * 1 • • *

^ , ,. . . , of blood. If that is done, m mne cases out

This, though not a fatal disease, IS a trouble. ^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^.^ ^.^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^

some one. It generally comes out after ^^^^^ ^^^^.^g. ^^^ ^^^^ j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^

weaning. The milk curdles, and the udders ^^^^^^3^ ^i^j, ^ran and other good food,

get hard. The first thmg is to get all the ^^^ ^.^^ generally go on perfectly weU and

milk possible from the udder, and use this ^^.^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ .^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

lotion : ^jj^ ^txQ appears to be no chance of it,

Sugar of lead >i ounce. then the following drink will keep her alive

Sf f/ ""^ "''' Ij^nT' ^^^^ s^® ^^s lambed, after which she will

y^^!^^ !.............. >^ pint! sometimes rise perfectly well : — half-a-pint of

_,. '" '" ' ,^ ccr.r^ fK,.o-a new milk, in which a quarter of a pint of

Give a dose of Epsom salts, of from three i-ij o-u--

~: ^ ' carraway seed should be boiled. This is very

to four ounces. stimulating, and firequently proves roost

SORE TEATS. ^ effectual.

It may be said that these are not serious pqq^ ^^^^

evils ; but sore teats frequently lead to black ^^j^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^ ^

garget, owing to an accumulation of milk, t^ouyesome disease. Sheep naturally belong

and therefore they require some attention. ^^ ^j , ^^^^ ^j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^

Of course they arise from the lambs b.tmg ^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^p ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ i^ ^

the teat and causing soreness. The ewe will ^j^^^^ ^j^^^ j^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ prevalent in wet

not let the lamb suck, mflammation is pro- ^^^ j^ ^ ^^^^^ r^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^

duced, and this leads to black garget It is ^^^ ^ ^^^^ q^j^y ^^^ ^^^ ^

advisable when the teats are sore to take the ^^ .^^^^ ^j^^ ^j^^^ ^^ ^^ j^ j^^,

lamb away at night and suckle it with cow s ^^^^^j^ ^^^^j^p^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^

milk, and then rub the teats of the ewe with ^^j.^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^j^^j^ ^^^^^

the following omtment :— ^^^^^3 g^^ collects, producing great irritation

Goose grease 8 ounces and forming ulcers. Then these work on and

Camphorated spirits of wine 2 ounces ^^^^ ^^^ between the claws. Foot rot is

Common salt 2 ounces „ , , ll ^\ ^ i i n

called by some ** the lazy shepherd s com-

During the night the milk is drawn by hand ^^^^^^ ._^^^ ig ^^ 5^^^ ^l^^t if ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^

from the ewe's udder, the lamb bemg brought properly pared there would be no foot rot-
back in the mommg. If the omtment does ^^^ shepherds can say better than myself
not act sufficiently upon the teats, then the ^j^^^j^^^ j^e application is a proper one. As
following will generally effect a cure :- ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ becomes much swollen, it begins

Powdered blue vitriol i ounce to form a kind of soft wart or crust, which

Warm water K pint ^j^en nibbed oflf bleeds very freely, and has

usmg. ^^ offensive smelL There can be no doubt

MEGRIMS OR STAGGERS. as to this disease being very contagious, and

This is a disease which many may have one that requires the exercise of a great deal

met with in ewes that have got somewhat low of care. My practice has always been this.

in condition, especially those which are in I have felt that it is not desirable to apply

lamb with two lambs. The ewe is taken anything locally while the disease exists in

vith the following symptoms : — She appears the system, because I believe that when you

<u)^'' unconscious, holds her head up, the apply these remedies in the first instance,

«*« ^re ^e^ the animal staggers as it walks, you, as it were, hermetically seal up the

The Diseases of Sheep 157

disease, and so drive the pus which would carry out in practice. In order to remove

otherwise work itself out by its natural outlet the proud flesh and get the foot into a healthy

into the foot, and the remedy becomes very condition, I have found the following applica-

much worse than the original disease. It is tion effectual : —

better to prepare the system for the remedies c 1 v * r •

^ , '^ , r J -o. 1 Sulphate of copper 4 ounces

you are going to apply afterwards. Our rule gugar of lead 2 ounces

is at once to give a dose of — Verdigris 3 ounces

Epsom salts 3 ounces Saltpetre 2 ounces

Sulphur I ounce Turpentine % pint

Then clean the feet well and pare them down ^^} ^^^^^"^^ ^^^ ^"*^'Sln) lo ounces

, , , J ' • 1 /. Water i pint

thoroughly, and remove every particle of

rotten hoof. Too many persons in treating It is necessary, of course, to keep the sheep

foot rot and other diseases of sheep appear dry, because the drieit you keep the foot the

to be afraid of cutting. I would say you quicker the cure will be ; and to give at the

need not be at all afraid of cutting because if same time cooling food.

you do not cut off all the diseased hoof, the There is another disease which I call the

disease itself will take it off. Therefore by "drover's disease." It is very similar in

taking it off you will save time. Don't be appearance to the foot rot, but it is not the

afraid to cut — and cut deep — the cure will be foot rot, nor is it the foot-and-mouth disease ;

all the quicker. My plan has always been and I very much fear that some of our

— and I rather like it — to put the foot into a great authorities in their wisdom have been,

poultice of turnips, tar, and salt, or linseed, perhaps a little too sharp on some of our

for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, so as to dealers, and mistaken one disease for the

get it into what I consider the proper state other. The drover's disease is very similar

to receive the other remedies. I am quite to the foot rot ; but it is entirely produced

aware that the difficulty of poulticing a large by hard driving on the roads. Inflammation

number of sheep is considerable, but I merely of the pasterns sets in, extends over the foot,

name this to shew that if only a few are and ulcers form ; and I have found that if

affected, and you can separate them, the this disease be treated similar to the common

plan is a good one, although very difficult to foot rot, a cure will very soon be effected.

158

The Cotmtry GentlematCs Magazine

%\it Cotintrp dcntUtooiiwn.

FASHIONABLE BOUQUETS.

FORMAL bouquets, notwithstanding all
that has been said to the contrary,
will prevail. The caterer for the public taste
may vary them in outline, make them now
more pyramidal, again more lumpy, but the
majority express a strong liking for the flat
form, where the eye can catch the individuals
that make it up from one focus. The nearer
the bouquets come up to this standard, all
Other things being equal, the more prized
are they by people who are reckoned among
the most &stidious in the matter of taste.

be that the style is attended with more ex-
pense, but the fact of a formal flat-faced
bouquet winning the suffrages of the majority
that either buy them or build them for them-
selves, remains the same. And so presuming
that there are students anxious to try their
hands at fashionable bouquet -making, we
present, by the unvarying and uniform
courtesy of Messrs Diclt Radclyffe & Co.,
of High Holbom, a set of such as. gain most
favour at the present day.
A full-sized Hand Bouquet, made upof dried

Fig. I.— Groupof Cliimney-picce Boucjucts.

We hold s omewhat independent views upon
the point, but we don't wish to express our
opinion too severely, well knowing the ver-
dict that might be declared tacitly against us
by the fait portion of our readers. With the
precedent of one of the princesses of our
royal house to fall back upon, we might even
be permitted to hold forth strong views on
bouquets en deshabille ; but not even that
precedent will be accepted by the present
roioneers of the fashion in those things. It
■■ay be because bouquet- makers cannot put
nffet)"T the flowers elegantly enough; it may

flowersor Immortelles should always bear upon
its face the form and style of a stylish bouquet.
Any tyro in the art of bouquet-making will
be much at a loss to know how all the
heautiful-looking flowers have been bo easily
arranged, each having plenty of space to
shew off its form and beauty without inter-
fering with the place of its neighbour. The
doing this, neatly and effectively, shews
accomplished bouquet-making. To do this,
however, requires more than the placing of
flower stem to stem. Were this done, the
one would crush upon the other and distort

Faskionabk Bouquets

ttures of the individual that makes up
ml ettsembh. By the real process of
;, all this overcrowding can be avoided,
jver, each flower can be wired and set
od position ; whereas, if it chanced to
ipike, or even an umbel, more or less of
would be concealed, if not destroyed,
le modem bouquet-maker simplifies his

of putting the materials together by
g a bouquet-frame. This frame is so

that it can have the decorative edging
led to it, and when finished with the
r arxangemenis, looks indeed a thing of
:ial beauty. These frames can be had
ariety of forms to suit the various tastes.
It the matter of building a bouquet is
1 simple affair. The only taste to be
lyed is in the arrangement of colours,
n the grace and airiness of the greenery
s employed to modify the hard geome-
lines. No one should attempt to build
liquet without procuring the frames in
y, and for sale at, the bouqueristes. By
iring these by the dozen, they are at

; and an expert will make a far better-
ng, a far more artistic bouquet from the
alngs of a clumsy artificer in the old-
ened way of building. One quarter of
lowers suffices, and they appear to so
1 better advantage. Flowers that are
on wire stalks, as a rule, will last as long
ose in their owti pedicels, and some of
I, such as Camellias, very much longer.
L these details placed before the eye of
eaders, none need be at a loss in mak-
a fashionable bouquet. We have seen
od-siied snufi'-box hold as many choice
:rs as sufficed to make up a bouquet of
ize of fig. 2. There is nothing we know
ore appropriate for relieving even natural
;rs than an occasional spray of the dried
ies, which are dyed several colours to
the fancy of all. With these and with
iS of the commonest kinds, the Malden-
i of course in the dominant position, a
jn can be filled up to please the most
Jious taste,
he Medium-sized Flat Bouquet, fig. a,

suitable size for a lady to hold in her
I for a marriage or evening party, and

'59

the more telling flowers nestling in good
greenery, the more generally appreciated is
the arrangement and style considered to be.
At this season, White Camellias, Chinese
Primrose, Pelargoniums of the zonal and
nosegay types, Stephanotis, Orange Blossom,
Orchids of sorts and early-flowering Azaleas,

Fig. 3. — Mediuni.a:ieil Flat Bouquet.

with Daphnes and a host of other thii^is.
When these cannot be had, the Tmmortelles
come in well and make up a beautiful outline
quite as pleasing to many as some of the
choice greenhouse flowers.

The Pyramidal Bouquet, fig. 3, is too

Fig. 3. - Pyramida] Bouquel.
formal— indeed it can only be tolerated where
a circular or flat one is not present If they

i6o

The Countfy Gentlewoman

be both present in a room for purposes of
contrast, they look much worse than modern
and antique pieces of ceramic work ranged
alternately. We only presient it here in case
that it may please some of our readers, not
because we commend it as a pattern to follow.
Outside altogether of the question of form, it
is open to the serious objection of being seen
only partially from one stand point, and
therefore can only be tolerated where the
flowers are set to a particular face, such as
the occupants of the chimney-piece.

The Chimney-piece Bouquets, fig. i,
are quite the sort of thing for that kind of
adornment. Generally speaking, they are
purely made up of Immortelles, although in

partially heated rooms, other flowers are quite
permissible. The set of three represented on
the engraving, become a dress mantel-piece
exceedingly well, although some may object
to the shade they cast upon the mirror. To
be seen is sometimes as important as to see,
and consequently lesser ornaments may be
considered by many much the better thing.
Where there are vases, and casts, and giran-
doles, the shade is nearly as great as with
this style of furnishing ; and then flowers
are cheap, and these dried flowers remain
for a long time in ornamental condition.
Nothing is more appropriate, and we com-
mend the bouquets themselves and the art
of making them to our readers.

THE

COUNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

RCH 1873

TENANT-RIGHT REFORM.

AT the last meeting of the Essex Cham- to one or other of which probably every one

ber of Agriculture, three resolutions who has considered the question at all may

recognizing the right of tenant-farmers to be said to belong.

improvement, and recommending the inter- i. Those who deny altogether the right of

position of valuers, were proposed by Mr W. an out-going tenant to compensation for the

E. Bear, who made the following remarks unexhausted value of his improvements,
upon the question of Tenant-Right : — 2. Those who admit that right, but depre-

I feel it to be somewhat to the discredit of cate legislation,
our Chamber that it is one of the last, if not 3. Those who think legislatit)n necessary,

the very last, to discuss the important ques- but advocate only a partial reform,
tion of Compensation for Unexhausted Im- 4. The advocates of complete reform,

provements. We are now too late to con- The . first class is, happily, a small and a

tribute our share of advice upon the subject rapidly decreasing one, and it is not worth

to the Central Chamber, which, by the reso- while to spend much time in considering

lutions passed on November 5, has already what its members have to say. Their views

definitely declared itself. Perhaps we, as a are chiefly traceable either to ignorance, pre-

Chamber, cannot do any more useful work judice against change, or selfishness. Their

than that of sifting some of the evidence be- stock argument, if such it can be termed, is

fore us in the published reports of the discus- in effect as follows : — " A man can do as he

sions and resolutions of other Chambers, and likes about taking a farm, and if he takes it,

endeavouring to give a sound and thought- he is not obliged to sink a lot of money in it.

fid verdict thereupon. I think I have pre- If he does make permanent improvements

served an account of every paper read, every without a lease, he has only himself to blame

speech made, and every resolution passed, in if he is turned out at six months' notice, and

relation to my subject, in the several Cham- leaves a large sum behind him." There are

bers during the past year ; but it would oc- few who, in the present day, would not be

cupy too much of your time to refer to even ashamed to give utterance to such a speech

the most important of them separately. Be- as this, and these few may fairly be left un-

sides these, there are the remarks upon the answered. It is not worth while to occupy

subject by many of our leading members of time in the endeavour to convince them. The

Parliament To save time, I must gene- car of progress will simply run over them —

ralize as well as I can. Those who have nay, has run over them, and left them to be

publicly declared their views upon our sub- converted by the irresistible logic of facts, if

ject may be divided into four separate parties, converted they are to be at all The prin-
vou X. M

THE OBJECnON TO LEGISLATION.

162 The Countfy Gmtlemafi $ Magazine

ciple of compensation has long been partially small capital that. they will do better on small
carried out in all parts of the country by pay- farms than on large ones. I know that the
ment to the out-going tenant for his fallows, ostentatious fashion of the day glories in large
clovers, and other items, some of which are farms, large establishments, large armies, large
to be found in all valuations. The advo- debts, and even large bankruptcies; but I
cates of the most complete compensation think there are signs of a coming economic
only ask for an extension of an existing reform,
custom, and the enforcement of that custom
by law. They only ask that the out-going
tenant shall be paid for all the property he We now come to Class No. 2, and although
leaves behind him on the farm of his land- this is a very numerous class, the advocates
lord, instead of for only a part. I do not of reform have not much to fear from its
think that the advocates of leases without influence. The members of it are decidedly
compensation should be classed amongst left behind by the great advance in the
those who altogether deny the tenant's right general opinion upon the compensation ques-
to compensation, because they in effect admit tion. They were powerful enough to hinder
that right when they propose a long lease as a legislative action in 1848, when Mr Puseys
substitute; and I will, therefore, consider committee on Tenant-Right sat, and, un-
them as members of Class No. 2. But the fortunately, the majority of that committee
most specious argument brought forward by favoured their views. The evidence given
the men of Class No. i is one that appeals to before Mr Pusey's committee was overwhelm-
the selfish fears of a few favoured tenants ingly in favour of legislative interference,, and
who are conscious of holding their farms the report of the committee was, therefore,
under exceptionably favourable conditions, in direct opposition to the forcible recom-
These fortunate ones are warned that if the mendations of the majority of the witnesses
principle of compensation for unexhausted examined. But now a considerable number
mprovemeiits is established, rents will be of our public men, and I believe the majority
sure to rise, and they will not, as heretofore, of our Chambers of Agriculture, have de-
be able to get a good living by poor farming clared themselves in favour of what is called
under a low rent. This appeal especially re- legislative interference. As far as I remem-
commends itself to needy tenants who have ber, only two or three readers of papers upon
not capital enough to improve their farms, the compensation question have declared
and who fear any change that will do away against legislation, though some of the Cham-
with the old hand-to-mouth system of farming, bers have passed resolutions deprecating
But in so far as this argument acts as a seda- what they term legislative interference be-
tive in the case of the tenants referred to, to tween landlord and tenant. Where this has
a corresponding extent should it work as a been the case, we may presume that the
stimulant to the general public, whose in majority of those present belong to our
terest it is that the resources of the land second class, unless through fear, or some
should be developed to the utmost. But I other motive, they voted against their prin-
venture to affirm that this appeal to the fears ciples. However this may be, there is no
of tenants with low rents, and tenants with doubt that many landowners, land agents, and
insufficient capital, is one that they would be farmers too, strongly object to legislative ac-
wise to disregard. To no branch of human tion, or, as they prefer to term it, interfcrena,
effort does the aphorism that " what is worth Their great cry is for " freedom of contract,"
doing at all is worth doing well " apply more as if anything of the kind really existed. Prac-
forcibly than to agriculture. Mr Mechi is tically there is about as much real freedom
not always wrong, as some prejudiced people of contract between the landlord and the
seem to think. I believe he is entirely right tenant as there is between a millionaire and
.^ ^i«! persistent effort to convince farmers of a beggar — that is, with regard to any dear-

TenanURight Reform 163

able occupation. Whenever such a farm is pensation for unexhausted improvements will
likely to become vacant, there are scores of be unnecessary. I am as much in favour of
men ready to apply for it if they think they leases as anyone, only I think compensation for
have any chance of getting it. The landlord unexhausted improvements should be given
can make pretty well his own terms, and if with them. Now, the evils of leases without
one would-be tenant refuses to accept them, compensation have been shewn up time after
another is sure to agree. Rather than lose a time. They were exposed at the last meeting of
desirable farm, a man will accept what he this Chamber, and as I am anxious, as fkr as
knows to be imfair conditions ; if he can- possible, to avoid repetition, I will be very
not secure all his rights, he will with his eyes brief on this portion of my subject It was
open give up some of them beforehand, shewn, then, at our last meeting, as it has
Thus there is no equal contracting power been shewn often and often before, that in
between landlord and tenant. But suppose, an average case of a lease for fourteen years,
for the sake of argument, that there is this at least the first four years are occupied in
freedom of contract ; suppose that the tenant getting an exhausted farm into fair condition;
can manage to indemnify himself for the con- during the next six years the land is yielding
fiscation of his property that he has agreed good crops, according to the seasons, and in
to allow on quittance ; I do not believe that the last four years the process of exhaustion
this can ever completely be managed with- again goes on, unless the tenant gets a re-
out compensation for unexhausted improve- newal of his lease before he begins the pro*
ments in the case of a yearly tenant, but to cess. Here we have what has been aptly de-
whatever extent it can be, the general public scribed as eight lean years to six fat ones,
have to suffer in a proportionate degree. If When the lease is for twenty-one years, the
it is by a low rent that a tenant considers evil is of course lessened, but it still exists,
himself compensated for the lack of security There would be at least eight years out of the
for his capital, he is probably mistaken \ for twenty-one during which the farm would be
a few shillings per acre saved in rent are producing less than it would produce if it
but a poor substitute for the increased returns were farmed fairly up to the end of each lease
to be obtained by a liberal expenditure of with the prospect of compensation to the out-
capitaL going tenant for what he leaves behind in the
Perhaps, if we were content to wait two or farm, beyond what was there when he took
three hundred years without legislation, the it The fact of a tenant being allowed a
comparatively excellent customs of Lincoln- lease of twenty-one years is no ground for
shire, with certain variations suitable to diflfe- placing him in this dilemma at the end of it
rent localities, might become general all over — that either he must play the interesting
the country. But we cannot afford to wait game of " Draw the Well Dry " — another
for the slow progress of voluntary reform, name for which is, as you know, " Beggar my
Legislation can do in a year what voluntary Neighbour " — or leave a certain sum of his
eflfort would probably take several genera- own money in the farm to be appropriated
tions in carrying out Why, twenty years by his landlord. The value of the agricul-
must elapse before a new custom can tural produce of the United Kingdom is esti-
obtain the force of law ; and we cannot afford mated to be not less than ;^20o,ooo,ooo. Is
to wait twenty, nor half twenty, years. It it, then, so very extravagant to suppose that
was legislation that placed the tenant-farmer this amount might be doubled under the most
in his shamefully unfair position in relation favourable circumstances ? Who is the-gainer
to his landlord \ then let legislation remove from this great loss to the general consumer?
the gross injustice. And now we come to Not the landlord, for his rents are thereby
those members of our second class, who kept down ; not the tenant, for he almost in-
object to legislation because they wish leases variably does best where he has the oppor-
to become general, and then they think com- tunity of farming best ; and not the labourer

1 64 The Country Genttefnafis Magazine

who is less in demand, in proportion to the agricultural land, as well on entailed and

poorness of fanning. In short, no one gains ecclesiastical as on other estates, shall be

by our iniquitous land-tenancy laws, which subject to at least twelve months' notice to

the gentlemen of our second class object to quit, cases of insolvency excepted. Now, in

have altered, and which are directly respon- the first place, I object to the proviso—

sible for the loss of millions of pounds an- " when such security is not given by a lease

nually through non-production. or agreement," because it opens the way to

all kinds of evasion. I have already shewn

THE MEN OF COMPROMISE. ^j^^^ ^ j^^^ ^^j^^^^ Compensation cannot

Next, we have to consider the views of give sufficient security to a tenant's capital ;
those who constitute Class No. 3 — the men but there is little doubt but that, it this
of compromise, the advocates of half measures proviso should be passed into law, long leases
and inefficient legislation. Within this class will in many cases be accepted by tenants as
I fear we must include nearly all the land- giving such seciu-ity. Similarly with an agree-
owners and land agents, a large number of ment privately entered into between landlord
the tenant-farmers, and a considerable pro- and tenant The tenant wiQ accept it as a
portion of the writers for the press. Nearly bar to compensation, and who is to interfere?
all the papers upon the compensation ques- Here we get to the old freedom of contract
tion that have been read in the Chambers, question again; The landlord has the advan-
most of the speeches that have been made, tage in making the contract, and the tenant
and the resolutions that have been passed, will be only a littie less likely than he always
have advocated partial reform. Compro- has been to accept a lease or contract osten-
mise is the political fashion of the day, and sibly giving security for his capital, but really
principle is constantly having to give way to not giving such security adequately. Rather
it, much to the increase of future work that than lose a good farm, he will profess to be
is always entailed to tinkering legislation. I satisfied, although he knows the security is
think, however, that many of those who have insufficient to warrant him in expending
given their support to schemes for the partial capital upon the farm as liberally as he would
reform of our Land-Tenancy Laws, have done do if he were not excepted from the operation
so in ignorance of the necessities of the case, of the law, which, in the absence of his lease
I propose to take the resolutions passed by or contract, would give him a claim to com-
the Central Chamber, as very favourably re- pensation for his unexhausted improvements,
presenting the views of our third class. They And even if the arrangement that is allowed
are as follows : — (i) That this Council con- to bar the claim to compensation should be
siders it necessary for the proper security of ever so satisfactory to the tenant, it may be
capital engaged in husbandry that, when very deleterious to the nation at large, just
such security is not given by a lease or agree- as I have before shewn that existing arrange-
ment, the out-going tenant should be entitled ments between landlord and tenant now are.
by law to compensation for the unexhausted There is one other proviso in this first resolu-
value of his improvements, while, at the same tion of the Central Chamber that I still more
time, the landlord should be paid for dilapi- strongly object to, viz., " provided that such
dations and deteriorations caused by default compensation is subject to previous con-
of the tenant, provided that such compensa- sent of the owner in the case of buildings,
tion is subject to previous consent of the drainage, reclamation, and other works of a
owner, in the case of buildings, drainage, re- permanent character." This actually gives
clamation, and other works of a permanent the landlord the power to hinder his tenant
character ; and (2) That this Council con- from carrying out any permanent improve-
siders absolutely necessary a change in ment by simply withholding his consent In
the law of tenancy, so that, in all fact, as far as permanent improvement is con
/early holdings, the letting and hiring of cemed, a law containing this stipulation woold

Tenant-Right Reform 1 6$

leave us in almost precisely the same position they appear to be, so many of them being
as we are in now. Practically the landlord silent members. North of the Tweed, I be-
will only be liable to pay for such perma- lieve I may claim an immense majority of the
nent improvements as he agrees beforehand farmers as members of our fourth class. The
to pay for. Is not that just how we are resolutions passed by the Scottish Chamber
situated at present ? I shall endeavour to of Agriculture in August last, are stronger
shew, when speaking more immediately in than any that have been passed in this country,
support of my own resolutions, that neither with the exception of the last, which asks
of these objectionable stipulations are in the Her Majesty to grant another Parliamentary
least necessary in order to give complete pro- Commission to inquire into the working of
tection to the interests of the landowner. I the Land-Tenancy I^ws. That seems to me
quite approve of the second resolution of the to be a great mistake. We are past the time
Central Chamber. With regard to the 4th for inquiring into the working of those laws.
Class, I do not intend to make many remarks. What is needed is to set about altering the
The advocates of a thorough and effectual laws at once instead of wasting time in super-
measure of reform are more numerous than fluous inquiries.

THE LAND QUESTION IN IRELAND.

THE Irish Land Act v/hich was the re- A very influential conference was held at

suit of so much discussion in the Cork last Thursday, consisting of delegates from

Legislature, of so much grave deliberation in the various farmers' clubs of Ireland, and was

Committee, is evidently not giving general also largely attended by M.P.S. Mr Butt, of

satisfaction in Ireland. It is not growing in Home Rule fame, could not be present, but

the good graces of the tenantry as its work- he sent a letter in which he remarked that —

ing proceeds. Many who looked upon it uTheBm had established principles of great im-
rather favourably at first, are beginning to portance, and had accomplished much good, but it con-
notice specks upon it which they are tained two elements of danger to the Irish tenants,
desirous of washing off. Some go farther. The first was its tendency to substitute for the obliga-
and boldly declare that they are worse off tions of the common law attached to a large tenancy
, . ' . . , , r .1 special and vicious agreements imposing severe condi-

under its provisions than before the measure ^.^^ ^p^^ ^^^ ^^^J^^ ^^^ ^^^ J- ^^ >^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^

was passed into law. We need not say that express purpose of evading the beneficial provisions of

we do not agree with the latter class. We the Act The second danger, which was still more

believe the Act has done good to Ireland, at formidable, was that the Bill made it the interest of

the same time that it may not be altogether ^^^ ^"^^^^'i ^l consolidate the farms on his esute. so

^ , , ^, , . ' , ^ as to get aU the holdmgs under a rating of L^o, and

faultless. The subject was such an exten- ^^^^.^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ protection against this in the

sive and complicated one that perfection compensation awarded to the tenant The inevitable
was impossible all at once. Acts referring result of these tendencies, if not checked, must be to
to much simpler questions than Land Tenure eject the people from the land, whUe those who re-
in Ireland, have been found, when they ni^ed would be bound by the strongest agreements

- - , . and be more than ever m the power of the landlord,

were put m operation, very far from being ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ suggestion for the amendment of

without blemish. There appears to be a the Bill, but with respect to the proposal to extend

desire to make the matter too much of a the Ulster tenant-right over the whole of Ireland, he

party political stalking horse. Of course it expressed a decided opinion that such an enactment

cannot be severed from politics ; but we think ^^"^^ ^ ^ ^^^ ^^"^'^•

in the interest of farmers it should have given There was considerable debate at the

to it as little of a party character as possible, meeting on the various clauses of the Bill

1 66 7 lie Country Gentleman's Magazim

several maintaining that the Act was a com- themselves. They are specially provided for by die

plete failure, and finally it was resolved that ^^^ ^"^ ^ "^^^ contracU independendy with the

u^^ T>n ii.i. u «.j4.u«.^^.««^4. landlords when they find it their interest to do SO. The

" no Bill ought to be accepted that does not t • * i u- j *i. i * • i •

° . ^ Leinster lease binds them only to give up any daim

secure to the tenant all improvements made for capricious disturbance-a contingency not likely to

on land inherited or purchased by them ; that arise. He argues that the necessity of obtaining the

does not secure them in the peaceful enjoy- landlord's consent for improvements establishes the

ment of their holdings and improvements as tenant's right to compensation without the danger of

i^«/v ««, «.!,«„ ^«„ ♦u^:^ *^««.« . 4.u«4. A^c^t. «^Ni. future litigation, and it would not be wise in the

long as they pay their rents: that does not . ^ ^ ■ i. -^ . , .i. -j • .«.

° ' ^J . . r 1. • tenants to wish it to be otherwise, considering the

secure them the right of dispersion of their friendly interest which the landlord takes in ihe tenant's

interests in their holdings and improvements proceedings. By the withdrawal of sdch provisions

by sale or otherwise as they may think proper, the tenant would be the chief sufferer — the execution of

reserving to the landlord the right to fair and *^^ improvements would be thrown entirely on himself,

rpi^nnahlp if1in«;tmpn1- of rent at ^stated ^he landlord would receive a mere head rent, and at the

reasonable adjustment ot rent at stated expiration of the lease the farm would be put up to

periods, subject in case of difference between auction, as is generally done in Scotland— a state of

landlord and tenant to the decision of a affaire which would not be for the interest of Irish

tribunal as to whether such re-^djustment is tenants. Mr. Hamilton asks the tenants to use their

fair and reasonable ^^'^ common sense and compare the Leinster lease

The Leinster Lease has also been the sub- ^''^ °"'*"' f^, ^e Sieves they will find that there

aie no grounds for the objections which have been

ject of a conference. Mr Charles W. Hamil- ^ade to it. He offers some advice to them as to the

ton, agent to the Duke of Leinster, had a making of their wills, reminding them that under the

private interview with four of the tenants Land Act they may leave the interest in their farms to

on the leinster Estates, and in accordance ^^ °^ ^^"^^ relatives, and suggesting that they should

with their wish has explained in a letter the ^' P-^icular in creating trusts, and, in the caseof the

, _ - , '^ mamages of their daughters, makmg the mterest the

clauses of die new lease :— subject of settlement.
In his narrative he states that he always advocated

written contiacte between Umdlprd and tenant, and To judge from the tone of the Ldnsitr Ex-

that when the Land Act was passed he saw the i. j* • r •

necessity for re-modelling the forms of leases and yearly P^^^^ ^^ dissatisfaction among the tenants

agreements which had previously been in use. He is very great at the result The conference

calls attention to the fact that one of the clauses is objected to on the ground of its being held

of the new lease gives the tenant what the Land in Mr Hamilton's private residence, and it

Act would not give him-namely compensation at -^ ^^^^^ contended that only four of the
the expiration of his tenancy for substantial im- i_ • u 1 • • r

provements made before the execution of the lease, tenants having been present, the opinion of

With respect to tenants holding under £^0 valu- the majority upon the lease COuld not pOS-

ation, there neither is nor could legally be any sibly be elicited. It is more than probable

provisions contracting out of the Land Act. As to ^hat the Irish Land Question wiU occupy a
the holders of larger farms over /so valuation, there -j t.i i. r ^i. ^' e ^y -r •

I g.^ • 11 T 1 J Tur f *i. considerable share of the time of the Legis-

are only 35,965 in all Ireland. Many of them are • u • • -^^8**^

landlords themselves, and most of them Well-to-do 'f ^ure m the commg session, not a small por-

farmers, who are quite capable of making contracts for tion of which will probably be wasted.

The Country Gentlemaris Magazine

167

THE EMPEROR NAPOLEON III. AND AGRICULTURE.

WE are indebted to a very eminent
agriculturist for the following facts
with regard to the interest which the late
Emperor Napoleon took in agricultural affairs
in France. They cannot fail to be read with
much interest by all our readers. Our cor-
respondent was intimate with M. Eugene Tis-
serand. M. Tisserand distinguished himself
highly as a student at the Agricultural College
of St Louis, Paris, being first-prize man there,
and also first for three years in different de-
partments of education taught at this College.
In no branch of tuition did M. Tisserand fall
below second class. The Emperor, recognizing
the merit of this young man, and being deeply
alive to the importance of improved modes
of husbandry in the various departments of
France sent him to this country (or at least
his Government did^ which amounts to about
the same thing), to get an insight into the
method of breeding and feeding cattle. M.
Tisserand afterwards studied agriculture in
Holland, and when he returned to France,
he was appointed by the Emperor manager
to all his agricultural establishments, which
numbered from 70 to 100. It was proposed
at one time to make M. Tisserand second
under the Minister of Agriculture, but the
Emperor was so highly pleased with him that
he would not let him take the post.

" M. Tisserand," our contributor goes on to
add, " has told me that the Emperor had
taken into his own hand thousands of acres
of wet land, overgrown ^with wood, trenched
it, drained it, and thoroughly improved it."
On some of the farms there were shorthorns,
on others the native breeds of cattle ; and a
great many were pastured for sheep. " When
I was in Paris last, there were from 300 to
500 sheep in the fat market weekly, belong-
ing to the Emperor." M. Tisserand had the
whole management of the great exhibitions in
France, with the exception of the last one
at Poissy, which his other duties would not
permit him to undertake. At the last Great

Exhibition in Paris of breeding stock, the
Emperor gave instructions to M. Tisserand
to buy two or three animals of all the different
kinds of breeds of foreign and British cattle.
Among those purchased from this country
were two polled Aberdeens from Mr M'Com-
bie, Tillyfour, a cow for 160 guineas, and
a heifer for 100 guineas.

" There is no doubt," our correspondent re-
marks, "that the Emperor was a great benefac-
tor to France as to its agriculture ; and through
the means of the International Exhibitions,
promoted and stimulated by him, the cattle
and sheep of France have been improved to
an extraordinary degree. In fact so rapidly,
under the intelligent hands of M. Tisserand,
aided by the liberality of the Emperor, did
French sheep and cattle rise to excellence,
that it was not thought necessary to hold any
more International Shows of stock. */ 1 was
told myself," says the gentleman to whom we
are greatly obliged for these jottings, "at the
last exhibition at Poissy, by the Minister of
Agriculture, that they required no more
International Cattle Shows, as their own
cattle and sheep had arrived at a state of
perfection as good as the British." The
cattle and sheep which came across to our
markets from France, before the war, fully
justified the opinion of the Minister of Agri-
culture, some of the cattle being sold in the
London Market at £^^(i per head when
meat was much more easily purchased by
the butcher than it is now, and sheep were
proportionately well-fleshed. It is interesting
to note that the last gift Prince Albert lived to
bestow on agriculture, was a massive cup, value
100 guineas, for the best animal of all the
classes. Foreign and British, in the yard, was
offered at Poissy, and was carried off by
Mr M*Combie, who also pocketed besides,
about ;^2oo in money, and several gold and
silver medals at the same place.

The Emperor was particularly interested
also in the nature of plants that would grow

1 68

TJie Country Gmtlematis Magazine

by the sea shore, develop themselves quickly
into timber, and at the same. time ameliorate
the condition of the atmosphere, and benefit
the health of his people. He spared no
pains nor expense in endeavouring, through
M. Tisserand, to secure the plants that would
fulfil these conditions ; and about his endea-
vours to secure this we hope to write some-
thing in a more detailed form shortly.

Had the Emperor lived in peace and pros-
perity, we have reason to believe that it was
bis intention to carry on his schemes of agri-

cultural improvement, even more extensively
than he did. The stimulus he gave in this
direction will live after his death, and under
the honest and skilful care of M. Tisserand,
we hope to see the great and important work
of making deserts bloom and blossom greatly
advanced in France. Once France is re-
lieved of her debt, of which she is disburden-
ing herself very rapidly, she should devote
particular attention to the development of
the agricultural resources in which she is so
rich.

THE QUESTION OF THE DA Y FOR FARMERS.

ONE great question which the Legis- see and apply the remedy. Better so than

lature will have brought before it this that it should be forced upon them by the

year, is that of Tenant-Right Its discussion legislature. Better that the owner and oc-

cannot longer be delayed. Whether action cupier should be able to agree upon fair and

will be at once taken or not we cannot say, mutually beneficial terms, than for the owner

and we are scarcely sanguine enough to hope to insist upon contracting himself out of the

for it in the coming season ; but there must be law as it were, which he does when he insists

one step further in advance made towards upon the tenant giving up the right to the

the settlement of disputed points between rabbits, &c., which belongs to him by law."

landlord and tenant. It would be better The farmer, our correspondent is assured, and

were no Parliamentary enactment required, so likewise are we, would back up the land-
landlords and tenants mutually agreeing to
arrange between themselves, about game,
compensation for unexhausted improvements,
and leases. We give an extract from a
letter bearing on the question. Our cor-

lord*s liberality by a more liberal treatment
of the soil, which would in return respond by
the yield of larger increase.

Many landlords are taking up the matter
in a fair and generous spirit, but all do not

respondent states the case very clearly, as it re- so, and it is doubtful, however desirable it

lates to all classes of the community, for would be, whether matters can be made

it concerns the public almost as much as comfortable without some well digested

it does the landlord and the tenant, scheme of legislation. But even with an

He says : — " The few farmers who make an Act — so complicated is the land question — ^we

effort to obtain conditions which shall secure are afraid all parties will not be satisfied with

to themselves the natural return for their out- it It will take an infinite amount of care

lay, are beaten out of the field by the many and calmness of judgment to firame a measure

who are ready to subscribe to whatever con- which shall give offence to none. Frank

ditions the owner or his steward may dictate, concessions must be made by both landlords

The public whose attention is forcibly directed and tenants. The latter must not demand

to the subject of their butcher's bills, are too much, nor the former be too niggardly in

beginning to see it in its true light, and will yielding privileges which may be said to be

soon find and apply a remedy. It is to be almost akin to rights,
egretted that landowners do not themselves One of the most interesting contributions

The Question of the Day for Farmers \ 69

\ controversy has been made public, by remarks of Mr Cooper, and he holds up the
ight within the last week or two. This happiness of the French peasant proprietary
&rst appeared nine years ago under the to our view, quoting a large number of in-
ure of R. S. T., but it is now published fluential authorities to prove that they are
production of Mr Cobden, who at that more innocent, virtuous, and polite, he
apparently, did not care to have his almost wishes by indication to have us be-
spread abroad in connexion with the lieve they are better educated than the Eng-
:t. Whatever be the political views of lish, or the Scotch even. We are mudi
laders, we doubt not that they will all astonished at this, and also at the statement
X in the idea that he was a very thought- made by one of his authorities that he could
d able man, and that his opinion on the not go into a field in England or Scotland
question is one well worth attention, where labourers were working, " especially if
ler we coincide with it or not. Mr they were women, without some coarse joke
en was the representative of a large or indecent leer." There is not a ploughman's
in society, whose ideas will have no child in Scotland who is not sent to school ;
siderable effect in moulding legislation and it has been our business to travel over
e future. Besides its intrinsic interest, many fields without having noticed the in-
is what we may call an accidental one decency which Mr Cobden's Professor dis-
ling to the letter just now. Mr Cobden covered. Perhaps there was something
nainly instrumental, along with the Em- peculiar in the American explorer's own man-
Napoleon III., who now lies buried in ner to draw forth the jibes and the lascivious
ttle Roman Catholic Chapel at Chisle- looks of the field workers. But to the argu-
, in getting the treaty between this coun- ment. We are prepared to observe that what
id France ratified ; and on the whole it Mr Cooper said was perfectly sensible. The
>e generally admitted that the arrange- subdivision of large farms into small ones
was in a great degree beneficial to both would not tend to the good of this country,
ries. It would be, as he said, to strike a blow a
this letter, Mr Cobden takes for his text agriculture. It would never do for us to go
tion of a speech delivered by the Hon. back to the old system of small farms and
im Cooper at the Romsey Labourers' fields. We cannot, for want of capital,
uragement Association. Mr Cooper raise nearly so much food for our population

" I do not allude to such imaginary as the soil is capable of yielding under more

inces as that of the tillers of the soil generous management ; if we were to cut

g any share in the ownership of the up the land into smaller parcels, we should

Such a complaint as that rests upon find the productiveness of the ground greatly

icy and a delusion. If it were possible impaired. Even Mr Cobden, with all his

ake the labourers the owners of the array of authorities, is forced to admit that

which they are tilling, it would be a re- the yield per acre in this country under the

ide movement in agriculture. The large farm system, is more than it is under

progress in agriculture of late years la petite culture of France. And this is

)een due to the concentration and ap- admitting a very great deal, seeing that the

ion of capital to an amount of land soil of France is much richer, and the cli-

1 is sufficient to justify the favourable mate more propitious than our own. With

Dyment of that capital ; and it would the same amount of capital, energy, and skill

dng back to times of less prosperity — enlisted in the cultivation of the soil of

uld be following the example of coun- France, the products ought to be much

less prosperous than England in agri- heavier than can possibly be raised in Eng-

re — if we were to aim at such an absurd land,
mpossible object." Mr Cobden is a specious reasoner. In

Cobden is very satirical upon these advocating the claims of the labourer to par-

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

yci in the landed property of the cultural matters. Although he was a bom

, he speaks thus : — son of the soil, he was 50 much engaged

looking at the moral aspect of the question in commerce that he does not seem to have

obody will deny the advantages which the ^^^^ recognized all the difficulties that far-
n of landed property must confer on a man , ^ ^ j -^i ▼▼ 1 1

iy of men-that it imparts a higher sense of "^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^end with. He looks upon

pendence and security, greater self-respect, ^^^^r profession merely as he would that of

ilies stronger motives for industry, frugality, a calico-printer. This is a grave mistake.

thought, than any [other kind of property. With ordinary care and skill you can make

|ave not to weigh the various moral influences ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^3 ^j

I by the ownership of diiterent kmds of pro- , j 1 .

rhe question really is between owning land !^^ greatest care and the most cunnmg art

ssing nothing, for in proclaiming that the i^^ agriculture is brought to naught by condi-

lass of agricultural labourers must for ever tions Over which man has no control what'

the hope or ambition of becoming land ever. Witness the past season. Those

they are virtually told that they can never i,^^r*.U4.' j • ^^t.

p ♦!. A,- c 11 1 f t who were farthest m advance, owmg to the

from the condition of weekly labourers ; for ' °

B of the earth can, as a class, rise to wealth unwontedly unfavourable character of the
sharing in the possession of the soil. weather, are now worse off than those of
statement is unworthy of Mr Cobden. whom they had taken the lead. They have
it true that the tillers of the earth can, lost their labour and the sown com which
Lss, rise to wealth o/i/y by sharing in the others have been forced to con-
ssession of the soil. Mr Cobden, in serve and retain. Mr Cobden shews con-
y this sentence, appears to have siderable ignorance of farming requirements
m that railways had superseded stage and the variable character of our climate,
5, that the conveyance at one time when he endeavours to prove that it would
ailable to thefew had been thrown open be an easy matter on small farms for occu-
lany. Labourers*sons are not tied down pants, or peasant proprietors rather, to ex-
soil, they are free to avail themselves change horse-hoes, and drills, rollers, and clod
r occupations ; they have ready means crushers, &c. We do not think it any easy mat-
g so. In this respect they are neither ten The mutual arrangement would not last a
nor worse off than other unskilled weqk. After a period of wet weather every
jrs. And we could point out many peasant proprietor would be wanting at once
)ra labourers* sons came to be the oc- the particular implement fitted for the kind of
s, are the occupants of very large work necessary to be accomplished at
and who are wealthy without possess- the same time. A day or two's delay on such
acre in their own right. We could small farms as Mr Cobden approved of
>thers, also, who are both tenants and might cost the produce of a year. The
tors, who have sprung from a very notion of every rood of land maintaining its
origin not two generations removed, man is beautifully Arcadian, but wholly im-
Id be quite as legitimate to say that practicable, and it would be an ill day for the
y chance that a collier had of becom- United Kingdom when she consented to re-
ilthy was to share in the possession of trace her steps from the steam plough to the
, or that the weaver could never be spade, from the reaping machine to the sickle,
table or happy until he obtained a We should have " genteel poverty " through-
rship in a cotton mill. Mr Cobden*s out the agricultural districts of the land, with-
itile up - bringing not unfrequently out the respect and education which usually
I his judgment in connexion with agri- belongs to the misfortune.

The Country Gmth^naiis Magazine i/l

CRUELTIES IN LIVE CATTLE TRAFFIC

IT is now half a century since an eflfort but still more, we hope, by better teaching,
was first made to obtain by law more We know more of the nature and endow-
humane treatment for the creatures commonly ments of animals. The acuteness of the
designated " lower animals." The Act of special senses of many of these creatures has
ParUament (3 Geo. IV., c 71) entitled "An long been a subject of familiar observation.
Act to prevent the cruel and improper treat- It is not difficult to trace amongst animals
ment of cattle " was familiarly called after its endowments of the nervous • system of
humane author, Saint Martin's Act This an order as high as those of special sense just
law was amended in 1835, and a new and referred to. We might mention numberless
improved Act was passed in 1849. Knackers* instances of the acuteness of their mental
yards were placed under supervision by a law perceptions, of their docility, of their
passed in 1845, and in 1854 the use of dogs powers of memory, of their hates and their
as beasts of burden was made illegal. Last loves, of their fidelity, of their gratitude, and
year and the year preceding witnessed the so on. These familiar facts teach us that
passing of laws for the protection of both sea creatures thus endowed cannot suffer injury
and land birds during their breeding season ; without feeling pain even as man himself
whilst by the 32 and 33 Vict., c. 70, railway does; and that it is often their patient endur-
companies were required to provide during ance, not less than their incapability of expres-
transit food and water for the cattle conveyed sion or of resenting injury, that prevents our
by them. This continued and progressive knowing the extent of pain which they are
legislation gives abundant evidence of a de- made to suffer. Recognizing this progressive
sire felt by Parliament to interfere for the improvement in the past, we look for still
protection of dumb animals against cruelties further improvement in the future. Much
inflicted on them. Nor has public opinion has been done ; there still remains much to
been behind Parliamentary action. Many do. We are more especially led to make
of us can remember, remarks the Saturday these observations in consequence of some
Review^ the jeers and the jests with which the recent disclosures as to the cruelties to which
earlier prosecutions under " St " Martin's cattle travelling by rail are liable. For ex-
Act were witnessed, and we can compare ample, it was recorded a few weeks ago that
such proceedings with the satisfaction almost a number of cows in calf were sent from Scot-
universally expressed at the late Parliamen- land to the west of England by railway with-
tary legislation for the protection of birds, out food or water, and that when they ar-
It is impossible not to recognize with rived at their destination they were in such
pleasure this marked and growing interest in a state of suffering that several of
the protection of animals. Time was when them were immediately slaughtered as
it was called sport to indulge in bull-baiting, the only possible means of relief for their
cock-fighting, duck-hunting, badger-drawing, agony. A correspondent of the Times re-
and a number of other pastimes in which the cently described what he saw whilst waiting
torture of animals was always an exciting and at one of the Eastern Counties' railway sta-
attractive feature. Such painful exhibitions tions. Another correspondent says that " it
have altogether passed away, or only linger is well known that animals are frequently
in the form of " battues " and " pigeon left in the trucks without food or water from
matches." This happy change has been ac- Thursday to the Monday following." We
complished, partly no doubt by the pressure have reason to fear that instances of like
of the laws to which we have just referred, cruelty are familiar to most travellers by rail«

172 The Country Gentleinaiis Magazine

way who have taken the trouble to look into These, however, are at best but partial reme.
the matter. It seems to us that a system so dies. The complete remedy is one which we
abounding in horrors requires but exposure believe will sooner or later be adopted. It
in order to its being put an end to. The is the substitution of the carriage of the flesh
remedies for these evils, partial or complete of the animal prepared for sale for the carriage
as they may be, are quite accessible. It is of the living beast itself. The advantages of
strange that they have not already been such a system are great and manifest \ the
adopted; for not only do the unfortunate difficulties of adopting it, fictitious and
brutes of whom we write suffer physical tor- factitious as they are, are surmountable. It
ture, but their money value to the owners is is an established fact that the flesh of animals
greatly lessened. killed near theu: fattening ground is much

The first step towards a partial relief for sweeter and more wholesome than that of the
these poor creatures is that taken by Parlia- tortured, fevered beasts killed in dose and
ment, to which we have already referred. By filthy slaughter-houses. There is also an
the 32 and 33 Vict c. 70, sec. 64, railway absolute loss to the owner of the cattle that
companies are required to provide food and have travelled long distances by railway. A
water for cattle at certain stations, but, ac- fat ox loses in a journey from Scotland to
cording to the usual muddling system, they London from i to 2 cwt or more. Again,
are not required to supply either one or the another point of view, if 5000 or 6000 oxen are
other to the brutes, except on demand of the weekly slaughtered in London, it may be cal-
consignor. The consignor makes no demand, culated that a shipload of manure is weekly
and the animals cannot help themselves, brought to our doors polluting our atmo-
Hunger, thirst, suflfering, and exhaustion are sphere, whilst, if the material were left in the
the results. The simple remedy would be a country, the land would have profited by
bye-law of the Railway Company, or an order its presence. Difficulties no doubt exist, and
in Council prohibiting the reception of cattle objections have been made to the adoption
forconveyance by railway unless the consignor of this dead meat traffic. The first objection
agreed to pay for, and the company under- is a singular one, and it is this — ^that the
took to supply, the food and water necessary carriage of a live animal costs considerably
whilst the animals were in their possession. less than does that of a part of his body when

In the second place, it seems that catde dead. Trouble for trouble, weight for weight,
are conveyed in trucks sufficiently well and bulk for bulk, no one can doubt that
adapted, it may be, lor the conveyance of the charge for a portion of the dead
wood or coal, but unfit for the conveyance animal should be less than the charge
of living animals. The trucks are, in many for the whole of the living one. It
instances, unprovided with means of shelter is, however, not so. No doubt this
from the weather, or of breaking the shocks anomaly is due to the terms made by agricul-
which occur in shunting, these shocks being turists with the railway constructors in the
all the more severe in consequence of the infancy of these undertakings. The cattle-
looseness of the coupHngs in luggage breeders secured the conveyance of their live
trains. Cattle trucks are mixed up stock at a cheap rate, whilst meat is carried
with these luggage trucks, and they are of at the rate of ordinary merchandize. We do
course liable to be frequently shunted and not say that cattle are carried too cheaply, or
delayed, whilst the unhappy beasts are meat at too high a charge, but it is time that
knocked about, frightened, hurt, and fevered, these anomalous charges should be revised,
with the result of rendering their flesh more It is said that butchers could not adapt
and more unwholesome for human food. If their supplies to their wants if they had not
'ive cattle should continue to be sent by rail, the animals within their immediate reach for
-» better system of railway organization for the slaughter. But this objection cannot be
inmose becomes an absolute necessity, maintained when we know what the tel^iaph

Cruelties in Live Catth Traffic 173

under an improved system can accomplish, exclusively during the year of the cattle
Lastly, it is said that, practicable as the plague ; for then, as will be remembered, the
system may be in cold weather, it would movement of live cattle was prohibited. For
break down in summer. We doubt this ; the London, the chief of cities, a dead meat sup-
carcase of an animal killed in the country in ply, and no other, must ere long be estab-
the afternoon could be sent with perfect lished, inasmuch as slaughterhouses must
safety in properly constructed vans during happily very soon cease to be found amongst
the night to London or other large towns, us. The period of grace for their removal —
The like objection was made to the supply a long one, no less than thirty years — given
of milk ; but now London and other cities by Act of Parliament (7 and 8 Vic chap. 84,
receive a large supply of milk during the eh- sec. 65), will expire in 1874, and we earnestly
tire year from the country. What has been hope that by that time, if not sooner, the
done in the case of milk can and ought to be traffic in live fat cattle will have been brought
done in the case of meat, as it is indeed done to an end, and with it cruelties which are
now to a great extent, and was done almost discreditable to our age and country.

THE FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

THE following remarks upon this sub- be carried a very great distance. The disease
ject were embodied in a paper read by was brought chiefly from Ireland and foreign
Colonel Kingscote, M.P., before the Kings- ports. He believed facilities for the trans-
cote Farmers' Club : — mission of cattle, and the increase in the size
Although he had no experience in the and numbers of the market*?, were the chief
treatment of the disease, yet he had for many means of spreading the disease. He did not
years taken an interest in the subject they believe in '* spontaneous generation " of the
had met to discuss, and it was chiefly on his disease, but he did believe that if it was
recommendation that a deputation from the allowed to continue unchecked it would be-
Royal Agricultural Society waited on Mr Fors- come inherent and indigenous to the soil, like
ter, and other deputations to Lords Spencer sheep-rot in this country, and the rinderpest
and Hartington. He, therefore, could speak in Russia. Animals attacked while fatting
with some knowledge of the subject, and from were generally put back two or three months,
that he argued that this was a consumer's so that they could not be sold out, and others
as well as a producer's question. The dis- brought on during the time. This was a
ease diminished the stock of the country, and heavy loss to the farmer, and just as heavy
thereby enhanced the price of meat. To to the consumer. As to the treatment of the
prove this, they must inquire as to the disease, he did not believe in the " no treat-
nature of the disease. WTiat was it ? A ment " system, which he had heard of as
fever of a most infectious kind, in existence having proved most efficacious, and he ad-
m England since 1839. Sometimes, if not vocated the feeding of the infected animals
often, it was bred by over-crowding on board on soft food, and the administering of slight
vessels and railway trucks, by over- driving, cooling medicines, and the keeping of the
and by keeping animals too long without animals in dry yards. This latter he especially
food and water. It was certainly spread by advocated, as a means of preventing lame-
men's clothes, dogs, and animals, and he ness, as they often remained lame for several
believed that infected animals drinking at months after. One heard of animals being
running streams would cause the infection to quite free from disease. The recipe he would

174 7*^ Country Gentleman^ s Magazine

give them was one from that old breeder of measures must be taken to prevent over-
cattle, Mr Bowly. This was : — Mix one crowding on board vessels ; the Passengen'
ounce of chlorate of potash in a quart of Act, limiting so many people to so many cubic
warm water, add to it one tablespoonful of feet of space, should be extended to cattle;
camphorated spirits, and give this dose three and there must, if possible, be more efficient
successive mornings. He believed a great inspection of animals before going into mar-
deal might be done to prevent infection, and kets and fairs. Many vexatious regulations
he had several instances on his own estate as to the removal of cattle on farms and along
that proved the efficacy of the use of disin- highways must be abolished, and notice of
fectants, such as lime, tar, and carbolic acid, disease on a farm should be given to neigh-
To the question which might be asked— Were hours as well as to police and inspectors,
our Acts of Parliament and the rules and re- Veterinary surgeons should not be allowed to
gulations issued by the Privy Council suffi- run rampant about the country. Cattle dealers
cient for that purpose ? — he emphatically should be licensed, and whatever rules were
answered, No I Neither was there sufficient . made should be strictly carried out, and not,
inspection of the animals at the ports of em- as now, casually put into execution. In con-
barkation and debarkation, and at markets elusion, he recommended the producers of
and fairs ; nor was sufficient precaution taken meat, viz. — the tenant-farmers and all in-
as to the cleansing of railway trucks and other terested in the raising and fattening of live
modes of conveyance. That the disease could stock, to petition for fall inquiry and legislative
be eflfectually checked by the stoppage of action. Let them not laugh at the disease,
fairs and markets for a time was seen by the and contentedly bear the losses which it had
fact, that when that was done during the pre- imposed ; but let each one determine to take
valence of the cattle plague the disease en- all the precautions he could to prevent his
tirely disappeared ; and he asked if it would animals catching the disease — let him use his
not be well for the country to again undergo best endeavours to carry out the regulations
the slight inconvenience which that caused, of the Privy Council, and, without prying
so as to once more put a stop to the disease ? into his neighbour's affairs, see that he, too,
The price of meat would not be increased acted up to the law. This he believed would
during that time, and in the end would be be most certain, most efficacious, and the
much cheaper. Cattle must be more tho- very best method of checking the disease and
roughly inspected before being put on board of answering the question which had been
at foreign and Irish ports ; more stringent propounded.

The Country Gentleman* s Magazine 175

THE VIENNA EXHIBITION.

REGULATIONS FOR STOCK AND AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS.

SPECIAL regulations have been made to animals exhibited The animals exhibited will
facilitate the entry of live stock and be examined by a jury composed as in that ad-
agricultural machinery at the forthcoming judicating the horse prizes.

Exhibition at Vienna. The following is an ^""'"jf^ ''['"'^^'^"^ ^"^ not compete together,

, ^ /. , , .. and will not be judged accordmg to their relative

abstract of these regulations :- ^^^^^ but according to their absolute value with

CATTLE, SHEEP, ETC. regard to breeding purposes and general use ;

The exhibition of cattle (oxen, sheep, pigs, therefore prizes will only be awarded to animals

goats, asses, and mules) will commence on May perfectly answering these purposes. Accord-

31, and close on the evening of June 9 ; but the i^g^y these prizes possess an absolute value, and

animals wiU be admitted on the 27th, and may i^^t only iUustrate that the animal rewarded is a

remain after the close ofthe show until June 12. prominent one amongst those exhibited, but

Entries for the exhibition of cattle must be made ^^^^ ^^ thoroughly responds to the claim for

and sent in at the latest by February 28. A breeding and general purposes. The prizes will

certificate of health must accompany every consist of medals, in connexion with suitable

animal exhibited, and a further inspection will diplomas.

take place on arrival by a veterinary com- ^^ the last day of the cattle show (June 9) a

mission. public auction will be held for the sale of any

Covered stands will be erected foi* the shelter, ammal the exhibitor may wish to dispose of in

of the animals. The charge for one stall for the this manner.

whole period of the cattle show is six florins Exhibitors are at liberty to publish during.
Austrian currency. A stand to contain one ox, the show the selling price, also to fix separate
one mule, one ass, one or two rams, one to four ^^els on the stalls, or distribute pamphlets re-
ewes, one or two boars, one or two sows. specting the. superiority, breed, &c., of their

Governments or private individuals are at ^i^^^^ls-
liberty to erect separate stalls or stables at their ^he chief manager will endeavour to establish

own expense, and suitable places will be allotted reduced rates for the transport of cattle, the

in the park on payment of three florins per particulars of which will be published in due

square metre. Notice of the space desired must time,
be given by January 31, 1873, at the latest. I>0GS, POULTRY, ETC.

The exhibitor will have to provide for the The exhibition of poultry, pigeons, dogs, rab-

feeding and tending of cattle ; but fodder and bits, cats, and fish, will commence on September
straw will be obtainable at the place of exhibi- 18, and close on September 27, 1873.
tion at fixed prices. All nominations from foreign countries should

Cattle will be arranged in accordance with be forwarded to the foreign commissions,
their respective breeds and varieties. Entries must be made and sent in to the

During the ten days of exhibition no cattle chief manager in Vienna at the latest by June 30,
exhibited will be allowed to be removed from 1873.
the Exhibition. The animals will be exhibited in the respective

Attendants have to observe all orders of the stands, &c., erected in the Exhibition grounds,
conunittee, and are not allowed to leave the The exhibitors have to provide for chains for the
premises, either day or night, unless by written dogs and special cages for the poultry. Exhibi-
permission. Their dormitories will be adjoining tors of fish will have to provide themselves for
or close by their respective animals ; the neces- the necessary reservoirs, and if they wish to
sary covering they will have to provide them- construct special basins, &c., they will have to
selves. do so according to plans sanctioned by the chief

An official catalogue will be published, con- manager. The necessary quantity of water will
taining all necessary information respecting the be furnished gratis by the general directionsi

176 The Country GentUmaris Magazine

The fee to pay for space will be as follows :— The pulleys to the main shafting are to be

{a) For one stand, three florins A.C A stand made in two parts for screwing together,
to contain one to three hens, pigeons, &c., one These pulleys are to be fastened to the main

dog, one or two rabbits, one or two cats, {c) For shafting in such a way that no injury is done to

game and live fish, for one square metre of the shafts,
ground, one florin A.C. 7- The preservation, cleaning, and oiling of

Governments or private individuals are at the main shafts will be found by the chief

liberty to erect separate stalls, stables, or fish manager, but exhibitors will have to attend to

basins at their own expense, and suitable places the preservation and oiling of the gear supplied

will be allotted in the park on payment of three by them, also to the preservation of their straps,
florins per square metre. Notice of the space Before applying such gear the exhibitor has

desired for this purpose must be given by to submit the plans of his intended arrangement
January 31, 1873, at the latest. The chief manager reserves to himself the

The exhibitor will have to provide for the right, for the sake of arrangement, to make any

feeding and tending of the animals. Food of necessary alterations in these plans,
good quality will be obtainable at the place of 8. The daily hours during which machinery

exhibition at fixed prices. can be worked will be published before the

During the time of these exhibitions no animal opening of the Exhibition,
exhibited will be allowed to be removed from the Exhibitors have to notify the names of the

Exhibition. persons whom they intend to intrust with the

AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY. working of, and attending to, machinery.

1. The Agricultural Machinery Hall is to con- Nobody except these attendants will be
tain the exhibition of machines for agriculture allowed to work the machinery.

and forestry, implements, means of transport, 9. All machinery intended to be worked must,
winches, <fec., besides machinery and apparatus at the expense of the exhibitor, be guarded by
for preparing food and other substances of railings or other proper means, in order to pro-
nourishment (group 4), such as are used in tect the public from injury,
distilleries, breweries, sugar refineries, mills, &c. 10. Machinery and apparatus fit for the

Machinery and apparatus in motion, molest- special service of the Exhibition may be sup-

ing the public, or likely to damage other objects plied by exhibitors for this express object, and

of exhibition, or which are not consistent with will be ranged as objects of exhibition in

the object and arrangement of the exhibition in group 13.
the Machinery Hall will not be admitted. Among such machinery and apparatus may

Such machines can only be exhibited outside be here specified : —
the Machinery Hall, either in the open air, or Steam engines, portable engines for driving

in a covered space fitted up at the expense of the main shafting in the Machinery Hall, and

the exhibitors. those used for service outside the Machinery

2. Objects for exhibition will be admitted to Hall.

the Machinery Hall from March 20 to April 11. Exhibitors supplying machines and imple-

20, 1873, inclusive, and must be set up at the ments, intended for special service during the

latest by April the 25th. Exhibition, will enjoy special privileges, to be

3. The Machinery Hall will have a strong agreed, as occasion may require, between them
boarded floor. and the chief manager.

4. The power required to set machinery in 12. For the convenience of exhibitors, a small
motion, and the main shafting for the transmis- shed containing a turnery shop, fitting shop,
sion of the driving power will be supplied free grinding shop, smithy, and copper smithy, will
of charge by the chief manager. be arranged within the Exhibition grounds.

5. The moving force* will be transmitted by In these workshops, according to the means at
one horizontal shaft, having a diameter of 0.065 hand, small work or repairs may be executed,
metre, and making about 120 revolutions per The administration of the workshops is under
minute. the control of the chief manager, and work en-

The main shaft is situated about 3.50 metres trusted to them for execution will be charged

above the floor, at a distance of 0.50 metre from according to a tariff fixed by the chief manager,
the wall. 13. The stipulations of the General R^ula-

6. Exhibitors have to supply the pulleys for tions remain in full force, in addition to the
main shaft, as well as any other gear and stipulations contained in these special regula-

'*'*Qg bands, at their own cost. tions.

7 he Country Genttematis Magazine

i;;

^QtimltJiral €ttQiiie^rm9.

THE IMPROVEMENT OF OLD COTTAGE PROPERTY.

IT is our intention, from time to time,
to present our readers with a few remarks
upon the subject of cottages, these having
reference to what may in strictness be called
the economics of the question. We believe
that a good deal has been done in the way
of retarding the more rapid and the more
wide-spread erection of cottages throughout
the country, by the results of the experience
of several landlords who have built cottages
for their labourers, this experience, for
one reason or another, or perhaps for many
reasons, having been much more costly than
was anticipated when the work was taken
in hand ; and although in one sense it may
be said that the primary and all essential
point to be considered is that good cottages
should be the rule and not the exception on
all estates ; and that, therefore, being a neces-
sity, the paying point should not be con-
sidered, or, at all events, should not be the
main point to be thought of, still it is after
all only the legitimate expression of a legiti-
mate want, when those building cottages say
they wish that they could get at least a fair
return for their outlay. This is a consideration
which is looked after by those who build
cottage property in towns, and why it should
be considered — as it seems by many to be —
inapplicable in the case of those who build
the like in the country, we fail to see.
It is frequently remarked that just as the land-
lord is bound to provide shelter for the farm
stock of his tenant, so is he bound to provide
shelter for the labourers employed by the
tenant — much more bound, seeing the higher
claims which humanity has as compared with
the lower animals. But just as it is a legi-
timate wish that the cost of the farm stock

VOL. X.

buildings yield — in the shape of rent — a fair
return for their cost, just as legitimate is it
in the case of cottages for the labourer. And
this we say without at all ignoring, or wishing
to ignore, the higher claims above alluded to.
Maoy circumstances have conspired to make
cottage building a much more costly affair to
many who have undertaken it, than was an-
ticipated when they began it. To some of
these we have drawn marked attention from
time to time during the past few years, in the
pages of this journal ; and to these and to
others also, we shall in a future paper again
refer. Of late the cost of cottage buildmg
has been greatly increased by the high ad-
vance, not only in the price of materials, but
in the rate of workmen's wages; the latter
advance not having always brought with it
either an increase in the value of the work
done or in the amount of it, within a given
time. It may, therefore, be expected, whether
reasonably or not, it is not within our province
to say, that cottage building will not, for the
present, or likely, for some time to come, be
carried on with great vigour and enthusiasm.
A result which, in every way, is much to be
deplored, happening, as it does, at a time
when it is necessary more than ever, to do all
which can be done, to render the condition
of the labourers in our several districts
more comfortable than they, as a rule,
have been; and thus to provide an op-
posing goodness to the many evils of which
they justly or unjustly, but still — ^for that,
after all, is the practical point — ^more or
l^ss grievously complain. It is well, there-
fore to consider, whether there is not
another direction in which good work can
now be done, and that without the heavy

17^ *riie Country Centteman's Magazine

expenditure which lieW Work involves — and with the dictates of the Cliristianity we all
this direction we believe lies not in cottage profess to believe in, however short we come
building, but in cottage improving — not in the of its practical acting. We have been called
building of new but in the repair of old upon to examine not a few of the cottages
cottages. We have from time to time, here throughout the various districts of the king-
and elsewhere, endeavoured to enforce the dom, and while having to confess that the
good which might be done in this direction, number of bad cottages was far in excess of
but although some steps have been taken to that which it ought to be, if the land-
work in it, comparatively little has been done, owners did their dutyj we have but seldom
Nor will this be wondered at when we seen any one so bad but what, with a little
consider what in the main is the impulse of trouble and expense, it could not have been
human nature, causing certain activity in made much better.

daily life and work. We are every day We have said above that some, if not all,

tempted to delay improving and making the of the characteristics of a " healthy home "

best of what we have, by spurious arguments could be " restored " to those which now have

such as, " that what we have is so bad it is not no claim to this distinctive appellative. We

worth while improving/' that the best cannot have used the word " restored " purposely, as

be made of it, for it has not anything of the indicating that formerly these cottages did

best about it ; and that it is therefore far possess the characteristics of healthy homes ;

better to wait till the " good time " comes, but that these had been lost by neglect, and

when we shall be able to get a new thing and by the decay which that neglect had involved,

then we promise — and alas ! for human nature It has been said — with what truth or want of

delude ourselves with the belief — that it shall it our readers will, by reference to their own

then be a good thing and the best of its kind, experience in such matters, be able to judge

This method of dealing with matters of — that landlords always grumble when they

every-day life is productive of grave evils, are asked to do anything in the way of re-

and tends more than we are inclined to pairs. It is but short-sighted policy to do so,

credit it with, towards the perpetration of for it should be remembered that a great

the laisser faire or let-alone system amongst deal of damage can be done to property

us in many departments of social reform, through or by a very little and ap-

And yet it may be taken for a truth that a parently altogether trifling cause. Cottages,

vast accession of real comfort and happiness therefore, should always be kept in

in daily life would be secured by trying to repair, a leaky roof not only soon destroys

make the best of what we have, rather than the building, but adds much to the discom-

continue to put up with what is bad, and fort of the inhabitants, and, indeed, injures

what we feel to be bad, because we cannot their health. It is not, however, to the im-

get what we would like to be or believe to be portance of keeping good cottages in repair

good. that we are now desirous to attract the atten-

In nearly every district of the kingdom, tion of the reader, but to the carrying out of

cottages are to be met with possessing but such a system of renovation in the case of

few of the characteristic features which dis- cottages which have unfortunately been

tinguish healthy and comfortable dwellings, allowed to get into such a condition that they

but if not in all, certainly in the great majority are neither comfortable nor healthy. Some

ofthem these characteristics could be restored, may say that this may be done, and with

or given to them by no great expenditure of economical effect, in the cases of cottages

money. True, some are so bad that they comparatively new, but cannot so be done in

never can be made good, or only by such an that of really old ones. We are inclined to

outlay as would be foolish to think of ; their take precisely the very opposite view, and

doom should be, razing to the ground, to this in remembrance of the fact — ^for it is a

i^ake way for habitations more in consonance fact— that the builders of olden times really

The Improvemmt of Old Cottage Property i*]^

did build in the truest acceptation of the term A recent, a very recent, report on the con-
— the work they did was good work ; and dition of the cottages on certain estates
many a cottage built many years ago, although in the south of England discloses a state of
standing now with leaky roof, and therefore matters which is characterized by the reporter
decayed timber work, stands a witness in the as a " disgrace to our boasted civilization.'*
strength and soundness of its walls, to the In this report, a pretty full detail is given of
good way in which our forefathers built. And the wretched features of the cottages referred
even although so much of the woodwork to. The floors were thoroughly damp, in
may be decayed, because wet and damp have many cases so damp that the existence of
been allowed, by gross neglect, to work their pent-up pools below is matter of almost
will upon it ; even it will in many cases decided certainty. This dampness is caused
be found to have been put up originally chiefly by the cottages being placed in front
in such a sound workmanlike way that of a rising ground, so that the drainage water
comparatively little will be requisite when from this must pass below or through the soil
once the cottage is made wind and water on which the cottages stand. Although there
proof to enable it to remain good for are not many cottages so stupidly — ^we might
years. The same may be said of the in- say so culpably and disgracefully — placed as
temal woodwork, which will be found on regards site ; still, where they are so placed,
examination to have been of that quality and it is impossible to have either the floor or the
to have been put together in a workmanlike walls of the cottages dry. But many cottages,
way, not often met with in these days of although placed in sites better tlian these now
flashy but flimsy work. Not long ago we saw alluded to, are, as a rule, situated in damp
a wall which, having had its foundation under- ground or soil, and in such positions as that,
mined by a flood, was overturned ; it fell, but the drainage of the higher level gravitates to-
it fell in one solid piece of many yards in wards the cottage, or passes through the soil
length, testifying to the soundness of the way on which it stands in its progress to a lower
in which it had been built. It is scarcely level. In all cases the soil, as a rule, can
necessary to say that its age was greater be rendered if not quite, still nearly dry —
than that of the period which introduced into this term, of course, means soil not saturated,
the building trade the use of the word "jerry- for dry, in the ordinary meaning of the term,
work," a word or phrase indicative of work it cannot be — by simply draining the site ; or,
not truly deserving the name. Had the wall should this be objected to, by surrounding the
above alluded to been built under the reign cottage by a drain, the tubes of which should
of "jerry,*' it would not have fallen in one, deliver into the nearest outfall. If this sur-
but in many pieces. Old — truly old — rounding be also objected to, then a single
cottages will therefore be found even better drain should be made at the side of the cot-
subjects for the renovating process we are tage nearest to the higher ground. This will
advocating than those which are only com- cut ofi" much of the water draining from the
paratively old. At all events an honest — not high land, and tend to materially lessen the
a jerry — inspection will soon disclose the dampness of the soil of the site. ^Vhere the
fact whether, with good and honest — not dampness has been of long continuance, and
jerry again — ^work, an old cottage may not, the floor of the cottage gives any signs, how-
with little expense, be made ** almost as good ever small, that it has reached that part
as new." Hundreds of cottages — a disgrace of the site, then it is imperatively re-
to the landowners on whose property they quisite, if the health of the inmates be con-
stand, and a discomfort and a cause of sidered, that the materials of the old floor
disease, and often premature death to those should be taken up and replaced by new. In
who inhabit them — are to be met with to-day not a few cottages the floor is simply hard-
which could be made, if not everything, still, rammed or well-trodden soil ; where this is
at all events nearly everything which the rules the case, the old soil should be completely
and laws of sanitary science demand. renewed to some considerable depth. If this

l8o TJu Country Gentleman^ s Magazine

be done, it will be discovered in not a few much of it will be available in relaying the

instances that the good health of those floors, not seldom is it the case that the decay

people residing in the cottage of which it of the bed-room floor, is brought about by

formed the floor material, was not likely to the leakage in the roof. If that be put and

be secured, so " foul " will the soil be found kept in good repair, the floor will last much

to be. The soil being removed, it should longer.

not be replaced by new soil. Are we If the yfdXXs are damp, all the plaster, if that
ministering to the luxury of the labourer has been used, should be carefully and com-
when we ask for him something better pletely stripped off. Before the plaster is re-
than an earthen floor ? Be this as it may, newed, the walls should be allowed to remain
we would venture to ask for him a floor for some time exposed to the drying effect of
of a material more like the " boasted " work the weather. If the walls be very damp, in
of the nineteenth century. A very cheap place of plaster, we would strongly recom-
and, upon the whole, a good floor, can be mend a coating of Portland cement con-
made of a sort of concrete in which lime is crete to be used; this will give a really damp-
the principal ingredient. These floors are proof surface, on which a paper may be at
often to be met with in Staffordshire and once laid as soon as set.
Derbyshire. They are dry, but their worst If the old and damp floor materials be re-
feature is they axe always giving off" from their moved, and dry materials be put in place of
surface a white dust, which does not, we may them, the walls will, by this means, at once
here say, find much favour with a tidy house- be rendered considerably drier ; but still
wife. A brick or tile floor is a dry one, but more to make them free from damp it will
it requires to be well laid, and the joints be a good plan to dig out and remove the
carefully cemented, otherwise the surface be- old soil all round the walls outside^ and
comes rapidly uneven, and the chinks or for some distance from them ; and at least to
interstices afford space for dirt, and allow the full depth of the foundations of the walls,
the passage of water through to the soil be- If the space thus made be filled up with
neath, whenever the floor is scrubbed and broken stones, bricks, cinders, clinkers from
washed. Where a hard, smooth, and tho- the smithy, or small pieces of the scoriae from
roughly damp-proof floor is wished for, we iron works, the whole well rammed down
can recommend no better and, taking all and finally covered with soil — or better still,
things into account, no cheaper floor than small cinders well rammed down — the effect
that made of Portland cement concrete. It in keeping the walls dry will soon be observed,
possesses the great advantage of being As much of the dampness of walls arises
exceedingly durable, will stand a hard usage from the water dripping from the roof, when
without injury, which would destroy or greatly this is put into thorough repair, it .will be
injure lime, brick, or tile floors ; and another advisable to add "gutters" or "roans "to
advantage not less valuable, and that is, it the eaves. These should not be connected
requires in its laying down no skilled labour, with down spouts leading the water to and
Any labouring man about a farm can lay it wasting it on the soil, but should be con-
down. Further, it is very quickly made, and nected with a barrel, cistern, or tank. This
can be walked upon within a io.'N hours after will give a good, in many cases a large sup-
being laid down. It is infinitely superior in ply of rain-water to the cottage, which can
our belief— and we have used it largely — to be availed of by the inhabitants for many
asphalte floors. These remarks refer^ of course, useful purposes, especially for washing both
to ground floors, the floor of the chamber or of person and of clothing. The use of rain-
bed-room storeys, if any, will require to be water effects a very large saving in soap ; and
re-laid with new boarding, but in very old if we can by any means induce at once the j
houses, it will not seldom be found that the habit of cleanliness both of house and pet-l
uiginal timber was so sound and good that son, and effect a saving of money amongsa

The Improvement of Old Cottage Property 1 8 1

our poorer neighbours, why should we not do sound in construction, sanitary science in

80, especially when they can be done at a its completest phase demands that in addi-

small cost, as in the case now under con- tion to this soundness of construction, there

sideration ? shall be goodness in the arrangement of the

In many cottages there is no provision apartments which make up' the cottage. For
made for the putting away of ashes, or for although, arrangement does not exercise such
the getting rid of waste water and sewage a potent power on the health of the inhabi-
matter. The result of this frequently is, that tants, acting more in the way of adding to the
the wretched tumble-down and ricketty ap- convenience, and therefore to the comfort, of
pearance which the buildings too often pre- tl:e cottage, still in some respects arrange-
sent, is aggravated by tlie filthy disorder nient does influence materially the health of
arising from the cottagers throwing their the inhabitants. This we see in several
ashes anywhere, and, what is woise, every- of the departments of cottage life. Arrange-
where about; and by the sewage matter be- ment, however, involves this, that there be
coming foul collections in open pits and de- something to arrange ; it can scarcely,
pressions in the soil. Under such circum- tlierefore, be applicable to those cottages
stances it is impossible to expect order and wliich consist of one apartment only,
tidiness, nor, we may add, perfect health Judged by the standard which the Board of
amongst the inhabitants of the cottages. Ash- Health has set up, and which is mainly cor-
pits, and coal or fuel places, and properly con- rect, although objection may be taken to some
structed liquid manure tanks should be pro- of its points, which are rather arbitrary, and
vided. Nor will these, if properly gone appear to us to be based rather upon what
about, be found to be very costly. is conventional than scientific reasons — the

If, where cottages are now met with posses- cottage of one apartment only is not that in

sing all the characteristics of comfortless, un- which healthy living can be secured. Some

healthy houses, such improvements as these may and do object to this by saying that if

we have now alluded to in very brief but, we the one apartment be soundly built, weather

hope, suggestive fashion, be carried out, we and damp proof, there is nothing in the mere

venture to promise that all the pleasures de- fact of its being a single apartment only, to

rivable from good work timeously done will be prevent its being a healthy one. There is

the lot of those who do it ; and all the ad- much in this objection, but the case is one

vantages derivable from increased household in which the whole circumstances must be

comfort and good health will be the lot of known before a judgment thoroughly correct

those for whom this good work is done. can be arrived at. If the one apartment be

There are of course other points to be at- inhabited by a single person only, or by a

tended to in the renovation and improvement married couple with no children, unless the

of old cottages before they can possess all the cubical space within the walls be very small

characteristics which sanitary science de- indeed, there is nothing in the circumstances

mands, and to these we shall now turn our to prevent the health of the inmates being

attention. maintained. But the case becomes very dif-

We gave above some hints as to the keep- ferent indeed where, in place of one or two.

ing away from the soil of the site any excess several people Uve in the one apartment

of moisture; as the prevention or cure of Here the mere numbers change the condi-

damp in the walls, the making of a good tions, and so eflfectually, that from a healthy

floor, and one or two other points bearing or moderately healthy room, it will likely

upon structural defects of old cottages, and become a thoroughly unhealthy one. And

for changing these defects into improve- then, the morality of the position is altered,

ments. But while it is essential for the health and for the worse, for to the physical evils

of the inhabitants of cottages that these shall arising from overcrowding, must be added

be weather-proo'', damp-proof, and, in short, the moral ones, invariably we might say

1 82

Tlie Cowitry Gentlematis Magazine

with truth, concomitant with Fuch a condition.
On this point we need not further enlarge, as
enough, or at least, much has already been
said about it.

But while it mky be conceded that a
cottage of one apartment only may be a
healthy one, it will not, we think, be denied
that it cannot be a convenient one — that is
to say in other words, it cannot be one in
which all the varied operations of domestic
life can be carried on in such a way that the
comfort of the inmates will be secured, and
time economized and their labour saved.
No argument is required to prove this, no
illustration or series of illustrations needed
to shew how it is so. We have only to look
at the circumstances of our own daily life
to become convinced that that life would be
very different indeed in nearly all its respects,
if we had to carry it on in the one apartment
of the cottage of the very poor — even were
that apartment bounded by sound weather-
proof walls and covered by a leakless roof.
Nor would it be a difficult thing to realize
how much worse the circumstances of our
daily life would then be, if to the straitened
limits of the one room which served for
** kitchen, parlour, bedroom, and everything "
were added all the physical discomforts
arising from a tumble-down rotten structure,
with muddy floor, damp - exuding walls,
leaking roof, broken casements, and loosely-
fitting doors. While, therefore, much can
be done and ought to be done to render
the farm labourers* cottages more healthy
and comfortable, so far as their structure
and regard for the ordinary decencies of
life are concerned, there is indisputably
much which can be done, and which
we think ought also to be done to render
cottages, which are now defective in arrange-
ment, if not altogether perfect, still much less
defective than they are. And here again it
will be found that, as in the case of repairing
defectively constructed cottages, and reno-
vating old cottages, which once good have
been allowed to fall into decay ; so in the
case of defectively arranged cottages, a good
deal of work can be done in the way of im-
Drovement at comparatively small expense.

Let us glance at the condition of a single-
roomed cottage, as illustrated in fig. i. Now,

<y^

Fig. I.

granting that so far as the structure is con-
cerned, this cottage may be all that can be de-
sired in all that ministers to the comfort and
conveniences of life, and in all that approaches
the standard of what we call, with amazing
complacency the " civilization of the nine-
teenth century," it is very little removed from
the wigwam of the Indian or the hut of the
Hottentot. Not one, scarcely, of what we
call the amenities of life can be secured in
it ; it, in its rude simplicity, set all these at
complete defiance where a family is con-
cerned ; the case being somewhat, indeed,
we may say greatly modified and mollified
where a single person or a married couple
without family are concerned. But even in
the latter case a very little consideration
will shew that there cannot be true comfort
in the cottage illustrated in fig. i, which is
the type of a class of cottages whose
name we regret to say is legion. Let us
glance at a few of the features which
claim our consideration in the case before us.
The cottage is entered by the door a^ this
forming a direct communication between the
interior and the exterior atmosphere. This
to many will appear to be a matter of little
or no moment; but to others, who know
"what is what,'* it is a matter of great

The Improvement of Old Cottage Pr^erty

•83

untidiness of the homes of the poor. We are
very ready to quote glibly the saying, " a
place for everything, and everything in its
place," But what if there.be no place for the
everything — a condition which is perfectly
true of many, we may say the majority of,
cottages in which there is literally no place
for anything to be put tidily away. If, then,
while the internal porch in a fig. a, is b^'ng

moment, affectiDg, as it does, not only the
comfort but, we mMntain, the health of the
inmates. Did any of our readers ever live —
nay, we shall draw less upon them and ask
did any ever spend an hour or two, in a
cottage, on a cold, windy, wintry day, where
the door opened at once upon the outer air?
If ihey have, they will be able to understand
the effect of continually living in a cottage
where this is the arrangement. If the in-
mates can afford to burn much fuel, they
may keep up the warmth of the cottage by
an extravagant consumption of coal ; but if
they cannot so afford, they must " e'en be
content " to sit shivering before a small fire,
and between the cutting winds which blow
into the house direct from the open air. If
the discomfort is great in times of health,
what must be the condition of matters in
times of sickness, sickness in many cases
brought on by the very draughts occasioned
by the arrangement now under consideration.
There can be no doubt whatever that this
plan of having the door of a cottage opening
from its interior at once upon the outer air,
acts not only prejudicially upon the comfort
and health of the inmates, but is a real loss
to them, inasmuch as it causes a manifest
waste of fuel, which otherwise might be easily
avoided, and avoided by comparatively simple

In many cottages of one room, the size of
the room is considerable, and can almost—
where there is no family, and cottages of this
extent of accommodation should never be
occupied byfamilies— admit of part of the floor
space being availed of for the addition of an
internal porch, as shewn at a in fig. 2, b
being the outer door, e the inner, leading to
the apartment

In fig. I the accommodation there pre-
sented is only in the form of what is called —
we confess in some cases with a touch of
true irony — a " living room," but it will be
observed that there is nothing in the way of
convenience by which that " living" can be are "cribbed, cabined, and confined " with
rendered more cotnfortable or the work which its all too limited structural bounds, that no
it demands made more easy. It is all very well space can be afforded for the addition of an
forus of the better, or at least the more fortu- internal porch, as u in fig. 2, and which may
natcly-circumstanced classes, to talk of the be very cheaply constructed of boarding with

added to the one-roomed cottage i
another addition be given as a pantry or
closet d, fig. 2, it is obvious that one of the
rules of good housewifery can now in some
measure be attended to.

But in many cott^es the extent of floor
surface is limited, so limited that the inmates

Fig- 3.

i84'

T&e Country Gentiematis Magasine

the surface covered with paper to keep the
wind from blowing through its chinks. An

external porch as at c, tig. 3, will, therefore,
have to be built, that is, if what we have said
in favour of it will induce any one to give
this to a cottage now without it. But there
are two ways of doing even a good thing ; it
is right to aim at the best way of doing it.
Thus in fig. 3, by placing the door a of the
porch <: exactly opposite the door b of the
cottage, the draught will be directly into the
cottage, and although the improvement in the
comfort of the cottage will by this arrange-
ment be great, by simply altering the position

of the door of the porch, the improvement
will be much greater. This is illustrated in
fig. 4, where the door a of the porch is at the
side, b being the door of the cottage. Any
wind blowing in at the door a will thus be
diverted away or off from the door b. And
further, without in any great degree adding to
the expense of the porch, this arrangement of
it enables a small pantry or store closet to be
given to the cottage, as shewn at c in fig. 4,
and which maybe lighted by a small window
d at the end of the porch.

In looking at the plan of single-roomed
cottage in fig, i, it will be observed that
there is only one window, c, in it. As a rule,
with miserably few exceptions, cottages have
too little window space given to them.
The effect of a good supply of light to a
cottage is singularly overlooked, not merely
in its effect upon the comfort, bnt upon the

heaJth of its inmates, A dark house is very
apt to be an unhealthy house, even although
in other respects it is well arranged and con-
structed. The effect of dark gloomy rooms
upon the spirits is more marked and much
more prejudicial than is generally thought of.
Indeed it is one of those points in. what is
called physiology, which is seldom thought
of at all. Further, a well-lighted house is a
great aid to household cleanliness, dark
rooms are very apt to be overlooked in
cleaning up a house, and if the whole of it
be dark, the consequences in the way of allow-
ing dirt and dust to be neglected is much
more striking. If dirt is well seen, even an
untidy housewife may be shamed into the
getting rid of it, but if it is not seen, there
is some excuse for its presence, some excuse
for not at least looking for it.

Good fi-ee window space should, therefoie,
be provided in every cottage, not in excess,
however ; for too much glass surface causes a
room to be cold and chilly, and is, therefore,
more difficult and expensive to be warmed.
Enough hght should, however, be given to
make all parts of the house seem in daylight
In many districts, especially in Scotland, the
object of building seems to be to make the
windows as small as possible. Nothing can
be more cheerless than the dark, dingy in-
terior of cottages badly lighted.

If the window in the cottage in fig. i is
very small, extra light may either be obtained
by enlarging it, or by making another win-
dow opposite, as at d. One advantage of
this cross light will be, that the inmates will
have the power at command of sending a
good stream of fresh pure air through the
room, by having both windows. An excel-
lent method of ventilating a house, or, at
least, of clearing it occasionally from the
foul air which too often fills the interior of
cottages, especially of those in which every
domestic operation is carried on in one
room, is to have windows at back and front
When these are opened simultaneously, a
thorough draught is established. The win-
dow panes should be well fitted, so as to
exclude draughts when they are not wanted.
We have adverted to the importance of coal

The Improvtmmt of Old Cottage Property

iS5

ind ash places in cottages. In fig. 5 ve give ends in, the absence or which in the one
an illustration shewing how these can be room of the cottage will materially add to the
added in a small shed, in brick or stone off- comfort of its inhabitants, and unquestionably
to the tidiness and order of its appearance ;
this may be entered from the room by a door
at c. Should an extra window be added as
at d in hg. i, this addition to the back will fill
up the space which this window would other-
wise occupy; but this may be avoided by
bringing the fi'Ont of coal-house a, fig. 5, up to
a line with the end wall d of cottage.

By the addition which we have thus illus-
trated to the ^ical one-roomed cottage in fig.
I, we venture to say that it would be greatly
improved in every way, and this at no great
expense. Considerable as the improvement
would be, however, it does not bring the
cottage up to the " standard," if a family Uved
in it that is composed of more than two indi-
viduals. How this standard may be altered,
set at the back — a being the coal-house, b or at least approached, we hope to be able
a small store for placing various odds and to illustrate in a succeeding paper.

Fir. s-

1 86 Th$ Country Gentleman's Magazine

%\it Jfarm.

THE CULTIVATION OF POTATOES.

By Mr S. Bennett.*

THE potato has been of late years, from should be of a good size and whole, the
some cause or other, very uncertain ridges are then closed in the ordinary manner,
and difficult to grow successfully, I think. When the plant is just peeping the horse hoe
perhaps, from some atmospheric cause with is used, and the oftener the better, the weeds
which we are at present unacquainted. Mr destroyed, and the earth loosened round the
Bollman, professor of agriculture in Russia, plant with the hand hoe. When sufficiently
states that if the seed potatoes be well dried grown the ridging plough is used to give a
they will invariably produce a crop free from slight earthing. AVhen the tops are about i
disease. I am afraid that he will often find foot to i ^ foot high, the earth is taken with
this assertion quite unfounded, and I believe a spade or small shovel from between the
that as yet no certain cure has been found, or plants and put upon the top of the roots,
that the disease has ever been satisfactorily covering the haulm or stalks to within 2
accounted for. I will now merely state a or 3 inches of the top, care being taken
plan that I have adopted for years past, cul- not to go too close with the spade to
tivating them, I may say, with somewhat of injure the fibres. By so doing a lump or
success ; for if in some seasons the crop has hillock will be formed, the stalks projecting
not been so heavy as that planted in the nearly round at the bottom of the lump, the
common way, at least it has been a sound apex being on the crown of the root The
one, and the tubers of a more even size, and effect of this is that the rain water instead of
consequently few, if any, small ones. This running down the stalks on the crown, does
year, as we all know, the crop is bad every- so at the sides of the lumps, thereby keeping
where, and the tubers small, and generally of the plant dry, which I think is one means of
inferior quality. I am sorry to say mine are preventing the disease, besides removing the
no better than other people's in this respect, soil and manure between the roots and put-
but they are very free from the disease. I ting it on them gives a fresh impetus to the
really think the best land upon which to growth, and by so doing making the sample
plant potatoes is seeds, and I would have of a good size and fewer small ones. Another
seven or eight loads of manure per acre advantage is that the land is much bettet
spread upon it the previous winter, before worked, and the succeeding crop improved,
breaking the seed up, and at the time of It may be thought that the expense is too
planting a like quantity put into the ridges, much in growing the potatoes in this manner,
together with either guano or rape dust — but this is not so j for the earthing with the
guano for choice — for I firmly believe that spade can be well done for 15s. per dcie, the
there is nothing like Peruvian guano for the saving of seed being about two sacks per
growing of potatoes. The ridges are made acre will always pay for the extra expense
2 feet 9 inches apart, and the potato sets incurred. The only objection is the scarcity
also planted 2 feet 9 inches between. They of hands at the time they want earthing, and

■ therefore perhaps it would hardly be feasible

''-'id before the Boroughbridge Agricultural Society, for those tO adopt the plan who groif the

Tlie Cultivation of Potatoes 187

potato on an extensive scale, but to the the sooner the season will allow of them

grower of an acre or two and to the cottager being set the better, say in March or the

in his garden I am convinced the plan is a beginning of April ; and I am sure it is a

good one, and in nine years out of ten it pays, very bad plan to let the seed get sprouted

at least it has done so with me, having some in the pie, for it weakens the vital powers of

years back made more than three times as the set very much. Lime applied to the

much per acre than those ' planted in the land before planting has beneficial eflfects,

ordinary manner. Two years ago I had tending to produce a better quality. The

nearly a ton an acre more ; last year about taking up and stowing should be done if pos-

the same j this year there is not so much sible when the weather is dry, and the pie

difference, but there are fewer small ones and not entirely covered with earth for a week or

the sample sounder than the other. AVith two, so that any heat there may be will

regard to the best time for planting, I think escape.

EAST LOTHIAN AGRICULTURE.

EFFECTS OF THE DISASTROUS SEASON OF 1 87 2, AND THE PROSPECTS FOR 1873.

THE disastrous season of 1872 has dealt farm in the potato and wheat growing dis-
a blow to the agriculture of East Lo- tricts. The farmers are not to blame for
thian, from the effects of which it will take growing potatoes to such an extent, be-
years to recover. The individual losses, es- cause the basis on which the valua-
pecially in some districts of the county, are tion of these farms is grounded is
enormous ; losses which, owing to the high their capabilities for growing potatoes,
farming practised now-a-days, are simply Every farmer in forming his estimate for the
unprecedented. To illustrate these, we give year may in a small way be compared to the
a few particulars. Chancellor of the Exchequer with his budget,
There are twenty-five parishes in East Lo- only with this mighty difference, should any
thian, which are estimated firom the valuation national calanaity occur, unforeseen by the
roll of the county, to yield an annual rental of chancellor, he can impose extra duties to
about ;^29o,ooo, and when we state the actual meet the emergency, whereas our agricultural
loss in money^ firom the deficiency of crops in chancellors must meet the difficulties from
1872 to be at least jQ^oo^ooOy your readers their own resources. Now in regard to this
may form some idea of the position in which extensive potato cultivation, which in im-
our farmers are placed by what can only be portance may be characterized as the income
termed a national calamity. The half of this tax of our agricultiu^ budget, it is caused
large sum has been lost by potatoes, which is entirely by the rent at which the land has been
sufficient to cause serious doubts regarding let The great failure of the potato crops which
the prudence of continuing to practise a sys- occurred in 1845-46, did not affect the East
tem of husbandry whereby such a risk may Lothian farmers in the least. Potatoes were
be incurred. There are 566 occupiers of land only grown to a small extent, in fact, merely
in the county, and the extent of soil in cul- for home use. We had no means of exporting
tivation may be taken at 109,000 acres. Of our produce in those days, unless by sea.
these 566 occupiers there are over 200 who The opening up of large southern markets
grow a mere fi-action of potatoes, and their totally changed the aspect of affairs. The de-
loss is trifling when contrasted with those who mand for land has been increased very much|

1 88 The Country GentUniatis Magazine

also rents in many instances to a pitch which from the outlay. The large imports ot every

could only be paid under favourable seasons, kind of agricultural produce must tend to

We cannot blame landlords for accepting keep down the prices of our own, and the

high terms for their land when we see so only field in which we can successfully com-

many men of capital anxious to take farms pete with the foreigner must be in their im-

almost on any conditions ; but it must be ports of live stock.

borne in mind that the excessive competition The prospects for 1873 ^^ not good. Very
for farms was caused from merchants and little winter wheat has been sown, and the
o tilers who had spent most of their time in small quantity which is sown has suffered
cities turning their attention to and investing from too much rain. The acreage under
their capital in agriculture. We could point potatoes must be much less than usual, be-
to many instances in which the mercantile cause it will be impossible to get seed, and
enterprize of these men has given great im- the expense must deter many from running
petus to agriculture by infusing a spirit in such risk, which, after the disasters of 1872,
which the old-fashioned race of farmers was may only be characterized as a species ol
deficient, only it must be remembered that agricultural gambling. The wheat crop in
numbers of. those who after a successftil East Lothian has suffered more than else-
career as merchants became farmers, did so where. For illustration we give the produce
more from the desire for a country life, than of two acres in one of the best districts (which
with the view of adding to their fortune. Our appeared before it was cut to be a much better
ideas of the real value of land is what it would crop than the average of the county) realized
let for in pasture, and a farm thus rented ;^io, 15s., or ;^5, 7s. 6d. per acre, a sum
would enable its occupant to graze at least which would scarcely pay seed and labour,
one-half of it, or even more, and we have no Every one knows it was wet weather which
hesitation in saying that a few more years of made such havoc with our crops. The
the same system of farming which is at pre- rainfall in East Lothian during 1872 was
sent practised in the most highly cultivated 44 inches. Of this, over 5 inches fell in Sep-
districts of East Lothian, will compel tember, a season when farmers gratefully
the occupants to make a change of rotation, accept a minimum supply. The average rain-
Soil, manure it ever so well, like every fall for the last 40 years was 24 inches,
thing else, requires rest. The ammoniacal The probability is surely small of our having
stimulants which are applied every year take such a wet season this year, but all calcula-
less effect, and the quantity requires to be in- tions regarding the proportion of the different
creased. Besides increased expenditure for crops to grow should be based, to some ex-
manures, the labour accounts are nearly tent, on its possibility, and, after the results
doubled, and all other expenses in proportion, of last year, too much dependence should not
Everything clearly points to the advantage be placed in any single crop. Every farmer
ofachangeof system more extensive. Grazing would do well to grow, as far as soil and
and feeding appear to be the only remedies for climate will admit, a moderate proportion of
the evils of the present system. There are diffi- every crop which he finds suitable for his
culties in the way of bringing round the land, and frame his budget as far as possible
change with success, one of the greatest being to meet contingencies in every shape, arid
the large increase of capital required for the devote as much spare time as possible to the
purchase of stock, and the much longer time study of that somewhat diflScult science—
that must elapse before any return is received meteorology.

The Country Gmtlemaiis MagazUie

189

LOLIUM TEMULENTUM (Darnel Grass)*

By Alexander Stephen Wilson.

THE author remarked that the purpose
of his investigations was to discover
if there are poisonous qualities in the seeds
of the Grass called Darnel. The seeds of
this plant appear to have been objects of ali-
mentary aversion from remote times. To
what Virgil refers in the expression, ** Infelix
lolium" (Georg. B. I. 153) cannot now be
determined. It is uncertain, indeed, if he
refers to Bearded Darnel as a single plant, or
includes various Grasses. And that the poet-
farmer had in his mind rather the conception
of troublesome weeds than of poisonous seeds,
seems probable from his conjoining wild Oats
with the Darnel (" Infelix lolium et steriles
dominantur avenae"). Pliny speaks (Nat,
Hist, 18, 17) of Lolium and other weeds as
being the pests of the corn-fields, but does
not allude to poisonous properties. If the
old Greek and Roman farmers are truly re-
presented by Columella and Thebphrastus,
they entertained the notion that the cereal
Grasses were constantly changing into each
other, and that the damaged seeds of these
gave rise to Darnel.

The present position of the question may
be seen from the following references. The
name temulentum signifies intoxicating. Lind-
ley, in his ** Medical and Economic Botany "
(2nd ed., p. 27), describing this Orass, says,
** Grains narcotic and acrid, producing fatal
consequences when mixed with flour. N.B.
— This is the only authentic instance of un-
wholesome qualities in the order of Grasses.
The cases mentioned in the 'Vegetable
Kingdom* are all doubtful." In the "British
Flora," Hooker tells us (4th ed., pp. 16,
19) "the antients as well as the modems at-
tributed poisonous qualities to the L. temulen-
tum, and even now it is believed in some
countries that the Wheat changes into Darnel."

He further tells us that the name aira (from
airo, to destroy) "was antiently applied to
the Lolium temulentum (Bearded Darnel) on
account of its injurious effects." In Balfour's
" Class-book of Botany," paragraph 1539, we
read — "Lolium temulentum. Darnel Grass,
supposed to be the Tares, Zizania, of
Scripture, has been said to be narcotic
and poisonous, but this has not been fiiUy
proved." Bentley remarks in his "Manual
of Botany" (p. 697), "Almost all Grasses are
wholesome, but one or more species of Bromus
have been reputed erroneously to be purgative,
and one, Lolium temulentum, is said to be
narcotic and poisonous. The powerful pro-
perties of the last Grass would appear to be
due to its becoming ergotized, as its described
effects upon the system closely resemble those
producedby the common Ergot." In Lawson's
'^Agricultural Manual," article Lolium temu-
lentum, it is stated that " the seeds if very
abundantly mixed with wheat and made into
bread, prove injurious to health, causing
delirium and stupefaction." Under Darnel

* This paper we have slightly abridged.

Seeds of Lolium temulentum.

the "Imperial Dictionary" says, "The L.
temulentum, or Bearded Darnel, is the only
poisonous British Grass. It is said to be the
infelix Loliimi of Virgil, and the Tares of Scrip-

igo Tlie Country Gmtlevian's Magasine

Lolium lemulenluin (var.) lonfiiaiisUtum of Pamell

LoHum temnlentuni 191

ture. Its properties are said to be narcotic kernel, points to the possibility, if properly ex-

and stupefying." Archbishop Trench, in his amined and tested, of arriving at the whole

"Notes on the Parables "(Parable of theTares) chemistry of such a fruit. In this way I

also accepts the dogma of the toxical quality have compared the darnel seed with the

of the darnel. seeds of several other grasses.

On the other hand, the writer of the article The author then gave a detailed descrip-

Darnel in " Chambers' Encyclopaedia," says : tion of the microscopical structure of the

— " It is asserted that very recent researches darnel seed and compared it with that of

on the Continent have completely established wheat and barley. In conclusion he said : —

the perfect harmlessness of this grass and The grains of Darnel experimented with

of its seed, and the effects which have been were partly ripe and partly slightly unripe ;

ascribed to it must, therefore, be regarded as they were air-dried and may have contained

proceeding from grain injuriously affected jn about ten per cent of water. Ergotized

some way by bad weather." These re- kernels were rejected. It may also be noted

searches I have not seen. that the quantities eaten were written down

Through the kindness of Prof. Balfour, I immediately on being taken in case of fatal

obtained a few seeds of darnel from the consequences. The result was added a day

Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. To or two after.

guard against accidents, some of the best i. Two grains (eight ripe kernels) were re-
ripened of these, stripped of the husk, were duced to meal in a mortar, mixed with cold
planted in pots in which they stood during water and drank. (Sept. 30.) I felt no
the winter (187 1-2). The plants were trans- symptoms of any kind,
ferred to the open ground early in spring. 2. Before breakfast next morning I pounded
They grew remarkably well, appeared un- four grains (sixteen kernels) mixed with water
checked by transplanting, and threw out from and drank as before. No symptoms ex-
ten to fifteen stems each. The rest of the perienced.

seeds were sown in spring. But as they were 3. I next ground a considerable quantity

not well ripened, only about a score of plants of the seeds. The paleae were separated

appeared. These did not tiller so well as from the meal by a pepper-box. The meal

the former, and although some of them at- contained nearly all the bran. It has a

tained a greater height, the spikes were not slightly yellowish tinge and is whiter than

so well developed. The average height of ordinary oatmeal. Of this darnel meal I

the stems was about three feet. The best baked a cake of 100 grains, dividing it into

had from sixteen to nineteen spikelets, and eight parts. Two of these parts (25 grains)

the best spikelets had nine fertile florets or I ate before breakfast (Oct. 8.) The taste is

seeds. similar to that of well-baked oat cake. To-

Into eight of the flowers when open, wards night I fancied that I felt a slight

some of the spores of a fungus growing upon grinding sensation in the stomach. What I

the ergot of oat grass (Arrhenatherum bulbo- had for dinner might have produced this : it

sum) were introduced in a fresh condition, lasted only for a few minutes. There was no

But none of the seeds so treated were ergo- giddiness nor any other symptom,

tized. Although superabundance of moisture 4. Oct 10. Ate 50 grains more of my

has been thought to favour the somewhat Darnel cake. Experienced no peculiar sen-

uncertain cause of ergot, yet notwithstanding sations of any kind, either in the stomach,

the presence of this agency in 1872, the bowels, or head.

grasses in general were much more ergotized 5. Oct 15. Made 100 grains of meal into pott-

in 187 1. And not above two dozen kernels age. It thickens about as much as wheat meal ;

of my darnel were affected. is of a gluey consistency ; the colour like rye-

The very imperfect microscopic analysis meal pottage \ with a taste not much different

which I have been able to make of the darnel from wheat-meal pottage, and certainly any-

LoUuni icniiUenlum— from "HortusGramlLeusWobumeiuis." Lolium lemulenlum of Pundl.

Lolium temulentum X93

thing but " acrid." I ate the loo grains with meaL The colour is dark brown. Rather
milk. No symptoms of any kind were ex- too much yeast and salt had been used, so
perienced. that the taste was less agreeable than it
6. Thus fer finding nothing poisonous, ought to have been, but still nowise " acrid.**
and knowing that in remote times the husks Oct 27. Ate two slices with butter at break-
er paleae of the cereal grains were incom- fast, containing about 42 grains of dry meaL
pletely removed from the meal, which might 1 was in no way aware of having taken any-
thus contain husks of Darnel, I tested their thing, peculiar.

husks. The husks of Darnel, it may be stated, 9- Next day I ate before breakfest the re-
correspond to those, of Barley and Oats, not mainder of my Darnel loaf, containing of dry
to the bran of Wheat and Rye. Of these meal about 348 grains weight No peculiar
husks 94 grains (the husks, of about 100 sensations either in the stomach, bowels,
seeds) were beaten up in a mortar with 70 head, or elsewhere were experienced,
grains of Darnel meal And as Lindley and Thus, between the 30th September and
others speak of fatal consequences resulting 28tK October I ate 561 grains of Darnel meal,
from Darnel mixed with Wheat flour, a smaU equal to about 3300 seeds, and 94 grains of
quantity of whole red Wheat meal was added Darnel husk, equal to the husks of about 3100
to the not very tempting mixture. Of this I seeds. The doses varied from 2 grains to 248.
baked an unfermented cake (Oct 17.) Ate In my case, therefore (not to generalize),
one-fourth of this cake, containing 23.5 of Darnel in such doses is not justly called
Darnel husk, 17.5 grains of Darnel meal, and '^temulentum;" its seeds and husks
about half an ounce of Wheat meal. No are not "infelix;" are not "nar-
symptoms followed. cotic ; " are not " acrid ; " are not '* un-

7. Oct 18. Ate part of the remainder of wholesome;" are not "injurious;" do not
my cake before breakfast and part after. The cause " delirium ; " do not produce " stupe-
amount of husk was 70.5 grains, and of Darnel faction ; " and are not '* poisonous ; " nor
meal 52.5 grains. In other words the husks productive of '' fatal results."

of 2000 seeds and the meal of 262. No sen- Whether the poisonous qualities attributed

sations or symptom^ of any sort were expe- to Darnel resided in the ergotized seeds of this

rienced. and the many other Grasses which infested the

8. I next baked 310 grains of Darnel meal, antient com fields, is a much more difficult
equal to about 800 seeds, with yeast in the inquiry.

usual way in which Wheaten bread is fer- We give engravings from Sinclair's " Hortus
mented and baked. Probably being whole Gramineus Wobumensis" and also from Par-
meal it did not swell much in baking. It nell's '^Grasses of Britain," illustrating the
behaved in a manner similar to whole Wheat figures of the Darnel Grass.

VOL.X.

194 The Country GefttUmatis Magazine

THE AGRICULTURAL CUSTOMS OF SURREY AND CHESHL

By Mr W. Street.*

THE present custom calls upon the in- torn ; and that were it to become the sul

coming tenant to pay the ofif-going of investigation, no court would reco^

tenant, in the majority of cases, a consider- any such practice, or do more than eni

able amount for labour alleged to have been such obligations as legally exist betweer

employed on the land, and a valuer is called landlord and jtenant To return, how<

in to ascertain what that amount shall be. to the practical effect of this custom : it

One very singular feature in this custom is, be stated that numerous instances can

that although the only legal relationship adduced where losses have been experiei

which the off-going tenant has, is solely that under its operation so considerable in am

which exists between himself and his land- as to lead to serious embarrassment, as

lord ; and although it is the privilege of the some cases to complete ruin,
landlord to see that the obligations, which by

lease or agreement have been entered into ^he custom as affectino the out-o<
between himself and the off-going tenant, have tenant.

been fully performed, yet the landlord rarely With respect, in the second place, tc

ever takes any steps for this purpose ; nor question as it relates to the off-going tei

does he, in fact, appear in the matter j the I am fully sensible of the fact that from

liabilities under the lease or agreement which circumstances under which he entered

he alone can legally enforce, are usually set occupation, and from the absence of adeq

at naught, and the lease or agreement itself security to continue an outlay on the fan

is, for the most part, if not wholly, ignored, the termination of his lease or other a]

Another feature in this custom — and one which ment, the off-going tenant is, under the c

pretty clearly manifests its irregularity, its ille- ing custom, placed in an unfavourable ]

gality, and its injustice— is, that although no tion. If he follows the example of n

legal relationship whatever exists between the farmers in this locality, and adopts a cc

off-going and the in-coming tenant, yet this of cultivation known as " high farming,'

system has originated and upholds the prac- other alternative seems open to him v

tice of calling upon the in-coming tenant not circumstances arise to necessitate his lea^

only to take the land in such condition as it than that of during the last two or t

may then happen to be, without any regard years of his tenancy reducing the ma

as to its then state of cultivation, or to the labour and horse-power on his farm to as

question whether or not the off-going tenant a point as practicable, and to abandon his

has fulfilled his obligations to his landlord, vious course of keeping a large stock,

but of also requiring him to pay to the off- growing a supply of food for home consi

going tenant for labour stated to have been lion, sufficient in quantity to maintain a

employed by him on the land, an amount system of feeding. In adopting the pre

which is generally increased in about an of exhausting the land to which he feels

equal ratio to the impoverished condition of self now driven, he doubtless disregards

the land arising from its recent bad manage- obligations to his landlord under his le

nr.ent. I venture to think that no court of but, if this is not legally defensible, it is a

law would uphold or countenance this cus- events very obviously accounted for by

fact that, when he entered upon the fai

Read before the Surrey Chamber of Agriculture, was in the same condition, or probably E

The AgricuUurat Customs of Sufi^ej^ and Clushlre I9S

worse than that in which he now proposes to tablished, receives its sanction and maintains
leave it, and that he was allowed no compen- its permanence in the kind of valuation to
sation by his landlord for the state in which which I have already adverted, and which I
it was given up to him — but that having, on trust will soon receive their final condemna<
the contrary, paid to the preceding tenant a tion. My conviction, however, is that land-
considerable sum for the possession of an lords must themselves be the originators oi
exhausted and impoverished farm, he con- the change : the power of effecting it legally
siders himself justified in preparing to adopt rests with them, but in seeking to accomplish
the same course towards his successor \ and it the equitable interests of those who, as
thus an evil, which originated in the violation existing tenants, are sufferers from a per-
and disregard of all obligations between land- petuated system of wrong, must, I venture to
lord and tenant, is perpetuated and main- say, be fuUy borne in mind, and adequately
tained, to the great disadvantage of both land- redressed. The true relationship which ought
lord and tenant, and also to the great disad- to exist between landlord and tenant has of
vantage of the community at large, which is late been made a matter of serious considera-
not a less important consideration. The tion by several local chambers of agriculture
highly objectionable character of this custom throughout the country, and it has also re-
has received a strong confirmation, in a con- cently engaged the attention of the Cen-
versation between myself and one of the tral Chamber. When we speak of the value
most able and intelligent farmers in the of unexhausted improvements, the nature
country. He stated that whilst fully concur- of these improvements should be clearly
ring with me in a condemnation of the sys- and succinctly defined. It may, for in-
tern, he felt that if he were leaving his farm stance, be stated that the erection of build-
he should be constrained, by the force of ings is properly and should be peculiarly a
necessity which the custom had imposed landlord's matter. Draining is usually done
upon him, to sell off during the last two or by the landlord, upon payment of interest on
three years of his tenancy several of his the outlay, or by allowance to the tenants oi
horses, and to dispense with the services of materials, or of a fixed sum to be allowed out
as many labourers as possible, and to make of the rent. Instances again occur in whicli
up his valuation and his claim upon the in- farms are let upon such condition, and foi
coming tenant in the highly objectionable such a term as to enable a tenant to make the
way now usually adopted. requisite improvements himself, without anj

equitable right or claim for compensatior
LANDLORDS : BUILDINGS AND UNEXHAUSTED from the landlord upon his leaving ; but wher<

MANURES. no such Consideration is provided for, and th<

In considering the question in the third tenant is found to require, and at his owr
place, as it relates to and affects the land- cost does make such improvements as ma)
lord, I cannot, in reflecting upon the evils of fairly be considered permanent, he would un
the custom now under consideration, refrain questionably be entitled to a fair lemuneratior
from expressing -my belief that it had its for them. With regard to that class of im
origin, and has maintained its continuance, provements which is said to add to the letting
mainly from the fact that landlords have in value of the land, and which has been sc
this manner stood too much aloof from taking much referred to of late by Chambers o
any action towards a correction of the system Agriculture and otherwise, the question o
thus adopted in the cultivation of their lands ; unexhausted manure and high tillages ha
and that in declining to redress a wrong done been so mixed up with it as to make it diffi
by the off-going tenant, they have practically cult to define its nature. I desire to trea
permitted the effects of this wrong to fall them as entirely separate questions, and :
upon the purses of the in-coming tenants, consider that the only way that the renta
A custom so erroneous having been once es- value of land should be considered to be in

1^6 TJu Country Gentletnan's Magazine

creased, would be by providing sufficient frequently adverted; and as a consequen

ccommodation of a good class of buildings, of the exhausting system of manageme

security of tenure, freedom of contract in which that system has perpetuated, the pi

the management of land, under well-defined ductive power of the soil has, in this coun

conditions; the getting rid of all useless alone, diminished to the extent which,

hedgerow timber, and useless hedges and money value, would represent from ^5000

rows, and proper draining where necessary. ;^6ooo per annum. Whether my assumpti<

We know it to be the opinion of many agri- as to the loss thus sustained is an approa

culturists, that a system of high farming kept to accuracy or not, the force of the argume

up to the close of the lease or agreement is not diminished, for the fact is undeniat

also adds to the letting value of the that a very considerable loss is by these mea

land; with this opinion I do not agree, sustained. Having thus considered t

The question of compensation for unex- merits of the present custom of making fai

hausted manures appears to me to be a more valuations, as it bears relatively upon c

simple one, especially in reference to the con- going and in-coming tenants, and upon lar

sumption of artificial food. There is pro- lords and the public generally, I will ventu

bably no county in which so much artificial upon a few concluding remarks. I trust

food is used in proportion to the acreage as may be assumed that this custom is tli

in Surrey, arising from the fact that the soil which prevails in this county, and that und

is not of itself sufficiently good to produce it valuations are made, as between off-goii

the quality of food necessary for fattening and in-coming tenants, on the basis and in t1

purposes without this additional aid ; nor manner I have described. My own knowled;

could the principle of high cultivation be and observation of the facts lead me to su

carried out in this county unless by the adop- mit to the Chamber the following considei

tion of this system. A necessity therefore tion: — Is it not a direct tendency of ti

exists for the case being met as liberally as custom that it so acts upon the off-goii

possible, and I would suggest that the off- tenant as to offer to him a premium up<

going tenant should be allowed for his ex- bad management at the close of his tenanc

penditure in cake consumed during the last in direct violation and disregard of his co

two years of his tenancy at the rate of 15 tract with his landlord? If so, is not tl

per cent, during the first year, and of 20 per in-coming tenant thus, at the outset of 1:

cent during the second year — such allowance career, placed in a position of great d

to be calculated on the sum expended ; and couragement at least, if not of embarrassmei

such expenditure not to exceed in any case by having, in compliance with the award

£2 per acre of the arable land, and that he the valuer, to pay his predecessor a sum f

should also be allowed for com used during alleged labour and cultivation, which, as

the same year, solely for feeding purposes, at have previously stated, is out of all proportic

the rate of 10 per cent, during the first year, to the advantages which he receives; and a

and of 15 per cent during the second period — not the interests of the landlord in seeii

the allowances to be made under well-defined that the land of which he is the owner is w<

regulations as to proof of consumption. cultivated, and the interests of the communi

in partaking of the produce of the soil to tl
full extent of its productive power, thus to
large extent con)promised ? I desire to r

I will now invite a consideration of the cognize the fact that the true interests of tl

question, as it affects the community at large, landlord and tenant are identical, and th,

In doing so I will assume that in this county the relationship which should exist betwee

there are from 300CJ to 4000 acres, which may them should provide for liberality, encourag

be fairly considered as coming annually under ment, and security on the one hand, and tf

the operation of the custom to which I have employment of the best means of cultivatic

THE SURREY CUSTOM INIMICAL TO AGRI-
CULTURAL PROGRESS.

TJu Agricultural Customs of Surrey and CJieshire 197

le other. This relationship, the existing outlay made in bone manure, for draining
mpracticallyto a large extent neutralizes; and for general improvements from which
[ trust that a proper basis of agreement they have not had sufficient time to realize a
be decided upon, which shall be adapted fair return ; and if this were the rule upon all-
pecial soils and special circumstances, estates in Cheshire, or in all occupancies of
)ut, as far as practicable, the necessity of land, nothing more could be asked. The
ig in the aid of the Legislature. cases which are most pressing for security of

capital invested in cultivation and improve-

le following 'remarks were incorporated ment of land by some means, and which have
paper read before the last meeting of mainly produced the public agitation of the
'heshire Chamber of Agriculture by the question, are where there is no written agree-
itary, Mr Thomas Rigby : — ^The purport ment between landlord and tenant (and these
e paper I read before this Chamber in cases are very numerous, much more so than
:mber last was to suggest that some is generally thought), where no landlord's
n should be taken by which the '^ custom " conditions to pay for unexhausted improve-
e country in regard to the occupation of ments exist in the agreement, and where they
in Cheshire should be clearly defined, exist consequent only upon the landlord
It an effort should be made to form such giving notice to quit to the tenant I know
istom " as might be considered just both that in very many of these cases the high and
ndowner and occupier, be encouraging honourable character of the landlord removes
:>od and enterprising cultivation, and all apprehension of unfisdr advantage being
night, in the lapse of a few years, attain taken, and I thoroughly sympathize with the
le power of law in insuring compensa- feeling which would prefer being the tenant
o tenants for unexhausted improvements, of such men without a line of writing than
)ayment to landlords for deterioration or have the stamped bond of a great many
idation of land or premises caused by others. I had the honour of holding a farm

neglect of tenants. My idea was that for fifteen years in this way under such a man,
ch custom were established it would one of our representatives in Parliament, and
te the necessity of Parliamentary inter- for whom I must always have the highest
:e, and leave intact that freedom of respect ; but in the majority of cases, and as
act in business matters which is very a business principle, it is always best to have
y the source of enterprise, and of the the duties and obligations of landlord
:ommercial position of this country, and and tenant clearly defined. A worse case
of the same opinion still It is said than those named is where the land-
he large and increasing population of lord's estate is entailed property, and where,

Britain calls upon the owiiers and cul- from want of interest in agriculture, want of
rs of land to develop its productive capital to pay for improvements made by the
r to the utmost ; and to this we all tenant upon quitting, or through absence of
L But it is doubtful if it could be interest in the welfare of his successor, the
so well by Act of Parliament as it might landlord is utterly indifferent about improve*
the efforts of landlords and tenants were ments being made. Many other cases worse
i together by reciprocal interests. than any of these also exist, and these are

mainly the cause of the plea for secured com-

LETTING LAND IN CHESHIRE. 1- u- i- i. i i. i

^ pensation which has lately arisen among

e general mode of letting and taking tenants, because they feel themselves unable

in Cheshire is by agreement from year to contend with them unless aided by some

U-, subject to six months' notice for ter- outside or superior power. I allude to the

ion, and in the written agreements on action of hard landlords (using the term in

estates there are landlords' conditions its popular meaning) where the uttermost

mpensation to tenants upon quitting for farthing is exacted for rent, where restrictions

198 The Country Gentleniatis Magazine

innumerable are made ostensibly to prevent last few months inflict damage upon a pro-
deterioration of land, but which cramp and perty which it takes years to restore. These
hinder enterprising action to the last degree, things prove also the landlord's right to pay-
and where good crops of com or high price ment for damage done to property and de-
obtained for cheese by superior skill or manu- terioration to its value by the neglect of
facture are regarded with a jealous eye by tenants. . The practical issue with which we
the landlord, and are regarded only as a are all concerned is how these two things
leason for raising the rent, where, through may best be done. How, on the one hand,
gambling or fast living on the part of the security of capital may be secured to tenants,
owner, an estate gets into the hands of men and payment for damage done by them to
who use its tenants just as they would use a landlords. How, in fine, greater skill in
sponge, from which they wish to extract the cultivation, more enterprise in management,
last drop of moisture. Where an estate is and ample capital may be attracted to the
sold and no allowance is made by the seller work of the farm, so as to increase its pro-
to his tenants, although they are conscious duction. And, on the other hand, how
he is making hundreds of pounds more for it estates may be committed in the trust to
in consequence of improvements made by others, with confidence that they shall not be
them; and where through false reports or abused. I would prefer improved arrange-
misconception of a tenant's conduct or ments of this character being effected by the
motives, or because he holds diflferent views mutual action of landlord and tenant in de-
to his landlord in politics or on the subject vising terms of agreement, or by forming
of church government, he is made to feel schedules of rates of compensation to both
himself the subject of suspicious distrust, parties, upon the termination of tenancies, if
and bye-and-bye is visited with a notice to it could be done, and become the rule of
quit. general practice, than by rigid law. The

proposal is not new nor by any means

DEVISING A SCHEME OF COMPENSATION. ^jgj^u ^f arrangement, if both parties come

I make these remarks solely to prove the to it in the spirit of fairness and candour,
case of compensation for unexhausted im- Many landowners have embodied scales of
provements to tenants upon quitting farms compensation in their agreements, or have
(when due) being provided for from some acted so long upon them that they have
source, as a necessity or as an inducement to become a " custom " on their estates, and, as
better farming, when the landlord's sense of such, must be respected and confirmed by
justice does not prompt him to do it giace- their successors, and these would be a great
fully. It is, however, only one side of the help. He concluded by suggesting the follow-
picture, and only one part of the agreement ing resolution: — ** That, with a view to estab-
we came to by our resolution on this subject lish tenant-right in Cheshire upon a basis of
in October last. Many tenants act most un- justice both to landowner and tenant, this
fairly by their landlord's property, both under Chamber do meet to construct a schedule of
an agreement and in the absence of an agree- rates of compensation to tenants upon
ment, also by neglect of ordinary repairs of quitting for improvements made upon their
premises or fences, by an exhaustive course farms, either with or without the consent of
of cropping without adequate return of the owner, and for which they have not re-
manure, by slovenly and indolent cultivation, ceived an adequate return by lapse of time,
by inconsiderateness of spirit towards the such compensation to be paid by the owner
rights of property, and when visited by a or by the in-coming tenant, less the amount
notice to quit, which has been given by much of any damage which may be done to the
patience and in pure self-defence by the land- property or premises by his neglect or bad
lord, they not unfrequently annoy him in husbandry."
»vprv possible way, and sometimes in the The resolution was adopted.

Thi Country Gmtlemofis Magazine 199

FINGER'AND'TOE IN TURNIPS. 1

A SUGGESTION FOR ITS PREVENTION.

HE Kincardineshire Turnip Club mem- No. 2 is similar, but generally lighter, and

bers have given in interesting ac- part of it subject to be flooded by Uie Luther

s of their mode of culture. We select when in spate. These fields were in turnips

:count of Mr Brand, Mains of Fordoun, in the year 1864, and were very bad with

gained the first prize in the western finger-and-toe disease. I resolved to try a

r.t, as it deals with this annoying disease, longer shift so as to prevent, if possible, that

uote the report fi-ora the Aberdeen Free disease — the farm being then all on the fifth

; — course of cropping. These two fields were

I. I field — Contents, nearly 11 imperial kept three years in grass and pastured. They

, sown with swedes, and about 2}i lb. were broken up in 1869, and sown in oats,

icre of the variety called Hogg's im- next year potatoes, last year wheat, this year

:d. Sowing commenced on the sth May, turnips, and no finger-and-toe on No. i,

^as completed on the 25th. This field unless the headlands. No. 2 has portions

2 loads of farmyard manure, and 4X affected with finger-and-toe, which were

of Lawes' turnip manure and ground flooded by the Luther last winter. These

> mixed, per imperial acre. No 2 field two fields were cultivated by the steam

ining about 10 imperial acres, sown with plough in the spring of 1870. No. 3 is

). per acre of green-top yellow about the generally a much deeper soil than the two

le of June. This field was manured with former fields, but with a gravel subsoil, and

ads of farmyard manure per acre, and part of it liable to be flooded by the Luther.

)f the field got 4X cwt. Lawes' turnip This field was last in turnips in 1866. There

re ; the other half got the same quantity was very little finger-and-toe in it that year,

merville's turnip manure per acre. No. but I attributed its absence to having given

d contains about 25 acres, 8 acres of this field about 8 bolls of lime per acre

I were sown with swedes of the champion before the barley was sown, as when it was in

:y. The other 17 acres were sown with turnips five years before it was very bad with

-top yellow. The swedes were got in finger and-toe disease. This field was three

e ist of June, and the yellows by the years in grass and pastured, and last winter was

►f June. The swedes got 12 loads of ploughed firom stubble, and cultivated in the

ard manure per acre, and 4^ cwt. of spring 1 1 inches deep by the steam plough,

s' manure and bones mixed, with the I observe that portions of this field, where

►tion of 2>^ acres, which got the same water lay some time last winter, are affected

ity of Vicar's turnip manure per acre, with finger-and-toe disease. No 4 is mostly

yellows got 10 loads of farmyard all clay, and was drained in the year 1858,

re and 4X cwt. of Lawes' turnip manure and is quite dry. The turnips were affected

ere. No. 4 field, of about 10 acres, sown with finger-and-toe to some extent six years

green-top yellows. Sowing commenced ago. It has been three years in grass and

: the middle of June, and was finished pastured, and, notwithstanding it being late

irst week of July. This field got a this year in getting in the turnips, there is a

ire of Peruvian guano and bones, half of very dose crop, and much better than I ever

— 4j4 cwt. per acre. No. i field is a saw on it before. This field was grubbed

oam about 1 2 inches deep, with gravelly with four horses out of the winter fuirow, and

»il, quite dry, and not reqtiiring draining. I have not cross-ploughed the winter fiirn

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

e green crop for some years, but have trating. My reason for this opinion is, that

' cultivated with steam, or grubbed with I have observed that where water has been

lorses, before preparing for the seed. In standing on the ploughed land, and where

usion, I may now state the opinion I the land has been trampled and carted on,

formed as to the probable prevention of such as head ridges, these places become

r-and-toe disease, from the mode of cul- invariably affected with finger-and-toe disease.

I have described in the foregoing state- I may mention the way I mix ground bones

: — ist The sixth course, say three years' with the other manures. I first deposit the

before breaking up, and I think what bones in a heap, and saturate them with

d be better, the eighth shift as described liquid manure from a tank inside the court,

OS. I and 2 fields, and where the soil and where no rain water gets into the tank ;

potatoes. 2d. More fi-equent applica- then cover up the heap to exclude air; let it

of lime, in quantities suited to the soil, alone for some days, until fermentation takes

this farm it requires not more than eight place ; then turn the heap until the bones are

n bolls to the acre. If more is given it dry ; then mix perfectly with the other

es segging in the oat crop. There are manures, the quantities being equal ; then

r causes probably for the disease of bag up this mixture in 3 cwt each bag, ready

;r-and-toe, of which we are ignorant, but for sowing.
\ of opinion that the virulence of the
3se this season is partly caused by the
sme wetness of the weather, and es-
ally on fields where water has been
ding for a time, thereby closing the pores

le soil, and preventing the au: from pene- Do.,YeUows

WEIGHT OP TURNIPS PER ACRE.

Weight of Weight of Total.
Tops. Bulbs.

No. T. C. Q. LB.

T. C Q. LB.

T. C. Q.LB.

z, Swedes... 3 zz z so
3, Yellows... 4 zz z 3o
3, Swedes... 5 5 3 24
Do.,Yellows 4000

3Z 3 3 Z3
Z7 5 3 34
3Z 5 3 34

z8 Z7 z6

34 Z4 z 4
3z 77 z6

36 zz Z 90
83 Z7 Z6

TULLS THEORY ABOUT LAND PRODUCTIVENESS. .

T the present time, when an increased state of amalgam as it were, which needs to

L productiveness of the soil is so per- be torn asunder by the action of manure,

jringly aimed at by the judicious use of The same principle of tenacity exists in a

ous manures, it has occurred to us that a modified degree in all cultivated land even,

lit notice of some of the first principles This may be remedied by separate indi-

nected with the art of the husbandman vidual treatment, which we propose to con-

r prove acceptable to many of our readers, sider relatively, both by the action of manure

Ls is commonly known, the earth in its and pulverization of the soil, the merits of

inary^ condition contains in itself all the which latter process were fully made

nents that are needed for the growth and known by Jethro TuU — the originator of

port of the various plants, which is ferti- horse-hoeing husbandry — whom Cobbett so

d to an extra degree by certain kinds of manfully defended against adverse critics

itment permitting it to benefit more many years ago.

\y at times by the action of the elements. The nature of chemical manures was not
: under other conditions, say in the case understood in the days to which we have re-
bog land, although all the necessary ferred,sowellasitisnow,butTull'ssy8temwas
redients which constitute the food of substantially correct, and was built upon this
Qts are contained in it, it remains hypothesis : that all sorts of dung and com-
ruitful, by reason of its being held in a post contain matter which, when mixed with

TuWs Theory about Land Productiveness 201

the soil ferments there, and by such ferment It has been observed by a writer, that too

dissolves, crumbles, and divides the earth much earth, or too fine earth, can never pos-

very much. This is the chief and only sibly be given to roots, for they never receive

use of dung ; for as to the pure earthy so much of it as to surfeit the plant, unless it

part of it, the quantity is so very be deprived of leaves, which, as lungs, should

small, that after a perfect putrefaction, purify it, and earth is so surely the food of

it appears to bear a most inconsiderable pro- plants, that with the proper share of the other

portion to the soil it is designed to manure, elements which each species of plant requires,

and therefore, in that respect, amounts to so any common earth will nourish any plant,

little as to be next to nothing, its fermenting according to the different degrees of richness

quality being chiefly owing to the salts where- or moisture each soil possesses, the plants,

with it abounds ; but a very little of this salt themselves differing from one another as

applied alone to the roots of almost any plant much as possible in their various degrees of

will kill it Vegetable dung, unless the heat and moisture. Modem science shews

vegetable be buried alive in the soil, makes us that there really is no such thing as any

a much less ferment in it, and consequently, solid matter, &c, thus we know, that what

divides the earth less than animal dung does, is often termed a bar of solid iron, is posi-

The action of the dung's ferment affords a tively a mass of atoms in an unceasing whirl;

warmth to the infant plants in their most and although the constituent molecules of

tender state and the most rigorous seasons, lead and steel can be compressed nearer

and common tillage alone is not sufficient for together by the energetic persuasion of

many sorts of corn, especially wheat, but he Bramah's hydraulic press* and Nasmyth's

proceeds to argue that many sorts of roots steam hammer, when these mighty engines

and produce can be made to grow luxuriantly have done their utmost, there still remain

without the application of manure at all, if yawning gulphs between the contiguous par-

the ground is pulverized thoroughly after the tides ; but yet the soil possesses sufficient

new system that he was then recommending, solidity, under certain conditions, as to be

/.d, horse-hoeing. impenetrable to the delicate roots of plants

As many did in the day in which TuU wrote, which travel in search of their proper and

so will many now, deny the correctness of his natural nourishment

theory, and contend that the application of The theory of TuU is, that by nature the

manure actually supplies to the land what whole earth (or soil) is composed of separate

the growth of the previous crop has taken out parts ; and if these had been in every place ab-

of it ; but there cannot be the most remote solutely joined, it would have been without

doubt as to the correctness of his principle of interstices or pores, and would have had no

the great advantages to be derived from the internal superficies or pasture for plants ; but

thorough and complete pulverization' of the since it is not so strictly dense, there must

soil be interstices a tall these places where the

Tull's general principles affecting this plants remain separate and divided. These
method of cultivation are these : — ^That the internal superficies of the earth he considers
chief art of a husbandman is to feed plants to iht pasture^ so to speak, of plants,
the best advantage, and to do that properly These interstices, by their number and
he must know what constitutes their food, lai^geness, determine the specific gravity of
It is generally agreed that nitre, water, air, every soil The larger they are the lighter
fire, and earth all contribute to the mcrease the soil, and the inner superficies are com-
of plants, and plants of a different nature are monly the less. The mouths or lacteals,
fed by a different sort of nourishment, while being situate and open in the convex super-
each plant takes up and appropriates to itself ficies of roots, take their pabulum, being
by the law of nature those particles that are fine particles of earth, fix>m the superficies of
proper to its existence. the pores or cavities wherein the roots are

202 The Country Gentleniafis Magazine

included ; and it is certain that the earth is roots, especially of weak plants, are exd

not divested or robbed of this pabulum by from many of these cavities, and so los<

any other means than actual fire, or the roots benefit of them, while none of the vege

of plants. pasture is lost or injured by the artii

For when no vegetables are suffered to but on the contrary it is mended by 1

grow in a soil, it will always become richer, mixed with it, and by having a greater

firom the familiar process, as it is termed, of munication between pore and pore,
lying fallow. Plough it, harrow it, as often The artificial pasture consists in super

as you please — expose it to the sun in sum- of cavities that are pervious to all mann

mer, and to the frost in winter; let it be roots, and which affords them free passage

covered by water in the bottom of ponds or entertainment in and through all theirrec<

ditches, or if you grind dry earth to powder, Roots may here extend to the utmost wii

the longer it is kept exposed, or heated by meeting with any barriers in their way.

these or any other methods possible (except internal superficies, which is the natural

actual burning by fire), instead of losing, it ture of plants, is like the external, or su

will gain the more fertility. of the earth, whereon is the pasture of c

These particles, which are the pabulum of in that it cannot be enlarged without

plants, are so very minute, that Sir Isaac tion of more surface taken from land ac

Newton thinks it will require a microscope, ing to it, by enlarging its bounds or li

that represents objects five or six hundred But the artificial pasture of plants mi

times bigger at the distance of a foot than enlarged without any addition of more

they appear to the naked eye, to increase or enlarging of bounds, and this by di\

the relative size of these corpuscules, and they only of the same earth,
are so light as not to be singly attached And this artificial pasture may be inert

to the earth (according to Tull), if sepa- in proportion to the division of the pai

rated fi-om those parts to which they adhere,- earth, whereof it is the superficies, which

or with which they are in contact (like dust sion may be mathematically infinite ; fc

to a looking-glass, tmn it upwards or down- atom is nothing; neither is there a more

wards it will remain affixed to it) as these impossibility in nature, than to reduce ix

particles do to the parts, until from thence to nothing by division or separation c

removed by some agent. parts.

A plant cannot separate those particles At the time Tull wrote, advocatin]

from the parts to which they adhere without system of the horse-hoe, he illustratec

the assistance of water, which helps to loosen working of his method by various genera

them, and it is also probable that the nitre of particular instances and examples, in

the air may be necessary to relax these super- case giving the familiar instance of a

ficies to render the prolific particles capable man who was observed to have his cabi

of being thence disjoined, and this action of much larger and finer than his neighb

the nitre seems to be what is called impreg- though their ground was richer and t

nating the earth. dunged. His neighbours were amaze

The artificial pasture of plants is that inner it, until the secret at length came out, a

superficies which is made from dividing the was only this — as other people hoed

soil by art ; the natural pasture is not only cabbages with a hand-hoe, he, instead

less than the artificial in an equal quantity his with a spade,
of earth, but also that little, consisting in the Another instance is one of an unplov

superficies of pores, or cavities, not having piece of land, where a dunghill had lai

a free communication with one another, are two or three years. This, after the rer

less pervious to the roots of all vegetables, of the heap, was planted with turnips

and require a |; greater force to break horse-hoed. The other portion of the

'hrough their partitions. By that means was hand*hoed, and prospered best at thf

Tuirs Theory about Land Productiveness 203

bat in the end the roots m individual size Some experiments made previous to the

and general crop did not amount to the fifth time of which Tull wrote, are related by

part of the tilled and horse-hoed land. Evelyn, of artificially pulverizing some of

Another proof he brought forward was of the poorest land in England and Holland,
several acres of turnips drilled on the land, proved the correctness of his views, the
at 3 feet rows, ploughed and doubly dunged, truth of which, he says, is also further con-
also horse-hoed, did not produce near so finned by other authors, who have found that
good a crop of turnips as 6 feet ridges adjoin- highway dust alone is a manure preferable to
ing, horse-hoed, though no dung had been dung. And these pulverizations being made
laid thereon for many years. There was no by attrition, or contusion, he asks the ques-
other difference than that the 3 feet rows did tion, Why should not our instruments of pul-
not admit the hoe-plough to raise half the verization in time reduce a sufficient part of
artificial pasture as the 6 feet rows did. The the staple of a dry, friable soil, to a dust equal
dung ploughed into the narrow intervals to that of a highway ?
before drilling could operate no further with Our modem husbandmen have had the
any great effect than the hoe-plough could great benefit of a more widely diffused know-
turn it up, and help it in its pulverization. ledge of agricultural matters since the days

Dung, without tillage, can do very little ; of Tull, and many theories, which were then

with some tillage, does something ; with only theories, have had a practical solution

much tillage, pulverizes the soil in less time since. Nevertheless, agriculture lies under a

thjin tillage alone can do ; but the tillage considerable debt of gratitude to him for the

alone, with more time, can pulverize as well application of his horse-hoeing system.

THE INCREASE OF DISEASES AMONG STOCK.

By Mr E. Whittle.*

THE great increase of infectious and con- tinned and systematic introduction into this
tagious diseases amongst our stock, the country. In speaking of infectious and con-
heavy losses sustained by the owners, and the tagious diseases, we should consider them as
consequent increase of the price of meat, milk, distinct Contagion means the transmission
and butter, make the subject one of national to an animal in health morbid germs which
importance. I do not intend to go into the have been developed in a diseased animal ;
curative means for these diseases, but to draw whilst infection is the latent germ of a disease
attention to the preventive means which our attached to- any matter — stalls, litter, &c.,
Government ought to use, for " prevention is awaiting, like other seed, for suitable means
better than cure." There may be some per- to bring it into life. We all know some of
sons even now who contend that tlie diseases us are more susceptible of colds than others,
we call foreign, such as foot-and-mouth, and some of fevers. So with animals ; and
pleuro-pneumonia, and rinderpest, are spon- often do we remark that amongst cattle and
taneous and atmospheric, indigenous to the sheep some escape diseases, and many only
soil. Without doubt, they are each imported get it by contagion and not by infection,
diseases, are each infectious and contagious, This subject of infection and contagion is of
and the utmost vigilance is requisite to be great importance, for using disinfectants for
exercised, in order to guard against their con- infection, and isolation of cattle for contagion,
« Scad bdcKetiie Doidicster Fwmcn* Onb. ^^ ^e means which ought to be adopted bx

204 '^he Country Gentleman* s Magazine

stamping out the fearful periodical diseases quarter more for unreported diseased animals

which, for over thirty years, have caused more you would be nearer the mark of the losses

loss of meat and products than our importa- sustained by stockholders in this countiy for

tion of stock, had it been double what it was. the past year. I have endeavoured to shew

If we take the return of live stock importa- you that the losses to this county, England

tion for the last seven years, we find that the and Scotland, equal j^i,ooo,ooo over our

greatest number of animals was imported in importations ; and I want the consumers of

1865, when meat ruled at a high price, and the meat to understand that when we ask for

smallest number in 1868, when it was much stringent measures to be adopted in r^;aid

lower ; and it is a fact worth noticing that to imported animals, those measures are so

the price appears to regulate our importation, much, if not more, for the benefit of pater-

In 1865 the importation of cattle, calves, familias as for the owners of stock. In fact,

sheep, and pigs amounted to ;£6,55o,63o; the Times of October 22 states there is much

the importation, in 1868, to ;^2,474,455, reason to believe that the loss of English

making a total of ;^9,o25,o8s, and an average animals by imported diseases has been

yearly value of importation of ;f4,5 12,542. greater, during the last ten years, not only

Our exportations averaged about ;£4,Soo,ooo in money value, but also in number and in

weight of flesh, than the whole importation

LOSS SUSTAINED BY IMPORTED DISEASES. during the SamC period.

Now let us see as nearly as we can the
estimate of the loss sustained by these im- a remedy for such losses.

ported diseases. Professor Gamgee has Having considered our losses — can a

stated that during the last thirty years our remedy be suggested? I fear not, unless

losses have been ;^3oo,ooo,ooo, or nearly strong pressure is put on Government by

half the National Debt Mr Kilby, from ourselves and the public to insist on a minister

circulars sent out to agriculturil societies and of agriculture being appointed. I will quote

chambers of agriculture, estimates the loss at you Mr Read's words in an able lecture some

^^100,633,795, or about an average of over time since given : — "That no real or penna-

-;£5»5oo,ooo, or the loss of over ;£i,ooo,ooo nent redress could be hoped for until there

beyond our importations by these diseases, was a department of the Board of Trade

Let us take the returns for our own county especially devoted to agriculture." The

just issued for the past year for animals at- foreign cattle question has never been fisurly

tacked with foot-and-mouth disease. We discussed in Parliament ; Ministers have not

find that 135,607 were attacked, 1518 died, put proper restrictions for the slaughter or

rnfti*. r,«f -^ «„ ^ e .X. quarantine of imported animals — in fiact, I

CatUe, put at quarter of the am- , . , , , ,• 1 i_ •. %# t- J

mals attacked, 33,910 at ^^^^^ ^^^^ *^"°^ ^^^^^^ about it. Mr Forster,

£^ *. ;fi35i6o4 ^^ ^^y ^^^> received at the Privy Council

Quarter of those 15 18 which died office a deputation of butchers, and he

Ti'tik ^^^' '''' ^^"""^ ^^' actually told them he did not beUeve the

^»^ cattle disease could be stamped out Docs

Sheep, ditto, three-quarter^ he consider that twelve hours' quarantme is

101,703 at los Z5o8« sufficient for finding out diseases? Is he

Sheep, three-quarters died, at ' aware that the germ of foot-and-mouth disease

50s., 1138 2,845 may be from thirty-six hours to seven days

£SZ*^ before shewing itself; that rinderpest may be

" from one week to three ; that pleuro-pnea-

£ 190, 140 jjjQjjj^ jjj^y ljg £i.Qj^ Qjjg jQ ibxtt to six weeks?

Or nearly ;^2oo,ooo loss to the county by If he is aware of these facts, why does he not

disease in the past 'year, and this from re- act on them by slaughter and longer quaian-

)orts furnished by the police. If you add a tine-^by the thorough disinfection of aU

The Increase of Diseases among Stock 205

and wharves ? and especially should When it breaks out on our farms the stock

skins be disinfected And now as to in that place should be isolated^ and not a

me measures to be adopted. Kinder- single head allowed to be moved off or any

s stamped out by killing all diseased fresh sent in till one clear week after all are

contact; for pleuro-pncumonia, all well. The penalty should be heavy for

d killed at once, and the rest isolated moving stock away from a farm where

ve come in contact Now came the disease has broken out, and animals taken

d-mouth disease, which causes to us should be separated from the rest It has

lan twice as much loss as the pleuro- been suggested that all cattle dealers should

onia and the rinderpest together. We be licensed. Certain it is that by their con-

reland the disease, and she now re- stantly moving animals from fair to fair, or

t with interest First of all we should market to market, the disease is much in-

11 Irish stock nanowly inspected on creased. Can we not come to some resolu-

ler side, and have, at any rate, one tion to petition Parliament on measures

quarantine on landing, and a separate which should be adopted to stamp out all

for them should be established, foreign diseases?

BORDER LEICESTERS.

R USHER, Stodrig, Kelso, gives a the greatest quantity of fat with the smallest

very interesting account of the consumption of food in the shortest time, is

r Leicester in the Field. He says: — an acknowledged fact About the year 1760

cing the origin of the breed 'of sheep Bakewell commenced letting his rams for the

ommonly called Border Leicesters, it season at something like a sovereign each ;

almost a work of supererogation to prove but so rapidly did their reputation increase

ley are descended from a flock known that in little more than twenty years they had

Bakewell or Dishley breed; and the risen about 100 per cent, and in a few years

iirectly their lineage can be traced to more the demand or mania for the breed was

3ck, and their exemption from the in- such that seeming fabulous prices are said to .

tion of any other strain proved, the have been realized — as much as ;Ciooo for

:hey are generally allowed to be dis- the season for a single sheep. They thus

jhed by symmetry of frame and purity gradually found their way into other localities ;

3od. The breed owed its existence the first draft of them into the Border counties

Robert Bakewell, of Dishley, in York- being introduced by the Messrs Cully, who

by a course of systematic experiments, migrated thither from the county of Durham

enced about the year 1755 ^ crossing in 1767. The immediate followers of the

i Leicesters — said to have been " large Messrs Cully were Messrs Thomson, Chil-

animals, with an abundance of fleece, lingham ; Jobson, Chillingham Newton ;

fair disposition to fatten " — ^with other Robertson, of Ladykirk ; Smith, Lear-

'oolled breeds, probably possessing mouth; Compton, New Learmouth; Smith|

r frames and more symmetrical propor- Norham ; Riddell, Timpendean, &c.
he in the course of years worked them Whether some of the early breeders of Lei-

a new breed. That he ultimately, cesters in the Border counties, m imitation of

;ded in establishing a distinct breed, Bakewell's system, tried still further to im-

listinguishing feature bemg a capability prove them by crossing in with the Cheviot, a

Kludng, compared with other breeds, breed possessing fine style and quality >

2o6 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

whether the change in their general appearance width than depth, showing a tendency to cany
is due to selecting animals of the pure breed, the mutton high, and with belly straight,
iiigh on the leg, with white faces and clean significant of small offal; the leg straight, with
bone \ and whether the soil and climate have a fair amount of bone, clean and fine, free
had their influence — are questions that can fi-om any tuftiness of wool, and of a uniform
never be satisfactorily answered. Certain it whiteness with the face and ears. They
is that the distinguishing features of the York- ought to be well clad all over, the belly not
shire and Border Leicesters, though sprung excepted, with wool of a medium texture,
from the same source, have diverged con- with an open //>/, as it is called, towards
iiderably ; the former now shewing a blueness the end. In handling, the bones should be all
in their faces and a tuftiness in their legs, covered ; and particularly along the back and
while the latter are white and clean in both, quarters (which should be lengthy) there
and more what are generally called upstanding should be a uniform covering of flesh, not
sheep. As the Bakewell breed in early times pulpy, but firm and muscular. The wool,
are described as having white faces and legs, especially on the ribs, should fill the hand
we leave readers to draw their own inference, well. When the above conformation is at-
Our hypothesis, that the Cheviot may have tained, the animal generally moves with a
been used by the early breeders, is suggested graceful and elastic step, which, in the
by our having seen, within these few years, a Leicester sheep, as well as in the human
lot of tups bought as pure Leicesters, which species, constitutes " the poetry of motion,"
we happened to know were only the third and without which animals, even of high class
cross from a very fine specimen of the Cheviot in any breed, cannot now attain the chief
tup. The said sheep shewed a style and honours in the show-yard,
conformation rarely equalled, and were par- The above may not suit the taste of all
ticularly good in their necks and heads. Our Leicester breeders. There has been a ten-
opinion, however, is, that the flocks tracing dency in later times to attempt to improve
the closest lineal descent fi-om the Dishley, the breed by crossing with sheep of looser
untainted by any other strain of blood, frame, and wool of an opener and stronger
selected and crossed with taste and judgment, staple. Such attempts have generally ended
tended with care, and " all appliances and in failure, the strain of blood producing tender
means to boot," are still the best in the heads, weak necks and loins, and lack of
Border district. When so bred, they possess constitution, and taking many years of care-
the following conformation: — The head of fair ful and judicious management to eradicate.
size, with profile slightly aquiline, tapering to Our opinion is, that in all such attempts,
the muzzle, but with strength of jaw and wide the coarseness, if any, should be on the dam's
nostril ; the eyes full and bright, shewing both side, and that the sire should invariably be of
docility and courage ; the ears of fair size, and symmetrical form and pure blood ; nay, more,
well set ; the neck thick at the base, with we think that where an apparent increase in
good neck vein, and tapering gracefully to the weight of fleece and frame has been at-
where it joins the head, which should stand tained, it frequently proves fallacious when
well up ; the chest broad, deep, and well brought to the test of the scales, the extra
forward, descending from the neck in a per- open fleece wei/;hing lighter than that of a
pendicular line ; the shoulders broad and open, medium texture, and the larger and looser
but shewing no coarse points; from where frame, when stripped of the offal, than the
the neck and shoulders join to the rump more compact, on the same principle as the
should describe a straight line, the latter being bone of the thoroughbred horse exceeds in
fully developed ; in both arms and thighs the specific gravity the poi-ous bone of the
flesh well let down to the knees and hocks ; Clydesdale.

the ribs well sprung from the backbone in a There is nothing in the general feeling and

fine circular arch, and more distinguished by management of the Border Leicesters differ-

Border LHcesters

207

ing materially from that of other breeds.
They require good land and good shelter,
and, having these, will live and thrive on a
small quantity of food. Having a strong
tendency to fatten, they arrive at early matu-
rity, and are capable of producing a greater
quantity of wool and mutton in a given time
than almost any other breed. Their mutton,
however, does not stand high in mercantile
value, being coarse in the grain and tallow}'
in the fat Time was when it found a ready
market among the pitmen in collieries. A
story is still extant of one of them, when pur-
chasing a portion of a cast ewe with several
inches of fat on the rib, on being asked if it
was not too fat for him, exclaimed, " Fat ! I
care na if it war as fat as atween Newcastle
and the Scottish Border." Time has brought
its changes to the pitman, as to other mem-
bers of society ; higher wages and more lei-
sure enable him to participate in the growing
luxuries of the age, and while on gala days
he relishes his leg of Cheviot or Southdown,
his old titbit is only fit for melting into tallow.
The worth of the Leicester sheep does not,
however, depend on its value as mutton. In
all well-bred flocks the great bulk of the lambs
on the male side are kept for tups, and in
like manner the tops on the fdmale side for
breeding purposes. Tims only a limited
portion of each, the cast ewes and tups of a
certain age find their way into the butcher
market Their intrinsic value consists in the
crossing profitably with Cheviot, blackfaced,
Southdown, &c The latter are not culti-
vated extensively in Scotland or the Border
counties, being generally considered too
tender for the climate. The cross with the
blackfaced makes fine sheep at two years old,
yielding mutton of fine flavour ; that with the
Cheviot also comes to fair maturity at the
same age, getting to great weight with mutton
of good quality. This cross also forms the
foundation for another by breeding from half-
bred ewes with the Leicester tup, and produc-
ing what are called three-parts bred sheep.
For this purpose all the tops of the half-bred
lambs are kept, and command a higher price
than any other. On most lands of fair aver-
age quality, where a portion of turnips can

be grown, half-bred ewes are kept Their
produce being a cross nearer the Leicester,
their development is rapid ; they are generally
forced forward for the butcher market at one
year old, or little over ; and, in fact, form the
great bulk of the mutton that now feeds our
teeming population. Early maturity and
quick returns are the order of the present
day.

Flocks of pure-bred Leicesters are now not
confined to the Border counties, but have
found their way, wherever soil and climate
suit their profitable cultivation, throughout
Scotland, even to the " far north," and auction
marts for the sale of tups exist in many locali-
ties. Edinburgh, for numbers, now treads
closely on the heels of Kelso ; but for sheep
of first-class quality Kelso still bears the palm.
There, each September brings together up-
wards of 2000, and merchants from all parts
of the United Kingdom. The position of
the lots in four auction rings is arranged by
ballot, and four auctioneers simultaneously
sell single sheep at the rate of one in the
minute for more than seven hours. The
highest rate is generally attained by Mr
Penny, who sells about seventy in the hour,
including stoppages and concise preliminary
remarks, and finishes in his strong vernacular
with a voice as clear as a bell. Lord Pol-
warth's (Mertoun), Miss Stark's (Mellendean),
Rev. — Bosanquet*s (Rock), and other crack
lots always hold a levee, and thin other rings
during their sale. The bidding seldom flags,
there being customers for all sorts — tup
breeders taking the choicest specimens —
breeders of half and three-parts bred stock
choosing sheep of large frame and open wool ;
of the blackfaced cross, those with closer
skins ; fat lamb breeders, sheep of good
quality, though lacking wool below; while
some, contented with a quadruped, if only
cheap (alas for them !) fight it out with the
butcher and local dealer. It is interesting to
the close observer to note the change in the
various lots from year to year, some from a
bad cross, or untoward local circumstances,
losing caste, while others come to the fore,
shewing the great difficulty of keeping the
character of a flock at a uniform standard.

2o8 The Country Gentleman's Magazme

THE FEEDING AND\^ANAGEMENT OF HORSES.

VARIOUS instances are on record that Avoid Disease, and Save Money " (Wame

certain inventions have been matured & Co.), and finding its matter useful, has

and brought to light almost at the same time taken advantage of it to a purpose. But he

by two individuals, quite unknown to each is, unintentionally no doubt, rather late with

other, both totally ignorant of the occupation, his information, and also unconscious of cer-

design, or intention of the rival in genius, tain incidents connected with it We will

and both probably residing at a great dis- proceed to notice these in order, as suggested

tance apart. Subsequent facts, which are by the ^urangement of his paper,

usually produced, decide such questions Mr Womack introduces his subject by a

generally so as to render doubt at all un- somewhat ambiguous preamble which is so

necessary. We have, however, yet to learn distinctly different in style to the following

that two persons, quite unknown to each part, that the most superficial observer will

other, at a distance of 300 miles apart, sit readily detect the fact on a second residing,

down and choose the same subject, write the Having delivered himself of a sudden and

same words, use the same punctuation, the somewhat heavy burst of experience, he

major differences being that the subject in plunges at once into the pages of the volume

one instance reaches the ears of the public referred to, and quotes (p. 12), "Almost

at one period, while the second person waits every one knows that much more food," &c,

about four or five years before making his which he has ingeniously altered from

bow before l^hem, and ingeniously tries to turn " Every one almost," &c, which doubtless he

sentences inside out, front behind, or hind considers an improvement. Brevity is evi-

before, and by so doing to produce a kind of dently the aim of Mr Womack, even at the

novelty which will amuse and keep off expense of making himself understood. He

weariness. says, "This illustration serves to shew,"

Yet something of this kind has been done while the context is " These illustrations,"

in connexion with the above heading. one only being quoted, whereas others are

A short time ago, a paper, " On the Feed- given as necessary to prove the fact adduced
ing and Management of Horses," was read Several sentences and even whole paragraphs
before the Chester-le-Street Farmers' Club, follow, taken from the immediate neighbour-
by Mr Womack, V.S. At the time these hood of those already quoted, and these are
were given we looked upon them as genuine, dexterously turned round and twisted, while
resting as we did on the presumed position some are joined together very admirably in-
and respectability of the author, but after deed.

subsequent examination and thought we dis- From p. 13, Mr Woinack leaps to p. 63,

covered something about those remarks that and there gives entire paragraph No. 4, and he

appeared to be familiar, and the more we alters the concluding words, '' an outline of

read the more we are convinced of the fact which is as follows :" to "an outline of which

that the greater part of the observations are I give."

direct plagiarisms, abstracted from a popular Part of the table following, which appears

work issued in 1868, of which some thousands on page 64, is given, having first abstracted

of copies were sold. Mr Womack has evi- linseed and barley, and removed each article

dently invested a shilling in the brochure^ en- from the order of its nutritious value so as to

titled, " The Horse : How to Feed him, render it somewhat new. Then he quotes

The Feeding and Management of Horses

209

three paragraphs following relating to maize
and oats, cropping out a word here and there
according to taste.

Having exhausted page 64, our author
makes another leap — this time to page 70.
The chapter on " The Economy of Food "
commences thus : — " The method of econo-
mizing food consists of using a variety of
grain^^ &c, but Mr Womack writes, " In my
opinion, the best method of economizing," &c
The second paragraph commences in the
original, " A farmer of my acquaiptance
having about thirty horses, purchased, at a
cheap rate, a quantity of Indian com, under
the idea," &c. Mr. Womack alters it thus,
" I have known horses fed on Indian com
under the idea." The paragraph about lin-
seed is altogether unnoticed, but the next, on
tares, with portions from p. 71 are given
verbatim.

Our author next flies to p. 99, and there
takes wholly paragraphs i, 2, 3, and part of
4. From pp. 100 and loi he abstracts
another nearly entire, but stops short of that
closing the chapter, because it does not suit
his opinion on the subject of grain passing
whole through the body; he therefore pos-
sibly once more becomes original, and ceases
to quote from the work alluded to.

Mr Womack is evidently a stranger in
the region of Chester-le-Street, and unac-
quainted with the archives of the Farmers*
Club there.

He may not be aware, therefore, that some
eight years ago, when the club at Chester-le-
street had just started, the very subject upon
which he has descanted so freely was tiien
being actively worked out by the author of
" The Horse : How to Feed him," within 3
miles of the club house; and more, when
the matter was yet in MS. the author read
his paper before that club, entitled, "The
Feeding and Management of Hotses," which
was extensively quoted by the leading agri-
cultural papers, and embodied in it were the
paragraphs which Mr Womack attempted to
palm off upon the members as his own. The
subject, therefore, as given by Mr Womack
is not new, either to the Chester-le-
street Club or public generally, and in
making this fact known to him, we would
counsel greater caution in his literary pur-
suits. We do not object to his quotation, but
certainly set our faces against being deceived
into the belief that we are provided with
original matter, when common honesty is
ignored, and the credit and labour of others
are so glaringly appropriated.

[For the information of our readers we may state that
the work referred to is no longer issued in its
original form. It has been considerably enlarged,
and now constitutes a handsome volume and voca-
bulary of stable routine, entitled " The Horse-
owner and Stableman's Companion." — Ed.]

VOL. X.

2 lo The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES.

THE Trade and Navigation Returns for value enhanced very considerably per head

the first month of the current year For the month that has just gone, we had to

were issued on Friday afternoon. Beginning disburse in the aggregate for sheep ;£'7 1,460;

in alphabetical form we notice that there has last similar term, only ^^63,891, which, in

been a large decrease in the imports of cattle round numbers, means that we are now

from abroad, more than can be well accounted paying about five shillings more per head

for by the inclemency of the weather. The for sheep than we did when the year

decrease, we imagine, is due to the fact that that has gone made its debut. Less and less

feeders on the Continent have taken a lesson do we import swine. The numbers are falling

from those in our own country, which enables off year by year, and month by month. In

them to produce meat more palatable to the January of this year we received only 484, as

taste of their countrymen than thev were in against 874, and the cost was only ^^1392

former years able to do, and that the con- to compare with ;^3 104. Of bacon we im-

sumption being larger there, and the dues ported more than in 1872, but the price was

heavier here, they do not find it to their less. For 17 5,6 10 cwt. we paid but ^^3 2 1,5 15,

advantage to send them across the German while in the corresponding month of the pre-

Ocean. The facts for the month of January, vious year the amount sent away from our

with reference to imported cattle stand thus shores for 172,858 cwt was ;£^3 70,643.

in comparison with those declared in the Salted beef we purchased in slightly larger

corresponding month of the previous year : — quantities, but there was a diminution in Ae

January, 1873, cattle, 4544; 1872, 7943. imports of fresh or slightly salted beef. Hams

But the price, when we come to investigate it, remained at about much the same price as

does not bear the same proportion to the the previous year, and our imports were not

relative numbers. Last month the price of so extensive. Preserved meat does not seem

every beast we landed at our markets cost us to be growing in public favour here, probably

a small trifle over £ig ; in January, 1872, on account of the fact that the demand in

they cost us a fraction less than jQiT, Two the countries from which it comes is greater,

pounds per head on such beasts represent and the expense of its manufacture increased,

a large sum to consumers in this country. All that we received last January was 11,516

Calves we had sent in larger numbers than in cwt., as against 52,701 cwt in the like term of

the corresponding month of last year. We the former year, and the cost was ^^36,862, to

had about twice as many — ^namely, 1447, as compare with ^^i 26,070. For other kinds of

against 747, and the cost of each was about a meat, not enumerated in the previous list, we

third more, viz., ;^722i in contrast with paid, in the course of the month, ;^io,83a,

^^2447. which was a third less than in January 1872.

The rescinding of the regulation, which For pork salted, not hams, we sent away

ordained that all German sheep should be ;^49,737, and for fresh pork the unusually

slaughtered at Deptford, has had the effect small sum of ;^925. Poultry and game rose

of bringing up the importations of the "woolly in value from ;^i9,45i to ;^34,692.

people," which had been gradually falling off Potatoes exhibited a great increase, the

in the course of the latter part of last year, to value being last month ;f 272,303 as against

a stage rather in advance of that of January ;^i 5,987, and there is every probability that

1872 — the number received in the inaugura- the importations will continue to grow heavier

've month of the present year being 31,652 as our own crops are turning out even worse

>?ainst 31,573. Here again we find the than it was thought possible they could. The

Import and Export of Agricultural Commodities

211

foreign potatoes hitherto sent are &r from
excellent

Turning to dairy produce, we observe that
our receipts of butter are less than they were
in the month of January 1872, while those
of cheese had slightly increased. The re-
spective values were ;£436,368 and ;^i 29,086
as against ;CSi7>239 and ^^100,03 6. There
is again a great increase to be noted in the
import of eggs. In the course of last month
we received no fewer than 242,294 great
hundreds or 29,171,680 eggs the cost being
/1 17,072. In the corresponding month of
the previous year we only paid £n^T2^.
These figures should strongly impress upon
farmers the necessity of devoting more atten-
tion to this department of husbandry. When
heartily entered into it is both a delight and
a profit

Our supplies of wheat, as our readers will
see from the statistics we furnish, have, dur-
ing the month, slightly exceeded those of
January of last year. Barley we have received
in larger quantities, the quality of our home-
grown not being so excellent last season;
oats have been received in less quantity;
peas shew an increase, and beans a decline.
Indian com was in less demand during last
month than in the corresponding one of the
year before, and wheat-meal, and flour im-
ports were greatly in excess.

The following table shews the exact quan-
tities, of these several commodities, the coun-
tries the wheat came from, and the values: —

QUANTITIES.

Wheat

Russia

Denmark

Gennany

France

Austrian Territories ...

Turkey, Wallachia, |
and Moldavia {

Egypt

United States

ChiU

British North America
Other Countries

Month

ended Jan.

31, 187X

Cwt.
2,672,814
19,298

157.217

9,560

580

69,287

270,767

54S,oi8

79,200

56,230

52,314

Mont
ended Jan.
31. 1873.
Cwt.

1,190,365

38,433
285,184

389,743
9,280

37,840

192,68:

1,556,217

66,400

7,025

179,402

VALUE.

Russia •<£i»57o,546

Denmark 12,418

Gennany 105,290

France 4,800

Austrian Territories ... 380

Turkey, Wallachia, ) -a ^r.*^

and Moldavia { 3o,450

Egypt 141,616

United States 355,oo3

Chili 49,000

British North America 36,665

Other Countries 30, 56 1

;f734,"3

25,590

264,179

248,965

6,728

23,402

101,508

1,031,376

43,620

5,017
122,411

Total ;f2,342,729 ;f2,546,909

QUANTITIES.

Month

ended Jan.

31. 1872.

Cwt

Barley 1,165,674

Oats

Peas

Beans

Indian Com or

829,177
41,005

307,948

Month
ended Jan.

31, 1873-
Cwt

1,260,075

506,771

72,612

230,429

idian Com or | , «-^ /;q„ , «-o ^^-
Blaize. 1 i»340,687 1,258,371

VALUE.

Barley £459,263

Oats 304,068

Peas 18,703

Beans "5,334

Indian Com or ) ^^_ _^^
Maize. 1 503,975

QUANTITIES.

Month
ended Jan.
31. 1872.
Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt.

Germany 69,425

France 10,060

United States 55,585

British North America 878

Other Countries 84,306

Total 220,254

VALUE.

Germany ;f64,i74

France 8,614

United States 48,575

British North America 774

Other Countries 80,529

;f5i8,27i
187,659

31,149
97,346

425,563

Month
ended Jan.

3i» 1873.
Cwt.

110,369

332,089

99,165

3,135
139,613

684,371

;f 108,499
316,871

89,047
2,960

137,250

Total 3,932,285 3,952,570

Total ;f202,666 £654,627

Coming now to the substances with which
our farmers, too sparingly it is said, manure
their crops, we find that there is little change
in the quantity of bones we received, and

212 The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

not much alteration in the price. About The following statistics shew the cou

brimstone, the same may be said ; but we from which we imported, and the valu

have once more to note a decline of about the wool.

one-third in guano, when we compare the

imports of last month with those of January quantities.

1872. The total quantity we received was Month m<

6656 tons, for which we paid ;^7 1,972, as ''''t^J^' ^""T

against 9893 tons, in the former period, rea- Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. ' \h. ' ^\

lizing ^87,845. These figures shew that the From Countries in Europe 3,301,787 3,7*

price is considerably higher this year, a fact »» British Possessions

which, combined with a very bad and un- ^ > ^^"^^ ^"<» 2,463,787 2,2c

, J u.. .. J J ^ If Bntish India 959,960 6^

promismg season, has no doubt tended to ^^ ^^^^^^ 24,092.138 8,22

check importation. There was an immense ^^ other Countries ... 1,696,638 1,89

decrease in the demand for nitrate of soda —

the imports dropping down from 343*987 Total 32,514,310 16,73

cwt to 74,214 cwt. Probably this deficiency

can be accounted for, to some extent, by the value.

boisterous character of the weather, which From Countries in Europe ;f 185,595 £^

may have delayed vessels on passage. The „ British Possessions

cost of this article, was, last month, ;^59,459, "^ ^^^^ Africa... 156,652 15

in the like term of the preceding year, the " British India 37,919 2

, •• f. o / » Austraha 1,459,996 S3

value was ;^343,987. „ other Countries ... 82,392 8

With reference to feeding stuffs, we find

an increase in oil seed-cakes of 500 tons, and Total £1,923,554 £1 00
a fall in price. The total cost last month

was ;£^98,436. Cotton-cake was in much Our exports of home-grown produce :

greater demand, the imports increasing from a very meagre balance sheet in compai

11,713 tons to 35,378 tons; the respective with the one we have just summarized,

costs last January and the previous one being butter despatched to foreign countries,

^^289,280 and ;^io2,867. In flax and lin- received in money, ^17,455, which

seed, there was a great falling off, and the ;^75oo less than in the January before;

same has to be noted of rape, clover-seed and cheese, ^7560, ;^ii less; and for he

grass. which appear to be cheaper in the for

The supply of wool was lamentably defi- market, we only received ^£^43 50 for 97

cient, being scarcely more than half of that stead of ;^5593 for 94.

which we received in January 1872. The The wool exported in the month

defaulter was Australia, who only sent a third 326,386 lb., as compared with 1,072,93;

of the supply shipped in the corresponding in January 1872, and the values^ jC^^i

month of last ye?^ and ^^86,87 2 respectively.

The Country Gentleman's Magazitie 213

^atibmn §sAm.

i-iGURATiON OF ROADSIDE TREES BY with the wircs. He was not altogether con-
TELEGRAPH WIRES. veisant with the laws regulating roadside trees

le olden times (the author remarked) in various districts, but when well attended to
avellers by stage-coach used to be de- they had clean upright stems and well-
with the beauty of the hedgerow-trees balanced tops, and gave beauty to the locality,
then skirted the highways, but now while some, allowed to. grow unopposed,
tvas a system of disfigurement con- gracefully overhung the road without inter-
going on all over the country through rupting the traffic, and no one finding fault
oduction of telegraph wires. What he till the Telegraph Department saw it ex-
d to was the injudicious lopping of the pedient to introduce their wires. Parties
is of roadside trees to make way for then felt aggrieved by being compelled to
js. In many districts this lopping was branch, prune, or cut down, their roadside
-elessly done. It could not be all done trees, which had been their pride for years.
inspector, as the trees in some locali- In many parts of the Highlands it was
wed that they had been discretion ally grievous to see finely outlined weeping and
ith, while in others they were handled other birch trees totally spoiled by having
lost ruthless way possible, many of the one side completely hacked up, and gene-
leing cut several feet from the main rally the side facing the public road. It
id the bark often much torn by the was quite possible in many instances
of the falling branch before being to crop trees for telegraph purposes
ut through, shewing the want of the without the barbarous cutting so often re-
t essential in good pruning. In sorted to. In all cases such work should be
Lses the trees remained in a sad plight, entrusted to some experienced gardener or
ultimate deterioration, besides being forester belonging to the proprietor whose
able objects to look on. Where there land it was proposed to skirt, as they were,
n previous good pruning the telegraph or ought to be the best judges of the efiect of
ies had very little trouble in erecting pruning the various species of hedge-row trees
es, but with unpruned or carelessly both in and out of season, and not left to the
trees the greatest difficulty was ex- mercy of men to cut and clear away as if
d. In unpruned specimens the paid by contract on the mile of clearance to
s had generally as much spread as the be done. It was to be hoped that parties
>f the tree. In such instances, the would not be deterred from planting trees
5 were frequently all lopped oflf on one along our road-sides firom the fear of being
jsenting the cut surfaces to the road, required sooner or later to have them cut
les those branches were not cut close down. Trees were a great ornament in rural
em, and during the following year a districts, and their fiuther progress ought to
e of lateral shoots were produced, be encouraged. All new planters should be
time came in contact with the wires, careful to have the trees regularly stem-
low stature had their top points re- pruned, so as to induce an upward growth,
>o as to keep them below the line of as there was no sa3ring how soon telegraph
d in such cases upright shoots were wires might reach them, and if so treated,
1, which, in time, came in contact they would be in a better position to be

214 Ttie Country Gentleman* s Magazine

left untouched than if stem-praning were therefore apply to this sample. The IF ma
needed. six fleeces, Leicester wool,* are, as a lot, g<

in length, soundness, and lustre. The

THE GROWTH OF AUSTRALIAN WOOL. fleeces Vary considerably both in qual

The Wool Supply Committee of the Brad- lustre, and condition, the tup fleece especi
ford Chamber of Commerce, whose success- being coarse, rough, and not so well bred
fill function for some time past has been the other fleeces. The XF, with a slight a
to stimulate wool-growers both at home of merino, is useful demi-lustre wool, and
and abroad in the production of wools suit- such is very suitable for goods of that <
able for the worsted trade especially, have racter which are largely made in Bradi
recently had before them, for their examina- and the neighbourhood. The Committee
sion and report, an extensive consignment of of opinion that wools of the two latter claj
fleeces from South Australia, and have just would be taken in almost any quantity
made a report as to the capabilities of the the worsted trade, if only the breed can
several brands included therein. With- kept up, so as to insure length, quality,
respect to the thirteen cases, Adelaide greasy lustre, and they would recommend i
combing wools, marked £S, HS, and RS, great attention should be paid to this p<
grown by Mr C. B. Fisher, of Adelaide, the and would suggest the continued introduc
Committee report most favourably. In sound- of the Lincoln and Leicester sheep to
ness, length, and elasticity these wools, they complish this object The Committee
state, are nearly all that can be desired, and commend steps to be taken to pre^
are sure to be appeciated in the Bradford " burr ** in the fleece, and also oiBfer to tl
maiket The committee especially commend sending samples some suggestion with
the RS mark for length and fulness of staple, view of applying such information in r
In Australia, as in other countries, no doubt, ence thereto as will the better enable
the report states, the season will make some committee to come to a conclusion that
difference in the length of staple, but the be of the highest value to the wool-growc

samples shewn are adapted for a class of

goods for which the manufacturer can afford the duke of somerset on land tenu
to pay a good price, and if the length of Recently at the annual dinner of the D
staple can be preserved, with the other central Chamber of Agriculture the I
qualities these samples possess, the Committee of Somerset (who occupied the chair) r
are of opinion the producer will be well some remarks upon the land laws and
remunerated for any extra trouble he may tenure. They had seen in the papers, he
have to take to secure it The six fleeces of rumours of change, and landlords were an:
merino, grown by Mr J. Murray, are a beau- ^^ ^"^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ changes meant. He

tiful specimen of this class of wool, and weU ^^^^^^^ ^"""^ "^^ '^^^'^ 'J^\ ^f^^-P=

ji.jr.i_/- t ft ' mentary utterances. At the end of Novem

adapted for the finer classes of lastmg warps, deputation went up to the Home Secrete,

if the quahty, breed, and length of staple complain of the high prices of meat and

can be maintained. With respect to the WeU, paterfamilias had been accustomed t<

three parcels of fleeces marked E, IF sort of thing, and therefore there was no

and XF, six fleeces of each class, the new in that, but there was something new i

Committee report that the six fleeces of observations of the deputation, and in the

merino combing marked F are useful wool, °^ ^^^ Secretary of State. The depul

good in quality, length of staple, soundness, P°^"^^^. *^ '^'^^ ?^"^^^ ^°^ '^^ ^f", P"^^^'

ji^vrr.i_ .1- 1-/ restriction upon the importation of foreign c

and elasticity They are not equa^ m quality ^i,, cultivation of waste land, and to the

or breed to the last lot, but the length and ^^j^g ^eld by a very few hands in the coi

soundness are satisfactory, and render the To this the Home Secretary replied that he

wool available to a considerable extent for not meddle with the coals, but that, as reg

^^ «ame purpose. The previous remark will the tenure of land, he was anxious to re

Random Notes 215

of the evils complained of. That naturally Harcourt, who was a friend of his, and a very

ed to the tenure of land having something clever author. He was making a speech to the

with the high price of meat Now, if the Druids. That gentleman said the high price of

e Secretary had sent in to the Board of meat and the difficulties of agriculture arose

e, and had asked for the agricultural returns from the laws of entail, which had prevented

I had been prepared by the Government good agriculture. Upon that he was directly at

selves, he would have seen that the price issue, and the information that could be obtained

lat, as far as the supply went, was not to be in the country was also directly at issue with

luted to the tenure of land in the country, that statement If they looked at the entailed

or this reason. We had in this country lands of England and Scotland, they would find

ter system of agriculture than they had that it was on the entailed estates there were

nost any other country in the world. This the best farm-biuildings and the best cottages

. statement in the Board of Trade returns, in the country. And who improved the breed

lot only had we more bushels per acre, but of cattle in this country ? Who spent money

id more sheep and oxen. In such a large and continued year after year to improve the

ry as France they might expect to find a breed of sheep ? Might they not quote the names

IT number of sheep than in the British of many great men whose estates were entailed,

is, but the fact was that we had more sheep and say they did this ? No doubt they might

Jiey possessed in the whole of France, and They had improved their land ; they had im-

ily more, but of a far better quality, so that proved their estates enormously ; and to pretend

English sheep was worth nearly two French that entailed estates had prevented improved

. Now the Home Secretary did not refer agriculture was a total error. He did not mean

se facts, nor did he point out that the real to go through all the details of entail, as in

of the high price of meat was that the some particulars there might be room for altera-

erity of the country enabled more people tions, but entail had nothing whatever to do in

y meat There was therefore a grater preventing a greater improvement in agriculture

id for it, and the price accordingly rose. In France the land had been for fifty years or

iome Secretary did not point that out, but more subdivided, and there was no entail there ;

1 refer to the land laws as having some- but had that country improved in agriculture as

to do with it Mr Goschen was the sup- much as we had ? There they had a better

author of a very clever article in the climate, no entail, and subdivision of property,

'«f^A/?/2/;Vw, called'* Seven per Cent," in but the French certainly had not improved

he shewed that mercantile and com- their property as much as we had. Now what

al men were making so much money that were the peculiar reasons for this investment of

f would rise to a high per-centage ; but capital in land being brought up for discussion ?

^rstated it Philosophical politicians were It struck him that it was not capital in land the

make mistakes. But there was this truth speakers wanted, but a little political capital for

that while men can get five, six, or seven themselves— that was the capital they were

nt. in trade, they wotdd not invest their aiming at. They thought it woidd be popular

f in land. Therefore it was not a question to bring up the cry that the land wanted to be

egard to the tying up of land in either one more subdivided. But had there been no oppor-

r the other. It was also stated that the tunity to subdivide it ? If ten millions* worth

iras so tied up that they could not possibly of land were sold in one year, why did not those

He, however, found that ten millions' persons who were so anxious to get the land,

of land was sold, and besides this, persons instead of spending their money in supporting

cted, he supposed, with land exchange strikes, buy up an estate or two, and put it out

(fearing, perhaps, that people might think among peasant farmers ? Let them take land,

was none to be obtained) that there was and see what they would make of it ; but do not

more land to be sold, and people had only let people suppose that they would make more

whether they required large or small es- meat, because the agricultural returns made by

and they could have thenL Then, what the Government pointed out that it was impossi-

le meaning of land being so tied up ? It ble to grow mutton in small divisions of land,

lid that parties in the House of Commons The experience of Europe shewed that the

ike fishes, they were moved by their tails, holdings must be large. Now, there had been

ding that he could get nothing out of the raked up a letter of Mr Cobden's, written nine

lies of the heads, he turned to Mr Vernon years ago, stating that the subdivision of land

2i6 The Country Gentletnaris Magazifu

in France was the safeguard to the state, because crop in seven from this cause, and, when

5,cxx>,ooo persons thus had votes. But how consider that the loss is that of the g^in,

much had they guarded or saved the state ? It as it is ready for harvest, when the fruit of m

seemed to him that these 5,000,000 had made care and anxiety, and the result of mknu

rather a bad business, if they were looked at and careful tillage is on the point of b

either as saving or guarding the state. That realized, it will be admitted that a great

was the political part of the question. As to, the couragement falls upon the cultivator. The

agricultural part, had they improved at the the wind is beyond the control of the far

same rate as we had ? Certainly not ; their there are often cases in which his loss has fs

progress had been much slower than ours. These upon him by his carelessness or parsimon

questions were brought forward, as it seemed to not having cut his com sooner, but this is

him, not for the sake of agricultural improve- generally the case, for these winds come u

ment, but for social and political purposes. For pectedly, and shake the com often before

the latter purposes it might be desirable to alter quite fit for the reaper. Then droughts

the tenure of land, but do not let them confound sionally throw over all calculations about st

the two things, and pretend that they were do- ing and cropping, by checking the growtl

ing it for the sake of agriculture, when it would tumips, which are intended for the next win

actually deteriorate it. consumption, aud suddenly cutting oflf the g

which is almost the sole smnmer support of

flocks and herds. Dry years are frequc

THE ECCENTRICITIES OF WEATHER. foUowed by a course of incessant rainfall, s

Naturally, and more especially this year, the as we have experienced for the last seven

first thing that occurs to the mind is the weather, months, against which no provision can

It is well for us that neither Parliament nor the made. The tumip crop last season could

people have the power of regulating this, as I be cleaned, tumips have been got off the :

have no doubt they would make even a worse with some difficulty and much plunging of

mess of it than we have had, and it would land. The last harvest, besides being b

become a constant source of quarrelling and agi- secured, was a most expensive one, as num

tation, instead of being merely the cause of the of extra harvest hands had to be kept and

chronic 'gmmbling" which is, I think some- when they could not be useftilly employed ;

what unfairly, said to be the normal condition stubbles and fallows could not be ploughed,

of the English farmer. In the north of England very little wheat has been sown. These trou

we suffer from what are little known in the added to the great increase in the cost of lat

southem and midland counties, shake-winds. I and in the price of materials and implem<

have, in former years, heard it said that in parts reduce, if they do not in all cases quite am

of this county a fanner loses on an average one late, the farmers' profits.

The Country GentUtnaiis Magasint

Wxz Jfarntcr's Jfocs.

WEEDS AND HURTFUL PLANTS.

KO. II.

By Andrew Hukray, F.L.S.

JF, have no intention of making this a
treatise on systematic botany applied
eds. We wish to give such brief notices
ir appearance as, with the help of our
cuts, will enable our readers to recognize
but it is their quality as weeds or
il plants that has the first place in our
hts, and their botanical characters only

in as subordinate and accessory. We
those of our readers who wish to reverse
osition, or who desire to have full bota-
information regarding the plants to any
c recognized works upon the subject,
as Hooker's " British Flora," Bentham's
ish Flora," Bab in gton's "Manual," Syraes"
;lish Botany," &c., and we follow there-
j and most generally adopted order and
nclature.

RANUNCULACE^
is family, or natural order is an excel-
sxample of the soundness of the prin-
1 on which systematic botany is now
lished — for by it we have here
;ht together in one family a number of
a of most dissimilar appearance, but
1, on careful examination, can yet be
1 to be most nearly allied, and, besides
y of structure, to possess certain re-
ible properties which are common to

all. To shew the dissimilarity of the
i brought together, it will be sufficient to
id the reader that the Clematis, or Travel-
foy, the Thalictrums, Buttercups, Colum-
, Larkspur, and Monkshood all form part
s family. Their points of similarity lie
e identity of the peculiar structure of
more important organs, and the posses-

sion, in a greater or less degree, of acrid and
poisonous properties of the same nature.

CLElfATIS.

C. Vttalba (Traveller's Joy or Virgin's
Bower). — The farmer in Scotland and the
north of England has no trouble from this
plant, but in the southern and midland
counties, the hedges are oiten choked by it,
and it has been naturalized in Ireland. It
is the only indigenous plant, which, as a
climber, can give us some idea of the Lianas or
bush ropes of the tropics. Its tough withies
are used as rustic ropes. Just in the same way

that these exotics are. It has, however, no
affinity to them. It is strictly European, and
they are never found beyond the Tropics. Its
name, both generic and specific, has reference
to this climbing character, the word,
" CItmatis," being taken from the Greek

3l8

cXqpi, signifying a shoot of a Vine, and
vUaiba, being a compound of the Latin vifis,
and aita, white, in allusion to the snowy
white head or delicate silky tails of down
which its seeds bear, and which is called the
Old Man's Beard.

Like the great majority of the Ranun-
culacese, this plant is very acrid, so much so
that it has been used as a substitute for
liinar caustic and cantharides, and the leaves
as a rubefacient in the treatment for rheu-

Tke CouHtty Gmtiemans Magasine

ADONIS.

A. autumnalU (Pheasant's Eye). — We may
sometimes see growing in our corn-fields a
pretty little annual something between an
Anemone and a Ranunculus, with deep
crimson scarlet petals and a black spot
at their base. It is the original of a Uttle
old-fashioned flower which in our youth
used to be a favourite, and was called Flos
Adonis. That in fact was merely a la^
variety of the plant of which we speak. It is

matism. As may be supposed, it is not ad-
apted to internal use. It grows rapidly, and
its shoots travel for a considerable distance,
clambering up 20 or 30 feet ; the stem is
woody and angular, and attains a thickness of
3 inches in diameter. It is where the hedges
have been much neglected that the Traveller's
Joy will be found firmly established, for it
is easily enough removed in its young
state by a little attention. If, however, it is
once firmly established, it will generally be
found that the hedge has been so much in-
jured by its presence that it will require to
b- -lit down and the gaps filled up.

Hg. 3-— Myosunis m

usually introduced into our fields with the
seed of the com, and flowers in summer and
early autumn. We have hesitated to include
it in our list of weeds, because it is not com-
mon, is insignificant in size and numbers, and,
so far as we know, has no deleterious pro-
perties. It can therefore do little harm, but
it is undeniably a weed, and as it is one
whose bright flower wiU be likely to attract
the attenrion of the farmer when it is present)
and we desire to tell him something about
all the weeds he is likely to find in bis fields,

Weeds and Hurtful Plants 2 19

we should lay ourselves open to his criticism and in carrying them out There is

did ¥re neglect to notice it The remedy for constant war between the fianner and

this and most other corn-field annual weeds the Buttercups. He knows that they

is to make sure that the seed sown is pive are all sworn foes to him — not mere passive

and clean. enemies who only indirectly diminish his re-
turns by filling a place in his pastures which

MYosuRUS. jjjjgj^^ ^g \it\X^ supplied when they have

M. minimus (Mousetail). — ^For the same made it empty, but active enemies who do

reasons that we have noticed the last species, positive direct injury to his cattle when they

we note the present It is a small insig- feed upon these plants, all, with only one or

nificant annud, about 2 or 3 inches high, two exceptions, being acrid, many likewise

and with a minute yellowish flower. The purgative and emetic, and some actually

woodcut sufficiently shews it It is local, poisonous. But hold ! cries the reader, that

being rare in Scotland, absent in Ireland, and cannot be, if they had these bad eiOfects, we

chiefly confined to the south and south-east should see our cattle continually suflering,

of £ngland, where it is*not uncommon ; but and we do not, and, moreover, do we not all

its geographical distribution is otherwise in- know, on the sure evidence of antient tra-

teresting, extending as it does over Europe, dition, that the rich golden colour of our

Russia, Asia, Northern and Western America, cows' milk in spring and summer is due to

and Australia. It occurs on gravelly com- their feeding on the Buttercups which then

fields and waste places. No special proper- adorn our pastures? Consequently, if feeding

ties are recorded of it, and it is too insig- on them thus enriches the milk, it cannot be

nificant to make it worth the farmer's notice^ deleterious, and, instead of being proscribed,

otherwise than for the sake of completing his they ought to be cherished and encouraged,

information. ' True, if they enrich the milk, and if our cattle

do not suffer — ^but alas, for tradition and

RANUNCULUS. • r • i^t_ a. • i.

pruna-facie appearances ! they cannot ennch

Who knows not the Buttercup ? We were cows' milk, because the cows habitually re-

about to add, Who loves it not ? But as fuse to feed upon most of them. The fine

to that we must pause. They love it most colour at the season when the Buttercups are

who know it least The farmer loves it not in flower is due to the fine air and plenty of

But what cockney associates it not with some Grass at that time, which invigorates the cattle

of the brightest days of youth when he has and enriches the butter. They do suffer

escaped fix)m the smoke and din of the city whenever, by chance or want of caution,

and spent a day in the country ? How sad they have been betrayed into swallowing

and town-stricken must have been the lot of them. Some say that they are furnished by

the little maid who never, in her childhood, nature with an instinct which tells them that

sat in the green meadows stringing chaplets the Buttercups are dangerous, and when it

and necklaces of alternate Daisies and Butter- misguides them or goes off duty, it is due to

cups! Itsaddensusdwellersin towns to think their domestication, which, by providing for

how much else of ignorance and privation of their wants without effort enfeebles and

all that is most delightful in Nature is implied obliterates the original force of the instinct

in the absence of that single and simple en- With great deference, this is all nonsense,

joyment ; and, centring so much as we do It is simply because the Buttercup has a bad

of pleasant association in the Buttercup, it taste, and blisters and inflames the mouth,

strikesus as strange and incongruous that there that they don't take it They are not such

should be other men who have no sympathy idiots as to persist in chewing a thing which

with our sentimental affection for it, and who their experience has taught them produce

are occupied for a greater or less period every these bad consequences ; and what is caUed

year in devismg plans for its destruction the enfeebled instinct that sometimes allows

220 Tin Country Gentleman's Magazine

them to poison themselves with it, is simply ject to the diminution which usually ai

the result of such momentary forgetfulness or plants which are pastured on by anin:

absence of mind as constantly happens to cut by man. The seeds themselves ar<

ourselves. It is to this baneful acridity that vellously adapted for reaching the s

we owe the splendour of the golden mantle which they are to grow — each in its pan

spread over out meadows. Can any one way. The carpels form an ex

doubt that if the Buttercups were good to eat cluster or globose head, from which

they would soon be eaten down instead of drop on attaining maturity. Those thai

being left on every side by the cattle feeding in pastures as R. acris and R. bulbosus

among them ? Being rejected by them, the the seeds covered with a hard and sn

flower runs its allotted course undisturbed highly-polished, shining envelope, whicl

and uninjured. Every bud comes to perfec- through the Grass as through the finger

tion, and in the height of the season we have being heavy for their size, from the

the opening bud, the full-blown flower, and quality of albumen which they contain

the decaying petals all contributing to the fall readily through the leaves to the gi

blaze of yellow with which the pasture is They are peaked at the top and broad

covered. The whole soil seems engrossed bottom, and of a somewhat triangular oi

by the one plant Every one must be able to cular form ; the base being heavier tha

recall such magnificent displays to his mind's peak, of course the seed falls on th<

eye. The most extraordinary example of it and it being flat and broad it rests ther

which we ever saw was on the racecourse of there it is that the embryo is placed re

Derby a good many years ago. It was a hand to send out its radicles into the g:

perfect sheet of gold. The extravagant pro- Then the root is thick and elongate

fusion of the crop was such that, after wading many fibres, and has a tuberous crown

through a part of ft, we came out with our sends out young plants around tl

shoes and trousers up to the knees as yellow stem. Lastly, some of the specie

with the pollen of the Buttercup, as if they Ranunculus repens) have a creeping

had come out of sacks of mustard. Such an which sends out runners at every joi

immense preponderance of one plant in mea- that from every point and in every wa)

dow or pasture land could only take place have facilities for multiplying and exU

with a plant which has unusual facilities for themselves.

increasing and establishing itself — and this There are many species of Ranunculi

the Buttercups have. Most of the species, have no fewer than fourteen in Britain,

and in particular the species which so abounds, are water plants, others semi-aquatic oi

are perennial, and they increase rapidly by plants, and others meadow or pasture

seed, which being left untouched by animals shall briefly notice those which more p

(for even insects seem to avoid it), is not sub- larly concern the agriculturist.

The Country Gtntlematis Magazine 22 1

%\^t (Dlb Jfarnur'0 ^ote-fook.

FOR many a long year I have heard talk do stroll from the point at which I am aiming !

about the repeal of the Malt Tax. The But, perhaps, when my young readers get into

•• talkee, talkee," to borrow from a Trans- the sixth age as I am now, which " shifts *'

Atlantic provincialism, has resulted in nothing into the lean and slipperM panuloon,

whatever. I cannot think that those who prated With spectacles on nose, and pouch on side ;

so much about the matter ever thought it would. (Not to interrupt Shakspeare, I may just

It IS a good subject to talk about, likewise a remark I am sorry to say the weather of the

fittmg subject to be let alone, until those who past season smce harvest has left « the pouch "

wish the duty removed have made up their so empty that I might with truth say « who

mmds as to a substitute which shaU not be steals my purse "—that is the way Shakspeare

galling to the necks of the general ratepayers, p^tg p^^^i, somewhere else—" steals trash.")

Seven mUlions sterling is a large sum to part jjis youthful hose, weU saved, a world too wide

with-it is about a tenth of the national revenue. por his shrunk shank ; and his big manly voice.

No wonder our not very hberal ChanceUor of Turning again towards chUdish treble, pipes

the Exchequer, who wished to tax our lights for ^nd whisdes in his sound,

a small amount, did not see his way clear to re- ^, .„

move such " a dollop " aU at once. And then *^7 '"^ appreciate my piousness,

it appears to me rather dubious whether the ^ ^ was going to teU you about the Malt-tax^ I

repeal of the impost would really benefit far- ^"^ J^°"«'»' .'^ ^rea' deal over it. I have

mers so much as they say. I am doubtful even t*'°"«'" ^^"' '* «^«' "'.'**=« ^ can remember, and

whether the poor man who is currendy reported *=^""''.* '^ "^^^^^ '*'"' " ?" "*" ^ *?°"« ^^'^'^

to be « robbed " of his beer, by the excise duties "^^^ J"'j f P'^^f^'*'- , ' ?^f « .,^ J''""'« **»«"»

on malt, could make it at home so cheaply Malt and Beer which I think wdl be mteresting,

and so good as he can buy it. A barrel of beer ^^^ ^/"P^ "• ^* ^^''^^ '^'^ l"*"*'*^ "^ ^««

in the comer is a very nice thing, but untQ we Produced from i qr. of malt in 1761 and in 1812,

have better appointed cottages in the agricul- ^^^^^ was evidenUy being practised in the

tural districts, there seems scarcely room for it. *°^^^^^

That question of cottages is one that ought never beer from one bushel of malt.

to be lost sight of. Improve them, I say, and Year 1761.

you improve the moral condition of the inhabi- Barrels Firkins Barrels Firkins

\2j^X^ Quantity of Small beer 4 i to 5 i

But, as usual, I am wandering away from my Ale and Amber, i 2 „ 2 3

subject, the Malt Tax. I have seen it some- Burtorile " i o " i i

where stated that, after all, the feeding qualities *'

of malt had been too much "vamped "up. I Year 18 12.

am using new words, do you see, for strangely Quantity of SmaU beer 8 i

enough an old man likes novelties in fashions ^ ^ ^

and phraseologies. When I see the "young „ _ *'' ^

, , r „ , T • 1-- 1 1- 11 I I. Burton Ale i 2

bloods now-a-day, I think, ah, well ! these

young chaps have been schooled under different It appears that fifty years ago— that is, fifty

circumstances than I was ! They teach their years from 181 2 — " small beer was nearly, if not

grandmothers to suck eggs, they do. It's only twice, the strength that it is at present, although

a fancy, I suppose I have got, that these pre- its price was little more than one-half. Porter,

cocious bucks were bom with spoons in their which was then sold at 3>^d., contained nearly

mouths. Their fathers lived before them, and double the quantity of saccharine matter or

so they do not understand the value of the spootis, strength than it now does, notwithstanding the

Some other people do, however, and take the price is raised to 5d. per pot, and a further rise

advantage accordingly. Dear me, how far I *rom the dearness of grain is expected." So far

222

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

the Old chronicler. Now, let me see ; what was
the price of grain at that time ? I know that all
the world was agog — or, at least, all that portion
of it which we recognized as immediately con-
nected with our country — concerning the doings
of that terrible Napoleon I., who annexed por-
tions of countries just as he liked, and made
puppet kings, hke marionettes, at his sovereign
pleasure, until such time as the " Iron Duke "
came to the rescue of Europe. I mind it was a
grand time for farmers that. The value of
wheat then was up to, in some of the markets,
;^5, I2S. per qr., and even in county towns I have
seen it rise to what we would now call the enor-
mous sum of ;£5, 7s. 6d. per qr. I do not get
half the price for my wheat now, and my barley
is much cheaper than it was then. Three-
pence halfpenny a-pot, and then raised to 5d.
in my young days 1 and now, with the cheaper
prices of barley, those who purchase porter from
the publicans have to pay only 3>^d. per pot. So
that you see, after all the variations in the price
of the raw materials, we are buying porter for
the same money that we did a hundred years
ago. I can scarcely believe porter is even so
nutritious now as that which was imbibed in
1 812. If it be so — I never drink any of it — it
proves how much machinery has added to
economy.

Malt has always been a political matter. It
was so, long before some of the greatest brewers*
names, those now familiar in our mouths as
" Household Words " (I am glad we have them
All the Year Round) were ever printed upon
labels which ought to carry a guarantee with
them. I must drop Malt with this political
jeu cPesprit which Mr Lowe, in his perplexity
may thank me for quoting— if you send him
The Farmer : (you should, Mr Editor, send
him one this week). I write the lines down as
I found them written.

There's Brewing of Porter — there's Brewing of Alt,
By Whitbread and Calvert, by Elliot and

Thrale ;
There's Brewing of Mischiefs — there's Brewing of Woe
By Percival, Castlereagh, Canninc, & Co.

By brewing pure Liquor conducive to Health,
The First have deservedly risen to Wealth ;
But the Last from their Folly, have credit so small,
That the sooner they Break will be better for all.

By the way, I read in the Farmer^ Almanack

for this year an account of a most admirable

little thrashing machine called the Tiny, How

he world does jog on 1 Sixty years ago, I de-

:1a '•f*. I saw something of the same kind, but it

had not the fine workmanship, nor the capabi-
lities of Mr Murray's Little Wonder. But it does
please an old man to note that in the days of
his youth there were folks very nearly as clever
as those who are waiting for their shoes. Mind
you, I am far from saying that we old grey-
beards do not think far too much of ourselves
that we do not tolerate that liberty or license
that we should have liked to have enjoyed in
our young days. Solomon has told us that
there is nothing new under the sun, and that is
true about agriculture as in most things. I
shall give some notes, with illustrations of this
old small thrasher in an early number, as I am
sure they will prove interesting.

While I am on Implements adapted for the
use of small farmers, I may refer to a very chei^
subsoiler which has recently come imder my
notice. It is very primitive, certainly, but it is
just what would suit small holdings, being very
inexpensive. I give a cut of this implement,
which could be made by any rustic blacksmith
at a cost of something like ;^i or ^i, 5s. It is
made of >i x 2>^-inch bar iron, with a simple
shovel-share, 6 inches broad. The handles are
fastened with screw-bolts to the beam and
braced. The uses for such an implement are
many. One horse can draw it when a depth of
5 or 6 inches only is taken, which is sufEcient

A Simple Subsoiler.

for a commencement. A field may be subsoiled
wholly by taking furrows i foot apart, and 2
acres a day may be gone over. If run in the
rows in which corn, potatoes, turnips, or beans
are to be planted, and across in the check rows,
great benefit will be derived. Used constantly
in these ways, the farm will soon be completely
gone over, and the soil loosened to a depth or
12 or 15 inches. In a few years this loosened
subsoil will become mellowed, and may gradually
be brought to the top and mixed with the surface
soiL

The Old Farmer's Mote Book 223

mere need never be idle. They have tbrough the box. Slides, very strongly made

sbliged, much against their will, to stop to bear pressure, are fitted to rest upon the

or operations to a great extent for the last same cleats, but lower down, so as not to inter-

vc four months. But a small chest of tools fne with the free motion of the box over them.

enable farmers, I am speaking of small These slides are either graters for horse-radish,

to provide themselves with articles of use. carrots, &c., or furnished with knives for sUcing

mention how two can be cheaply made, cabbage, or any other vegetables so used in
irst I call A Vigetablt Setd Pianier, for
g small seeds without stooping — admirable
npyorgravellysoils. The seed can be sown
idy weather by carrying the bottom along
: drill mark. It consists of four strips of
lealwood, planed, 3 feet long — (or so long

person will not have to stoop)— two strips
les wide, the other two 3j£ wide and }(

These strips are nailed together with Graier and Slicer,

nails in a square form, tapering to the the household economy. In use, the article to

n, so as to leave an opening of ji an inch be sliced or grated— say a cabbage head— is

1 inside. On one side fasten an old- placed in the Uttle box shewn in the engraving,

ned tin match safe with the lid off, to hold and, the knife slide being inserted, it is shoved

<d. It is carried by the left hand, and the back and forward, bearing with the hand upon it

is fed with the thumb and forefinger, or ^^^^^ ^^^^^<^ j^ ^ut off to enable the UtUe

wo fingers of the other hand. The bottom follower to be put in, and after this the slicing

earned along the dnll mark, the winds jj continued untU it is aU cut up. A drawer

It affect the sowmg. beneath catches the shavings, or the gratings,

: second is a Potato Holder, it is construe- ^nd, if desirable, a place may be made to keep

lius : Take an inch board for the bottom, the slide which may not be in use, but this

;dgenext the person should be hollowed should not add much to the bulk of the machine.

10 fit the body, the sides to form the __

ire of thin deal 6 or S inches wide, 1 should very much like to say something

1 to the edge of the board. To have it fit that should be, and no doubt is, interesting

ircle, it is sawed partly into a sufScient to young farmers. I am too old to take a wife

er of times. A wide strap of leather, long now. I wish 1 had in the days of my youth ;

;h to pass over a person's shoulder is but I had no one to giv6 me the advice I now

led on each end of ihe box to hold it and tender. I should have been a wealthier man,

intents. The conductor is similar to the and maybe a cheerfuUer- although I am tidy

planter, except that the siie is the same comfortable in spirits — than I am now. You

top to bottom — 4 inches square, and young fellows take my advice, given from ob-

enough to reach from the top of the box servation, and get married as soon as you can

; ground, with a handle fastened on one find a suitable partner and are able to keep her,

kt the top, to carry it along. This is held Don't dilly-dally about it long after you have

e the box, and when the bottom is placed made up your minds to get we± Why? be-

; one wishes, the potatoes are dropped in at cause no paid housekeepier will look after

>p. With a little practice a good many can the odds and ends of your house with

opped in a day with ease, with no occa- the same economical eye. No one will

or standing on one foot while adjusting the tend so well to the poultiy-yard as she, or see that

D with the other. it is properly looked after if she does not do so

with her own hands ; therefore the sooner you

ive here an engraving of a very simple and have her the better. But my young friends, I

ual contrivance for slicing and gratii^ must tell you not to marry a woman just for the

ables. The representation shews a box or sake of her housekeeping. Do you not see that

h about 10 inches by 30 inches, open at it is the worst kind of cheating to tell a young

nd and on the top, strongly made of inch woman that you love her when you are really

furnished with strong cleats on the sides, intending to make of her an unpaid upper ser-

which is a smaller box, without top or vant i Not that 1 want you to pay your wife a

m, which may bemoved back and forward servant's w^es. It would be better to give her

224 T'A^ Country Gentlemaris Magazine

the rank of a partnei Jin the concern. But a true clearing ofT small accounts is due to the fact that

marriage is not a mere business affair. True the majority of farmers do not keep any books,

love is amenable to reason. When any person not even a memorandum-book, save that in

of the opposite sex attracts you, ask yourself which they note down their sale of 20 qr. of

what part of your nature is moved, and whether wheat, 1 5 of barley, and 40 of oats or beans, as

the influence you feel is elevating or lower- the case may be, and then he crosses out the

ing. Love is something more than mere sexual memoranda next week when he is paid. It is

passion. It is more than mere fancy. It is a not alone to small farmers but also to large ones

choice in which the heart and intellect are that the idea of keeping books is a bore. A

agreed. With this definition of love in mind, I fair trial would prove it, I think, both pleasant

say, instead of giving a catalogue of the peculiar and profitable— I have found it so myself, and I

virtues a farmer's wife should possess, marry the had not the same facilities when I commenced

woman you love, if, after an intimate acquaint- the work as you young men of the present day

ance, you both believe, on reasonable grounds^ have. Various publishers have produced ad-

that you can be happy together. Learn each mirably constructed books for keeping accounts

other's tastes, habits, plans and hopes, and of all matters belonging to the farm. You, my

seriously consider how you are going to "keep young fellows, have everything ready to your

the pot boiling." All the better for you both if hand. I had to make my own IxxJte, and I

the one you marry has a practical knowledge of found it a simple enough matter. But there is

household affairs before her marriage ; but if no use saying anything about that when, as I

she is a good and sensible woman, she will soon have said, you can get what you want in this

learn all that is necessary to make your home way for a shilling or two, and it would be money

comfortable, and yourself happy in every par- well spent Buy books and keep them, and you

ticular. Bless me, I, an old bachelor, am get- will wonder every time when you balance how

ting half sentimental, and I do not quite feel much you have saved by the mere writing down

ashamed of myself. Good-bye I of figures, and see, too, where you could have

economized more. Take my word for this, and

" Cash V, credit," or " Credit v, cash," in you will never regret it
which cause, my dear sirs, will you be plaintiffs ?

I elect for the former. Now, I am sorry to say Well, what about winter butter-making ? It

that farmers as a rule are not very speedy payers, is an olcf saying that butter-making is easy in

We appreciate getting our own money in fast summer. I am not so sure that everybody can

enough, but we do not care to liquidate our debts make it well even then. I have seen a lot of bad

in any hurry. Our debtors we meet weekly face stuff turned out in my day in the summer time,

to face, and what we sell one week we get the But, no doubt, it is more difficult to make butter

value for the next, but our creditors we do not in the winter. In fact, not one dairy woman in

so often see, and " out of sight is out of mind." 500 can make really good butter in cold

Not that we wish in any way to cheat or annoy weather ; that is, butter that will remain good

those to whom we are indebted. If we met a week after it is made. The difficulties are

them in the market-place we should pay them at numerous, thus :— The cows have not the best

once, but we are too indolent to go to the nearest butter-making feed ; they have little, if any,

post-office and write the sum to be sent, the name colouring matter in their feed ; the temperature

of the owner who should be the recipient, and at which the milk is kept is very unequal ; the

our own signature. And when small accounts danger of mixing in the flavours of the kitchen

reach us with the words " as per account pre- with the milk, the cream, or the butter, is very

viously rendered," or other formula used bybusi- great ; and the butter is too apt to be allowed

ness men, some are apt to think contemptuously to become too warm or too cold before it is

of the firms who only desire to have their own, finally worked into shape. The chief at-

out of which they have been kept too long, tention should be given, then, to tempera-

" These must be a poverty-stricken lot," it is ture, pure air, and artificial colouring,

sneered, when they have to write so often for a After frost sets in regularly in November, the

couple of pounds, the decriers never thinking milk should be scalded as soon as it is brought

that their trifling account is only one of a from the stable. This is done by placing the

thousand, perhaps, of the same kind, and which, vessel containing it (after straining) in a larger

in the aggregate, make or mar a firm. I think one on the fire, in which water is boiling, stir-

'\ms .^cf^t of this culpable negligence in not ring the milk occasionally, and removing it when

Tk£ Old Farmet's Note-Book

225

its surface begins to smoke. To aUow it to that it wiU be out of the way of the intestines,
become warmer than this wiU do harm. In this Then open the sheep immediately, and disem-
condition the milk may be poured into the pans bowel it All this ought to be the work of about
—to a much greater depth than is usual in sum- one minute or two, or if it occupies five, there
mer — in a closet or room in which the ther-
mometer never goes below 55 deg., rarely
below 60 deg., and never remains long
above 65 deg. This milk can safely stand
twenty-four hours, and by that time all the
cream should have risen. The cream should
be kept in a jar, in the same room, not too far
from the stove, nor yet too near it, and it should
be thoroughly stirred to the very bottom, every
time a fresh skimming is added ; that is, twice
a day. The churning should be done either in
the milk-room or in some place not much colder.
The butter should be worked in the warm milk-
room, and it should be kept there while " soak-
ing up the salt" between the two workings.
After it is moulded or packed away, it may be
kept in a cooler place, but it would be better
never to let it become so cold as to get very
hard — not colder than it would become in a
snug cellar.

About colouring I have seen carrot-juice or a
decoction of anotta put in the chum with
the cream, or an extract of anotta in melted
butter may be worked through the lump, after it
is taken out of the churn, with advantage.

It may be of interest to some of my country
readers to learn how to dress a sheep properly;
because a great deal of the flavour depends
upon how this operation is performed. 1 give
directions, with an illustration, how to avoid
this ill flavour, which arises from the absorption
by the meat of the gases from the intestines,
which, as the outside of the carcase cools, can
not escapie, and are, therefore, absorbed by the
flesh. There is a simple remedy. As soon as
the animal is dead, let the hide be slit up from
the brisket to the tail, and to the knees, by a
quick motion of a sharp-pointed knife, in-
serted beneath the skin. Strip the skin
from the belly and the ribs and legs, so

How to Diesi B Sheep.

will not be suflicient time for the carcase to cool
sufficiently to cause' any unpleasant taste. Then
proceed to strip the skin from the back of the
carcase. A sheep should be killed by thrusting
a shayp knife through the neck, back of the
windpipe, without touching it however, but
cutting the arteries ; and as soon as the knife is
inserted, it should be twisted round as if to
make a round hole ; there will then be no
mistake made in cutting the arteries, and the
death of the animal will be comparatively pain-
less and rapid.

The CounUy GetitUman's Magazifu

(Dur Sibrarg %Mt.

Sittcha (^ Natural Histery, or Soup ei Animal

Lift.* By Maty HowiK,

It is a long lime ago since Maiy Howitt chaimed
ns with agreeable reading. Since our childhood we
remember the grace oThci venes, and the morals she
taught in prose to those of leniler age. And well do
we recollect when her husband rose into more than
eloquence when he entered into the question of eccle-
siastical wrongs. In his "Histoiy of Priestcraft," it
may almost be said he eicelled himself m pure
unadorned English. The husband has coalributed
two OT three poems lo the volume, which is got up
in the usual good style of the Messrs Nelson. The
engravings and the Ietter-pre» printing exhibit all the
pains-taking care for which the firm is celebrated, not
alone in our own country, hut on the great continent
of America. The Americans are our greatest boolc-
buyers as well as the most extensive pirates of our
good works. In this book there are poems which
appeal strongly to the sympathy of all men who have
a love for the lower creation, who would not like to
see them abused by persons whose instinct appears to

probably the familiarity would have been ren
the insertion of bones into the calf of the Iq
pretending admirer. Charlie wm a wondei
he had no respect whatever for mixm and tuu
unguarded butcher's shop was for him fair ga
did not matter to whom the leg of mutton bi
if he had the chance of capturing it. W
butcher's back was turned he seized it, boll
no one could interrupt his predator; explo
those who were intimately acquainted with him
that Charlie, with the exception that he hi
" lingle eye," is as like as possible the one w<

Oh 1 that they had pity, the men we Krve :
Oh I that they had kindness, the men we love
They call us dull and stupid, and vicious and
And think not we can suffer, but only would r
They brand us and they beat us, they spill on

We die thai they may live, ten thousand in a
Oh ! that they had mercy ! fur in their i

slaughter,
They aiSict us and afTiight us, and do far wa

We are made to be their servants— we knoit

complain not ;
We bow our heads with meekness the galling

Their heaviest toil we lighten, the meanest we

In all tt:

e take a willinf

be lower stilL We commend Ihe book lo all societies
for the prevention of cruelty to animals. We were
patticulaily charmed with one of Mrs Howilt's new
poems, ■' The Cry of the Suffering Creatures." We
give the larger portion of it, and along with that the
head of a dog, which is the fac-simile of one who is
dear to us. Charlie we called that dog. He was a
faithful but a vicious one. He was angry if any one
took note of htm who knew nothing about him. All
the kindly expressions showered upon him by
strangers only elicited a snail, and unless bis masier
had been beside him to check bif white sharp teeth,

' London : T. Nelson & Sons, Paternoster Row ;
T.i!, ■--.rgh and New York,

We leave out here a few ve:ses, not becaus
are not good enough, but the exigencies of spi
bid their insertion. This elision does not L
with the moral which it is the object of the p
teach. We quote the two last verses :—
If they would but love us, would leam our s

and weakness,
If only with our sutferings their hearts could

thiic.
Then they would know what troth is, what pat:

and meekness.
And read our heart's devotion in the softness

If ihey would hut teach their children, to tn

subject creatures
As humble friends, as servants, who strive the

Then would they see how joyous, how kioi

And a second day of Eden would on the earth
The last verse, we think, is one that the
Boards might instruct their teachers to recite I
pupils, and inculcate upon them the deiinl:
learning it off by heart.

The Country GtntUmaiis Magazine

227

%kt (iariifn.

RICHARDSON'S PATENT HORTICULTURAL BUILDINGS.

AS the science of Horticulture advances abandoned the system of what might be

day by day, so as a natural conse- called trap<loor ventilation in the apex of the

quence must the propei construction andven- roof, and taken to the wiser and more com-

tilation of the buildings connected therewith ; plete and uniform method of distributing it

and as some of our readers may be unac- regularly over the sloping roof from top to

quainted with some of the latest improve- bottonL This advantage is so manifest, even

ments therein, we notice Messrs Richardson's tu those who have not gone into the subject,

Patent Horticultural Buildings, on account that scarcely another word need be added in

of the general satisfaction expressed by many
of our correspondents who have ordered
them. We have seen them put up, and
have to express our unqualified approbation
of them as being desirable and elegant even
in the simplicity of their details. Wliat is of
greater consequence, however, the builders
have recognized and provided for ventilation
upon truly scientific principles. They shape
their details in such a way as to admit the
outer air, not above nor below, but opposite
the heating medium, and, moreover, have

its praise. It will be seen abundantly illus-
trated in figs. I and 1. Fig. i shews the
roof ventilated in two lengths, so that a
greater or less volume may be introduced as
necessity demands. It is more useful for
lean-to houses with a long sloping sash than
for the ordinary description of span-roof
houses; and it is well that the patentees
have recognized the principle, and pro-
vided for it accordingly with their
ventilating apparatus. In these engrav-
ings the roof ventilation is fitted to prevent

228 Ike Countfy GentUman's Magasine

heavy rains from coming down upon the plants principle is equally applicable to a lean-to
or the fruits within, and the mechanical con- Peach house, as is shewn at fig. 3, or to a

Fig. 3. — Spaa-roof Plant Hi

trivance for simultaneously raising or lowering Cucumber, or Melon, or Pine pit, as is
the parallel slips is as simple as it is effective, shewn at fig. 4. It is illustrated on a much

Either one, two, or more can be thrown out of larger scale at fig. 5, where there is shewn a
gearing, and the others working ; or it can horizontal section through one of the vend-

CT^

l''S- 5.— Section of KuuMight 10 shew i'ri:

e divided up the middle in the same way or lating roof-lights, and where the ventilator
It. as the gardener may desire. The same is shewn both shut and open. From what

Richardson's Patent Horticultural Buildings

229

ve seen of them we are inclined to re-
lend them even for the subjoined special
itages that the patentee holds out in
favour : — ist The amount of roof ven-
•n is exactly in proportion to the area of
ouse, instead of being by the ordinary
)pening along the top, made regardless
e width of roof. 2nd. The ventilation
affected by rain or wind, the position of
entilating lights completely protecting
nterior of the house, and when closed
ng a perfectiy water-tight joint 3rd.
opening and regulating of the ventilators
formed more quickly and easily than by
ther system, being done instantaneously.
The method of bottom ventilation under-

neath the plant staging, and immediately
over the hot water pipes prevents cold
draughts upon the plants. 5th. The houses
are portable and legally removable by a
tenant, can be easily taken down and re-
fixed without disturbing the glass. 6th.
The training wires, being fixed up the centre
of the lights, have no obstruction from the
sun's rays by the usual heavy rafters, and a
free circulation of air is obtained between the
plants and the glass over the whole roof.
7 th. If blinds are used, they are lifted simul-
taneously with the ventilators, thus allowing
a circulation of air underneath, instead of
obstructing the ventilation just when most
needed.

IMPROVED WATER-TAP.

MONG careless servants nothing is

more common than, when water is re-

d, to place a pail below the tap, turn it on

Improved Water Tap.

I and then proceed to some other work.
; especially is this the case out of doors,
i a barrel is placed to preserve rain

water, and no great harm is supposed to be
done if the pail overflows. With the tap, now
described, aqy one who desires to draw water
must remain by the barrel or cistern until the
pail is filled.

The adjoined sketch shews the tap
open. To shut off the supply, the operator
simply lets go the ball which he holds, and
as it falls, it passes over the pivot on which
the stopper turns and shuts it close against
the orifice of the pipe. To open it, the ball
(or handle, as it may be called) is lifted.
There is nothing here to get out of order;
and to those who prize rain-water for their
gardens, we have no hesitation in recom-
mending this improved tap.

Tkt Country GmtUmaWs Magazine

NEW AND RARE PLANTS.

WE have had occasion very particularly only our own country, but of Europe, i

to notice and compliment the exer- see the beauty of their habits, and the si

tions of the late John Gould Veitch in character of their variegation. The C

bringing together such a valuable a lot of and the Draoenas have been supplen

xautiful plants. Now that most of tliem in a way to give, not only our greet
"lave found their way into the best conser- gardeners,but our parlourgardeners,ma
■'^""'•s cool and conservatories warm, of not abundant for maintaining the interest c

New and Rare Plants

231

respective departments ; while our table deco
ntors have largely profited by the variety
that has been ushered in upon them of late
years. The Messrs Veitch have kindly sup-
plied the followii^ illustrations for the plants
that we comment upon.

stoves for decorative purposes, but it excels
it in broadness of leaves, and wants the mul-
titude of serratures that distinguishes the
variety to which we compare it The engrav-
ing represents a growing plant excellently.
The arching character of the leaves gives it a

PANDANUS VEiTCHii. grace that is highly desirable for plants when

The Pandanus Veitchii has very much the we wish to individualize them, and the green

appearance of Fandanus javanicus variegatus, bands down the centre of the leaves set off to

that has been so much employed in ourplant advanUge the varying shades of yellowish

332 The Country Gentlewoman Magazine

white which go from centre to margiD. No "ThismagnificentFandanuswasdiscovered

new Pandanus is at all equal to this one, and by the late Mr J. G. Veitch during his trip

therearefewbetterplantsforeithershewirgin through the South Sea islands, from whence

a choice collection, or placing upon a dinner he brought so many beautiful and interesting

table. We have seen the plant in great plants,

beauty in the Veitchian stoves, and in other " We consider it to be one of the best

ig. 3. — Crolon lohannis.

places througlioul the country, and have not plants we have ever had the pleasure of offer-

ne slightest hesitation in commending it to ing lo the public, and recommend it with

juch of our readers as can give it space in a confidence as being very far superior, dthe

"arm conservatory. We subjoin the Messrs as an exhibition plant or for decoration, to

'eitch's description of it any other Pandanus yet known.

New and Rare Plants 233

" The leaves are of a light green colour, fill every beholder with delight There is
beautifully striped with broad bands and elegance as well as beautiful shaded and
lines of pure white. They average 2 feet in contrasted coloiuing about it, and the bigger
length by 3 inches in width growing erect from it grows the more beautiful it is. Nothing
the stem, but towards the end gracefully surpasses for effect a well-cultivated specimen
curving, thus giving the plant a most elegant of this, set down amongst the greenery of
appearance, and shewing itself to be perfectly Palms, and Tree-ferns, and specimen flower-
distinct in habit as well as in colouring. ing plants — the green and the gold of the

" It has been exhibited at St Petersburg, variegation being so decided and so telling.

Paris, Hamburg, and at the leading London We hail, therefore, the sample pourtrayed,

and Country Exhibitions, where it has most fig. 3, as an auxiliary of a first favourite

invariably received the very highest praise among Crotons. It is doubtful whether it

and awards." will take the place of the one to which we

contrast it, but there cannot be a doubt but

TODEA wiLKESiANA. j^ wiU take a front-rank place, so the senders-

One has seldom the pleasure of seeing a out ardently hope, else they would scarcely

tree Fern with the fironds of a giant Dicksonia have attached to it the favourite name of a

and the stem of a graceful Reed. It seems most indefatigable brother, who may be said

almost a mimicry in Tree-fern growth. There to have shortened his days in the interests of

it is, however, as our readers will see, branch- gardening. This one, which is sometimes

ing widely and gigantically in the atmosphere called angustissimum, differs fi-om angusti-

with its slender arborescent stem sending out folium in the colours of green stopping

roots in a properly balanced atmosphere, suddenly short in linear patches, not being

Like all the Todeas it likes moisture, and suffused as in the prototype, and in being of

not over much artificial heat It is surely a more dwarf stature ; tiie leaves, too, are

enough an acquisition to the family to which wider apart in the stem, and are not of the

it belongs, standing out in relief anaong the wavy twisted nature of angustifolium. The

squat family of dwarfer Ferns in a low house, Messrs Veitch say of it

which is the best position for its good growth. « Amongst the recent additions to this very

The following is Mr Moore's description of beautiful class of plants we consider C.

it, given by Messrs Veitch :— Johannis one of the most elegant and distinct.

" The trunk is fi*om 18 to 20 inches high. The leaves attain a length of 20 to 24 inches,
and i>^ inch in diameter, crowned at the and are of a glossy green colour, the centre
summit by from ten to twelve spreading and margin being bright orange yellow. They
fronds, of a broadly lanceolate outline, and 2 have a graceful habit, and we can with con-
feet or upwards in length. The pinnae are fidence recommend it as an exceedingly
sessile, oblong lanceolate, spreading. The valuable plant both for dinner-table deco-
pinnules are oblong obtuse, dentate, and ration, and for exhibition purposes."

pellucid. Messrs Veitch's parent plant has

already a stem of a foot or more in height, lilium washingtonianum.

and about an inch in diameter, which slender At the beginning of last year, in our

tree-like habit gives it quite a distinct aspect article, " Among the Lilies," we gave

among its allies, which include some of the descriptions with illustrations of the principal

most lovely of cultivated Ferns." varieties in cultivation. To-day we present

an addition to the list, a Lily which has

CROTON JOHANNIS. been described as " the most glorious of

All cultivators of Crotons have become American Lilies." It has been already

much attached to the beautiful depending noticed in the Gardener^ Chronicle by Mr

Croton (Codiaeum) angustifolium. Its F. G. Baker, who thus describes it :—

narrow linear leaves, and their variegation "This noble Lily inhabits the western

334

Thi Country Gentleman's Magatitu

slope of the Califomian Sierra Nevada, and is
found along the vatershed of the streams
that run into the Sacramento. Professor
Wood, in the notice in ' Proceedings of the
Academy of Philadelphia,' describes the plant
as occurring in woods here and" there from
the Yosemite to the Columbia, and says fur-
ther, ' It is well known to the miners, who
recognize its superior qualities, and call it the
Washington Lily.' There are specimens in
the Kew Herbarium, gathered by Jeffrey in

broad) white, more or less tinged with p
or lilac, and sweet-scented.

AMORPHOPBALLUS RIVtERl.

This very curious Aroid (for which w
also indebted to Messrs Hooper for the
tration), was introduced from Cochin Chi
M. Riviere, the head gardener of the 1a
bourg gardens. It will be a striking ac
rion if planted out of doors in May, as
lias are. The tubers produce on a
stem a single extraordinary looking pa

Fig. 4. — Lilium Wa^hiagtonianum.

^853, by W, Lobb in 1857, and also by
Bridges. I have not yet seen this species in
a living state, but am very glad to note that
it has found its way into your columns. We
have got it at last, and I hope we may not
let it slip through our fingers, as we did in
the case of L. nepalense j and I only ask
those amongst your readers that can appre-
ciate a fine Lily to read the description I
have just given, and to look at Mr Fitch's
woodcut to realize what a treat is awaiting
them."

Messrs Hooper Sc Co., of Covent Garden,
to whom we are indebted for the illustra-
tion, says of this lily, that it gives 6, 12, to
l& (according to the strength of the bulbs)
lowers "" a stem (individually 8 to 9 inches

Fig. 5,— Amaiphophallus Rivierl.

leaf 2 to 3 feet in diameter. Id p(
rooms or conservatories it will giov
larger, and keep a very long time,
colour is dark green, with white spotted :
The curious flower stem, which is devt
on old plants, should be cut ofT on ac
of its disagreeable smell. The tuber
be taken up for the winter as with Di
The few bulbs imported into this count
year succeeded beautifully.

NANUM.

This elegant and beautiful little
which has been called "The glory <
Alpina flora," producing sheets of Forg

New and Rare Plants

235

not-like flowers — ^blue as the sky itself— in- almost globular, and nearly 4 or 5 inches
tensely blue, is well worthy the attention of across. The plants, loaded with these floral
treasures, stand about 2}^ feet in height
2, Dianthus laciniatus striatus — an enormous
double Indian Pink with rich red stripes on
a white ground ; beautiful summer flower.

Fig. 6. — Eritriehlum nanuni.
all cultivators of Alpine plants, and is admi-
rably adapted for rockeries.

ANTIGONON LEPTOPUS.

We take the following description of this
new climber from " Hooper and Co.'s
Gardening Guide," fi^m which the accom-
panying illustration is copied : —

This is a new climber, recently introduced.
Its discoverer, Dr Secmann, writes respecting
it : — " I am well acquainted with the contents
of our gardens and the vegetation of most
pans of the world, but I have no hesitation
in giving it as my deliberate opinion that
there is no more graceful or beautiful climber
than Antigonon leptopus."

A few other novelties of the coming sea-
son are brought to our notice by Messrs
Hooper, and we record them for the guidance
of our readers — they are, i, Asters, Mont
Blanc and Mont Rosa. As su^ested by
their names, these are of wondrous size —
the former with white flowers, and the
latter peach colour — so double as to be

Fig' 7.— Aaligonoo leptopus.

3, Linum Berlanderi, a Gne orange yellow
annual flsT , 4, The Emperor-branching Lark-
spur, another prodigy, with spikes of double
flowers, so numerous, as frequently to be too
at a time on the same plant 5, Tom Thumb
Pansies — gems for bedding, of free blooming
habit ; and, 6, new varieties of the favourite
Violas, comuta and lutea— too good to be
overlooked in the smallest collection.

We leave now to our readers the selection
of those plants most suitable to their
tastes, fully beUeving that many of the new
things introduced by the leading houses and
illustrated in our pages within the past twelve-
month, will remain for many years amongst
the choicest of our garden treasures.

236

The Country Gentlemaris Magazine

Wsit IBttirinariatt.

INFLUENZA IN HORSES.

THE following upon this important sub-
ject was delivered as a lecture recently,
by Professor Copeman, at the New York
Veterinary College : —

The S3rmptoms of influenza assume a
variety of different forms. Thus, catarrh
often exists without the fever, and in a
similar number of cases the fever without
the catarrh. Severe nervous depression and
great prostration were frequently the most
promment symptoms, while in other instances
the bronchial affection alone harasses the
patient The disease usually begins sup-
denly with chilliness and shivering, rapidly
succeeded by an immediate and evident im-
pression upon the mucous membranes of
the nose, mouth, frontal sinuses, trachea,
and bronchial tubes to a greater or less
extent General soreness accompanies these
symptoms, with great depression and an
extraordinary weakness, which always bear a
close ratio to the extent of the pulmonary
affection, and consequently to the severity
of the disease. These symptoms are usually
accompanied by fever, and a short, suppressed
cough, and a difficulty of breathing; the
alae of the nose, the lips, and the membranes
of the eye of a pink or dark orange hue.
The tongue is moist, or coated with a yellow
mucus, the skin soft and without morbid
heat, the pulse little augmented in frequency.
But, although each of the particular symp-
toms may be mild, there is a languor, debility,
and loss of spirits far beyond what might
have been expected, and almost exceeding
that of " lung fever." The average duration
of these cases varies from five to seven in
the mild forms, and from seven to twelve in
he more severe. In mild cases such pheno-
npnp constitute the whole disease, and

the patients recover about the eighth or tenth
day. In many instances, however, the
patient, in addition, will suffer from mild or
severe sore throat — a cough comes on and
continues for many weeks. In a few cases
the symptoms are of a still more aggravated
character, the fever being more marked, the
pulse accelerated, the skin hotter, and the
cough more troublesome; and these con-
ditions are often followed by inflanmiation of
the limgs. The pulmonary complications
may be arranged into three forms. First,
capillary bronchitis; second, bronchitis super-
vening on chronic disease of the lungs;
third, pneumonia.

The accession of capillary bronchitis is indi-
cated by the chest symptoms becoming more
severe, and the fits of coughing and the
difficulty of breathing, at first quite dispro-
portionate to the cough and to the physical
signs. The expectoration is scanty, and con-
sists of a yellowish, tenacious mucus. The
pulse becomes rapid, eighty to one hundred
and twenty ; the . tongue covered with a
whitish, soapy fur, and prostration is extreme.
The only auscultatory signs are roughness of
the inspiratory murmur, with occasional
slight crepitation near the lower third of the
chest There is evidently great sore-
ness and contraction of the chest
Crepitation, unattended by dulness or
percussion, soon extends over the greater
or .less extent of both lungs, and the difficult
breathing speedily becomes so intense as to
be panting. The cough is hacking, and the
expectoration very viscid, of a greenish-
yellow colour, and sometimes streaked with
blood. The respirations are quickened, but
there does not appear to be any uniform
connexion between the extent of the disease

Influenza in Horses 237

and the disturbed ratio of the pulse and disposes the horse to disease. Few horses

respiratory movements. Generally it may suflfer more than one attack of influenza in

be said that the capillary bronchitis of in- the same epizootic, although many relapse ;

fluenza is distinguished from pneumonia by but one attack of this disease in no degree

the greatest severity of the general symptoms; protects the constitution from a second at-

by the tendency of the fine crepitation of the tack in another epizootic,

early stage to pass into sub-crepitant and prognosis.

mucus rules, rather than to give place to Colts and young horses die in a very small

evidences of condensation ; and by the proportion, unless in a previous state of iU-

peculiar character of the cough and expec- health. The mortality, however, among the

toration. Inflammation of the substance of ^^^ j^^ -^ ^^^^ country been at times great

the lungs seldom occurs tUl the second or ^^^ ^^ disease. It has been remarked,

third day, and more commonly not till the ^ko, that the disease, if not fetal in itself,

fifth or sixth, and, although generally, is not i^ft ^^e patient of whatever age often greatly

always preceded by shivering or even bron- debihtated and out of condition, and those

chitis. The pneumonia has, in some years, ^^^ " tender lungs" who suffer fi-om it often

been characterized by great debUity, and continue to cough for several months after-

presenting a striking contrast to the usual ^^rds, so that a complete recovery is often

symptoms \ small, and though sometimes i^^gr and tedious,
between fifty and sixty, has ranged more
commonly from thirty to forty. The patients,

also, who generally preserve a good deal of ^^ a general rule, the great majority of
power in the ordinary forms of pneumonia, ^^ '^ epizootics of influenza have scarcely
were now so weak that they were often required any medical treatment In favour-
obliged to be supported to get them out of ^^^^ seasons many indeed are so slighdy m-
their stalls. Throughout the progress of ^sposed as to requu-e nothing more to their
this disease, so great is the prostration that ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^P^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^e days
the patient's loss of muscular power b the ^^^"^ " ^^^^ ^«^^" ^^^» ^o™> ™^ &^' ^^^
most distinguishing feature of the disease. ^^ g^^ ^oft food, scalded bran, and a small
This extreme debihty often continues— some- quantity of sweet hay, tepid drinks, or hay-
times after all other symptoms have passed ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^ ^^^ mXxzXt or phosphate of
away. The disease generaUy temunates soda may be added A fever pill, composed
favourably by perspiration, or by copious ^^ camphor, nitre, ginger, and flaxseed-meal,
secretion or mucus from the bronchia, or a ^^ ^« beginnmg of the disease is usefiil in
copious discharge of urine. Towards the moderating the fever, and nature seems to
termination of the complaint rheumatic affec- P^^"^ ^^ ^^ repetition of it afterwards, when
tions— especially of the hock and feUock ^^''^ ^^ ^ disposition to sweatmg. Nothing,
joints, are by no means unusual likewise, is found so successfully to mitigate

the cough, as a gentle opiate at night A

CAUSES AND MODES OF PROPAGATION. gmaller number, however, will require medical

The attack of influenza is for the most part attendance, either from the severity of the

so universal that at certain seasons of the bronchitis, the recurrence of pneumonia,

year a large majority of horses in our " sale severe sore throat, or more frequendy from

stables " suffer more or less from its preva- the debility induced by the disorder. In

lence, and that Avithout respect to age, sex, general, when the bronchitis is severe, but

or condition. The nature of the epizootic the substance of the lungs as yet unaffected

influence, which gives rise to influenza, is linseed poultices to the diest, or hot vinegar,

quite unknown. Sudden changes of tempera- are often of essential service, and this treat-

ture appear to assist the development of the ment, together with neutral salts, opiates, and

influenza poison, and exposure to cold pre- diaphoretics in general, will effect a cure.

338

The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

In all the epizootics of influenza, however, it
has been remarked that a cough is one of
the most annoying symptoms, and that the
whole class of expectorants were either useless
or uncertain in their action. Blood-letting
and cathartics are dangerous in the highest de-
gree, while " sedatives " — as digitalis, aconite,
hellebore, emetic tartar, &c. — increase the
prostration without benefiting, in any com-
mensurate degree, the pulmonary disease.
During convalescence acetate and citrate of
iron, in small doses, will be found useful
tonics ; also gentian, columbi And cinchona
barks. In cases complicated by pneumonia
it has been found that depletory remedies
totally fail to relieve the complaint. It is in
this form of pneumonia that small doses of
" difiusible stimulants," sesqui-carbonate, and
the aromatic spirits of ammonia, nitrous ether,
&c., have been found so advantageous.

As influenza is a specific fever characterized
by pure debility, it appears to me that no
permanent good can possibly result from
antiphlogistic remedies of any kind. In all
cases we should from the commencement
endeavour to strengthen the patient The
prostrating eflect of the disease upon the
entire organism, and the probable depen-
dence of the more alarming symptoms upon
the poisoned condition of the blood, these
are circumstances which should induce every
cautious practitioner to " think twice " before
adopting the " heroic " treatment recom-
mended by Youatt, Percivall, and other
systematic authorities. All that art can do
in 'influenza is to husband Natures resources
by warm clothing of the entire body of the
patient; pure air to breathe, a carefully
selected diet, and tepid saline waters to
drink, are the best remedies.

The Country GentUmaris Magazine 239

gairp mtb Joultrg ^Barb.

SUGGESTIONS TO POULTRY RAISERS.

THERE are many things connected with but being careful to watch her closely at first

poultry-raising, remarks a correspondent to see that she does not manifest any aversion

of the Country Gentleman^ which a thoughtful to her premature brood. This is the great

and observant breeder will hit upon at times danger in cases of this kind, but generally,

with great success, but which those who with prudent management, it is easy enough,

simply do as their fathers did will utterly The chickens, as before stated, should be

neglect. I will note a few practices which placed under her at night, when they are

are not difficult, but depend for their success most inclined to be quiet, and when she has

upon good judgment and tact In raising a whole night before her in which to become

very early chickens the breeder is often con- familiarized to their nestling motions. She

fronted by the difficulty caused by the hen's needs to be deceived into supposing that

habit of abandoning her brood somewhere they came into the world firom under her

about the fifth week of their lives, when it breast, and hence the less she sees of them

is yet too cold for them to be left entirely to before being introduced in this way, the

themselves. By judicious forethought and better.

care, they may often be given a new mother It is often desirable that a hen should sit on

— a "step-mother" we may call her— who some other nest than the one she has chosen,

will give them all needed care and affection To effect this, a change at night is the safest,

during the next four or five weeks. To effect In addition, it may be necessary sometimes

this tlie chickens may be placed under a to confine her to the new nest awhile, and

sitting hen at night, just as she is about still further, so to restrict her range when she

hatching a brood of her own, and before she comes off for food and drink that this new

has made herself familiar with the appearance nest is the only one she can have access to

of the latter. If of a pliant disposition, as when her wants are supplied. Of course, her

most of the Brahmas are, she will generally food and drink should be placed in full sight

adopt them without question, and take good In nearly all cases it is best to have sitting

care of both sizes. But it is a good plan to hens by themselves. There may be occa-

have several hens hatch about the same time, sional quarrels and changes of nests, but

and in such a case those broods of the same never half as many difficulties as are sure to

age may be united, and the larger chickens follow where the whole flock of non-sitters

be kept by themselves with their new mother, and cocks have free access to the sitting

She may consider them very "forward for nests. Give them separate quarters, where

their age,'' but no matter, provided she dis- they can have access to food, drink and

charges her assigned duties. dust-baths, and they will do very well indeed.

When the contingency of a stepmother A second term is sometimes very desirable,

can be anticipated, it can be provided for in and it can easily be made to follow the first

some cases by allowing a good-natiured hen without interruption. The chickens of the

to sit upon glass nest eggs for a week or two first brood can be taken away as fast as

(addled eggs will do just as well), and then, hatched, or it may be so arranged that

by introducing the chickens to her at night, another hen hatching at the same time may

240

Thi Country Gentleman* s Magazine

be given the charge of the young brood.
There is only one danger to be apprehended
— that of not removing the eggs or the
chickens soon enough. If the latter are left
under the mother until all are hatched and
dry, she may conclude that her work is done,
and eggs, or no eggs, may leave the nest,
hence the less she sees, hears and feels of her
chickens, the better. When early chickens
are specially desired, the plan of impressing
hens into a second term of service will often
be found of real utility. The effect upon the
hen's constitution may not be salutary, still I
have never noticed any special harm to re-
sult from the practice.

In all these various operations, movable
nest boxes will be found of essential
service. They can be made of light material,
four or five inches high, and be enclosed on
one or two sides, so that the hen's natiu-al
fancy for laying, sitting, and hatching in
private, may be partially humoured. Make
the enclosing sides, say i8 inches high, place
the boxes on the floor at the side or end of

the house, in a row, fasten along board shelf-
fashion, immediately over them, and then by
alternating those which have one or two
sides, the breeder will have a row of nest
boxes none of which communicate directly
with each other, and where only two hens at
most can look into each other's nests. By
enclosing two sides of each box, each hen
will be by herself, but the space at command
cannot be so economically used. In this
way, too, a perverse hen can be imprisoned
in a moment by moving the back or side of
some other nest box against the one she
occupies. A sitting hen too can be removed
with her box, eggs and all, to the sitting
room very readily under such circumstances,
and confined as long as necessary. Another
advantage is that the boxcanbe readily scalded
out, and all vermin thus exterminated from
it when necessary. A second row of boxes
placed on the shelf over the first row, with a
second shelf nicely adjusted over them, so
as to enclose them at the top, can also be
easily arranged, and will work welL

KEEPING AND MARKETING BUTTER.

MR J. T. ELLSWORTH, one of the
most successful New England far-
mCTs, at a meeting of the Massachusetts State
Board of Agriculture, being asked to state
his mode of packing and transporting the
butter which he makes to market, said. : —

My whole aim is to keep it from the air.
I do not want any kind of air to reach it.
If it is pure air, it will abstract the sweet
flavour ; if it is bad air, it will do harm, of
course. I cover it from the air from the time
it is salted until it is worked. Then it is
^oxed as soon as it can be, and covered. I
nave three different sizes of boxes. My
ihipping box is something like an old-
fashioned tool chest, and holds four boxes of
hirty pounds each. The shipping box is
wo boxes high and two boxes wide. They
tb*^ common round butter boxes, but the

jr*»

shipping box is a square box, with handles at
each end. A rod comes up at each end, and
there is a thumb-screw outside on the cover.
Listing, such as comes on the sides of cloth,
is tacked around the edge of the box. When
the cover is screwed down, the box is pretty
tight. You will see that there is a vacant
space between the two boxes something like
a three-square. I had two galvanized iron
boxes made, three-square, or nearly so, that
just fit into that cavity, and these were filled
with broken ice, about the size of a hen's egg.
These boxes are filled with ice, the butter
put in, and the cover screwed down tight, in
time to meet the express train, and my butter
gets to the stall at half-past eleven A.M. Two-
thirds of the ice is in the boxes, and the
butter, I have been told, is apparently as har^
as when it started.

THE

COUNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

APRIL 1873

LORD WALSINGHAM ON UNIONS AND STRIKES.

IN consequence of a demand on the part of is. a week ; the manner of it can best be

of the labourers in the Wayland Hun- explained by reading one of the notices issued

dred for an increase of wages, the members by a branch committee of the Union : —

of the Wayland Agricultural Association held From the Secretary and Treasurer of the National

a meeting last week " to decide upon a Agricultural Labourers' Union. — You will please to

definite line of action in the matter.'* There «^ ^^^ "• ^^"^ V^ ^««^ *°<^ "^ °°* «^^^ ^^.^

i»o«^ K^4^^^^ ,^^ ^^A «^^ •.««.^«« *..^«^»«. na^t all leave work at once. If only one or two is

were between 100 and 200 persons present, ^ ._, ^ ^ „ ,

, - , _ *, , . , patdoff^ ym must sul cease work,

composed of employers of labour resident p^ Fox Branch Sec.

within the district, and the proceedings were One week's notice.

marked, we are told by the Norwich Mercury y On a recent occasion, when I offered a few
with great unanimity, ** the whole meeting words of advice to some of my cottage ten-
being one of kindness towards the labourer, ants at Tottington, a person who is one of the
and of sympathy with him in the present promoters of the Swaffham branch of this
agricultufal crisis." Lord Walsingham occu- union, a certain Mr Gibson, distinctly and
pied the chair, and in opening the meeting emphatically repudiated the idea that the
he made the following remarks : — It became Union ever recommended or encouraged
known that a demand for higher ws^es was strikes. I ask you, gendemen, whether that
about to be made in this neighbourhood by assertion is consistent with the issuing of the
order of the Labourers* Union, and, as it notice which I have just read. Moreover, I
appeared necessary that the employers of should like to read you an extract from a letter
labour should know how this demand was from a Suffolk labourer, which appears in the
likely to be met in the different districts, I Suffolk and Essex Free Press^ and which
invited one or two of my immediate neigh- pretty clearly describes the action of the
hours and tenants to talk the matter over with union system. The writer says : — " A man
me last Friday,^and we then came to the con- had been discharged for staying away from
elusion that if any compulsion was attempted his work for a longer time than he ought to
to be exercised by the men, it would be ad- have done, and most of the men had been
visable at once to call together a more general in the Labourers* Union at Glemsford. Well,
meeting, and to come to some distinct under- the man goes home and informs these agita-
standing as to how far we are prepared to tors that he is turned away, and now comes
comply with a demand which we feared, from the sequel. They came (the agitators) direct
the manner in which it was made, might be to our veiy house, and informed us that,
frequently repeated. The nature of the de- unless Mr Cross took the man back we should
mand is for an increase of wages at the rate strike to a man, and said they, ' Those that
vou X. R

242 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

are not in the Union, take them off every one, never join it any more, as long as my name

and they shall all have their money, and if is what it is."

they refuse to come, pull them out of the When in the face of these proceedings it
yard ; and we will pay you twelve shillings can be asserted by any of its promoters that
a-week as long as he stands out (meaning our the Union does not encourage strikes, I ask
master), and if any others come on the farm what value can attach to their statements
to work, we will run them off. You shall all upon any subject whatever. I am not un-
go back to your work again, and all take aware that in consequence of the present
your places as you leave them. We will high prices the labourers feel themselves
make your master take the man back again, somewhat pinched. For my own part, I
for he shall have him (meaning the man dis- should like to see them in a far better posi-
charged). And do you go to-morrow morning tion than they are, and there are many ways
and ask your master if he is going to take apart from the question of wages in which I
him back again. If he says no, then you think each and all of us might endeavour to
come down and let me know.' Well, we go do something to help them. I am not by
and ask him if he is going to set this man on any means disposed to say that their present
again. The answer is ' No, not if I can have rate of wages is absolutely sufficient, but then
him for 6d. a-day.* 'Then you won't on the other hand, it is no doubt higher
have any.' And off we go, taJdng every in proportion to the price of com than
man and boy off the farm but one, and it has been for many years, and the price
we go like a fool to the correction of of coal and some other articles tell quite
the stocks, not knowing what we are about, as much against the farmer's pocket as it does
A meeting is called the same night, and we against theirs. But I am sure I am speaking
are told to stand firm, don't go near him, the unanimous feeling of this meeting m^cn
stick to it, he will soon come and ask you to I say that we are desirous to treat the men
go to work ; he shan't have one without the fairly, to improve their position as far as
other. You all came away together and you possible, and to pay them such a rate of wages
shall all go back together, and said, that as as represents the true value of their labour to
long as he stands out we will pay 12s. a-week, us, and is in proportion to the general prices
if 'tis three, six, or twelve months. Well, and of agricultural produce, which must alwa)rs in
did they do as they said ? No, sir, they failed a great measure regulate the labour market
in everything they promised us. Not one But, gentlemen, the manner in which this de-
thing was fulfilled. They promised to re- man d is made upon us is a very serious thing,
store us back to our work, and they failed. We, the employers of labour, are not allowed
They promised to pay us 12s. a-week, and to have an opinion in the matter. We are
they failed. We received 12s. a-week for a told that the men, backed by the funds of the
month, and the next week we received 10s., Union of which they are members, willthcm-
and no work can we get while we are in the selves fix upon what shall be the price of
Union, and when we go again after our money, labour, and that, if their demands are not
9s. is the total sum we are to receive. And this acceded to, they will put us in the position of
won't do any longer, you must go away, they being unable to cultivate the land, and l»ing
began to tell us, or no more money for you. the agricultural industry of the coimtry to a
Now, Mr Editor, we were receiving some complete standstill. It is not necessary for
I2S., some 13s. 6d. and 14s. a-week, and left me at any length to point out to you what
that to follow such men as these, losing over has been hitherto the effect of these combina*
3s. a-week. The loss to me is about 30s., tions upon other industries. You are as well
and this is a great sum for a poor man to aware as I am of how the system has been a^H
lose, especially in the winter months, and I plied to collieries, to ironworks, to gaswozks,
will not be sent away, so I have struck again, to almost every trade. I need not remind
have struck out of the Union, and I will you of the misery and wretchedness that it

Lord Wahingham ati Unions and Strikes 243

has produced in the various districts where be withdrawn at any moment when his con-
its operations have been conducted— of the duct towards him no longer makes him
manner in which it has raised the- price of worthy to receive them. With regard to the
useful and necessary commodities, removing justice or injustice of their demands, I do
a large amount of capital from the country, not propose to enter so much into that sub-
and endangering our national pre-eminence in ject as into the general principle of their com-
enterprise and commerce. We have only pulsory nature. They complain, I know, of
lately had a painful experience of the effects high prices, which make it difficult for a poor
of this S3rstem in the case of South Wales, man to pay his way and keep his wife
and whereas it has been proved in that in- and family, but I would remind them
stance to have entailed serious injury upon that the high price of coals and of
all who were concerned in it without secur- other articles is distinctly owing to this
ing them those consequent advantages which very system of combination, which has
they were led to expect, I am sure you artificially agitated the market. They
will all join with me in an expression complain, I know, that the farmers who
of regret that our agricultural labourers employ them appear to be prosperous, and
should be so ill-informed and so incapable that they do not derive any benefit from that
of judging what is best for their own interests prosperity. You must know, gentlemen,
as to believe the unwarrantable assertions of better than I do, how much real prosperity
those professional agitators who lead them, there is among you. They complain again
who tell them that their plan of action is (for I am anxious to look at both sides of the
incapable of failure, and must eventually question) that when they ask to have a little
secure for them not only that which they now coal carted for them they cannot get it done;
order them to claim, but certain other con- you must know again how much truth thd-e
tingent advantages of a political and social is in this : but I cannot believe for a moment
character, which are as far removed from the that there is any one in this room, or indeed
possibility of attainment by any such method in this county, who would be unwilling when
as this, as the arguments by which they are a convenient opportunity occurs to do any
supported are apart from the truth. I could little favour for his men, which would not
produce figures to shew that the labourers put him to expense or inconvenience. They
themselves cannot derive any pecuniary complain generally of a want of consideration
advantage from this organization — but I will for them on the part of their employers, which
only point out in one simple way the limit to gives rise to a discontented spirit amongst
which their resources can extend. Supposing them. Whether there is anything in this or
every member of the Union to pay a contri not, I think we should all be anxious that
buticn of 2d. a-week towards it, entitling him they should look upon us as their friends,
to los. a-week allowance when out of work, and not as their enemies, expecting th^m to
the maximum -of time for which each man help us when we are in a difficulty, and being
could claim this support, supposing each to ready on our part to do the .same towards
receive an equal share, would amount only to them. I hold that their interests and ours
three months in every eighteen years, without are closely connected, and I should be indeed
taking into consideration the working ex- sorry to see them at variance. It must be
penses of the Union, which would again remembered that the current rate of wages
reduce that figure ; and I ask you what man does not always represent the proportionate
is there who joins it who does not in some earnings in various counties, nor does it re-
way expect to receive his full and fair share present the proportionate weekly earnings in
of the support to which his subscriptions our own. Our men have opportunities of
entide him ? At the same time he runs the earning extra TV-ages at the time of mowing,
risk of losing the various indirect advantages turnip-hoeing, and harvest, and those wages
that he receives from his employer, which can are perhaps higher here than elsewhere ; bat

^44 ^^^^ Country Gentleman's Magazine

I should be glad to see the system of piece- exercised upon us is capable of perpetual

work more generaUy adopted. It is a system recurrence. We are told now that we must

by which each man is sure to receive the raise is., we may be told to-morrow that we

true proportionate value of his day's work ; must raise 2S., and so on indefinitely. For

and I have reason to believe that the men my own part I would rftther raise 3s./ if .it

themselves are favourable to this system, were asked for in a proper spirit and by the

while it is also favourable to the interests of free'will and accord of those who sought it,

their employers. The method of procedure than I would grant a much smaller indulgence

by which it is sought to enforce the demands to those who came by order of others and

which are made upon us is one which I think told me that they were forbidden to agree

we should be very upwise to encourage or upon any other terms than such as were

permit. Practically it amounts to this, that written upon a paper in their own pockets

if we have no established plan of defensive and signed by the secretary 'of a Trades'

co-operation, the compulsion that may be Union.

MR M'COMBIE ON FARM^SER VANTS.

THE Vale of Alford Turnip-growing no questions. I trust them, and the con*

Association celebrated its first anni- fidence is mutual. I find, if we treat farm-

versary dmner recently, when, among other servants as men like ourselves, that they will

lectures and discussions, Mr M'Combie read generally do us justice if we are careful in

a paper upon the above subjects. He our selection. I cannot be answerable for

said : — them if an employer goes to a market and

I cannot agree with a great deal that has engages every cheap man at bap-hazard he

been said against our farm-servants, the fee- can find, without regard to his character.

ing markets, and the bothy system. The This a general accusation against the farmer;

farm-servants are a very hard-working class, but it does not apply to the Vale of Alford.

and are highly deserving of comfortable The practice I have pointed at is the excep-

dwellings and kind treatment. They are tion, not the rule. I hold the farm-servants

accused of being a restless, troublesome, and have as good a right to raise their position

wandering class. I cannot deny that some as any other class in the community. Why

are restless, and that some do wander. It is should not these poor men try to elevate

our duty to consider what are the causes of their position by every lawful means in their

their desire of change, and what may be done power ? It is their duty ; and it is only by

by us to ameliorate their condition. I can- their faithful services that we can raise our

not generally retain in my employment un- position. Faithful servants deserve the

married men of the best class for more than respect and the esteem of their masters, and

one year. they ought to be looked upon not as inferior

HAP-HAZARD. ENGAGEMENTS : HIRING FAIRS, beings, but as our friends and as members of

I think myself singularly fortunate if I can our own family. I had in my employment
keep them two years. My married servants at one time last harvest upwards of seventy
seldom or never shift I have three married servants, including cattlemen and house-
men, in charge of three different farms, who servants. It was a trying season for the
have been witli me for many years, and the general health of the harvest workers, but I
understanding between us is that they are never heard a murmur or complaint Every
« hold their present situations. I ask them one was more arucious than another to do

Mr MXombie an Farm-Servants 245

his duty. We are told, again, that the hiring prietor to let them at the valuation of
markets are a disgrace to the country. I fear competent parties, for I am sorry to put
it is only a question of degree between them on record that the tenants, in some cases^
and many of our own social meetings, and become, in the sub-letting of land, more
other meetings in the district. We seldom grasping than the proprietors. The following ,
hear anytliing said against country balls, ex- is, I think, a summary of the reasons that in-
cursion trains, and raffles, which, perhaps, duce our farm-servants to shift so often : —
have as bad an influence on the morals of The causes of their apparent restlessness are
the farm-servants as feeing markets. It must the very imperfect education they have re-
uot, however, be understood that I am an ceived in their youth, the want of comfort-
advocate for the hiring markets, but in the able cottage accommodation, the poor pros-
present position between master and servant, pect of settling down in crofts and small
and the want of cottage accommodation, I farms, the little interest taken by many mas-
regard them as a great convenience between ters in their welfare, poverty created by their
master and servant, when many servants are improvident habits, immoral conduct, the
required. very commendable desire of getting insight

BOTHIES AND CROFTS. '"f" ^^ '^'^f^ ^* ""^^f °f T^'^f !

adopted m other parts of the country, bad
After remarking that the register system treatment in the farm kitchen. There are
was preferable to the market, which yet had gome disadvantages connected with the cot-
its conveniences, the speaker went on to say ^^ge system. Married men are not generally
—We are daily told that the bothy system is such good keepers of horses and harness as
a degrading one, and that feeing markets are the unmarried men. It is to cases in which
a disgrace to a civilized country. I have the cottages are too distant from the steading
part of my servants in the bothy, and others that this observation most frequently applies,
in the farm kitchen. I have consulted with Married men are sometimes complained of
them as to which they preferred. There is a as being fonder of their own houses than the
difference of opinion, but the majority prefer stable and farm-steading. There is another
the bothy. The farm kitchen system has disadvantage. When a grieve or foreman is
been advocated as a great improvement on ^ married man, and when the other servants
the bothy ; in this I do not agree. When are in the bothy or farm kitchen, and when
the mistress is of a kindly disposition, and is the master does not sit with his servants,
well acquainted with the requirements of the there is no restraint in the absence of the
farm-seivants, and has the heart as well as g^eve ; the servants are allowed to do very
the ability to give them justice, the system ^^^\^ as they please. There ought to be
works very weU. In this part of the country, always some one present in the bothy or farm
with the altered state of matters, I would kitchen, who is responsible to the master for
give a preference to the bothy. The servants the servants' conduct, and the party respon-
can live more comfortably than in the farm sible should be the last to bed, and the first
kitchen. They have their food just as they ^p i^ the morning to see that aU is right
like to have it, and no disputes between

masters and servants can be raised as to its ^^^ ditty of a master.

quality or quantity. The bothy, no doubt, I am now a link between the past and pre-

has its defects, but men of bad character will sent generation. I have much pleasure in

injure any system, however good. Mr Harvey, statuig that the farm-servants are much im-

in his prize essay, disapproved of crofts, but proved with reference to mental cultivation

I disagree with that — I am strongly in favour and sobriety. There can be no proper

of crofts. The crofts ought to be let generally understanding between masters and servants

by the landlord, and, if let by the tenant, he by six months' service — at least, I can never

should be bound in his lease by the pro- judge of & man before he has been, at least.

246

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

twelve months under my eye — ^and the master
should remember that we are all of one flesh
and blood. There is, I fear, too much truth
in the statement, " That the antient tie of
amity and love between master and servant
has been snapped asunder." Masters should
remember that " example is better than pre-
cept,!* and that a good example is indis-
pensably necessary. It is of no consequence
what a master may profess, if he do not shew
it in his life. It is astonishing how minutely
the servants will scan the conduct of their
masters. If the servants should find their
masters over-reaching their neighbours, and
unscrupulous as to truth — the servants have
ample opportunities of observation — there
must be an end of all respect from the ser-
vant to the master. A master, to retain the
respect of his servants, must shew an example
of honesty and fidelity in all his transactions,
and truth must be ever on his lips. The
masters should do everything in their power,
by acts of kindness, to win the affections of
their servants. A master should be very
careful as to the selection of a grieve, or
foreman ; for upon that selection will gene-
rally depend the conduct of all his other
servants. A grieve, or foreman, of bad

character, it is exceedingly likely, will poiso
every servant about the place. This is onl
a glance at the duty of masters to the
servants ; but if we would rigidly carry 01
the preceding suggestions, I have no doul
we should have less reason to complain (
the migratory habits of our farm-servant
There never has been a time when wisdor
prudence, and forbearance were so much r
quired on the part of masters and servant
The masters ought to yield to the reasonab
demands of the servants ; and I have staU
that the farm-servants' duty is to raise th(
position by every lawful means in th(
power, and these poor men have right <
their side when they keep within prop
limits. The supply and demand will regula
the wages — an equality of wages is prepc
terous. Our best farm-servants will nev
consent to such a proposal. There a
servants that I would not have in my emplc
ment although they gave their services i
nothing. I should be very sorry to see t
farm-servants here yield to the solicitatio
of very interested agitators, whose motiv
are their own aggrandisement, and who
arguments tend to widen the breach betwe
master and servant.

SIMPLIFICATION OF LAND TRANSFER,

THE complicated system of Land Transfer
is now of general importance amongst
the owners of soil. In the law, as in other
productions of human invention, a series of
years produces change, the exigencies of the
times render many portions thereof obsolete,
the machinery used in its administration in
one age becoming rusted, and incapable of
application in another. Of the numerous
volumes that compose a lawyer's library,
many are consigned to disuse, or oblivion, in
consequence of the revolutions that daily
Dccur in modern decisions, opinions, and
practice. It is common, now-a-days, for people
o look upon any custom that is in disuse in

the lighc of an antiquity, as applied to ordim
transactions, and it is matter of wonder tl
the present method of dealing with land shot
so long have escaped. It is a misfortune tl
modern students of the subject are too \
to consider and deal with it in conjunction w
antient usages, hence it follows that what
deduced is often distorted, misrepresented,
unsuited to the times.

Any person who will take the trouble
look into our old laws cannot fail to obser
upon comp&rison with modem enactmei
how they have become adapted to mod
wants« though still retaining all their anti<
principles, but the observer cannot also i

Simplification of Land Transfer 247

ice that no changes have been more pies. There are exceptive cases, no doubti

ingly conceded, or no interests more but good practical common sense affords a

isly guarded, than those connected with key to the laws of this country as applied to

oil in England. Take the ordinary every-day transactions. According to ordi-

dure upon a sale of land, an agreement nary notions, if one person be possessed of

arrived at between the parties, it is re- a valuable horse, he knows that the presence

I into wTiting, that preliminary document of the animal in his stable is sufficient proof

led a contract, then occurs the inquiry of his ownership — ^he has corporal possession,

itle, albeit nobody disputes it, and the If he sell the horse, all that is required to

aser is perfectly satisfied ; but he has the complete the legality of the transaction is for

1, fostered by usage from time im- the purchaser to pay the price, take his re-

)rial, that his legal possession cannot ceipt, place a halter around the willing neck

:ured by any act of his own ; he therefore of his purchase, and trot him off to his own

Its his legal adviser, to protect him premises. Why should not a similar simple

a possible danger, of the nature of which course of proceeding be adopted in the case

s but the vaguest idea, though to his of a landowner or farmer who bargains for an

cal mind the possession is enough. acre or so of land to let, to farm, or to sell

re occurs one of the great causes of outright. Clearly it is a great hardship upon

laint. Old documents of title are raked both vendor and purchaser that upon sale or

id inquired into by the practitioner, in transfer of a few acres of land they should be

performance of his simple duty, and it put to the cost of an expensive inquiry into

nd necessary to give prominence to a a title upon which no question arises,
dated in 1773 in the title, to a piece of The technicalities that attend the most

iealt with in 1873. The practitioner is ordinary dealings with land must materially

nsible to his client in the first instance, increase its price, and no doubt in a great

', as is often the case, the inquiry with measure restrict dealings therewith. The

he is charged is beyond him, he, quite Legislature, some session or two back, ap-

ably, according to the present state of pointed a commission to inquire into the sub-

;, transfers his responsibility to counsel, ject, and the result produced several practical

whose responsibility, and to whom, suggestions for an amelioration of the pre-

is a channing uncertainty. The persons sent system, but nothing of a legislative

pally interested, in due course, exe- character has yet arisen consequent upon

L formidable deed or deeds, the contents their deliberations. The system, perhaps, to

ich are, in the majority of cases, beyond indirectly interested legal minds, admits of

)mprehension of the purchaser, but in little modification, but it is the landowners of

)stract he knows that the land is in his the country who are the most competent

possession, and acquires the fiuther judges, and who, being directly interested,

edge, not, perhaps, as satisfactory, of a are best qualified to become their own advo-

f costs, the principal portion of which cates. The institution of a new and satis-

3 to the providing for contingencies that factory system of machinery which shall be

ever happen. We admit that in some at once simple and comprehensive to facilitate

an extraordinary degree of caution is transfer of land with perspicuity, accuracy,

sar}', but it is the general principle we and despatch, is no ordinary task, on account

exception to. The whole system re- of the mixed character of the present com-

; change and codification. It was formed plication, and the extent of learning and

es the reverse of the present, and is practical experience required, but we arad-

r unsuited to modern requirements. ously await the promised measure, which we

* common law of England is sufficiently hope will at least clear the ground and divest

it as not to occasion inconvenience to the present system of some of the irritatixig

iblic endeavouring to master its princi- meshes that surround it '

348

T}ie Country Gentleinatis Magazine

AGRICULTURAL VALUATIONS.

THIS was the subject of a paper read
before ihe last meeting of the Kings-
cote Agricultural Association by Mr Cox, of
Minchinhampton. Agricultural valuations, he
remarked, was a question between out-going
and in-coming tenants and tlieir valuers, and
the nation. It was for them to say whether
they were content to be ruled by customs
which originated perhaps before the Norman
Conquest, or at all events before they began
to feed their beasts with cake and such dainty
morsels. Custom in the sense they used it
there, was a practice made binding by long
usage, and in the absence of any special
agreement to the contrary. It was the cus-
tom of this county, and, he had read, ot
every other except Lincolnshire, not to allow
the out-going tenant anything for the farm-
yard tnanure made on the farm, whatever be
its composition, and not even if the tenant
took to it on entering at a price per agree-
ment. Many were old enough to remember
when farm-yard manure was nothing except
Straw trodden by cattle, who got their miser-
able living by picking small portions of it, or
perhaps the weeds it contained. When this
was the case the practice was right, and
should still be applied where the same system
prevailed ; but to apply a similar rule to the
manure that had been made by the expen-
diture of hundreds — perhaps thousands — of
pounds on cake, com, and hay, was, to say
the least, a very great mistake — he was about
to say, a monstrous injustice — and in his
opinion the greatest possible bar to good
husbandry. Many farmers were afraid to put
good manure into their land for fear anything
should arise to cause them to leave their
farms before they got the full value from the
manure. It was a national evil, a crying sin,
that people should have any just excuse for
Eirmit^ in a country where we scarcely grew
more than half the necessary food for our own
population. He had heard that valuers were
xdverse to any change, on accoimt of the

extra trouble it would give ; but he ha
much respect for them as a body to b
this statement If they were to be arl
they would be foremost to encourage
was useful and just What eucouragi
had a tenant to take care of his manurCi
security for his capital, what inducemt
march forward? He might be told
tenants ought to be carefid when enteri
makeallthose things secure. Thisheadm
but there again customs were at fault '
was seldom a good farm to be let but
the applicants for it were more than coi
accommodated. If one ventured to a
greater security, he was told that it wa
the " custom " on the estate to make
nants ; he must take the farm and wi
according to the custom of the county
he objected he must give place to om
fewer scruples, and very likely witl
capital. The consequence was tha
nation as well as the land suffered.
following was a list of the manurial val
some of the feeding stuffs generally use
rived at after a lifetime spent in rese£
by Mr Lawes, of Rothamstead.

Desiccated cotton

i o

7 o

5 'o

9 °
9 o

3 o

8 o

9 °
9

s. d.
■II

It;

45 o

92 o

77 o
74 o
73 o

35 o
30 o

30 6

1-6

^rmoncouon

^■

LemiU

Beans

Pollard

■■

Hatley

Peas

;•

Agricultural Valuations 249

ndll be seen that there was an inunense in feeding on clover or grass, he should be

ence in the value of manures from entitled to the same rate of allowance as if

snt foods, desiccated cotton seed cake he had put it on his turnip brake, or if he

ing the highest — ^three-fourths of its first spread manure on his old ley and feed it

rape and common cotton seed cake, afterwards, he should be entitled to the benefit

and clover hay leaving half its value; As regarded that somewhat ambiguous term,

5, beans, peas, linseed, and pollard, " spending price," he confessed he was not

one-third; linseed cake, over a quarter ; satisfied. He believed everything grown on

Q meal, oais, wheat, and barley, about the farm should belong to the grower ab-

jcth. So, if an out-going tenant spent solutely, except, perhaps, the power of re-

> on white com alone, he would be moving hay and straw fix)m the land. The
id to an addition of about jQi6 in his in-coming tenant would have it then ready to
re; but if he laid out ;^ 100 on desic- his hand, and in all probability would reap
cotton seed cake and linseed cake, in the full benefit. Some might urge that these
equal proportions, he would be entitled alterations might lead to fraud, but he thought
50 ; if on linseed cake alone, about there was much more room for firaud in re-

But for all practical purposes, and ference to " tillages ; " in fact, there was too

would perhaps be nearer the average often almost a premium on slovenly farming.

adopted by feeders generally, suppose The valuer professed to know by the quan-

> was spent, ;^5o in linseed cake and tity of tillages whether there was a goodciop
in corn, ;^2 5 for every ;^ 1 00 would be a of ashes for the benefit of the root crop,
limple and just way of getting at the and allowed all that was charged in a general

Having arrived at something like the way. He was not a believer in all that

the next question was, how far should was written in books, and did not think so

JO back ? This ought to be decided by much tillage was good for light land. He

)urse of cropping adopted. If the five- considered that deep tillage and plenty of

I system commonly practised on the it was good for heavy land ; but thought

'old Hills, it ought to hold good four that the nearer they could get to the practice

First year, turnips, £2$ ; second of Mr Smith, of Woolston, and do their

yroung seed, ;^i 2, los.; third ditto, one principal culture at about one operation,

dd ;^6, 5s.; fourth ditto, two ditto (if the nearer they should be to the

jQ6y 5 s.; if mown, nothing. If wheat mark. Consequently, he would not allow

in after the turnips, and barley follow, so much tillage as was claimed and

aid be considered used up, as in all obtained by one whom he knew. He

after the second crop of white straw could not say it was absolutely fraudulent, but

He would apply the same rule to scarcely knew by what other name to call

, although he believed many instances it He would reduce the tillages on stubble

:curred when their beneficial eflfects had to, say, three ploughings, four drag and six

observed over ten years. Phosphate of harrow tines, on very light land ; and if after

nd other cheap and evanescent manures that the land was very foul, it might be made

be valued on the same principle as at to tell in the chapter of dilapidations. Of

It. There was one thing, however, which course he did not mean to apply this to old

luer should insist on, and that was, that sainfoin or to very heavy clay. The question

mure heap should be properly attended of dilapidations was a difficult one. If custom

i not allowed to be left about till all were always insisted on, great hardship might

ist of its salts were washed out and be inflicted. He would apply the principle

past recovery or allowed to heat to rigorously to filth, neglect, wilful waste or

is, by which its most valuable parts were damage, bad fences, &c.; but in some cases

wasted. If a man spend cake and com the tenant was entitled to consideration. He

250

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

related a case in which a tenant took to a
farm which had been thoroughly exhausted at
a rent above its value, and who, when he
came to be valued out, owing to a dry summer
and the potato disease knocking him over,
was mulcted in two-thirds of the value of his
crops and tillages for dilapidations. In such
cases as these, which required consideration,
the valuer ought not to say, "We have
nothing to do with the state of the land when
you took it" He thought it should be the
valuer's duty to ascertain by evidence, if re-
quired, whether the general state of the farm
had deteriorated or improved under the
tenancy before he ventured to apply the lash.
To make one rule applicable to all circum-
stances seemed to him preposterously ridicu-
lous. He knew farmers did not like to
hear an outsider making such statements as
that the land of England was not made to

produce so much food for the people as
ought to produce ; and, generally, there i«
reason in this dislike, because they felt it
be a censure on their management But 1
very fact of farmers being members of societ
like that shewed that the censure did i
apply to those who usually heard it, becai
it was only the best cultivators^ those n
wished to combine science with practice, a
to act up to it as near as circumstances woi
permit, who joined such societies. Thoi
there were few who could not point i
places where there was room for impro
ment ; and it was the duty of each to lenc
hand in clearing away the obstacles wh
lie in the way of that improvement Millii
of gold were spent on visionary speculatioi
while millions on millions were annually S(
abroad to buy food that we ought to gr
ourselves.

EDUCATION OF AGRICULTURAL CHILDREN.

IT is extremely doubtful that Mr Read's
Agricultural Children Bill, which has
passed the easy ordeal of a second reading
with the consent of Mr Forster, will become
law this session. The appeal to wait for the
Government plan before proceeding further
with the Bill was virtually burking it alto-
gether. The tone of Mr Dixon and Mr
Mundella in regard to the measure is a
general indication of the feeling of the
borough Members, who want to have an
educational machinery doing all the work,
and the force thus conserved. It by no
means follows, however, that the representa-
tives of towns and cities are right in their
views with reference to agricultural matters ;
in fact, they are not unfrequently wrong.
There are peculiarities in agricultural work,
which do not exist in any other industry,
and for which special legislation must be had,
if justice is to be done to the greatest
number of the population. In the case
of the agricultural strike, for instance

not a few Members out of harness foolis
persisted in exhibiting themselves on pul
platforms as gentlemen who knew noth
whatever about agricultural economy. I:
said that there are none so benighted as th
who are unacquainted with their own
norance, and such was the unfortunate <
dition of many who volunteered advice
year on the question of agricultural uni
and strikes. That advice, in many instan
has borne fatal fruit, as starved emigrant!
Brazil can tell. The "wretched pittan^
of the worst paying counties in England
now regarded by those deported to what
represented as a land flowing with milk
honey, with as wistful an eye as the wil
ness-wandering Jews threw back upon
flesh-pots of Egypt

Labourers at home in the past bad sea
have also felt that harvest strikes were
the best way of settling a grievance. I
who would not toil when work of the ntn
importance was to be done cannot

Education of Agricultural Children

251

ought not, at least, to expect that they
should be paid when the weather leaves
them nothing to do, and the farmers' horses
are, perforce, idly " eating their heads oflf " in
the stalls. If com is to lie rotting on the
ground — the bread of the people to be stinted
or utterly spoiled — at the caprice of ill-ad-
vised men, then labourers cannot hope to
have other measure than that which they
themselves meted out, meted out to them in
return. In manufacturing districts, where
strikes are deplorably too common, the in-
terests of masters at all times suffer from the
recalcitrancy of the men. In the fanning
districts there are seasons of the year, and
sudden changes in the weather, when the
absence of the labourers would be the farmer's
gain. Manufacturers, with ordinary foresight,
can, as a rule, foretell the ** signs of the
times," and employ their capital accordingly.
A farmer has no control over the elements,
upon which he entirely depends for success
in his calling.

We have said this much in order to shew
that the rigid rules of political economy can*
not be made to work so harmoniously in
rural as in manufacturing districts ; and the
system of education must also be modified
to suit the circumstances of the children of
agricultural labourers. We do not say that
Mr Read's Bill is the best one that could be
framed on the subject, but it is a step in the
right direction, and alteration's and improve-
ments could be made in Committee. For our
own part, we think that the age (eight) which
children are allowed to do labour is too early.
The work that such children would have to
perform is certainly not laborious, but ten,
which the Bill fixes as the minimum age for
those working in agricultural gangs, seems
to us young enough. And then, as Mr
Dixon properly pointed out, it takes no

cognizance, as drafted, of the educational
advantages of the child prior to his being
seven years of age. He asks for employment
at eight, and obtains it by giving a certificate
to the effect that he has attended school 350
times, or about two-thirds of a year. This
qualifies the child for labour in the
fields, although, for anything the Bill says to
the contrary, this certificate might represent
all the education he ever received. We can
scarcely think this is Mr Read's meaning;
but if it be not, he should make more clearly
known what it really is. In the portion ol
clause 8, given here, we thoroughly concur.

" A court of summary jurisdiction in any
petty sessional division may, if it thinks fit,
upon the written application of any person
or persons occupying in the aggregate not
less than 300 acres of land in such petty ses-
sional division, issue a notice declaring the
restrictions imposed by this Act on the em-
ployment of children to be suspended therein
for the period tf> be named in such notice ;
and during such period such restrictions shall
not (save as to any proceedings commenced
before the date of the notice) be of any force
within such petty sessional division: pro-
vided that the period or periods so named by
any such court shall not exceed in the whole
eight weeks between the first of January
and the thirty-first of December in any year."

Without such a provision, the Act would
not be suitable for the agricultural districts,
and, as Mr Read said, no one who thoroughly
appreciates the importance of a speedy in-
gathering of grain, or hops, or fruit, as the
case may be, will object to it passing into
law. The subject is one of the utmost im-
portance, and if Government resolves not to
abide by Mr Read's Bill, we hope that in its
general amendment scheme they will em-
body its spirit.

252

Tlie Country Gentleman* s Magazine

AGRICULTURAL BENEFIT SOCIETIES*

By Mr M. £. M. Adams.

THE first duty of every employer of labour
is to endeavour to encourage his men
to be provident, careful, and thrifty ; in other
words, to teach them both by precept and ex-
ample, to put by for a rainy day. Impro-
vidence is too often the bane of the labouring
man, and a forgetfulness of to-morrow is too
frequently the forerunner of his destitution
and pauperism. I think we must all agree
with the Rev. Mr Brereton, whose remarks
on " Agricultural Associations and Benefit So-
cieties " at the West Norfolk Branch of the
Chamber of Agriculture, stated the time was
now come when it behoved the employer and
the employed to have a better and clearer
understanding as to their relative, social,
friendly, and commercial relations one towards
another. Agitators of the worst class, that is,
paid agitators, are abroad endeavouring in the
most unscrupulous manner to excite the
ignorant, prejudiced, and evil-disposed of the
labouring classes to rise in open revolt against
their employers; and, although it must be
admitted that all masters are not alike equally
considerate and temperate in dealing with
their men, inasmuch as the hearts and dis-
positions and characters, to say nothing of
temperaments, among them are so widely
different, still, speaking from individual ob-
servation, I unhesitatingly assert both from
personal knowledge and practical experience,
that the very great majority of employers of
labour residing in Norfolk and Suffolk go out
of their way to make their labourers, who are
worthy of it, happy and contented, paying
them ungrudgingly the full wages either for
day work or piece work to the best of their
individual pecuniary resources. The general
public, more especially the labourers, even
the well-to-do and skilled labourers, allow the
farmer to be gibbeted on the scaffold of public

' '^ead before the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture.

opinion as not being the most generous pay.
master in the world, although, in their hearts
they well know and feel the farmer is not so
oppressive and so mean in his commercial
transactions as represented ; but they have
not the moral courage when they are
amongst their comrades to contradict the
imjust assertions and aspersions of their
traducers and scandal-mongers.

ORGANIZING BENEFIT CLUBS.

It may, perhaps, be asked of me — ^what
would you have us do as a body to still
further improve the social status of our la-
bourers? My reply is — Look after your
village benefit societies, commonly called
clubs. And upon this point you do not re-
quire to be told that there are many institu-
tions and charities, however benevolent in
intention, which fi-om mismanagement are
anything but beneficent in results, nor will it
surprise you to hear that a benefit society
mismanaged and abused not only does no
good, but may, and does in a great number
of cases, do a great deal of harm. I would
advise you, then, first to enquire into their
pecuniary stability; secondly, the rules of
management ; thirdly, the place and hour of
meeting; and fourthly, the character and
habits and pecuniary resources of the mem-
bers. Having done thus much, endeavour
to bring your personal influence to bear^ by
subsidizing in a generous manner " the funds
of the club,*' taking an active part and in-
terest in the business and working manage-
ment, associating, on the nights of meeting,
in a social manner with the members, and by
your presence, your advice, and example, en-
courage and cultivate amongst your labourers
that glorious spirit of affection and mutual
confidence which must eventually triumph
over and stamp out the lies and foul asser-
tions of the professional agitator. One thing

Agricultural Benefit Societies

253

I strongly recommend — that each club should
keep its own money, for which purpose a
frustworthy, and in common parlance, a safe
man, should be elected as treasurer. In order
to encourage every young man on attaining
the age of sixteen to join the village benefit
society, I would advise boards of guardians
to be generous in their estimate of a club-
man's resources when sickness or accident
drives him to the board to ask for relief. . In
the yoimg married man's case, with three or
four children, I would suggest that if such a
man received los. a week from his club, take
it at half, call it 5s.; if an elderly man, or a
man with a large family, estimate it at a third,
call it 3s., and apportion the relief allowance
accordingly.

BENEFIT INSTITUTIONS AND PUBLIC-HOUSES.

We now come to the question — Is it de-
sirable that benefit societies should be held
at public-houses or elsewhere ? I, for one,
am an advocate to hold such societies at the
village publics, subject to certain arrange-
ments \ and we are all well aware that it too
often happens that in villages there is no
other room large enough to hold the mem-
bers except the parlour of the village hostelry,
aud experience tells us that it is owing to the
" cheering influence of John Barleycorn " that
the clubs flourish. Men meet together for
the glorious purpose of " bearing each other's
burden," and the freedom of the parlour
gives a social warmth to their club meeting,
which the silent vault-like smell and sensa-
tion of the village school-room, or the firm
and strict discipline which it is necessary to
observe in the well-provided library of the
parsonage, would destroy. In large towns
where members of different friendly societies
are numerous, there is no difficulty in ac-
quiring a suitable building with coffee and
smoking rooms adjacent for the use of
the various members connected with the
club, but in country districts the case
is different I feel assured you would be the
last men in the world, and if not, I would be
the last man to debar the working man of
his social half-hour with his pipe and glass at
his village club ; indeed, I am satisfied we

are one and all prepared to do anything that
is reasonable to aid him in the attainment of
so desirable an object. It is from the irra-
tional and debasing influences of drink, from
the habitual frequenting of the lowest of the
low of public-houses, that we should make
every eflfort to separate him — to avoid those
habits, which, if not checked in early man-
hood, lead on to the high road to starvation.
Granting that the benefit society is held at
the sign of the village Queen, I would advise
that the club meeting close early, and that
the landlord of the inn receive liberal pay-
ment for the use of the room, fire, and light-
ing. This arrangement would prevent any
desire on the part of the landlord to push the
sale of drink in order to remunerate himself
for the presence of his visitors. And it would
also enable the member to do as he liked in
ordering personal refreshment, whilst the same
feeling of sociality, equality, and fraternity
would be still felt amongst them by virtue of
being upon neutral ground. I think it only
fair to state a case in support of those who
are of opinion that these clubs would flourish
as well, or even better, by being held else-
where than at the village Queen.

FARMERS MEETING THEIR LABOURERS.

A great deal of the present evil arising out
of the club meetings at public-houses would
be considerably mitigated if the farmers and
ct.;er gentlemen would not only assist the
club with their money, but make a point of
being present at the meetings. What is there
to prevent employed and the employer meet-
ing together on these occasions, even if the
line of demarcation was so finely drawn by
one party drinking grog and the other beer ?
I am quite satisfied it will be admitted by all
that it is the duty of those in authority to
encourage every man to join a benefit society,
not only for its direct advantages, but also
for its indirect advantages. Its direct ad-
vantages are — relief through sickness, which
he can claim as a right ; 2d, burial money ;
3d, pension for man and wife, say at sixty ;
4th, medical attendance, which I am pur-
posely silent about The indirect advantages
are self-respect When a young tnan becomes

^54 ^^ Country Gmttetnafis Magagine

a member of a well-regulated club he feels a on the farm would work smoothly and p

certain pride in himself, which engenders santly. The men would then think that tl

self-command, and teaches, or rather ought to masters took an interest in them^ and wc

teach him, an obedience to the authorities, go to them for advice, upon which they wc

and enables him to realize the principle that act, feeling confidence in the wisdom

unity is strength. It helps to make him a their employer. Mr Adams concluded

better man, a better citizen. In conclusion, moving : — " That in the opinion of

Mr Adams urged upon employers the desira- Chamber the various agricultural associati

bility of paying wages in money, and not in established for the encouragement and be

kind. Instead of giving a man so many pints fit of the industrious labourer should be

of beer a day, let them pay, for instance, quested to combine into a county uni

their club money, by which they would not with the special object of placing as faz

only help the men, their wives, and families, possible all benefit dubs on a sound f(

but would gratify themselves, and all things ing."

AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS IN ATHY.

AT the last meeting of the Athy Farmers' let the " pent-up poison *' of the swamps

Club the '* Progress of Agriculture Russellstown, Fox Hill, Ballycullane, s

in Athy " formed the subject of a paper read Ballindrum flow harmlessly away. He 2

by Mr R. Lindsay. At the present juncture, peimitted me an opportunity of visitinj

when the Leinster lease is occupying so large good many of the farms in the vicinity of

a share of public attention, the remarks made town, and their luxuriant crops and ski

by Mr Lindsay have a special significance, cultivation took me by surprise. I had s<

It is now upwards of ten years, he said, since nothing in any part of Ireland to equa'

I paid my first visit to Athy. I admired its before. I afterwards paid repeated vis

favourable proximity to the metropolis, its became well acquainted with the gen<

advantages in communication by rail and farm management of the districts, and

water, its educational facilities, and the hand- series of articles in a local journal embod

some town park provided by the bounty of my ideas. These caught the eye of

his Grace the Duke of Leinster for the re- Grace's late agent (Mr Trench), and to

creation and amusement of its inhabitants, credit be it said, he in some short time af

I then had an opportunity of witnessing the wards visited the district, and acknowled^

good sense and aptitude for business of its the industry and improvement of its inha

merchants, and saw clearly that it had all the ants by rewarding some with new dwelli

requisites of success for a first-class market houses, others with compensation in moi

town. On that occasion I had the pleasure for the buildings erected by themselves, t

of an introduction to the late Mr Michael gave new field gates to all those who appl

Conerney, an active and useful member of for them. My next visit to the neighbc

this Club. He drove me round the neigh- hood was on the occasion of the plough

bourhood, pointed out all the places of in- match at Kilmeade.
terest, and shewed me the prodigious work of In no part of Ireland, nor in any other coi

improvement then in operation — the sinking try with which I am acquainted, is then

of the river leading from Ballindrum to Athy, better or more deserving class of tillage \

which tapped all the springs in its coiu^e, mers. They have made steady and subst

horded facilities for extensive drainage, and tial advancement in every department

Agriculturat Progress in A thy ^55

fimning within the past ten years 5 and many ments, and advancing the rents accordingly,
of them, by judicious cultivation, by constant The land around here is of a light and
manuring, and other improvements, have porous description, unfit for grass, and re-
greatly enhanced the value of their holdings quiring constant applications of manure and
by increasing their fertility, which improve- skilful treatment, as it is proue to the growth
ments it is a pity the provisions of the late of annual and other weeds. The success
Land Act do not adequately protect Ma- and advancement that has taken place is
chinery of all sorts spread greatly through mainly owing to the industry and superior
the neighbourhood within the period, and few intelligence of the farmers, and their readi-
farmers of any extent are now without their ness to avail themselves of every new inven-
mowing and reding machine, and double- tion, whether implement, manure, or other-
furrow ploughs. Steam-thrashing machines wise, calculated to increase the productive
are more numerous in the neighbourhood powers of their farms, to the ready and ad-
than horse-power in most other districts. The vantageous sale they can make of their com
farmers have become educated practically on and other agricultural products in Athy, and
the best methods of the preparatory and to the large and long credit afforded them
after-culture of the crops they grow. They by the implement, manure, and seed mer-
know the advantage, and as a rule, adopt the chants of the town. This accommodation
rotation of green and grain crops, and it is acts as capital for them, and when they
needless for me to say that the district is have not to pay too much for it, is a great
famous for the good quality of the bariey it advantage, for it enables them to manure
produces, and any one desirous of obtaining and farm on a higher scale than they other-
a lesson on skilful green crop cultivation, I wise could do. It is also a great advantage
would advise them to pay a visit here at the to the farmers of the district to have the
proper season. They are fully alive to the manure trade in such respectable hands,
advantages to be derived from the use of ar- and the surveillance exercised over it by
tificial manures, and they know how and the analyses made from time to time by
what to apply to each particular crop. This this Society is a very salutary check against
has grown into a great trade. Ten years fraud or adulteration by either manufacturer
ago there was not more than 200 tons a year or vendor, even if intended. To shew what
sold in the town ; now there is over ten times a good market town, and how honourably
that quantity, which proves beyond doubt and creditably business is conducted in the
the extension of green crop cultiva- com trade, it is only necessary for me to
tion, another great element of success, say that upwards of 100,000 barrels of barley
As the farmers all consume their roots on are annually bought in it — and that the Dublin
the farm, stall feeding and the rearing prices are often exceeded — and while other
of young stock has been gradually on the towns in more fertile and favoured districts
increase, which largely contributes to the are withering away, there is not a mercan-
fertility of the neighbourhood, and to the tile house vacant at present here. In fact,
enriching of its inhabitants. Parties at a there is a great want of some suitable me-
distance may imagine that a great deal of the chanics* and labourers' cottages. The malt-
success is owing to the fatherly care of the ing trade, for which this town is famous,
landlords, the lowness of the rents,' or some contributes largely to the prosperity of it and
peculiar richness of the soil, but such is not surrounding neighbourhood, and gives large
the fact. The land in general is highly employment This district is purely a tillage
rented for its quality, much higher than many one, and we all know that in these days of
other districts that I could name in Ireland high rents, dear labour, dear fuel, and the
with better land, and yet they do not seem to high prices for the necessaries of life, it is no
be satisfied, as some of the landlords are easy matter to make ends meet and pay our
taking advantage of the tenants' improve- way. Yet it is another good proof of the

2 $6 Tlu Country Gentlemafis Magazim

excellent system pursued by the Kildare afloat are only of an evanescent character ;
tenant-farmers and their industry that they and I trust that nothing shall occur to mar
can do so, and live more comfortably than the onward progress of agriculture and trade
their class does generally on even cheaper in the neighbourhood, and their prosperity
and better land. I have noticed a stand- in the future will outstrip even that of the
still in agricultural improvements for the past. In England and Scotland many con-
past few months. Into the causes of this siderate landlords are making reduction in
it is not my province to inquire j but any- rents, consequent on the unusually wet and
thing that would be calculated to injure the unfavourable season, and many of our Irish
fanners' credit will have a ruinous effect, landlords might with justice follow in their
and I think that certain ugly rumours now wake.

FALSE NOTIONS ABOUT FOREIGN CATTLE.

" A YANKEE " writing to the Times, tells The writer has forgotten one of the mam
/jL its readers that a cow from the State points of his challenge, and he has added a
of Nebraska came to this country safe and qualification to which few sensible people
sound. The writer speaks " as one having would care to accede. He does not tell us
some knowledge of the cattle trade of the of what breed this magnificent cow was ; and
Western States of America." He is in the " under such circumstances " is not only
belief that Texan cattle which have had no rather vague, but we should imagine from
disease, according to his account, since 1868, the statement that the animal came by a
were not likely to import a malady here; "Cunard steamer," extremely detrimental to
because, he adds, " if there are large his case. Various first-class animals have
quantities of Texan cattle, it is quite clear reached Australia in safety years ago. We
they have not been either decimated or des- have not yet found out with a plethora of
troyed by the disease of 1868," a proposition stock — it may almost be said literally wasting
self-evident. Texas, the writer tells us, "is on the New South Wales plains — that Aus-
but one of the cattle-producing States," and tralian breeders and feeders have been able
we are further informed by the correspondent to send cattle at a profit across the Pacific
that " I recently saw a fine cow which had We do not get them at least alive. The
been brought over by the Cunard steamer, seasons and modes of feeding must alter
Calabria, from the State of Nebraska, and I very much before we can ever hope to sup-
would like to challenge England to produce plement our home stock of killing cattle by
so fine an animal under the circumstances of importations from the far west prairies of
so long a journey, which to my mind com- America, or from the explored grazing grounds
pletely solves the transit question." What a of Australia. The importation of that cow
credulous mind must be that of the writer ? no more rules, nor is ever likely to ruU^ the
If the question of meat-supply depended price of meat in this country, than one
upon the reception of one animal, which was swallow ever guided the weather in making,
not only carefully, but we suppose, sumptu- by its own flight from sunnier lands, a summer
ously treated (without extravagance) through- in this colder region. " The ocean transport
out the course of its journey, there would be of cattle," we are told — we quote the Yankee
no difficulty whatever in getting beef at a writer*s own words — " is simply a matter of
much lower price than it is now sold in arrangement Specially constructed ships
his country. would realize large profits; in fact, there is a

False Notions about Fordg9i Cattle 257

le in the business. If you English The Times has a leading article comment-

e are going to be frightened out of ing upon the above letter, and also on one

senses by alarmists, you deserve to pay from its correspondent in New Zealand. It

f for your meat, which you ought to points out that there is starvation in these

t a greatly reduced price." vast territories, but it is not the starvation

The ocean transport is simply a matter begotten of scarcity of provisions or deamess

rrangement." Without doubt. Most of fuel.

ess transactions bear the same charac- " No ; the dearth which may be said to
One cow is brought over by steamer ; extend through the fiurest region of the
at price ? What would be the cost of Southern Hemisphere is the Dearth of La-
cattle, say, coming by the same, or a bour. It is the scarcity of men. It is the
onveyance, in as healthy a condition as high price that must be given to any average
representative animal from Nebraska ? possessor of the usual complement of limbs,
lannot even bring our stock from the blessed with common health and strength,
1 to London, except at a loss which and able to do a day's work. The market
s very considerable inroads upon the for labour is so high in those regions that any
le of graziers, as statistics produced in working man can be sure of wages that will
iment prove. If 400 or 600 miles- enable him to live well, to keep his family
t makes so much difference upon the well, to put money by, and to become farmer,
of cattle, what will a distance of 4000 landowner, and all tliat he commonly d&-
>,ooo miles add to their cost, or de- sires."

ate their value per head? A ;^20 The Maories are rapidly dying out like

in Nebraska, would yield very little to moths before the blaze of European civiliza-

ippers when it arrived in a home port, if tion, and New Zealand will soon be as

off in the same proportion as those in " purely English as Warwickshire, Hants, or

wn country do ; and the probability is, Dorset, excepting only the very un-English

;he senders, after paying costs of con- picture that in New 2^aland, it is two masters,

lent, food on the journey, attendance, or rather half-a-dozen masters, after one man,

:ommission to salesmen, would be glad instead of two men after one master."

ve placed to their credit the price of the The Times then proceeds : —

,, , " ,, ^ , i.i_ / We ask, for the tjiousandth time, why do not our

th all the marvellous stock-wealth of ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ p^dise, or to one of the half-

alia, we cannot rely upon that country ^^^^^ Paradises, now easily reached by a safe and

re-stock. It would appear, also, that we pleasant voyage of a few weeks, at a cost which any

)t well depend upon Australia for pre- working man may cover with a year or two's labour

d meat, which is coming to us in scantier ^^ ^^"^ ^^^-^ New Zealand colonists in Oieir d^pera-

' , ^ . . .1 £ ^ tion are offermg passages that will cost a good la-

)rtions than it was domg m the first i^^^er no more than ^CS or £7 out oC his own pocket,

h of last year. In January 1872 we The 7000 emigrants landed during the past year arc a

.red 52,701 lb., last month we only got mere drop in the ocean. They are absorbed, and the

^ j^ want of men is greater than ever. Yet there are

refuily considering all the recommenda- P~P|« ""Pl°y"^ f drawing off our men to

, '' ° , , . Brazil, to the Argentine Republic, and even

we have seen made on the question, ^^ p^^guay - no doubt, fine countries, and

itudying not a few of the prospectuses offering grand careers to educated persons with a

Dmpanies which have been organized little money, good constitutions, good introduaions,

a view to provide cheaper meat for the and personal ability, but not very safe ground to dr9p

le of Great Britain, we have arrived at ^ ^^^g^^^ ^^^''^l ,T"' ^""^ ^ T ^f*^^

, 1 i_ r J . Colonies, an English labourer is as much at home as

onclusion that cheap beef and mutton ^^ .^ .^ ^^^ p^j^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ancesiore were bom in.

never be secured through extraneous h^a can get on here— if he can pay his way— if he

nels — from far lands across the seas, but can bring up his children well, and if he is perfectly

ipital and skiU weU directed at home. content with his position, by aU means let him sUy at

YOU X. ^

2$& Tlu Country Gmitefna$is Magazine

home, for good men ftfe hot too many anywhere, work, let him go where it can be got If h

But if a labourer — say, the father of a young increas- master, let him go where masters are to be f

ing family, or a young man who has set his mind on he wants land, let him go where millions of

matrimony — cannot get the wages he thinks he is waiting to be stocked or cultivated. If

fairly entitled to ; if he cannot pay his debts, if he peace and quiet, let him go where

cannot pay his rent, his shop bill, his coal bill, not have to fight for an extra shilling. If he

his children's schooling, or other lawful demands, be master himself, or landlord and tenant ii

out of his weekly pittance, then his course, in him go where a good estate can be easily ]

our humble opinion, is plain. Let him do as many out of the savings of two or three years* ser

of his betters are doing — get a passage for one of our a word, let him go where he is wanted. Tl:

colonies. He will there have everything he asks for better law than that ; no better maxim of {

here, and a good deal besides. In Victoria, for no better advice to be given by those who n

example, he is now to have his children's schooling for for a man and wish him well,
nothing, unless he wishes them to be made fine ladies

«id gentfcmen in which case he wiU have to pay for ^^ ^^^^ ^„ agriculturists who

a few extras. But this is the plam and simple course, , ,. i a

the way that Providence has opened to us, and the ^^^^6 this country tO seek Australia

way that all our ancestors came into this country. Zealand, where, as it is well asce

It is the way that England was made, and that the prosperity is attainable, rather thai

United States were made. If the Labour question is to foreign lands where the prospects hel
be considered in regard to the well-being of the com- ^ i, 'ir ^ .v i

pkinants themselv^, or of their neighbours, or of ^«^^^ ^^ ^^ ^"^^^ ^ ^^^ Pl^°^«

aU at home, or of the Colonies, or of the British race macaw, and the reality as disagreeab.

altogether, there is only one answer. If a man wants and painful as its voice.

The Country GentUmafis Magazine

259

^ricttlttiral CttQitietrmg.

THE STORAGE OF WATER.

an article under this head given in
;he February number of this Magazine
)ffered a few remarks on the general
ict of water supply, and pointed out
: advantages which 'should accrue from
tern of storage which would enable those
ged in rural pursuits to overcome in a
measure the difficulties arising from
J of drought. We endeavoured, also, to

out how, in the great majority of es-

certain local features in the position of
and offered great facilities for the ar-
:ment of a reservoir, or a series of reser-
, which could be availed of by the con-
tion of works demanding no great
int of engineering skill, and no great
y of money ; and we promised in a
leding paper to glance at a few of the
ical points involved in the subject, which
lise we now purpose to- redeem,
om what, in the preceding paper, we

said, the reader will, of course, under-
l that we do not propose to enter fully
the details of reservoir construction, and
e minor points connected with water
ge such as ponds, nor do we propose to
der what may be called the higher
:hes of the art, but rather to glance
y but practically at the simpler construc-

and arrangements connected with the
<:t. In cases where a large reservoir is
jmplated, involving work more or less
ive, and, to a certain considerable ex-
expensive, the services of a competent
leer, accustomed to carry out such works,
Id at once be secured. This is a duty,
)nly to the purse of the landowner who
pay for the work, for by so securing the
ces of a good engineer, the work done
>e cheaper in the end than where it is

proposed to be carried out without such
scientific and skilled supervision ; but it is,
moreover, a duty to the public, for it
should be remembered that with the
creation of large bodies of water arises
a power for mischief to property aijd
life, which may operate disastrously if the
confining powers of the reservoir dam be not
well arranged and constructed with the highest
degree of skill. Such cases are those in
which the dimensions and depth of the
reservoir require the dam to be constructed
wholly or even partially of masonry. In all
such skilled advice should be had. But
there are many localities where the storage
room contemplated may be small, and the
depth also — one in which simply-made dams
will be suflTicient to withstand the pressure.
It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader
that it is the depth of water behind the
reservoir dam, not its surface expanse, which
tests the power of the dam to resist the
pressure. When the depression in the land
or the valley in which it is proposed to make
the reservoir, be very deep, and especially if
it be pretty wide in addition, then the dam will
require to be very carefully constructed, and
skilled advice must be had. But where the
vertical depth of the water behind the dam
proposed to be made ranges from 4 up to 6 and
8 feet, the dam may be constructed with com-
parative ease. Much — we may indeed say all
— depends upon the way in which the dam is
made, and it is to a few of the leading points
connected with this that we now ask the
attention of the reader ; for the mere forma-
tion of the earthwork dam is a matter of no
great difficulty, and may be carried out by
the usual unskilled labour met with on^states
and farms, but the details of the structure

26o The Country Gentleman's Magazine

are of importance, and require to be carefully But although the plan of the embankment
looked after. The work to be done divides is straight lined — not curved in its outline —
itself into four departments — first, the " site it does not follow from the above rule, that
and foundation;" second, the " superstructure the direction of the embankment is to be
or body 3 " third, the " facing or fronting ; " perforce at right angles to the line of the
and fourth, the ** means for withdrawing the valley ; there may, on the contrary, be good
water in times of flood, or when requisite for reasons for making the embankment oblique
* power* and other purposes." All of these to the line of valley, such as the securing —
involve special points, and although the by so doing — good abutment for the ends or
fourth and last may appear the most simple, terminating points of the embankment, thus
still it is worthy of remark here, that its it may be found in practice that the confor-
careless execution has led to not a few mation of the land at the sides of the valley
instances of the dam's destruction. This we or depression is such that while a good
shall see as we proceed. butting point may be had at one side, a very
With regard to the first of the above points, bad one may be presented at the side
the " site and the foundation " of the dam, opposite, and a very good one at a point a
in many cases the natural form of the valley little up or down. In this case it might be
will at once determine the best, and some- advisable to make the line of embankment
times the only point at which the dam could oblique to that of the valley, in order to
be thrown across. In other cases a wider secure the two good terminating points,
choice may be given, and this may be dictated Much will depend upon circumstances, and
to by a desire to have the dam at a point these will, on a little consideration of their
which may be more convenient than another peculiarities, enable the contractor to de-
for the purposes of leading off the water for cide this point. It should not, however, be
power, &c, &c. In choosing the site, regard forgotten that the advantages obtained by
should be had to the positions of the opposite having two good natural abutting points for
sides of the valley, so as to secure a good the ends of the embankment by choosing an
abutment at each end of the dam ; the depth oblique line, may be lost in view of the
may be equal at each end, or it may be much extra expense arising from the increased
less at one end than at the other ; or the one length of the oblique embankment, as corn-
end may " butt " against the comparatively pared with the length of one which spanned
high side of the valley, and " come out " or the valley at right angles at its shortest
" crop " out to a level, or nearly so, with the length. These points have been thus dwelt
surrounding ground on the other and oppo- upon, not merely because of their inherent im-
site side. Naturally one would suppose that portance, but to shew that a good many minor
the best position of the dam, with reference points have to be attended to in deciding
to the valley, would be at right angles to the upon the siteof an embankment for a reservoir;
line or flow of the valley — that is, straight and it is well to give these attention at the
across at the points giving the shortest line beginning ; for it is an expensive process to
between the sides of the valley. But this is have to retrace one's steps, as it were, after
a disputed point amongst some engineers, progress up to a certain point has been made
some maintaining that the best position of a in a wrong direction. Another, and a most
dam is a diagonal to the line of flow of the important point in connexion with the site
valley ; others that it should be in the form, is the nature of the soil on which the embank-
not of a straight line, but a curve, or crescent, ment is to rest, and which may be of such a
with its convex side facing up the valley, or loose and treacherous nature as to make the
against the water. The general rule is, how- constructor decide to change it for one
ever, to make the embankment in as straight where soil of a more trustworthy character
a line across the valley as possible, and it will, can be met with, and this even although the
ViP-ofore, be the safest way to adopt this, site originally chosen might have possessed

Tlu Storage of Water

261

e other requisites. For it should be
nbered that the soil upon which the em-
nent is to rest, constitutes its founda-
and if this be bad, it is scarcely neces-

say that the chances of the superstruc-
smaining sound— granting that it be from
gginning sound — are decidedly lessened,
above is a truism, but it is one, the
ct of which has led to serious loss
damage, for some • constructors have

1 at once to lay their embankment upon
ite considered the best, without even
\ a thought to the soil of it ; and have
i afterwards the cost of their careless-

e soil of the site of an embankment may
ir superficially to be good and soimd,
/et it may nevertheless be of a very
lerous character underneath, and that
; distance of but a few inches below the
:e. The best way, therefore, is to test
laracter of the underlying soil by sink-
few trial holes or pits along the line of
nkment. Should these pits be found to
:ept the course of springs, the pits must
lied up carefully either with good clay
puddled and rammed down, or with
ete. This precaution is essentially
sary to be taken, to prevent the cor-
\ action of the water upon the base of
mbankment. Should watercourses, or
may have been watercourses, be met
running along the site of the embank-

it will be necessary to examine the soil
d near these with great care. An ex-
ition may disclose the fact that the soil
L loose and mobile character, or, what is
, of the nature of quicksand. Such a
; essentially bad, as it yields to pressure
lally, and in some cases it will be neces-
to excavate the faulty material, and to
1 depth as will enable a sound and im-
)us soil to be met with ; or, if the ex-

of this be objected to, to place layers
ishwood on planking over the yielding
1 order to equalize the pressure
)uld the trial pits disclose the existence
bed of fine, close, and impervious clay,

the constructor will perhaps be tempted to
secure a large supply of this material for the
construction of the central puddle wall of the
embankment, or for the facing of it, or
generally for the embankment itself. But we
would advise him to be careful as to this pro-
ceeding, as he may purchase his supply of em-
banking mate^al at too high a price, for it not
seldom happens that a bed of fine impervious
clay overlies a soil of most treacherous ma-'
terial, which if once opened up may be diffi-
cult to be dealt with, and may lead to grave
consequences if the embankment be built
above and upon, or near it Where, then,
the site of embankment is proved by the trial
holes to be a good deep bed of impervious
clay, this should be as little disturbed as pos-
sible, consistent with the making of the
necessary foundation for the embankment

This bed of clay may be found to extend
over nearly the whole of the surface of in-
tended storage space, and if so, the con-
structor might think himself in this case war-
ranted to help himself liberally from it for his
constructive purposes ; but even in this case,
although no heavy embankment is to rest
upon it, we should recommend him to leave
it altogether, or, at least, for the most part
undisturbed; for it should be remembered
that the object of the reservoir is to keep
the water stored up in it, and if the bottom
lining of clay, which in our supposed case has
been naturally supplied, be disturbed, the
chances are that the leakage to the porous
soil underneath will be so large, as to cause a
heavy loss through the water running off. A
good lining of natiu-ally deposited clay is the
best which can be had, and is too valuable to
be done away with. In making the necessary
excavations for foundation of embankment,
and of the central puddle wall (as to which see
the remarks in a succeeding paper on the struc-
ture of the embankment) the materials should
be selected for the special part of the work
in which they are to be used, and carefully
set aside till wanted. This refers not only to
the different qualities of soil met with, but
also to the turf cut off from the surface.

262

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

^lu Jfarm.

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES.

NOTWITHSTANDING that the Earl
of Malmesbury questions the accu-
racy of the Returns furnished by the Board
of Trade, we are forced to rely upon them,
having nothing better to refer to. We accept
them, as we have received them for many
years, as the best authority we have upon
the prosperity or adversity of the country.
We shall continue to look upon them in the
light we have always done, until such time
as we find a better statistical substitute.
Until then, we prefer the facts supplied in the
name of Mr Arthur Peel, to those gathered
fi*om private and unofficial sources.

We are bound to commence with the meat
question, not only because that, next to coals,
it is the most important of the day, but that,
in accordance with the alphabetical arrange-
ment of the Returns, animals stand first in
the commodities it is incumbent upon us to
notice.

In the two months that have passed (we
classify oxen, bulls, and cows together), we
have imported only 10,295 cattle, as against
14,949 in the corresponding period of the
previous year — the deficiency thus being
4654 head. For each animal received this
year, the amount we paid averaged ^£"20 ;
last year the cost in round numbers was only
;;^i6, 8s. It is right to add, however, that
we had fewer cows, which are not quite so
valuable as oxen, this year, than we had in
the January and February of 1872. Sheep
and lambs came to us in fewer numbers, both
in the month and two months. The number
we imported, up to the end of February, was
631652, to compare with 88,816 in the like
term of the preceding year. The cost was
^^138,364; in the first sixth of 1872, it was
^'7 7*097. Calves have been received in

greater numbers than in 1872, and their value
has risen proportionately with that of oxen and
sheep. The imports of swine shew a de-
crease in the two months, but an augmenta-
tion in February, and there is a slight
diminution in price. Bacon, with a heavier
supply, has not cost so much money; the
sum we paid for 451,457 cwt. this year being
only ;£"845,383, whereas in last year, in the
same period, we expended ;^87o,s8i for
412,323 cwt For salted beef in the two
months, we laid out ;^ioo,87o, in the corre-
spondmg term of last year only ;^8o,iso.
Slightly salted cost us ;^25,504, in round
numbers ;^420o less than we paid in 1872.
Hams were supplied in large quantities, the
price being little altered. What alteration
there was tended in favour of the buyers.
The sum we paid in the two months
was ;^78,32i, in the same period of
last year ;^72,24i. For other meat not
"enumerated" we expended ;^2 1,031.
Preserved meat for some cause or an-
other, which dry figures cannot explain,
is not gaining in favour. Possibly it is on
account of its being dearer. For 28,959 cwt
received in the past two months we expended
^£"84,982 ; in the corresponding term for 1872
we paid only ^£^163,3 18 for 65,945 cwt Pork
we appear to be getting gradually tired of,
no matter whether it be salted or fresh. We
have reduced our consumption of salted pork
fi-om 62,014 cwt to 50,787 cwt, and of fi'esh
from 2196 cwt to 1134 cwt The value,
however, has risen, since the months of
January and February 1872. The cost this
year amounts to ;^i 10,205 \ ^^^^ yc^« foi" ^^
larger quantity, we disbursed ^^132,057,
which shews a lower rate per cwt The
supply of poultry, game, and rabbits is greater,

Import and Export of Agricultural Cofntnodities

263

if we may judge from the value, the quantities
not being given. We paid in the past two
months ;^s6,896 ; in the like period of last
year only £zzfisS'

Turning now to bread-stufife, we find our
wheat imports very materially in excess of
what they were at this time last year. On
the other hand, it will be noted from tiie
table we give below that the importations of
barley, oats, beans, Indian com, and maize
have diminished, and tiiose of wheat-meal
and flour have increased.

QUANTTTIES.

Two Months Two Months

ended Feb. ended Feb.

39, 1872.

Wheat. Cwt

Russia 31886,376

Dennuirk 25,616

Germany 265,678

France 10,260

Austrian Territories ... i, 180

Turkey, WaUachia, ) oq ^--

and Moldavia J ^»457

Egypt 449»8i3

United States 923,802

ChiU 181,983

British North America 66,559

Other Countries 67,464

28, 1873.

Cwt.
3,427,907

102,580

466,433
669,682

9.379

43»2«9

361,19s

2,433,991

183,564

7,025

43i»93S

Total 5,967,188

VALUE.

Russia ^2,250,546

Denmark 16,569

Germany 177,820

France 5»300

Austrian Territories ... 685

Turkey, WalUchia, \ . ,

and Moldavia J ^^'^53

Egypt 234,123

United States 595,889

ChiU 119,628

British North America 43,053

Other Countries 40,843

7,136,910

jtl,497,694

68,687

328,130

423,480

6,812

26,428

188,905

1,625,943
113.928

5,017
300,863

Total ;f3.S3i,i09 ;f4,S85»887

QUANTITIES.

Two Months Two Months
ended Feb. ended Feb.
29. i872»

Cwt.

Barley 2,423,300

Oats 1,533.494

Peas 57.410

Beans 542,930

Itidian Com or ) ^ ^_ ,,,

Maize. 1 2.529,631

aS, 1873.

Cwt.
2,284,019
1,165,297

133,219
440,581

2,345.322

VALUB.

Barley jf972,356

564.175

Oate

Peas

Beans

Indian Com or
Maize.

26,356
220,727

950,151

QUANTITIES.

Two Months
ended Feb.
09. 187a.
Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt.

Germany 141,160

France 26,713

United States 98,343

British North America 907

Other Countries 160,583

^987,526

444,135
58,848

185,923
791,834

Two Months

ended Feb.

a8, 1873.

Cwt.

192,182

701,588

160,227

4,843
299,722

Total 427,706 1,358,562

VALUE.

Germany jfi27,353

France 22,149

United States 85,763

British North America 799

Other Countries 157, 505

jti89,335
666,362

144,088

4,528

289,993

Total ;ff393,569 ^1,294,306

In dairy produce we note a decline in
butter to tiie extent of upwards of ;£^7ooo
in the two months; on the contrary, in cheese
we have to debit ourselves with something
like ;£2 9,000. The number of eggs re-
ceived still poiDts with unerring finger to the
necessity of paying more attention to the
rearing of hens at home. In the course of
the two months gotie by we had to put our
hands into our pockets to the tune of
;^2 64,894 ; in the like term of last year our
expenditure on eggs, then considered large,
was only ;^ 192, 5 67.

The wretched crop of potatoes last year is
telling heavily upon us now. The sum we
have already paid up to the time the returns
we are summarizing were made up was
^^544,639 ; in the corresponding term of
last year* all we paid for the tubers was

Turning to manurial substances, we find
that bones are diminishing in bulk, so also
guano, and likewise nitrate of soda. These
are facts which do not speak well for the
state of the country. In feeding stuff's, also,
with the exception of cotton-cake, which ap-

264

Tlu Country Gmtkmafis Magazine

pears to have risen in estimation with the
decrease of price, we note a decline.

The in^portations of wool have increased
chiefly through the greater energy of Austra-
lian exporters.

The following tables shew the quantities,
from whence these came, and their values for
the first two months of 1872 and 1873 • —

QUANTITIES.

Two Months
ended Feb.
29, 1872.
lb.
6,710,861

Wool, Sheep, and Lambs.

From Countries in Europe
British Possessions
in South Africa

British India 2»759i643

Australia 37i586,97i

Other Countries ... 3,726,003

5,162,608

»>

Two Months

ended Feb.

28, 1873.

. lb.
6,812,114

4,947, 144
1,827,919

40,794,800
4,295,271

Total

55,946,086

58,677,248

VALUE.

From Countries in Europe

;f 385, 180

;^38i,i4i

„ British Possessions

in South Africa...

292,440

342,281

„ Britbh India

114,614

82,315

y, Australia

2,265,160

2,483,768

„ Other Countries ...

180,024

192,186

Total £3,237,418 ;f3,48i,69i

With reference to exports of an agricultural
nature, it would appear from their gradually

declining state that our butter and cheese
makers are being more appreciated at
home. For butter in the period of
which we are writing, we received only
jE>2fiA1^ as against ;^5o,6ii, and for cheese
;£i3i,i25 to compare with ;^i3,903. The
number of horses exported during the two
months was 241, at a cost to the purchasers
of ;^i4,i9o, in the first two months of 1872
we sold 277 to foreigners for/15,453.

The following tables shew the quantity of
wool we exported, the countries to which we
sent it, and the values : —

QUANTITIES.

Two Months Two Monthi
ended Feb. ended Feb.
29, 187a.
Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb.

To Germany 7"f275

„ Belgium 634,151

„ France 309.444

United States 432, 520

Other Countries 130, 1 18

«8, 1873.
lb.
393.990

"3.539

34.830

8,090

84.093

Total 2,218,008

VALUE.

To Germany ;t59»339

Belgium 5i>644

France 24,285

United States 31.143

Other Countries II.93I

Total .. ;f 178,332

^4.541

;ff3i.586

11,518

2,906

766

7.489
£54.265

POTATOES AS THEY ARE, AND AS THEY MAY BE.

A contemporary recently noticed that a
farmer at Lurgan (Ireland), having
left potatoes in the ground because it was too
wet to admit of their removal, found them all
the better for having been so left This is
by no means a rare occurrence. Therefore,
with the knowledge of many similar cases
before us, we should say. that no rule of treat-
ment can be safely inferred from this fact.
Certain kinds of potatoes are very likely to
improve under such conditions, but other
sorts as surely deteriorate if left in the
ground after they are fully ripe. In some
classes of soil it may, in bad weather such as

we had last year, be better to leave than to
remove potatoes. The occurrence we refer
to recalls many equally suggestive cases about
potatoes, of which we shall mention a few,
and we shall try to draw some inferences from
these.

A certain boy in the year 1835, who in his
eagerness for agricultural knowledge, gained
permission from his father, in the middle of
autumn to plant some "lazy beds," under
the juvenile idea that the earlier set the
sooner ripe. All was done in the usual wayi
the manure (farm-yard minus horse nianure)i
was spread, and the sets, in a portion of the

Potatoes as they are, and as they may be 265

d selected for experiment, laid down ; way, and had as good a crop as those who set

efore a " sod " could be turned to cover halfs, quarters, or sixths, or eighths of the po-

down came a hail shower, then snow, tato. But "Scooper Davy's" experiment has

.t night a keen frost, so that till next been resorted to since many a time, and has

he seed lay under a sort of slush, slightly oftener failed than succeeded. There is one

1. Next morning the boy had all thing, however, quite obvious in this matter,

ed up, to the amusement of all but his that the nearness of the crop in succession to

gent father, who, giving him his full the plums or apples, or what is the same

; in the experiment, expected to learn thing, tiie greater the degree of reproducing

thing by the results. Other ridges were stamina in the potato, the less the necessity

p and " sodded " as soon as the " snow for more than the " eye," in order to get a

" cleared away, and if any difference crop. Another fact noticed by some farmers,

I be noted it was in favour of those but overlooked by many, is that in cases of

I the " slush " was covered with the disease those plants which have been raised

The satisfactory ^«a/<f of the enforced from well-flavoured mealy potatoes suffer

ct at Lurgan, and the successful issue of least Taking observations commencing ten

bove-named experiment, is each owing years before the first great failure of the crop

)nditions, the absence of which would in Ireland, the writer remembers cases

rendered either one or other a calamity, in Ulster, in Leinsler, in Connaught, and in

t a blunder. Where the boy set the Munster, sufficient to prove that vigour is what

oes, plus slush, the earth was warm and is wanted, and where it is present in tiie

ed the manure to operate, and the seed seed, disease does not come, but where it is

rrminate, in spite of the drawback ; but not, a healthy crop is almost impossible. The

he soil been cold, the sets would have selecting of the seed firom hilly ground to be

i, and manure, seed, and labour would grown in boggy lands only improves the cir-

been lost. Had the place where the cumstances of the growing crop, it cannot

oes were left at Lurgan not been suffi- impart that vigour without which healthy fiiiit

ly porous to allow the wet to pass away is rarely obtainable. The whole sets, the

them, they would certainly have rotted ; sets with several eyes, the setting immediately

fore, in warm ground potatoes may be after cutting, or the cutting one, two, or more

I the coldest weather, and even covered days before setting may each seem to be the

th snow, and in porous ground the dig- true way ; but it is merely seeming, tiie

of the crop, except as it is wanted, espe- reality is, that very little depends on one or

in a wet season, is unnecessary. But, other of these modes, but everything on the

I rule, potatoes ought to be set, vigour of the plant from which the set of one

" lazy beds," under circumstances the or more eyes is taken,

likely to secure heat and protect the Generally speaking, the raising of seed from

of reproduction in the plant, and in the plums or apples secures this requisite

ary cases, every species of this esculent vigour indubitably ; and when it exists it

t to be removed from the ground, put may remain unimpaired, if the cropping be

I house, or covered over in " pits," the carried on under favourable circumstances, for

e-named cases apparently to the contrary, many years. But before setting potatoes in

theless. " lazy beds," if such are now to be found, or

certain man whose name is David B**l, planting them in drills, the chief question

nown by the soubriquet of " Scooper ought to be as to soundness of constitution.

." The reason is this : — One season when First, Is the potato selected for seed a mealy,

oes were scarce, and he could barely healthy, fine^flavoured specimen of its kind ?

from his " food supplies " sufficient for If not, there may be a bulky crop, it may

he scooped out the eyes and nothing escape the disease ; but the risk is too great,

, of large potatoes, set them in the usual and ought not to be undertaken. We cannot

266 7/te Country Gentleina>is Magazine

give suggestions at length ; but we shall sum« tor who grows not too many acres in proportion

niari^se. Any farmer may predict with almost to other crops, but yet keeps the crop in his

certainty the probable safety from disease of rotation, has always made the greatest aggre-

his potato crop, if he tests the quality of the gate profits on a series of years,
gets as to flavour mealiness, and freedom The rule in Ireland, a country which de-

from waxiness. pends so much upon potatoes, is over-culti-

Secondly, let seed potatoes be analyzed, vation. In the small county of Carlow

and if deficient in farina or excessive in (221,342 acres) there is about as much under

water, one crop may escape disease ; but if potato crops as in the large counties of Cum-

at all weakened in the process of growth, the berland (1,001,273 acres), Essex (1,060,549

next will surely fall under the blight. To acres), Kent (1,039,419 acres), Somerset

these observations we may add that as certain (1,047,220 acres). North Riding Yorkshire

seasons are more trying to every kind of crop, (1,350,121 acres), and three times as much

and particular climates more likely than as in Carmarthen (606,331 acres), and Pem-

others to put the stamina of the potato to the broke (401,691 acres), and twice as much as

test, these tests must be regarded as liable in Argyleshire (2,083,126 acres), Dumfries

as everything of a similar nature, to be affected (702,953 acres), and Renfrew (158,268 acres),

by disturbing, unforeseen, and unavoidable respectively. Many circumstances enter into

influences. the comparison thus instituted, to disturb

We have known a farmer who, be- seriously the relations which seem indicated

fore the famine, grew the best of "cup* by the figures; but, except in respect to

potatoes (a red-skinned round variety latterly Carlow and Renfrew, there seems a great dis-

unknown), whose rule was to change the seed crepancy — even allowing for the natural

as soon as " blood reds," shewed in the crop, features of the country — in the ratio of the

These *' blood reds," or soldiers, were weak, potato culture in Great Britain and Ireland,

watery, and will give merely a non-farina Cork has an area of 1,849,683 acres, and

yielding pulp, and as sure as they were grows 90,000 acres of potatoes on the average

in the crop one year, the next shewed of a decade. Lincolnshire has i,77Si4S7

tainted, spotted, sickly, nasty smelling, and acres area, and grows less than half the quan-

inedible tubers. tity. Perth, with an area of 1,814,063 acres,

Our observation enables us to suggest a grows under 20,000 acres of potatoes; while

third rule, namely, let the product of the a greater quantity than this is grown in

apples be carefully selected. It is not Leilrim, whose area is only 392,363 acres,

wasteful, but rather the best economy to The aggregate all over Great Britain and

destroy weak, poor, vigourless growths. Ireland respectively (in 1870) gives 13.0 per

These suggestions are the result of obser- cent, to potatoes amongst other crops in

vations made chiefly in Ireland. But as England, 37.3 in Wales, 25.9 in Scotland,

there is no essential difference in soil, and and in Ireland, 69.6.

not very much variation in climate to affect The question then is, is Ireland over-
much potato crops, we have assumed that growing, or is England, Wales, and Scotland
they are, if not better, at least, no worse, under growing potato crops ? The answer is
than if they had been in England or Scotland, probably that Great Britain, on the whole,
Another suggestion is, that farmers should grows too few, and Ireland grows to excess,
avoid the expedients recommended by non. Certainly, so far as Ireland goes, there is
practical men. We have known farmers to scarcely a doubt that she stakes too much on
make large profits on potatoes. We have also the "murphy."

seen these same persons so excessively over- From these and many other facts which we

do the culture as on the average of ten years have no space to state, we commend potato

to be little or no gainers — coming in now culture to more general attention as a sub-

and again for a sweeping loss. The cultiva- ject far too little looked after^ especially in

Potatoes as they are, and as they may be

267

many English counties, north, south, and
midland, and much too carelessly attempted
in all parts of Ireland, except in the garden of
Ulster. The potato might be made better
food, its culture might be less hazardous, and
the profits on a series of years much
larger, if quality and not quantity were the
aim of the agriculturist Evidently potato
culture needs reforming, and the changes
necessary seem to imply at least the follow-

ing conditions : — ist That lands should be
rigidly devoted to the best paying crops, ir-
respective of precedents, and. That before
farmers reckon profits, they should allow for
the expense and risk of the transport of sup-
plies in excess of what is wanted for local
consumption. If these conditions were ob-
served, Ireland would be less covered over
with potato fields, and England and Scotland
more occupied with that crop.

THE YIELD OF WOOL.

THE Ayr Advertiser gives a report of a
paper upon the subject of " Wool,"
read by Mr R. B. Wilson before the last meet-
ing of the Ayrshire Farmers' Club. We make
the following extracts from the lecture and
the discussion thereon : —

THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF WOOL.

We get our wool in Scotland from the fol-
lowing breeds of sheep — the Leicester,
Cheviot, blackfaced, and from crosses be-
tween these. The Leicester gives us a strong,
deep, bright wool, much admired for its
combing qualities, but not well fitted for
clothing purposes. The formation of wool is
unlike that of hair, which tapers to a point,
and is of smooth surface. Two opinions are
put forth by parties who have minutely
examined wool. One is, that it is small at
the root and thick at the top ; serrations, or
branches, jutting out like small twigs from a
tree. The other says, in reference to these
serrations, that the filaments of the fine
qualities vary in thickness firom i-iiooth to
I- 1 sooth of an inch. Their structure is very
curious, exhibiting in a good achromatic
microscope, at intervals of about i-3ooth of
an inch, a series of serrated rings, intricated
towards each other like the scaly zones of a
serpent's skin. I think these statements,
though difiering, shew that serrations exist,
and I incline to the opinion that these serra-
tions are more frequent on fine wools than
on those of the Leicester breed, and go far

to explain why one wool is better adapted for
worsted, and another for clothing purposes.
Without these serrations the wool appears
more lustrous, and this quality is very
apparent in the Leicester, Lincoln, and other
long-woolled breeds. On the other hand,
Cheviot and other short-wooUed breeds shew
these serrations to exist to a greater extent,
and they are better adapted for miiiing^ a.
great desideratum to the clothing manufac-
turer. In this class may be placed the merino
of Spain, which is spread over the face of
the pasture world, and as seen in Australia,
grows the finest wool for clothing purposes.
The blackfaced is essentially a hard and
bright wool ; but from its greater exposure to
extreme cold and wet, produces very coarse
and kempy wool

THE QUALITY AND TEXTURE OF WOOL

CRITICIZED.

These then being the three leading classes
on which to work, letf us look at some of the
cross breeds : and first stands the half-bred,
a cross between the Leicester and Cheviot.
Without doubt this is the most valuable wool
produced in Scotland, and probably the best
in the British Isles, combining as it does tiie
brightness of the sire with the fineness of the
Cheviot No wool of British growth com-
mands a higher price if well bred and pro-
perly got up; and though it cannot boast
geneially of such a weighty fleece as some
of the Lincoln breed, which on the avei

268 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

weigh, in good clips, about 14 lb., many high cold land, but from all I have seen I

fleeces weighing 18 lb. and 20 lb., yet the would advise such to select good rams of the

following example will shew what can be ac- blackfaced breed, rather than go into this

complished by a careful selection, and proper speculation, which ultimately ends disas-

attention. Mr Wright, of Dowhiil, exhibited trously.

a half-bred lamb of 187 1 at the Ayr Show, improving the product.
held in April, 18723 its carcase was pur- We are then confined to Leicester, Cheviot,
chased by Mr James M^Math, Maybole, and blackfaced, and half-bred and cross-bred. The
weighed 1311b. extra heavy, and when its question arises, can any improvement be in-
fikin was taken off it weighed 5 1 lb. gross, and troduced ? With the exception of Lincolq,
carried 18 lb. of pure clean wool, worth at ^^ ^^ve found that with these as good a
least 2S. per lb. Had the same fleece been carcase and fleece can be produced as is
clipped, in would in all probability have attainable in this country. Now I would
weighed 20 lb., worth at the time 2s. id. or submit the suggestion to some, who may yet
2S. 2d. Were a little more attention given aim at a higher type, to try a Lincoln sire
to this cross, Scotland would become, in its and half-bred ewe. If the climate answers, I
low-lying parts, a field for the propagation of think you would secure ^ really fine wool,
sheep calculated to yield one of the finest and both as regards quality and lustre. If nothing
best paying wools. No doubt this is done more should be tried to improve classes, by
already to a great extent, and why greater re- all means let great heed be paid to the per-
sults have not followed remains to be stated faction of those we have. The large stocks
from the practical breeders' stand point, in Sutherland and Caithness shires are being
2S. 6d. per lb. was realized for this class of crossed more and more. The Cheviots are
wool at last public sales from fleeces weigh- gradually diminishing, half and cross-bred
ing about 9 lb. Next in yield of good heavy being introduced. These efforts are in the
deep-grown wool is the cross-bred between right direction, depend upon it The great
the Leicester and blackfaced ; this possesses increase of combing machinery, and the high-
the lustre, but lacks the quality of the half- class style of articles produced, are impressing
bred. Great care is especially required in the present generation with a lustrous taste ;
the selection of ewes, lest the coarse nature and the future efforts of stock-owners will be
of the mother's dress be copied by the pro- taxed to maintain a supply equal to the de-
geny. For combing purposes it is much mand. Already our distant colonies have
sought after, mixing well with the deep strong echoed the call for long bright wool, by
Lincolns. Cross-breds are hardy, and better having sent to our shores withm the past ten
adapted to higher and colder lands than half- years a large proportion of their clips ; and
breds, and no doubt they are on that account the British farmer will be called upon for
deservedly prized. There is no reason why greater improvements, to compete with this
this class should not command greater atten- fresh supply. The finest types of our sheep
tion. The carcase and the fleece both com- have been exported; and a cross with the
bine to make a good sheep of this sort a fine-woolled sheep of Australia and South
good paying one. Many have tried, and America produces a style of wool, which, for
have as often found the undesirability of quality and lustre, goes far to eclipse our
crossing the Cheviot and blackfaced breeds, most famed home-grown. When it is con-
The carcase produced is inferior, and the sidered that their effort lies in securing a
fleece is deficient in quality to rank as fine, valuable fleece, the carcase being a sc-
and wants depth to comb ; besides, its lustre condary object, it will take the British far-
is wanting. No stock-owner, looking to the mer to work at his double purpose of sc-
interests of his bank account, will persist in curing the heaviest carcases with the finest
this cross. Many, no doubt, think it de- fleece, to compete with the one ideal policy
sir^b^ to have a change of stock who occupy of his distant competitors. In 1869, con-

The Yield of Wool 269

ent on the large increase of South all applied dips, having at the same time a

rican wools, the question agitated France view to the destruction of parasites. Lei-

her they should not look more to the cester wools never require the heavy dressing

ler than the stuff manufacturer. And the essential to sheep going on higher lands.

:ion frequently arises, especially when a Cheviots being more exposed, it becomes a

en change has taken place in the wool necessity to adopt some means to maintain

et ; and it is observed that foreign an equal temperature, as they have aqueous

5 move off when our own are at a stand- chills to withstand, which are more severe

This happened last year during a dead than even many extra degrees of dry cold air.

in "our home wools. Foreigns were In many districts smearipg is the only ap-

quest at advancing rates, and not until proved protective, and when not too much

s discovered that the quantity of comb- tar, and only butter, is used, is certainly as

sorts was short, did the manufactiirers good a system as can be adopted. But many

at what they had at home, go into the lands are not so extremely wet, and here

et, and send prices up with a bound. there seems to be no fixed rule, many follow-
ing out their own ideas ; hence we have great

:he management of the fleece. varieties of method. Instead of the usual

le boundaries of sheep walks in this smearing, the best thing to do, in my opinion,

try are getting more circumscribed year is to dress with some approved dip — of these

ear. From many straths, with their I cannot say which is best, nearly all having

-capped secluded hills, sheep have been a leg to stand upon, and many prize what an-

hed, that the wild animals sportsmen other condemns. It seems to me all dips

to chase may not be intruded upon by fail in not providing grease of sufficient quan-

nderly directed footsteps of the shepherd tity to foster and sustain the natural yolk,

e more useful animal, the sheep. This which is of itself sufficient, if present in any

ing backward. One would think our quantity, to ward off the effects of exposure,

populated island required all its resources attention being paid to the destruction of

e maintenance of its people. We are at keds; &c. When dips do not provide this,

lit in a very trying position for forecast- according to districts a proportion of butter

le future value of wool. Looking, how- or whale grease should be added, and no

to the decrease of our foreign supplies, grease should be applied which will leave

;he severe season through which we are wool pretending to whiteness in a yellow

ig, it may not be Utopian to anticipate condition. The same remarks apply to

ntenance of comparatively high prices, blackfaced ; and here I would refer to a

jgh in the interest of producer and con- custom that brings into disrepute smear-

r a return to more moderate prices would ing, more than the sneer of those who cha-

many advantages, and enable the trade racterize it as barbarous, viz , the large quan-

: pursued with greater confidence and tity of tar used with brown grease and other

azard than has been the case during the inferior substitutes, for the best of all appli-

wo or three years. It may not be out ances, butter. A mistaken idea prevails, that

ice to refer in this paper to the proper the wool is not affected, and its weight is in-

gement of the different kinds of wools creased. The wool is deteriorated, and that

n of. And, first, of dipping, salving, to a great extent, and *cute spinners, with ap-

learing. If we attend carefully to the pliances lor letting them know how much real

tion of the different breeds of sheep, we wool is in a certain clip, are not going to be

:hey have naturally a great amount of done twice, and, not to incriminate all (for

;ecreted amongst the roots of their wool, there are most honourable exceptions), the

, according to their condition, spreads manufacturer has great reason to be suspi-

jds, maintaining the wool in a healthy cious that all he buys is not wool Of course,

To foster this ought to be the aim of where tar is used> colour is not expected i

5^6 Tke Country Gmtlematis MagaJsiHi

but apart from this, there are the best of systems adopted. Parties not being alt
reasons for not using inferior grease. We situated alike, different methods originate
hear of many flocks being thinned after they more from necessity than choice. Black-
have been smeared, for which bad tar is sure faced need not be washed j but, generally,
to be blamed, when the real cause is the cross and half-bred should be. Some seasons
avarice of the user, in not putting into his this may not be desirable, as for certain pur-
smearing tub as much proper grease as will poses such wool is much wanted. If wash-
destroy the tar spirit. The summer arrives, ing cannot be done thoroughly, better leave
and brings the time for clipping. Previous them in their natural condition, as nothing
to this operation, whitefaced sheep should be is more unsatisfactory than half- washed
washed, I need not enter into the many wool

AGRICULTURE IN IRELAND.

THE Emerald Isle agriculturists are again pointed out the insensateness- of this
considered for the most part as an feeling; and now we wish to congratulate
unintelligent class. English farmers would Irish tenants upon their greater intelligence
scarcely be pleased to be put upon the same on this very important matter, which will be
par with them. They would not like to be beneficial to cultivators of the soil themselves,
spoken of in the same day as the lazy-bed and to all who are in the habit of having
cultivators of potatoes across the Irish transactions with them.
Channel. They would, in fact, resent any In his preface to the Returns of 1 871, Mr
attempt at a comparison. And, as a general Fonblanque had to make this not very com-
mie, they could not be blamed for their in- plimentary allusion to the perception and the
dignant denial of the resemblance. But business habits of the British farmers. He
there are exceptions to all rules ; and in one said : — " The earlier publication of the Re-
particular the Irish tenants are better than turns in detail has been often referred to in
the English. (We leave out the Scotch these reports, and no effort is spared in
because they long ago recognized the value the departments which collect and prepare
of having statistics of the various crops under the Returns to obtain so desirable a result
cultivation, and of the numbers of the stock The work of completing, checking, and ar-
grazed and fed in fields and in courts.) Up ranging the large amount of detail collected
until this very day, or at least, up to the issue throughout the country by the officers of
of the Agricultural Returns of Great Britain, Inland Revenue is still found to require a
under the supervision of the late Mr Albany considerable amount of time ; and the sub-
W. Fonblanque, many English farmers could sequent additions and computations, not only
not be persuaded that the revelation of the as regards the Returns for Great Britain, but
quantity of acres they allotted to each par- also those for the Colonies and foreign coun-
ticular crop would not be detrimental to tries, are not a light task. But " (and we
their interests. Were they to tell the truth wish our readers to specially note this) " the
about the matter, they seemed to be afraid officers employed to obtain returns arc
that their rents would be raised ; and that if seriously delayed in their work by the refusal
they tabulated the precise numbers of stock of a minority of the farmers to answer a few
they fattened, the cattle dealers would not simple questions, notwithstanding in many
accord so high a price as they were in the cases repeated personal applicatiofis upon the
habit of giving. We have over and over part of the officers." While this minority

1871. 1872.

Increase Decrease

in 1872.

Acres. Acres.

Acres.

Wheat . . .

244,451 228,189

—

16,262

Oats . . .

1,636,136 1,621,813

—

14.323

Barley . . .

220,979 218,894

—

2085

Bere and Rye

11.555 9995

—

1560

Beans and Peas

. 10,913 11,782

869

—

Total .

2,1^,034 2,090,673 -

33.361

Agricutture In trelaftd 2ft

dog-in-the-manger-like, keep back that which sidering the unpropitious character of the

would be of service to others, it is pleasant season for the growth and perfection of this

to know from the preface we have been quot- root Vetches and rape exhibited a decline

ing that " the Returns are studied and vdued of 1290 acres, and meadow and clover

by an increasing number of agriculturists." yielded less returns by 29)114 acres, which

How different and how much more pleasant is to be regretted. Regarding cereals, the

the tale Mr Donnelly, the Registrar-General Registrar-General has to state that there was

of Ireland, has to tell about the collection of a decrease in wheat of 16,262 acres ; in oats,

agricultural statistics in Ireland. In his 14,323; barley, 2085; and bere and rye,

report for the year 1872 (he is addressing the 1560 acres. Flax fell off tremendously last

Lord Lieutenant-General of Ireland), he says: year, the decrease being nothing short of

— " Your Excellency is aware that the infor- 34,667 acres.

mation given to the enumerators is altogether We give the abstracts of the cereal and
voluntary ; and I feel assured it will afford green crops, with the increase and decrease,
pleasure to your Excellency to learn, as I as Mr Donnelly presents them to us : —
beg to say it is most gratifying to me to abstract of cereal crops.
have it in my power to state, that so far as I
am informed by the superintendents of dis-
tricts, the returns have been collected without Wheat
difficulty — a fact most highly creditable to 2^
the good feeling and intelligence of all ranks
and classes connected with land in this
country." We trust this * statement from

Ireland wiU suggest to farmers in this country i>ec;^ in Ce'^'i::;S;s i^TS^^.' 33361 Acr^.'
the desirability of following where they ought abstract of green crops.

to have taken the lead, and that the new 1871. 1872. increase Decrease

head of the Statistical Department of the ^" ^^72. in 1872.

■D J r rr. J Ml 1. I. ^1. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres.

Board of Trade will not have the same
camplaint to make as his predecessor.

From the figures furnished to the public by
Mr Donnelly, we find that the total quantity
of land in Ireland under cultivation was
5,486,522 acres, or 134,915 less than in the
preceding year. The increase in leguminous
crops, beans and peas, was 869 acres. Tur-
nips, we were glad to notice, as they are the ^ '^"^*\ • • ^•5".689 1.473.016 - 37.773

. , ^ , ,, , , , . „ Decrease in Green Crops m 1872, 37,773 Acres.

basis of good general husbandry, and especially

• T ^1^ J U 4.4.1 • r •-- — . general summary OF CEREAL AND GREEN CROPS, &C.

m Ireland where cattle is of more importance ^ . . /

. 1. ij^n jirri'i DccTcase m Acres. Acres.

than wheat, exceeded the breadth of 1 87 1 by cereai Crops in 1872 . . . 33.361) ^^g

19,429 acres; mangold and beetroot spread Flax 34.667)

out beyondthe acreage of 1871,2,999 acres; &^Td Clover I! ! ! ! Hill} ^'^^

cabbage, 6387 acres ; and carrots, parsnips. Total Decrease in the extent of Land under

and other green crops, 1334 acres, in all ^^P^ *° '872 134.91S

31,018 acres. While an increase is observed The falling off in the acreage under crops

in these green crops, there is a manifest is noticeable in every province. In every

falling off in cereals, and in green crops not province the quantity of grass land has in-

enumerated. We shall take the green crops creased, and we are far from saying that this

first The year 1872 shewed a falling off in shews a bad state of matters, considering tiie

Ireland of 66,632 acres of potatoes, a decrease climate of Ireland. With the exception of

^o be rejoiced at rather than deplored, con* Munster-*and it is a monstrous exception, the

Potatoes . . .

1.058,434

991,802

—

66,632

Turnips ....

327.03s

346.464

19,429

—

Mangold Wurzel

and Beetroot .

31.921

34.920

2.999

—

Cabbage . . .

33.008

39.395

6.387

—

Carrots, Parsnips,

and other Green

Crops . . .

29,869

31.203

1.334

—

Vetches and Rape

31.422

30,132

—

1.290

272

The Country Gefttlemafis Magazine

reason for which we do not find explained in
the report — fallow has decreased in acreage,
viz., 1050 acres in Leinster; 2971 acres in
Ulster, and 1410 inConnaught In Munster,
however, there were 3323 acres more lying
idle last year, than there were in 1871. The
total fallow land in 1872 was 18,512 acres, as
against 20,620 in the preceding one. . The
area of woods and plantations was extended
very slightly, and we should fancy advan-
tageously. It is also gratifying to notice that
in the course of last year some bog and waste
ground had been reclaimed, but up to the time
that the enumerators made their report no
stock had been placed upon the land. This
land could scarcely have been expected to
bear stock so shortly after its breaking up.
The quantity " occupied " last year amounted
to 33>3^^ acres, but there is still the large
number of 4,2531973 acres of what is called
" bog and waste land " in Ireland left " unoc-
cupied." Some of that it is impossible to re-
claim, but much of it might with application
of capital and intelligenco be brought into
profitable cultivation. This, at present, un-
profitable soil forms more than one-fifth of
the total acreage of Ireland, when the larger
rivers, lakes, and tide-ways are excluded.

Turning to live stock, it is important to
note at the present time, when the decrease
of horses is so much talked about, that in
Ireland they have increased, during 1872^
2650, the total number at the time the re-
turns were made up being 540,745, as against
538,095, which must be acknowledged to be
a considerable augmentation, seeing that

there is so much temptation, in the shape of
high prices, to part with them.

It is agreeable also to know that cattle have
increased during the past twelve months to
the extent of 80,781 head, the total number
reported being 4,057,153, to compare with
3,976,372 in 187 1. The number of sheep
has likewise increased from 4,233,435 to
4,262,117, topping last year by 28,682,

And what now about the " rint-payer,"
Paddy's pet animal, the pig, the one that he
treated with almost parental care, allowing it
to go out and in to his dwelling along with
the children ? Alas ! we have bad news to
tell about it It seems to be gradually get-
ting out of favour at home — perhaps on ac-
count of being so much thought of abroad.
The number of pigs enumerated in 187 1 was
1,621,423; last year it was only 1,385,386,
shewing a decrease of 236,637. It is not
altogetlier improbable that part of this dimi-
nution is attributable to a growing notion of
cleanliness, consequent upon the erection of
a better class of houses. We should like to
believe so, at least, for ten years ago most of
the houses were thoroughly disgracefiil in
character — not fit for the pig that herded with
the children. In 1861 there were no fewer
than 89,374 houses in Ireland with only one
room, and the quality of that was disgusting
beyond expression. We should like to see
loans from the Board of Public Works,
Dublin, taken more advantage of than they
are, for we can never expect to have a con-
tented peasantry until we supply them with
decently comfortable homes.

THE SUPPLY AND THE PRICE OF MEAT''

By Mr Alfred Pope.

IT cannot be denied that the many diseases
which have of late years been so pre-
valent amongst our stock, and which have
annually carried off so many millions, and
the consequent restrictions on the importation
of foreign cattle, have tended materially

* Read before the Dorchester Fanners' Club.

to lessen the supply of fat meat brought into
our markets ; whereas, on the other hand,
the great commercial prosperity of the
country, and the consequent large increase
of wages paid to artizans and workmen, have
brought a new meat-consuming, population
into tJie market Thousands of woridng

The Supply and the Price of Meat 273

men, who used rarely to get meat for their position of the owner, the occupier, and the

dinners can now well afford, and beyond all cultivator alike be raised

doubt do afford, to have it most days of their the effects of high prices : the waste

lives ; let us hope that this state of prosperity qp provisions

my long continue. The succession of hot ^^^ ^^^ I ^ ^^ '^ ^^^^^^ ^^

and dry summers, too, of 1868-69-70, commg ^^^^ ^f paper-viz., the effect of this

so soon after the great catUe plague year of ^^^ ^^ increasing advance in the price of

1866, tended much to lessen our stock of meat and provisions. By you, whom I think

store animals. And you cannot shut your j ^^ ^^ ^^e most part regard as producers,

eyes to the fact that the extravagant preser- jj^j^ g^^^^ ^se in the price of meat and fall

vation of game, especially of ground game— ;„ ^^^ ^^j^g ^f ,j ^y, ^^ fg^ ^ differenUy

so that in some parts of the country the ^^ ^^at it will be by the poor annuitant, the

tenants find their crops devoured by hares fundholder, the debenture holder, the mort-

and rabbits, and consequendy have no in- ^^^ ^^ ^ p^^ professional men and

ducement to improve their cultivation-tends ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ have fixed incomes, or
most materially to lessen the food-producing ^.^^^ ^^^^^3 ^^ remunerated by a scale of

qualities of our farms. ^^^ ^^^^ ^-^^^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^o^y purchase

IS ENGLAND ADEQUATELY FARMED ? five times as much as it will at the present

And this leads me to the question of— ^r ^e may possibly find that the present

Does the land of England produce so large ^^'8^ prices of meat and provisions may have

a quantity of food as it might do ? Most *e effect, as has certamly been the case with

certainly, I should say, it does not ; and this <^°a^' °f creating a greater economy in its

I say not on my own responsibility, but on "se, and, if such be the case, this nse in

the authority of one of our most cautious and P"", if it be but temporary, will not have to.

clever statesmen— I mean Lord Derby— who ^^ altogether regretted. The extravagance

tells us that the land of England does not i" some houses, especially in the kitchen, is

produce one-half the amount of food which undoubtedly great, and the great waste at-

it might if it were properly cultivated, and if tendant on our English system of cooking is

the amount were laid out on it which ought to almost proverbial No people in the worid

be ; and this brings me to another point, consume so much meat as the English, and

viz.. Is the price which is now being given no People consume it so wastefiilly. Some

for agricultural land a fictitious and fency eight years ago it may be remembered that

price only, or is it a price which will, having *e Pri^y Council directed an inquiry to be

a due regard to the great bonus in the shape of n»ade mto the dietaries of the lowest fed of

increase in value which has of late years, and O""" population. The investigation was en-

which may with confidence, so long as the tested to Dr Edward Smith, who exammed

great commercial prosperity of this country the food of 553 households in England and

continues, be calculated to accrue thereon, Wales, 29 in ScoUand, and 52 m Ireland. In

in addition to the small per-centage in the "5 English cases the inquiry related to the

way of rent, and to the quality of the security, Poorer classes of indoor workpeople, such as

pay the idle investor as good a return as if silk weavers, needlewomen, glove sUtchers,

he invested in many of the bubble schemes stocking weavers, and shirt makers in

or foreign loans open to those who wish, or London and in various provincial towns ;

who have occasion, to employ their capital the other cases belonged exclusively to

and their labour, whether of mind or body, the agricultural population. The results

separately ? I say that it is ; and that as the brought to light were somewhat surprising,

l^d in this country becomes more highly It appeared that a large body of people were

cultivated, and is made to produce more, so actually existing, or trying to exist— on less

will it become more valuable, and so will the food— that is, less carbon and nitrogen— than,

VOL. X. T

3/4 ^^ Country Gentlemafis Magazine

according to scientific calculations were so serious a rise obviated. This I feel to be
deemed barely sufficient to "avert starvation entirely a practical question, which had best
diseases " from the unemployed operatives of be left to the more experienced members
Lancashire during the cotton famine. It amongst us to discuss. I will, therefore,
was also discovered that, as regards actual detain you only a short time longer whilst I
nutriments, England was the worse fed mention one or two ideas which I have
division of the kingdom. " On the whole," gathered, or which may have suggested them
Dr Smith reported, "there was the most selves to my unpractical mind. First — Should
nutriment, the least sum spent upon food, the veal and lamb be consumed to the extent
greatest economy in its selection, the most which it now is, and has been of late years?
bread stuffs and milk, the least sugar, fats. If the animals which are now killed before
meat, cheese, and tea in Ireland. There they have reached maturity were to be kept
was the least amount of nutriment, the until they had attained their full size, would
greatest variety of food, the most costly not a much greater weight of meat be pro-
selection of food, the least quantity of bread duced ? The flesh of a grown animal is un-
stuffs and milk, the greatest quantity of sugar, doubtedly more palatable and more nutritious
fats, and meat in England." It was calcu- than that of an animal killed at an immature
lated that the Irish, who spent little more age ; and I cannot but think that where keep
than half as much in food as the English, got is plenty it must pay the producer better to
fully twice as much for their money in the allow his animals to attain their full size and
shape of carbon and nitrogen, the two chief weight before he puts them into the meat
elements of nutrition. Scotland followed market I am inclined, therefore, to think
Ireland in point of economy. Meat or bacon that abstinence for a time, on the part of the
was eaten by 92 per cent of all the families consumer, from the flesh of immature animals
included in the enquiry. In England the would, by lessening the demand for veal and
per-centage was 99, in Ireland 59, Scotland l^mb, increase the supply, and so reduce the
coming between the two ; and the quantity of price, of beef and mutton. Although I would
meat consumed by each adult weekly was advocate abstinence for a time from veal and
16 oz. in England, 10^ oz. in Scotland, in lamb, yet I think that our cattle and sheep
Ireland 4j^ oz., or only a quarter of the (except those kept for breeding purposes)
English allowance. Of the nourishment of should be so grazed that they may be
the agricultural labourer Dr Smith gives, on brought as eariy as possible into the market,
the whole, a favourable account The men, consistently with the greatest weight being
he thought, were usually well fed, though made of them. On the importation of the
as much could not always be said of their foreign cattle Mr Whittle treated somewhat
families. As a general conclusion it may be at length at our last meeting, and he then
gathered from the report that the economy shewed us that the annual loss of cattle from
of food is much better understood in Ireland rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia, and other im-
and Scotland than in England, and that the ported diseases exceeded the total number of
poorer classes in this country, particularly in foreign stock brought into this country. Al-
London, and the larger provincial towns, are though this may be so, yet I do not thmk a
especially wasteful and extravagant, both in total prohibition on foreign stock would have
the selection and cooking of their food. a beneficial effect ; the frames are wanted on

which to lay the flesh : and, were it possible

THE CONSUMPTION OF VEAL-FOREIGN STOCK. ^^ g.^ an Unlimited number of lean stock im-

And this brings me to the last, and I ported, I have no hesitation in saying that

think I may say the most important, part of feeding stuffs, either home-grown or foreign,

my paper, viz., the means by which the supply would be forthcoming wherewith to fat them,

of meat in our markets may be increased and I would, therefore, advocate the importatkm

^^p price lessened, or, at the least, another of foreign cattle ; but the most severe scrutiny

Tlie Supply and tlu Price of Meat 275

uarantine, and, if necessary, guarantee dice against the use of such meats be over-

d be enforced at the ports of entry, and come, and the use of them become more

• possible safeguard, to prevent infected general. Cattle shows, I think, tend to

als from being landed, adopted ; but we stimulate the production of weighty animals,

Dt afford to stop the importation of and consequently favour the supply of meat,

jn stock altogether. The importation and to these, to a great extent, we owe the

jstralian meats would, probably tend to. proud position held by the British ox, of

down the price, could the public preju- being the best the world can produce.

LORD MALMESBURY AND RABBITS.

IRELY never since the days of Baron provinces, we confess we stand amazed

Munchausen was such a wondrous tale at the whilome Foreign Secretary's figures,
is that which Lord Malmesbury narrated We turn to the Accounts relating to Trade
t rabbits in the House of Peers on and Navigation last year, and we find that
day evening last. The noble earl in- the total sum set down for poultry, game, and
;d his audience that rabbits were a de- rabbits was only ;£^2 17,542, not a fourth of
is kind of food, especially when served the sum which, according to Lord Malmes-
ith " white sauce ; " and most people bury, one dealer in London imports from one
ilso agree that they are not unpalatable place. Thinking that probably the noble
5 when made into a pie. * They are, in Earl was founding upon prospective figures
admirable diet ; but it is about tJuir rather than past facts, we turned to the Ae-
ry tastes that farmers complain. Agri- counts for January and February of this
rists would prefer to have more of them year — the latter issued on Friday. We
e dining-table, and fewer in the fields, cannot find, although there is a marked
2ver, we are not going to enter into the increase, that they afford indication of such
ion of the Game-laws just now. The an augmentation at the end of the present year
I matter is under the consideration as that which Lord Malmesbury implies. The

Select Committee of the House of January Returns tell us, that of poultry, game,

nons, and until they have made their and rabbits, there was, in that month, value

t it appears to us fruitless to go over to the amount of ;£34,692 received ; in Feb-

id that we have so often trodden before, ruary, we got ;^22,204 worth. These to-

Lord Malmesbury's statistics that we gether, make ;£^5 6,896. Supposing the im-

to challenge, and more particularly port of rabbits, poultry, and game to continue

which relate to foreign rabbits. He in the same ratio throughout the year, as in

us that one large dealer in London the first two months of it, the sum paid will

*ts from Ostend, weekly, 1500 cases of be only ;£34i,376 ; or, for the three com-

ts, each containing 100 rabbits. Fur- modities which go to make up the sum total,

n we are assured, the noble lord making little more than a third of that which Lord

oint to correct an omission in a previous Malmesbury declares, is realized by one man

)f his speech, that those coneys average for rabbits alone ! After such a statement

. each, and are sold for yd. per lb. from Lord Malmesbury, we were not sur-

ifore, there being 150,000 rabbits in the prised to hear from the same lips, that "the

and 52 weeks in the year, and Board of Trade Returns, on the subject of

animal makes 2 s. 4d., it follows as the importation of game, did not seem to be

Ltter of course that one man sells very accurate." But we thought of him as

3,ooo in a year ! There being other of the French savant, who said, with a

salesmen of the same class of meat^pro- shrug of the shoulder, '' So much the worse

g animals in the metropolis, and the for the facts.**

2;6

Tlis Country Geniletnan^s Magazine

HORSES AND MEN.

By H. M. Jenkins.*

IN the course of my paper opening the
discussion at the last December meet-
ing of the Club, I remarked as follows : " The
statistician who endeavours to estimate the
production of a country by the population
which it nourishes cannot confine himself to
the men, women, and children who inhabit
it. He must consider what other animals are
also fed on the native produce. In England,
and, indeed, all over Western Europe, we
have, practically, only human beings and
horses to feed, for although cattle, sheep, and
pigs are fed on the produce of the land, it
is merely to bring them into a fit state to be
eaten by man, or otherwise to furnish food
for him." It was, therefore, incumbent upon
me , to answer the question, " How much
land of a standard quality will it take to
breed and feed a given number of horses, and
how many average persons would the same
land otherwise keep, the culture being in
each case appropriate to the object in view?"
My answer ran as follows : " At first I was
inclined to say that one horse required the
same quality of land as seven persons ; but,
after consulting my eminent colleague, Dr
Voelcker, and discussing the matter with him,
I have yielded to his opinion that it is more
fair to reckon that one horse requires as much
land for its sustenance as eight people." In
the discussion that follx)wed the reading of
my paper, great stress was laid upon this
question ; and since then, the subject has ac-
quired greater prominence, in consequence
of the correspondence in the daily papers
with reference to the alleged scarcity of
horses in Great Britain, and to Lord Rose-
bery's motion on the subject before the
House of Lords. Admiral Rous has stated

in effect that the present prices of meat and
wool render their production a more profit-

* .Suppleraentaiy to discussion before the December
XPM>»!ng of the Farmerb* Club.

able operation to the farmer than the
of horses. If this is true, notwithstand
per-centage of loss which the stock-owi
almost expects to suffer in consequc
foot-and-mouth disease, it must be in
quence of the large quantity of land ^
takes to produce a horse ready for m;

COMPARISON BETWEEN THE FOOD OF

AND MEN.

I therefore take the opportunity a
me by the resumption of the adjourned
to offer a few explanatory remarks in r<
to my estimate of the relation betw
food of a horse and that of a humai
Horses belong to three well-defined
namely, those used solely in agricultur
otherwise employed, and those not er
at all, that is to say, unbroken hor
mares kept solely for breeding. Ir
Britain we had belonging to these ch
1871^ 939)^93 agricultural horses, ;
brood mares and unbroken horse
856,140 horses subject to duty. S
roughly, therefore, six-sevenths of the
are working horses, and of these mo
one-half are agricultural. Now, the c
which I wish to illustrate is — How mu
does it require, on the average, to ke
of these horses in food all the year
and how many human beings wou
land, or that food, as the case may be
wise maintain? In my paper, I es
that the land necessary to keep 01
would be sufficient to keep eight
human beings, the culture being in ea
appropriate to the object in view,
proceed to illustrate the truth of thai
sition. To make the matter quite cl<
necessary to state what may be cor
the average necessary food of a humai
and \vhat that of a horse. The stan
the former, that has been accepted as \

Men atid Horses

277

for many years, is the equivalent of 8 bushels
of wheat per annum. Now if we take the
average production of wheat to be 28 bushels
per acre, it is certain that i acre will, on that
calculation, feed three and a half average
persons, and that therefore eight persons
would require the produce of 2 2-7ths acres
of land. Suppose this land to be in oats, and
that 40 bushels per acre is an average crop,
it would yield 91 3-7ths bushels, which, at the
rate of 40 lb. per bushel, would weigh 3657
lb., which would give an allowance of 10 lb.
per day to a horse all the year round. I
presume that it is not possible to keep a
horse on a smaller allowance of food than
that. In fact, if he has to do any work, his
10 lb. of oats must be supplemented by other
food, such as hay or bran. Again, if we
ascend to a working scale of horse-food,
and compare, for instance, the quantity
consumed by a cavalry horse, as given
by Mr Wilkinson in the Journal of
the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
vol. xxiv., p. 92, we shall get the following
result : " The allowance of food is stated to
be good oats 10 lb. per diem, hay 12 lb.,
straw 8 lb." For the sake of simplifying the
calculation, we may take the hay and straw
together to be equal to 14 lb. of hay. Now,
14 lb. of hay per diem are equal to 2 ton 5
cwt., 70 lb. per annum, or to the produce of
2^ acres of land at i ton per acre. 10 lb.
of oats per diem are equal to 3650 lb., or to
91 bushels at 40 lb. per bushel, or the pro-
duce of 2^ acres of land at 40 bushels per
acre. The total land required to feed one
cavalry horse is thus 4^ acres per annum,
or sufficient to feed nearly 16 men eating the
equivalent of i quarter of wheat per annum.
Then, taking the average food in Belgium to
be 6 bushels of wheat or rye and 43 lb. of
meat, and using our previous averages of pro-
duction per acre, we shall find that each per-
son in that country requires about 7-ioths of
an acre of land to produce his food, so that
one cavalry horse requires as much land for
that purpose as 6^ Belgians. Turning to
Mr Morton's paper on the " Cost of Horse-
power " (Journal of the Royal Agricultural

Society, vol. xix., pj5. 437-467), it appears
that the variation in the quantities of the
several kinds of food given to farm horses
under different circumstances is exceedingly
great No doubt the food bears some rela-
tion to the quantity and quality of work re-
quired of the horses, and the same condition
is unquestionably true with regard to the food
of men. Mr Morton quotes one instance of
horses being allowed during the winter as
much as 294 lbs. of hay each per week.
What the system of feeding in summer might
have been is not stated, but assuming that
those horses ate in summer the equivalent
quantity of grass, they consumed the average
produce of nearly 7 acres of land per annum.
. In other words, each horse required as much
land to feed it as ten average people do in
Belgium, or six in beef-eating Britain.

THOROUGHBRED AND FARlkl HORSES.

The foregoing examples illustrate the rela-
tion between the food of working horses and
that of men ; but as the question of rearing
thoroughbred horses has recently obtained
so much prominence, I asked Mr W. Blenk-
iron, of Middle Park, to inform me what
quantity of land, and what quantity of food
not produced by that land, are required during
a complete year, from January ist to Decem-
ber 31st by a thoroughbred mare and her
progeny. I annex the reply with which he
was so good as to favour me : —

My dear Sir, — A thoroughbred mare and her off-
spring require during the year the use and "cream"
of at least three acres of good grass land, from which
no hay could be made, but on which, from what they
would never eat on account of its becoming a little ,
coarse, a couple of polled Scot heifers might be fat-
tened. During the twelve months the mare would
consume about a ton and a-half of good hay, about 10
qr. good oats, say a cwt. of bran, 2 cwt of carrots,
about a gallon of linseed. The foal, presumably
weaned the end of July, will take, to end of year, 7
qr. best oats, 1 1 cwt of first-class hay, X ton of car-
rots, 270 lb. of split beans, }i cwt. of linseed, 5 cwt.
bran. I have not included straw in the above, but
the quantity required would be between 5 and 6 loads
for the two.

Yours truly,
Middle Park, Eltbaip, W, P;,pjj|C|RON,

278 The Country Gentkinaiis Magazine

The extent of grass-land and the quantities of but as regarded value he believed a fianner

oats, hay, and other food (exclusive of straw) could keep a cart-horse for los. a-week. [A

shew that the mare and foal would consume voice : * No/] At all events, that was the

during the year the produce of about nine usual calculation, and he believed it was

acres of average land, with the exception of pretty sound. Would it be possible to keep

the coarser grass that would be consumed by eight persons, taking men, women, and chil-

the two polled Scot heifers. Another method dren, at an average of is. 3d. each? He

of comparison, though very homely, may not apprehended not. Therefore he wanted to

be uninteresting to those who wish to arrive know how Mr Jenkins came to the condu-

at the proportion of the produce of the land sion that it cost eight times as much to main-

that is consumed in the course of the year tain a horse as a human being." To this I

by the men or horses employed in the cul- remarked that I had not said that it cost

tivation of the soil It is not unusual for farm- eight times as much money, and Mr Read

horses to receive as much as three bushels replied that " unless money-cost were in-

of oats per week, besides other food, where tended, he could not see any use in compar-

the strength of the land necessitates a large ing a horse with a man." If my paper had

proportion of com being given. An allow- been devoted to such questions as the rela-

ance of 3 bushels of oats per week is within tive profit per acre on large or small farms, .

a sack of 20 quarters per annum; and this or any other matter that affected the pockets

quantity, if sent to the miller, instead of being of the owners or occupiers of the land, I

given to the horse, would produce about should have perfectly agreed with Mr Sewell

4000 lb. of meal, besides the husks. This Read that money-cost was the only fair test

quantity of oatmeal would feed eight men for But as my endeavour was to shew what was

a year at the unnecessarily liberal rate of 500 'Cat gross produce per 100 acres, as indicated

lb. of meal per head per annum. by the number of men and horses fed, I

do not see what money-cost has to do

THE EXTENT OF LAND REQUIRED TO PRODUCE ^^j^^ ^^ ^^j^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^

THE FOOD OF A MAN AND A HORSE. ^^.^^ ^^^^ -^ Considering that unless money.

I hope the foregoing examples are sufficient cost is the test accepted, there is no use in

to prove that the estimate upon which my comparing a man with a horse ; but from a

calculations were based is not very far from national point of view there are, in my

the truth. There is, however, another aspect opinion, several questions that cannot be

of the question to which I have not yet decided in that way. It may be said that if

alluded, but which was vigorously dwelt upon my proposition (that a horse requires as much

during the discussion last December by Mr land to feed it as eight men) is true in fact,

Sewell Read, M.P. This is the relation the inapplicability of the money-test ought to

between the cost of feeding a horse and that be explained. This is easily done. If the

of keepmg a man. I did not touch upon data given in my paper, as to the annual con-

this question, because there are many con- sumption of food of a human being, are ac-

siderations on one side that have no existence curate, an average person consumes, as al-

on the other. Practically, therefore, no de- ready stated, the equivalent of a quarter of

duction can be drawn from such a comparison wheat per annum. The average price of that

as to the relative quantity of food produced quantity of corn may be taken to be — say,

under different systems of agriculture, employ- 60s., or something less than Mr Read's re-

ing and feeding a different proportion of quirement of is. 3d. per week. But, of

horses. Mr Read remarked that "he was rather course, people cannot be kept for that sum;

staggered at finding that a horse consumed as because, in the first place, the wheat requires

much as eight men. He had no doubt that to be ground, then the flour requires to be

-=0 far as the amount of provender which a kneaded, and the dough to be baked — all

lorse took into his stomach, that was the case; which processes mean additional expenditure ;

Horses and Mm

279

jas we should be startled to hear that it
lecessary to give our horses oatmeal-

and piree de fevcroles. Further, in
ating the cost of keeping a man, we put

so much for clothes and for rent, to
othing of beer, tea, sugar, tobacco, and
y other matters that are quite foreign to
able. Exception may be taken to this
pie as being merely theoretical, and not
3le in practice ; but such an objection
I not hold good with reference to prison
-y, the cost of which in Scotland in 1865
i from IS. 4}^d. to 2s. per week. Then,
, in the south of Ireland, where Indian
often forms the staple kind of food in
IS and workhouses, and in times of scar-
f potatoes, the cost of the dietary must be

less. Mr Bence Jones, of Lisselan,
ikilty, Co. Cork, has ascertained for me
the clerk of one of the warehouses in his
bourhood, that if the whole, instead of
reater part of the diet was of Indian

1% lb. would be the equivalent of the
now given daily, with one pint of sour
besides. These quantities amount to the
ring in the course of a year : —

;f S. d.

days at \% lb. =455 lb. Indian meal

9s. per cwt. I 16 7

days at I pint =45^ gallon sour

ilk at 3d. per gallon o II 5

veeks* diet per person at less than

;. per week 280

-labourers outside the workhouse eat as
as 2 lb. of Indian meal, with the same
ance of sour milk, and their necessary
would therefore cost as nearly as pos-
is. 3d. per week. We thus see that the
►f money cost, when properly applied,
confirms the conclusion at which I had
id previously, with reference to the
dty of land required to produce the food
nan and a horse respectively. The ex-
.tion of the apparent anomaly is that
ost of keeping a horse consists almost
;ly of that of his necessary food, whereas
s a comparatively small item in the ex-
iture of a labourer.

Q
\A
H
^
O

o
o

Hg
O

;z:

D
U

O
<

;z;
o

PUl

'sSaisq UBumq

i?<B-| 1

»i4

pauo^iDai pnox

*s9ai9q uvuinq

-^. .

II II

psnbd sdSJOH

« »<»

*s3ui9q ucuinH

<^^| 1

'sSuisq UBOinq

i>t^ yj

1-4

p9U01[33J TB^OX

*s3ui9q uemnq

"- . .

II II I

l^nba S9SJ0||

\r%

-sSaiaq UBmnn

•

C* CO N

*s9ui9q uvmnq

>«^X

a\ •-• 1 M

« CO 1 «

P3U03133I ITJJOX

*s3(n9q insiunq

^4 »i4

II Ml !

»i4 »4

II
CO

C/3

-sdoisq UBOTOH

'sSoidq uvoinq

^^^

M mro»4

co»n »o ^

pauo^wj iB^ox

»i4

■sSuisq UBOinq
0;

II II 1 1

[BQbd 83S10{{

CO^ '

'sSuidq ucmnH

t>.fOCO»*

•
V}

> •

«
•

i i

d .

•s

5i Q

^ose 1

Number
Beings a

in agricult
urplus hom
mported m<
mported co

Sfo

k«4

§^■8-8

M(Kh(fa

LARGE AND SMALL FARMS IN RELATION TO

THE PEOPLE.

Before concluding this preface to the dis-
cussion of this evening, I wish to recall at-
tention to the main object of my original

28o The Country Gentleman s Magazine

paper. The relation existing between the material difference in the expense. But, after
food of horses and that of men is a sub- all, what does it amount to against the food
sidiary question, which I should have pre- of a horse. For the sake of argument, suppose
ferred not to raise in conjunction with the it costs los. per week, or is. 8d. per working
main problem, if the latter could have been day, to keep a horse, and that he works eight
solved otherwise. That problem I stated as hours per day. Compare with this the
follows : " How many people are fed per quantity of coal consumed per horse-power
loo acres on home-produce in certain per hour by a good steam-engine. At Car-
countries, how many of these are employed diff, the best portables consumed about 2j4
in obtaining that produce from the soil, and lb. of coal per indicated horse-power per
how numerous in each case is the suqjlus hour, therefore tve may not be very far out if
population that remains to be fed on imported we take double that quantity as roughly re-
corn or meat?" Since last December, Mr presenting the consumption of an average
Bright has republished in the Daily News an farm-engine. This will amount to 40 lb. per
old letter, written by Mr Cobden, on the indicated horse-power per day, and calculat-
Land Question, and containing the very re- ing the cost at the extreme rate of 50s. per
markable assertion 'that a greater net produce ton, it would amount to about lod. per day.
is yielded by small farms than by large ones. Now, each indicated horse-power of an engine
It is sufficient to point to the table still really represents the work of one and a-half
hanging on the wall to prove that, unless the actual living horses, therefore the cost per
figures can be shewn to be erroneous, such a actual horse-power is 6^d. per day, or just
statement is the direct contradiction of the one-third the cost of the keep of the horse
actual fact. Nobody, now-a-days, believes in required to do the same work. These figures,
the economy of labour obtained by the use of it must be understood, simply represent the
a multitude of hand-looms instead of one cost of each kind of power, but not that of
power-loom. Why, therefore, should matters its application to ploughing or any other pur-
pertaining to agriculture continue to be con- ]»ose. But if horse-power is now three times
sidered free fi:om the operation of laws that as expensive as steam, in ordinary times it
■ have their proper influence in every otlier must cost five or six times as much ; and if
pursuit, the object of which is profit to the horse-power is so costly, what must be the
person engaged in it? Why, in fact, in the relative price paid for manual labour? Of
face of all experience, should it still be taught course, we cannot do everything by steam,
that millions of spades require less expendi- and probably there will always remain some
ture of labour than hundreds of steam- operations to require horse-power and human
diggers ? Some may begin to waver from labour \ but on very small farms, the dearest
their faith in steam on account of the price labour — that of man — is used for every pro-
of coal, and of course it makes a most cess.

The Country GentU man's Alaga:sine 28 1

LABOURERS' COTTAGES AND FARM-BUILDINGS.

EVER smce its establishment this land difficulties we have briefly alluded

Magazine has taken a deep interest to. But before citing, as promised, the

in the cottage question in rural districts. Un- principal clauses in this Bill, we shal

lesfs a man have a comfortable home, it is next quote a word or two from a recent

to impossible that he can have proper respect speech by Mr M*Combie, as it has an im-

for himself, and losing that, he loses con- portant bearing upon the accommodation of

fidence in others. A badly-drained, ill-ven- farm-servants. Our readers will remember

tilated, and worse-lighted room, produces that many years ago we instituted a careful

disease of the mind as well as the body. It inquiry into the condition of the dwellings,

provokes com])arisons, which are odious, and the efifects that the nature of the housing

A labourer cannot reasonably expect had upon the morality and intelligence of

to have the same comforts as those which the people. The result of that investigation,

men of position and wealth enjoy, but he impartially conducted, was that we came to

decidedly has good grounds for claiming that the conclusion a well-constructed and cleanly

he should have accommodation equal to that kept bothy was much more comfortable for

which is allotted to his master's pigs. In young men, and conducive to education,

many districts in all parts of Great Britain than either the farm-kitchen, or lodgings in

and Ireland good cottages are needed, and a married ploughman's house. For this

we are glad to notice that this fact is being opinion we gave facts that could not be dispu-

recognized by both landlords and tenants, ted, although they were cavilled at by some who

But good cottages cannot be erected in a desired to make capital out of sentimentality,

day — Rome was not built in that space of It is pleasing then to find, after the lapse of

time. There are legal difficulties in the way, so long a time, such a veteran as Mr

which the best-intentioned landlords, on the M'Combie confirming our views. He says :

representation of the kindest-hearted farmers — "We are daily told that the bothy system

cannot get over, without incurring serious is a degrading one I have part of

responsibilities. The landlord on an my servants in the bothy and others in the
entailed estate is not a free agent, and farm-kitchen. I have consulted with them as
cannot do with his money, even if he to which they preferred. There is a difference
had it, what he could wish. At least of opinion, but the majority prefer the bothy,
his creditors for the erection of buildings have The farm-kitchen system has been advocated
to run the risk of getting their accounts as a great improvement upon the bothy. In
settled, and farmers who build at their own this I do not agree. • In this part of the
cost must take their r>4d:«r^ of being recouped, country I would give a preference to the
which is often, to use a sporting phrase, a bothy. The servants can live more comfort-
very "off" one. It is these considerations, ably than in the farm-kitchen. It should
rather than aversion to place sufficiently com- also be remembered that bothies can be
modious buildings — not gimcrack sort of built more cheaply than cottages — an impor-
structures which are expensive and unsuitable tant consideration for those whose duty it is
— at the command of farm-labourers, which to furnish dwellings in the rural districts,
prevent so many dwellings being erected on The following are the principal clauses in
farms as there ought to be. the Bill to which we have made reference.
We are glad to notice that a Bill, to which and which, for short, can be cited for all pur-
we briefly referred last week, has been poses as ** The Farm Buildings (Scotland)
brought into Parliament to obviate in Scot- Act, 1873."

282 The Country Gentkman^s Magazim

%, If any tenant of a farm shall, after the passing of point on the application of either party ; and on pay-

this Act, erect any buildings necessary or convenient ment of the price agreed uijon or fixed as above pro-

for the use thereof for agricultural or grazing purposes vided, the proprietor of the land shall become owner

(which shall not have been erected in pursuance of a of such cottages, with a valid title thereto, as if the

specific obligation to the landlord), then all such same had been formally disponed to him, and he had

buildings shall be the property of the tenant, and shall completed a feudal title thereto,
be removable by him at any time during the currency 5. The proprietor of an entailed estate, who shall

of his lease, and it shall be in the power of the said expend any sums in paying for buildings or suitable

tenant to transfer and sell such building, or the ma- cottages under this statute may charge the fee and

tcrials thereof, to a succeeding tenant without any rents of such estates with the amount so expended, ^y

claims of damages arising to the proprietor of the farm granting in favour of any creditor who may advance

in consequence of his so doing, subject always to the the amount, bond, and disposition, in security over

proprietor's rights of pre-emption as after mentioned, such estate, or any portion thereof, with the due and

and his right to have the surface of the ground re- legal interest thereof from the date of such advance till

stored as nearly as possible to the state in which it repaid, and with corresponding penalties ; and the

was before such buildings were erected, and such sue- granting of such bond and disposition in security, or

ceeding tenant shall have the same right of property its renewal, shall not be an act of contravening any

in such buildings as the tenant who erected them. clause in the entail, or inferring any irritancy, for*

3. The proprietor of a farm may become the owner feiture, or nullity under it, and such bond and dis-
of any building erected by the tenant on the farm at position in security may be renewed and assigned from
the expiration of the lease, on giving notice in writing time to time.

to the tenant, at least three months prior to the expi- 6. At the time of granting such bond and disposi-

ration of the lease, that he desires to purchase the tion in security the granter shall produce to the

same ; and the price, failing agreement between the sheriff receipts and vouchers by the tenant or his

proprietor and tenant, shall be fixed by a valuator, representative for the sums therein contained, and on

whom the sheriff is hereby empowered and required to the sheriff being satisfied with the same, he shall

appoint on the application of either party ; and on endorse on said bond and disposition a certificate to

payment of the price agreed upon or fixed as above that effect, which shall be recorded in the appropriate

provided, the proprietor of the land shall become register along with the said bond and disposition in

owner of the building, with a valid title thereto, as if security, and thereupon it shall not be open to any

the same had been formally disponed to him, and he succeeding heir of entail, or other party pretending

had completed a feudal title thereto. interest, to question, challenge, or impugn the said

4. On a farm whereon there are not suitable cot- bond and disposition in security on any ground what-
tages for the accommodation of the farm-labourers in ever, whether it have been granted during the minority
the proportion of at least one cottage for every hun- of such objector or not ; and the sums contained in
dred arable acres comprised in the farm, the tenant such a bond and disposition in security and certificate,
may erect suitable cottages conveniently situated for including interest and penalties, shall form a charge
the farm ; and, provided he complete the same in a on an entailed estate in terms of the Act passed in
proper and substantial manner, the proprietor of the the eleventh and twelfth years of this reign, chapter
farm shall, at the expiration of the lease, be bound to thirty-six, and the whole provisions of said Act shall
pay to him for the buildings, so far as the same were be applicable to bonds and dispositions in security
required to make up the dwelling-house accommoda- over entailed estates granted under this Act,
tion to the proportion aforesaid, such sum, not ex- and renewals and assignations thereof, except that
ceeding one hundred pounds for each cottage, as, bonds and dispositions in security under this Act may
failing agreement, shall be fixed by a valuator, whom be granted and renewed without application to or
the sheriff is hereby empowered and required to ap- authority of the Court of Session.

The Country Gentlematis Magazim 283

THE GREAT QUESTION ON MEAT.

E interest in the price of meat is Preserved meats, upon which we were to

tecoming more intense every day. In some extent building our hopes as a gap-

rse of the past month, notwithstanding filler, have either declined immensely in the

I sitting of Parliament usually checks estimation of customers in this country, or

>d of letters that overflows newspaper those where it is " tinned " do not find that it

s during the time that Members are is profitable to manufacture it. The cost of the

g themselves at their shooting boxes, raw material, and the process of manufacture,

gon the blue Mediterranean, recklessly along with transport, lick off all the butter,

g Alpine heights, angling in Norwegian That we shall ever import live cattle from

or canoeing any and everywhere, Texas and Nebraska to an extent that will

►us communications on this important have any appreciable effect upon prices, we

have found insertion in the columns of cannot believe. The difficulties of transport

nes and other newspapers. Many and and the dangers from disease are too percep-

ire the suggestions made to increase tible and too imminent to permit us thinking

•ply of beef and mutton ; many of them that even a farthing per lb. saving would be

•emely impracticable ; and others have effected by the introduction of such animals,

lance of reason about them, and one and the quality of the beef would be another

seem worthy of consideration. deterrent to its use.

great fact to be noted at the outset is We are not now going to enter into

at there can be no doubt that our the question of supply from neighbouring

red flocks and herds have diminished Continental countries where disease exists

recent years. It is also more grievous not ; . we are going to insist that

r that the prospects of an increased much meat might be saved to the

of meat for next year are at present country, had properly constructed con-

ily dismal. Those who are in the veyances for stock by land and sea, with due

f attending cattle markets cannot fail appliances for feeding and watering on long

rve that a larger proportion of half-iat journeys, been introduced years ago. Mr W.

being exposed than in any year since Reid, of Granton, invented a truck which

lay be called the science of feeding seems to have fulfilled well the requirements

need — since the era of chaff-cutters and demanded, but hitherto railway authorities

)ulpers, and of " artificial " oleaginous have not taken the matter up. Their supine-

ces. Stock-owners are necessitated, ness under present circumstances should not

to their chagrin and their loss, to be allowed to continue. Mr James Odams

eir beasts in this condition, because in a very sensible letter on this subject says :

ve not the means of keeping them on — ^The whole question of home and Irish cattle

ntage. We are assured by a very high transit ought at once to engage the attention

ty that in the great grazing districts of of Parliament. I am happy to say the subject

th of Scotland the next great Christmas is under the consideration of the RoyalSociety

will shew a sad falling off in the num- for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.

;hese delicious animals, whose flesh is None cognizant of what is going on can shut

ihed on the dinner-table in holiday their eyes to the fact that the privations

Concomitantly with the decrease in cattle are daily subjected to on our railways,

ne stock, we have to record a falling and in our markets and fairs, bring on

he exports from abroad, noc alone in diseases which, with ordinary care, might be

tie and sheep, but also in dead meat averted. For example, at any of our weekly

284 The Country Gmtlemafis Magazine

markets you will find that three-fourths of the all towns where animals are exposed for sale,

animals exposed there neither touch food nor as well as at fairs and auctions, racks and

water from the time they leave home until troughs for feeding and watering should be

they reach their destination at night, a period provided,

in most cases, exceeding twelve hours, and We should be content with feeding, &c,

frequently many more. Common humanity every twelve hours, but we are quite agreed

suggests that some such regulations as that much profit to the feeder and much sav-

the following ought to be adopted. They ing to the consumer of meat would be

would be attended with advantage to effected, were the general suggestions in the

the buyer, seller, and consumer, whose letter we have quoted carried out. Before

interests are identical : — ^Animals in tran^ rushing away to far lands beyond the sea for

sit by rail should not be allowed to re- cattle, we should at least ascertain how much

main in trucks for a longer period than eight humane treatment would tend to increase

hours without feeding and watering, and in our home supplies of beef and mutton.

LA PLATA AS A FIELD FOR BRITISH FARMERS.

SEEING that so much has been said of able. He speaks of sheep-farming more
late about emigration to Brazil, it is encouragingly, however, than of any other
comfortable to be able to put before farmers pursuit, yet even of this with some important
who have formed the idea of settling in limitations. The natural passages of the
that country a truthful, and apparently dis- province of Buenos Ayres and the breed of
passionate account of its actual state, sheep as introduced and improved within the
We learn from an article which appears in last twenty years by British settlers combine
the Times, that Mr Macdonell, the Charge to make this fertile district a great wool-pro-
(V Affaires at Buenos Ayres, has forwarded ducing region ; and, in fact, the exportation
to the Foreign Office a very striking paper of this staple was much more than quadrupled
upon the loudly vaunted natural endowments between i860 and 1863. Unfortunately, the
of Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine Re- trade is not only conducted without due re-
public. Mr Macdoneirs recently published gard to the credit and profit that would
despatch on " The River Plate Republics as accrue from the export of a clean and fine
a Field for British Emigration " was composed quality of wool, but it is subject to the pro-
clearly as a confidential document, though tectionist burdens of America and other
the writer intimates to his official superior tariffs. The financial policy of the United
that, in case it should be deemed fitting to States has nearly ruined the flock-masters of
make public the contents of the Report, he the Plate, and though there has been a
is quite prepared to encounter a storm of partial revival of trade, the business of sheep-
obloquy in Buenos Ayres and throughout the farming must be reckoned among those ven-
Argentine Republic. lures on which a young man may embark
The industries with which the States on with a light heart, but which ought not to
the River Plate are associated in the popular tempt the father of a family. Still there is
mind are chiefly sheep-farming and cattle- some money to be made in this sort of under-
farming, but endeavours have been made also taking, but under peculiar conditions. Rarely
to attract foreign capital and energy into agri- is it possible for the man without any capital
culture, mining, and commerce. Mr Mac. to begin sheep-farming — though Mr Mac-
lonell examines in detail these five careers, donell refers to cases in which fhxgal and
^"'^ Dn none of them is his judgment favour- clever labourers have worked their way to a

La Plata as a Field for British Farming 285

share in an esiancia. But the ordeal is a farming nor sheep-farming is likely to attract
severe one even for the men with capital, who the labourer, and the agricultural temptations
can start at once as flockmasters, and these of La Plata have lately been most skilfully
to attain success must be either singularly and winningly laid before the British public,
adaptable or must have peculiar knowledge These promises, according to Mr Macdonell,
and training. " Few," we are told, " of the are but Dead Sea fruit. True, the soil is
English who migrate to this country at the splendidly rich, but this is only one of the
present day as would-be sheep-fanners, sue- conditions of successful tillage, not to say
ceed, or are likely to succeed, despite the fact profitable farming. On the other hand, the
thattheyhavemeans."OnthePlatethe"gentle- climate is miserably fickle, and Buenos Ayres
man-farmer " who looks on while his farm- is on the very verge of the zone of cultiva-
ing or shearing is being done for him by hired tion of the most important cereals, wheat
labour is quite out of place, and will certainly and barley. One good season out of five
make a less lucrative use of his capital than only may be counted upon for the cultiva-
if he kept it at home in Consols or railway tion of these crops. Then insect plagues
stock. But suppose even a man, energetic, are disastrously numerous, labour is costly,
industrious, a good judge of sheep and wool and the means of transit, except in a few
— what certainty can there be of financial favoured localities, are most imperfect. It is
success in a country where the tenure of land not surprising that under these ciicumstances,
i^ thoroughly unsatisfactory, where in the the agricultural colonies formed by the Ar-
constant revolutionary movements neither gentine Government have mostly proved
the Government nor the rebel troops spare signal failures. But in truth, success was not
the property of settlers ; where foreigners are to be hoped for, even though the conditions
regarded with unreasoning jealousy, and had been more promising. The system of farm-
where the most atrocious crimes escape ing out the colonies to contractors who have
punishment ? On this last point it may be induced settlers to enter into disadvantageous
enough to note that murders in England agreements, by which, after doing the rough
amount annually to about i for 178,000 work of clearing and turning up the land,
inhabitants, while official returns reckon them they have been ousted after a few years from
in the Argentine Republic at the rate of i the improved holdings, could not fail to bring
for every 900 of the population. down ultimate retribution. The unsettled
Such being the disadvantages under which character of the Government, the ferocity and
the most prosperous industry of the country predatory habits of the Indians, the incapacity
is conducted, Mr Macdonell proceeds to point of the law to punish crime, fill up the back-
out how the other careers open to the immi- ground of the picture presented by Mr Mac-
grant are subject to the same drawbacks, donell in colours sufficiently gloomy. Mining
while in other respects less promising. In industry, everywhere a sort of lottery, and
cattle-farming very few but the natives seem commerce are exposed to the same hazards
to succeed. The unequalled skill of the as the rest, but stand at a less disadvantage
Gaucho in horsemanship, and in the use of compared with other countries. Those, how-
the lasso, gives him the superiority over any ever, who think of entering on sheep-farming
European in the management of wild cattle, or cattle-farming, or agriculture in the States
Yet even the natives find it a precarious of La Plata will do well to weigh Mr Mac-
calling, and the cattle-farmers think them- donelFs evidence before making up their
selves lucky when they make a profit two minds. His report is hardly more favourable
years running, and make a loss only the third to La Plata than the warning published by
year. Here obviously there is little field for the Emigration Commissioners against the
the small capitalist from England, still less emigration of agricultural labourers to the
for tlie English labourer. But neither cattle- neighbouring Paraguay.

286 Tite Country Centletnan's Magazine

^antiom ^its.

EFFECTS OF COLD ON MILCH COWS. the day from one to two pints. We

AN American scientific journal has the ^^^^ ™to vessels and aUowed to

following remarks upon the above ^^^ ^°^^ covered m the warm bam,

subject : temperature raised several degrees, a

The extreme sensitiveness of the mam- P^^ should be adopted by all thrifty f

mary functions in cows to the influences of I^ ^ould undoubtedly pay well to

cold, fatigue, excitement, unpleasant odours, '^a™ **»« ^^'s''' ^"' *'« is attende

&c, is indeed surprising. We have been considerable inconvenience where larg

greatly interested in observing the effects of "« ^^^P^ ^^^^^ steam apparatus ii

cold upon the milk secretion as seen in the '^^ influence of a cold current of i

herd of cows upon the farm at Lakeside. ^°^^ dnnkmg water, upon cows and i

During the past summer, in the hot days '^°^ °^ ^ transient nature, it extend

of July and August, the animals resorted to ^°'^g«'' P«"0<^ ^'^^ ^ ^^ ^"^ * ^^^"^

the lake to drink, and, after slaking their ^n^ animals are ruined by careless e:

thirst, they would wade mto the water, and ^"^'^ y^"' ^"<* self-interest and a fe<

remain sometimes an hour or two, with the l»»mamty should prompt all cow ow

legs half immersed. This habit it was found diligently watch over their welfareandc

invariably diminished the flow of milk at night, ^^^^ m mUk are often injured b

and in order to learn the extent of the diminu- ^"^'"g ^™™ P^^^^ by heedless be

tion, careful observations were made. It ""thinking men. They should ne

was ascertained that standing in the water an """^^^ '"^'^'^ *^'^" * ^^^''' GenUene

hour diminished the flow to the amount of ''indness of conduct toward cows

eight or ten quarts in a herd of thirteen cows, wonderful influence upon the milk j

The loss was so great that whenever they re- ^''° "P°" ^l'^ P''°g^"y ^^ ^'^^ ^'^^•

sorted to the water they were driven away to tampered irascible man ought neve,

the pasture at once. We have learned Uiat allowed m a cow stable. The right

from simply turning the herd into the yard P'''*^^^ m charge of a herd of twen

upon a cold day in winter, and allowing them ^'^'*='^ ^^""^ ^^^ ^^^ly managed will

to remain fifteen minutes, the flow of milk month raise the lacteal products, so thai

was diminished to a serious extent, and con- ^^''^^^^ cash receipts will pay wage&

sequently the animals are not allowed to leave sUtement has beenverified more than
the warm stable during the entire winter, ex-

cept for a brief period upon warm, sunshiny fattening chickens.

days. Water is brought directly from a well The Boston Journal of Chcmisir

into the barn 3 and the drinking vessels arc directions for fattening chickens. <

arranged so that the animals have to oats, it says, may be an excellent

move but a step or two to supply their for fattening, but we are at a 1

wants. The nature of a water supply, and understand why a change of feed tc

the conveniences of access, are the most im- thing else would not promote appet

portant points in the management of milch result favourably. The great obje<

cows. A draught of ice-cold water, taken by have the fowls eat an abundance oi

1 cow in winter, cuts short the milk yield tor thing which will fatten, and as there ai

Random Notes

278

3 besides oats which will do this, it
i seem an improvement to the plan to
late occasionally — certainly in case the

shewed any symptoms of being cloyed

nfinement to a steady diet

is hopeless to attempt to fatten chickens

they are at liberty. They must be put
)roper coop ; and this, like most other
ry appurtenances, need not be expensive,
.tten twelve fowls, a coop may be 3 ft

I ft. 6 in. high, and i ft 6 in. deep,

entirely of bars. No part solid — neither
sides, nor bottom. Discretion must be
according to the size of the chickens put
They do not want room ; indeed, the
r they are kept the better, provided they
11 stand up at the same time. Care must
.ken to put up such as have been accus-
d to be together, or they will fight It
s quarrelsome, it is better to remove it
ce, as, like other bad examples, it soon
imitators. A diseased chicken should
>e put up.

le food should be ground oats, and may
r be put up in a trough or on a flat
i running along the front of the coop.
ay be mixed with water or milk — the

is better. It should be well soaked,
ing a pulp as loose as can be, provided
es not run off the board. They must be
fed three or four times a day — the first
as soon after daybreak as may be pos-
or convenient, and then at intervals of
hours. Each meal should be as much
no more than they can eat up clean.
1 they have done feeding, the board
Id be wiped, and some gravel may be
.d. It causes them to feed and thrive,
ter a fortnight of this treatment you will
good fat fowls. If, however, there are
ive or six to be fatted, they must not
as much room as though there were
e. Nothing is easier than to allow

the proper space, as it is only neces-
to have two or three pieces of wood to
between the bars and form a partition.

may also serve when fowls are up to
ent degrees of fatness. This requires
tion, or fowls will not keep fat and

As soon as the fowl is sufficiently fatted, it
must be killed; otherwise it will not get fatter,
but will lose flesh. If fowls are intended for
market, of course they are or may be all
fatted at once ; but if for home consumption,
it is better to put them up at such intervals
as will suit the time when they will be re-
quired for the table.

When the time arrives for killing, whether
they are meant for market or otherwise, they
should be fasted without food or water for
twelve or fifteen hours. This enables them
to be kept for some time after being killed
even in hot weather.

CARBOLIC ACID.

On the subject of the cure of lur.g disease
the Field has received a letter from the
writer of the following paper, on the use of car-
bolic acid, which was published in the Times of
Natal:—

Some months ago I received an account of some ex-
periments undertaken by the Inspector- General of
Cattle for Ireland upon the treatment of the cattle
disease by him with carbolic acid. The method by
him adopted was to saturate old sacks with a solution
of carbolic acid, and tie up the cattle in such a posi-
tion that they are compelled to inhale the fumes of
the acid. Feeling that the cattle disease of England
was identical with the disease we here designate lung
sickness, and seeing the want of houses in
which to tie up the cattle affected would in-
capacitate the farmers of Natal from pursu-
ing the same course, I reasoned that if the inhalation
of the acid cured in Ireland, why should not its in-
ternal use cure here ? Shortly after I had read the
report referred to, I brought the matter before the
members of our Farmers* Club, where it was dis-
cussed at great length. A resolution was passed at
that meeting that if any of the members should be
unfortunate enough to have the lung-sickness break
out in his troop, he should give the carbolic acid a fair
trial, so as to be in a position to report to the Club
the results of the trial. It unfortunately fell to the
lot of our worthy president, Mr B. J. Stead, to have
to try the same, and the result of these experiments
has proved that by the use of carbolic acid in the
manner hereinafter set forth we are able to cure this
fell disease. At the same time we do not put the
acid forth as an infallible remedy, but simply state the
resiilts of the treatment which with us has proved en-
tirely successful. The number of cattle treated by Mr
Stead was thirty head, and not one of these died,
although they were all very bad in the disease before
treatment. He also found that the administration of
the acid promoted appetite, as several of the cattle

288

The Country Gmtleniaiis Magazifie

had given up taking food before the medicine was ad-
ministered, but after the second dose it was found that
the animals began to eat and chew the cud. After the
cure was effected, the cattle have been found to thrive
remarkably well, and now (about four months after
the disease was cured) the cattle are looking as well,
if not better than the rest of the troop. There need
be no doubt of the fact that the cattle were lung-sick,
as cattle both died of the disease in the troop, and
others were shot to obtain lung for inoculating out of
the same troop. It must also be borne in mind
that the thirty head treated with carbolic
acid were not inoculated. Another instance I will
give, that proves that even in the last stages of ihe
disease the carbolic acid will effect a cure. Another
of our members, Mr S. Stead, had a cow so bad of
the lung-sickness, that she had lain down apparently
to die ; while lying in the shed, the acid was ad-
ministered to her, and by the time she had taken three
doses she began to eat, and now has come back to her
milk, and is to all appearance as healthy as ever she
was in her life. In this case two doses a day were ad-
ministered for some length of time. I think it right
to state that some of the cattle treated have yet a short
cough at times, but that does not seem to render
them any the less able to work, or hinder them from
thriving.

And now for the manner of administering the
remedy. It is given in doses as follows : thirty drops
of crystallized carbolic acid (white) is put into a bottle
containing four ounces of linseed oil (raw), and given
twice a day, for about six days, or less, as the course
of the disease indicates, and give a dose of the same
once a week, for three or four weeks after, to com-
l)icle the cure. For yearling stock give twenty drops
of the acid in the same amount of oil. We consider
it a duty we owe to the colony to make the foregoing
experiments known to our brother farmers, and we
hope that those who are unfortunate enough to have

their cattle affected with the lung-sickness will tr
and we believe that, if persevered in, the result
be the same as that above recorded.

W. H. Fento;

MrFenton, in the letter which accompanie<
printed paper, expressed himself, in referenc
the curative effects of carbolic acid, in terms wl
are too sanguine by far, as he will ultima
discover. He also fell into an error in suppo
that there is anything novel in the employn
of the agent in the treatment of pleuro-pi
monia.

For many years carbolic acid has been
ployed with enough success to warrant its <
tinued use in the treatment of lung disease,
other maladies of stock which are contagiou
their nature, or are associated with a septic s
of the blood or the secretions derived.

Some time ago, says the Field^ we publis
an article by Mr Priestman on the use of
drug in pleuro-pneumonia. Many of the exp
ments carried on by Mr Priestman were ui
our observation, and the result satisfied us
carbolic acid has some influence in arresting
course of the disease ; but we are compelle
caution stock-owners, at home and abr
against placing any reliance on the agent
specific, to the exclusion of the more impor
preventive measures, isolation and slaughter

Our correspondent proposes to give cer
reasons for the opinion which he entertains, '
the lung disease of cattle is identical with zi
plague. We can only assure him that no amc
of reasoning will alter the undoubted fact
the two affections are quite distinct.

Th4 Cotmtfy QmtUmatis MagoMtne

389

%\u Jfamur's ^ssm.

WEEDS AND HURTFUL PLANTS.
By Andrew Murray, F.L.S.

NO. II.

I ANUNCULUS ACRIS — (Common
». Buttercup, Upright Meadow Corwfoot),
his is perhaps the commonest species of
:ercup. It is found in meadows and
ure lands all over Europe. It grows up-
t, with a stem about 3 feet high, and

•ers in June, July, and August. Its flower
right yellow, and it has its leaves divided
i four large lobes, besides other smaller
5. This is the original of the common
ow Bachelor's Buttons of oui garden,

VOL, X.

which is merely double Buttercup. The
white Bachelors' Button is a double variety
of a Continental white species (Ranunculus
aconitifolius). The R. acris is extremely
acrid, so much so that Curtis says that even
pulling up the plant and carrying it a little
way has produced inflammation of the hand.
It may therefore be easily imagined that if
eaten it will not agree well with the cattle
eating it. But its acridity will generally
prevent much being swallowed. It is when
cattle, after having been long kept in the
house, are turned loose for the first time in
summer into a luxuriant grass field mixed
with Buttercups that accidents from it are
most likely to take place. Moderation under
such circumstances is cot to be expected
from brute beasts, and the sensible farmer,
even, although there were not a Buttercup in
his field, would not give his cattle an un-
limited run — but after a moderate period for
enjoyment wiU turn them out again. This
is the species of whose immense numbers we
have already spoken. From what we have
said, it may easily be imagined how much a
plant of this kind is likely to take out of the
ground, and as the whole of this growth is
useless, what a serious drain it must be on
the natural fertileingredientsof thesoil,or on
the artificial substitutes with which the fanner
has enriched it. Where the number of
Buttercups is not very great, and it is not
wished to take up the Grass, the only remedy
is grubbing them up individually. In the
case of such multitudes as we have described,
this, of course, is impossible. The grass
must be taken up. There is nothing for it

2go

Tiu Country Gentleman's Magazine

bul to plough up the field and carefully to
weed the sods by harrowing and breaking up
and re-ploughing, and perhaps by handpick-
ing and burning them afterwards.

R. repens (the Creeping Buttercup). — This
is the Cuckoo-Bud of Shakespeare. It has all
the aspect of the Meadow Buttercup (R,
acris), but with a stem only half its height,
the leaves divided into three large lobes in-
stead of four, and with runners shooting from
the radical leaves and rooting like Strawberries
at each joint — hence few plants are more
difficult to eradicate. With the last species it is
sufficient to get up the root, and you have done
with it. With this species every joint has
individual life — if an inch of one of them be
left, you are in a few months just where you

smaller and more hairy. It is distingu
from all the other British species e
the Hairy Ranunculus (R. hirsutus) b]
sepals becoming closely reflexed as so
the flower is open. The stem is s«
above a foot high, and the root is shor
round like a bulb, and solid with few
and no offsets. It forms a new bulb foi
year every year on the top of the old oi
that practically it is perennial. The i
plant is acrid. The juice of the hei

It is especially troublesome in ricli
soils, for there the rootlets more easily pene-
trate, and the new plants more rapidly in-
crease. In fact, when it once establishes
itself in a good soil, it is scarcely possible to
get rid of it. One consolation is that it is
not so acrid as the Meadow Buttercup, so that
it can be eaten by cattle without injury, but it
is an unprofitable weed like all its congeners,
and ought to be eradicated if possible.
Long^;ontinued search for it, and careful
cleaning and removal of it extending over
many years will do much,

R. biilbosiis {Bulbous Crowfoot). — This is
like the Meadow Buttercup(R,aais) but much

stimulates and produces sneez ng and
recorded that pigs are so fond of the
that they will plough a coarse common al
to get at them. It may be so, but we si
prefer our pigs to plough for something
It is true that when boiled the roots be
so mild as to be eatable, but we do nol
that the pigs had them boiled ; but v.
read that when unboiled and fresh the
are so corrosive as to raise a blister as n
as cantharides, and with less pain. It '
have been satisfactory had the first star
this tale seen whether there was anj
else on the coarse common which tht

Weeds and Hurtful Plants

291

have been grubbing for, and, even sup-
j that there was not, that he had made
hat they had actually eaten what they
urned up. In any view, we are sure it
. be a wise precaution on the part of
ne who has plenty of roots of this Ranun-

and is disposed to utilize them by
: them to his pigs, not to try to save
the trouble of ploughing them up, but
them to do it for themselves. If there

mistake in the matter, it will be best

them make it themselves. The mode
aling with this species should be the
as that of the preceding. It is common
gland and Ireland, and in the south of
,nd, and extends over the greater part
rope, but disappears in the north-east,
;carcely penetrates into Western Asia.
; been naturalized in North America.
hirsiitus — R. philonotis, Ehrh. — (Hairy
*oot). — An annual similar to R.bulbosus,
vithoitt the bulb at the root which

I'lj. 8.— Ranunculus
:terizes that plant. It is from 6 inches

foot high, hairy. lis flower is pale
t, and the carpels are marked with a

of minute tubercles.

is not common, but is generally dlslrj-

over England and Scotland, and is also

rarely met with in Ireland, It does

not occur in the more northern parts of
Europe, although it is met with in the south
of Sweden ; but it is spread over most of the
rest of Europe.

It is usually met with in com fields, and
we have seen a top-dressing of wood or coal
ashes recommended as sure to exterminate it;
but we confess that we cannot see why snch
a top-dressing should do so. We should
rather expect that, like the com amongst
which it grows, it would start away with fresh
vigour after receiving it. We have also seen
it stated that it may be surely eradicated by
preventing it from perfecting its seeds — a
truth " which nobody can deny." But how
the seeds are to be prevented ripening we
are not told — by cutring them down, we pre-
sume. But the plant flowers in summer and
ripens in autumn, at the same time as the
grain crops among which it grows ; and we
do not suppose any ore would propose to cut
down the crop immaturelyin order to prevent
the weed maturing its seed. Careful cleaning
of our grain is the true remedy for this, as
well as most other annual weeds*which intro-
duce themselves into our grain crops ; and
the means of doing so has been so perfected
now that there is no apology for a farmer
turning out ill-cleaned seed, or by conse-
quence for his having such weeds as this
common in his fields.

Ranii/Kiiliis arvtiisis (the Corn Crowfoot)
— Thisspecies is characterized by Bentham as
a common and troublesome cornfield weed
in Central and Southern Europe and West
Cental Asia ; and very abundant in slovenly
farms in Southern England, but decreasing
northwards.

It is an annual, erect and branching, gla-
brous, and very different from the other But-
tercups in appearance. It is of a pale green
colour with small yellow flowers. The seeds
are few, flattened, and the carpels are covered .
on both sides with conical prickles, the mar-
ginal ones being longest and largest.

The juice of this species, like that of the
others, is acrid. We read that an ounce of it
given to a dog has killed him in three days —
the stomach being inflamed, corroded and
blistered ; and M. Brugnon relates that 3

The Country GmtUmatCs Magazine

ounces of its juice killed a dog in four minutes.
One would think that a plant of such viru-
lence would not need much hedging in, but
Sir James Edward Smith states that though it

Fig. 5.'-RRauncu1us BTvtnsis.

is veiy acrid ^nd dangerous to cattle, they are
said to eat it greedily, and it was the fact of
several sheep having been killed by eating it
near Turin which first led to an examination
of its effects. Colic with inflammation of the
stomach were the marked results, which
effects were best removed by pouring vinegar
down the animals' throats on the homreo'
pathic principle apparently — that similia
curantur similibus. The poison seemed to
act by ulceration, as black spots were found
in the stomach of the sheep, and by para-
lyzing the nerves of the stomach, probably a
result of the ulceration.

Being an annual, we might suppose that
this species would be more amenable to our
control than the )>erennial species in our
pastures. And so it is, if we take the proper
means to get rid of it, but if we fail to do so
the brevity of its life does not shorten the
duration of the species ; its mode of life
secures its continuance. Growing in corn-
fields, it is sown with the com, flowers,
and ripens witli it, is reaped, stored, and
hrashed with it, and its seed again sent
lut with it to be sown in some other

field the following year. In ianns wl
it is abundant, and where the grain is
perfectly cleaned, its seeds communical
bitterness to the meal and bread made froi

The remedy for this weed is very obvi
If the grain is properly winnowed and des
there will soon be an end of it So lonj
it prevails, however, the farmer should
careful what he does with his chaflTand
nowings. By giving them to his cattle
may expose them to damage. As, 1
ever, boiling seems to remove the :
quality from the roots and leaves of c
species, it may be the same with this spe
It is fair matter for experiment to see whf
it is so or not, and in that case the chai^
might be mixed and boiled with the cow
pigs' meal with impunity.

R.ficaria (Lesser Celandine or File won
This is a very common weed, growing
fields, pastures, and waste places througl
Europe and Western Asia. Being acri
has been used by primitive people for n
cinal purposes. Its most remarkable chan

Ranunculus ficaria.

is the presence of a number of oblonj
cylindrical little fleshy tubers or tube
growing round the root and among
fibres (whence its vulgar name), wl
when laid bare by rain have been
posed to have some resemblance to pii
of wheat, and have been made the fou

Weeds and Hurtful Plants

293

tion of stories, in old times, of showers of
wheat. These are renewed from year to
year. The leaves are low, heart-shaped,
thick, and shining, and when young are
boiled by the common people in some parts
of Sweden and eaten as greens — another
proof that boiling may make the whole tribe
safe and wholesome. The flower stems are
scarcely longer than the leaves, and bear only
a single, bright, glossy yellow flower, and a
yellowish green calyx. It is one of the earliest
of our spring-Sowering plants, and is attrac-
tive not only from that fact, hut from its own
lively green leaves and bright yellow petals.
Its seeds are usually abortive, but the plant
does not need this mode of increase, their
absence being compensated by the remarkable
propagative power of the tuberous roots. It
also produces bulbs in the axils of its leaves,
which grow, on the leaves dropping off
With these means of increase it is easy to
understand how it should maintain its ground
throughout the country. The treatment re-
commended for the extirpation of the pasture
species of Buttercup is also the best which
can be adopted for getting rid of this.

J?, sceleratus {Celery- leaved Crowioot). —
This plant flourishes only in wet and muddy
ditches, or on the margins of pools, and so
only touches the farmer through his fences —
but no one will dispute its importance. It
fillsupthe ditch, dilapidates its sides, obstructs
the flow of water, interferes with the free
flow of the drains, and, consequently, should
never be tolerated. The Celery-leaved
Crowfoot, although stout, scarcely reaches
a foot in height. It is much branched, and
has a thick, hollow stem. The flowera are
small, and pale yellow, and the seeds very
small and numerous, in an oblong head. It
is an annual. It extends over the whole
of Europe, Siberia and Central Asia, the
Crimea, Levant, Cochin China, and India,
and has also been introduced into North
America. It is common enough in suitable
localities throughoutGreatBritain andlreland.
It is one of the most acrid of all the Ra-
nunculi. The juice is so virulent that if
slightly rubbed on the skin it reddens it : if
the application is coatinned it causes a blister

and a sore. This dispoution to cause a sore
after the blister is characteristic of all the
species, and is a serious objection to u»ng
any of them as vesicants. In old times,
when vagrancy flourished, and coarser means
of attracting attention and moving com-
passion were more common than now,
strolling beggars used to take the leaves
of this species, which was then ready
to their hand in every ditch alongside oi
which they might make their halt, and by
rubbing it on their limbs, purposely make
hideous sores with it, which they exhibited

Fig. 7-

gratuitously to the public. We do not know
whether the active principle to which the
blistering property is due has yet been made
out; itwasnotsoafewyearsago. Itisneither
an acid nor an alkali. The acrid quality is
found in great intensity in water distilled from
this species, and as it cools it deposits crystals
which are very insoluble, and have the curious
property of being inflammable. Krapf found
that two drops of the juice or a bit of a leaf w
flower produced acute pain in the stomadi
and a burning in the throat ; but when diluted
it became innocuous, so that % a drachm in
6 ounces of water might be taken without
danger. But with all this virulence, if the
plant be boiled and the water thrown of^

394

The Country Gtntletnaris Magazine

the vegetable is wholesome, and the shepherds
of Wallachia use it for food. We should note,
before leaving the subject of tlieir acriility,
that there is one species, R. auricomus or
Goldielocks, which is not acrid, and is conse-
quently called Sweet Wood Crowfoot It
does not like moist soil, and grows in woods
and dry places. Its petals are yellow and
stamens purple. The present species being
an annual, and growing in ditches and not
mixing with any other crop, can easily be
eradicated by mowing or. cutting off the
flowers towards the end of summer before
the seeds have ripened.

R. fiammula (Lesser Spearwort — Marsh
Crowfoot). — This is another of the moisture-
loving species, occurring in marshes and wet

Fig. 8.— Ranunculus flammula.

pastures, and on the borders of lakes, ponds,
and ditches. It belongs to a section of the
genus wbicli has the leaves glabrous, ovate-

lanceolate, and linear. It varies greatly in
size, and in gravelly soils degenerates into a
small trailing and dwarf habit It is not
long-lived, often appearing as an annual, but
more generally as a perennial ot short durar
tion.

Ltghtfoot mentions in his "Flora Scotica"
that it is used in many parts of the Highlands
to raise blisters. For Uiis purpose the leaves
are well bruised in a mortar, and applied in
one or more limpet shells to the place where
the blisters arc to be raised. This, says he,
is the practice in the Isle of Skye and other
places upon the coast.

Distilled it is said to make an emetic more
instantaneous and less offensive than sulphate
of zinc. If eaten it is very injurious. It is
not nearly so difficult to be got rid of as the
other species of which we have spoken. Its
appearance may always be set down as proof
that the soil needs draining — and droning ia
always sure to extirpate it

This species has a wide geographical dis-
tribution. It is common throughout Europe,
except perhaps in the south, and extends all
over the North of Asia, and also passes into
North America.

There are other water-loving species, R.
aquatilis and R. hederaceus, both of which
have white flowers. R. lingua and R. ophio-
glossifolius, which, like R. flamraula, have
not the leaves divided ; but they require more
water than is usually to be met with to entide
them to a place here as weeds. They either
live in ponds or watery marshes, or are
not common, or may come under the general
head of marsh plants, to get rid of which the
place where they grow must be drained. We
therefore here cease our enumeration of Ra-
nunculi as weeds, and pass on to another
genus.

The Country Gentleman's Magazine . 295

%\vt (Dlb Jfarmer's ^te-faok.

THE great question of the day for all of us, found in the Isle of Wight But of course it
so far as I can see from the papeis,is that must be some time before these fields either of
of coal. I should prefer to put the matter as peat or coal can be worked in a manner to
one of fuel, which has a wider signification, influence the present enormous price of firing.
Bless you, coal is not the only material we can In the meantime I think it worthy of my while
bum ; therefore the colliers ought not to be so to recommend a method of economizing fuel
haughty as they arc, and refuse to bring out of which I have seen in Germany. I have often
the earth at fair wages that which the people so been struck with the frugality of the German
essentially require. It concerns us all, ttis coal people. They could make ends meet in house-
question does. You town's folk suffer no more hold matters where our English folks would
from the rise than we farmers do. Mark you, we have a sad gap to encounter. It is that we
are different now from what we used to be. In should introduce into our houses German stoves,
my young days there were no steam-engines on Their use would save a wonderful amount of
the farm, and the old flail did the work that the fuel, and such saving in towns and villages and
steam-engine now does, in conjunction with farm-houses would bring down the price of coals
other grand inventions with which manufacturers used in manufacturing iron and agricultural im«
have supplied us. I can remember when coals plements therefrom, and consequently make every
were comparatively little used, peat in country description of machine on the farm cheaper. lean-
districts suiting all the purposes required. What not do better than give the description of a Ger-
a quantity of this article is to be found in our man stove from a correspondent of my favourite
land ; what a world* of saving would be effected newspaper, the Times, I read it the other day :
if it could just be put into portable form. And " The modem German stove is covered with
not only that, but its cutting would put a vast white china or porcelain tiles. It has in front a
area of land into a cultivatable state. Why, I wide but shallow grate, capable of containing
read the other day, in a new paper called sufficient fire to delight the eye and warm any
Iron (which some unknown friend was person within a few feet of it, while thorough
kind enough to send me — he can continue warmth for the whole room is provided by the
sending it if he likes and I shall be grateful), that stove fire behind it. This is lighted at a little
the deposits of peat in this country extend over door in the side of the stove, and the smoke
6,000,000 acres of area, that the estimated total from it passes through the same channel as that
quantity of peat in a form condensed by ma- of the fire in front— namely, a short pipe out of
chinery, is 2 1,000,000,000 of tons, which, of course, sight behind the stove, conmiunicating with the
would supply, as the writer says, 21,000,000 tons chimney in the wall. The heat ascending into
per annum for loob years. These are figures the upper part of the stove is thence dispersed
that an old fogey like me cannot well grasps but into the room. As all who have wintered in
the general tenure of them I gather is that fuel North Germany will know, a stove is lighted in
would be greatly cheaper if peat could be the morning and kept vigorously burning for an
utilized. This I am told can be well done by hour, after which no more fuel is supplied ; the
machinery patented by Clayton, Son, and How- doors of the stove are shut, and the heat thus
lett. Good coal has been struck in Sutherland- produced will last for many hours. I have
shire, and the duke of that coimty and name is myself proved that in an apartment measuring
going to make use of it and the shale imderly- nearly 30 feet by 18 feet an agreeable atmos-
ing, I am told, to clear off the moss-land on his phere of 65 deg. Fahrenheit could be easily
estates, and make the turf available for loco- maintained, while a Reaumur outside the
motives, and for household purposes. And window measured i^}i deg. of frost The
following upon the Sutherlandshire discovery modem stoves are made very ornamental, and
I notice that great deposits of coal have been are provided with a mantel-shelf at the u:

296

height from the ground, on which a mirror and
various ornaments can be placed, and, with an
ordinary fender before the Are in front, present
all the appearance of 'English comfort,' backed
by a substantial reality, which, in too many of
our homes, exists only in ideal"

After reading over this long scrawl, I am
tempted to think, as some north country song
says, that " auld hearts grow young again."
Dear me, it seems as if J had been altogether
forgetting my age, and writing to some paper in
the days when I was a stripling, and entered
heartily into the questions of the day. Never
mind, as Douglas Jerrold somewhere says, " if
the heart of the owner wills it, the heart is ever
young."

To return to my Note-Book. In the course
of my experience, I was stfuek with, and jotted
down at the time, what 1 considered a capital
arrangement for ringing a bull. Of course all
my readers are aware that the best bred bulls
are rather dangerous to handle without the pre-
caution of a rope and ring. Sometimes, even,
with these safety appurtenances, 1 have seen
some drag their guides and attempt to gore by-
standers at exhibitions. However, a ring in the
nose is the best thing that has yet been devised
for controlling the ferocious force of bulls. Clamp
rings, having a couple of knobs which press into
the nostrils, are by no means to be recom-
' mended, except for occasional use. It is best,
always, before the bull is a year old, to put a
good stout copper ring through the cartilage of
the nose.' This wiU last him his lifetime, and if
he is fastened to his stall with a good sound
chain snapping into it, we may be sure of his
making no serious attempt to break loose.

The Country Gentlematis Magaxitu

carrying a silver-plated shield reaching from the
upper part of the point to the handle.

The sheath being on the da^er when fbe
operation is performed, the whole is easily
pushed through the nose, the sharp point of the
dagger piercing the nostril with so littie pain
that one man can easily hold the head stilL
The dagger is then withdrawn, leaving the
sheath iu the hole. The ring is then inserted
into the end of the sheath, which is slowly with-
drawn, leaving the ring in place. I here figure
the trochar with its cannula or sheath. This is
then closed and fastened with a screw. These
rings should be so well made that both the tunge

Trochar and Sheath.
When taken out for service he can be safely
handled at pleasure. The old-fashioned plan of
burning a hole in the nose with a hot iron is
cruel and difficult. I long ago adopted for this
work the use of the trochar, a surgical instru-
ment similar to that used for " tapping " in
dropsy and for " hoove " in cows. It is a sharp-
xt^itnd, round dagger (the point three-sided),

How Ihe openiiioQ of ringing is perfonned.

and the screw should be perfectly smooth, and
so fitting as to take a practised eye to notice the
joining. The ring turns freely round in the in-
cision, which having been made with a three-
cornered cut, will be more sensitive against a
pull than the smooth-burned hole. Indeed, it
is sometimes necessary, with the latter cruel
operation, to take the ring out after a time and
resort again to burning, in order to make the
cartilage sufficiently sensitive for the ring to be
effective in managing the animaL I give here
an engraving shewing the manner in which the
ringing is performed.

1 cannot say that I care much for the look of
the chap that is holding the animal, but that's
just his likeness as taken from my Note-Book,
Even in my old days I find that nature repre-
sented by photography does not make every-
body as good-looking as they wish to be.

The Albany Cultivator and Country Genlle-
inan is a paper I have long been in the habit of
reading and admiring. It contains a great deal
of useful information for agriculturists in what I
may be permitted to call a young country, and
much that is suggestive to thefarmers who belong
to .he old. I was shocked when mj old friend

Tilt OldParmafi Note-Btxik

came to me the other day garnished in the
trappings of woe ; I was still more dismayed
when I found the cause of the sorrowing borders
— the death of the senior editor and proprietor
of the paper, Mr Luther Tucker. Such deaths
in the profession in which you belong come
home keenly to an old man. Mr Tucker had but
attained his threescore years and ten — that age
I shall never see again. So long ago as 1831, Mr
Tucker, as his biographer says, "was struck
with the backwardness of our [American] agri-
culture, the lack of intercommunication among
our farmers, the tendencies of all prevailing
practice towards the deterioration of the soil, the
almost universal absence of agricultural reading."
He started the Genesee Farmer, which was
subsequently amalgamated with the Cultivator,
and Mr Tucker became the head in 1840, and
so continued to the end of his life. He did a
great deal for agriculture, and he did it in this
way, according to the sympathizing recorder of
his death : —

ir the general chancier (if out >ericul(ure wm at ■
low point, he bad alui seen and marked iiutaDces, in
his native Sutc and elsewhere, of faimeis of unusual
ugacity, whose example, little knnwn or heeded, even
at home, was bounded akogether there, and who, with
a wiser economy for themselves, were keeping up the
fertility of their land, or sending out producli from
their dairies of higher quality, or raising grain ot
superior kinds and cleanness, or grazing their stock
more successrully — so that any general emulation of
their course must add largely to the present and future
resources of the country. And his aim, in a paper for
the practical benefit of farmers, was primarily to elicit
from such other farmers, the details of their eiperi-
ence and modes of practice, and to bring their example,
so to speak, within the personal knowledge of his
readers — looking to what had been accomplished ot
was actually going on among the most intelligent and
enterprising, for guidance as to what mif;Al or should
be done, rather than to scientific investigation or the
theories of the closet.

That those who have the conduct of the Cul-
tivator now may follow worthily in his footsteps,
is the sincere wish of the Old Farmer.

Dear me, what unprofitable concerns these
Guano companies, Native and Foreign, are
turning out ! Not any of them appears to be
in a prosperous condition, and some of them seem
to me in a very bad way indeed ; in fact, so
bad that I think I might safely call them rotten.
How I was pressed to take shares in some of
them, and when I saw them going up week after
week until they were at a premium of 100 and
300 per cent, 1 began to think I twt,ra''sill)r"

in my old days for not putting my name down
for 50 or 100 at the beginning. But I alwayi
had a great aversion to speculation, and now I
thank my stars for the feeling, aa otherwise I
could not have resisted the seductive proposal!
put before me. Had I listened to the voices of
the charmers, my grey hairs must have gOM
dawn with sorrow to the grave.

Mushroom Companies not being a pleasant

theme, I leave them alone, and will now tell my
friends of a wonderful pig I once saw, and I can
tell them what is stranger still, tbat I saw one in
Epping Forest not long ago, that seemed very
little removed from this Abyssinian Wart-
hog which 1 figure below. Who could have
thought that so near Smithfield we should have
found animals of this kind. But it is unmis-
takably true. The Abyssinian Wart-hogs have
the same general appearance as the domesticated
ones, but differ in the arrangement of their
teeth. They have a very heavy look, and their
uncouth appearance is enhanced by the small
siie of their eyes and their very large ears, which

Wart Hog.
are erect. A marked characteristic, and one
which gives tbem their common name is a
warty appendage or tubercle attached below
each eye. There are some four species known,
all natives of Africa, and all having these pe-
culiar appendages upon each side of the head.
They have remarkably long bristles along the
upper part of the neck and back, which serve
to increase the wild aspect of the animal In
their native state the wart-hogs are exceedingly
ferocious, and I do not know of any attempts
at domesticating them. It may be that if placed
where their wants were provided for, they
would, like the wild hog of Europe, lose
their intractability and become usefuL I
do not know that these African animals possess
any desirable qualities that should lead to their

298 The Country Gentleman's Magasitu

Jomesiication, but this case is no more un- they are many. A conunon belief obtains that

promising than was that of the originals of our colls are often spoilt by too much com |

valued breeds. It cannot be supposed that indeed I have been advised by well-meaning
aK the animals likely to be useful to man have friends to that effect, I would rather have ray
yet been brought under domestication. I own experience, however, than anybody's ad-
hope to see some day in this country a Society vice. That experience tells me that extra colts
of Acclimatization, which shall test under do- may be raised with extra care. If I fastened a
mestication all animals that promise useful- yearling in a box or a stall, and kept him with'
ness, whether for their flesh or their coverings, out exercise all winter, I should expect his legs
I commend this picture to Mr Darwin, taken in to fill and " stock j " but I should attribute the
conjunction with a cut of Mr Eden's " Prince disease to its proper cause, and not to the oats.
Charlie," which I recently saw in The Country In conclusion I would say, that at intervals
Gentleman's Magazine. They might throw give sheaf oats in lieu of hay, and during very
further light on the Origin of Species. cold weather an occasional feed of com meal,

Just now when there is so much talk about the

scarcity and the degeneracy of horses, in which Another contrivance I have seen, intended to

I hardly believe, it will not be out of place to contribute to the comfort of the horse, and, in

give a plan I have found successful in the feed- «n<^ sense, to its support, is an improved stock-

ingofcolts. I give colts as many oats as they mg-whichfiguresinthcaccompanyingengraving.

can at once eat up clean, feeding three times a •' consists in a snug-fitting elastic anklet of

day. They manage to take good care of about india-rubber, moulded to fit the horse's leg, and

the foUowiog quantities a day :— ribheA and reinforced to prevent sagging and
slipping down at the top. It is also perforated

lb. oats. lb. hay. jq allow free exit for perspiration, and is laced

Weanlings 4 8 \^ front as shewn. The object of the invention

Veitlings 5 10 is to provide a support, not always of the length

wo-yeai-o 6 10 shewn, but longer or shorter as maybeneces-

Thtee-vear-old 8 . 10 / . . . ...

' sary for sustaming and protecting the tendons,

Once a week they receive a wami mash of a^". knee-joints, &c., of trotting and racing
bran and oats, and once a week they also have
3 or 4 pounds of potatoes ; each in Ueu of a
usual feed, They would get other roots — pre-
ferably carrots— if I had them. Of course these
quantities vary shghtly with the animals, but
they shew the average feed. My farmer neigh-
bours look at my colts, and wonder at their size,
power, and spirit, when there is no cause for
wonder at all. They not only have warm, clean,
and ample boxes to move about in, but they arc
carded and exercised every day. To this end
the youngsters are daily compelled to half-an-
hour's gallop in a large yard, while the two
and three-year-olds receive regular work upon
the toads.

They arc all handled from their foaling. It
may be objected that the farmer cannot afford
to feed so highly, I reply that he cannot afford
to do otherwise. He docs not keep his growing
boy upon a short allowance, but on the contrary,
is in a state of chronic astonishment to see the
quantity of provender the urchin can stow away
under his jacket. We all know that children
eat more than " grown " people. Why should Improved Horse Stocking,

not the same truth hold good with other horses, and horses in general, so as to prevent
animals ? I have not attempted to give any injuries from over-bending or straining in step-
physiological reasons for this system, although ping upon stones or mt holes, &c.

The Old Fannet's Note Book

299

And while upon horses I will just note a very
good bridle-bit I have seen, which may be made
the means of aiding in the cure of various dis-
eases to which the throats and mouths of horses
are liable. I give an illustration of the bridle-
bit here. It will be noticed that the bit is made

as a vehicle^ or which may be itself of service as
an emollient. The warmth of the horse's
mouth, when the bit is applied, melts the medica-
ment, which then exudes and mingles with the
saliva which flows to and over the diseased
parts, which are thus reached for treatment, even

Ingenious Bridle-bit.

hollow, with minute perforations along the side when the animal is at work. How efficient this will

Into the hollow bit is poured, while melted, a prove in practice, I leave for veterinary surgeons

medicament prepared with some bland sub- to decide. In any event, the effort to ameliorate

stance, like lard, oil of theobroma, or other sub- the condition of the horse is a humane and

stance which melts at a low temperature^ simply commendable one, in my opinion.

T]u Country Gentleman's Magazine

%ht dnrtifin.

ASTERS IN VARIETY.

THE advancing season reminds us or a mien as the French and German
the advisability of bringing as promt- of Aster. They are really the mo
nently under notice as possible, the AbqueiIs mental class of plants generally culd'

Fig. I. — P^ODy Pufeclion A
that are more distinguished for effect in the the amateur, and they cost so little 1
summer flower-border. Among them we do to last, that their claims press tl
not know a single family of so commanding strongly upon our con»deratioo in

Asters in Variety 301

rest of OUT readers. Like' a good many the withering remarit — "Not worth the
other families, the membeis are numerous, money."

almost too numerous for a novice to be right

By the help of the following illustrations,
kindly provided by Messrs Sutton & Sons,
Reading, Henderson & Son, Wellington
Road, and Hooper & Co., Covent Garden,
we can more conveniently to ourselves, and
more profitably to our readers, draw attenUon
to them, so that when they decide to buy, they
may have some idea what the produce is
likely to be in time to come.

Fig. I represents a plant of the dwarfer-
growing of the beautiful Psony Perfection
Aster. It can be had in various colours, and,
as will be seen by the engraving, comes of
a fine close well-developed head. The indi-
vidual florets are" so packed together as to
be firm, and become raised from outline to
centre, and their scoop-like form gives a
symmetry to them which so much pleases the
true fiorist. Moreover, it is very free in
in his selection ; but there is this to be said growth and in flowering properties, but re-
that none of them are so ugly as to be un- quires good feeding to bring it up to first-
worthy of attention, or so unproductive— class cultivated style. The Asters, like other

Fig, a. — P^eony-flowered Globe Aster.

whether as regards yield of plants from a given annuals, have a short life, and they desire to
quantity of seed, or yield of flowers from have a free one, in which genial heat,
a given number of plants — as to be open to and moisture, and good fe«Mng, form tb«

302

The CoHJitry Gentleman's Magazine

principal encouragers and sustainers of their The Victoria Aster, shewn at fig!

existence. Although this looks a giant in 4, is considered by some to be tl

the engraving, so to speak, it scarcely ever desirable single representative of th

grows taller than 18 inches — not nearly so It has an excellent habit — a free dis

tall as the Pxony-flowered Globe Aster, which to flower, and is only of medium stat

Fig. 5.— Dwarf Chrysanihemum- flowered Aster.

is represented at fig. 2. The leaves of some colours, for instance in the crin
this Aster arc large, and gross feeding, as white, it has not possibly a single eq
might be siipjiosed, sending up from their never saw whites so pure and larj
stems quantities of subsidiary shoots, each
hearing a flower. The flowers are mucli
larjjer than the PKony Perfection, but gene-
rally curve a little looser in the centre ; they
nuiku admirable back row plants in a border.
(irown among a miscellaneous group, they
are very showy; but to see them at their

""^^h,

best, tliev must be culiiv.ited in a litdc pad-
dock for themselves, like Dahlias or Holly- ^'s. 7.-Quilied .Asicr.

'tock, and then they reward the grower for Victoria ; a very good reprcsentatiot

■U his pains and Iftbour. presented at fig. 4. As a rule, th'

Asters in Variety

arc flatter than in the Pfeony Perfection, but
the individual florets are larger, and when in
good hands, they do grow to an enormous
size. Out of six other so-called sorts or divi-
sions of the French and German Aster family,
we singled out, in 1S71 and 1872, the Vic-
toria in crimson and in white as incomparably
the best of their years, and we have no hesi-
tattbrt in recommending them to alii our
readers who care to grow Asters. Grow them,
however, as you would grow Cabbages or
Cauliflowers, that is, with plenty of manure
and in a deeply-stirred piece of ground. To
starve them, is to see them starved-looking
from May to September.

The Dwarf Chrysanthemum-flowered Aster
{fig. s) ia an admirable habited sort and
branching like a Larkspur. It is extraor-
dinarily free in blooming, and is one of the
most useful for beds. It is well represented
in the engraving, but by no means over-
done. Cultivated as it ought to be, it will
come quite up to the illustration.

7, is the most distinct of the whole,
only it is not a showy border or bed
plant The foliage is too scanty, the stems

Fig. 8,— Hedgehog or Porcupi

too lanky and too bare ever to please the
eye of taste. But cut the flowers, if they be
well developed, and place them in a stand

Fig. 9.— Belletidge's Quilled Aster.

The New Dwarf Pyramidal Aster (fig. 6) for exhibition purposes, and not a single one

comes m useful for edging beds and keeping of the other groups will bear comparison with

m the front of borders. The flowers indi- them. The quilling is so regular and the

vidually are not so perfect, but as a plant it form so globular, so well raised iii the centre,

is a little beauty. . ^ to defy criticism, and hence Quilled Asters,

The Quilled Aster, as represented by fig. whidi but for that would scarcely be gro'

304 The Country Gentlema$is Magazine

are in demand. The individual flower, fig. The Hedgehog or Porcupine Aster (fig.
7, shews the outline marked by a broad 8) is more common and remarkable for
sort of guard petal, and the quilled florets its porcupine-like quills than for beauty or
rising from a formal base to a high or ele- regularity of form. It is useful grown as a
vated centre. As a rule, these Quilled Asters variety, and as such we commend the en-
are much more easily destroyed, from their graving of it

scanty clothing of leaves, than the broader- It is a good time to procure the seeds in

leaved grosser-stemmed varieties. Aphides March, and to sow them in a gentle hot bed

and thrips very much infest them in a dry towards the latter end of the month. It is

season, so that water becomes an absolute better to be early a-foot with annual seeds to

necessity for keeping such pests under. get the full benefits of inflorescence before

Betteridge's Prize Quilled Aster (fig. 9) the day wanes and the months become un-

15 an improvement on the one just reviewed, propitious. Many can sow them out of doors

It has three broad tiers of guard petals and in a warm rich border, and plant them out

a multitude of quilled florets in the centre, in assorted places and get a crop of flowers

It makes a truly beautiful display in dozens of the first quality ; but all this depends upon

upon a show-table or in the drawing-room situation and circumstances. Each, there-

epergne. fore, is expected to be guided accordingly.

MR BULVS NEW PLANT HOUSE.

WE give a section of Mr Bull's new wooden. There is nothing expensive about
plant house, in order that our the house, but it is substantial, and con-
readers may have some idea how these beau- structed so low as not to keep the lesser fiy
tiful plants which we have illustrated elsewhere of plants too far from the rooC The centre
are cultivated. It is of span-roof form, stage gives sufficient head room for Pan-
with centre flat table, a passage round it, and danads and Palms, and tall Dracaenas and
side tables along. It is heated by hot water, Crotons, while the side tables are just the
ample provision being made in this respect, sort of thing for setting such pants upon as
so that sufficient warmth can be maintained. Dracaena splendens upon. A few Creepers
Like most of the permanent houses we have festoon the girders, without interfering too
recommended, its sloping roofs are fixtures, much with the light when it is needed. The
being made for ventilation at the hooded top, edges of the paths are lined with plants that
and at the sides immediately opposite the live exposed to certain sufferance, and the
water pipes. Slabs of red earthenware whole looks quite a house adapted for both
form the footpath, and the stages are shewing and growing plants of limited size.

Mr BuWs New Plant Bouse

,3^

3o6

The Country Gentumatis Magazine

NEW AND RARE PLANTS.

CHERVIL — BULBOUS ROOTED.

ALTHOUGH neither a new nor a rare
plant, we give this excellent vegetable a
place here for the special object of directing at-
tention to its great merits. Its scientific name

Fig. i.~Thc Chervil.

is Chaerophyllum bulbosum, and it was intro-
duced to kitchen garden cultivation in France
some years since, and was immediately after-
wards tried by many experimental horticul-
\u"«;ts throughout Britain, but seemingly with

little or no satisfactory results, arising fri

a non-acquaintance with its habits and pe

liarities. We give a figure of two of its ro

(fig. i), the smaller of the ordinary si

and the other, one of the largest specimt

we have seen. From these it will be obsen

that the roots resemble in form those of sn

Early Horn, or rather Early Short Fore

Carrots; their colour is dull creamy wh

resembling that of Parsnips both externa

and internally, the large centre core being

a somewhat deeper yellow, but in no v

difiering in texture from the surrounding flej

part A few words in regard to its sp«

treatment will be found useful. If sown

autumn, and the seeds are of the same s

son's growth, or not older than of the ]

ceding season, a very full braird of yoi

plants may be looked for by the end of Mai

These should be thinned to 3 or 4 inc

apart, and that before they come into

rough or third leaf, as by that time li

underground roots are formed, which, in

dinary stifi* soils, the delicate leaves have

strength to draw out. The leaves at best

but scant and small, there being only tl

or four to a plant, and these oftener ur

than over 8 inches in height. These, in

dinary seasons, present symptoms of de

early in June, and are mostly gone by

middle of that month, when the roots she

be taken up for present, or stored away

cool cellar among sand, for future use,

where they will keep perfectly fresh till,

the advance of spring, they become d

riorated by the growth of fresh leaves.

peculiarity of eariy ripening possessed b;

bulbosum is highly in its favour, as it co

into use between the old and the new P

toes, when even the earliest of these are

watery, and when other esculent vegeta

are scarce; and its removal is eflfecte(

time for the ground being after-cropped

Peas, Turnips, Broccoli, Celery, &c.

iWfU/ And Rare Plants

iof

bably Mr Earley will give i
of the culinary subject.

his experience the hardihood and growth of the new Japa-
nese Primula (P. japonica), we give here

PRIMULA JAPONICA. an illustration, from Mr William Bull's collec-

As several of our correspondents have Hon, of how it should be when it is in a first-

lecently been making inquiries concerning rate state of cultivatioo. As here pourtrayed,

JoS The Counity GmtUmatis Ma^tzme

there ai!e three whorls of flowers expanded the objection which some set forth

and one uoexpanded. It is only, however, leaves are coarse and Lettuce-like

by shading from sun, rain, and wind, that readily forget the leaves when we Ic

this desirable stale can be produced. The the flowers.

ordinary system of cultivation is good enough They come from seed in a variety o

only to keep not more than two whorls ex- the deep crimson and the white \

panded at the same time ; and this, indeed, most desirable strains for growers oi

may be decided upon as a rule of the inflo- of stock. It is a plant, too, that bea

rescence. It is grand even with that, and no gentle forcing, so that flowers car

wonder that we have buyers of it by the tens from March to June. We saw si

of thousands, it is such a good showy addi- choice varieties and in great qua

inn to the beautiful Primula tace. liiere is seasoa at Mr Bull's establishment

Nevi and Rare Plants

309

in the grotmds of Mr Chailes Turner, of rock-work in autumn and found that they

Slough. germinated in the spring, producing healthy

Seeds come away freely if not too much plants, thus standing the winter's wet and cold

coddled up, and the sooner they are sown and frost without injury.

after being ripe, the better they germinate.
Doubtless, in a couple of years or so, there
will be great abundance of this plant through-
out the country. The plant was introduced
by Mr Robert Fortune from Japan, and was
sent out by Mr Bull Mr Fortune's son, in
Mid-lA>thian, scattered a few seeds over his

DRACANA EXCELSA.
This and the following Dracsenas are distinct
and beautiful plants from the collection of Mr
Bull, who kindly favours us with the wood-
cuts. We are also indebted to the same
gentleman for the good illustratioD of See-
nun's Maianta, p. 313.

310 Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazine

In ■ Mr Bull's New Plant House {I'tde of. corresponding habit to the iiii
the engraving, page 305), are always con- tiful and most conspicuous D.
gregated a host of truly beautiful plants, and but it differs in having much mc
they seem to be attended to in the way of margins of leaves. The bright
cultivation, to bring out the distinguishing colour, now pale, now brightening
features of their character. We were very , centre of leaf to base of petiole, is (

much delighted with the general lot, and par- tivating, shewing out in characterii

ticularly with tlie Dracjenas which are here ness among a highly distinguished

illustrated. free habit, and the broad glossy U

The present subject of our remarks— too confusedly crowded together,

ImcjFna excelsa — is a plant very much attract attention. The sender-out

New and Rare Plants

it as " a free-growing stove plant, resembling Mr Bull thus speaks of the plant : — *'This,

Dracaena metallica in its vigorous character, though a somewhat slender-growing plant, is

and in the large size and oblong acuminate of free habit It is furnished with spreading

form of the leaves, which are of an erect recurved leaves of narrow elongate form, i3

arching habit and of a deep bronzy hue, to 14 inches long, and nearly 2 inches broad

margined towards the base and also on the at the widest part, thence tapering gradually

wing of the petiole, with a broad conspicuous to the point The. younger leaves of estab-

edge a quarter of an inch wide, of a very lished plants 'break out freely into patches of

deep magenta crimson. This bright colour rosy-red, which sometimes nearly, or quite

is sometimes continued through the edge of cover the whole sur&ce ; some of the leaves

the leaf, and sometimes breaks out into also break out into streaks of white, and the

streaks and patches as occurs in the other two colours, red and white, become variously

coloured leaved species. The characteristic blended. The lower part of the leaves and

feature of the plant, however, is the distinct their ringed petioles are edged with red.

magenta border, conspicuous especially on It is a prettily-coloured small-leaved sort,

the lower half of the leaf. It is one of the introduced from the South Sea Islands."

many beautiful Dracaenas that have come * — —

from the South Sea Islands." draoena splendens.

This Ls one of the densest habited of new

DRACAENA PULCHERRiMA. Dntcaeuas. On referrmg to the illustration (p.

This strap-shaped leaved Dracaena is called 3io)> there will be found quite a rosette of
the most beautiful (D. pulcherrima, . fig. 4), short ovate leaves, with a disposition to crowd
because it assumes more the light, airy, and closely together. As a pot plant it is quite a
graceful contour of some of the Crotons than gem, it is so dwarf, and the colouring of the
any of its distinguished fellows in the Dra- leaves is so decided. The colours are very
caena way. As the engraving sufficiently much suffused, the green running with light
shews, it has longish linear leaves, not shaded crimson. It is not so great a grower
crowded, but sufficiently close upon the stem as those we have commented upon, but it is
to shew that the habit is good, and that the one that will find favour among such as are
plant will be ornamental if properly culti- disposed to favour dwarf showy plants for
vated. The chief colour-featiures consist in general stove ornamentation.
the blending or suffusing of red into a whitish Mr Bull says of it—" A remarkably distinct
ground colour, sometimes' assuming parallel ornamental stove plant, of dwarf and corn-
lines, again running into blotches; but the pact, but free-growing habit, densely furnished
whole of that taking effect which is so desi- with short, oblong, acute, recurved leaves,
rable to look out for either in conservatory about 9 inches long, and 4 inches broad
or parlour plants. We want colour, and if arranged in a spiral manner, and having
we cannot have flowers, we can have the winged footstalks. The colour is a deep
next best shift for them in highly coloured bronzy green, breaking out in the young
foliage. growth into bright rosy carmine, the petiole

We have elegance in Ferns, stateliness and base of the leaves margined with the

and peculiarity in Palms, and an ampli- same colour. The brighter colouring appears

tude of colouring in Crotons and Dracaenas, somewhat in stripes, and sometimes occupies

to make the whole telling in the decoration the whole surface, while the recurved charac-

of apartments. As these plants get plentiftil, ter of the densely-set foliage gives the plant a

they will be largely in demand for this sort flat, almost table-like head. It has been

of work, and encourage more and more the imported from the South Sea Islands, and

taste that is rapidly growing in the decoration was awarded a first-class certificate by the

of apartments. Royal Horticultural Floral Committee.

The Country Gmtlematis Magazine

UARANTA SEEMANNi. and the venation prominently set forth, we

The Maranta Seeraanni, fig. 6, is a plant have a most pleasing colour — all the more lo

of a rich lustrous kind, vieing with the best as the fuller leaves shew a niddy lower sin>

of its compeers in grace and beauty, and not face. This is really a good-habited plant

likely to lose in the esteem of the plant that will take its place as a distinguished

admirers as some of our distinguished Maran- individual in a congregation of stove plants,
tas and Alocasias have done in time past. The sender-out thus describes it :^" Tin*

'Maianta Seemaoni.

The leaf is set Upon a slightly-depending foot- desirable stove decorative plant is of re-
stalk, and has good outline, a beautiful markably free growth, with leafy stems and
lustrous texture, and the mid-rib and venation bold, oblong-ovate, acuminate leaves about a
prominently shewing up on the surface. The foot long, and nearly 6 inches broad, of a
ground colour is what is well described as an beautifiil emerald green while young, and
emerald green, getting darker as it becomes of deeper green when matured, transvetsdj-
Mder, and what with its whitish mid-rib, ridged, but chiefly remarkable for thdr

iVrttf andjtare Plants

velvety lustre, which givei them a most pleas>
ing effect The mid-rib is hollowed out, and
of a whitish colour, while the under surface
Ie of a rich wine-red, and this in the unrolled
central leaves contrasts finely with the lich
lustrous green. It was found in Nicaragua,
Central America, by the late Dr Seemann, by
whom the living plants were Knt to this
country."

Flowers of a pale greenish hue, except tfiat
tiie sepals and petals have a narrow white
margin, while their extremttiea are tipped with
purplish brown.

It comes from Bolivia and Peru.

Mr fiateman, who first described it- in the
BotaniaU Jl/agarine (tab. 5466), from which
we have borrowed the figure in the cut, says
regarding the treatment : —

Rg. 7.— Cjrpilpedhun auiclDuin,

cvpRiPEDiUM CAKiCDnjM. "C. caricinnm flowered in May 1865, in

A very curious spedes, with sedge-like Messrs Veitch's establishment in the King's

leaves, and a creeping abovfrground rhiwme. Road, It had been kept in a hot and moist

3'4

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

'^te.

stove, where it seemed to thrive; but as its mukro's " little heath " helok.

native habitat is a comparatively cool and This is a scarlet-fleshed Melon recently
elevated region, it will probably succeed as introduced by Messrs James Carter & Co^ of
well, or even belter, under cool treatment. High Holbom, and is described by them as
To such it has already been subjected
at Knypersley, where it is growing vigor-
ously, though it has not yet flowered. Being
a terrestrial plant it should be potted in good
fibrous peat, and if its travelling rhizomes
are to have fair play, it must have plenty of
space,"

BRODI^A COCCINEA.

A new and hardy bulbous plant from Cali-
fornia. Messrs Hooper & Co., who have
recently imported it, describe it as having '
long channelled foliage, with a scape varying
with the strength of the bulb, from ij^ to 3
feet in height, and bearing at its summit an
umbel of drooping tubular flowers, each about
xy^ inch long. Colour a deep magenta

Fig. 8.

crimson, with the mouth and reflexed lobes
of a pea green, thus affording a contrast of
tints which is most pleasing and efTective.
Flowers in May and June. It bears the name
of the " Vegetable Fire Cracker " in its native
habit't.

t'ig, 9. — Muaro's " LUtle Ht:aUi " Melon,
quite hardy, and capable of being ripened
out-of-doors.

Our excellent correspondent, Mr William
Earley, speaks very highly of it, and we cannot
do better than reprint the letter which he
has sent to the growers : —

" Tbe Gu^ens, Valenlines, Ilford, EtKX.
" Novembtr aatk, 187a.
" Messrs Carter & Co.

" Genllemcn,— J beg to say that habituallrl hate
objected to testify for or against subjecta submitted to
me for tiial. As, however, I think the Melon ' little
Heath ' will, when known, prove a boon to many
gardeners, inasmuch as it will supply ripe fiuit, I
might almost say months earlier than ordinarily
possible under general circumstances of cultivation
with older kinds, I gladly give the following lacU
regarding Mr Munro's variety, allaching thereto my
commendaiion of the Melon geneially : —

"I sowed two seeds of 'Lillle Heath' on the l6lb
of May 1S72 ; (he young seedling plants were nb-
Eequently turned out on to a bed under an oidinuy
cold frame, just a little warmth having been previooily
engendered by means of fermenting materials within
alone, and this without any subsequent resusdtation.
From these two plants I cut the first fruit, weighing
6^ lb. on the igih of August, and during the neat
fortnight twelve other fruits, the total weight of Ibe
thirteen fruits being S3 lb., or an average of froni
SX '° T/^ "■■ f^^- Vou are at liberty to malw
what use you please of these facts. — I am. Gentle-
men, youis, &c., WllXlAlf EaklsY."

■ Tlu Cmintry Gtntlematis Magasine 3.1 5

%kt IBeterinarian.

" STRANGLES" IN HORSES.

MOST practical horsemen know some- of two or three days, the pain which the ani-
thing of the general character of mal suffers is lessened, and the fever to some
the disease which is so common among extent subsides. Complete relief is not to
young horses — " strangles ; " but none of the be expected until the pus has reached the
authorities on veterinary matters, says the surface of the tumour and found an outlet
Fieldy have succeeded in deciding certain in- Much of the pain which attends the progress
tricate questions relating to the causes, ^nature, of the abscess is due to the tension which
and treatment of the affection. the parts affected suflfer from the steady in-
Strangles is a disease which exhibits itself crease in the amount of fluid, and therefore
by swelling under the jaw, which suppurates, of the pressure which it necessarily exercises
and discharges often a considerable quantity on surrounding tissues. When the fluid is
of matter. This is the speciality of the aflfec- evacuated by an artificial or natural opening,
tion, which is generally looked on as an in- the pain almost immediately ceases, the ani-
evitable result of the introduction of the colt mal recovers its cheerfulness, the appetite im-
into a life of domestication. Swellings in the proves, and the lost condition is rapidly re-
vicinity of the throat, however, are common paired. It is a trite remark that horses ira-
enough among horses of all ages during the prove in appearance to a remarkable extent
prevalence of catarrhal disease, either of a after an attack of strangles, and the common
common kind, or of that form which is termed explanation of the fact refers it to the removal
influenza. Abscess beneath the jaw, or at of some bad ** humours " from the system,
the side of the neck under the ear, is not through the natural outlet which has been
therefore confined to strangles; but it is established.

usual to get over the difflculty thus presented All cases of strangles do not correspond to
by classing all forms of " strangles " which the history which has been given ; indeed, it
occur among adult animals as ^' bastard is only when the disease exists in the benign
strangles." In any case the formation of an form that its progress is so favourable. Occa-
abscess is preceded by more or less febrile sionally the development of the abscess in
disturbance ; the animal becomes languid, the throat is retarded, or arrested ; the
refuses his food, the mouth is hot, the tumour, instead of increasing, diminishes,
mucous membranes are heightened in colour, and at length disappears. The horse, how-
there is sometimes discharge from the nos- ever, does not improve in constitution; on
trils; but in true strangles cough is by no the contrary, he becomes emaciated, the ap-
means a frequent symptom — in fact, the petite is irregular, the food taken is not di-
affection is clearly distinct from a common gested, respiration is disturbed, and the case
cold. Soon after the occurrence of these ends in the formation of abscesses in the
signs of illness a swelling will be observed lungs or other important organs,
under the jaw ; day by day, the tumour in- Such instances of fatal complications are
creases, and becomes more tender to the by some considered to arise from the absorp-
touch; the symptoms of fever are more severe tion of the pus from the original abscess
during the development of the suppurative under the jaw, and the production of a
process ; but on its completion, in the course morbid state of blood in consequence;

3i6 The Cotmtry Gentlematis Magazine

But the pathologist knows very well that Concerning the treatment of the disease,

pus cannot be absorbed, nor is the assump- somewhat contradictory views are held by

tion necessary to explain the phenomena different authorities. Some Continental

which have been observed. Evidentiy there writers hold that the disease is one of a fe-

is in the constitution of the colt about to brile character, and therefore to be treated by

suffer from " strangles," a tendency to the depletive measures. According to this school

formation of pus \ and if the development it is not necessary to adopt means calculated

of the matter does not take place in one to promote the suppurative process, but rather

p£Ut of the body where its presence is of no to arrest this action by the use of repellents,

consequence, it is likely to occur in some Fomentations and poultices are to be dis-

other part where its influence may be in- carded, and the animal is to be bled and

jurious. Local deposits of matter may, after purged, and kept on low diet

all, have little to do with the fatal termination. Exactly opposite ideas guide the majority

It can hardly.be imagined that a small of veterinary practitioners in England in the

quantity of pus in the tissue of the lungs or application of remedial measures. They

tiie liver, or some of the mesenteric glands, usuaUy proceed on the assumption that

can be inimical to the animaVs existence ; but strangles is the result of the presence of some

the development of the suppurative action in morbid condition of system, which is best

these positions is an indication of a diseased corrected by encouraging the discharge from

condition of blood. Microscopic inspection the abscess beneath the jaw ; and at the same

of this fluid in cases of purulent diathesis, as time the animal's condition is carefully at-

this tendency is called, reveals the presence tended to, chiefly with the view to prevent

of very numerous white corpuscles, which the occurrence of debility, which is the most

are identical in structure with the pus cells. serious sequel of the malady.

Some authorities accept the view that This modem scientific theory of the nature
strangles depends on the presence of a of strangles is expressed in more popular
specific virds, which is capable of communi- terms as an accumulation of hiunours, which
eating the disease to healthy animals when are likely to do considerable mischief if not
introduced into their systems, and this notion removed by natural discharges ; hence it is
obtains some support from the circumstance always a favourite plan to assist the softening
that the disease occasionally affects in sue- of the abscess by fomentation and poultice,
cession a number of animals in the same stud ; and after the humour has burst and the mat-
but this extension of the disease can be clearly ter has escaped, it is customary to keep up a
traced to the existence of similar causes act- discharge by introducing into the cavity a
ing on a number of susceptible subjects. The quantity of tow smeared with digestive oint-
evidence on the other side is sufficient to es- ment. In this way the abscess is converted
tablish the fact that strangles is not a conta- into an issue, which may be kept open for
gious malady. any length of time.

Thi Country Gentlematis Magazine

3x7

gairg attb Jtmltrg Jarb.

HOW TO IMPROVE CHEESE CURING ROOMS.

IN his last address before the Canadian
Dairymen's Association^ Mr X. A.
Willard made the following remarks : —

But you will ask — In what way can curing
rooms be improved, and in what way can
buildings already erected be utilized?

In the first place, wherever possible, I would
have a cellar under the dry house. I would
have it 6 or 8 inches below the surface,
the walls rising above the ground 2 or 3
feet, or of a height sufficient to give
an abundance of sunlight throughout the
whole basement I would have this room
10 or 12 feet high in the clear, and the
bottom should be thoroughly underdrained.
Then the floor should be grouted and covered
with cement or flagging, so that no leakage
or accumulation of slops is possible. Venti-
lators with wickets should be arranged, lead-
ing to the rooms above or to the roof. Such
a basement would add very much to the
capacity of a dry-house, and by attention to
drainage and ventilation, may be kept at a
low temperature during hot weather. It may
be provided with hot water for heating if
necessary, the pipes connecting with the
boiler so arranged that heat may be supplied
at any time with little expense. Here I
would place at least a part of the cheese
made in hot weather, and all such cheese
as could not be readily marketed at a good
price.

Supposing every factory had a cool place
for storing but 200 cheeses in hot weather,
the quantity in the aggregate would be very
considerable.

There are over 1000 factories in the State
of New York alone — say that there are 1500
in all — that can store 300 cheeses each above
present capacity, the gross amount would be
27,000,000 lb. This amount kept from the

markets in hot weather — safely kept without
fear of deterioration, but retaining flavour and
growing better in quality — would so relieve
the trade that good prices would probably
result on those shipped.

I would not advise the keeping of cheese
at any time when fair prices can be obtained.

Then I would adopt the Crosier plan of
leading the cold air from the ice-house. In
this plan two conductors go down from the
upper part of the ice-house. They are made
of boards 8 inches wide and i inch thick,
with holes bored in them. These holes allow
the cold air to enter from the ice, and it
pours in a stream from the mouths of the
tubes into the room. The temperature of
the air as it comes from these tabes is about
35 deg.; with thick walls and high windows
he is able to lower the mercury to 62 deg.,
and even lower in the hottest weather in July,
Sometimes he closes one tube ; the draught
is strongest in the hottest weather. By this
arrangement, and the hot water-pipes, the
desired temperature may be secured through-
out the season.

I do not pretend to give the best plan for
securing a uniform temperature. I give that
which is comparatively inexpensive and which
has been found to be practical, to shew you
that such an arrangement is within the reach
of every factory, and that this matter of con-
trolling the temperature is not so difficult as
dairymen have been led to imagine. By this
simple arrangement, probably the room im-
mediately over the basement (if the outer
walls are properly constructed), could also be
made cool enough in hot weather.

. I would have every factory have store room
sufficient to hold all the hot weather cheese,
so that at no time to be forced to sell for
want of room.

3 ^ 8 How to Improve Cheese Curing Rooms

Now, I have tried to shew you some of the the quality and flavour of the cheese would

advantages that would result from the proper be improved. In the second place, by with-

curing of cheese, and from having enough holding a portion of your stocks, and by not

store room to hold a certain amount of hot crowding the market at a time when it is a

weather cheese during hot weather. fearful risk for dealers to handle large quan-

Let me illustrate how this course would be titles, you will be able to maintain a decent

likely to affect the markets. In the first place, price for what you sell.

MAKING BUTTER.

IT is the scrupulous neatness in washing ing yellow butter, by not skimming the
milk-pails and pans, in the management milk soon after all the cream has risen. The
of the cream, in churning and packing sooner the cream is removed after it has risen,
butter, that secures an article that will pass the better the butter will be. Milk which
for prime yellow, which always commands a should be skimmed at evening is frequently
remunerative price. I wish to impress on left till the morning, when the cream will be
those butter producers who always complain injured to such an extent that yellow butter
of low prices, the eminent importance of ob- cannot be made ffom it at all, neither will it
serving onl^ a few things which will enable make as many pounds as if it had been
them to make an article which may be skimmed at the proper time. 6. Let the
forwarded to any of our fashionable hotels, churning be done by a person whose hands
where every pound will command the highest and clothes are as clean and sweet as a
price. I. See that every milk pail, pan, blossom of red clover. 7. The butter
chum, and butter-bowl is cleansed with should be worked and thoroughly salted
boiling hot water every time it is used, soon after it is churned. The best in-
2. See that the udders of the cow and strument for working out the buttermilk is
the hands of the milkers are as clean anything that will cut deep gashes in the
as pure water will make them, before butter, into which the buttermilk will flow,
an atom of milk is drawn. 3. Provide a neat The next day after churning the butter should
and clean place for the pans while the cream be worked again, and packed. A great many
is rising, where the pure breeze from the persons continue to work and knead their
green fields may blow into one window over butter to its great injury after the butter-
the cream and out at an opposite opening, milk is removed, thinking that all the
Good butter cam never be made in a filthy " crystal tear drops " which are not butter;
apartment, where there is off"ensive effluvia milk must be woiked out 8. Thousands
arising from anything, no matter what. 4. of tubs and firkins arrive at the great marts
Cream ought to be churned every day ; yet, containing what was once prime yellow butter,
if one can provide a clean corner in a but which was spoiled by being packed before
cellar or milk-room clean and cool, and keep the tubs had been prepared by being soaked
the pail on a clean piece of flagstone, he can in brine. For the sake of saving a penny-
make superior butter by churning twice per worth of salt for preparing a strong brine in
week, providing the temperature of the cream which to soak a firkin two or three days,
is maintained from day to day about 60 de- many a frugal housewife has been obliged to
grees of Fahrenheit. 5. Always skim the accept half the price of prime butter, simply
milk soon after the cream has risen. Thou- because the staves were not saturated with
MpHfi of barrels of cream are ruined for mak- brine before the butter was packed. — X

Ttie Country GentUnuttis Magazine 3 J^

^kt ^attiraJiiBt.

SALMON BREEDING IN AMERICA.

is well known, says the New York This consisted in securing the living fish

Tribune^ that not a great many years (principally by purchase at the weirs and

le rivers of New England and the tri- pounds) from the period of their first

ss of Lake Champlain and Lake On- entrance into the Penobscot River, in spring,

[bounded with salmon, during the pro- and transferring them to a fresh-water pond

ason of the year, to such an extent that near Bucksport, Maine, until their spawning

itices, paupers in workhouses, and season should arrive. About 600 fish of

objected to being fed with them more* both sexes were thus secured, and the eggs

three times a-week. At the present stripped fi-om the females when ripe (about

the case is very difierent, the only the end of October) and fertilized by the

i States waters where salmon occur milt of the male, the total yield being about

a few streams in Maine. The causes 1,500,000 eggs. It has been a distin-

ir partial extermination are to be found tinguished success, and will be repeated on a

; erection of impassable dams, which larger scale during the coming season. The

em off from access to their spawning- next source of supply was the Sacramento

in the discharge of sawdust into the River. Mr Livingstone, a well-known pisci-

is, by which their eggs, when laid, are culturist, was sent to the Sacramento River,

:d up ; in indiscriminate capture at im- and erected a hatching-house on the M'Cloud

r times, &a For some years past the River, one of the tributaries. The eggs were

^Commissioners of all the New England sent east,and prove to be very hardy, and there

have been earnest in their endeavours will be no difficulty in greatly increasing the

ew the supply. Theu: first eflforts were number. These two efibrts not promising a

2d to the gathering of eggs in the rivers sufficiency. Professor Baird directed his efibrts

:w Brunswick, and were not very sue- towards obtaining a supply from Germany

I. Limited in their efforts to obtain a and the German Government gave orders to

2nt supply of eggs for their purposes, the Director of the National Establishment

tate Commissioners and the leading at Huningen, on the Rhine, to reseive at the

ilturists of the country, at an annual proper season 250,000 eggs as a present to

ig of a society established by them, the United States. An additional 500,000

nined to ask Congress for aid in accom- was ordeied firom Mr Schuster, Burgomeister

ig their object Their appeal was met of Frieburg, at the low rate of 2 dollars per

appropriation during the session of 187 1- 1000— a considerable difference from the

e disbursal of which was placed in charge Canadian 40 dollars. These eggs were duly

)f. Spencer T. Baird, of the Smithsonian packed up by the middle of January last, and

jtion, and at the time United States delivered to Mr Rudolf Hessel, an experienced

lissioner of Fish and Fisheries. The fish-breeder of Ofienburg, Baden, who sailed

lissioner determined upon three me- with them on board the Bremen steamer

The first method was found in a Weser, arriving on 4th February. The Com-

levised by Mr Charles G. Atkins, for- missioner has transmitted the eggs to various

Fish Commissioner of Maine, and establishments in the New England and Middle

>ed by him with much success in 187 1. States, to be introduced into the waters.

320

Tfie Country Gentlematis Magazine

^he (Ectintrj} d^ntl^tooman.

BEGONIAS FOR HOUSE CULTURE.

IN our dwellings where the air is generally
too dry for the health of most plants —
and we might add that of human beings also
— the number of varieties which can be
grown with satisfaction is quite limited. In
the old days of open fireplaces, we could
succeed with most of the things that will
grow in an ordinary greenhouse, but in our
heated and poorly ventilated houses, " with
all the modem improvements," we seldom
see a healthy Rose-bush or Carnation. In
selecting plants for house culture, we must
choose those that will endure abuse, and we
have found some of the fleshy-leaved Begonias
to succeed admirably in a room where it was
diflicult to make most plants grow. The
species of Begonias are now numerous ; some
of them require a hothouse temperature and
skilful culture, while others do perfectly well
with ordinary greenhouse treatment, and a
few are so robust as to be hardy in the south
of England. Those we have found most
suitable for the window-garden have been the

Fuchsia-like Begonia — Begonia fuc
and a hybrid from it called Begonij
multiflora. They are both very fin<
last-named is of a much more comp
and a more profuse flowerer. Eitli
be desirable for the rich green of i
alone, and when added to this we
pendent coral-coloured, Fuchsia-lik<
the efiect is charming.

Another class of Begonias, with Is
lighter leaves, represented by B. i
and B. Saundersiana, is much value
florists for their delicate flowers
especially the unexpanded buds, are
request by the bouquet makers,
not tried them in window culture,
the manner in which they behave in t
house, we doubt not they would
These Begonias flourish well in a c
sphere, and in spite of the irregular
that most house plants receive. '.
sensitive to sudden alterations of
cold, and are easily injured by frost

THE

UNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

MAY 1873

THE LAND TENURE QUESTION.

OVERTY," the proverb hath it, " makes strengthened And I should have been well

us acquainted with strange bedfellows." pleased if the book had undergone a much

• matters than poverty league people greater amount of attack, as, in that case, I

y divergent in culture with those who should probably have been enabled to im-

sively proclaim themselves as cultivators prove it still more than I have now done ?**

tcellence. This was the idea that struck Perhaps Mr Mill may be busy now over a

hen in Exeter Hall very recently, we ninth edition, and his presence at Exeter

Mr John Stuart Mill the centre of Hall in such company may probably be ac-

:tion, and surrounding him, Messrs counted for by his wish to improve that

r, Bradlaugh, Arch, Cox, Maxse, & Co. work — which stands in little need of improve-

persons who have attempted to exer- ment — ^by criticism upon his position there.

heir reasoning faculties in this genera- Coming from any ordinary man, a speech

will confess their indebtedness to Mr imbued with like Communistic views as that

Stuart Mill. They have learned from delivered by Mr Mill would not have been

that silence sometimes is much better worthy of much consideration. Similar senti-

speech, or, to put it another way, that ments had more than two years ago been de-

ech is silvern, but silence is golden." livered by Mr Odger to a Scottish audience,

Id it not have been better, in the name and they received that applause which is

11 common sense, if Mr Mill had not generally accorded at such meetings. In

present at that meeting, and given the commenting upon that speech we remarked,

ion of his great name to resolutions "*Noattempt,'solemnlydeclaredMr Odgerto

[1 were carried by people who knew his sympathizing audience, ' to patch up the

x\g about their contents, and whose great existing laws regarding land, would ever meet

tion evidently was, as we could gather the wants and wishes of the people of this

frequent shouting of the names, to hear country.' The laws must be totally recon-

IX and Bradlaugh spout — the latter name structed-; and with that fine regard for the

ly surging above the other ? We have freedom of the subject which was to be ex-

dence that Mr Mill will not feel offended pected from Mr Odger, he would have them

e question. For does he not tell us in reconstructed in such a feshion as * to prevent

preface to the eighth edition of his any private individual purchasing lands. The

gic" that: "Even the criticisms from same Act should contain a clause compelling

h I most dissent have been of great all who wished to sell land to communicate

ce to me by shewing in what places the with Government Commissioners with the

•sition needed most to be improved and view of selling the land to the Govemmenty
vou X. Y

3^^

71ie Country Gmtlemafis Magazine

for the use of the country generally.* ....
With a gracious magnanimity which we can-
not but admire, Mr Odger said that * his Bill
should not propose that any one possessing
land should be compelled to sell, but only
that those wishing to sell should be com-
pelled to sell to Government.' " Apply this
theory to the circumstances of those who
hung with admiration upon Mr Odger's words
and applauded the principle they expressed.
Supposing shopkeepers had goods to dispose
of would they think it right that they should be
compelled to dispose of them to Government?
We hardly think so. "And is not land as
much a commodity, as .children's slippers or
hob-nailed boots?" Why should landlords
be called upon to part with that which be-
longs to them to one particular customer ?
Of course it will be said that land is a limited
commodity ; it has not the expansive cha-
racter of manufactures. We are girt in by
" the inviolate sea *' which in some parts of
the country is encroaching upon the land left
to the cultivator, and so on.

We have made reference to Mr Odger*s
speech two years ago (he had not the oppor-
tunity of speaking at Exeter Hall), because
it appears to us to be something like a fore-
runner of that carefully concocted address
given by Mr Mill last month. Mr Mill's
statement is (he is speaking for the Land
Tenure Reformers) : —

We hold that land — ^in which term we include
mines and the whole raw material of the globe — is a
kind of property unlike any other. The rights of
private individuab to something which they did not
make, or help to make, but which came to them by
bequest or inheritance from people who also' did not
make it, or help to make it, are a totally different
thing from the right of any one to the product of his
own labours and sacrifices, or to the product of tlie
labours and sacrifices of those who freely gave it to
him. What a man has earned by his labour, or by
the expenditure of what has been saved from previous
earnings, he has a fair claim to do what he likes with,
subject only to the general laws of morality. But he
who detains the land — a thing not made by man — a
thing necessary to life, and of which there is not'
enough for all — is in a privileged position ; whether
it.is right or wrong that he should be in such a posi-
tion, he is so ; he is, in one word, a monopolist — and a
monopoly should be exercised, not at the mere will

and pleasure of the possessor, but in the manner most
consistent with the general good.

Mr Mill, in the name of the Land Reform-
ers, also declares that " no more land, under
any pretext, should become the private pio-
perty of individuals. The land should not
be purchased by men of wealth, but be al-
lotted for a consideration to the poor." But
how would the poor be able to make the
earth yield the increase which it is capable of
doing? Capital is required in the land. At
the present time, as Mr Mechi has pointed
out over and over again, there is far too little
money expended in the cultivation of the
soil. To divide the land into small portions,
as the Leaguers appear anxious to do, would
entail the necessity of a larger expenditure
for foreign produce than we now disburse,
and that is much greater than it ought to be
both for bread and meat Small farms will
not pay in this country. The effect that Mr
Mill's speech produced upon the audiencei
which the Times truly says, consisted of " a re-
markable number of very young faces," was
that the sub-division of land into minute par-
ticles would tend greatly to the welfare of this
country — that the poetical times, "when every
rood of land maintained its man," ought to be
recalled. The impression he left was that
landowners were originally usurpers, and that
those who were now benefiting by the ac-
quirements of their ancestors were men to be
scorned. They were living as luxurious
paupers, upon what Mr Arch called the bone
and sinew of the land. Never for one mo-
ment did Mr Mill indicate that most of the
landed proprietors of this country obtained
their manors through force of character,
through great energy, for services of incalcu-
lable value rendered to the State, or through
the grand prerogative of genius. Our island
is small, no doubt. There are many mouths
to be fed, but parcelling out the land in acres
would diminish rather than increase the sup-
ply of provisions. Mr Mill clearly eodea-
voured to stir up war between classes. He
came not to bring peace but a sword ; not to
reconcile dififercnces already too great, but to
widen the breach. What could be more

The' Land Tenure Question

323

likely to inflame the f)assions of men not do not acquire an " nneamed increment »;

u 4. J * ♦!,«♦ ^oi^ ^^fl^/^f^.i* from the general advance and prospenty of the com-

much accustomed to that calm reflective ^^„^y p ^i^ MUl. indeed, seems to see the necessity

thought of the utterer, than the following (— ^^ g^-^^g beyond land, for he speaks not merely of

. , - , mines, but of ** the whole raw material of the globe.*^

The land of the world-the raw material of the ^^ landowners need only ask tBat, in common jus-

globe— in all prosperous countries constantly increases ^^^ ^^^ particular raw material should not be taxed

in value. The landlords need only sit still and let ^^[^ ^^ procedure can be rendered equitably univer-

nature work for them ; or, to speak truly, not nature, ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ imderstand, for instance, that the

but the labour of other men. (Cheers.) What is it
that has caused the prodigious increase of demand for
building land, which has created the colossal fortunes
of the Grosvenors, the Portmans, the Stanle3rs, and
others of our great families ? It is the growth of manu-
factures and the increase of towns. And what has
produced that ? Your labour and outlay ; not that of
the landlords. The same labour and outlay, namely
yours, not theirs, produces a steady increase of the

fortunate possessors of iron ought to be deprived of
the ** unearned increment " which accrued to the value
of their property when steam and railroads intro-
duced an iron age? The very reference to these
other kinds of raw material should have restrained
Mr Mill from his astonishing assertion that "no
other portion of the community has a similar advan-
tage with the landlords. The labouring classes do
not find their wages steadily rising as their numbers

demand for agricultural and mining produce, causing jn^^^ease, and even capital, mstead of increasing its
prices to rise and rents to increase. No other portion interest and profit, obtains less and less per-centage.'*

<-»f fVi*» /Tkmmiinifv Vine n cimil'ir nrlvnntnrr^. Tll^ - . . . .1 - .< . » 11 ^ ;_

of the community has a similar advantage. The
labouring classes do not find their wages steadily rising
as their numbers increase ; and even capital — its in-
terest and profit, instead of increasing, become a less
and less per-centage w^ith the growth of population and
wealth. The landlords alone are in possession of a
strict monopoly, becoming more and more lucrative,
whether they do anything or nothing for the soil.
(Hear, hear.) This is not of so much consequence in
a country like America, where there is plenty of
unused land waiting for any one who chooses to go
and cultivate it ; but in an old country like ours, with
limited land and growing population, it is a great and
increxsing grievance. We M'ant the people of England
to say to the landlord*. You are welcome to every in-
crease of rent which you can shew to be the effect of
anything you have done for the land ; but what you
got by the mere rise of the price of your commodity
compared with others — what you gain by our loss — is
not the effect of your exertions, but of ours, and not
you, but we, ought to have it.

Is it not notorious that the worst of all per-centages is
that returned on the investment of money in land?
But why does not the same principle apply to com-
merce? An industrious father founds a sound busi-
ness, which he leaves to his son. Meanwhile, the
general prosperity of the country gives an impulse to
all trade, and special circumstances favour the par-
ticular business in question. The son becomes a
millionaire. What is to prevent Mr Mill saying to
him as he says to the landlord, ** What you get by the
mere rise of the price of your commodity " — a
raw material, perhaps — " compared with others is
not the effect of your exertions, but of ours ; and we,
not you, ought to have it ! " The doctrine is nothing
better than Communism in profits of all kinds, and
the only effect of applying it to land would be that ot
applying it to business — it would prevent any one be-
coming a merchant or a landowner. It is a mere sophism
to say that land is different from all other things because
it is not made by man. Nothing is made altogether by
man, and nothing is made altogether without man —

At, .. ^i-- ^' ckr 'kt'ui 1- -.1. land least, perhaps, of all. The working classes are

About this portion of Mr Mill s speech the ^^ ^.j^^jy ^^ ^^ f^^p^^^ ^ ^, have said, by a pro-
Times holds \'iews precisely similar to our posal to exempt them from their just burdens by a
own, and we cannot do better than quote direct taxation on property, but the theory of Mr
\\lQia : Mill's suggestion wiU not bear a moment's examina-

tion.

On the same question the Hour has the
following : —

The many admirers of Mr Mill's undoubted power
of reasoning closely and lucidly from his own pre-
mises will more than ever regret, after his latest utter-
ances, his inability to accept, or determination to
ignore, existing facts, customs, and usages, even when
proposing political measures of the most sweeping
character. Starting always from abstract theories of
his own, and then advancing step by step, rejoicing
in the strength of his logic, he arrives at length at a

Mr Mill's principle is that landlords have no right
to any increment in the value of their property which
is not due to the capital they have themselves ex-
pended on it. If the growing prosp)erity of the country
or the accidental development of a town have in-
creasetl a landlord's rent, he is to be regarded as a
monopolist of the bounties of Providence, and all his
additional profits are to be taken from him by means
of taxation, and thus distributed among the whole
mass of the community. It should be enough to ask
where this process is to stop. Where is the
property, or even the skill and genius which

324 Tlu Country GmiUfnatis Magazine

condasion which, though he imagines it applicable to consider that the carrying out of the pro*

any given state of society, is, in fact, only appUcable gramme of the land reformers would be any-

toastateofsocietydesigned, constructed, and patent- ^r^^ v . beneficial to the welfere of this

€d by Mr MiU himself. Mr Mill's latest theory is "^^°^ ^"^ Denenci^ to me weuare Ol inis

that there is no sucK thing as a right of property in countr}'. It would be a confiscation, not

land ; that the State is the real and sole landowner, and only of material property, but of that higher

the person we call the landlord is only a casual and property of intelligence and industry which

permissive owner ; and that whenever he gets more out acquires lands and houses,

of the land than is good for his moral weU-being, the i, . ^ , '^ • -n-

SUte may step in and mulct him at its wiU The .^^^"^g °^^t ^^ ^^ proposition m Mr

doctrine of the *' unearned increment of rent " is the Mill's speech that no more land, under any

latest blessing which we owe to philosophical Liberal- pretext whatever, should become the private

ism ; and, as Mr Mill says, it requires explanation. Up property of individuals, the Hour remarks :—
to a certain date, to be fixed by Mr Mill, the landlord

is to be able to make what he can out of his land ; but xhis downright proposition was, with some adroit-

after that date woe betide him if he adds a sixpence to ^„^ ^ associated with the efforts now being made

his rent, if he has the luck to receive a few applications ^y the Commons' Preservation Society, as to invite a

for buUding ground, or if a new raUway should chance certain amount of popular favour. Now, all parties

to run tiirough his estate. Every penny of profit accru- are agreed in tiie wish to preserve a number of

ing to him from Uiese and similar incidents, common commons and open spaces ; but for what purpose ?

to most ordmary freeholders, will be claimed by the ^s places for exercise and recreation, and where the

State as " unearned increment" To commonplace fr^sh air of London may be freely enjoyed, not for

nunds tins would seem to be tantamount to a prohibi- ^^ g^ke of revivmg the vagabond agriculture of a past

tivetax on improvements, nor is tiie unhappy taxpayer generation, when one man came and cut turf here,

favoured witii knowmg where or to whom his money ^nd anotiier cut wood tiiere, and pigs, and geese^

^"^ S^ and cows strayed about at pleasure, and the scanty

resources of the land were gradually exhausted with-

ThroughoUt a closely-reasoned article the out a sixpence being expended on their renewal. We

Ifour points out that the arguments of Mr do not accuse Mr Mill of wishing to return to the

Mill only tend to shew that enterprize in ^^^^ *g«* ^^ agriculture, but twice in his speech he

landowners is detrimental to their interests, '^^"*^ regretiully to the days when common lands

, . ^ ... ^ were at the mercy of aU who took whatever the land

and inteUigent management of property— ^onld give them, and gave nothing to the land in

foiv* return. We cannot forget that, in too many cases,

We do not think that the Hour is mis- the pig, the goose, and the cow were speedily fol-

representing Mr Mill and his friends, as he ^°^^ ^X ^ settiement of squatters, who lay like an in-

and they exhibited themselves on the Exeter Z^""" T'u^^' '^t'^Z^'T^r^'T^^TI!^
, , ' . ... We should have thought that a chief object of

platform, when it puts m their mouths these i^^ reform was to ensure means for malting the

words:—- land as productive as possible, but it is now authorita-
tively laid down that commons and waste lands, if

We will do all in our power to assUt you ; we will circumstances require tiieir enclosure or reclamation,

try and obtain free trade in land for you and the should be given to the poor, not on account of their

aboUtion of the law of entail ; and then you will be ability to do justice to such lands or to bring them into

able to buy plenty of land, and get your 2 per cent, a proper state of cultivation, but on account of their

But we teU you fairiy that when you have bought it poverty. We should have thought that the proper

we mean to make you contribute a good deal more persons to whom enclosed and reclaimed lands should

both to imperial and local taxation ; and, more than be entrusted were not the rich, as being rich, nor the

that, if by your forethought, or your adroitness, or p#or, as being poor, but those who from their local

your good fortune, your land makes such improve, position and opportunities were most likely to do good

ment in a few years as to return you 3 per cent, instead service by working with capital and intelligence to

of 2, we mean to step in and carry off the extra i per make them bring forth their fan- share of produce for

cent, for the good of the State. the benefit of the community at large.

To us it appears (and we have en- Were Mr Mill not a philosopher, he must,

deavoured to study Mr Mill's logic) that the since his Exeter Hall speech was delivered,

extract we have given is a legitimate deduc- have seen good reason to change, or at all

^ion from his speech, and if it be so, we events, to modify the opinions he then ex-

The Land Tenure Question

325

pressed ; but, being a philosopher, it is more
than probable, notwithstanding all the fiaicts
that have been brought forward to shew that
he was wrong, that he will content himself by
saying, " So much the worse for the fi3u:ts."
Sut Mr Mill ought to have remembered that
it is due to a name so illustrious as his own to
refrain from the propagation of theories which,

although safe enough with himself^ if pushed
to their conclusions, as they likely will be by
less trained minds, will lead to a subdivision
and distribution of property inimical not only
to the best interests of that Government which
mulcted the extra per-centages of landlords,
but to all the people, including even those
who clamoured for confiscation.

MR 7. S. MILL ON LAND TENURE REFORMS

IN invoking the assistance of this meeting and sacrifices of those who freely gave it to

to our efforts for Land Tenure Reform him. What a man has earned by his labour,

many explanations that would have been ab- or by the expenditure of what has been saved

solutely necessary as lately as two years ago from previous earnings, he has a fair claim

may now be dispensed with. It is no longer to do what he likes with, subject only to the

necessary to begin at the very beginning to general rules of morality. But he who detains

shew how there came to be a land question the land — a thing not made by man, a thing

and what that question is. The newspapers
and the speeches of members of Parliament
and others are full of it, friends and enemies
have alike helped to bring it into notice, and
we now read everywhere of land tenure re-
form and the unearned increment of rent

THE MONOPOLY OF LAND.

Most of you probably know, at least in a
general way, the creed and aims of the land
reformers, and I need only at present briefly
remind you of them. We hold that land —
in which term we include mines and the whole

necessary to life, and of which there is not
enough for all — ^is in a privileged position.
Whether it is right or wrong that he should
be in such a position, he is so. He is, in a
word, a monopolist j and a monopoly should
be exercised, not at the mere will and plea-
sure of the possessor, but in the manner most
consistent with the general good ; the State
has exacdy the same right to control it as it has
to control, for instance, the railways. The
land reformers are of opinion that the tinie
has arrived for the State to re-assert this right;
to correct the abuses of landed property, and

. , ^ , , , , . , ^ adapt it better to the wants and interests of

raw material of the globe-is a kmd of pro- ^he community considered as a whole. How

perty unlike any other. The rights of pnvate ^^ ^^e modifications should reach is a point

individuals to somethmg which they did not ^^ ^^ich aU land reformers are not yet

make, or help to make, but which came to ^g^^^ j ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^

them by bequest or mhentance from people ^^ advocated by this Association. Without

who also did not make it, or help to make it, g^i^g the length of those who think that the

are a totally different thmg from the right of ^^^^ should re-possess itself of all private

every one to the product of his own labours j^nds, subject to a just compensation, we yet

and sacrifices, or to the product of the labom^ ^i^tain at least no fiirther appropriation of

^ lands which are not already private property

♦ Address delivered at Exeter Hafl in connexion should be permitted. We protest against the

vith the Land Tenure Refonn Association. conversion of public Ot corporate lands into

326

TIu Country Gentlemaiis Magazine

private property. Still more indignantly do
we protest against any more Acts of Parlia-
ment for dividing the common lands of the
country among the neighbouring landholders.
Instead of giving the lands to the rich and a
miserable pretence of compensation to the
poor, we insist that the lands should be for
the poor and the compensation for the rich
— compensation for what their manorial and
other rights now bring into them ; for the
most part a very small value. We further
maintain that permission to own the land
does not necessarily carry with it a right to
the increase of vajue which the land is con-
stantly acquiring by the mere progress of the
public prosperity. We affirm that this spon-
taneous increase of value may justly be taken
for the public by jneans of special taxation.
These are the two chief points of our pro-
gramme: — First, no more land, under any
pretext, to become the private property of
individuals ; secondly, taxation on the land,
in order to give the benefit of its natural in-
crease of value to the whole community,
instead of to the proprietors, these being
allowed the option of relinquishing the land
at its present money value.

CONVERTING COMMON LAND INTO PRIVATE

PROPERTY.

Let US consider these points one by one.
Few persons are less inclined than I am to
call hard names ; it is generally best, even
when we are protesting against an injustice,
to protest against it under the most moderate
appellation which it admits of. But there are
cases when things ought to be called by
names which throw no veil over their enor-
mity, and I confess that I cannot speak of
the existing practice of dividing the common
lands among the landlords by any gentler
name than robbery — robbery of the poor. It
will, of course, be said that people cannot be
robbed of what is not theirs, and that the
commons are not the legal property of the
poor. Certainly not — our masters have taken
care of that. They have taken care that the
^nor shall not acquire property by custom, as

all other classes have done« But if the
commons are not the property of the poor,
they are just as little the property of those
who take them. They cannot make them
their property without an Act of Parliament,
and they have had no difficulty in obtaining
any number of such Acts from two Houses
of their own making as often as they pleased,
whether the Government was Liberal or Con-
servative. It is only i(i the last three years
that they have been forced, to their own great
indignation, to grant a temporary respite, chiefly
by the public-spirited exertions of Professor
Fawcett and of that very valuable body,
the Commons' Preservation Society. The
commons are not the private property of any
one. Their history has been written in
several recent books, and should be known
to every man, woman, and child. There was
a time when much of the land of the country
was not appropriated, but was open to all the
population of the neighbourhood to feed their
cattle, and occasionally to grow com upon it,
turn and turn about, without permanent
occupancy. When, for the sake of better
agriculture, this system had to be given up,
the land ought at least to have been fairly
portioned out among all who were interested
in it. Instead of this, a great part was
usurped with a high hand by the powerful
landholders, at a time when few dared resist
them ; another great part has since been
filched away by the successors of the same
people, in the more civilized method of En-
closure Acts. The commons of the present
day are what is left. We are willing to con-
done the past if they will only leave us the
remainder. The private rights that exist in
those lands are limited rights. The lord of
the manor has rights, the principal of which
is the exclusive right of killing game. TTie
neighbours have what are called rights of
common — that is, rights of pasturage, of
wood-cutting, of turf-cutting, and, in general,
rights to the spontaneous produce of the soil;
and those rights have hitherto been sufficient
to prevent the land from being enclosed and
cultivated. The question is, therefore, quite
fresh, and open to the judgment of the nation,

Mr y. S. Mill OH Land Tenure Reform

337

whether it will suffer these lands to be en-
closed and cultivated, and, if at all, for whose
benefit ? Hitherto it has been for the benefit
of the landlords. The Law Courts hold
that none but landholders have rights of
common, and that no one else is entitled
either to a share of land or to compensation
for its being taken away from the people. It
matters not, though every cottager who had a
cow, or a pig, or a goose, may, from time
immemorial, have turned them out to feed
on the common. The Courts are constantly
making new law ; but they would not make
law for that. Yet they could have done so
if they liked. They have never had any dif-
ficulty in converting custom into law. The
bulk of our law consists of customs which
have been made law by decisions of the
courts. They could just as easily have
decided, had they so pleased, that the
whole population had common rights as
that the landlords had ; but they did not so
.please.

NECESSITY FOR THE INTERFERENCE OF
PARLIAMENT.

In spite of this, however, the commons are
not property for purposes of cultivation, and
when Parliament, by a special Act, removes
the obstacles to their cultivation. Parliament
by so doing creates a new and valuable pro-
perty which has not yet passed into private
hands, and which, retained by the State,
would be a source of considerable revenue.
If Parliament profess to give this property
away gratis, is it to the rich that it should be
given ? To create a valuable property for the
rich by expelling the poor from that use of
the land for pasturage which they enjoyed in
practice, though not by legal right, and
along with it from the use of the land for
healthful recreation, and from the power of
wandering over it at will when they have no
other place in which to enjoy nature except
dusty roads — can anything be more like
Ahab the King's seizure of Naboth's little
vineyard, or the rich man in the parable, who
with his great flocks and herds could not be

happy without robbing his poor neighbour of
his single ewe lamb ? I shall be accused, I
suppose, of exciting your passions. I
am not ashamed of the charge — I want
to excite your passions. Without pas-
sion we shall never get this great iniquity
put an end to. Great allowance ought to
be made for people who merely go on doing
what they and their predecessors have long
done, and have never until quite recently
been told that it was unjust. Let them learn
that, without any hatred of them, we stand
here for justice. Once take away their power
of doing this wrong, and before long their
eyes will be unsealed, and they will see the
injustice as clearly as we see it.

THE UNEARNED INCREASE OF LAND.

The other of the two chief points of our
programme — the claim of the State to the
unearned increase of rent — requires rather
more explanation, as it is not yet equally
familiar, though the time has already come
when it is listened to, and it is probably
destined to become an article of the creed of
advanced Reformers. The land of the world
— ^the raw material of the glo be — in all pros-
perous countries constantly increases in
value. The landlord need only sit still and
let nature work for him ; or, to speak truly,
not nature, but* the labour of other men.
What is it that has produced the prodigiously
increased demand for building land, which
has created the colossal fortunes of the
Grosvenors, the Portmans, the Stanleys, and
others of our great families ? It is the growth
of manufactures and the increase of towns.
And what has produced that ? Your labour
and outlay; not that of the landlords.
The same labour and outlay — namely,
yours, not theirs — produces a steady
increase of demand for agricultural
and mining products, causing prices
to rise and rents to increase. No other
portion of the community has a similar
advantage. The labouring classes do not
find their wages steadily rising as their num-
bers increase ; and even capital — its interest

328 The Country Gmtlctnafis Magazine

and profit — instead of increasing, become a there has been improvement by the landlord,

less and less per-centage as wealth and popu- but where there has been no improvement, or

lation advance. The landlords alone are in improvement solely by the tenant, a tax

possession of a strict monopoly, becoming which takes from the landlord no more than

more and more lucrative whether they do that increase is within the just rights of the

anything or nothing for the soil. This is of State. It might be necessary to have a

little consequence in a country like America, periodical valuation of the rental of the

where there is plenty of unused land, waiting country, say once in ten or once in twenty

for any one who chooses to go and cultivate years. The landlords could easily keep a

it; but in an old country like ours, with record of their improvements. Let them

limited land and a growing population, it is retain all increase which they could shew to

a great and increasing grievance. We want be of their own creating, make a fair allow-

the people of England to say to the landlords, ance for any diminution of the value of

" You are welcome to every increase of rent money, give them the benefit of every doubt,

that you can shew to be the effect of any- and lay on the remainder as a tax to the

thing you have done for the land ; but what State. If the country continues prosperous,

you get by the mere rise of the price of your this tax would in time produce a considerable

commodity compared with others — what you revenue, to the great relief of the taxpayers,

gain by our loss — is not the effect of your while any landlord who thought himself

exertions, but of ours, and not you, harshly dealt with could avail himself of the

but we ought to have it" They will option of resigning his land on the • terms

say, " But we bought our land as a originally offered^ namely — at the price he

property increasing in value, and the pro- could have obtained for it before the intrq-

bable increase was considered in the price." duction of the new system. This is our

Our answer to that is, " If you are dissatisfied, doctrine of the unearned increment, and you

give up the land ; we will pay you back what may depend on it that the difficulties which

you gave for it, and even what you could people are afraid of would prove, when fiurly

have sold it for yesterday morning. That is faced, to be little more than phantoms,
all you have a right to ; we give you that, and

the nation will gain the difference between a valuation of improvements.

the present and the future value." It does

not seem to me possible to contest the justice The valuation of land for purposes of taxa-
of this arrangement, provided it can be made tion is the general practice of Europe ; a re-
to work, but many persons think that it would valuation is made occasionally everywhere,
not work. They say it would be impossible and periodically in the greater part of British
to ascertain the amount of the unearned in- India. It would only remain to have a valua-
crease of rent It would be impossible, if tion of improvements : but this is now ac-
we attempted to cut too close. The amount knowledged to be not only practicable, but
could not be ascertained within a few pounds, indispensable, as the basis of a just tenant-
But we do not want to attempt anything right There is nothing a Govenmient can
impracticable. Neither do we wish to be do that does not look frightfully difficult,
harsh. We are willing to leave an ample until we consider how much more difiknilt
margin for mistakes. But we demand the things a Government already does. Every
recognition of the principle that a kind of attempt to apportion taxation fairly among
property which rises in value while other the different members of the community is
kinds remain stationary or fall, may justly, on as difficult and in its complete perfection as
that account, be subjected to special taxation, impossible as what we propose. It is £su:
When it is notorious that rents have in- easier than to make a just income-lax, and
^7eased, and are increasing, not only where would not give rise to anything like the same

Mr 7. S. Mill on Land Tenure Reform 329

amount of un&imess and fraud. Let us, then, tried, fairly and on a sufficient scale, of the
with steady perseverance, continue to spread management of the farm by and for the hands
our principles, and we need have no fear that that till it For the first time, the land re-
the seed will fall on barren ground. There formers have the prospect of intelligent sup*
are many circumstances at the present time port from those who would gain more than
to encourage us, and the most encouraging any one else by their success. The Agricul-
of all, as it is the most unexpected, is the tural Union is a most important ally to us ;
awakening of the agricultural labourers, and we, I hope, shall be useful allies to them.
That most neglected, and, as it seemed, most Already they and we have worked together
helpless portion of the labouring population, at several public meetings, and we are work-
has risen up, and has found a voice, which ing together to-night. But whether there be
can, and which will, make itself heard by the concert and organized co-operation or not,
makers of our laws. No class has so direct whatever is gained by either is a gain to
an interest in the reform of the land system both. We may, therefore, look forward
as the farm-labourers; it is on State lands with full confidence to a rapidly increasing
that they may hope to see the experiment success.

LAND CONVEYANCING (SCOTLAND)

A LEGAL transfer of land cannot be the option of extinguishing his interest on

accomplished except by aid of certain execution of an instrument of discharge, which

ceremonies and forms, but unfortunately, the is set out in the schedule, in favour of the

forms requisite to demonstrate the principle owner, which deed, upon registration in

occasionally swamp the object The object sasines, becomes effectual,
should be the first consideration, the mode The more important provisions of the mea-

of attaining it ranking second. Its form sure appear to us to relate to heirship,
should besimple and palpable to the interested The personal title held by an ancestor is

person, and Uie less verbiage used in the pro* available on succession of his heir as a matter

cess the better. of course, upon a simple registration proceed-

We have before us a Bill, upon the back of ing — but this only applies to an unrecorded

which appear the names of Mr Bruce, the disposition to the ancestor. An heir has bat

Lord Advocate, and Mr Winterbotham. The to employ a notary to be enabled to register

preamble is to the effect ''That it is expedient his title to land he inherits (subject to any

to amend the law relating to land rights and existing charges thereupon), and no factious

conveyancing, and to facilitate the transfer of objection shall have weight upon any ques-

land." tion as to the character of inheritance if truth

The Bill applies exclusively to Scotland, prevails, and the instrument is not chargeable

and after defining certain rights, proposes to with any duty to the revenue,
abolish the right of any person having an Possibly in England the last-named provi-

estate of property, to procure a renewal of sion might be thought superlative, but the

the investure. It also seeks to abrogate the feudal system still appears in Scotland in land

whole of the existing statutes relating to dealings^ the soil is sacred, and the right to

non-entries. it, especially by heirship, has an importance

A superior has, by the proposed measure, that in England is not so generally conceded

330

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

The following clauses of the Bill propose
to deal with those persons interested in the
land other than by succession — the instance
being shewn of a dealing with land by an
heir, and assignment by him to a purchaser
— the instrument of sasine is to recite the
fact of ownership by the original ancestor,
the succession of the heir and the nature of
the dealing, and the record is complete.

Another important provision is, that the
right of any person in possession of an estate
in land descendible to heirs cannot be
challenged after the expiration of ten years.
We think the annexed clause entirely un-
necessary, although the framers of the Bill
perhaps had some reason for its insertion : —

13. When a person shall have lawfully entered into
possession of any estate in land as the heir entitled to
succeed thereto, his possession shaU be deemed to be
prima Jacie evidence of his right of succession to such
estate in a question with tenants, or lessees, and all
others not themselves claiming such succession, or not
having a good title to challenge by action his right of
succession, and all payments bona fide made to him as
the proprietor of such estate shall be good as regards
the persons making such payments.

We fail to see the utility of introducing
such a general clause in an act of legislation.
In effect it assumes that a person " lawfully
in possession " is unlawfully in possession.
The only practical effect it basis to indemnify
the tenant whether he pay his rent to the
right or wrong person.

The Bill then goes on to define casualties
and the remedy for their recovery, and the
process for obtaining possession, but it limits
the computation of value to the date of the
passage of the Bill, and contains the usual
proviso for redemption which is made matter
of record by a simple proceeding. It also
makes it optional for the superior to elect,
whether the redemption shall be in the nature
of an annual sum equal to 4 per cent, on the
capital. If he so elect, it must be made
matter of record. The superior is to have
power to require the holder of the estate ot
property to redeem by payment of the re-
demption money at his own expense. Entails
are declared not to bar redemption. The
Bill contains several general clauses, and

ijiiicp TQ proposes to abolish the monopolies

heretofore existing by which the persons hav-
ing title to an estate of superiority had the
right of selection as to the appointment of an
agent to prepare or record sasines or warrants
of registration. •

The measure then proceeds irUer aIia\o
define the forms of conveyance and terms,
and in the schedule to the Bill frameworks
are given which for the purposes required are
marvels of simplicity. The Bill also contains
a precise clause applicable to errors in con-
struction which it is declared are not to affect
the bona fides. The following clause is so im-
portant that we quote it in its entirety :

25. Any ex facie valid title to an estate in land shall
be sufficient foundation for prescription, and possession
following on such title for the space of twenty yean
continually and together, and that peaceably, without
any lawful interruption made during the said space of
twenty years, shall, for all the purposes of the Act of
the Parliament of Scotland, 161 7, c 12, "Anent pre-
scription of heritable rights," be equivalent to posses
sion for forty years by virtue of heritable infeftments
for which charters and instruments of sasine or other
sufficient titles are shewn and produced, according to
the provisions of the said Act ; and if such possession
as aforesaid following on an ex facie valid title shall
have continued for the space of thirty years, no dednc-
tion or allowance shaU be made on account of the
years of minority or less age of those against whom
the prescription is used and objected, or of any period
during which any such person was under legal dis-
ability. This enactment shall have no application to,
and shall not be construed so as to alter or affect, the
existing law relating to the character or period of
the possession, use, or enjoyment necessary to consti-
tute or prove the existence of any servitude or of any
public right of way or other public right, and shall
not be pleadable to any cffiK:t in any action in depend-
ence at the passing of this Act, or which shaU be com-
menced prior to the first day of January, one thousand
eight hundred and seventy-five.

The next important part of the Bill is that
relating to trusts and trustees. If a trustee
be in possession duly recorded, upon an order
by the Court to administer the trust, and
vesting the trust in another person, a record
must be made up reciting the former ap-
pointment, so as to identify the same, and have
a reference to the register where it is recorded,
it then operates as a title in favour of the per-
son so appointed. The Bill also reserves power
to guardians who have charge of persons being
infants, and consequently under disability to

Land Cmveyancing (Scotland) 33 1

petition the Lord President of the Court Sheriff Clerk, and Sheriff Clerk Depute,

of Session, who shall direct what is best to be Macer of Chancery, Presenter of Signatures,

done under the circumstances. The powers and Clerk to the Presenter of Signatures, with

ofthe Lord President are deputed to the Lord the provision of compensation dependent

Justice Clerk, and the Bill contains the usual upon a vote by Parliament

power of departure from rule where the in- Upon the whole we incline to agree with

terests of infants are concerned. the main principle of the Bill. It has the

The thirty-ninth clause of the Bill l^alizes merit of being drawn simply, and deals ju-

a devise by will to operate as well with diciously with complicated matters. It pre-

respect to real as personal estate, with certain serves all the useful results of a general

provisions which it is unimportant to mention, registration, and the forms of procedure, as

By the forty-first clause it is proposed to set out in the appendices, are faultless in

abolish the offices of Sheriflf of Chancery, their simplicity. i

TENANT-RIGHT IN NORFOLK.

AT the last meeting of the Norfolk Cham- before the end of the term. That only the
ber of Agriculture, a report, signed by old rent should be paid during the first four
Mr C. S. Read, M.P., of the committee years of the new term, and during the re-
nominated last year to consider " the main mainder of the term such rent as may then
principles of a lease and compensation for be agreed upon. That until within four years
unexhausted improvements," was discussed, of the end of the term the tenant shall be at
The principles which guided the committee liberty to cultivate and manage the farm ac-
are explained by these two general resolu- cording to his own judgment, and have full
tions : — That in the interest of the landlord power to dispose of all or any portion of the
and his in-coming tenant, and especially for produce of the farm by sale or otherwise, the
the benefit of the community at large, it is landlord having full power at any time to as-
desirable that sufl!icient inducement should, certain by arbitration whether the farm is
by compensation for productive capital left in properly cultivated ; if the arbitrators decide
the soil, be held out to the out-going tenant in favour of the tenant, the costs to be paid
to farm the land as well during the last four by the landlord ; if the decision be otherwise,
years as at any previous period of his occupa- then the tenant to pay the costs, and bring
tion. That the principle of compensation the land into the system provided for the last
for productive capital left in the soil by the four years of the lease. In considering the
out-going tenant at the end of the term should question of compensation for imexhausted
be introduced into all agricultural leases and improvements, an opinion was expressed tlut
agreements ; also the principle of compensa- the landlord should continue to be directly
tion to the landlord for dilapidation and de- responsible in all cases of compensation to
terioration caused by default of the tenant the out-going tenant, and then proceeded to
The committee proceeded to consider the classify the improvements as temporary,
main principles of a lease, and passed the durable, and permanent, the definition being
following resolutions : — ^That the term be not as follows, viz. : — ^Temporary : The purchase
more than twenty years, nor less than twelve and application of manures and fertilizers ;
years. That all agricultural leases should be the purchase of com, cake, and other feeding
renewable at the request of the tenant, and stufifs consumed on the farm by live stock
with the consent of the landlord^ four years other than working horses. Durable : Sub-

332 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

soiling, getting up and removing stones, lim- no extra price should be charged for the

ing, chalking, marling, claying, moulding, manure, but the allowance should be made

and boning with undissolved bones. Per- under the head of unexhausted imprgve*

manent : Reclaiming, levelling, planting ments. Proceeding to manures and fa-

(otherwise than ornamental), draining, tilizers, the following maximum limiti

making, or improving watercourses, works were agreed upon : — Rate for rape cakc^

of irrigation, ponds or reservoirs, fences, one-fourth the value used in the last

roads, bridges, and the erection or enlarge- year, and one-eighth the value used in the

ment of buildings thereon. The time over previous year. Rate for undissolved bona

which compensation for these different im- — the compensation to extend over lour

provements should extend is defined by the years, viz., one-half the value used in the last

following resolutions:-^ That compensation year, one-fourth the value used in the last year

for temporary improvements should in no but one^ one-eighth the last year but two,

case extend beyond the last two years. That and one-sixteenth the last year but three,

the compensation for durable improvements Rate for dissolved bones on arable land — the

be limited to the last eight years. That the allowance for these to be limited to the

compensation for permanent improvements value used in the last year, die rate to be

be restricted to twenty years, except in the one-fourth of such value. When the question

case of cottages or other permanent buildings, of compensation for the application of other

for which the limit shall be thirty years. That light manures was considered, their unsatis-

no compensation be allowed for permanent factory composition, varying price, and un-

improvements made without the written con- certain effects were held to be open to mud

sent of the landlord. In defining the limits doubt and difficulty, and therefore, after cxxt

of temporary improvements, the Committee siderable discussion, the following resolutioD

considered it expedient to fix a maximum was carried : — ^That no compensation be

rate to which they should extend, and also allowed for any other light manures. Bat it

agreed to the following general conditions : — was agreed : — That town and fiumyaid

That no compensation be given for artificial manure (brought on to the farm) should be

manures (rape-cake excepted) applied to com allowed for as follows— one-fourth of the cost

crops ; that any excess of expenditure in the and carriage of the manure in the last year,

last two years over that of the previous two and one-eighth in the last year but one. To

years shall not be taken into account in fixing guard against compensation being awarded

the amount of compensation. Taking cakes for any unnecessary or injudicious outlay

as the most valuable and important of feed- made by the out-going tenant, and to secure

ing-stuffs, the following was decided upon : — that the sum paid §hould be for unexhmtsUd

Rate for linseed, cotton, and rape cakes, half value only, it was agreed : — That in all cases
the value used in the last year, and one- . of compensation the improvements must be

fourth the value used in the previous year, left in good order and repair, and that no

Rate for corn (including bran, malt-dust, and payment be made for any outlay which is

linseed), one-fourth the value used in the last not suitable to the holding and has not in-

year, and one-eighth the value used in the creased its letting value, unless it has been

previous year. In order to prevent the pos- made with the written consent of the land-

sibility of a double payment in these cases, lord ; all building erected by the tenant with-

the following was put on record: — That the out the consent of the landlord may be removed

manure left on the farm at Michaelmas (but by the tenant, first being offered to the landlord,

not exceeding one-half produced in the last The committee are decidedly of opinion that

year) should be taken and paid for by the it is both just and expedient that •ompenta-

landlord at the usual consuming value of tion for unexhausted improvements shonld

ordinary farm manure, and that when cake, form a part of all yearly agreements. The

.r.^^ '"^c, have been used in its manufacture, committee considered, moreover, that audi

TeiianURight in Norfolk

333

^ to the tenant's capital is essentially
, and that it is most desirable, in the
2 of the protection afforded by a long
lat some security should be provided by
ive enactment. It was recommended :
I all agreements from year to year, at
ghteen months* notice to quit should
;n. In approaching the question of
:he committee scarcely thought it ne-
to refer at all to winged game \ but in
[lat no doubt might arise, the following

resolution was recorded : That the right of
the landlord to reserve winged game should
be continued. With regard to hares, this re-
solution was adopted : That the tenant should
have the right to kill hares by coursing, and
any damage accruing from an excessive
quantity of hares preserved by the landlord
to be paid for by arbitration. And the fol-
lowing resolution was carried almost unani-
mously : That every tenant should e£fectually
destroy all rabbits on his iann.

AGRICULTURAL GREAT BRITAIN.

ERE are few in these days who over again the late Mr Albany Fonblanque
think, as of old it was thought, that had to excuse the lateness and imperfections
mbering of the people is akin to of the Agricultural Returns on the ground of
le. On the contrary, all who have the dilatoriness of farmers, and in some
:anding recognize the necessity of cases, of their dislike to supply the simple
formation as the Census supplies, and information required. We are glad to notice
•y thing in their power to lighten the that in the return just issued by his suc-
f the collectors. They know that it cessor, there is not so much direct com-
atter of great importance to be ac- plaint made about the obstructiveness
>r acquainted with the number of of agriculturists to aflford information as
in the United Kingdom which re- there was. Still there is an indication in the
read, for on such knowledge depends report that there are many in the country
t which they must pay for their own. purblind enough not to recognije that such
:idence of taxation on all other com- information would not only be profitable to
:s is also very materially affected by others, but also to themselves. Here is a
umns of these Census retiuns. But little under-current pointing to this con-
verybody approves of the numbering elusion. Mr Valpy says, " With such varia-
, women, and children in the country, tions in the number of one description
few of those who are specially in- of live stock [he refers to sheep], there
I in obtaining reliable facts about the can be no doubt as to the usefulness
2of our land are very chary in supplying of statistical information in helping to
'hich come under their own observa- check either top much or too little apprehen-
rhey regard the inquiry as to the sion respecting the supply of a leading article
• of acres under cultivation, and the of agricultural produce and food for the
ar areas occupied by certain kinds of people. And such an instance of the prac-
the number of horses and cattle, of tical value of statistical facts ought to assist
.nd pigs fed upon the farm as one of in promoting the successful collection ef agri-
inquisitorial and unwarrantable charac- cultural returns, and help to remove such
hey seem to imagine that gatherers of objections as are still entertained by some
ural statistics are as obnoxious and of landowners and farmers." The returns for
5 account as the fatuous busy-body Great Britain, he remarks, have now been
on the stage as Paul Pry. Over and collected for a period sufficiently long to shew

334 ^-^^^ Country Genilemaiis Magazine

that their publication is not injurious to the 21,279 horses, 132,408 cattle, 2i9,539sheep,

interests of the farmer. Gently, but with and 177,631 pigs.

quiet sarcasm, the reporter says: — "Informer The total extent of land returned in 1872

reports mention has been made of the general as being under all kinds of crops, bare fallow,

willingness of agriculturists in Wales and and grass, v/as 31,004,173 acres in Great

Scotland to give the few particulars for which Britain, 15,746,547 acres in Ireland, 88,573

application is annually made. And as regards acres in the Isle of Man, 18,026 acres in the

the returns which have been collected for island of Jersey, and 12,007 acres in the

many years in Ireland, it may be remarked islands of Guernsey, Aldemey, &c, making

that the Registrar-General, who issues the a total for the United Kingdom of 46,869,326

returns, always acknowledges in his report acres.

the readiness with which the necessary As regards the division of the cultivated

details are given." We noticed this willing- land into arable and permanent grass, it ap-

ness of Irish farmers to accord the informa- pears by the returns for 1872, that in Great

tion requested in our review of the agricul- Britain 18,429,000 acres, or 59.4 per cent,

tural statistics of Ireland in the last month's were under arable cultivation, and 12,575,000

number. We trust agriculturists will take acres, or 40.6 per cent, were under perma-

the hint from Mr Valpy, and in future lessen nent grass. In Ireland the relative condi-

his labours by follpwing in this matter the tion of the land is very different, as there

example of Irish agriculturists. were but 5,505,000 acres, or 35.0 per cent,

Turning now to the returns themselves, we of arable, and as many as 10,241,000 acres,

find that the number of occupiers set down or 65 per cent, of permanent pasture. For

is in excess of last year, being 561,987 as the Islands, where the cultivation is of in-

against 549,784 in 1871. In 1871 the re- terest on account of the tenure of land,

turns shewed that of the total number of hold- especially in the Channel Islands, the returns

ings in Great Britain rather more than one- shew that in the Isle of Man, 76^000 acres,

half did not exceed 20 acres, and the acreage or 86.0 per cent, were arable, and 12,000

returned was not more. than 1,897,000 acres, acres, or 14.0 per cent, were permanent

out of 30,838,000 acres. The number of grass; in Jersey, 14,500 acres, or 80.6 per

cattle on such farms was 582,000, out of cent., were arable, and 3500 acres, or 19.4

5>337>ooo > *the number of sheep 1,414,000, per cent, were permanent grass; and in

out of 27,119,000 ; and the number of pigs Guernsey, &c., 7000 acres, or 57.0 per cent,

502,000, out of 2,499,000. The statistics of were arable, and 5000 acres, or 43.0 per

1872 reveal some interesting particulars, cent, were permanent grass,
proving that those who make outcry for The classification of arable land, according

greater sub-division of land are not well in- to the nature of the crops, shews that of

formed as to the. real extent land is already 18,429,000 acres returned for Great Britain

let out in small parcels. There were in Eng- in 1872 as under arable cultivation, 9,573,000

land alone no fewer than 67,422 holdings of acres, or 52.0 per cent, were under com

5^ acre and under i acre. • Of gardens or crops (including peas and beans), 3,616,000

farms from i to 5 acres there were in Great acres, or 19.6 per cent, were under green

Britain 124,280, distributed as follows: — crops (including potatoes), 648,000 acres, or

England, 93,148; Wales, 10,041; Scotland, 3.5 per cent, were under bare fallow, and

21,091. The total acreage of these farms 4,513,000 acres, or 24.5 per cent, were imder

amounted to 356,000 acres, 57 per cent of the various kinds of rotation grasses. The

which was under permanent pasture, and 43 returns for Ireland in 1872 shew that of

per cent arable. " Corn and grain crops," 5,505,000 acres of arable land, 2,090,000

we are told by the report, "were cultivated acres, or 38.0 per cent, were under com

in about equal proportions." The live stock crops, 1,474,000 acres, or 26.8 per cent,

maintained on these holdings consisted of were under green crops (including potatoes)

Agricultural Great Britain 335

acreSj or 0.3 per cent, were in bare produce upon the systems of farming. So

% and 1,799,000 acres, or 32.6 percent, far as relates to clover and other rotation

under rotation grasses. In the Isle of grasses, there was an increase in Great Qritain

in 1872, out of 76,000 acres of arable of 144,000 acres, or 3j^ per cent, in 1872

there were 37.5 per cent under com as against 1871.

, 16.3 per cent under green crops, 0.8 It is also gratifying to learn from the Agri-
rent under bare fallow, and 45.4 per cultural Returns of Great Britain, that the
under rotation grasses. In Jersey out acreage of land under cultivation is year by
,500 acres of arable land, 23.5 per cent year increasing, and that that increase is to
mder com, 39.9 per cent under green some extent attributable to the reclamation
, 0.9 per cent under bare fallow, and of waste land in many parts of the country,
per cent, under rotation grasses. There is still much ground lying in a state
e number of live stock in the United of desolation which, by the union of capital
dom in 1872 may now be noticed. As and labour might be made to "bloom and
ds horses the number included in the blossom as the rose." We do not think
ultural Returns was 1,808,259; the that such a consummation so devoutly to
)er licensed in Great Britain was be wished will be brought about by the
•48 ; the number of other than agricul- sophisms of Mr Mill, or the conceit of Mr
horses exempt from licence duty was Arch. The apostle of the agricultural la-
ibly about 35,000 ; and the number be- bourer, as he appeared on the platform of
ng to the army at home may be stated Exeter Hall, was not to be admired very
,000, which would bring the total num- much. 'We may leave for the naeantime
f horses in the United Kingdom up to the Tenant League Reformers out of the ques*
;,ooo. But a small deduction ought tion of land settlement; they are Marplots,
ibly to be made for the issue of more rather than the likely organizers of measures

one licence for the same horse upon a for allaying grievances which undoubtedly

Tc of owners during the year. The exist in connexion with Land Tenure. Much

number of cattle retumed for the has been written about emigration lately.
:d Kingdom in 1872 was 9,718,000': of Much advice, through the Union, of which

) the total number was 32,246,000, and Mr Arch is the representative, has been

igs, 4,178,000. Of these numbers of taken by agricultural labourers to their great

stock, Great Britain (exclusive of the sorrow. They were sent to cultivate land in

ds) possessed 2,150,000 horses, and Ire- Brazil, and found that the waste quarters of

540,000, giving a proportionate number this country, infertile though some of them

too acres of land under cultivation of may be, would have yielded them morecom-

1 Great Britain, and 3.4 in Ireland. Of fort than that which they found in the lands,
) of all kinds there were 5,624,000 in which they were told, and foolishly believed
t Britain, or 18.1 per 100 acres, and to be flowing with milk and honey.

',000, or 25.8 per 100 acres, in Ireland. The statistics of the Board of Trade Re-

p numbered 27,921,000, or 90.0 per 100 turns, give as directly employed in Agricul-

in Great Britain, and not more than ture the following information founded upon

!,ooo, or 27.1 per 100 acres, in Ireland, the Census of 1861. It is presumed by the

e were 2,771,000 pigs, or 8.9 per 100 reporter that there will not beany material

, in Great Britain, exclusive of those difference in the numbers, but we should

by cottagers and in towns, and 1^385,000, imagine that the introduction of steam and

S per 100 acres, in Ireland. reaping machines will have somewhat lessened

le variations in the annual returns of the the number of agricultural labourers within the

It of our grass lands will be watched last dozen years. " At that time," says the

interest, on account of the possible report, "including fanners, graziers, fan

t of the high prices of meat and dairy bailiflGs, in<loor farm - servants, shepl

33^ The Country Gentleman^s Magazim

and agricultural labourers, about 1,590,000 acres than in 187 1, and smaller in Ireland by

persons of both sexes were employed in agri- 18,000 acres. In the five years 1868 to 1872,
culture in Great Britain, or 6 per cent of the largest wheat acreage in Great Britain

the total population in 1871." This number, was in 1869, and the smallest in 1870, the

in proportion to 31,000,000 acres, the total difference amounted to> 188,000 acres ; 1872

quantity of land retmned as under cultivation shewed 90,000 fewer acres under wheat than

in 1872, would shew that a little more than 1869. The acreage of the wheat crop in

five persons, on an average, were employed Ireland decreased in each year from 1868 to

upon every 100 acres of land. It would, 1872, the last of these years shewing 58,000

therefore, require a large quantity of ad- acres, or 20 per cent less than the first

ditional land to afford employment, at this " By comparing the extent of land under

rate, to any considerable portion of the wheat with the population in 1872, it will

numbers yearly added to the resident popu- be found that the following were the

lation of Great Britain. In Ireland, accord- average number of acres of wheat per 100

ing to the Census of 1861, the total number individuals in different parts of the United

of the same classes of persons employed in Kingdom: — In England 15.5 acres, in Wales

agriculture was 95o,ooo,which would be equal 10.4, in Scotland 4.0, in Ireland 4.2, in the

to i8per cent of the total population in 1871. Isle of Man 16.3, in Jersey 4.8, and Guem-

Thesame proportion applied to the population sey 2.8. As regards the supply for the popu-

of Great Britain would make the agricultural lation of home-grown wheat, the relative

classes in that portion of the kingdom amount production, computed at 28 bushels per acre

to 4,770,000 instead of the probable actual upon these averages of the land under wheat,

number of 1,590,000. In Great Britain, with would be 4.3 bushels per individual person

only 6 per cent of the population employed in England, 2.9 in Wales, 1.2 in Scotland,

in agriculture, 300,000 persons are now an- 1.2 in Ireland, and 4.5 in the Isle of Man.

nually added to the resident population. But At the higher estimated average yield of 35

in Ireland, where about 18 per cent of the bushels per acre, the production per in-

population belong to the agricultural classes, dividual would be 1.7 bushels in Jersey and

the resident population is annually decreas- i.o in Guernsey.

ing in number. Calculated upon the total " The barley crop in 1872, as compared

quantity of land returned as under arable cul- with 187 1, shewed a decrease of 69,000 acres

tivation in 1872, there would be upon an in Great Britain, and 2000 acres in Ireland,

average 11.6 acres of arable land to every Although the acreage under barley in Great

person employed in agriculture in Great Britain in 1872 was below what it was in

Britain, against 5.8 acres, or just one-half the 187 1, and also in 1870, it was larger than in

quantity, in Ireland. the years 1868 and 1869. The sowing of^

" The extent of land returned as under barley in 1872 was diminished in some parts
corn crop in 1872 exhibits the following varia- of the country by the wetness of the weather
tions from the corresponding figures in 187 1 during the spring of that year,
and other previous years. In 1872 there was " There was less land under oats in Great
less land under all kinds of com in Great Britain in 1872 than in 187 1 by 10,000 acres^
Britain by 102,000 acres than in 187 1, and and there was a decrease to the same extent
in Ireland there was a decrease of 34,000 in Ireland. This crop has fallen off in Ire-
acres. The aggregate of land under com in land in each year from 1868 to 1872, and the
Great Britain has altemated between an in- decrease between those years amounted to
crease and decrease in the four years from 78,000 acres, or 4j4 per cent.
1869 to 1872 ; in Ireland there was a falling "The quantity of land under beans and
off in each of the years 1870, 187 1, and 1872. peas in Great Britain in 1872, as compared

" The total acreage of the wheat crop in with 187 1, shews a decjease of 16^000 acres

^72 was larger in Great Britain by 27,000 in beans and 28,000 acres in peas. Tbaft

AgrictUtural Gnat Britain 337

are cultivated only to a small extent in and if not so danp;erou8 as the Home Cattle

id. Defence Association would have us believe,

^s regards green crops, the returns for there are still some chances of bringing the

compared with those for 187 1, shew seeds of disease along with them,

ling off in Great Britain of 122,000 The agricultural characteristics of the two

and of 38,000 acres in Ireland. There districts are marked (as will be seen from the
L large decrease in the acreage under accompanying table) by the different pro-
Des both in Great Britain and in Ireland, portions of their acreage in the several kinds
nting to 63,000 acres in the former and of crops and under grass. In the past year,
,000 acres in the latter country. Pota- in the grazing districts, 48 per cent, was
lad been planted in Great Britain upon under tillage, while tillage in the com-grow-
derably larger quantities of land in each ing districts was represented by 70 per cent
between 1868 and 1871, and the acre- Under permanent pasture, there was in the
f the crop in 1872 was lessened in some Western division 52 per cent, while in the
of the country by bad weather at the Eastern or corn-growing counties there was
ng season, and in others by a scarcity only 30 per cent of the total area so occu-
)our at that time. The large acreage pied. Differences of a like nature will be
I is devoted to potatoes in Ireland found in the relative proportions of the acre-
ated hut little in the four years pre- age under other crops,
g 1872." Mr Valpy draws attention to the fact that
nsiderable di/Terences, we are told by there are a few interesting variations in the
v^alpy, exist in the agricultural con- results of 1872 and 187 1. The com counties
I of the land of England, accordingly as shew an increase in clover and other rotation
situated on the western or eastern side grasses for hay, while the grazing counties
e country. To facilitate comparison, exhibited a decrease in potatoes, a fact which
^alpy divides the country into grazing farmers in this division will not regret this
corn-growing counties. The western year. Rather singular to note, however, the
on includes Northumberland, Cumber- proportionate increase of cattle in the corn-
Durham, Westmoreland, the West and growing counties was very much larger than
1 Ridings of York, Lancaster, Chester, in the grazing division of the country, being
y^, Stafford, Leicester, Salop, Worcester, no less than 9.3 to 4.8, or, in round numbers,
ford, Monmouth, Gloucester, Wilts, about one half more. But while cattle de-
it, Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall. The creased in the grazing districts, sheep shewed
m, or corn-growing counties are com- more than relative increase in proportion to
I of the East Riding of York, Lincoln, the falling off in cattle. The per-centage of
ngham, Rutland, Huntingdon, Warwick, increase this year being 3.4 as against 0.8 per
lampton, Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk, cent, in the com counties. It will be seen
)rd, Bucks, Oxford, Berks, Hants, Hert- with satisfaction by all consumers, in the pre-
Essex, Middlesex, Surrey, Kent, and sent state of the meat market, that in both
X. So far as relates to the land under divisions of the country there has been an
ation, this division, although arbitrary, augmentation in the numbers of the beasts of
; a not very unequal area for the com the field upon which we chiefly depend for
.razing districts. The grazing counties, animal food.

ver, exhibited a somewhat prepon- The annexed table shews the acreage of

ing per-centage, being 52.8 to 47.2 per land under the various kinds of crops and

This, in our climate, is a fact to be the per-centages in the grazing and com-

led \Nith, as Great Britain is much better growing counties, the number of agricultural

ed for the rearing of cattle than the raising horses employed in each, and the number and

m. Cereal products are easy of import; per-centages of cattle, sheep, and pigs. The

nimals are very difficult of importation, careful study of the figures in the table will

VOL. X. z

338

The Country Gentleman's Magaxine

In Grazing Counties.

In Corn Counties

ToTAi, Acreace retnmed under
an kinds rf^Crops, Batb Fal-
W.andGrw...!;.

Acreage.
"3,575.721

2,966,674
1.171,597
875.»45
650,427
297,412

I.233.ai7
.723,958
758,144
131,116
'102,863

Per-centage trf

Total Acreage
returned for
England.

52.8

n.»S4,4r6

859.730
436.990

1,197! 1 17
2.194.749

2,103,671

'683,931
364,942
249,870

Pa-ccntageof
Total AcragE

returned be
Engbtnd.

47.2

Acreage under—

Per-centage of
Total Acreage re-
turned inthe
Divinon.

23.6
9-3
7.0

5-2

2-4
15.2
37-2

Per-centage rf
Total Acreage re-
turned in tbe

DiTWML

CloverutoUier grass } For \a.j ...
under rotation,,. JNotfor hay

■■""«« '"""ImX

ta6
I9-S

Acteage under—

Per-centage of
Acreage under
Crop in England.

52.6
a6.4
29.2

39.2

57-9

45-4

III

30-3
50-4
59-8

48.2

6r.6
6&1
75-7
51.0

Per-centage of

Crop in En^and.

63.0
61.8

Total under above Cora Crops

2,949,398

4.574,850

€a8

196,351
686,111

^.%

127,155

875,245
650,427

142,70s
826,385

226,337
108,411
292,534
859,730
436,990

54-6

Cabbage, Kohl Rabi, and Rape

Clovcr&othcrErassJ For Hay ..
under rotation., ( Notforhay

49-6
40.2

Total under abovcgreen crops |
and grass under roUtion.., j

2,693,173

2,893,092

SI.8

■'— ■"'■"|S:;,i,

118,106

676,139

348,857
.27.136

2,S59.5'3
9,477.3'6
1,117,664

1,197,117
2,194.749

382,762

103,793

8U35,588
i,2a9.*48

38.4
31.9

Nnmber of Horses osed solely for

Agriculture

„ Ditto, unbroken, and
Mares for breeding

Per-centage ot

Total Nn1S>cr in

Englajid.

47-7

55- 1
65.6

52.9

Per-centage cf

Total Nmnbetb

Englnt.

S>-3

44-9

:: Pi^*^ ,;::■::::::::::;;:::::

S*4

Agricultural Great Britain

339

help lo enable farmers to judge how best to
turn their occupations to profitable account
In connexion with this report it will not
be inappropriate here to note that there is a
decline in the number of beasts received
from foreign countries in the first quarter of
this year, and, indeed, in the whole supply
of animal food. In the three months ended
March we only imported 18,955 ^^^ o^
stock, while last month in the same term the
number was 21,927. The falling off in the
receipts of sheep and lambs was very great,
there having been only 57,705 imported
during the first three months of the present
year to compare with 82,611 in 1872. There
is a decrease in the value of pigs imported
to the extent of jQi^o ; but, on the other
hand the quantity of imported bacon has

been considerably augmented. The falling
off in the quantity of preserved beef received
up to the end of March is a remarkable cir-
cumstance taken in connexion with the ex-
treme prices prevailing for butcher meat in
this country compared with the first quarter
of 1872. We only ijnported half the quantity
of this description of food during the same
period of this year. Our animal food im-
ported during the past three months has cost
us no less than ^2,790,547. It is not the
most hopeful sign for our dairy husbandry to
note that our foreign receipts in that depart-
ment continue to become palpably larger;
but, of course, it is not surprising considering
our deficient harvest to learn that we have
imported 1,000,000 qr. of wheat beyond the
quantity received in Uie first quarter of 1872.

AGRICULTURE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND ABROAD.

BELGIUM has often been held up to us
as a pattern by those who wish to divide
the land into small parcels, and who hold by
the theory that a larger amount of produce
can be obtained from the soil when it is so
let out than can be realized when the acreage
belonging to one particular individual is ex-
tensive. The Board of Trade returns shew
that this notion is erroneous, so far as wheat
is concerned. Belgium with its spade-hus-
bandry produces only 20.3 bushels per acre
of the particular cereal of which Englishmen's
bread is made; the United Kingdom can
grow on the average 28 bushels. Taking the
population into account, the difference
between the small growers in Belgium and
the larger growers here is, in the article of
wheat alone, % of a bushel per head in favour
of our own country, 3 bushels being the maxi-
mum in Belgium, and ^}(, in the United
Kingdom. These facts do not warrant the
conclusion at which some people have ar-
rived, that for the good of the country
" every rood of ground should maintain
its man." It is quite possible that in

generations long gone by, when China was
the only thickly - populated country, that
in the now United Kingdom each
able-bodied man might be capable of support-
ing himself and his family upon ^ of an
acre. But the " Old Order " has changed,
"giving place to new." The number of
mouths to be fed within this sea-girt isle have
increased vastly since the days that Gold-
smith wrote. In his time foreign com was
kept out of the English market by a heavy
duty. Now we have to import it at a cost
of ^50,000,000 annually, and we are raising
much more per acre of barley, wheat, and
oats than ever was grown in the poet's
Arcadian times. But for the steam-plough
and the reaper, and the broad area of fields
which the employment of these machines
imply, our expenditure for foreign com
would be double what it is. Sub-division in
land undertaken by the State — obstacles
thrown in the way of purchasers who ofiiered
for the soil as proposed by some persons —
would simply be a reversal of the policy
which has made Great Britain, we shall not

340 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

say glorious and great — the phrase being number in 187 1 was 4,713,000, ahnost the
rather hackneyed — ^but prosperous. Land is same number as in the previous year. The
a commodity which we are told is limited, cattle of Australia yield to this country con-
That is a proposition which none can dispute; siderable supplies of tallow and hides, and even-
but the fact that it is not elastic would tually will probably add to our stock of meat
scarcely justify any Government in prevent- The meat-preserving process in Australia has
ing those whose means epabled them to offer hitherto been more applied to mutton than
for what came into the market from being to beef. This new demand upon the Aus-
purchasers. We should not like to see a tralian flocks is telling to some extent upon
paternal Government established in this their number. The total number of sheep in
country. Such Governments have not con- Australia was 49,773}00o in 187 1, against
tributed much to the produce of the country. 51,294,000 in 1870, which shews a dc-
They have acted in agricultural matters more crease of 1,521,000, or 3 per cent In
like a wet blanket than a stimulant Victoria, which exported about one half

Mr Valpy is unable to give us statistics of the total exports of Australian pre-
fiom British India, which is matter of regret ; served meat in 187 1, the decrease in the
and from Canada we have nothing later than number of sheep was 759,000. According
1 86 1. From the Australian colonies, how- to the official trade returns of the Australian
ever, we have information up to the end of colonies, the export of preserved meat in
March last year. From the figures supplied 187 1 was about 32,000,000 lb. weight, of the
by Mr Valpy it appears that the total acreage value of ;^746,ooo, against about 4,500,000
under corn crops at that date was 1,980,087 lb. weight, valued at ;^i67,ooo, in 1869.
acres. Of this quantity 70 per cent was The trade accounts of the United Kingdom
under wheat, 3 per cent under barley, 18 per shew an import of preserved meat, for the
cent in oats, and 7 per cent under maize, most part from Australia, of 352,000 cwt,
Wheat in Australia is being year by year more worth ;£'9o6,ooo, in 187 1, against 80,000
largely grown, the increase of 1872 over 187 1 cwt., worth ;^23i,ooo, in 1870. Whatever
being no less than 15 per cent The total opinions may prevail as to the taste for
amount of wheat last season is estimated at Australian meat in this country, a not incon-
14,3 16,000 bushels, giving about loj^ siderable supply is now brought here, amount-
bushels per acre, which is certainly a very ing in 1872 to an average of about iX lb.
small return for such a fertile country. There per head of the total population of the
is evidently much room for improvement in United Kingdom. This, however, would only
tillage and manurial operations. There are be a small part of the consumption of meat of
some attempts to cultivate cotton and sugar- all descriptions, which, according to the es-
cane, but at present these items do not bulk timate of Mr H. S. Thompson, published in
largely in the agricultural industry of the they<7wr«a/of the Royal Agricultural Society,
country, and not much addition has been would be about 103 lb. per head per annum,
made to the quantity of land devoted to the or rather more than 4j^ oz. daily."
growth of the vine. The tables in the Returns supply us with

The interest for this country in Australia very interesting facts concerning the yield of

chiefly lies in knowing its capacity for pro- com, and the proportion of live stock in

ducing stock, meat and wool being articles various foreign countries. We are told that

we stand much in need of in this country, the " quantity of land used for growing wheat

Regarding this part of the question Mr Valpy was nearly 20,000,000 acres in the United

says: — "The returns of the number of live States, upwards of 17,000,000 in France,

stock in Australia will now command a more about 7,250,000 in Spain, 2,250,000 in

special interest in this country with reference Austria (proper), 750,000 in Belgium,

to the supply of meat-producing animals in as compared with rather less than

^'>i part of the world. Of cattle, the total 4,000,000 acres in the United King-

Agriculture in the United Kingdom and Abroad 341

dom. Compared with the population, there France, 33 and 80 ; Spain, 18 and 136 ; in

would be under wheat, per 100 individuals, Austria, 24 and 36 ; United States, 69 and

51 acres in the United States, 45 J^ in France, 81 ; and in the United Kingdom thepropor-

44 in Spain, iij^ in Austria (proper), tions stand at 31 cattle and 102 sheep. In

i4j^ in Belgium, and rather less than comparing the relative number of live stock

12X in the United Kingdom. Com- in difi'erent countries, the probable average

puted upon these proportions of acreage to weight of the animals when killed for meat

population, it would appear that in the must be taken into consideration. And as

United States, an average of 11.6 bushels per far as it is practicable to arrive at a general

acre, the yield of wheat would be 5.9 bushels estimate in this respect, it may perhaps

per head of the population ; in France, with be assumed that for cattle of all ages»

a yield of 1 7. i bushels per acre, there would the average live weight when slaughtered

be 7^ bushels per head; in Spain an average would be for foreign cattle 500 lb., and for

of 23.3 bushels per acre would give 10^ British 600 lb. per head. For sheep and

bushels per head ; in Austria at an average of lambs, the foreign may be taken at 50 lb.,

15.2 bushels per acre, there would be i|^ and the British at .60 lb, per head. At

bushels per head ; in Belgium at 20.3 these rates upon the proportionate numben}

bushels per acre, nearly 3 bushels per head of cattle and sneep already stated, the

would be produced ; and in the United United Kingdom would have a live weight

Kingdom an average of 28 bushels per acre for cattle and sheep together of 247 lb. per

would give rather more than 3^ bushels per head of the population, as compared with a

head of the population. higher range of between 391 and 268 lb. in

" The table of the number of live stock m Denmark, the United States, Bavaria, Norway,

various countries shews this year the propor- and Wurtemberg, and with a lower range of

tionate number of cattle and sheep to every between 211 to 131 lb. in Prussia, France,

100 of the population. It is more difficult Holland, Spain, and Belgium. These quaa-

to determine the proportions of stock to the tities relate to the total stocks of cattle and

land under cultivation, because of variations sheep at the date of the latest returns, and

in the mode of stating the particulars relating are much beyond the supplies annually

to crops. According to the figures in the furnished for meat."

table referred to, Denmark shews as many as We are sorry that Mr Valpy, like his pre-
68 cattle and 102 sheep to every 100 indivi- decessor, has to point out that there is a half-
duals ; in Norway the number of cattle and heartedness about farmers in supplying infor-
sheep are 54 and 98 ; in Bavaria, 65 and 42 ; mation which would be beneficial to them-
HoUand, 39 and 25 ; Belgium, 25 and 12 ; selves as well as to all who trade in com.

342 The Country Gentlemaiis Magazine

HOUSE ACCOMMODATION OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS,

AT the annual meeting of the Dalrymple pleted they be handed over to the farmer
Fanners' Club, held the other day, during the currenqr of existing leases at 4
Mr Wilson, Woodlands, made some sensible per cent, on the outlaid money, he being
remarks upon the cottage accommodation of bound for them in the same way as he is
the rural labourer. Some writers, he said, bound for the other houses on his farm. The
say our cattle are better cared for than our kind of house which seems to be most suit-
servants. Well, perhaps they are. It is the able for our workmen is a plain substantial
duty of every one to take as good care of his building, about 30 feet long by 14 feet wide
property as possible. But we, at least, in this inside, having three apartments, and the en-
part of the country, look on our servants in trance door in the centre of the front side
quite a different light from what we do on our wall. The smallest apartment should be in
cattle. It must be confessed that, with a few the centre, and if necessary a partition
exceptions, our cottage accommodation is could be put across it, and that part next
very bad. Many of us have not such a the entrance door would be very useful
thing, and those of us who have, would be as a pantry, and the other as a bedroom,
nearly as well without it, as it must take a having connexion with the kitchen. Pro-
considerable sum to keep the houses wind vision should also be made for keeping a cow
and water-tight, and they are only hovels and a pig, &c., as I think it of considerable
when all is done, not all suitable for rational importance that some stimulus should be
beings to live in. If such be the case, it is offered to those under us to cheer them on in
surely high time a remedy was provided, the hope of some day being able to realize
But this is where the difficulty begins. Land- the fruit of their toil. We are all aware of the
lords think it a hardship for them to erect power of hope in the human mind : how it
cottages ; and as the law stands at present, encourages us to go forward when otherwise
it would be madness in the tenant to do so. we would break down. The keeping of a
Now, I think proprietors and occupiers cow may not bulk largely in our eyes, but
should meet and talk over this matter in a may do so in the eyes of those who do not
friendly way. We had a fine example enjoy the same privilege. But do not mis-
of this the other day at Kilkerran understand me: when I say it is the first
House. The tenants, on hearing of Sir thing that will raise our servants at least one
James Fergusson's return home from step in the right direction, I have seen the
South Australia, determined to give him a proof of what I say. I have also had the
warm welcome, and in his speech, among honour of helping two individuals to attain
other things, he referred to the labourers' that end, and the results in both cases have
cottages on his estate, and gave his opinion been very satisfactory. We cannot shut our
fiankly on the subject. In this he has given eyes to the signs of the times. A feeling of
an example that other lairds would do well discontent is creeping in amongst agricul-
to follow. Sir James thinks that groups of tural labourers, and I think in some cases
cottages held by the landlord would be the not without reason. No doubt the la-
best plan. The system I would prefer is, bourers' wages have risen in proportion
that landlords build a certain number of cot- with the rise that has recently taken
tages for every farm according to its require- place in all other branches of labour ; but our
ments, and that they be placed at the most young men and women cannot look forward
venient part of the farm, and a short dis- to a time when they may settle down in a
^om the steading, and that when com- quiet, comfortable, rural home. For want of

/♦/»^i

••

House Accommodation of Agricultural Labourers

343

ge accommodation they are forced **ither
ligrate or go into the din and bustle of
life, and we are left , minus those whom
ight to do everything in our power to
1. About twenty years ago my father
ed into the lease of the farm which I
occupy. There were then two cottages
; but a few years thereafter the proprietor
one of them into his own hand and the
• one fell. I have been since that time
)ut a worker on the farm, and have ex-

perienced a considerable ambunt of incon-
venience. I may say in conclusion that in
this district, where whinstone rubble can be
got on the farm, and if the fiarmer cart the
material gratis, the cost of erecting the cot-
tage and outhouse I have recommended would
be about ;£^isa

After the reading of the paper, most of
those present took part in discussing it —
the majority genendly agreeing with the
views advanced by Mr Wilson.

EMIGRATION OF AGRICULTURAL LABOURERS.

^O the eye, it is a pleasant sight on a
clear bright day to watch an outward-
id emigrant ship, an hour previous to
sparture from an English port, her decks
ded with rough passengers, and loaded
the necessaries for a long and tedious
ge, but it is not a pleasant thought that
ides, as to how those rough passengers
ipon the planks of the vessel — whether
were stimulated by patriotism, or attrac-
)y flaming, but deceptive, announcements
and of plenty somewhere beyond the seas.
^ possess the undoubted qualification of
ilthy married couples," but the thought
* occur whether it is a wise step they
in voluntarily leaving the old land for
uncertainty of the new. Geographical
ation is administered amongst the agricul-
branch of our national family in, we
but infinitesimal doses. "Foreign parts" is
term embracing the whole, in the un-
ed minds of the rustics, and the reason
heir presence on the emigrant ship is
ably to be found in a want of understand-
and genuine sympathy with their em-
ers, a fostered feeling of degeneracy in
and they live in, or an unhappy notion
le impossibility of progress therein, and
ind rush therefrom to avoid the poor-

;e.

here is no doubt of the migratory tastes
le Englishman; it is his natural attribute.

But what effect has this constant drain, the
emigration mania, upon the country? We
admit the necessity for emigration, in the
principle, England has to a great extent
profited by the facilities she has given
thereto. We hve in a small island, or islands,
and our natural growth must have natural
room for development. The John Bull
portion of our joint fraternity in particular
are probably more given to roaming than the
sister countries. But for the pioneering of
British energy and natural pluck, thriving
colonies and settlements would undoubtedly
not be in existence at the present age. No
doubt there is a fair field for future efforts, but
is there stamina enough in the old tree to
sufficiently nourish gigantic offshoots? Does
it not occur to the responsible mind that
alienation is the parent of forgetfulness, and
the fresh faces we see on board our emigrant
ships, and who perhaps look back with sorrow
on the land they leave in its pride and plenty,
might in its possible tribulation, think of it
with indifference ?

An inquiry is necessary into the causes for
such a general abnegation of home privileges
and home comforts, more particularly amongst
the agricultural population. That portion of
the community really represent the bone and
sinew of England, the cultivators of its fertile
soil, without whose hand-labour and hus-
bandry England would not be so great as sh :

344 ^^ Country Gentleman's Magazine

is. Is it the halfknowledge he possesses of new- done to improve the position of the employer

bom privileges that a liberal system of educa- of the labourer. It is all very well for the

tion, though in its application in rural districts non-interested to bestow their pity, but let

a source of terror to the struggling tiller of them consider the condition of the labourer

land, or is it a notion of better times, that in conjunction with that of his employer, so

induces him to risk all in emigration? The far as he is represented by the small tenant*

tillers of the soil are the last class of the farmer, and strike his balance fairly and in

English labouring population to whom indis- due form. We venture to think that in

criminate facilities for emigration should be the majority of cases it would be a moot

given. They are the class that can be but point as to which description of labourer

ill spared from the million, the unit whose deserved the most pity,

absence renders the remainder comparatively Before any practical check can be given to

unimportant, and we are sorry to observe the present mania for emigration amongst the

that it is from that portion of the population agricultural classes, something must be done

the emigration agents reap their best harvests, to ameliorate their condition. In their own

How is this rapidly growing feeling and minds they imagine they are ineligible i(X

wish for change to be counteracted ? The advancement from their present mode of life,

answer is simple. Improve their condition, They have all the oppressive notion of being

they will not leave home if home is made en- compelled to live in a groove, and possess

durable. In considering the temptation to but a vague notion of the new ideas of public

which they have yielded in leaving their rights. They are simple people, and have

home, we ought to allow for those they have lived m sequestered spots, consequently they

successfully resisted in endeavouring to live are the easier prey for speculators. It is

honestly in it How is their condition to be alleged that they emigrate because there is

improved ? Not, we submit, by strikes, or ^^ opportunity at home to raise themselves

elaborately contrived intimidation, because into a better position. That we deny, and

we incline to the belief that the peculiar at- affirm facts. Agricultural labourers do not

tribute of the British character, is a native become leviathans in wealth, neither do they

abhorrence of anything approaching intimida- become leviathans in intellect, the pastoral

tion, and also a natural contempt for the pursuits of their lives are opposed to it

high-flown utterances of a naturally endowed W^e affirm that it is a mistaken policy to give

demagogue, for the moment placed upon a an universal facility to the draining of the

pedestal. It is sufficiently patent to sensible country of its nucleus, so far as it is fepre-

persons that an agricultural labourer's cottage sented by agriculturists. Teaching love of

has not bay windows, nor is his cottage a per- home is unnecessary here, that is inherent in

feet model for a sanitary inspector, it does the Englishman; but if he be powerless to

not contain a superabundance of room, and grasp home comforts and acquire equality with

is not, in fact, a picture. his fellow men, he is apt to nourish bitter

It occurs to us, however, that before any thoughts, and think lightly of what his more

real benefit of a permanent character can happily situated countrymen revere— Home,

accrue to the labourer, something should be sweet home.

The Country GintUmatis Magazine 345

THE CATTLE DISEASE AND ITS REGULATIONS.

THE Report of the Veterinary Depart- having decreased in England about 16 per

ment of the Privy Council for 1872 cent., and in Scotland about 40 per cent,

has been issued. In comparing the legislation during that period. It would be. unsafe to

in this country upon the cattle disease with infer that the powers of slaughter conferred

that in other countries, Dr Alexander Wil- on some of the local authorities had eflfected

liams, by whom the introductory report is this decrease, but that this is probably the

signed, says that with regard to cattle plague, case is supported by the fact, that while the

pleuro-pneumonia, and sheep-pox, the Act decrease in Scotiand is greater than in Eng-

of 1869 contrasts favourably with those in land, the relative number of local authorities

force abroad, in so far as the law relating to who have obtained these powers in

these diseases in Great Britain is self-acting Scodand is also greater than in Eng-

and immediate in its operation. Mr Wil- land, and that, on comparing the periods

liams shews one of the defects of our law named, those counties possessing such

relating to disease. " The carrying out," he powers have, with only three exceptions,

says, " of nearly all the provisions of the Act been among those which exhibit a decrease ;

are, practically, dependent upon the local and that, in two of these exceptions, the

authorities, each of whom is required to attacks in each of the two quarters have been

keep appointed at least one inspector, and less than eight'* The condition of the coun-

they have power to appoint as many inspec- trywith respect to foot-and-mouth disease occa-

tors or officers as may be necessary. The sions the remark that " it is doubtful whether

inspector, however, is not required to have the regulations, as carried out by our local

any professional or other qualification, and authorities, have had any effect generally in

thus, practically, the detection of disease is checking foot-and-mouthdisease,but it is quite

in many cases, left to persons who are totally clear that our legislation, if made compulsory

incompetent for the work." Several new instead of permissive, and efficiently enforced,

Orders of Council have been issued during would have a great effect in checking the

1872, with a view to meet contingencies spread of this disease." "Sheep-scab," the

which, from their sudden occurrence, were report goes on to say, " although a disease

unforeseen, the principal of these being which is undoubtedly amenable to treatment,

the outbreak of the cattle plague and one which might be extirpated by care

in the North of England. The regu- and attention, existed during the past year to

lations enforced on that occasion Idd to an a large extent. Comparing the total number

entirely satisfactory result, as the disease was of cases in 1872 with those of 1870 and 1871

checked, and no other outbreak of cattle th6re is a considerable decrease upon the

plague occurred in the country during the former, and an increase upon the latter year,

year. Referring to pleuro-pneumonia, the As long as there are so many local authorities,

report states: — "Although it appears hope- and each of them is allowed to act inde-

less to endeavour to prove, year by year, that pendently, so long will there be considerable

any general effect in checking pleuro-pneu- difficulty in tracing the effects of legislation."

monia has been caused by our regulations, as The following significant remark is appended

they are now carried out by the local authori- to the above. " On the whole, therefore, it

ties, yet it may be observed that there is a appears impossible to demonstrate from our

decrease in the disease during the last quarter statistics that the Contagious Diseases (Ani-

of 1872, as compared with that of the pre- mals) Act, 1869, has had any beneficial effect

vious quarter, the number of cattle attacked either locally or generally in checking any of

34^ Tlte Country Gentlematis Magazine

these diseases, except cattle plague and sheep- number of cattie consumed annually as meat This

pox. There can, however, be no reasonable ^^^^ ^^ ^ believed, be estimated approximately from

j^, U4. 4.U «. 4.1.^ *. ^* ^ • r *^- J* the information derived from our Agricultural RetuiEB.

doubt that the contagious or infectious dis- ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ population of Great Britain in

eases of animals would have prevailed more any year, a certain number of them are shewn in the

extensively had there been no regulations in Agricultural Returns to be under two years of age,

force, and that, had the whole of the regula- and a somewhat similar number appear year by year

tions been made general and compulsory, to be under this age. Half this number would, thm-

ju i_'*.i "J M. rr ^ r forc, if no cattle died or were consumed, be shewn by

and been . strictly earned out, effects of a *i. * • .i. r n «. v i. aaA

: ^ ' ^^ •* ^ljg returns m the following year to have been added

more decided character would have been to the cattle above two years of age ; but the number

produced." After considering the effects of of cattle above two years of age remain year by year

foreign legislation, the report makes the fol- practically the same. It would, therefore, appear Oiat

lowing suggestions with a view to the im- ^*^ °\°^^^ ^^ ^^^^« which disappears each year is

" - ^ , / \ IT. upon the average represented by half the number o*

provement of our present laws :-(i) To en- J^^, ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^f ^^ ^'^^ p^^^ ^^ I^

deavour to secure international regulations, this number, namely, that of the cattle under two

or by the appointment of proper officers years of age, is reduced or does not in any year consist

abroad, the export of healthy foreign animals of half above one year old and half below that age,

rt«l« /^\ T"^ ;«e.;e.#. fViof «^*./x^o^ »^^^*v« then the two-year-old stock in the next year will be

only. (2.) 10 insist that proper accom- , ^ • . i ^ v. i • t. j -i i_

j^. ^' 1.-1' ji T_ e deficient, and must be replenished either by not

modation for the isolation and slaughter of slaughtering the usual number or by replacing those

animals, and for the disposal of carcases be slaughtered by imported beasts,

provided at all ports at which foreign animals The census, however, of cattle is now taken in

are landed. (3.) To increase our restrictions J""® ^^^^ y^^^ ^""^ ^^^ ^ * number of cattle

on the movement of animals, and to make ^'^ born and slaughtered between the time o^^

. . ' one census and that of taking the next, and therefore

these restrictions uniform and compulsory, n^^ included in the returns. It has been estimated

(4.) To provide, by Government supervision that, m round numbers, about 50,000 calves are bom

and b/ licenses for movement, for these re- and consumed between these dates, and these nnniben

strictions being more efficiently carried out. ^^^ ^^" accordingly added to the estunate.

/^ \ rr i.j •• VI. j^ From the above-mentioned data it is calculated

(S.) To extend our provisions with regard to ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^1^ .^ ,3^ ^^^

slaughter for the purpose of preventing the to 992,760. During the same year our importation

spreading of contagious infectious diseases from Ireland was 453,869, and our importation from

among animals. The following are a few foreign countries was 201,79a

of the concluding remarks of Mr Williams, . '^^'^ ^^ ^^ ^^ "^ ^« y^ '^7Qi we were

^, . ^ • r • 1 J V 1 indebted to —

on the importation of animals, and its rela- tr^^^ o„««i„ r«. «k«, * ^ly * r ^1

, ^ . » Home supply foi about 60X per cent, of our cattle.

tion to home production : — Irish „ „ 275^

Our importations of foreign animals during the past Foreign „ ,, 12^ «» „

year have shewn a considerable falling off as compared Professor Simonds, who had from the first estab*

with 1 87 1, which, however, was a year of exceptionally lishment of the department been its chief professional

large import. From Ireland our import of cattle has adviser, resigned his appointment during the past

considerably increased, whilst in that of sheep and year. Professor Brown has, however, very ably filled

swine there has been a diminution. his place as chief inspector. The vacancy in the

Considerable difficulty has been experienced in office of assistant inspector has not yet been filled,

forming an opinion as to the amount of importance temporary arrangements having been made to meet

which should be attached to our foreign imports, and the emergency caused by the outbreak of cattle

statistics have been published, in which it has been plague, which very much increased the work of in«

estimated as forming only 4X per cent, of our total spection during the latter part of the past year,

meat supply. So far as regards foreign animals the inspection at

Before attempting to estimate the relation which our the port has, during the past year, been carried out

foreign bears to our total supply of meat, which is in a very satisfactory manner, and there is no reason

involved in much greater difficulty, it is proposed to to believe that any cases of disease capable of detec*

consider what proportion the foreign supply of live tion have escaped the notice of the inspectors.

cattle bears to the total supply of the same. To do This, however, cannot be said of the animals whid

this, it is first necessary to estimate the number of have been landed from Ireland. These Miimi^lff do

live cattle which are produced annually in Great not appear to have been inspected in Iidand pee*

Britain for consumption, or, in other words, the vious to being embarked, nor are they inspected hcBe*

The Cattle Disease and its Regulations

347

inding. If we wish to check the introduction
treading of contagious or infectious diseases
>t animals, one of our first steps should be to
:, as far as possible, the introduction of these
s from Ireland, by the inspection of all ani-
t the landing-places. The present staff of port
ors is totally unable to perform this duty, and
Id probably require their numbers to be in-
. fourfold to accomplish it.
can the inspection of the railways with a view

to ascertaining whether the provisions of the orders
relating to the transit, feeding, and watering of ani-
mals are sufficiently carried out to be performed by the
present staff. The occasional inspection, both of the
Irish cattle boats and of the railways, is at present
performed by these officers, and important improve-
ments have been effected during the year in conse-
quence of suggestions received from them ; but very
little has been done compared with what ought to be
done in both these matters.

IISH CATTLE TRAFFIC AND THE SPREAD OF DISEASE.

IE number of Ha^ Journal of the Royal

Agricultural Society which has just
ssued contains an exceedingly interest-
tide upon the above subject from the
f the Secretary, Mr H. M. Jenkins,
isited the Sister Isle last year for the
se of collecting information with regard
I cattle trade. He commences by

some statistics of the cattle disease in
d last year, and we find that from
ry to December there were no fewer
220,570 cattle, 21,178 sheep, and
) pigs reported as affected with foot-
outh disease. The distribution of the
J is then considered, and Mr Jenkins
that more than one-half of the affected
s was reported from the province of
er, adding " and if to that total we add
ported cases from the counties of Tip-

and Waterford, we get about three-
; of the total number." The following
\ most important parts of the article : —
innately, with regard to the spread of
I in Ireland, we are inclined to take the
*ven when officially stated, cum grano
nd to question every conclusion that
be drawn from them, in consequence
too frequent neglect of Irish graziers to

the existence of foot-and-mouth dis-
n their farms. The punishment of this
J, and that of driving affected cattle
I public road, is in many cases made
lent by the Irish magistrates that it
ts to an encouragement. I have heard
ilers themselves, when recounting their

experiences in getting rid of affected beasts,
and their occasional detection, ask one ano-
ther, as a sort of stock joke, " And were ye
fined a shilling ?*' A most trustworthy corre-
spondent in Ireland has informed me of a case
in which, just previous to one of the great
fairs at Ballinasloe, a man was prosecuted by
the Government, not only for neglecting to
report the existence of disease on his pre-
mises, but also for driving the affected ani-
mals through the town of Ballinasloe. The
case was proved ; the magistrates fined him
one penny ^ and further mulcted him in the sum
of one shilling for costs ! Another and more
recent case has been communicated to me
from county Meath, in which point was given
to the proceedings by the agricultural stand-
ing of the magistrates. In this case two men
were fined 6d. each for not reporting to the
police the existence of foot-and-mouth disease
on their farms. Other cases might doubt-
less be collected, but the foregoing are
sufficient to shew that the infractions of the
law are not always dealt with in Ireland with
a due sense of responsibility on the'part of
the local magistrates. A striking example of
habitual disregard of the law may be seen at
almost any large railway station in Ireland.
By the Transit of Animals (Ireland) Order
of May 1 87 1, it is provided that railway
trucks, &c., " used for carrying animals on
any railway, shall, on every occasion, after
any animal is taken out of the same, and be-
fore any other animal is placed therein, be
cleansed in the following manner:" (t)

348 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

swept out, then (2) washed with water, then ping them. As will be seen in the sequel,
(3) the sweepings mixed with quicklime, and the lairs and fields used for such purposes by
effectually removed from contact with ani- cattle-dealers are probably some of die most
mals ; the wording of these provisions being fruitful sources of contagion. The cattle-
similar to those of our own " Animal Order, market in Dublin is really excellent, both in
187 1." Then follow two provisions which arrangement and mode of maintenance. It
differ from ours, one ordering disinfection by is divided into longitudinal sections by iron
means of a solution of carbolic and cresylic railings, each set of pens being accessible
acid, but not stipulating for the use of lime ; either from the main roadway or a side alley,
and the other enacting that pens or other Offices rented by the salesmen are attached
enclosed places used for confining animals to most of the sets of pens ; but of course the
shall be cleansed and disinfected in the same sets may vary in size according to drcmn-
manner as vehicles and trucks, once on every stances. This was not only the cleanest and
day on which, they are used. I have no best arranged market I saw in Ireland, but
doubt that railway trucks are sometimes pro- the only one that had any claim to the dis-
perly cleansed and disinfected ; but although, tinction of a market at all. I was informed
when in Ireland, I was continually on the that the Corporation of Dublin employ an in-
look-out for the performance of these pro- spector to examine the beasts exposed for
cesses, they never came under my notice, sale in the Dublin market ; and I have little
On the other hand, I have repeatedly seen doubt that the energetic head of the Irish
animals put into trucks that were in the most Veterinary Department does his best to
filthy condition; but I have not heard of an Irish imbue the owners of cattle sent there for sale
railway company having been summoned for with a more wholesome fear of the conse-
ihis oflfence either by the police or the quences of breaking the law than they are
Veterinary Department The conveyance of accustomed to receive at home. Dublin,
cattle is almost entirely a " one-way " traffic, however, is the only place in Ireland where I
In Ireland the direction is from the interior saw any properly appointed cattle-market
to the coa^t, and thence to England. There- The place used as a cattle-market at Cork is
fore, railway trucks in which the germs of a simply a large field, enclosed by a high stone
disease were existent would not necessarily wall ; that at Waterford is one of those open
cause a great extension of that disease in spaces of irregular shape generally termed
Ireland itself; but they would infect the '* market-place," or "market-square." The
stock en route for England, and in the course cattle-fair at Drogheda was held in the
of a week or two make a very perceptible streets ; those at Mullingar and Ballinasloe
difference in our returns of affected animals, were held on " greens " closely adjacent to
At the country stations small cattle-pens are the centre of the town, and probably pre-
required to confine the stock pending the served for the purpose as the most valuable
arrival of the cattle-train by which they are use to which the property could be applied,
to travel ; but at the terminal stations at the In none of these towns were the market*
ports such adjuncts are not often seen, the places or fair-greens divided into pens, nor
responsibility of providing for the cattle on was any other provision made for the separar
arrival being apparently undertaken either by tion of stock belonging to diflferent owners.
the steamboat companies or the owners. The The only occasion on which I actoally saw
railway companies in such cases, as at Cork, an attempt at veterinary inspection was at the
Waterford, &c., have, therefore, no cattle- great October fair at Ballinasloe, although it
pens at their railway stations ; but the steam- had been half-expected that the evil reputa-
boat companies have receiving-yards, and the tion which Drogheda had recently acquired
consignees have either lairs or fields, to which as a nest of "distemper," would have in-
the animals are driven on arrival, and where duced the authorities to send an inspector to
.hey remain until the time arrives for ship- the fair there. There was no special feature,

Irish Cattk Traffic and the Spread of Disease

349

r at Drogheda or MulHngar, to require
iption ; but if a veterinary inspector had
sent to either place, he would doubtless
found a considerable number of diseased
als. The great October fair of Ballina-
s not only the largest in Ireland in point
mbers of stock sent there, but also the
noted for the quality of the cattle,
le yearly records of the progress of foot-
nouth disease in Ireland, which are ad-
)ly arranged in the office of the Veteri-
Department in Dublin, shew, I believe,
shortly after the period at which this fair
ild, the returns of fresh outbreaks ot
temper " suddenly increase to a marked
It. It was therefore gratifying to learn
this year the Government had sent an
:ctor to Ballinasloe, and that this gentle-
possessed exceptional qualifications, and
as I was informed, invested with ample
)rity. The great fair commenced on
day, October ist. That day and the
were chiefly devoted to the sale of sheep,
t is sufficient to mention that the pub-
i returns shewed that between 70,000 and
50 sheep had passed through the " gaps,"
e entrances to the park of Garbally and
idjacent fair-green are locally termed,
third day was the great horse-fair, but a
number of cattle also arrived in antici-
n of the morrow. I arrived at Ballina-
early on Friday morning, fortunate in the
*ssion of a letter of introduction to the
imment Veterinary Commissioner. The
inse fair-green was packed with cattle,
it was therefore with great interest that I
Ttook the task of ascertaining by what
is, and with what staff, this immense
ber of beasts was being inspected. The
ns subsequently published shewed that
I were more than 17,000 cattle on the
;reen that day. They were not separated
lots by pens, or any other kind of divi-
and almost every inlet to the fair was a
e of indescribable confusion, owing to
Vequent collisions of an in-going with an
^oing lot of cattle, f £ow the cattle that
ed the day before the fair fared for food
water, I cannot say. The probability is
they got neither, as the fair-green was too

poached to afford any herbage, and there was
no provision, so far as I could ascertain, for
watering cattle on it It is not likely that
the drovers, having once got their beasts on
the green, would drive them off again in
search of food or water \ and it is certain that
the arrivals during the ensuing night and fol-
lowing morning must have been compelled to
make their last meal sufficient for their wants
until they arrived at their new destination.'
Supposing their destination to be England, the
course of events musthavebeen very nearly what
I am about to describe. Most of the cattle
which exchanged hands had been bought by
noon on the 4th October, and the energies
of the purchasers on English account were by
that time directed to obtaining an appropria-
tion of trucks for the conveyance of their
stock to North Wall. Their drovers were
busy driving the cattle to one of the numerous
strips of land adjacent to the railway, which
had been hired by the Company for the
temporary reception of stock coming to and
going from the fair. There was no provision
for giving water to the cattle in these hoof-
poached paddocks, for the Transit of Animals
(Ireland) Order does not compel railway
companies to have water-troughs at their
cattle-sidings ; and although the swollen Suck
was flowing at a very trifling distance from
the station, I did not see a single lot of
cattle driven to the river-side. This might
not have been the fault of the owners or the
drovers, for I was unable to ascertain whether
there was any convenient public approach to
the stream from near the railway-station.
However, the points to be kept in view are
these: ist, the railway company did not
supply their pens and paddocks with troughs
of water ; and 2d, the cattle had to commence
their journey without that refreshment, after
having already been kept, in all probability,
at least twenty-four hours without food or
water. Arriving in Dublin on the Friday
evening, I ascertained that cattle from Bal-
linasloe would probably reach North Wall in
a more or less continuous stream during the
night and the next day; and as many as
possible would be put on board the steam-
boats timed to leave for the various English

350 The CounUy GmtUniatis Magazine

ports by the morning and evening tides on Great Britain were not fed or watered from

Saturday. The probability of their being fed Thursday until Sunday, at the earliest

and watered in the receiving-yards belonging After their two days' fast and fatigue, they

to the various railways and steamboat com- had to stand in die hold of a steamboat

panies is, as will presently be seen, very during a sea-passage varying in duration from

small indeed, except in the yard belonging to twelve to twenty-four hours, and to undergo

an English railway company. As a matter the hardships incidental to the shipment, to

of fact, therefore, the majority of the cattle the passage, and to the subsequent landing,

bought at Ballinasloe fair for exportation to before receiving even a drop of water.

The Country Gentlemaiis Magazifte 35 '

%\it Jfarm.

THE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE OF GREAT BRITAIN.

By Mr C Holdaway.*

WE are told by one of our greatest tenant-right, local taxation, and game.
statesmen that this country is ca- We wiU now pass on, and make a few re-
pable of producing double the amount it does marks on security of tenure, tenant-right, or
at the present time ; therefore it appears that unexhausted improvements, or any other
the first part of our subject is abready an- name or names you may choose to call them,
swered, and the only problem left for us to Now, many of our leading members are seek-
work out is how and by what means it may ing the advice or assistance of the Legislature
be done. Many and various are the obstacles to step in between the landlord and tenant,
placed in the path of progress, and it wiU re- in order to nullify any agreement they may
quire the combined effort of all classes to re- make contrary to a properly arranged system,
move them. First of all, the land question but this properly arranged system appears to
must be settled in some way or other. Then me to be fraught with many difficulties, such
comes the security of tenure, local taxation, as the landlord or in-coming tenant being
and the old, vexed question — the Game-laws, greatly imposed upon by being overcharged
I will not venture on the land question, as for manure or tillages, for manure valued at
that is a subject far too intricate to enter per yard, load, or ton, instead of its real
upon here to-day, as it opens up a field, the worth, as 1 have seen many a yard full of
extent of which is not easily calculated, and the so-called maoure not worth a cart-load of
will require all the legal skill and minds of Peruvian guanp. Then, again, in the valua-
great financial capacity to grasp it But I tion of tillages. Now, a good deal of injury
will just allude to what some people are is often done by the notion that to have a
clamouring about at the present time, viz., good clean fallow it must have so many
the subdivision of land. It is a well-known tilths, whether wet or dry, and very often the
fact, that under a national system of small in-coming tenant would have to pay for work
farms there is not sufficient scope for ma- which had done ten times more harm than
chinery to have full play. We have only to good. But still there are many good points
turn to the statistical data, where we can see in this arrangement, and, if properly carried
tit a glance that large farms are the most out, must certainly tend in every way to pre-
beneficial to the country. Take France and vent any deterioration of the land held by an
Belgium, which, I believe, are generally con- improving tenant ; and every man of capital
sidered (as far as arable land is concerned) and enterprise would much rather enter upon
to be small farm countries, and what do they a farm in good condition, and pay the cost,
produce compared with England ? Why we than upon one in an exhausted state, and re-
support nearly double the quantity of beef ceive compensation. But I would ask, is not
and mutton upon every hundred acres as the landlord the proper person to pay these
either. charges, and the in-coming tenant to pay
the interest in the shape of an in*

♦Read before the Bodey and South Hants Fannera' creased rent? This, with a two years'

Clnb, iiGti<;e to qtiit, I contend, would be

352 The Country Gentkfnan's Magazine

better for the general weal than a long lease men themselves. He could not learn that
without security, because a long lease is often the supplies were less than they had been,
begun badly. I mean the farm is very likely and in order to shew that he was correct in
to be out of condition, and would require a his opinion we read, in the tabular returns,
large amount of capital and skill to get it up that the total head of cattle in the United
in good tilth. Then his aim would be to Kingdom has increased from 8,569,693 in
leave it as he found it, I think it hardly 1866, to 9,717,443 in 1872 ; or an addition
worth while to discuss local taxation, as itap- of 1,147,750 cattle, being at the rate of 13.27
pears to be a subject very likely to have the per cent, for the six years. This is equiva-
attention of Parliament this session. Much lent to an increase of 191,291 head of cattle,
has been said respecting the division of rates or, on an average, 2.23 per cent, annually;
between landlord and tenant, but is this pos- while the average number of foreign cattle
sible ? That Parliament will ever pass such and calves imported into the United King-
an Act, without at the same time allowmg the dom since 1867 has been 193,085 per annum,
landlord to recoup himself by an extra amount thus shewing that the consumption of meat
of rent, and, as Mr Clare Sewell Read has is greatly on the increase, after allowing for
said, what did that mean but a revision of the extra population. But the property of
rents throughout the country, than which the country, and the high rate of wages in
there was nothing which could be more dis- the manufacturing districts had greatly in-
tasteful ; and if that is all the comfort we are creased the demand for animal food. Thou-
to get, I will thank Parliament to let us alone, sands of men who used rarely to get firesh
Just one word upon the Game-laws, which is, meat for their dinners were new competit(»s
and always has been a great hindrance to any for it, but the supply of meat was not so easily
improvement in agriculture. But we are told increased. It was not like com, of which
by those who are in favour of the excessive there was an almost indefinite supply in other
breeding of game that it is all a matter of rent parts of the world. Hence it wasi that the
or agreement when the bargain is made, but price of meat was always rising. Now for his
I would ask those gentlemen, is it possible part he could not be surprised ; on the con-
that a fair and honest bargain can be made ? trary, he thought it was natural that, looking
for in nine cases out of ten, when a farm is to at the rising price, and the increasing demand
be let, little game is to be seen, but after- for food, working men should ask whether
wards the increase is something wonderful, the land of England produced all that it
and often let to a third party, which makes it might do, and, if not, what were the
exceedingly distasteful to the tenant, and very impediments in the way of improvement?
trying to his system, especially if he has to They had it on the highest authority-
put up with the petty ribaldry of a game- amongst others, that of Lord Derby, one of
keeper. I should in no wise like to see the most cautious of speakers — that the land
Game-laws abolished, and would be sorry to of England didnotproduce more than oneJialf
see the day when any gentleman would be the food which it might do if it were properly
deprived of that sport and recreation which cultivated — ^if all the capital were laid out on
binds him to his home. it which it was capable of receiving. What,

then, was the cause of that ? He would not

THE CAUSE OF THE HIGH PRICE OF MEAT. ^^^^^ ^^ j^^gji^ ^p^^ the SUbjCCt, bccaUSC it

Having said thus much as to the fetters was a wide one, but he would say that, in

which shackle capital, and which must be re- the opinion of many it was due in part to the

moved ere we can reach the goal, I will read facilities yhich the law gave for tying up

an extract from an address by Mr Shaw property in families, by which land was ao

Lefevre when he refers to the high price of cumulated in the hands of a few, who, fof

meat. ** One main cause of that," he said, the most part, had only a lunited or life in-

'*was the improved condition of the working terest in it, and who were so encumbered

TIu Agriailtural Produce of Great Britain

355

ey could not do justice to the land.

again, to the insecurity of tenure, by
the great bulk of the farmers of this
ir hold their farms, so that they had not
)per inducement to lay out their capital

land, and to the law which gave all
ements to the landlord. Partly, again,

extravagant preservation of game,

was every year becoming worse, and
dly in the case of hares and rabbits^
were fed at the expense of the tenants,
evented them from making improve-
; and partly, also, to the accumulation
Is in the hands of Corporations, who
lot interested, as owners, in improving
roperties. It was that group of ques-
which constituted what was called
Land Question of England." He be-
the interest of the working people was

involved in them, as affecting the mere
)n of food. The interest of the agri-
i labourer was far more concerned.
:ould not hope for much improvement
condition unless more field was found

employment. They could not expect
s to give higher wages without a better
They did not wish to see the agri-
l1 labourers shipped away from tiiis
yr. On the contrary, they believed
le labourers might be retained here,
L ample field given for their labour by
; rid of those impediments which now
3 the outlay of capital on land.

V, GAME: SETTLING COMPENSATION.

id from the paper which I hold in my
a good deal is being said respecting
and rabbits. It is computed that at
p,ooo,ooo hares and rabbits are sold
^ear. Upon this assumption hares and
I supply annually 335,000 tons of food,

at ;f 1,500,000. This is certainly a
boon to the country, if true. There
-% also to be 30,000,000 sheep in the
I Kingdom. Now, one acre of land
ocked with food will keep 3 sheep one

Now, it is generally said that 6 hares
ibbits will eat and destroy as much as

keep a sheep; therefore, we require
,000 acres to support our stock, and

VOL. X.

1,666,666 acres to support the 30,000,000
hares and rabbits. Now, by multiplying that
number by 3, it would shew at once the
number of sheep which may be kept on the
food now consumed by the hares and rabbits,
amounting to 4,999,998, which I think may
be fairly valued at los. each, after deducting
attendance^ &c, which would bring the value
of the sheep to ;f 2,499,999, leaving a balance
against the hares and rabbits of about
;^i,ooo,ooo. Not having seen this game
account in the paper till recently, I have not
had time to test it ; but if Lord Malmesbur/s
figures and views are correct, then " Sheep
V, Game" would form a subject well worth
consideration. Now it must be self-evident
that to argue and say that the produce of the
country may be increased 100 or even 50 per
cent, shadded as it is at the present time,
can only be the chimera of a distempered
brain. It is a well-known fact that we cannot
add pne statute acre to our sea-girt isle, but
we can dig down into the great storehouse of
Nature, and greatly add to the soil If not
superficially, we can in solidity, for in that
storehouse is locked up an immense amount
of wealth, and the key to which is only to be
obtained by perseverance, industry, and
skill. But who, I ask, is going to lock up
his capital in land without himself having
access to the key? Such a thing would be
absurd and simply ridiculous. Therefore, I
am bound to confess that in order to carry
out the object for which we are met here to-
day there must be some Legislative enact-
ment whereby all improvements or deterio-
rations may be recognized I will not go
into detail on the present occasion as to the
various modes by which compensation may
be settled for all kinds of improvements and
deteriorations, as that would require much
thought^ since what would suit one county
would certainly not be beneficial to another.
I must confess this is a most difficult
question; I would much rather it could
be dealt with without the necessity of
calling in the aid of the Legislature;
for freedom of contnust is, and always has
been, the boast of om: land. We can readily
believe the £ict that the true interest of the

A A

354 '^f^ Country Gentlematis MagcLzUu

landlord and the tenant are mixed up to- to this. He says : — '' I have great resped

gether; but do we not see this interest for freedom of contract I have great resped

nullified every day for the want of a better for freedom of all kinds — freedom of contnci

understanding ? And I contend that the among the rest But there, can be no trot

public have a perfect right to inquire what freedom of contract without equaUty of con

.obstacles there are in the way of the develop- tract ; none whilst the balance is loadec

mentofagriculture,andbyevery means in their against the tenant by unfair presumption oi

power assist to remove them, as the whole unjust laws. We must begin by aiakiog dii

nation has a right to demand that no impedi- aws just and equal." Now would the land

ments shall prevent the means being used lord lose anything by taking such steps a

whereby the greatest amount of animal and would ensure the land being kept in hig^

vegetable food may be produced, and surely cultivation ? Could he lose anything by in

this must be the wish of alL Is it not a well- creasing the value of his land ? And wonk

known fact that when a lease is drawing to a not an enterprising tenant fall in with thes

close a great exhaustion of the soil often views ? I defy any one to say he would nol

takes place ? Consequently a very great Annihilate all those inusty old leases \ shaki

loss of food or produce is the result, and ofif those fetters which have bound agricol

this loss is more or less felt by all people, ture hand and foot for centuries \ nninpttl

Then it is said you must not interfere with the ox, and the earth will bring forth her ii

freedom of contract I will just quote a few crease, giving seed to the soyrer and biead t

wordii of Mr M'Neel Caird's as an answer the eater.

DORSET HORNED SHEEP.

MR JOHN DARBY contributes an in- neat, tolerably well shaped, and thickl

teresting article upon the Dorset woolled. They bear almost as strong a n

breed of sheep to The Field^ from which we semblance to the Portland breed as th

extract the following passages : — modem Dorset, and are regarded by some a

This celebrated breed, which stands un- the connecting link between the two, for th

rivalled for fecundity, excellent as nurses, and opinion was once very prevalent that th

still more for taking the ram at almost any Portland in reality is the original ancestn

period desired, and being pre-eminently type to which all Dorset homed sheep ow

adapted for the production of our earliest descent If so, no greater metamorphosi

crops of lambs, is, by common confession, has been effected in any race, for the superic

one of the oldest and best of the upland animals turned out at the present day by Mr G

horned races. Few other sheep were for- Mayo and Mr A. J. Pitfield seem to posses

merly to be met with in their native county, few affinities or points of resemblance ere

until the Southdowns expelled them from the to the Plush flock, except in fecundi^ an

chalk hills; but they were improved by early lamb-bearing. If Dorset sheep had bee

crossing at a very early period, and the ori- greatly improved at the period when Claridj

ginal breed had become rare well nigh a cen- and Parkinson praised them, how vast k

tury ago. been the stride of progress towards their pe

At Plush, near Cerae Abbas, on the farm feet development during the past half-centur

of Mr Miller, is still to be found a flock of They were sufficiently good, when Soot

the original breed. These sheep are much downs came into competition with them f<

smaller in size than the improved Dc^et, but the occupancy of the chalk soils of Dofsc

Dofset Homed Shop 355

to cause the struggle between the two breeds prices compared to those of other breeds,
to be a long and arduous one. Both Steven- purely because of their indisposition to fet-
son, in his Agricultural Report, and Spooner, ten until the second year. But the defect
in his Book on Sheep, allude prominently to has now been sufficiently removed to advance
this subject, and shew that the Downs sup- very materially the current rates of this class
planted their rivals because better fitted to in the markets and fairs. How this great
crop the close herbage of the chalk hills, and, change has been effected must perhaps re-
being smaller, many more could be supported main a disputed matter,
on a given acreage. The wool question Whatever agencies the breeders have adop-
tended most to keep the struggle in abeyance, ted, they appear to have made the breed
for the Dorsets would always shear firom i lb. vastly better for grazing, without depriving
to ij^ lb. more per head than their oppo- it in any material degree of the inherent
nents. But the fleece of the Southdown in native good qualities for which it has been
those days, although light, was held in high so long and happily distinguished. Their
estimation, and the advanced rates per tod it fecundity has not been detracted from, and
then commanded in the market helped to they still yean more twins and give less
turn the balance, the Dorsets were ulti- trouble in lambing than other kinds. The
mately expelled from the chalk region, and ewes are reported to take the ram as early
driven back to better land in the western part as ever they did, when permitted to do so.
of the county. Contention between the At the time Claridge wrote, the season for
breeds has, however, in isolated cases, been putting the most forward ewes to the ram was
waged more or less ever since. the last week in April for such as were intended

But more has perhaps been done for the tobesoldthefollowingautumn,andforthestock
perfection of the breed during the past twenty ewes about Midsummer ; and the lambing
or thirty years than during any previous period he describes as the middle of Sep-
period of progress, and but for a third set of tember for the sale ewes, and the beginning
favourites having entered on the field, they of December for the bulk of the flock. But
might again stand a fair chai^ce of regaining neither for stock or sale purposes is the
the territory from which they were ex- lambing required to take place so early now,
pelled, now occupied by the improved nor has it been for many years. Spooner in
Hampshires. Mr Thomas Danger says, his Book on Sheep observes — " They take the
" these sheep were wanting in two essen- ram as early as May and June, and their
lial points; they were less disposed to lambs are usually dropped in October and
fatten than some others, and in form were November, so that they are the principal
rather imperfect. A great improvement in sources of supply of house and early lamb,
these two points has of late years taken which about Christmas and the following
place." This is in no slight degree attribu- month is esteemed a great luxury, and

table to the good example and steadfast accordingly commands a high price

labours of Mr Danger himself, who made At Weyhill, one of the largest sheep fairs in
the perfection of this breed his particular the kingdom, they form a very large propor-
study, and succeeded in bringing the Hun- tion of the sheep offered for sale. It is the
stile flock to a high standard of merit For ewes in lamb that are thus driven in the
many years he was accustomed to make month of October, a distance frequently of
almost a clear sweep of the prizes in the 50 or 60 miles, which journey, occupying
showyards for Dorset sheep. upwards of a week, they generally bear re-

That an improved form and greater apti- markably well" Formerly it was not un-
tude to fatten have been imparted to Dorset common for lambs to be yeaned on the
sheep in recent years is unquestionable, journey, and a horse and cart accompanied
Wether lambs and t^ used within memory the flock to convey such lambs as happened
of the present race of farmers to sell at low to be dropped. The breed must indeed b *

35 6 Tlu Country GmtUfnafis Magazine

hardy to stand such usage, to which it is not downs being required for the profitable
now required to be subjected^ as the journey management of even the hill farms, the Downs
from Western Dorset to the neighbourhood have been so generally broken up and con-
of Weyhill, and the other Wilts and Hants verted to tillage. Mr J. Homer, of Martins-
autumn fairs, can be accomplished by rail, town, says: — "Very few real Southdown
Mr H. Mayo, writing as late as 187 1, after flocks are left in this district, the improved
observing that the ewes will take the ram Hampshire or Dorset horns being so much
two or three pionths before any other breed better suited to its requirements." But it is
of sheep, adds — " When the lambs are yeaned chiefly on those farms having water meadows
in October and November, and both they along the margins of the Frome and the
and their mothers receive good feeding, the Piddle, and more particularly in the neigh-
former will generally be found ready for the bourhoods of Dorchester, Maiden-Newton,
butcher in about ten or eleven weeks ; nor and Piddletown, that Dorset flocks prove of
does it take long to make the ewes ripe after highest value in the chalk country. Under
wards, and they will average from 20 lb. to these circumstances it is considered more
25 lb. per qr. To obtain early lambs for profitable to keep the forward draft ewes,
fattening we generally make use of a Sussex and perform the fattening business as regards
ram, as the lambs are considered a little better both lambs and their dams on the water
quality with the cross. We lamb our usual flock meadows. Mr PauU says :^" Horn sheep
about Christmas, and shear about the middle are well adapted to farms that have some
of Jime, when the lambs yield from 2^ lb. water meadows, as they possess good quality
to 3 lb. of wool, and the ewes from 5 lb. to ^nd fatten readily, and their lambs come to
6 lb." Mr Paull, a large farmer of Peddle^ early maturity for market" And again : —
town, says the Dorsets are prolific wool- ** Horn sheep are dropped about Christmas,
bearers, and that horn wool is now id. per As most of these hereabout are fattened, they
lb. more valuable than Down. He adds : — get cake as soon as they will eat, and all
** The wool of the horn lamb is very much they can be made to consume, the object
sought after for its peculiar whiteness and the being to rid them ofl" as soon as possible,
fine point it has." which in a fair season would be about April i.

Beyond the chalk range we find in western Since meat has been so dear many farmers

and northern Dorset an undulatory surface, fatten the off-going ewes as well as the lambs,

with low, flat, or rounded elevations, formed and they also are allowed whatever cake in

of some of the lower members of the oolitic reason they will eat, the same object being

series, interspersed occasionally with patches desired as with the lambs."

of green sand. The soil is tolerably fertile, Nor is this practice confined to the dis-

and is redundant of moderately good upland trict named. Further west many flockmasters

pastures. Further on are, the rich, inferior now find it more remunerative to do the £at-

oolite sands and loams of southern Somerset, tening at home, rather than sell off" their draft

where the pastures yield a mild, succulent ewes in lamb as heretofore. Distant localities

herbage, and are ever green. The Dorset are got to be so intimately connected by the

horns occupy the whole of this region, and, railway system, that Dorset can as readily

so far from being ever expelled therefrom, supply the London market with lamb as the

are rather extending themselves farther into home counties, which thirty or forty years ago

Somersetshire, in competition with the well- afforded the exclusive supply,

known Devonshire longwools, cross-breds. The details of ordinary management do

and Down sheep. not differ very materially from those required

The turn of the tide has also re-estabhshed for Southdowns and Hampshires, beyond

Dorset into favour on many farms in the bringing the ewes to lamb two months earlier.

^ Qtry. Laiger sheep than South- December is the usual month the Dorseti

Dorset Horned Sheep 357

yean in their own country, and, whether the sheep well adapted to the folding system, they

offspring is intended for stock or to be fat- are certainly more impatient of continuous

tened, lambing is brought to a termination close breaching on turnips than Down sheep ;

about Christmas. Although from an early nor are they subjected to this overmuch in

period always bearing a good reputation as their native districts.

BLACK^FACED SHEEP.

A WRITER in the Fields evidently well dun-faces, and that they have been improved

acquainted with the subject, con- by breeding from carefully and judiciously

tributes an article upon the black-faced breed selected specimens to an extent which renders

We make the following extracts : — the features of the present scarcely recognir

There can be no doubt this is the oldest zable in the progeny,
variety of the fleecy tribe extant in Scotland, Whether foreign blood was introduced or
though its origin is somewhat obscure. For not, the south-west of Scotland unquestion-
several centuries prior to the eighteenth, the ably has the credit of raising the blackfaces
character of the Scotch sheep were more to the degree of perfection they have for a
uniform than afterwards. On almost every considerable number of years displayed both
holding — and there were many in those days north and south. In the course of the
— 2l small flock was kept, herded and folded eighteenth century agriculture in Scotland
near the homestead, the mountains being rallied from the grasp of the darker ages,
then overrun by wolves and- foxes. These The mountain lands became safer for sheep,
antient sheep were designated the *' dun and in not a few instances these animals
faces," from the brown or tawny colour of exchanged attitudes with the cattle and
the hair on their faces and legs. The fore- horses, the fleecy tribes generally taking the
quarters were singularly light, the neck long higher ground. The Weirs of Priesthill,
and often low set, the tail very long, the face Muirkirk, Lanarkshire ; the Gillespies of
** dossy," wool short but fine, horns by no Douglas Water, and others, well-nigh a cen-
means common, feeding and developing pro- tury ago, did much to make the black&ces
perties deficient, symmetry wanting, and what they have long been, and still are.
maximum weight far below that of the Scotch Lanarkshire is regarded as the head-quarters
sheep of after 3rears. From these animals, of the blackfaces, not so much because that
which are not yet extinct in Scotland, we are coimty produces the largest number of the
inclined to think the black-faced sheep mainly finer specimens of the bre^d, as firom the
sprung. True, some tradition says that the fact that in it were effected the earlier and
black-faced sheep were introduced into Scot- more valuable improvements. The principal
land to the Ettrick forest from a foreign land market for black-faced stock is held at
several centuries ago by one of the Scottish Lanark; but Ayrshire, Dumfriesshire, Peebles-
kings, the inference being that firom this royal shire, and Roxburghshire produce laige num-
flock the breed spread gradually over the bers of high-bred animals, the first-named
country, eclipsing the native type. While two counties in particular. By tups
this hypothesis gains credence in certain firom the best southern flocks the northern
quarters, others assert — and we confess to mongrel sort of stocks have been im-
have a slight leaning with them — ^that the mensely improved Those in the nort n
Scotch mountain or black-faced sheep of the counties of Scotland who succeeded in gn
present day owe their origm to the antient ing the better class of animals brought ei

358

TJi£ Country Gentleman^ s Magazine

as well as tups from the south. Slowly during
the present century the original native breed
in die Highlands was supplanted by the
better class of stock from the south ; andi
excepting Orkney and Shetland, there are
not now many specimens entu-e of the time-
honoured dun-faces in Scotland. The north-
em sheep are not nearly so well bred,
nor are the pastures quite so good as those
in the south of Scotland, yet the infusion of
new blood has been so effectual, that the
features of the "duns" are almost obliterated,
with the exception already made. The finer
breeding flocks have long occupied the
higher grounds in Lanarkshire, Ayrshire,
Dumfriesshire, and Stirlingshire; but the
number of black-faced or mountain sheep is
not so great as it was about the beginning of
the present century. The Cheviot sheep
have encroached extensively on the black-
faced provinces throughout Scotland, notably
along the west coast, within the last forty
years. Some people say that the Cheviot is
as hardy as the black-faced, and that it will
arrive earlier at maturity, dnd carry a greater
quantity of mutton, possessed of quite as fine
a flavour. The writer's experience leads him
to believe that the whitefaces are not nearly
so hardy as the black, but that the former
will take on earlier a little more flesh, though
the flavour of the mutton is not so flne.

Not the least formidable obstacles in the
way of improvement among the mountain
sheep were tlie promiscuous pasturing of the
smaller flocks on common runs, the too
frequent neglect of proper castration, and of
preserving the best specimens only to breed
from on the male side. "Commonties"
gradually disappeared, more careful treatment
was extended to the pastures as well as to
the sheep, and for the last quarter of a cen-
tury no department of Scotch agriculture has
been better attended to than the selection of
first-class tups by breeders from the best
stocks. Even the owner of a mixed stock of
two or three score has for a considerable
number of years endeavoured, with success
generally, to secure a well-bred tup. The
Scotch mountain sheep are the most migratory
-' the race. After grazing in comparative

solitude in the corries for some t

become wfld, especially those specii

playing closer affinity to the antiei

breed. Their pedestrian powers a

in fact, we have frequently seen w

wild and agile that a common shepli

could not get abreast of them in

could not even give them a " turn.*

The blackfaces are very lively, i

animals, and become much atti

certain parts of the pasture. The

stocks, or individual animals compos

have choice portions of the runs

where some of them graze night

during summer, and others, after ps

day in the lower grounds, hie tow;

favourite quarters as evening ap

Partly owing to the often scanty

their pastures, the mountain shee

more time feeding than almost a

animal.

No other variety of sheep shift so
the means of subsistence. It is <
with our experience that the higher
mals will do less to provide their oi
than those flocks considerably impr
the antient type, but by no means
breeding, which abound in the i:
Aberdeen, Kincardine, Perth, Bani
vemess. During heavy snow-sto:
wonderful how many of the black-fisi
survive. Neither in respect of quj
quality of provender are they c
satisfy, particularly in winter. If
some shelter they will scrape am
snow for heath, fogage, or whins,
over the storm with a very scani
The proportion of the breeding
dulged with turnips in the course o
comparatively small.

Rams are required at the rate
forty ewes. Diu-ing the rutting s
tups often fight terrifically, not un
killing each other ; and that their 1
stand such fearful crashing is a n
blackfaced ram is extremely poi
pecially with his head. Going bac
twenty or thirty yards each, a pair
land rams then start, and meet t
with a fearful violence, their hea^

Black-faced Sheep 359

\ cracking loudly, and their "beam Hope, Cadenhead; Mr Craig, Polquheys,

" rising considerably in response to the Ayrshire \ Mr Craig, Craigdairoch, Ayrshire ;

ion of heads. The lambing season is Mr Greenshiels, Westown ; Mr Paterson,

iy from the middle of April to a similar Glenlaggart ; Mr Paterson, Birthwood ; Mr

d in May. Twin lambs are the excep- Tweedie, Castle Crawford ; Mr Denholm,

The lamb is remarkable for the amount Bailaw \ Mr Wilson, Kennix ; and the Messrs

)ld and hunger, especially the former, it Watson, Coulterwater — in Lanarkshire ; Mr

mdure, even in the first few days of its McDonald, Strathmashie, Invemess-shire ;

jnce, and also for the early use of its MrPagan,Invergeldie, Perthshire; Mr Foyer,

Two or three minutes after birth it will Knowhead, Stirlingshire ; Mr Stewart, Bdlid,
1 its feet, though rather tremulously, and Inverness-shire ; Mr Kennedy, Sherramore,
few minutes more it walks easily. The Inverness-shire ; Mr Grant, Inverlaidnau, In-
isive-like attitude with which it weathers vemess-shire ; Mr Robertson, Achilty, Ross-
biting blasts of the spring snow and shire; Mr Willison, Parisholm, Biggar; Mr
- storms afifords early evidence of the Murray, Eastside, Pencuik; Mr Welsh,
-al hardiness of the breed. The ewe's Erickstane, Mofifat

over her young is great With mode- In the case of the high-class breeding
treatment as to food before lambing, stocks in the southern counties the ewe hogs
ewe is invariably possessed of a large are often wintered separately from the old
tity of milk, and it is only in cases of sheep on the lower grounds, sometimes get-
oration as to nourishment, as a rule, that ting turnips. Meadow hay is an important
will leave their lambs. Such is the at- element in the dietary of the black-faced
aent generally of a Highland ewe to her sheep all over the country in a heavy, pro-
ring, that we have seen many of them tracted snowstorm.

in within a few yards of their dead lambs The principal breeders in the south in-

^veral days, even though the latter had variably sell the wether lambs in the Lanark

survived birth, and though the former and Sanquhar markets in the autumn months,

on the brink of starvation. and retain through the winter only the purely

tended, as the conversion of small hold- breeding animals. Those who confine them-

into large ones was, by much heart- selves to wether stocks in Perthshire, Aber-

[ng to the evicted, and pointed to as it deenshire, and Inverness-shire, and the

s by not a few, as one of the worst steps jobbers, buy the wether lambs in these maxkets

taken for the country, it must be ad- at very high prices, ranging from 12s. to 248.

d that it conduced to the introduction a head, according to the quality of the lambs

nuch-improved class of sheep. It was and the nature of the sheep market After

arger flock-owners, as a rule, who were about three years* keep on the non-breeding

irst to bestir themselves in producing farms these animals return to the southern

stock. The mountain sheep-farming markets in the capacity of three-year-old

be said to have assumed three different wethers, realizing from 35s. to 40s. each.

ictersin thecourseof the last twenty years, By this time some of the wethers are ready

the purely breeding stocks in the southern for the butchers, and the majority about half

ties of Scotland, the wether stocks in the fat — in which latter case they are bought by

lem counties, and the mixed ewe and fleshers and dealers, and put on turnips in

er flocks in the central and northern England and elsewhere a few months. It

ties. should be mentioned that large numbers o

nong the more celebrated breeding flocks blackfaces occupy the higher grazings in the

hose of Mr Archibald, Overshiels, Stow ; north of England. As a rule, in black-faced

A.itken, Listonshiels, Mid-Lothian; Mr stocks, the ewes or gimmers do not have

:olm, of Potalloch, M.P., Argyllshire ; lambs until two years old ; earlier breedings

Mofifat, Gateside, Dumfriesshire ; Mr being detrimental to their devdopmenti is as

3^0

Tlie Country Gentletnaris Magazim

far as possible avoided. The ewes are drafted
off at the age of five or six years, and the
blanks in the breeding ranks filled by the
gimmers. The crook or cull ewes are bought
by English farmers and others mostly for the
purpose of crossing for one cross only with
white-faced rams, and are afterwards fed for
the slaughter-house.

Several of the wether hirsels in Perthshire,
Aberdeenshire, and Inverness-shire number
from 6000 to 10,000 animals. The hogs are
sent to the coast side for the winter at an ex-
pense of from 3s. 6d. to 5s. a head, and in
most cases the two-year-old and three-year-
old wethers are wintered on the lower por-
tions of the summer grazings. Smearing is
extensively resorted to in the Highlands, and
contributes much to the animals' comfort,
especially where shelter is deficient.

Though most of the breeders named have
reared longer than Mr Archibald, Overshiels,
has done, we believe — ^and the Highland
Society's prize list for the last six or seven
years corroborates the opinion — that his stock
is probably the finest extant. Assuming that
Mr Archibald's stock is thoroughly represen-
tative of the higher-class animals at the pre-
sent day, let us glance briefly at the treat-
ment those animals we have so frequentiy
had occasion to admire, receive. In the early
days of the flock rams were introduced firom
most of the best-bred stocks in Scotland, but

latterly the changing of blood has been chiefly
from the different strains in Mr Archibald's
own possession* In addition to Overshiels,
he rents the hill harm of Midcrosswood, on
the west end of the Fentlands, and an arable
farm at Duddingston, near Edinburgh. The
young stock are lambed on the two hill farms,
and kept there with their dams until weaning
time, which is early in August The tup
lambs are then taken to the arable farm at
Duddingston, and put upon good sown grass,
where they remain till about Martinmas.
Thereafter turnips and hay constitute the
dietary until March, when those intended
for the show yard are clipped and fed on oil-
cake, beans, and grass till the date of com-
petition. Tne tups intended for sale get
similar treatment, excepting the cake and
beans. The ewes and gimmers for exhibition
are fed on grass and turnips, and the bulk oi
the breeding stock grazed on good pastures
during summer and wintered on low grounds.
The blackfaces are not particularly famous
for longevity, though, probably, no other
species of the tribe live so long on the whole.
We have known of several Highland ewes
breeding regularly on to different periods
from ten to fifteen years of age. The average
weight of the four quarters of each black-faced
sheep when killed is about 55 lb. The dis-
eases to which they are more pione are
" braxy " and " sturdy."

The Cwntfjf Gentleman's Magazine 36 1

SEWAGE GRASS.

By Mr J. J. Mechi.

' Y experience of making hay from heat takes place in the cock, which gets rid

. sewaged Italian ryegrass is favour- of much of the water. Any additional ex-

I once made in three days, and carted pense caused by cocking is amply repaid,

t^y 3i> 3 toJ^s per acre from sewaged When we look to profit rather than to cost,

n ryegrass. It should be cut at the Mr Gibbs' excellent drying plan will become

time of its growth, and carted when in use, also the box ventilators and fan

, so that it heats, but not too much ; draught Too much now is left to chance,

we have now the means by Garrett's Good dry hay should be green. Our shaker

•ventilators and other processes, of regu- immediately follows the cutter. We thus

; the temperature. It makes first-class drive the grass through the air ; Mr Gibbs

3r cutting into chaff, and I have never drives the hot, dry air through the grass.

[ much difficulty in converting it into His plan, with proper machinery, and on a

hay, provided it is cut at the right time, large scale, must be profitable. Dr Voelcker

the seed head is protruded, and just pronounced the hay (made in 15 minutes by

I the blooming time. I am more and abstracting the surplus moisture) to be of the

convinced that the theory which I enun- very best quality, and superior to slowly made

I, " that grass when cut for hay should hay long exposed. But to return to the

her flying through the air or be on the sewage question. Eight pounds of coal,

" is a correct one. It should never be worth, at 23s. 6d. per ton, id., will, in the

Dread over the surface of the land. My best Cornish engines, raise 8,000,000 lb. of

is this : if the weather is fine and dry, water or sewage afoot high; or 71 tons 50 feet

as you cut the first day ; shake all the high for id. worth of coal, other charges being

d day. Cock it at night, spread out additional If our towns desire to purify

Dcks in the morning of the third day, their rivers, the sewage should be conducted

n the same day cart it Last year it rained to the poor light lands, where a portion of

day for a week after cutting; we then set certain farms along the hue of pipe could

laker to work, cocked it at night, and derive the benefits arising from the use of

i it next day. Hay will make much sewage. At the present price of meat and

- and quicker on the cock than on the butter, a ton of Italian rye-grass should be

3w or swathe. You thus avoid the worth iss. for feeding purposes. According

dew and the dampness arising from the to Mr Morgan's statement, about 240 tons of

The uncovered space between the sewage were required to produce each ton of

dries quickly, ready for their spreading Italian rye-grass, at one halfpenny per ton ;

For heavy crops the shakers should be this would amount to los. It appears by this

to revolve very rapidly, so as to pick calculation that a farmer could not afiford to

d disperse the crop quickly. As a rule, pay more than one halfpenny or three fiarth-

rs are not set to sufficient speed for ings per ton for the sewage delivered on his

' sewaged crops, so that horses are farm. No doubt if the manure resulting from

d beyond their regular pace. Unless the consumption of an acre of sewaged Italian

rater is dried out of hay or clover, it rye-grass was restored to the land on which

lould in the stack. Last year our clover the rye-grass grew, several subsequent crops

:e the frequent rains, was made properly, could be taken without manure. In my case,

y by cocking and uncocking. A gentle after Heeding the Italian lye-grass the second

362

Tlie Country Gentleman's Magazvie

year with sheep, supplemented by cake and
com, I take first a crop of white peas, picked
for London market ; white turnips same year
fed off; wheat sown the same year about
December, and barley to follow wheat It
is in this way, in my opinion, that sewage on
poor land can be best utilized. The next
crop of Italian rye-grass is sown among the
barley. We thus get a pea and white turnip

crop, and a wheat and barley crop, befc
next rye-grass crop. Poor light and
nary lands, let at or under 30S- pei
would, in my opmion^ pay 'a good pn
sewage. If our rivers are no longer
polluted, our great cities must conve}
sewage to extensive consummg districts,
gradually its use will be availed .of ai
preciated.

supply of fresh air into the hold, by me
steam power, an air-pump, and an exhai
fan, just as is done in our coal-mines.
steam-ships have an abundant supp

NOTES FROM TIPTREE.

By J. J. Mechi.

A FARMER and his son, when visiting weigh from 38 to 42 lb. per imperial fa

this farm, admired the Tartarian black Our crop of oats was last season very

oats, then nearly ready for harvest, and re- where the wheat was not good,

quested to have a quantity for seeding their It appears to me surprising that th<

two farms, distant from each other a few miles arising from crowding cattle into li

in this county. The report, when we next spaces have not been mitigated by dri^
saw them, was in one case a splendid crop
as to quality, and about 10 qr. per acre; in
the other, a very inferior quality, and only 5
qr. per acre — the farming in both cases good,

but the land in one case hea\7, and with the power available for such a purpose. L

inferior crop light They said that they were Government enforce such an arrange

astonished, and, but for having divided the and we should hear much less about <

quantity between them, should have supposed plague and other animal diseases. The

they could not have been from the same tional cost of conveyance would weigh 1

quality of seed. The season was dry and when compared with the present dan{

hot We usually buy light fen oats, which or ruinous practice. A full-grown b

become black and heavy on our stiff soil, weighs as much as ten adult men, and re

We find these produce a better quality than ten times as much pure air and water,

our own heavier seed. We have frequently system appears to be a modified copy i

grown from 10 to ir qr. per imperial acre, fatal Black Hole at Calcutta. From

and once 13 qr. Quantity of seed, 2 bush, has been repeatedly reported, I have \

per acre, quite thick enough on our soil ; in to believe that something like this too

some instances far too thick. I must con- occurs in the transit by sea of cattle, a

tinue to protest against the practice of sowing must cease to be surprised at the fata

thickly ; a trial of half an acre in each field costly results of such a system. A few

would so6h work a reform in this matter, and thus suffice to ruin a constitution. M

prove very profitable. Black strong-growing field for the exertions of the Society fi

Tartarian oats do well in our stiff soil and dry Prevention of Cruelty to Animals !

climate. In more pluvial districts potato For some years we have abstained

oats are found to be more suitable, as they hoeing wheat on our light land, havii

l<^ not get so much laid. Our black oats served, by a comparison, that it ad

NoUsfrom Tiptree 363

drought too freely, and lessened the crop, action in Common Law found a verdict for
In the spring, as soon as the roller will the landowner, and the lease was thus to be
travel clean, we use CrosskilFs heavy iron terminated. An appeal was, however, made
clod-crusher with 5 cwt added on the back to the Court of Chancery, and the evidence
frame, which thus balances the shafrs and shewed that no damage was done to the
adds weight to the roller. We also sow broad- farm. by this sale of straw, that the land, on
cast about 6 to 8 bushels of salt, which still the contrary, had been greatly improved by
further consolidates the land — so much so^ superior cultivation, and by a large consump-
that while the wheat branches and thrives, tion of purchased food and artificial manure,
and becomes a fine standing crop of 4 or 5 The Vice-Chancellor at once reinstated the
feet high, the land appears in summer too tenant, and complimented him on his manage*
solid to allow of the growth of weeds ; should ment of the farm. Certain other tenants who
any strong-rooted weeds appear they are had given evidence adverse to their neigh-
spudded out I should recommend a com- bour were found to have also sold straw
parative trial of this system on light land, abundantly, and hay too j and one of them
Our light land wheat is generally drilled in was simimoned before the magistrate for
November and December, at the rate of 5 perjury, as to his selling straw on his
pecks per acre ; on the heavy land, 4 pecks. Chancery affidavit ; but after a long hearing
An interesting instance of Equity v. the chairman said it was a difficult case, and
Common Law occurred lately in this neigh- gave the defendant the benefit of the doubt,
bourhood. A worthy farmer purchased a dismissing the summons. The conclusion
costly supply of steam>cultivating machinery we may draw is, that a breaking of the
to let out for hire, and it caused him heavy covenants of the lease, if unattended with
loss. For some reason or other information loss or damage to the landowner or his
was given to the agent of the landowners that property, is subject to an equitable de-
this tenant had violated the covenants of his cision. The Vice-Chancellor advised the
lease by selling the straw of the farm. An tenant not to sell any more straw.

j\s.

3^4

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITl

THE Trade and Navigation Accounts for
the month and the first quarter of the
year have been issued. From tiiese we find
that the numbers of oxen, bulls, and cows im-
ported last month were in excess of those re-
ceived in 1872, but less than the importa-
tions of 1 8 7 r . They stood thus, commencing
with the latter year first : — 13,895, 6978, and
8660. In the three months ended March
the number of cattle received this year was
fewer than that which reached our shores in
the like period of the two preceding years.
In 1873 we imported 18,955; *° '72> 21,927;
and in '71, 25,474. Seeing that we are told
that inspection is a farce, and that it does
not prevent the entrance of diseased beasts
to our ports, we must come to the conclusion
that foreigners are finding a better market
for their stock in their own countries. Such
conclusion is almost inevitable when we find
out, after calculation, that each beast has cost
us on the average this year, so far as it has
go^e, £i<)i 1 6s., while in the like period of
1872 animals were obtained for jQid^ 13s.
each, and in 1871 for thi,e sum of £16^ 14s.
per head. Taking the rate we pay per month
we find that in March last every foreign ar-
rival of thebovine species cost vlsjQk^^ i 2s. 4d.i
in 1872, the price was, in round numbers,
£i^ ; and in i87i,;£i6, los., shewing a dif-
ference in the three years of jQ^^ 2s. 4d. per
head, or about a sixth of the whole value,
to our disadvantage. The imports of
calves were shorter in the month, but rather
larger in the quarter. The total number we
received was 3843, and we paid for them
£^9A^Zi an average of about £^ per head.
Last year they scarcely made £^, 5s. each.

There was a great falling off in sheep and
lambs alike in the month and three months,
the number landed from abroad during
March, being only 57,705, to contrast with
82,611, in 1872. In the quarter we had
'21,357; in the corresponding term of the
previous year, 171,427. The respective costs

were ;^257,268,' and Iz^o.^Z^. 1
ference in the prices per head wai
2S. 8d.; the value of each sljeep i
since the year conmienced being £2^
The Returns shew a decrease in the 1
swine to the amount of about £iSo^ ai
we received a larger number, live
being evidently at a discount. The dii
in our favour this year was 8s. pel
Our imports of bacon were laiger, 1
the month and three months, and the <
cwt. was about is. less. The total q
received during the past three mom
812,656 cwt, to compare with 705,
the corresponding term of the previoi
as against 298,916 cwt in the like pe
187 1. The sum we paid in the first
of this year was ;^i,5S7,9o8; in
we disbursed ;^i,447,575, and in
;^7 76,635. For salted beef in th<
months, we paid ;^i58,i47, and fcfr f
slightly salted, ;^5 2,965. There was
crease in hams both in the month an<
months. They cost us last quarter ;£^i 4
in the corresponding period of
;^i 22,885 'y and up to the end of Marci
only ;;^48,584. Of other meat, classec
the head " unenumerated," we had
quarter 21,103 cwt., as against 20,218 n
in the first three months of 1872,
commodity was cheaper this year than

Notwithstanding all the energies
various companies to promote and ext(
consumption of preserved meat, it a
from the figures in these Returns X\
taste for it is diminishing rather than i
ing. There is a sentiment, or a preju
its favour, perhaps, connected wit
phrase " the roast beef of Old En|
which cannot be got over by the indu
classes at any price when wages are h
they are at the present time. For this i
or prejudice, we are paying more extra
sums for our joints than we ever did I
and the popularity of meat in tins is m

Import and Expert of AgrktUtural Cofnmodities 365

;at discount. In the first quarter of ter the imports amounted to 1,143,686 great

ir imports of this article amounted to hundreds ; in 1872,914,641. The total cost for

cwt, the cost being ;f 217,407. This eggs in the three months of the year was

5 have only received 40,746 cwt, ^^530,787 ; in the like period of the preced-

t amount we paid was ;f 118,764. ing year, ;^377,747.

igher price per cwt this year In the three months of this year we have

Lve operated somewhat against its received over a million quarters of wheat

1 1872 we paid in round numbers for beyond the supply that came to us last year.

I2S., in this year ;^2, i8s. per cwt The statistics of barley, oats, and Indian

rk we had to pay to foreigners this com, number less than they did in the pre-

172,713, last year in the correspond- vious year. The imports of com generally

e months we were out of pocket for a shew us that even with a bad harvest at home

irticle ;^2oi,983. Poultry and game we cannot hope to have much variation in

me to us more extensively from abroad the price of cereals. Meat may rise from the

1st three months than in the like term difficulty and danger of sea transport, but the

ear, the sums we paid being respec- shipments of com depend entirely upon the

o 77*679 ^^d ;^4S>92i. necessities on this side of the water.

ig all the animal food we have men- The following tables exhibit the various

ito account — live stock and dead meat quantities of com received, the places from

*, we have expended less during last whence they were imported, and the money

than in the first one of 1872 — that we have paid for them during the three

»,547, as against ;^2,903,359, but then months of last year and this : —

less for the money. But either sum quantities.

luch to pay to foreign consigners, see- Three Months Three Months

; if the resources of our own country ended March ended March

eveloped as they ought to be, we , 31. xSt^- 31. 1873.

u It ^ y \. \i ^ A' Wheat. Cwt Cwt.

be able to almost entu-ely dispense «„ -. ^^^a^^. ^^wA/^ro

, r.t-- 1. . J V Russia SiS2o,77« 3»3io,9S9

ports of this character. Denmark 40,259 151,523

same remarks apply to the imports of Germany 505,544 641,049

reduce, which have considerably in- France 16,350 897,933

in the first quarter of this year as Austrian Territories... 2,421 14,908

ed with that of last. The amount we '^'^^^k^^!^., \ '^''^78 83.149

r butter in the three months ended Egypt 622,548 457,905

was ;^i,46o,274, for cheese ;^440,4i6 United States 1,480,768 3,442,246

1, taking both together, £\,<^ooMo, ChiU 214,610 326,014

inst /i «;i7 c:ii8 a d^erence of British North America 77,589 19,025

mst ;6i,5i7,53»» a aitterence 01 other Countries 116,813 607,008

52, or about x>^i, 500,000 per annum,

od story is none the worse, the pro- Total 8,745,152 9i957.7i9

forms us, of being told twice, and this ^ . value.

u 11 •-. . .1. J • Russia •;f3ii77i203 ;f2,05i,223

le case we shall reiterate the advice p^nmark 25,853 102,269

iven in these columns that more at- Germany 336,688 448,605

should be bestowed upon poultry- France 9i4^7 57o,790

iry. Of late years a good deal has Austrian Territories ... 1,460 10,166

)ne in this way, but there is evidcnUy '^'JJ^dMoldl^a'^ ( ^2,631 48,881

field as yet wholly untilled. Every Egypt 321,795 240,400

shews us that we are losing by the United States 945,187 2,309,567

of domesticated feathered creatures. ChiU 142,302 204,625

tance, last month our imports of eggs ^^^^ North America 50,733 14,017

Q-o *u J J • *u ^^ Other Countries 65,791 416,871

> 1,858 great hundreds, m the previous \^vuuu « ^'^^

the same period, 474,2 1 1. InUiequar- Total ;£5>H9*o^ ifiA^l%^^^

366

Tlu Country Gmtlemaffs Magazhte

QUANTITIES.

Three Months
ended March

31. 1872-
Cwt

Barley 3*985,048

Oats 2,375i6i4

Peas 89,402

Beans 824,547

Indian G>m or

Three Months
ended March

31. 1873.
Cwt.

3,476,168
1,960,248

218,893
703,756

mS^."!"..!!' ! 3*999,957 3.637,73^

VALUE.

Barley ;fi,586,5io

Oats 871,001

Peas 40^965

Beans 332,018

'tSe^r:: ! M65.059

£i,5",S72

754,496

96,484

294,788

1,222,646

QUANTITIES.

Three Months
ended March
31, 1872.
Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt.

Germany 230,279

France 50,449

United Stetes 174,8^9

British North America 930

Other Countries 236,838

Three Months

ended March

311 1873.

Cwt.

268,582

1,041,160

246,818

7,368

440,605

Total 693,325

VALUE.

Germany ;f2io,567

France 45*334

United States 13I1814

British North America 819

Other Countries 234,081

2,004,533

;f 262, 526

985,648

223,099

6,860

422,809

Total ;f622,6i5 ^1,900,942

The imports of potatoes continue to in-
crease. In March of this year our foreign
supplies amounted to i, 779,549 cwt — more
than twenty times the quantity we received
in the same month of last year. In the
quarter our supplies were 3,751,709 cwt; in
the corresponding period of last year only
252,391. The cost for the tubers was in the
first three months of this year ;^ 1,036,384 j in
the corresponding term of the last, ;^54,o97.

Bones for manures have decreased both in
the month and three months. The amount
paid for bones in the quarter of the year that
has expired was ;C9i,oi7 ; last year in the
same time ;^ 14 1,5 7 3. The increase in the
imports of guano during the month is note-
''Qithy. From 7151 tons in March 1872 the

supplies rose to 24,948 last month.
three months the increase is nearly
tons. The cost up to the end of Ma
year was ;t464j979; in the corres]
term of last £223,827. Brimstone \
less quantity. Nitrate of soda was :
request in the month — ^less so in the qi
the year. The same remarks apply to »
Clover seeds were more sought after du
month— less so in the quarter. Cott
was not so extensively imported io
period. Rape-seed was more laig
ported in March, but taking the three
together the returns were about an d
the corresponding term of the preWoi
In oil-seed cakes there was an incn
the month but a diminution in the
penod. The cost about the same as k
The following tables shew the com]
quantities of wool import^ and th<
for the first three mondis of last year \
present : —

QUANTrriES.

Three Months Thre
ended March enda

1872.
lb.
9,078,001

Wool, Sheep, and Lambs.

From Countries in Europe
British Possessions
in South Africa

British India 5)43S|9I9

Australia 5^,907,576

Other Countries ... 6, 869, 665

»»

7,498,227

Total 851792,388

VALUE.

From Countries in Europe ;f 534, 558
British Possessions

in South Africa... 443,248

British India 231,010

Australia 3,^35,234

Other Countries ... 315,794

3^
8

56
6

"83

II
11
II

Total £5,159,844 £a

Our dairy produce is more in den
home apparently than it was wont
Of butter and cheese together we h
ported only ;^68,843 worth, in com
with ;^79,988. In the three mon
exports of horses exhibit a decline oi
the month an increase of 24. The
we received for 475 horses in th<
months was jf 27,720 ; last year in tl
space we got ^30,195.

Tki Country GeHiteman's Magazine 367

Jlgricttlttttal impiemeitta aitb Jftachtius.

A NEW REAPER,

THGunusualdemandforreapiDs-machines ' The Reaper here shewn m IlgE. i and i is

for the past harvest, the strike among called the "National," and is, we are assured,

agricultural labourers, apd the difficulty of the result of practical experience, extending

harvesting the crops, all prove the great ne- over something like twenty years at home

cessity ot a simple and practical reaping- and abroad. As it differs somewhat from

machine. All other operations of the iarm others, we here give a detailed description of

cao either be done a little sooner or later it

without any material loss ; harvesting must be Fig. t. shews the Reaper set down for

done quickly to be done well, and the reap- work. It is capable of cutting all kinds of

ing-machine may be said to be the " most grain and fodder. The whole of the geanng

important " of agricultural implements, as the and bearings are placed within a wrought

g£un or loss of the faimei'i whole year's iron frame set on its edge, the main or

labours entirely depends on the three or four driving wheel axle has a bearing on both

weeks allotted to him for gath<iriDg in his sides, entirely obviatii^ all side friction,

crops. The driving i^eel contains no fixed gearing,

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

the first motion being given by a bevel,
placed on the inside knob with rivets and
springs to allow backing. The bevel can be
easily replaced in case of wear. It gives
direct motion to the rake as well as to the
first spur-wheel for the motion of the knife,
which is contained in a bevel and spur com-
bined placed on the rake spindle. The
second motion of the knife is also given by a
horizontal gearing, this securing a horizontal
throw for the connecting-rod. This is veiy
desirable, as it entirely avoids all shaking and

combined bevel and spur wheel
of a fork. The handle on the ou
the axle is within reach of the di
sitting in his seat. This enables
to obviate breakage when obstacle
the way. The ear-lifter or inside
so arranged as to prevent all poi
choking, a free space being left bi
main fi-ame or leading rod, am
chance of lopping or cutting o
there are no knives to cut on tl
or main wheel side of the ear-l

knocking by the weight of the pitman caused
by Ihe perpendicular throw. Each axle or
s])indle can be taken out separately, or any
of the wheels, as there are only five
wheels, compri.=ing three pair of gearing,
and the spindles being horizontal the
bushes are put in from the top and fixed
by a wart, without screws or keys, and can
thus be easily and speedily replaced. The
rake and knife are thrown in or out of gear
at one and Uie same time by means of an
exccntric on the end of the axle of the
Jriving wheel, which is connected to the

secure the greatest strength and
on the outside, or grain-wheel side,
or cutter-bar is bent up to form the
side shoe to affix the divider, grain ■
platform, each being attached separa
arrangement allows of the platform
moved and a trackboard being app
used as a fodder-cutter. The p!
made entirely of metal in strips cor
angles, which makes it very strong,
durable. The height of stubble <
from 3 to >o inches, according to
by the lever and catch on the maL

A New Reaper 369

ing wheel side and by the concentric ring in merely removing one bolt, on which is at-

the ofif or grain wheel side, besides the cut- tached a short axle, and the grain or off side

ter-bar and knife are actuated by a lever on wheel placed on it In this pbsition it is only

the side of the coachman, and the height of 4 feet broad. It can be taken about from

cut can be regulated at pleasure in case of place to place, or field to field, as a common

laid-down grain, on uneven or rough land, cart or waggon.

and in fodder-cutting. The invention is Mr YulFs, a Scotch gentle-
As there is great danger and difficulty in man, who has long had the management of
the transport of reapers on rail and common estates in Austria. Information about this
roads, through lanes and narrow gate-ways, new Reaper can be obtained at 166 Fleet
the " National" is folded up for transport by Street.

VOL. X. B B

370

TJu Country Gentlcmaiis Magazine

■

THE SUPPOSED DANGERS OF SEWAGE FARMS.

DR ALFRED CARPENTER has re-
plied to a question raised by the
Croydon Microscopical Club as to the
possible effect of the ova of entozoa upon
human beings through the operation of
sewage farms. He states that the subject is
one which has engaged a good deal of his
attention ever since sewage farms were es-
tablished, and he had given the matter his
serious consideration. He has had occasion
to express the opinion that although the
dangers feared might arise, they did not. It
was found by reference to the books of the
Poor-law Medical Officers, by inquiries of
his own medical friends, and by his own ex-
perience, that cases of tania salium were
all but unknown among the inhabitants of
Croydon. When cases did occur, it was
generally (not invariably, of course) among
those who had lived some time in India, in
some part of the centre of Europe, or in
Africa, shewing conclusively that the ova
developing the disease had been planted in
the human frame in other countries. People
who made the charges against sewage farms
did not know anything about the manage-
ment of them, and described them in a
manner contrary to fact. They supposed
that the ova of entozoa would be carried on
to the land, applied to the crops, and then
consumed as ova by the cattle upon the
farm. This idea shewed at once their want
of knowledge as to what sewage-farming
meant. No such contamination could occur,
except by accident, such as might happen in
anybody's kitchen, where meat which might
find its way into the cook's hands with
trichina spiralis^ or other parasites in
it, was not properly cooked or was eaten
raw. If people cooked their meat pro-
nerly, no evil could result, and if sewage

farms were properly managed no dangei
entozoa could arise. Of course, the
bility of such an accident was to be gu
against, but it was not sound argument a
a sewage farm. With reference to ai
point — the destination of the millions <
of entozoa which undoubtedly do find
way to the irrigation farm at Bedding
Dr Carpenter states that he often sea
for ihem years ago, at the outfall, but
found them. He thought that a good
might be done in solving the question <
velopment by following out a point whi
had not hitherto found time to do. H
an idea that the ova of entozoa, plac
other channels, in other conditions
moisture and temperature, might d€
into some other form than that of par
He had not found the ova of entozoa
in every running stream exposed to t
he had never failed to find the blo<
worm, the "naid," waving its body \
It was contrary to received opinion tha
a development should occur ; but when
" naid," and where were the parasitic (
the entozoa? With reference to this
question, Mr H. Lee, the naturalisi
offered to place at the disposal of Di
penter an apparatus which he has at Bri|
and which can be submitted to the acti
a running stream as long as may be
sary.

CHICKEN RAISING IN SUSSEX.

We take the following from W
" Illustrated Book of Poultry " for
— The mortality among Sussex chick
usually very small indeed,* but this ari
great measure from the natural and hard]
ner in which they have been reared foi
rations, and strongly corroborates wh

kafidom Ifoies 37 £

already advanced as to the advantage enough, when we consider that they are not
:eping the birds — ^young and old — in a ignorant of the nature of most of our tools,
al way. This is the more worthy of re- and the dullest comprehension ought to be
, as hatching is carried on very nearly able at once to see their great superiority.
e year round, but more especially from The English implements are very /leavy. Not
iry to September ; chickens in the latter one of any kind can be found but what con-
fi being greatly valued for the Christmas tains twice or three times as much iron or
ets, but even these having frequently no steel as is needed. Labourers cannot do as
r shelter than a cart-shed. The coop much work in a day with their heavy shovels,
in Sussex measures about 30 inches hoes, and spades, as they can with our sharp-
by 24 inches in depth and height It cutting, light, elastic tools, and we think the
irded close at the sides and back, and latter will last as long. English ploughs are
: half way-down the sloping top, so as to indeed a curiosity. We measured the length
a partial shelter during rain. These of a plough in use in a field, and it was more
5, in some parishes, may be seen about than ten feet long, and would weigh, probably,
where — on the strips of grass at the three times as much as the ploughs we use in
of the roads, in odd corners, in front soils of a similar character. There were at-
>ttages, and in the fields. The whole tached to the end of the beam, next the
ct abounds in what are called small horses, two stout wheels of sufficient diameter
f/ and as every occupant of one of to be used upon a market waggon. It would
farms, almost without exception, is a be interesting to see an American farmer fol-
en-breeder, the connexion we have lowing one of these ploughs, and to notice
iy pointed out between the small occu- the headlands made with it.
ns usual in France and the enormous Last year we induced an English fiiend
ry products of that country, receives visiting this country to take back with
may be almost said to be actual de- him an assortment of our tools for use upon
itration from the connexion between his splendid farm in Cumberland County,
ir causes and effects in the chief chicken- The results of the trials we were much in-
ig district of England. The cottagers terested to learn, and the first questions asked
)reed chickens; and the thriving condition upon reaching his mansion related to the sue-
any engaged in this business is worthy of cess of the implements. We could not learn
ttention of all interested in such matters, that one of them had been put to practical

trial. The farm superintendent and the la-

AMERiCAN ON ENGLISH AGRICULTURAL bourers decided in advance that the tools

IMPLEMENTS. Were " too light " for their soils, and so they

writer in the Boston Journal of had been thrown aside unused. This object

nistry has the following criticism tion appeared extraordinary when we walked

he bulk and weight of English tools over die clean, mellow fields, free from roots,

rally as compared with American. He stumps, and stones, and we could not avoid

: — There is something quite amusing in expressing some indignation at this absurd

ish prejudice, especially that which pre- manifestation of prejudice.

in regard to our agricultural tools. It The cost of using heavy, inconvenient

ars that we make but one tool which is tools will be felt more sensibly in England

eded to be superior to their own, and when the wages of labourers reach a point

is the hay-fork. The English agricul corresponding to those paid in this country.

ts have been forced to admit that our Ploughs which require two* of their noble

» springy hay-forks are better than their farm horses to move can do no better work

isy and dull implements, and we found than our light ones, and these can be drawn

tool on sale in stores, and in use in the easily" by one horse, and thus an immense

5, in all parts of England. This is curious saving can be made. 1

3/2 The Country Gentkmmis Magazine

%\iZ ms Jfarttur'0 ^te-gook.

AS a rule, I think the older men grow the good trim for planting where are the tubers to

more conceited they get — the more they come from ? There are hardly any good ones

like their vanity to be flattered. I do not set to be found in the country, and the price of seed

myself up as an exception to the rule, though, will be something almost ruinous. It is bad

mind you, my young friends, who have culture policy to put any into the ground that the

and science, that your fathers never had the slightest taint of suspicion could attach to ; and

chance of obtaining, experience is a wonderfully I am no lover of ** chits." Get good stuff however

good commodity to have in possession. It dear ; better let the ground lie idle than be at

sometimes answers very admirably — makes the the expense of labour, which is very dear now,

pot boil, in fact — when your'scientific theories, in preparing land to produce a crop not worth

carried out without that element which intel- the gathering. This remark, I think, is applic-

ligent age acquires, would simply put the fire able to other things than potatoes.

out, and leave the water in the pot unfit for a

decent man to shave with. I think I hear you By the way, I had ahnost forgotten that I pro-
say, " What, in all the saintly names, has this mised some time ago to give your readers some
to do with the first proposition in the Old account of a little thrashing machine, invented
Farmer's Note, that age brings conceit ? " I by a Mr Johnston, Langholm, which had some
shall tell you, my dear readers. I have been affinity to the Tiny machine, recently produced
informed by the manager of this Magazine that by Mr Murray, of Banff. Mr Johnston was an
these old and new jottings of mine were accept- ingenious mechanic, and the sum for which he
able to you, and is not that something of which produced the article was certainly moderate
a man ought to be proud? I took an extra glass enough to suit the pockets of small farmers,
of port after dinner on the day that this news o^ whom there were many more in the country
came, and I ventured to flatter myself that I in those days. I am not quite sure, even with
was fully justified in coming to the conclusion all my respect for the ways that prevailed in my
that my conceit would not be considered by you youth, that I should like to have the farms cut
out of place ; but revenons a nos moutons, down again to the sizes they were when I was a

boy. I think much more is got out of the land

I have been in the country looking round at now than then ; and that the comforts of the

the condition of the crops, and the state of the labourers, although they are not so great as I

land for the reception of the seed to be sown. I should like to see them, are almost equal to that

am sorry to say that the young wheat in the dis- which a small farmer, in the north particularly,

tricts I have been in does not look very promising, enjoyed. They were continually toiling, late and

Much less breadth of land has been sown, as it early, and living from hand to mouth, and with

appears to me, with winter wheat this year, than the dread responsibility of rent-day hanging

in any one in which I have taken my annual over their heads like the sword of Damodes.

look round ; and I do not think I ever saw But I am wandering away, as usual, from my

spring work so far in arrears. There is still, east subject. How old men will run off at a

and north, spring-wheat to sow, and farmers, as tangent ! Well, these machines were turned by

you may depend, are not free from grumbling at the hand as the Tiny I have spoken of, and as

the untoward season. The oat land is to a con- I have got down in my Note Book, the quantity

siderable extent unploughed, and, in fact, I may of grain that could be thrashed by one of them

just sum up in saying that which I dare say you in an hour, was from fifteen to twenty ordinary

all know, that there never was so backward a stocks. These machines required more people

season, at least in my experience. And, bless to work them, however, than the Tiny, for at

me, when I think of it, what are we to do about that time they required three persons, one to

potatoes ? The preparation of the land for them feed, another to drive, and a third to clear away

's terribly behind-hand, and even were all in the straw. This was when the persons em-

The Old Farmet 's Note-Booh

373

ployed were expert at their work. Where com-
parative novices were engaged the operation re-
quired one or two more hands. Machines now-
a-days do away with that. It is, I think, curi-
ous to note the similarities between old ideas
that have never been practically wrought out
and those that have been moulded almost to per-
fection out of their crudities. I give here a cut of
the plan, or bird's eye view, of the machine, fig. i,

and also an engraving of fig. 2, which may
be called a profile. The first requires little ex-.
planaiion. In the second, before 1 give the
description of the figure as I jotted it down

Hg. 9.—" Profile of old Hand Thiaahing Machine."

many long years ago, I would invite particular
attention to the character of the axles of the
wheel. In their construction they combine a
lightness with a strength for which I have seen

novelty claimed only the other day. "«, a, a,
represent a strong frame of timber, firmly
morticed together with transverse pieces for
supporting the large fly wheel of cast iron * fixed,
on an axle of wrought iron. On the same axle is
fixed another cast iron wheel, e, c, of about 30
inches diameter, having ninety teeth in its cir-
cumference, which turns a cast iron pinion d, of
eleven teeth fixed on the axis of the drum e, on
which are the beaters/,/ [I may here state
that there were four beatere in the machine,
although only two are represented in the cut]
H in fig, I shews the feeding board ; the dotted
Une in fig. 2 represents the stuff on the feeding
board as it comes to the feeder ; and k the
crank by which the machine is set in motion."
You will see from this writing that in my
young days their description of implements was
not so clear as they now are in manufacturers
catalogues. Aye, we are always living and
learning, and my hope is, that the young ones
will always to the end of the chapter continue
to improve upon those who have gone before.

I am very happy to congratulate all tny
readers upon the beneficent change that has
taken place in the weather since I last pen-
cilled down for them a few of my jottings. If
husbandmen had the privilege of making it
themselves they could not have improved upon
it The days have been delieiously balmy, and
the nights but little tinged with frosts ; at least,
delicately-fingered, but hard-grasping Jack has
been mere iful to the young buds in gardens, and be
has done no harm to the wheat blades nor the
grass fields. A wonderful amount I can see, for
I was travelling about last week, has been done
in the way of preparation and seeding of land
within the last ten days. That splendid article
which is worth, as old writers tell us, far more
gold than would relieve a captive king, has been
flying about in just such quantities as farmers
like to sec it, and with a continuance of such
weather for a fortnight or three weeks we need
not let our "peckers" down. "Pecker" is a
slang phrase, I believe, for heart; at least, so my
young rogue of a nephew tells me. The grate-
ful change in the weather ought to teach us as the
song has it —

" Fear not, bat trust in Providence
Whererer you may be."

I have often noticed that some of the gentry^
horses, carriage and palfreys alike, do not step
or amble very gracefully. In fact they often

374 ^^'^ Country Gmtlemaiis Magazine

lift their legs with a jerk more indicative of of railways. Well, this odometer which I speak
blemish than of beauty. Now there is nothing of, in the farmer's hand does what the instru-
easier than to make a horse a good pacer. You ment attached to the wheel did. It is inexpen-
know that in Barbary, or at least if you do not, sive, and it measures as accurately for all prac-
I shall tell you, that high pacers are held in very tical purposes as a chain, and far more quickly,
great esteem, and many of you will have seen I thought so much of it that I had it engraved,
how charmingly the Arabian lifts his feet. The and now present it to my readers.
Arabs can soon make a fast trotter fit for any
lady. This is how they do it, as I have jotted
down long ago in my Note Book. A ring of
lead covered with leather, is put around each
hoof ; a cord from each weight ascends, and is
fastened to the saddle, from the rear ; next a
strap runs horizontally from the fore to the hind
foot on both sides. Being rather short, it is
impossible to make a long step. Restraint
compels the animal to practise a new gait to
progress at all. As soon as a habit is estab-
lished of going ahead thus tethered, the desir-
able elegance of step is fully and permanently
accomplished.

I should like to see poultry being made more

of in our country than it is. It grieves my old English farmers have greatly improved since
heart to see so much money going to the 1849. In that year I have got the following ex-
foreigners for eggs, and that the number imported tract from a pamphlet addressed by Lord Kin-
is going on increasing month by month. Only naird to his tenantry. He says, « my statements
fancy that in last January and February we paid respecting the yield of our crops per acre are
upwards of ;^264,ooo for eggs. It is far too frequently discredited by English farmers ; and
much. As a contribution towards increasing when I look at the inferiority of their crops, the
our egg-layers, I will tell you a good way to di^y state of their land, the slovenly way in
select eggs for breeding from. In selecting which it is cultivated, and the amount wasted in
eggs for hatching, all monstrosities should be hedges and ditches, I cannot wonder at their
avoided, as they will not hatch. The same hen doubts, and, indeed, it is a marvel to me how
will sometimes lay a very large ^zz^ and at ^^^ tenants contrive to pay even the rents they
another time a very small one. They will serve do, though I am firmly convinced that nothing
well to eat, but not for hatching. What is should pay better than farming where sufficient
wanted is eggs of the average size and appear- capital is invested, and where it is treated as any
ance peculiar to the variety from which you mercantile transaction, requiring, indeed, dis-
breed— nothing else. Very long, very short, or crimination and management, but not dependent
very rough eggs should always be avoided, on high prices. No one possessing capital need
Time will be saved, too, by not trying to select ^^ ^^^aid of investing it in a farm, as, if pro-
eggs which wiU bring either cocks or hens, as perly drained, cleaned, limed (where required),
the art of telling the sex of an ^zz by its shape and manure not spared, it is certain to yield a
or colour has not yet been discovered. This good return ; and such seems to be the general
advice of course is for the average breeder— the opinion in Scotland, as farms, if not too large,
fanciers and amateurs may experiment as much are letting readily, and, in many instances, at
as they please, as they can better afford it. an advanced rent, to enterprising tenants."

Steam-ploughing has done much to clean the

In my travels I noticed, I forget where, a very land, but there are still by far too many hedges
ingenious plan for measuring the extent of a and ditches to interrupt the progress of the
field. It was nothing more than an adaptation plough. This letter was not very well received
of the odometer, which, as you know, is an in- by the tenants at the time, but the generous
strument for ascertaining the mileage run over communication from his lordship, remitting rent
by a carriage. I believe it was first applied by now, has given general satisfaction. With an ex-
Mr Hunter, of Thurston, on a journey between pression of the hope that other landlords will
T ondon and Berwick very long before the advent follow the example, I will at once " knock oflf.'*

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

%\a darbcn.

F'EW tender plants are more popular than
Balsams. They are more than valu-
ble because they are easily cultivated; they
have a great variety of colours beautifully
blended, and they come in at a time when
in-door flowers are really scarce; Every one
that has a greenhouse or conservatoty knows
that the months of July and August are the
months when the flowering-houses have the
least variety about them. People that are

But there are varieties of Balsams, some
good, some very good, and some quite weedy,
so that selection is a matter here of no mean
import Thej buyer must buy from " good
strains" if he or she wishes to realize the
plants of Balsams of the genuine stamp, and
so it is more than incumbent upon all houses
who have a good name and wish to keep it,
to get seed from well-known raisers, who
dispose of everything trashy, as it appears.

Cajnellia-flowercd Balsam.

accustomed to flowers all the year round
scarcely think it worth their while inspecting
the greenhouse during these months ; they
go to the flower borders and to the general
ornamental grounds outside to see the greatest
variety and the most beautiful things of the
season, ^Vith the exception of Fuchsias and
Pelargoniums, there are few soft-wooded
plants in bloom in-doors, and so we all hail
tl'.e Balsam as a great auxiliary.

and keep only such sorts in colours, in form,
and in build as pass muster at the flowering
season.

Figs. I and 2 shew two of the large
flowering Balsams. The one, fig. i, is the
model to which we wish all inferior strains to
come — the Camellia-flowered Balsam, having
something like imbricated petals and as little
confusion about the centre as possible. It
is difficult to get plants that will bear flowers

7<S The Country Gentlefnaris Magaeine

f this stamp, and the best of them, m fact, pacted, of a laige sise, aad a veiy show;
an't bear them regularly As they grow, vanety The new Carnation-striped stuts,

he flowers get less in size, less m number figs. 3 and 4, are not so large, but they
)f petals, and less orderly m arrangement are beautiful sorts, making fine plants whea

Fig. 3.^Car

n-slriped Balsam, No. i

f they were all to be perfect, you could no
lore expect seed from them than you could
xpect seed from a perfectly double or im-
ricated Camellia ; but as they get loose so
they run to seed, and the seeds from these
wts are the strains to get if you can. The
osc-flowered Balsam, fig. 2, is well im-

kept in mild moist heat, with their heads all
but touching the glass. We commend Oiese
from the Messrs Henderson & Son's col-
lection as well worthy of general growth, and
of special value to those villa gardenen
who take an interest in this beautiful familf
of plants.

7Vw Country Gtiitleman's Magazhtt

CHOICE VEGETABLES.

WE purpose, from time to time, making novelties. It is scarcely possible to eschew
selections of choice vegetables for all the bad, and take in all the good in our
illustration in the pages of this Magazine, estimate ; but we shall exercise that discrt-

New Queen Onion (natural

It shall be our object to be as indepen- tion which our own experience and the exp^
dent as possible in our critidsm of these rience of our correspondents dictate in t

3;8

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

matter. Meantime, we have to say we shall
be glad to illustrate, from whatever source,
any article of importance to our readers; and
wc invite correspondents to furnish us with
information of all novelties that come under
their notice. It should always be estimated
that we are catering chiefly for a class that
knows little of gardening, and that, conse-

Bumcll's Alexandra. Cos Lettuce.

quently, illustrations of a variety of subjects,
however well known and commonplace to
the professional class, are much prized by
those who engage in gardening principally
as a pastime It places within their view,
if not the best of everything, a sort of en-
sample of what the plant, or vegetable, or

jruit ought to be in first-rate culti
that is a matter of prime importan

BURN ell's ALEXANDRA WHIl

LETTUCE.

We proceed, in the first place, t
Bumell's Alexandra White Cos Let
wc saw last year in the highest sta
vation. The engraving, from the
of Mr Williams, of Holloway, is a
representation of it. It is exceed
and the flavour is very pleasant.
to a large size for a Cos Lettuce, :
longer than most of its compeers
ning to seed. We indeed confide:
mend this as one of the sterling i
the day which all classes may veni
and cultivate.

NEW QUEEN ONION.

From the same source we p
New Queen Onion, as a very goo<
the beautiful-formed Silver-skinnt
As the engraving points out, it ii
Onion with a slender neck, bel
good keeper. We have had no
of this Onion ourselves, but sevi
correspondents speak well of it. V.
thus describes it in his Catalogue :

" A very nice, Silver-skinne
Onion, as remarkable for its keepi:
as for the rapidity of its growth.
February, it will produce Onions I
inches in diameter early in the sum
will keep sound until the sumn
following year; and if sown in .
be ready to pull late in the samt
be sound and fit for use until thi
autumn. Rich or strong soil is
sary for its cultivation, any mediu
garden mould will suit it. It is o
lent mild flavour, and can be hij
mended."

The Country Gentleinan's Magastne

NEW AND RARE PLANTS.

TOxicoPHL^A sPECTABiLis. to the best advantage, and to produce their

IT affords me great pleasure to find the flowers in the profusion they otherwise would

opinion of so many of my friends and have done, many, and myself amongst the

brother gardeners respecting this plant will number, could not help fancying that it was

lOt be verified. The plant was introduced a very hard-wooded plant, which would re-

ind brought into commerce by Mr Williams, quire a good deal of coaxing in order to in-

Toxicopblxa spectabilis.

of the Victoria Nursery, Upper Holloway,
London, and exhibited by him at one of the
meetings of the Royal Horticultural Society
last year. The plants exhibited were large
ones recently imported; and although the ex-
hibitor assured us that they had not suf-
ficiently recoveted fiom their journey to shew

duce it to flower freely. Now, however, truth
has triumphed, and we disbelievers must hide
our diminished heads. I was agreeably sur-
prised the other day, when walking through
the establishment of Mr Williams, to find
young plants, in 48-sized pots, less than a foot
high, covered with bloom for nearly the

3So

The Country Gmtltmaiis Magazi

entire length or the plant. In the axis of each were kept in the stove until the completion I
leaf were trusses of its pure white and most of their growth, when they were removed to
fragrant flowers, which were produced upon a coot house amongst young Azaleas, Mono-
young plants struck from cuttings last year, chsmrns, and such like plants. I have little
this proving this to be really a valuable ad- hesitation in saying with a little management

dition to our spring and early summer bloom- that Toxicophlxa maybe pressed into tlie

ing stove plants. The old plants which were ranks of exhibition subjects, when it will not

exhibited last season have much improved in fail to become a universal favourite. Al-

"""ince, and are again profusely ladeo though the trusses of blcxim arc not so large

im. Mr Williams informed me they as those of the Ixoras, it would fonu no iseia

New and Rare Plants 38 1

companion for them and such things as Aero- eye refuses to patronize them unless it be-

phyllums, &c., &c. Independent of its pro- comes acquainted with the beautiful trans-

bably entering the ranks of exhibitionists, parency of their tints, many of them of the

it is undoubtedly a most desirable plant for softest white, and tinged with a rose-eye at

amateur's stoves, on account of its delicious base. The eye no sooner catches the glory

fragrance and profuse blooming qualities at of the inflorescence than it blinks at the

this season of the year. awkward habit, and so we have them culti-

In conclusion, I may add that Toxicophlaea vated all over the country in conservatories

should be potted in a compost, consisting and greenhouses.

of two parts good loam, one part peat, and But there is another class that yet comes

one part sharp sand. The drainage should from a warmer country that demands our

be good and the water supply abundant dur- attention. It has the advantage of members

ing the growing season. It will succeed ad- of generally welcome habit, and many of them

mirably in an intermediate house or cool send forth trusses of flowers of marvellous

stove. For the engravings illustrating these brilliancy, as well as of the quieter neutral

remarks I am indebted to the kindness of tints. Such a one, for instance, is that

Mr Williams. I ought to say, however, that which we are permitted to engrave from the

white flowers do not shew well upon white Veitchian collection. It has much of the

paper. — Vive Vale, chara^cter of the well-known Rhododendron

javanicum,but in point of colour it approaches

RHODODENDRON BROOKiANUM FLAVUM. ^^^ yellowish huc, and hcnce is Called flavum.

There are few plants of our acquaintance It requires the temperature of the stove con-
more popular than Rhododendrons. " O servatory during the season of spring, and
that they were all hardy !" we think we hear must be kept warm, but not too warm, during
some enthusiasts exclaim. Even supposing our winter. It is thus spoken of by the
they are not, they all claim cultural attention, introducers : "A very handsome free-growing
It is often as important to have good plants kind, introduced by ourselves from Borneo,
for the house as it is to have them for out-of- It is a showy plant, with thick dark green very
doors. Some wDl do in either place, but glossy leaves, and producing freely its bunches
refuse for any length of time to exchange of clear yellow flowers, which remind one of
places if they are expected to grow and live, the paler varieties of Rhododendron javani-
Many of these Sikkim and Bhotan species, cum. It is a very desirable novelty. It
so prominently brought into notice by Dr thrives best in a temperature averaging 60
Hooker, would scarcely receive house room deg." It was awarded a first-class certificate
but for their, very beautiful flowers. Most of at the Royal Horticultural Societ/s Show
them have awkward ungainly habits, and the April 6th, 1869.

382 TJu Country Genttematis Magazine

^rboricttlttiu^

PEACH AND NECTARINE TREES.

FEW fruit trees give more satisfaction in if nice healthy trees with fully ripene

the orchard house than achoice selection can be found, they are better than " 1

of Peaches and Nectarines. When in bios- trees. But as they are not often tc

som in early spring, the trees are so fresh and with, I will first give the treatment :

beautiful — they are so exceedingly prolific; and by one-year-old or "maiden " trees.

in autumn what can vie in beauty with a ripe „^,„ ^^ «„„,,„ «„*^„ .^,^ „„.^

^ , ^r -^-iii, HOW TO PRUNE PEACH AND NECTi

Peach or Nectarine ? and what, to the lover

TREES

of fruit-trees, can be more gratifying than to

see his sideboard or dining-Uble decorated 7^^^^ ^^"^l one shoot, more

with Peach-bushes in pots, studded with their ^^^orous, which should be well fumist

lovely and perfectly ripened fruit? ^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ M^ h^^t. This sho<

be cut clean off with a sharp knife

SIZE OF POTS FOR PEACHES AND Seventh bud from its base, and the t

NECTARINES. potted towards the end of October, 1

If bushesof only amoderate size be required^ »" November.* The following summ

ii-inch pots maybe used. It is surprising ^ud will, or ought to, produce a sh

to see the vigorous growth and fine fruit of there are seven shoots, the tree is for

Peach-trees in i i-inch pots ; for owing to the the season : they need not have th<

compost being rammed down, a large quan- pinched off, but will merely reqi

tity of nutriment is comprised in a small laterals (small side-shoots) pinched

space. I may as well however state, once within two buds of their bases, as s

for all, and for all descriptions of fruit, that, they are 4 inches long. This will ind

if fewer and larger trees be required, larger ripening of the shoots, so that by the

pots may be employed ; thus, 13, 15, or 18 the summer they will be full of blosso

inch pots may be used with equal success. At the end of August the point of eac

A Peach or Nectarine tree may thus, in two should be pinched off, and they w

or three years, be made capable of bearing only require the annual pruning, c

many dozens of fmit ; but I must confess that autumn or in spring, for which direct

my taste inclines to small prolific trees, g^^en below. If the tree puts forth

because one can have greater variety in a number of shoots than seven, the toi

small space ; and small trees are pretty, and should be pinched off early m Jun

easily looked over, so that each leaf and bud, shoot will then put forth three o

each blossom and fruit, is known. young shoots ; all that are not reqi

If Peach trees already in pots, and in a ^o™ ^^^ ^^""^ "^"^t be pinched off m tl

bearing state, can be purchased, so much the ^^'^X ^^ laterals, leaving seven or, if

better, for then a year is saved ; but as such ^^ vigorous, nme shoots to each tree.

arc more expensive than either "maiden '' or tnflmg manipulaUons are easy to

" cut-down " trees, the cost of which is , , ,

„,, r ^ ^ r ^ i,u * This season is recommended, bat il

generally about is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each, these ^^^^^^^ ^^^ . ^^^ ^^ p^^^^ ^^^ j^^

lad better be purchased. I may here state sometimes not potted till March, yet they

•^a * cut-down" trees are two years old, and growth.

Peach and Nectarine Trees 383

difficult to describe : so, to make the matter beginner not to prane his Peach and Nec-
as clear as possible, let us place a young tree tarine trees till February, or early in March,
before us early in June, with five branches, when every bud will plainly shew its charac-
each 1 2 inches in length ; then let us, with a ter ; the blossom-buds by that time will have
sharp knife, shorten each branch to 9 inches ; opened their silvery coats, and the bright pink
then, at the end of June, let us take the same will be peeping out If the shoot be cut oflf
tree in hand, and we shall find that each at a single blossom-bud, it will die down to
shortened branch has put forth two or three the next leaf-bud ; this must, therefore, be
shoots ; we must pinch these so as to leave carefiilly avoided,
on four branches two, and on one only one, spring pruning.
making nine shoots,which as they grow should Le^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ jj,^ ^^^^^^ ^f
have their laterals pinched off regularly ; they ^^^ ^^j^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ . jj
will then make vigorous trees m one summer, j^ ^^j^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^1^ ^^ February,
and form an abundance of blossom-buds, and our tree, with its nine branches of the last
No other pruning is necessary the first season j ^^^^^^^ ^^h, is before us : three of these
and if abundant ventilation and syringing ^j^^^^,^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^ t^ ^j^i„ g^^ ^^^j^ ^^
daily have been attended to, the fruit-buds ^^^^ ^^^j^^ ^^ ^^^ ^ 5„pp,y ^^ ^^ung shoots
will, towards the end of August, begin to be f^^ ^^^ succeeding year, and six should be cut
fully developed. The experienced gardener ^j^^ ^^ ^ ^^ j^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^
can at once disUnguish them : such a person ^^^^^^ j^p,^ ^^^^ These are the fruit-bear-
may prune his trees early in October. Let . j^^^^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^ season-and so ^
me endeavour to tell how to distinguish a j^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^ 1,^^^,^^^^^

fruit-bud, which, by the way, is the only bud o^^.third, must be cut in closely on opposite
to prune down to. ^y^g ^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^.^^^^ 31^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^

DESCRIPTION OF FRUIT-BUDS AND WOOD- remainder left as above to bear fruit. Those

BUDS. shoots that have borne fruit will often rcitjuire

Well, then, generally— or "general always," ^ ^e cut out, to make the tree dwarf and

as a foreign friend expresses it, when he prevent its becoming naked, as the spurs die

wishes to say anything that invariably takes after bearing, unlike those of the Apricot and

place— towards the base of each of your Pl»«». ^'^'ch continue to bear fruit for many

seven or nine shoots, you wiU find four or years. Much will depend upon the sort

five pointed single buds, covered with their cultivated, and the vigour of the tree. One

brown coat: these are leaf-buds. Next to thing must be borne m mind-do not let the

these, and higher up the shoots, are triple tree become bare of young shoots towards its

buds-a plump silver-coated one on each ^ase, and tall and straggling. If pruned in

side, and a thin one in the centre : these spring, the nature of every bud may be seen,

plump silvery buds are blossom-buds, and the and the tree formed, by the proper use of the

central one a leaf-bud, which produces a shoot ^^^^^ i°to a frmtful beauuful bush.» From

so necessary to the well-being of the blossom- twelve to fifteen leadmg shoots should be

buds, that without it they would be abortive. }eft, in summer prunmg, on each tree when

Be sure to have on each shoot, if possible, i° a fiill bearing state,
nine to twelve of these triple buds, and cut I have thus endeavoured to follow the

off the shoot close to one of them ; if this "maiden" tr ee to its firuiting state. The

cannot be found at the proper place, so as to * When the trees are in a bearing state, man^ short
be able to form the foundation of a nice, spur-like shoots, from 4 to 6 inches long, will be made

regularly-shaped, bush-like tree, cut off the «'"y ^^°" °" *^ s'^™ *°^ Awards the base of the

... ifuj Tr..u^ V J principal branches. These will be generally covered

Shoot at a leaf-bud. If the trees be pruned P .^^^ Lglcblossom buds and a tenninal leaf-bud :

m autumn, the buds are difficmt to dis- they ^ay be removed if too much crowded, but never

tinguish; it will, therefore, be better for the shortened.

384 The Country Crentlonaii s Magazine

" cut-down " tree, which should have four or terminal shoot or leaf-bud ; ai

five branches, should be potted in autumn and they may be cut out, and yet

pruned in early spring : each branch must be blossoms than the tree can ca

shortened to 6 inches ; these will put forth fruiting state, it is as well to have

numerous young shoots, which in June should spurs with a terminal shoot or 1

be thinned out with a sharp knife, leaving nine bush-trees are in very large potSj

or more shoots to be pmned the following in the borders of a large hous<

spring, as above directed. If trees in pots desired to have them increase moi

three or four years old in a bearing state can size than pinching to three leav

be purchased, it is a saving of time ; for, if to, the pinching should be at tl

they be potted before Christmas, a crop of eighth leaf, leaving five or sevc

fruit may be expected the ensuing summer, operation instead of three. This i

In such trees, the shoots intended to bear to all kinds of fruit-trees under sui

fiiiit, and covered with triple blossom-buds, ing, when large trees are wished

may be shortened to ten buds, and those trees, under this incessant pii

which are to make young shoots for the next sturdy bushes, full of blossom-buc

year's bearing should be shortened to five pictures of robust health, and tl

buds. bear is always large and high-colo

to its full exposure to the sim.

SUMMER PINCHING. ^i^ ^g g^Q^ practice to thin out \

Pruning of bush-trees by summer pinching numerous blooming spurs and

only has been practised here to a large extent, blossom-buds with a sharp penk:

As this is the most simple of all the methods wise the trees will be too much or

of pruning known, and may be practised by blossoms. This thinning out ma

any lover of gardening who does not mind be done in summer with advantag

employing his finger and thumb when walk- trees grow very luxuriantly, the y<

ing in his orchard house, it is worthy of a become crowded, and the thic

few lines of description. leaves shades the fruit too muc

A Peach or Nectarine tree of the usual bush- cases the young shoots may be '

like form, two, three, or four years old may in the month of July, much to the

be potted in the autumn. In March its of the tree,
shoots should be shortened to about half This simple and charming meth

their length, forming the tree into a round ing, only occurring to me in 185J

bush. In May it will put forth young shoots, carried out in the summer of i«

As soon as they have made four or five quite at a loss to account for its

leaves, the fourth leaf, with the end of the been discovered earlier. As far

shoot, must be pinched off, leaving three myself, I think it was the fear

leaves exclusive of one or two small leaves by incessant pinching, too many y<

at the base of the shoot, which are without to break out, that deterred me fror

buds : every shoot must be thus operated it. Reasoning from theory only,

on. In eight or ten days a fresh crop of it to be impossible for young shoe

shoots will shew itself, for from the bud at August to ripen, forgetting the ws

the base of every leaf a shoot will spring nal atmosphere of tiie orchard he

forth. These, as soon as they are ready, not hesitate to assert that this s

must all be pinched down to three leaves, and forward of pruning by incessar

so on all through the summer with every pinching, is one of the most su<

fresh crop of young shoots till the end of vances that have ev«!r been mac

July : for if the pinching be continued till the tree culture under glass,
end of August, a great number of the shoots I may add, that if by any neglec

^"11 be a mass of blossom-buds, without a ing of the shoots in June and Ji

Peach and Nectarine Trees 385

been attended to, so that the trees have planted in the borders ; the roots being cou *

made shoots of from 2 to 3 feet in length, fined, the shoots are not so gross as those on

these may be shortened with a sharp knife trees planted in the ground, the sap does not

to ten or twelve leaves. The bud at the rush to the top so rapidly, leaving the lower

end will then form itself into a leaf-bud, and branches in a weakly state ; in fact, it seems

even make some small growth, while all the more regularly distributed^ so that for many

buds below will remain fruit-buds, and quite years, a pyramidal Peach or Nectarine tree,

dormant till spring. I tried this experiment in a pot from 15 to 18 inches in diameter,

in August 1 86 1. will gradually increase in beauty, and by the

No anxiety need now be felt -even by the simple operation of pinching all the young

lady orchard-house cultivator — no advice shoots formed during the summer, to two,

need be asked of the too-often-unwilling-to- three, or four leaves, a fruitful and beautiful

give-it gardener. Thinning in early spring pyramid, 10 feet or more in height, may be

those pretty clusters of blossoms with a pen- formed. Such trees, placed among others

knife (for they are always too numerous, and planted in the borders, are most ornamental,

at least half of them may be cut out), and shewing, as they will do if attended to, pcr-

at the same time shortening shoots that are feet cultivation. The health and fertility of

irregular ; and in summer pinching oflf the such trees is kept up by giving them every

ends of the young shoots, always fragrant, so season some fresh food in the shape of a rich

as to give symmetry to the tree and make it compost formed of loam (if tenacious, all the

pleasant to look on, are all agreeable opera- better) and manure, thoroughly decomposed,

tions. The climate of the orchard house will in equal quantities. This operation should

do all the rest, and a Peach tree in a pot will be performed about the last week in October,

bear fruit even under very ^adverse pruning by removing the surface soil — generally a

circumstances, much more under a lady's network of fibrous roots — to a depth of 4

loving, yet pinching, care. All that seems inches, and replacing it with fresh compost

to be required is to make the tree symme- of the description just given. The most im-

trical, and prevent its bearing too bountifully; portant matter connected with the culture of

for it must be borne in mind that fruit from trees in pots is keeping their roots dry during

a tree overloaded, whether under glass or in the winter months, so that they are not too

the open air, is never of fine flavour. Peaches, much excited — they are never at rest ; the

Pears, Plums, Apples, and indeed all descrip- shoots then become dry and ripe, and in a

tions of fruit, suffer in flavour to^ an extent fit state to put forth their blossoms in spring,

scarcely thought of, if the tree be allowed to which, owing to the trees not being subjected

bear too many. It is better to have one to the great atmospheric changes incident

dozen of Peaches large, and of fine flavour, to the open air in an English winter, they

than two dozen small and inferior; besides do with great vigour. To make success

this, a tree suffered to bear too large a crop doubly sure, this dryness of the soil in the

will be sure to fail the following season. pots must be strictly attended to. The trees

should be well watered when top-dressed,

CROWING PEACHES AND NECTARINES IN ^^d again before the middle of November j

^^^S' they may then, if in the large pots I have

There are two methods of cultivating these mentioned, remain without water till early in

fruits in orchard houses, both equally favour- March, when the blossom buds begin to

able to their well-doing : one is to cultivate swell Many failures in the pot culture of

the trees in pots, the other to plant them in fruit trees have occurred from the fears en*

the borders of the houses. With the large tertained by cultivators that trees must always

houses, the most eligible form of tree to plant have their roots in a soil saturated with mois-

in pots is the pyramidal ; thiis most interest- ture— the great evil of our English climate ;

ing form succeeds better in pots than when for, if the roots of our fruit trees in the op

TOL. X. cc

386

Tlu Cotmtry Gmtteniafis Magazine

air could be kept from the heavy rains of
our winter months, we should have much
greater success in the culture of the more
delicate kinds of fruits. .

Before I leave the subject of pot-culture, I
must mention the necessity of giving the
trees extra food during the summer months.
This is best done by placing on the surface
of the mould in the pot a layer of some rich
compost, about 3 inches in depth at the out-
side, and made concave round the stem of
the tree, so as to retain water. This com-
post may consist of manure chopped into
small pieces, and saturated with liquid ma.
nure; or horse droppings from the roads,
and kiln-dust from a malt-house, equal quan-
tities, also saturated with liquid manure ; the
latter compost is the most valuable surface-
dressing ever invented, for not only do the
roots of Peach trees come to the surface to
feed upon it, but Vines, if dressed with it,
shew extraordinary vigour. If a Vine in a
pot has a dressing of it from 6 to 8 inches
deep (this must of course be supported by
pieces of slate stuck inside the rim), the roots
ascend rapidly, and seem to devour it with
avidity, so that by the autumn a mass of this
compost on the surface of the soil in the
pot, in which a Vine has been growing all
the summer, will be found a complete mass
of fibrous roots, the virtue of the com-
post being seemingly absorbed.

PLANTING OUT OF PEACHES AND NEC-
TARINES.

I have thus far endeavoured to give an
outline of the pot culture of Peaches and
Nectarines in unheated glass structures. The
other method of cultivation, by planting the
trees in the borders, must next be con-
sidered ; this is neither more nor less than
planting a Peach garden, such as one would
do in Italy or in some of the States of North
America. Still, as a glass structure is of
more value than a piece of uncovered ground,
care must be taken that it is made the best
of. There is a peculiar feature in most stone
fruits — theii love of a firm soil. A light,
porous soil is generally fatal to the health of
a Peach tree, at least in the gardens of
Mirope. How the light soils of Buenos

Ayres and other parts of South America ac
on the constitution of the Peach tree, I an
not able to say; I only know from repoi
that the trees make good firewood.

In orchard houses, I am now able t
assert, with full confidence, that a firm ba
der for Peach and Nectarine trees is a sin
qua non ; there is no sound prospect of sue
cess without it ; and I may add, that if sncl
a border is calcareous, or can be made ^
by mixing i square yard of chalk to 10 c
the natural soil, so much the better for th
fruit trees. In forming the borders, the soi
should be refreshed with a slight dressing c
manure, and then stirred to a depth of 21
inches — no other preparation is required
The trees should be planted in this rathe
shallow border, heavily watered, and suiSerei
to remain for a week; at the end of tha
time the entire border should be gone ovc
with a rammer, and rammed firmly down ;
wooden rammer of about 10 lb. weight wi
be found the best implement

The border thus rammed and levelle
should remain solid, and never again b
stirred, except to be slightly pricked with
fork in spring — early in March — to admi
water to the surface roots of the trees. AfU
being watered, a slight dressing of rotte
manure, about i inch in depth, should b
laid on the surface of the solid soil, and n
other disturbance of it should take plaa
So obnoxious is the disturbance of the soi
to the roots of Peach and Nectarine treo
when planted out — although the inert surfac
mass of fibrous roots may be removed fixw
trees in pots without injiuy — ^that I hav
seen in an otherwise well-managed hoos
fine and well-grown half-standard trees * quit
bare of fruit, owing to the borders havin
been carefully dug 6 inches in depth in spring
every blossom having consequently droppec
without setting its fruit — River} Qrdiar
House.

* Standard and half-standard trees, growing in tl
borders of an orchard house, should have their he«
pruned on the tabular system, ue^ have their centn
shoots cut out so as to form flattened heads. Tl
sun then shines on the fruit and givei ricfaiiett u
flavour.

The Country GentUniaiis Magazine 387

THE SALIX OR WILLOW.

^KET-MAKING is not generally profit on the transactions. We miss this the

considered a money-making profession, more that we think a very interesting chapter

f we may judge fi*om the appearance of might be written upon the subject by a man

patetic family which passes frequently up so thoroughly master of it as Mr Scaling,

own our street with a waggon piled sky- Perhaps it may be yet to come, for the papers

)utside with all sorts of basket ware, but are publishing in parts, but so far as he

is hollow within and apparently fulfils has gone he confines himself to givinginforma-

eble duty of house, shop, and convey- tion regarding the raw material, the best

we should say that the popular opinion kinds of Willow to grow for manufacturing

)t without foundation. But appear- purposes, the best mode of growing them,

are often deceitful, and we may have and the cost of and profit to be obtained

onsider our opinion. Mr Scaling, the from the crop, whether for twigs or mature

r of the above pamphlet, who has timber.

Dme experience (having, although now As regards the point which will probably

iv-nurseryman at Basford, Notts, been come first into the minds of ihe reader,

msly, as he tells us on his title-page, for viz. — the profit, it appears that so far

lars basket maker to Her Majesty and as concerns growing them for basket-

ioyal Family), and so is entitled to making, it takes about three years to

with a certain authority, assures us wipe off the preliminary outlay of prepar-

' with proper care Willow-growing will ing the ground and putting in the

uite as well as any crop usually grown trees. This outlay, including also ordinary

1 country;" hencewe should imagine it to expenses of taking the crop amounts to

jgitimate conclusion that there must be a about £^^ per acre. The return for the

demand for the raw material, and that, ^rst and second year is, as might be expected,

quently, money is tp be made out of the smaller than when the plants have established

facture of the baskets themselves also, themselves,, and are in full bearing. Mr

there is a considerable demand and a Scaling calculates the gross value of the

:r demand than this country can supply ^^st year's crop at ;^8, 12s., the second year

appear to be proved by the fact men- £^1^ and the third year from £2$ to

1 by him, that in 1866 we imported JC'^I^ ^os., according to the kind of willow

309 worth of raw material and ;f 45,840 grown, and the third year's crop may be

of baskets, so that Mr Scaling is not taken as an average value ofthe ten following

It some reason (whether adequate or years. The expenses of each year, including

e shall presently inquire) for advocating rent, are about jQt, so that, according to this

rension of tfie cultivation of the Willow showing, the net return, after the first three

>sier in suitable ground in this country, years, from an acre of Willows or Osiers ought

caling does not give us any account of ^^ ^^ ^^^^ £^^9 ^os. to ;^i8 per acre.

t-making itself, its peculiarities, different ^^^^ *^ ^Pse of ten years the diminution

or equalities, as (Japanese fan-work, ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ although slow, be sure and

holding basket?, our own coarse creels gradual Mr Scaling does not precisely say

nor the mode of manufacture ; ease of ^^^ ^^°g ^^ diminution of return should

quisition, best markets, and cost and ^^ allowed to go on before taking up the

trees and renewing the crop, or planting

ic Saiix or Willow, in a Scries of Papers by somethmg else, but we mfer fi-om his remark

a Scaling, London, 187a. Parts I. and II. that; « taking the above as the data to reckDP

388

The Country Gmilemafis Magazine

from, the actual profit at the end of twelve or
thirteen years would be very considerable,"
he would terminate the crop at thirteen years.
We find, moreover, that nothing is allowed
for draining or manure, although he speaks
of both as all essential, especially at the be-
ginning, and we imagine that a refresher of
manure would be judicious more than once
in the course of thirteen years. In the first
year, indeed, we have J[fi put down as the
cost of "digging and preparing an acre of
land for planting," but this, we imagine, ap-
plies to the mere preparation of the land, and
includes nothing for either draining or manure.
Taking the lower of the above figures for
returns, and estimating the duration of the
crop at thirteen years, and taking off;^i,
^2, and ;^3 from them for the last three
years respectively, we should have the follow-
ing result : —

First three 3rears £0 o o

Next seven years* profit, jf 10, los. each.... 73 10 o
Next three years 25 10 o

;f 99 o o

which, divided by 13, gives a yearly profit
of J[fi an acre, but without having made
any allowance for manure or draining.

The next question which occurs to us upon
Mr Scaling's data is what scope there is for
an extension of the ground under cultivation
for Willows for basket making.

The number of tons imported in 1866 from
France, Belgium, Holland, and Prussia is
stated by Mr Scaling at 4400 tons, and as no
other source is mentioned, we presume that
this includes all from every source ; and as
each acre is calculated to produce 6 tons, it
would appear that that demand could be
supplied in this country by an increased cul-
tivation to the extent of 740 acres — rather a
small margin to induce any extended appli-
cation of land in Britain to Willow culture.
As a trifling succedaneum to the farmer where
the soil is fitted for it, and not easily adapted
to anything else, it may pass ; but for any-
thing more we revert to the opinion of its
value indicated at the commencement of this
notice.

For those who have such specially qualified

land, Mr Scaling's little books will b
very useful. He tells which are t
kinds of Willows, the different qualil
excellences of each, and the mode of
and proper treatment afterwards.

Besides this, he gives useful inform
the general planter, for no judicious
will despise the Willow. Its grace an<
make it an accessory to the planta
first quality, and some of the spe<
varieties have special properties oi
value to the landscape gardener, as Vi
ing well says : —

The Salix alba, when not mutilated by pc
is both a beautiful and cheerfiiMooking obj<
silver-tinted foliage, looking like a huge
sprinkled with silver. The Salix anrea o
Willow is also very handsome, and worthy
notice than it has yet received, both as an or
and a timber tree. The Salix carteriana or Red
Mountain Willow, with its dark red bran'
spiry head is eminently calculated to add I
our woodlands. Salix r^^alis, although not
to the size of some of the other tree Willows,
the most silvery trees we have, and althoug
introduced in the last century, it is scarcely y<
to our nurserymen. Salix Basfordiana a;
sanguihea, two lately introduced varieties, arc
the most beautiful deciduous forest trees
possess, and all who have seen them have o
them entitled lo occupy the first place as 01
forest trees. They are spiry-topped trees, 1
manner of growth similar to that of the wf
Bedford Willow, Salix Russelliana. The bi
Salix Basfordiana are of a brilliant orangi
tipped with red, aud the branches of Salix \
of a clear vermilion colour, and in winter wl
ted of foliage, with the sun shining upon the
bright as if varnished.

Mr Scaling claims for the Willow
power of living in smoky cities with
ing its health " materially " interfert
and he cites Mr M*Lellan, of Glas
having by a liberal use of only a
number of varieties of ornamental "^
succeeded in making the parks of ^
under his charge worthy of comparu
the parks of any town in Great Britai

He goes, loo, into a reckoning a
value as a timber tree — a matter r
more consideration than we have 1
selves space for. We recommend thi
papers to every one who is planting.

The Country Gentleman* s Magazine 389

^he IBetemmmt.

THE PREVENTION OF CATTLE DISEASE.

AT the last meeting of the Maidstone all be reduced to a process of cleansmg and

Farmers' Club Professor Brown, V. S. disinfection. It is perfectly useless to attempt

delivered an elaborate address upon Disease to restrain the spread of disease so long as

and its Prevention. The following extract animals are allowed to be placed in ships and

will serve to shew the manner in which he vans, which have previously carried cattle,

proposes to deal with foot-and-mouth and before they have been submitted to a conv-

pleuro-pneumonia : — ^The question proposed plete process of cleansing. Now, take the

is. How to do away with infectious maladies question of railway trucks to begin with. Ani-

without question as to their vitality ? If you mals are brought to the station, turned out of

choose to say that foot-and-mouth disease the trucks, and even if they are subject to

is not fatal, and that we will rather put up disease, the inspector has no power to insist

with it than have the movement of our cattle upon the disinfection of the trucks there and

interfered with, then I have done. But if then. You are told that the trucks will be

you assert the importance of doing away with disinfected at the proper time. It may be

these diseases, then I say that stringent going 100 miles before it is disinfected,

measures must be adopted and faithfully car- and it appears that by law they are

ried out. In the first place, the origin of the not bound to disinfect the trucks there and

malady must be discovered, and I say that then, but they must do so before any other

this can only be done in two ways — it will be animals are placed in them. Thus it is necea-

either a voluntary act on the part of the sary that the railway people be watched, to be

owner to state that the disease is on his certain that no other animals go in those trucks

premises, or the discovery must be the result before they are disinfected. Now, thisarrange-

of an inspection which must be made gene- ment is perfectly useless. Unless we have it

rally throughout the country in all those places arranged that the trucks are properly cleansed

where the disease is suspected to exist. The before they are taken away from the place, itap-

discovery being made, the next thing is to pears to be useless to insist upon any disinfect-

impose extra restrictions upon the animals on ing atalL The same may be said with regard to

farms where the infection has made its appear- ships. Referring to ships, it may be remarked

ance, not only regulating the movement of the that perhaps at some of our large ports not one

diseased cattle, but also those which have- ship which is found carrying cattle is fitted up

been in contact with them. At the same for that trade. The cargo may also be made up

time, it may be necessary to adopt a system of 200 or 300 sheep, or such like. * As

of licensing for those parts comprised within soon as the cattle are landed, a rough pro-

a stated area round the centre of infection, cess of sweeping up is gone over, and at the

Then, fairs and markets, and markets in the earliest moment the return cargo is taken in.

affected districts must be stopped altogether, This is the sort of disinfecting the ships get

or held as they were during the time of the I have been told by captains that they have

cattle-plague. Then there must be disinfec- disinfected their vessel when crossing the

tion of conveyances of all kinds used to bring water ; in fact, any proper plan of disinfecting

animals, whether by rail or water ; they must ships would involve their detention in port

390 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

for such a period as would render the impor- then, as far as we know them at

tation of cattle an unremunerative business, — a general restriction of m

and they would abandon the trade, or fit up diseased animals and animals

their ships for that special business ; and I been brought into contact witl

have no hesitation in saying that this is what moval by licence over that p

it would come to if the regulations which are country where the disease exists j

insisted on by chambers of agriculture and of fairs and markets in some way

other kindred societies were put into force, fection carried out completely.

I have nothing to do with the question of re- tant question after all to conside

muneration to shipowners ; whether the fitting the diseases you want to get i

up of ships expressly for the cattle trade would sufficient importance to justify tl

pay or not does not concern me ; all that I tions and regulations which I ha^

have to say is that ships are not properly or as being necessary to put a stop t

sufficiently disinfected by a rough sweeping of these diseases. It may be n«

up, or by a coat of lime-wash being placed on the Legislature to take some futui

them. Disinfection must also be applied to this matter, if the question is co

the places in which the cattle have stood in sufficient importance ; but there

the ships ; and it unfortunately happens that thing required, in addition to Le,

the process of disinfection, to be of service, in- render measures effectual for the

volves a thorough washing with water contain- of the spread of the disease, anc

ing a disinfectant Ship captains and ship- hearty co-operation of cattle-c

owners do not like their vessels deluged with farmers all over the country to as

water. They do not mind a lime-washing, but ing out the restrictions and regu

they object to a deluge of water. I say that may be imposed. I say that, wil

it is impossible to disinfect properly — and tion of the farmers, legislative ac

this remark applies to railway-trucks as well perfectly effective in preventing t

as ships — unless a good washing of water, these diseases ; but I am under ai

containing some disinfectant, is brought into sion that nothing that can be d

operation. A coat of lime may cover the authorities will ever have the eflfec

virus over, but the next animal that comes eradicating these diseases, which

near may rub the lime off, and expose the so much damaged our cattle,

virus to his cost. The preventive measures, horses.

Tlic Country GmtUfna^is Magazine

391

IS SHEEP BOX A PATAL DISEASE f

THE Committee appointed by the Cen-
tral Chamber of Agriculture to inquire
into the operation of the Contagious Dis-
eases (Animals) Act, apparently hold the
opinion tliat sheep pox is a highly fatal and
dangerous disease. It will be remembered
that at the February meeting of the Council
when the report of the Committee was pre-
sented, a clause to the following effect was
inserted in the adopted report, notwithstand-
ing the objections of Mr Thomas Brown, the
Norfolk delegate : — *' That in cases of cattle
plague or sheep pox, the veterinary inspec-
tors of the Privy Council should be em-
powered to order the slaughter of animals in
adjacent places, as well as those in contact
with diseased animals." Mr Brown urged
that the effect of empowering inspejctors to
act thus summarily with outbreaks of sheep
pox would be highly disadvantageous to the
breeder, inasmuch as the whole of his flock
might be slaughtered, and he perhaps ruined.
Mr Stratton, who ought to know something
of the disease, explained that the reason why
sheep-pox had been classed with cattle-
plague was that all veterinary authorities
agreed in naming that disease a most fatal
one ; while Mr Pell added the weight of his
opinion to the matter by pomting out that
the malady had undoubtedly been imported,
and had not taken hold in England where it
had been met by killing.

Mr Brown, however, was dissatisfied with
the decision of the Central Chamber, and at
the last meeting of the Western branch of the
Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture he brought
the subject before the members. In moving
a resolution condemning the decision of the
Central Chamber, which was adopted, he said,
among other things : —

I think it right that power should be given
to veterinary inspectors, appointed by the
Privy Council, to order the slaughter of ani-
mals affected with that disease, but that such
powex should be exercised with discretion.

When that fell disease visited our herds in
1865, if I recollect aright, inspectors, with
power of slaughter, were nominated by the
local authorities; and under that system
hundreds of animals were destroyed which
had not cattle plague. In one case that I
well recollect, after five or six animals had
been killed, it was admitted by Mr Inspector
to be not cattle plague, but a disease due
to excess of mangel wurzel. But assuming
inspectors to be appointed by the Privy
Council, no one would be more likely to re-
ceive an appointment than Professor Simonds,
who in 1865 came down to inspect the ani-
mals suffering from cattle plague at West
Dereham Abby, and who after examination
expressed his opinion that certain animals
could not recover and that others would. I
believe I am correct in saying that as a rule
those animals he said would live, died, and
those he said would die, recovered. I repeat,
therefore, that great discretion is required,
especially with regard to celebrated herds, for
my friend Hugh Aylmer has proved that even
cattle plague is at least to a slight extent
curable. Again, what meaning is to be at-
tached to the words " adjacent places ? " Do
they mean that if cattle plague should break
out in the herd of a person having two, three,
four or five homesteads, the whole of the
cattle belonging to that person might, at the
discretion of the inspector, be slaughtered ?
Or, far worse, do they mean that not only
might the inspector order the slaughter of all
the animals — mark the words, all the animals
— on that farm but also all animals on lands
contiguous thereto, — the effect of which in my
own case would be power of the inspector to
slaughter all the animals in Marham, Should-
ham, and Fincham. I need not say another
word to shew how loosely and inconsiderately
the clause has been drawn up. But if I thus
criticize the clause as it refers to cattle plague,
a very contagious and almost incurable dis-
ease, how much more strongly do I condemn

392 Tlie Country GentUmatis Magazine

it for recommending the same power of contemplate. I have not selected thes

slaughter to be given in the case of sheep- for, with the exception of those whi

pox — a disease of an altogether different to-day be stated by subsequent speakc

calibre to cattle plague, — a disease easy of are all with which I am acquainted wl

detection and thoroughly amenable to treat- treatment I have described was fc

ment First as to detection. It is, I presume, Do not these cases abundantly pro

the invariable custom of a shepherd to tho- sheep-pox is curable and controllable-

roughly inspect his flock each morning, aiid ease with which we, the breeders and j

if he had any knowledge of his business, he of sheep, are quite competent to deal
could not fail to detect a case of sheep-pox ; Mr H. Woods also spoke to the qi

for the sheep affected walks stiffly and with- Why, he said, stamping out of the sm;

out animation, and on being caught betrays if it is carried out in all the integrity

an abnormal redness, and possibly a few rules of the Central Chamber, means

pustules, under its arms. Now, as to treat- out the vital part of the flocks of this c

ment. It also is very easy and simple. Remove And I ask you, as practical men

each sheep, as detected, from the flock ; give amount of compensation — what

it shelter and nourishing food, and attend of compensation — would meet the

to it medicinally. With such treatment few which you, the flockmasters of 1

will die, and the disease will quickly dis- and also the flockmasters of this

appear. The following cases will illustrate generally, would suffer by the sacri

and corroborate what I have said ; and first I your ewes ? I hold that no com]

will relate my own practical experience of the could meet it Mutton now is as

disease, because I am more conversant with any one of you, I am sure, desires

the details of my own case. Out of 739 but what must be the disastrous eff<

hoggets, I had 21 attacked, 14 died, 7 re- only upon the flockmasters but tl:

covered. Out of 267 ewes, i was attacked ; sumers in this country, if the small-p

it recovered, and remained in the flock some to break out at this moment, and the

years afterwards. I had also 400 shearlings, the Central Chamber have in their

not one attacked. The late Mr R. Aylmer proposed were to be carried into efl

had I sheep attacked out of 1000 — it re- say — and I may say it in the presen

covered : — veterinary surgeon — that I have, wit!

Mr Bird. ofShouldham 1 out of 500 killed. exceptions, no confidence in veterim

Mrj. Evcritt. lateof Crcake... 5 ,, 1000 all recovered, gcons in the management and treati

Died. Recvd. sheep. I take this opportunity of s;

Mr W. Piatt 35 ,, 1000 21 14 1 T 1 1.1. 1. .. •

TheiateMrL.Rodweil 5.. 500 i \ pubhcly that many ve term ary surge

Mr C. i-emmon, Jun i „ 300 it recovered, afraid of practical men— they are a

Mr Roi)ert Leeds 6 „ 1000 3 3 practical men's opinions; I hold 1

The late Mr E. Winearis 18 .. 1000 10 8 recommendations of the Central Cha

Tabulated, the total number of sheep, those Agriculture are most dangerous,
attacked, killed, died, and recovered, would If you will allow me a few minute

run thus : — support all I have said to you by unc

No. of Sheep. Attacked. ^Killed. Died. Recovered, facts. In 1 848 a portion of the

7706 93 I 49 43 Home Farm flock were affected, and 1

1.^., nearly 50 per cent, of those attacked re- extraordinary means or other, I supp
covered, and the loss sustained was con- parties then in power (because I was t
siderably less than i per cent. But if in- agent on the property, although I live
spectors had then the power to slaughter, they were deluded into the very unfortuni

might have ordered not only the whole of the that inoculation was to be a panacea
7706 sheep to be killed, but also those in evils. As an experiment, fortunate
" adjacent places " — a number frightful to had no more than twenty ewes ina

Is Sfteep Pox a Fatal Disease ? 393

and out of those twenty, I suppose from its two lambs and one ram ; and on the follow-
being improperly done, nineteen died. In a ing day 139 more ewes. On the 14th he
flock of between 400 and 500 ewes the examined the inoculated sheep and foimd
disease broke out It was easily distinguish- that all had taken but two ; these were again
able, simply because, as Mr Brown says, they inoculated, and one stood. On the i8th two '
walk stiff when first put up, and you can soon Southdown rams belonging to Mr Lugav,
sec it on the bare parts of the thighs. It was which were on Mr Barton's farm, were inocu-
therefore determined that a complete system lated On the 20th, two ewes died— one
of daily examination should take place. This old and one young one. One of these died
went on for about a week, and I think out of not from sheep-pox but from gangrene,
those 400 ewes, barring the twenty that were arising from the imperfect way in which the
inoculated, not more than fifteen were after- operation had been performed. On the same
wards affected. These fifteen were taken day two Leicester rams were inoculated. On
away from the other sheep; they were given the 2 2d one shearling ewe died of gan-
linseed gruel and were kept warm, and grene, and on the 23d another ewe (a three-
every one of them recovered I have a shear) ; and one old ewe died from small-
stronger case than that, which occurred upon pox, its head being very much enlarged On
the neighbouring farm of Mr Barton — a man the 24th, a very wet day, the sheep were
who is extremely careful in all he does, and kept in all day. On the 25 th another sheep
who keeps a record of everything that occurs died from gangrene, and on the 26th another,
upon his farm; and every one who knows On the 27th, two crones died from small-
him knows him to be a man of great recti- pox ; and on the 6th of October one sheep
tude, and who never puts down a figure died, not from small-pox, but from ordinary
but what he is able to substantiate. He causes. Therefore there were 318 sheep
has very kindly given me a daily record altogether which were inoculated and took
of his flock; and, though it may be tedious the disease; and out of the 318 only ten
to repeat it, still I think, to state this matter died ; and of these deaths, five were from
properly, I must ask your permission to be gangrene, four from small-pox, and one
tedious for one or two minutes. It ap- from other causes. But the most startling
pears that on the 3d September, 1848, two fact connected with the case is this — In the
ewes took the sheep-pox in the natural way ; adjoining field were from 200 to 240 hog-
and on the nth September one of them (a gets; and they were therefore lying close by
very old one) died. Mr Barton, like many sheep that were badly affected with small-
other persons, became alarmed ; and on the pox from inoculation ; yet, singularly enough,
6th September he had 173 ewes inoculatedj not one of these hoggets took the disease.

394 1^^^ Country Gentleman's Magazine

THE CATTLE DISEASE IN AUSTRALIA.

THE Victoria Government Gazette of the allow the introduction of any fittii

17th January contains an Act for the properly disinfected, nor of any fodd<

regulation of cattle disease in Australia during oil-cakes, bran, barley, beans, or pea

the present year. The preamble states that The following are the important d

henceforth the introduction of all animals The places or buildings at whi(

suffering from catarrh, foot-and-mouth disease, may be kept in quarantine may be fi

glanders, sheep - pox, pleuro - pneumonia, to time determined and varied by thi

rinderpest, or murrain, will be prohibited, nor in Council, and on the publicatic

The introduction of stock from the Australian Goverfiment Gazette of an order of

colonies is to be under the supervision of in- vemor in Council declaring any ]

spectors. '' No inspection," the Act says, building a place at which stock may

*' shall authorize any of the said stock to be in quarantine, and defining the bouni

introduced or to travel until he has inspected such place or building, such place or

such stock, and is satisfied that it is free together with any adjoining land, the

from any of the diseases mentioned in the aries whereof are defined by such oi

first schedule hereto, and has received a sta- declared to form part of the distric

tutory declaration made by the owner or after mentioned, shall become, and '

person in charge, stating the number and des- variation or revocation of such ord

cription of stock which he is desirous to im- tinue a quarantine district

port, and that the same have been free from Where an inspector finds any of 1

disease and from contact with any diseased diseases to exist in stock, he shall f

stock for the space of not less than thirty make a statutory declaration thereof v

days, and has counted the same, or been hand, and deliver a notice under his

otherwise satisfied in regard to the number such declaration to the occupier of

of stock to be so imported, and received the mises where the diseased stock is foi

charge imposed by the 7 th section of the thereupon such premises and all la

said Act in respect thereof, for which charge buildings contiguous thereto in the i

a receipt shall be given in the form of the cupation, and all other buildings the

third schedule hereto." We find it provided tor may think fit to include, and on

that no stock brought by sea to the cupiers of which, if any, he shall »

colony from any place other than one tice, shall become a quarantine distri

of the Australasian colonies or New Zealand the determination and declaration

shall be introduced at any other place than Governor in Council relative thereta

Sandridge, or without the authority, in writing. The inspector may from time to tin

of an inspector of stock, and except in accord- persons in the occupation of any ]

ance with the conditions of such authority, included in a quarantine district to x

Before authorizing the introduction of any keep affixed notices to such effect, <

such stock, the inspector is to be furnished portions of such premises and in su<

with a certificate from some veterinary ner as the inspector may order, ai

surgeon in whom he has confidence, that persons shall affix and keep affixed tl

such stock are in his opinion free from Where an inspector finds disease*

disease, and a statutory declaration from the he may seize the same and take e:

master of the vessel in which the stock steps to ensure the isolation and safe

have been brought to the colony that they of such stock, and at once report the

are free from any disease. No inspector can stances to the Chief Inspector.

The Country Gentlnnwis Magazine 395

THE PREVENTION OF DISEASE AMONG STOCK.

lOFESSOR M'BRIDE, of the Royal predispose it to disease. Secondly. Odour-
Agricultural College, delivered alec- less, impalpable, and invisible particles, or
ipon the diseases of cattle and sheep organized germs, which are the infecting
I last meeting of the Cirencester Cham- agents, and which may be carried from animal
f Agriculture. Speaking of preventive to animal by means of food, water, air,
ures he said : — manure, hair, and animals. A word to ex-
st, trace and know where the disease plain what I mean by deodorizers, disinfectants,
es exist, then apply your measures ac- and antiseptics. Some confusion has crept
ngly. In order to deal more thoroughly into this simple classification, and we fre-
such diseases we must clearly know their quently see disinfectants spoken of as anti-
cs. This is due, firstly, to foreign im- septics ; the terms being used synonymously
tions ; secondly, to our recklessness for by many. Deodorizer is a name applied to
years in buying and selling home stoie those substances that simply destroy the dis-
; and thirdly, a wilful and absolute agreeable or offensive odours evolved firom
ance of substances capable of destroying decomposing organic matters. If they only
nfecting virus of such diseases. This act as such they are infinitely worse than use-
gement naturally divides the preventive less, as they tend to divert our attention from
iires to be considered under two heads, the real source of the danger. By their use
y, what the farmer should do to protect we might often readily lead ourselves to be-
;lf. Secondly, what the Government lieve that our handiwork was complete when
d do to help him. Let us then notice the bad smell was removed. It cannot be
leasures that farmers should adopt for too emphatically stated that noxious gases
selves, and first in importance is the use are not the real enemies we should en-
it class of agents which destroy the virus deavour to destroy ; it is the specific
fecting diseases. Unfortunately it is a living germ, and upon that deodorizers
lar idea that there are three classes of are inert. Disinfectants are a class of
ances, viz., deodorizers, disinfectants, substances which combine with, or so alter,
antiseptics, which have this property, organic matters that putrefaction is retarded
not my intention here to enter into nice or prevented. They act energetically on
s of distinction between these three dead matters, but have little or no power in
2S of bodies ; we will leave that work to destroying living disease germs. Antiseptics
hemist. For the practical purposes with are a class of substances which destroy the
1 we are here concerned, fortunately vitality of disease-producing germs and the
substances which possess the greatest active elements of putrefaction. Stockowners
as belonging to one of these classes of have in this class agents which if properly
^s, are generally of the most use in used, and in sufficient quantities, afford a
ing the offices of the others. I should ready means of preventing the spread of con-
ion that in the excreta of diseased tagious and infectious disorders. . The sub-
lis we have two classes of bodies to deal stance that I shall first consider is sulphurous
; and which must not be confounded, acid. It has been used for a similar purpose
y. A number of gases which are sensible from a very early period of the world's history.
I nose, and which, though often intensely According to the late Professor Graham, ** no
reeable, are harmless in small doses; yet, agent checks so effectually the first develop-
istantly breathed, they vitiate the blood ment of animal and vegetable life ; all animal
mpair the vigour of the animal, and thus odours and emanations are immediately and

$g6 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

most effectually destroyed by it." This is an charge of the acid should remain in the co

agent, par excellence^ for our purpose, viz., the house during the operation. It should b

destruction of disease germs and bad odours, be used with chlorine gas or chloride

The acid is easily obtained by burning roll lime. I have satisfied myself over and om

sulphur or flowers of sulphur, and sprinkling again, by many experiments, that this ac

it over a few live coals on a pan when the gas has great power in destroying the virus

will be given off in sufficient quantities. It contagious and infectious diseases in horsi

is very easily used — at least, I find no diffi- cattle, sheep, and pigs. I cannot speak t

culty in regulating the quantity of gas in highly of its virtues. The next agents

the cow-house by opening or shutting the have to consider are carbolic and cresy]

doors and windows. Let me quote one case, acids ; as their properties are similar in tb<

as related by Dr Dewer in proof of its re- application to contagious diseases, the san

markable powers in arresting such a disease remarks are applicable to both. Carbolic ac

as contagious pleuro-pneumonia. The Doctor is a product of the distillation of coal, ai

says : — " A large dairy for a period of thirty occupies the first rank of merit as an an

years maintained a notorious character for septic. Its universal application, its extc

pleuro-pneumonia, which was further dis- siveandsuccessful use during the cattle plagu

tinguished by a large mortality. The present and its present utility in staying the foot-an

tenant during his occupancy of about eight mouth disease, entitle it to occupy the fii

years had never seen one whole month with- place as a preventive. Dr Sansom, in 1

out the disease amongst his stock up to No- valuable and highly suggestive work, entitli

vember 1865, and within twelve months of "The Antiseptic System," gives numero

that date he had buried 16 cows, the last of instances in which carbolic acid has destroy

these only three days before he began fumi- the specific action of inoculable virus, ai

gating. From 1865 till 1867 his stock re- its power in destroying the poison of infectio

mained perfectly healthy." In fact, Dr Dewer diseases. Mr Crookes, F.R.S., in his cati

had so much confidence in his preventive, plague report, says, " He caused the air

that he has offered to put a sound ox of his an infected shed to be drawn throuj

own in an affected stall, if he is permitted to strata of cotton wool, so as to filter the sol

superintend the preventive measures. Again, disease particles which consequently becac

the powers of this acid have been tested by entangled in the wool. One portion of tl

Dr Dewer and Mr Crookes, F.R.S., in arrest- cotton wool was then exposed to the vapo

ing cattle plague. After fumigating a stall or of the carbolic acid. Two healthy calvi

shippen (cow-house), its action does not cease were inoculated, the one with the unchaigi

at once, as it attaches itself to the walls, or wool, the other with that subjected to tl

other parts which contain moisture. When it antiseptic vapour \ the first calf took tl

combines with the lime on the walls, it forms disease and died in a few days, the secoE

a compound (sulphate of lime) which is remained perfectly healthy." There

one of the constituents of a disinfecting another point of vital importance in prevei

powder, which is sold in large quantities, ing such diseases, and that is in breedii

I should mention that there is a popular your own stock. By such a system you w

belief that it is too irritating to be breathed be in the same happy position as mai

by stock, and that when being used the stock-owners in the Western Isles of Sec

stock should be turned out. This is an en- land, viz., free from all infectious disease

tire mistake, as I have used it or seen it It is well known that you labour under gre

used hundreds of times, without perceiving disadvantages in breeding and fattening yo

any symptoms of irritation, or any bad stock, as the cattle trade is carried on

effects whatever to the inhaler, if properly present, for by increasing the numbers

used. The fumigation should be repeated your animals you increase your already c

hree or four times a-day. The man in tensive risks.

The Country Getitleman's Magazine 397

^airg ani) f xmltrg Jari.

FATTENING AND PREPARING POULTRY FOR MARKET '

IF we would obtain the highest price for into pieces, giving each bird about a giU,

our poultry, we must fatten it well, make three times a day.

the skin white and the flesh plump, and then The practice of cramming fowls to fatten

dress and pack it in a proper manner. It them, is an abomination. I never could

never pays to send inferior, half-fattened relish a turkey which had been seized by the

chickens, turkeys, ducks or geese, to market ; legs and his throat stuffed with com pudding,

and it is always best to carry the largest and it would evidently relish its food much

fowls, as they sell the readiest and bring the more if allowed to take it * in a natural

highest prices. The epicure looks especially manner. The fattening coops,, or houses,

to the size of the turkey or chickens he should be warm, yet well aired, and a slight

selects for his dinner, and often chooses the litter of straw is desirable. The perches

short, yellow-legged fowl in preference to all should be placed but a few feet from the

others. ground, in the darkest comer, and if made

There are various methods, says a corre- with poles placed slanting, one above the

spondent of the Albany Country Gentleman^ other, like a stairway, the hens can mount to

recommended for fattening poultry, and we them easily.

are all apt to imagine that our own way is the When ready to kill the poultry, do not
best. Fowls can be fattened well in a fort- feed them for one or two meals, so as to leave
night, if they are cooped up where they can- the crops empty, for if they are full, the flesh
not obtain any gravel or lime, and are fed on about them will grow bluish, aud make the
scalded com-meal, given three times a day, fowl less attractive. Take a very sharp small-
while ears of com are always at hand. For bladed knife, hang up the turkey or chicken
drink, skimmed milk is very desirable, and if by the legs to a rope fixed for the purpose,
warmed a little will be drunk with eagemess. and as it opens its mouth thrust in the knife
Pulverized charcoal, kept either in boxes or and make a deep cut across the throat, hold-
mixed with the food, will materially assist the ing the head until it stops struggling ; then
fattening process. leave it to bleed well, and kill another.

In twelve or fourteen days you will find Pick them while yet n^arm, and without

the weight of your chickens, turkeys, &c., scalding the feathers, for that injures the

decidedly increased ; but if not killed at that fresh appearance of the skin. Pull out the

period, it is better to feed them with a little feathers as rapidly as possible, yet carefiilly,

sharp gravel or old mortar, or they will lose so as not to tear the skin, taking only a few

rather than gain flesh. The English method in your hand at once. The largest feathers

is to shut up each fowl by itself, spread the can be thrown into the refuse heap, but the

ground or box with gravelly sand, and besides small ones should be slowly heated in a cool

the boiled pudding and whole com, feed oven, and then used to stuff" chair or bolster

ground beans and oats, made into a cake. . cushions. On the turkeys leave the wing

with milk, melted mutton or beef suet, and feathers untouched ; every housewife lik

sweetened with molasses or brown sugar them for dusters. Chickens, if extra je

Bake on flat tins, and when stale crumble it sized and finely dressed, can also e f

398

The Country Gmtleinaiis Magazine

wings left on, but geese and ducks are en-
tirely plucked.

As soon as the fowls are picked, cut off
their heads, and drain the blood well from
the bodies ; then remove the entrails, leaving
the necks untouched. Some poultry raisers
rub a little dry salt into the inside of the
bodies ; others put a piece of charcoal into
them ; either way is good, and helps to keep
the flesh sweet and untainted.

In packing poultry, wait until all the animal
heat has evaporated, but do not let them
freeze at all ; yet they must be perfectly dry
— no moisture about them or the packing,
because, if the poultry smells musty or be-
comes mouldy or sweated, its market price is
much affected.

Apple or flour barrels, perfectly new, are
the best to use, and the express charges will

also be less than if a box is taken which holds
the same quantity; besides, a new barrel is
always saleable. Rye straw is freest from
dust, and therefore best for packing; pat
some in the bottom of the barrel, laying it on
its side. Press the wings close to the body
of the fowls and pack in circles round the
barrel, alternating body and legs ; put straw
between each layer. When nearly full lift up
the barrel and shake down the contents. Pad
as tightly as possible and as clean.

It is a good plan to wrap brown paper
around each fowl, and thus keep it from con-
tact with either barrel or straw.

Cleanliness is very essential if you desire to
receive the highest market price for yoar
poultry; and the appearance of the fowls
counts as much, if not more, than the quality)
although botli are very desirable.

The Country Geftilematis Magazine

399

^ke ^ptarian.

FEEDING BEES.

HE splendid weather enjoyed during

the past month, will cause those

ceep bees to turn their attention to the

In Mr A. Pettigrew's ** Handy Book

;es" we find a chapter upon feeding,

which we make a few extracts. He

bee-keeping, as in other things, it is
ill honey and sunshine. Stings and
n bags are placed side by side with
^bags in the bodies of these industrious
ires. Cold, rainy seasons come some-
; and when they do come, bees have
fed pretty constantly. One year well
Tibered by some apiarians, the best hives,
;h well attended to, never rose in weight
id 2 2 lb. each. They were nearstarva-
)oint the whole of the summer. In such
ns the management of bees is attended
anxiety, disappointment, and loss. Part
e profits of other years have to be spent
gar to keep them alive. On two notice-
years bees had to be fed from April to
St, when the weather changed, and be-
so favourable for honey-gathering, that
g hives rose rapidly in weight to 70, 80,
:oo lb. each. It is rather an unfortunate
-nstance for a working man to commence
eeping in a wet season. His bees must
d again and again ; and his wife does
like to see so great a waste of sugar,
nay grumble sorely about it. To put an
o such loss and dissatisfaction, he sells
ees at a sacrifice. Such failures we have
with sorrow. We should be glad if any
words of ours contribute in the smallest
:e to encourage all beginners to go for-
even if one bad season succeeds
ler. Success is certain to the perscver-
During the last twenty years we have
far more favourable years for honey-

gathering than unfavoiuable ones. The last
few years have been unusually favourable for
bee-keeping. In our native village in Lan-
arkshire, the profits of bee-keeping in 1864
were about ^^4 per hive; in 1865, about
£,1 \ i^ 1866, about £,2 ; in 1867, nothing ;
in 1868, between £1 and £1^ \ and in 1869,
about ;^3. But years unfavourable for honey-
collecting may be expected ; and when they
come our bees will require attention and feed-
ing. We do not care much how bees are
fed, so that they get enough.

As large hives, well populated, gather
more honey in favourable weather than small
ones, it should be borne in mind that they
consimie more in rainy weather. Hives that
gain 5 lb. per day in fine weather, lose i lb.
in weight during the night Of course, when
bees are not at work, the wear and tear and
heat of a hive are not'so great ; but I have
known a hive become 7 lb. lighter, and eat
I lb. of sugar as well, during one unfavour-
able week. In a large hive there are pro-
bably upwards of 50,000 bees, and about the
same number in embryo in their cells. Both
bees and brood need food, and a great deal
of it He is the best bee-master who feeds
his stock liberally and judiciously in rainy
summers, for he will receive in return for
all his attention and liberality, good mea-
sure, pressed down and running over. If
bees be well fed, they remain strong and
healthy — the hum of prosperity and content-
ment is kept up— breeding goes on— thou-
sands are added to the community ; and if
fine weather come, they will gather twice or
thrice as much honey as those that have
been barely kept alive. If hives are kept on
the point of starvation, the bees instinctively
cast out their young, and wisely refuse to
set eggs. Their combs become empty of

400 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

brood ; their numbers decrease ; their bank- In feeding bees, we have all

ruptcy blights them for a month, if not for a tried to do the work simply ;

whole sea&on. We speak now of stock-hives Necessity is the mother of invei

in the months of April, May, and June. we h^ve one or two dozen of olc

A few pounds of sugar given to a swarm ing food, we do not call to our

will enable it to build combs to its own cir- troughs of any kind. The old

cumference and size ; and these combs, as and even the parliamentary trai

we have seen, will soon be filled with brood, two slow ; we like to go by ** ea

which brood, in three weeks, will come to simply pour the sugar-and-water

perfection, and thus greatly add to the combs and bees, and can easily

strength of the community. of sugar to fifteen hives in half-j

Loaf or refined sugar boiled in pure water, doing this, we dose a hive w<

at the rate of i lb. of sugar to i English smoke from corduroy, turn it up,

pint of water, is excellent food for bees. No towards the east at an angle of

artificial food is so good for them as this, or thereabouts, the combs ru

Indeed this food is better for them than north to south. From a pitcher

heather-honey : the mortality of bees fed on a spout the syrup is gently poure

heather-honey is greater in winter than when one comb and then another, till J

fed on pure sugar-and-water, mixed and over ; then turn the hive towarc

boiled as described above. Flower-honey, with combs slanting as before, a

as it is termed in Scotland, or clover-honey, liquid on the reverse side of th

is the best and healthiest food for bees ; and, the same manner. Owing to

strange as it may appear, lo lb. or ii lb. of position of the combs, the syrup i

this honey lasts or feeds a hive as long as 15 open cells before it reaches the <

lb. of honey gathered on the moors. Brown hive. Thus one hive after ano

sugar is too relaxing, and should never be and, if necessary or convenient t<

given to bees as winter food. On the score each hive can receive three such

of cheapness it is sometimes used in summer, day. The liquid thus poured i

and with safety. White soft sugar, now sold bees does not injure them in any

at 4j^d. per lb., is nearly as good as loaf- lick it off one another quite ch

sugar for feeding bees. minutes.

THE

UNTRY GENTLEMAN'S MAGAZINE

JUNE 1873

LAND TRANSFER.

will be within the recollection of our shew in a former article, by reciting a homely

readers, that in former issues we have case in point ; but it certainly is not so with

\ attention to the complicated system of regard to land.

Transfer as at present existing, and we TheattentionofParliament was drawn to the
heretofore pointed out the absolute ne- subject so long ago as 1859, consequent upon
y for practical reforms and the probable the report of a Royal Commission appointed
es of the subject being dealt with by in 1854. The Commission remained in de-
itive action. liberation until 1857, their report being
e advent of that legislation has arrived favourable to a simplification of the system,
I proposed measure introduced into the and to the approximation of dealings
e of Lords, in the first instance, by the with land, as nearly as the different cir-
Chancellor, on Tuesday last, in an ex- cumstances would allow, to dealings
ive speech, containing in concise Ian- with stocks and shares. This Commission
: a history of the difficulties that surround proposed that when once fee-simple estates
n upon this most important question* (which term, for the information of those un-
ler with a lucid statement of his pro- acquainted with legal phrases, means the most
I measure. As we have before sub- absolute estate the law allows any subject to
d, it is a misfortune for those persons possess in land, or to use a more common ex-
have to consider Land Transfer from a pression, a freehold, being a larger estate than
ative point of view, or with a view to an estate for life) were registered, they should
ate Legislation, that they are hampered there remain, and when the occasion arose
e necessity that exists for confining their for the owner to deal with the land, it could be
deration to a state of things formed in exchangedbyasimple transfer— cross interests
ht times, and their absolute powerless- in the estates, or special interests, being pro-
to alter that basis. It is a well-known tected by the entry of caveats or cautions, as
iple that there is no absolute ownership at present in practice with regard to probates,
subject, of English soil. No man is re- and which would entitle those persons to
zed by the law as the absolute owner of notice of any projected dealings with the
He can only hold an estate therein, land. It was to be an open registry, and it
this fact, no doubt, materially assists the would have become competent for doubtful
lersome and expensive process that oc- titles to get upon the register. Two Bills
;vhen there is occasion to deal with land, were introduced into the House of Commons
le present practical age, however, it is in 1859, based upon the recommendations
otion that what is a man's own, is his to of this Commission by Lord Cairns (then Sir
hat he likes with, as we endeavoured to Hugh Cairns), but this measure only con.

▼OL. X. D D

402 The Country Gentleman's Magazine

templated the registering of those titles that missioners on these main points. He in-
had been investigated and found to be in all tends to permit an open and unfettered
respects good ; and even after this it was only registry of existing titles ; to allow all to
proposed to give ajState recognition of abso- register without any certificate of title, unless
lute title to a purchaser for valuable con- the parties registering require such certified
sideration after the registration had been titles. The title so registered may consist of
completed. This proposed measure did not freehold, leasehold, or charges, and the in-
become law, but in 1862 a Bill was introduced terests of parties beneficially interested are
by Lord Westbury, then Lord Chancellor, to be protected by the system of caveats as we
which afterwards became law. By this Bill not have before pointed out, but they are not to
only freeholds, but leaseholds were made be entered upon the Registry, In the event
valuable and available for registration, but of these interests being registered they shall
under it the strictness of proof, in order to an in every case carry with them an absolute
ownerobtaining a State recognition of his title, power of sale. The provisions of Lord
was even greater than proving the ordinary Westbur/s Act now in force, giving the
English title. The Bill also, to some extent, benefit of registry to titles which have been
defeated its own object, by giving power to ascertained judicially, are to remain imabio-
owners who had registered their title to take gated. We understand that one of the mem-
it off the register again if they so elected. The bers of the Commission suggested the es-
registrar appointed under this Act from the tablishment of a Conveyancing Court for the
15th October 1862, to the 9th Janu- purpose ofadjudicating upon questions arising
ary 1869, had before him in all 547 upon registration ; but the Lord Chancellor's
applications, the cases for registration of idea is to utilize the present Registry-oflke,
absolute titles numbering 274, which were of and not to establish a Court Amongst the
the aggregate value of ;^3,55o,76i, added to advantages likely to accrue to owners of land,
which there were 75 non-perfected applica- if this Bill becomes law, is that of clearing
tions, representing a further money value of the titles. As option is given with or withoot
;^88s,59o; in addition to these there were a certified title, the owner will not be obliged
during this period of seven-and-a-half years to submit his title to retrospective investiga-
349 registered and accepted titles, the value tion ; it will be sufficient for him to shew
of lands comprised under them being actual possession, but if it is sought to obtain
;£'4,439,35i. We have only dealt with the a registered title, it can be obtained either as
result of the registration of absolute titles, but absolute or limited. An absolute title will
the provisions of the Act authorized the re- not exclude tithe-rent charges, rights pf way,
gistration of mortgages and transfers as well, or such like restrictions, but it will be a good
But looking to the number of years over title subject thereto. This reservation is ab-
which the Act has extended, and the acreage solutely necessar}', but it need not in the
and value of landed property in England, it slightest degree clog dealings. A limited
falls very far short of the result that should title is explained as being good upon a par-
ensue from a good measure for simplification ticular date ; and this, in the course of time,
of titles and transfers. becomes absolutely secure.

The Land Transfer Commissioners Act On the point as to the computation of the

advised a return to the principles of the sixty years title, the Lord Chancellor read an

report of 1857, and to confine the registration extract from the Report of the Commission

to simple freehold titles, and when once titles of 1857, by which it appeared the legal

were registered there they should remain, and period for computing time for barring future

it should not be optional to remove them, claims with respect to lands was, in the reign

It is upon the basis of this report the Lord of Henry VII., fixed for five years, made

Chancellor frames his measure. He proposes effectual by the proclamation several times

•o revert to the recommendation of the Com- in Court of a fine, as it was then tended— 4

Land Transfer

403

ble proceeding, which we should like to anxiously awaiting, and which though perhaps

eproduced ; but unfortunately the com- not so comprehensive to the non-legal mind as

oners cling to the antient period of sixty might be wished, is still in itself the wedge

, although the evidence tended to shew that wasiequired to be introduced to simplify

a much less period might safely be adop- Land Transfer. Innumerable difficulties have

The Bill, however, proposes to certify surrounded, and still surround, the responsible

)d title upon possession for the period mind having the charge of introducing reform

enty years, but with this proviso, that the of this nature, and we think the Lord Chan-

:us of title must be a conveyance for value cellor's measure introduced with dignity,

J not less than twenty years anterior by with all due regard for the importance of the

reeholdcr. occasion, and accompanied by the weight of

' a statute 3 and 4 Will. IV., c. 17, no Lord Selborne's vast learning and great ex-

)n can proceed to recover lands but perience, is just the description of legislation

n twenty years after his right shall have required. It is obvious that in the general

led, with exceptions in cases, where by interest of landowners, be they of great or

•n of infancy, coverture, idiotcy, lunacy, small extent, universal facilities should be

3sence beyond seas, a further term of given to dealings with land — that everything

ears is allowed. The measure proposes should be done to make it as marketable a

bmit ten years as the maximum in all commodity as possible in a commercial sense.

: cases. The general registration of We think the Bill, looking at its main prin-

to freeholds it is proposed to make ciples, will be acceptable to the country. Its

)ulsory after the lapse of two years. In effect, of course, will not be felt for a long

; of land held in trust, the trustee is to be period. At the first view, it abounds with

lerson registering, and it is sufficient for technicalities, and treats of matters that the

>ersons for whose benefit the trustee re- general public are not much acquainted with,

rs, when they become entitled, to trace but we shall watch its progress with much

title to that trustee, and no further, interest, and at the proper time we shall en-
are some of the main principles of the deavour to eliminate and demonstrate its
he landowners of the country have been purely practical qualities.

FREE TRADE IN LAND.

By J. J. Mechl

HAT does this mean ? According to
my judgment it means that buyers
sellers may be permitted to make pur-
;s and sales of land in any suitable quan-
without let or hindrance, and that there
d be no impediment interposed between
wo contractors. Like com or consols,
)uld be a marketable article, easily trans-
le.

le laws of supply and demand should be

• way cramped or impeded. If such were

ase land would be bought and sold in

quantities as might suit both parties,

just as It is with any other marketable com-
modity, and we should then cease to hear the
cuckoo-cry about land monopoly, for there
would be plenty of both small and large land-'
owners : and as human nature is always the
same, we should continue to see changes of
circumstances and changes of ownership just
as we do now in personal property. There
can be no doubt that the present laws, in
connexion with land, are a national abuse
and public scandal, and entirely unsuited to,
and unharmonious with, our present commer-
cial notions and conditions j and it is equally

404 The Country Gentlematis Magazine

ccrtam that, like all other abuses, when profit and to the requirements of the buyer

brought to light, discussed and publicly con- Freedom of transfer at the Government regis

demned, it must and will be remedied. The tratton office, would add from lo to 25 o

force of public opinion in this sedate but more per cent to the value of landed propertj

determined nation, is certain to prevail, and And can there be any sufficient reason why \

why should it not ? Of course the Ministers man should not invest his savings in land a

of this country. Whig or Tory, are fully aware he does in Consols, or in a Savings Bank

of the evils, and probably ready and willing Why should people be debarred fi'om thi

to remedy them, but they cannot act in ad- luxury of changing their investments in lan<

vance of public opinion, but must be governed just as they do in houses, the funds, or othe

by it The difficulties are not great The securities ? My observation and experienc

compulsory registration of land, possession have taught me that frequent changes €

prima faae tvidcnce of ownership, the amend- ownership are good for the nation, for thes

ment of the laws of entail, primogeniture, and changes cause the dispersion of prejudice

settlement, could be all as easily (perhaps and the love of improvement and progress,

more easily) arranged than the numerous hopewe shall soon have a return of the numbe

great measures of the present century — such of landowners, the quantity held by eacn— ii

as Catholic Emancipation, Municipal and fact, just such returns as those of agricultura

Electoral Reform, Free Trade, the Dis- statistics. There is no fear of us becominj

establishment of the Irish Church, the £n- less aristocratic by the change. The- railway

cumbered Irish Estates* Act, and Compulsory commercial, or manufacturing millionaire

Education. " Where there's a will there's a who now buy parishes by the handful, wil

way," and I see clearly that the public mind then, as now, form good material for botl

is fixed upon this Land Question — and why Houses of our Legislature. They cannot b

should it not? We are no longer a feudal and ignored ; but you would also have a new an<

pastoral people — our landowners no longer extensive class of small landowners, firml;

make raid upon and plunder each other, rooted to the soil by investment, and becon

aided by their vassals ; they no longer defy ing more conservative in sentiment by tha

the power of the Crown, but are a law-loving attachment

and a law-administering class. I am glad to find that some of our Peer

We don't now, as we used to do, depend and Commoners are taking the matter ii

upon foreigners for instruction in farming, hand. We shall thus soon be able to transfe

gardening, and manufacturing. It does not a piece of land as readily as we now transfe

require thirty years to teach us to eat Potatoes a ship (worth perhaps ;^20,ooo), and m

or grow Clover and Turnips ; we are not mere longer be dependent for title on some must]

sellers of raw agricultural produce, ignorant paper, liable to be lost, mislaid, or accidentall;

of manufactures, and our sons, wives and destroyed. Lords and stewards of manor

daughters are no longer sold to Rome as (who are mostly lawyers) take especial can

slaves or concubines. Then why should we to have personal registration, of which prope

still cling to, and permit a system of land laws records are always readily forthcoming for i

entirely unsuited to modern British require- consideration. A national " Court Baron,'

ments ? It is not a question of changing or or register office, would be equally and mon

dividing or appropriating property, or inter- cheaply available. In fact, as I said before

fering with its just rights. There is no com- "Where there's a will there's a way" t<

munism in it. The rich would be rich then abolish the lock-up of land, and give to i

and so would, no doubt, the poor be poor ; freedom of purchase or exchange at smal

but why should a landowner be prevented cost

from selling his land (no doubt at a great I see no useful purpose for going into ih

^'ncreased price) in acres or half acres, or any the question of who the land of thb counti]

^^her quantity suitable to his own views of originally belonged to. In war, might i

Free Trade in Land 405

before right, and conquerors not only appro- and natural than that the waste lands of this
priate land, but divide it among and bestow country should be converted to useful pur-
it on their favourites, adherents or people, poses, with proper reservations for public use
Like all the rest, this has been our practice iu the neighbourhood of towns and cities,
whenever we located ourselves on territory Waste lands are far more useful td^ the
not then our own, and to which we had no country at large when cultivated than in their
lawful claim. Nothing can be more proper present wretched, worthless condition.

SETTLED ESTATES ACT, 1873.

THE intention of a proposed Act of before it all persons who are incumbrancers,
Parliament, brought in by Mr Stapleton the nature of whom are clearly defined by
and Mr Wheelhouse, is to supplement in a the Bill. The Court may authorize a sale of
certain degree an Act which came into effect the whole or part of an estate, provided it is
on the I St November 1856, and which con- satisfied that the life-tenant is unable to de-
ferred powers upon persons who, as tenants velop the resources of the estate, or that a
for life, were interested in Settled Estates, to price can be obtained so much beyond the
grant leases of portions thereof during their market value as to make the sale an ex-
life occupancy for agricultural, mining, or pedient one for all the parties who are in-
building purposes, with certain exceptions, terested, as well life-tenants as reversioners ;
and which Act also empowered the Court of or in cases where more convenient lands can
Chancery, upon the application of the person be advantageously purchased with the pro-
interested in its discretion, to authorize the ceeds of the sale of the whole or any portion
sale of the whole or portions of any Settled of a settled estate : it contains the salutary
Estate, with an exception applying to oma- provision that no part of such purchase money
mental timber. shall be invested or dealt with without the
This measure was of great practical bene- consent of the life-tenant. The meaning of
fit at the time of its coming into operation, this is obvious, different persons having
its effect being to relieve life-owners from different interests may have different ideas as
some of the difficulties the nature of their to the disposition of the proceeds, and it is
position entailed upon them. The proposed but just that it should depend upon the
Short Bill we have before us will farther actual tenant (the person in enjoyment) to
assist interests in Settled Estates, not only decide.

as regards life-tenants, but the ultimate re- The 6th clause is, we think, the most im-

versions also, by making the most of such portant It empowers the charging of a

estates, and improving their value. It principal sum of money upon a settled cs-

shortly instances the Act we have mentioned, tate, at the option of the tenant, for life, and

and proceeds to recite the expediency of upon a petition by him to, and order of, the

further extending the powers given by that Court for that purpose, for the benefit of

Act It authorizes the Court of Chancery to issue by a former marriage. This will be a

countenance the sale of any settled estates, great boon to the public, but before authoriz-

but no sale is to be permitted unless interests ing such a charge, the Court must be satisfied

accruing subsequently to that of the life in- on the following points — that the sum sought

terest, are alike benefited by the dealing; to be charged is a reasonable and proper sum,

and it is necessary upon any such application regard being had to the value of the estate,

for leave to sell, that the Court should have as a portion or portions for any younger

4o5 The Country Gentleman^s Magazine

brothers or sisters of the life-owner, either do not call for any special mention, except
of the whole or half blood by a previous that the merely formal clauses in their opera-
marriage of the parent from whom the estate tion do not apply to Ireland, but the main
descends, if, in the judgment of the Court, principles apply.

they are not adequately provided for without It is for consideration as to what eflfect the

any default of their own or of the parent power proposed to be given to a tenant foi

through whom the estate has devolved on life to charge a settled estate for the benefit

the petitioner; provided that one or more of issue of a previous marriage, will work,

of them may succeed in succession after but there can be no doubt of the necessitj

the petitioner and his issue, who are entitled of some such power to provide for al

under the settlement The remaining clauses children of a parent alike.

THE LANDLORD AND TENANT BILL.

IN view of the forthcoming discussion in opposed Bill, from which it was pre
Parliament upon this very important dieted the greatest woes would come, hai
measure — the most important indeed that has proved a blessing rather than a curse
been brought un4er the consideration of the Chambers' Encyclopedia says of it : — "Ever
Commons, as affecting the agricultural in- evil prognostication has been falsified. Poo
terests of this country, since the one for the lands are as much cultivated as ever, an<
abolition of the Corn-laws — we deem it not even more so. Instead of falling, the rcu
out of place here to give a summary of what of land of all kinds has been rising, am
has been said in relation to it outside of the tenants and landlords are alike satisfied
walls of St Stephen's. We believe that a Bill, like the one proposec

En passant we may remark that this Bill carried into effect would act more ben(
has much greater chances of obtaining legisla- ficially upon owner and occupier, and, throug
tive sanction than ever had the one which was their joint efforts, upon the general con
carried to a successful issue by Sir Robert munity, than even the abolition of the Con
Peel in 1846. That statesman had the laws did. And now as to what has bee
whole of the landed interest and the majority said out of the pale of Parliament
of farmers against him ; the present Bill, in Prior to the discussion at the Centr
principle, is recognized by landlords and Chamber of Agriculture, which we reporte
tenants alike to be a good one. Therefore last week, the majority of the local Chsunbe
if both classes are really in earnest, and they considered the measure. As far as tl
seem to be so, about establishing the tenure general principle of the Bill is concerned i
of land on a fair, and comfortable, and just these gatherings, the measure met with a r
basis, a reconciliation about mere verbal dif- ception of the most hearty description ; b
ferences need not be difficult to arrive at. In in a few cases Clause 12 has proved a stui
fact, the Bill might be passed this session, bling-block to the unconditional acceptance
If it took Sir Robert Peel only three years to the proposed amendment This is, perhaj
accomplish satisfactorily his great work against not to be wondered at when we take into a
the united and determined hostility we have count the widely divergent views entertained!
spoken of, surely when all are agreed upon agriculturists, and indeed by most Englishmc
the honesty of this measure, one-third of the as to the extent which legislation shoi
time occupied by that great legislator is £uf- interfere with the right and freedom of a
icient to pass it into law. His so much tract

The Landlord and Tettant Bill 407

Among the discussions which have taken principle should be carried out was the only polit on
place in the local Chambers, that in the ^^^^ ^^^"^ had been a diflfcrcncc of opinion on the
o*irji.* 4.^1-ii.- i.1. part of owners or occupiers of land. Not long ago a

Staflfordshire is not the least important. ^ .^^ • . j i_ *u * i^u u r ^u

, ,. ^ , r t- /^ committee was appomted by that Chamber for the

There Mr Masfen, a member of the Com- purpose of reporting upon this subject, and that com-
mittee appointed by the Central Chamber to mittee reported that it was desirable that a particular
aid the promoters of the Bill in its passage fo"n of agreement should be adopted. There was

through Parliament, in proposing a resolution "° ^^"^^ ^^^ ^^^ agreement was a very good one,

J . ^1 ^ r i.i_ /-it- u ^ -lu and very well drawn, but he, as a member of the com-

accordmg the support of the Chamber to the _•.._ \ . a .. h. *• v • • ^u * *u

° * *^ mittee, stated at the time his opmion that the mere

measure, remarked that he was a convert to recommendation of a particular form of agreement

the necessity for legislative interference as would not meet the case, and that the time had come

between landlord and tenant ^^^^ legislation upon the subject was necessary. He

had on more than one occasion pointed out that he did
A reason, he remarked, why legislation was neces- ^q^ tjii^k the landlords were so much to blame as some
sary was that it was not in the power of many limited p^^pig imagined, and the tenant-farmers were quite ai
owners of property to give that compensation which much to blame. (Hear.) He had frequently said that
was fair. The measure would remove this inability, ^e had never seen any real interest on the part of ten-
and it would, moreover, give trustees and others facili- ant-farmers in this question. He had always regretted
ties for raising money with which to give compensa- ^^^5 g^ate of things, for he was quite sure that had there
tion. He thought he might congratulate the Chamber ^^^ ^ stronger feeling on their part that a better sys-
on the fact that many of the principles which they had ^^^ ^f agreement between landlord and tenant should
long advocated were mcluded in the Bill WhUe it exist, so desirable a change would have been already
afforded the landlord every protection, and gave the effected. But he attributed thU apathy to a very great
tenant security for capital properiy invested in the soil, extent to there being in existence in some parts of the
it would not commit the injustice of calUng upon an country a class of tenants who, having little or no
in-coming tenant to pay for any doubtful or capricious capital, did not take as much interest in this question
••improvements" which his predecessor might have as they should do. (Hear, hear.) He believed that
made. The Bill would aUo afford facUities for pro- thU was one main cause of the apathy which existed,
viding proper cottage accommodation, which was a jje was quite sure that a great deal of the land in this
matter of great importance in the present state of the country was managed without sufficient attention tg
labour, market. Ij^e importance of making that production as large as
Speaking of the 12th clause, one of the capital, skUl, and scientific knowledge could make it.
SDcakers Mr Brawn said :— ^^ believed that this was mamly owing to what he
ir i y ' for one should be very sorry to overlook the import-
By that Clause the power of a landlord or tenant ance of, and that was the good understanding which
to contract himself out of the Act was withheld, existed between landlord and tenant.
The Act would vitiate any agreement which did

not give the tenant compensation for unexhausted At the Worcester Chamber the i2th clause

improvements and protect the landlord against dilapi- was not relished, but a resolution waS
dations ; and he thought that this was as it should be, passed that, subject tO the rejection of
for any such agreement must be a bod one. In con- ^^ objectionable point, and « tO SUCh modi-
elusion, Mr Brawn said that though many portions of- ••j •! i_/- j

the Bill might be ppen to criticism, he thought it was ^cations m detail as may be found necessary

one which the Chamber would generaUy approve of. in committee," the Bill " may be passed int#
He was not one of those who made light of the good law." Mr T. W. Knight, M.P., in the course
understanding which ought to exist between landlord of his speech characterized the 1 2th clause

and tenant, but he had no fear that such an under- „^ {< « ^^^^4,.^„„ \^¥^^^^^^^^ -n'fV. «>«^V<i4-a

^ ,. ij V • • J u *v i- 1 as a monstrous mterierence witn private

standing would be impaired by the passing of such a . * „
measure as the Landlord and Tenant BilL ngntS.

The Earl of Lichfield, who deprecated the ^^ ^^ principle, said he, were adopted in this

entrance into the detaUs of the Bill, spoke as ^=*^ "^^^ was it to end? It would give rise to

^ 11 , . clamour on the part of their own labourers and the

towns-people. Already at great meetings in the

There was one point as to which he had never heard north, it had been insisted that Government should

a difference of opinion, and that was that it was not enact that the price of meat should not exceed yd. per

only desirable but absolutely necessary for the purpose lb. The labourers, too, would say, "you have got

of encouraging the investment of capital in land that the power to enforce your claims on the landlords ;

compensation for unexhausted improvements should we must have the power to enforce oars on you."

be given. (Hear, hear.) The manner in which this It was too dangerous to tread upon such ground. If

4o8 T/ii Country Getttkmatis Magazine

the principle were brought into practice, it most ex- At the Ekist Suffolk Chamber of AgricoltUie
tend, and eventually everything would be settled by ^nder the presidency of Mr R S. Conance

Government. Excepting the 12th clause the prin- ^ j ^^ ^^ ^^ ^

ciple of which was opposed to our national freedom, ^^ -. , . . ?, . , , ,

he was wiUing to have the Bill discussed in com- Mahon, M.P., m which he said he thoroughl]
mittee. endorsed the principle of compensation fo

There was nothing very remarkable said at unexhausted improvements, and was therefor
the York Chamber, but a resolution was prepared to support the BUI with ccrtai
adopted expressing general approval of the changes. He objected to the stringency an
Bill, as tending to encourage the application l^arsh wording of the 12th clause, and though
of capital to the soil, and of increasing its that, provided compensation be paid to th
productive power. out-going tenant for unexhausted improfi

The Bill met with a conditional approval ments, which was akeady frequently done^l
at the Cambridgeshire Chamber of Agricul- would not insult fair^ealing landlords and 1
ture. The resolution adopted recognized and enlightened tenantry by preventing themfroi
agreed with the principle of providing com- drawing up any agreement they might wia
pensation to out-going tenants, but several of to make, suited to their various circumstana
the clauses were considered objectionable, *^d localities.

and " incapable of being put into practice."

The first speaker, Mr O. C. Pell, thought that ^^' Corrance, in introducing Uie discii»on, wi»

'^ ' ° the tenant-farmers not to consider the BiU simply

The spirit of the 12th clause had evidently out-going tenants, as they might injure in-oomn

been borrowed from the Irish Land Bill, and tenants. As to the three classes of improrementfr

he did not think it would do even what it pro- temporary, durable, and permanent— he qaestiooed

fessed to do. Many landlords and tenants might the two latter classes should be done by a man «l

be disposed to set it at defiance. What was there in ^as only tenant from year to year. Clause is !

the measure to prevent a landlord letting or a tenant thought a very silly clause. The promoters of t

hiring a farm of looo acres, at, say/2000 a-year for Biu ^gre afraid that some pretematurally sharp lu

the first eight years, and £^xiO for the ninth or last lord might drive a gimlet-hole through the Bill, a

year, and the landlord covenanting to pay to the had imperilled the whole Bill by the introdocUoa

tenant, at the end of the tenancy, the difference be- the clause. It struck at the root of all the relatk

twcen the extra ;^2000 and the sum recovered under between landlord and tenant, and he thought a mean

drawn to prevent such a thing, unless, indeed, the ^^gr several other speakers had given utterance

Legislature stepped in and said what was the rent ^Yitxr opinions, a resolution was carried to the eff

which the tenant should pay. The chief objection to ^^^ ^^^ chamber approved the principle of compeD

the Bill, therefore, was that it failed to do what it ^j^^ ^^ ^Yit tenant for unexhausted improrements, 1

professed to do, while it sacrificed the healthy right of ^^ ^^ landlord for deterioration caused by the &all

free contract between landlord and tenant ^^it tenant, and that where thU was not provided

Mr Todd, of Cottenham, put exactly an by lease or agreement it should be provided by Iq

opposite construction upon the clause. ^^''^ action.

He considered the 12th clause the essence of the Besides tlie recent debates upon 1

Bill, and ought to be maintained. Lord Derby and ^ j^ • i.^^^_.

oth^ gentlemen said the land did not produce what measures referred to above, we have gll^

it ought to do, because there was not sufficient capital from time tO time the resolutions adopted
invested in it. This arose from the tenant feeling a the numerous Other meetings of lOi

want of security ; if he invested his capital and im- Chambers. Altogether ten Chambers k

proved his land, he fear^i his rent would be raised, 55^^ ^ general approval of the Bi

rather than that he would be compensated for what , ^, , , vii j ^1. ^

he had invested. This Bill affected not merely one three Chambers have qualified that appro

or two classes, but the whole community. The with an objection tO Clause 12 ; four Chi

tenant-farmer wished redress. He wanted to be bers have criticized various clauses ; and

able to produce not only three, but five quarters an three viz., Lancashire, Lincolnshire, \

.^; and to do that he mu^^^^^ niore manure mto Nottinghamshire, have been hostUc tO
the 801L He regarded the Bill as a good one, and to „ 2,, /. .. ^ •_!.-

make the i2th cUuse of no eflect would ouse the BiU »>"• These facts must cairy great weig^i'
be of le» value than the paper it was written upon, favour of the Bill.

The Country Gentteman's Magazim 4^9

THE LABOURERS' COTTAGES BILL.

" R FORDYCE'S short Bill to facilitate tory that, as Colonel Farquharson pointed

. the erection of labourers' cottages in out at the meeting at Aberdeen on Wednes*

md has afforded material for lengthened day, there is nothing to induce, and every-

jsions both at Aberdeen and Elgin, thing to deter, proprietors from taking advan-

lebates that have taken place indicate tage of the arrangement The meeting at

he question the Bill touches enters very Elgin upon Friday resolved generally to

y into the relations affecting alike pro- petition in favour of the Bill, requiring,

irs, tenants, and labourers. At Elgin, however, at the same time amendments

ommercial element of the meeting, as to be made thereon which should se-

guished from the purely agricultural, cure that the proprietors should have

the view, says the Banffshire Joumaly a voice as to the site of any cottages

my legislation of the kind contemplated which the tenant might propose to erect under

e Bill was not desirable, inasmuch as it the Bill At Aberdeen, the resolution hnally

n interference with freedom of contract adopted, on the whole, pretty well met the

ultural members, however, on both sides, case. The majority of the meeting decided

>erdeen as well as at Elgin, seemed to to approve of the preamble of the Bill, which

opinion for the most part that the Bill proposes to change the present presumption

L certain raison d'Ure, Whether it is of the law, that all buildings on a farm are

*ther the proper cure for evils admitted, the property of the landowner. The change,

ast partially, to exist, is a matter of as respects this presumption, however, would

ion. only extend, we should fancy, to such build-

ere is no doubt whatever that a defi- ings as the tenant himself may be able to

y of cottage accommodation exists in shew that he has erected. Clauses 2 and 3

districts. Land agents who have ex- provide that the tenant may erect such suit-
nce in management of land in Ireland able and convenient buildings as may be re-
laid it down as an axiom that it is the quired for agricultural or grazing purposes in

of the landowner to keep down the connexion with the working of the farm;

lation; and this principle, whether sound and if these buildings are not approved of

[lerwise, has been acted upon to a con- by the proprietor, he may remove, or transfer

ible extent in some localities in the or sell them to his successor. The arrange-

of Scotland, where cottages have been ment proposed by these two clauses seems

ved as speedily as their tenants could be to be of a very moderate character. One

ded for elsewhere. The immediate ob- could wish, as Mr Hutcheon desiderated,

:ontemplated was the keeping down of that landlords were in a position in all cases,

oor rates ; and there is no doubt that, to provide the requisite buildings for the

I first instance at least, the policy was carrying on of the farm. Where this is not

vred by moderate poor rate. the case, and where the tenant finds it con-

i influence which has operated very much venient to erect buildings, he certainly should

St the erection of cottages is the position be allowed either to dispose of them to his

lich many proprietors are placed by the successor at the end of the lease, or to carry

of Entail. No doubt provision exists away the materials.

eby a landed proprietor may charge his The Aberdeen finding, while approving of

s with outlay for cottages ; but the the arrangement with respect to houses and

;s under which advantage can be taken fences, condemns the proposal in the Bill with

lis provision are so expensive and dilar respect to cottages, and suggests that the

410 lite Country GefUlematis Magazine

sl]ould be amended so as to include cottages that the cottages are " not suitable." He
amongst those buildings which the tenant- may thereupon proceed to .erect other build-
farmer may erect, and which, if not purchased ings, and if these latter " be completed m
by the proprietor at the end of the lease, he proper and substantial manner," the proprie-
may sell or transfei to his successor. We tor is bound to take them over at ;£'ioo each,
suspect that this is as far as it is reasonable There is nothing in the clause limiting Ac
to expect proprietors to go. The clause of period within which such cottages might be
the Bill as it presently stands is exceedingly erected. It is just possible that they may be
loose. It sets forth : — put up within a short period of the expiry of
On a farm where there are not suitable cottages for a lease, with the express purpose of hampcr-
the accommodation of the farm-labourers in the pro- ing the letting of a farm, or the giving it tO

portion of at least one cottage for every loo arable ^ny Other person than the sitting tenant

acres comprised in the farm, the tenant may erect suit- ,ir i '1.1.^1.

able cottages conveniently situated for the farm ; and, ^.^ ^^^^^^ P°^^^ °^^ ^« Suggestion as a

provided he complete the same in a proper and sub- POSSible contmgency. That it is possible is

stantial manner, the proprietor of the farm shall, at enough tO warrant landowners — however

the expiration of the lease, be bound to pay to him for wishful to promote the welfare of their tenants

the buildings, so far as the same were required to ^nd of their labourers on their esUtes— in

make up the dwelling-house accommodation to the 1 1 • 1 ^ 1 /• 1 .

•proportion aforesaid, such sum, not exceeding £ic^ ^^^^^^^ ^^^"^^ ^* ^^^ proposals of thu

for each cottage, as, failing agreement, shall be fixed nature. The Bill appears tO gO much bc-

by a valuator, whom the sheriff is hereby empowered yond the Tenant-Right Bill of Messrs Read

and required to appoint on the application of either and Howard. In that Bill no authority was

P^'^'y* given for compensation for the erection of

Mr Williamson, Shempston, at the meeting buildings without the express sanction of the

at Elgin on Friday adverted to the fact that landlord.

'* there are curious tenants as well as curious Mr Fordyce's Bill has done good by elicit-
landlords." One of the former might be dis- ing the discussions which have taken place
posed to take advantage of the phraseology on the subject. It is not likely, however, to
of the clause in a way that might be unprin- result in any effective legislation at present
cipled, but which might be found to be quite It is very probable that the question will be
covered by the terms of the Bill. If the discussed in Parliament on the English Bill
phraseology be looked at narrowly, it will be just mentioned ; and there can be no doubt
seen that a tenant disposed to be trouble- that principles which are sanctioned as re-
some has only to find that there are " not gards England will very speedily be applied
suitable cottages " on the farm ; he has not north of the Tweed. [It will be seen that
even to find that there are no cottages, only the Landlord and Tenant Bill is delayed.]

The Country Getitkman's Magazine 41 1

EDUCATION OF AGRICULTURAL CHILDREN.

'HE subject is one of the utmost im- " the House if it were prudent to allow this
portance, and if Government resolve measure to go further?" To keep children
abide by Mr Read's Bill, we hope from working up to thirteen years of age in
its general amendment scheme it will agricultural localities would be a cruel injury
y its spirit" These words had re- to their parents and themselves. But the
I to the Agricultural Children Bill, Bill, so far as we understand it, contemplates
;re written in February. We are glad nothing of the kind. What it says in the 6th
that Government has recognized the clause is this, and we had better quote it in
)f the measure, and that with its sup- its entirety, seeing that there has been con-
was read a third time and passed on siberable dubiety about the matter out-of-
lay night We confess we were not doors as well as within the walls of Si
lopeful when the Bill came on for Stephen's.
. reading, that it would become law

ssion. Mr Forster seemed to give it ^^^"^ ^^ ^'«^ *^^ commencement of this Act it

half-hearted reception, and Mr Mun- ^'^^l not be lawful for any employer or his agent lo

^ . employ many year any child above the age of eight

nd Mr Dixon, representmg the manu- years in the execution of any kind of agricultural work,

ng interests, met it with decided op- unless the parent of such child has obtained a certift-

n. At the time we took occasion to cate or certificates in the form in the schedule to this

nething to the effect that clever borough ^^^ annexed, or a form similar thereto, to the effect

V i. c ^^ that such child has completed, if under ten years of

y members were not unfrequently ,^ u 1 *^ j j r u .

< . . . ^ •' age, 250 school attendances, and if above ten years

m their views about agricultural mat- of age, 150 school attendances, during the twelve

:hat there are in agricultural work pecu- months ending the 31st day of December immediately

5 which require special legislation. preceding such year. Provided that nothing in this

cren in the agricultural districts' can- ^^^^^'^ ^^^" ^^"^^^ ^'^>' employer or his agent liable

. , . . , ^ J r • ^v to a penalty for so employing a child above the age

I judiciously enacted form the same of eight years for whoni a certificate has not beenc^.

T as children in towns. Mr Read's tained, if it be proved to the satisfaction of the court

s had little alteration made upon it in having cognizance of the jcase, that during the said

ttee, so far as we can understand from twelve months there was no school open which such

)orts in the daily newspapers. The ^^^^*^ ^°^^^ ^""^ attended ^vithin 2 miles, measured

. . J J • • \^v /. .1 according to the nearest road, of the Residence of such

Iteration recorded is in the fourth ^m

where, on the suggestion of Mr

the word " child " (which in the Clearly, to our mind, this clause is only

II Bill was understood to " mean a prohibitory of children working under the age
mder twelve years of age ") was made of eight years, and, to a certain extent, from
in a child under thirteen years of age. being employed under the age of ten. The
I other clauses, we are told, were agreed original Bill fixed the time when educational
his being so, we cannot well under- qualifications should cease to be a certificate
:he discussion of Thursday evening. for the chance of labour at twelve. Mr
Corrance objected to the Bill, and very Brace's amendment has made it imperative
ly objected to it, on the premises he that children shall endeavour to gain know-
uted. "Ifchildreninthemral districts," ledge until the age of thirteen. From the
, "were not permitted to work until they 8th clause also we think it is not presump-
liirteen, they would never come on the tive to gather that Mr Read means that in
,t all.'' Were his premises right, we the time of harvest the law should be sus-

certainly agree with him in asking pended for the benefit of agriculture and tUe

412

The Country GmtUmaris Magazim

community in general. The clause enacts
that—

" A court of summary jurisdiction in any petty ses-
sional division may, if it thinks fit, upon the written
application of any person or persons occupying in the
aggregate not less than 300 acres of land in such petty
sessional division, issue a notice declaring the restric«
tions imposed by this Act on the employment of chil-
dren to be suspended therein for the period to be
named in such notice ; and during such period such
restrictions shall not (save as to any proceedings com-

menced before the date of the notice) be of any I
within such petty sessional division : provided
the period or periods so named by any such c
shall not exceed in the whole eight weeks betwea
1st day of January and the 31st day of Decenb
any year."

Such a provision we think essentially ne
sary in agricultural districts.

If our interpretation of the Act be incon
we should like to be coxrectecU

OPERATION OF THE CONTAGIOUS DISEASES (ANIMALS^

ACT UF 1869.

IN the recently issued number of the trans-
actions of the Highland and Agricultu-
ral Society, Mr Armatage, M.R.C. V.S., has an
exhaustive article on the above subject from
which we extract the following : —

" If the law on these subjects is properly
enforced, and the powers conferred on local
authorities judiciously exercised, it may be
hoped that outbreaks of contagious and in-
fectious diseases among animals will soon be-
come rare in Great Britain, and will be con-
fined to limited areas, and that the losses
from them be insignificant.

An increase in the supply of food, and a
reduction of the price of meat, would, it may
be further hoped, be the result.

How different, however, are the conditions
which we have to deplore now, at the close of
1872, more than three years after the passing
of the Act. Meat is considerably dearer, and
milk is more than double the price at which
it could be obtained fifteen or twenty
years ago : disease exists in almost every
part of Great Britain, involving loss to the ex-
tent of thousands of pounds in each county,
and the vast machinery which is subordinate
to, and set in motion by every Local Authority,
is apparently useless in mitigating the spread
of disease, as if nothmg of the kind had been
organized.

How can it be possible with the existence
^^ f>D Act of Parliament so extensive and

apparently complete in the detail of p
sions for every emergency, that the '
maladies among cattle for the suppres
of which such minute instructions
given, should increase and spread in e^
direction, harassing the whole agricalt
community, and infiicting such a scardt
meat supplies of the country ? These q
tions point to the Act, and the mode in wl
its provisions are applied and enforcedi f<
reply.

There is no doubt the promoters in tl
labours endeavoured to concentrate m
sound wisdom with as few details as posa
We believe also that a grievous wr
nrould be inflicted upon them if
were to suppose that they had not do
and attentively studied the weight and gra
of the question in order to bring out the 1
results, and make them subservient to
best interests of the country. As an Ad
Parliament however, it closely resembles
others. It is unnecessarily long and wc
— sometimes ambiguous in the instruct
relating to circumstances where plain
definite language is required — and notn
standing its minuteness in the various q
tions, it presents the inevitable gaps thro
which an unparliamentary Jehu always
lights to drive his coach and six.

It is to the local authorities of the tbi
districts throughout the countzy that the

operation of the Contagious Diseases (Animats) Act of 1869

413

of the provisions of the Act and orders
from time to time, is entrusted. But
not seem necessary to many of these
stituted local authorities to take any
es at all, and such want of prompt
lination has been noticed in many
es, not the least movement being made
le whole cattle of a district have suf-
md the malady has been conveyed to
limals of adjoining neighbourhoods,
as particularly remarkable immediately
fie passing of the Act Whether the
live clerks of the peace had not a copy
document in their possession, or failed
iprehend its provisions, has not tran-
; but this we know, that in certain in-
» no meeting took place, inspectors
lot appointed, and nothing was done
;ks after the disease had been circu-
\y fairs, markets, &c.
ne of such localities, a qualified veteri-
had recently settled, \mder the hope
ling a practice ; and, acting under the
and influence of several of the local
and others, applied to be appointed

inspector. The presiding magistrate, chair-
man of the Cattle Disease Committee and
member of parliament for the county, re-
turned Jus reply to the application, which
stated that a cow-doctor of the neighbouring
village " will be appointed if any one is, but
it is not contemplated at present to do any-
thing." The farmers of the district gave the
notice as required by law, but no one ever
attended, and they (Ud as they liked. One
sufferer informed the writer, his cows, calves,
&a, to the number of 100, or thereabouts,
were attacked with " foot-and-mouth disease,"
and recovered, each becoming successively af-
fected, the prevalence of the aflfection extend-
ing over a period of two months, and of which,
with several other similar cases, the Privy
Council never heard anything. Such apathy
on the part of local authorities played a de-
structive part against the effectual suppression
of disease, for not only was it thus allowed
to have free and unfettered course, but un-
principled dealers and owners took advan-
take of the position, and spread the contagion
far and wide.

JUSTUS VON LIEBIG.

HE man of science has not only to
combat the erroneous notions pre-
; in the domain of practice, but also
rors of his own science, which have
nfluence over him, and may cause him
^s to make a false step ; but he knows
le path leading to light is thorny and
md the perception of error is itself a
\" These are the words of the great
tural chemist who has lately, full of
and honour, departed into the Spirit-
Modem agriculture owes very much
big. In fact he has been not inaptly
I the " father of agricultural chemistry."
IS done more than any man of this
y to stir up thoughtful consideration
low the fertility of the earth should be
ished after exhaustion of its natural
tuents by com or cattle.

Liebig was a keen, and on some occasions
rather a sharp and short-tempered contro-
visialist He could not well brook opposi-
tion, and when he had to give way, as he
occasionally had to do, he did not always do
so in the most graceful of manners. But so
resplendent were his accomplishments that
'* agricultural writers," as he occasionally
superciliously calls them, were delighted,
shall we say to be corrected, if not castigated
by hinL Great as he was he was always
ready to acknowledge his indebtedness to
others, and among the rest to our esteemed
contributor "gone before," Mr Robert
Russell, Pilmuir— of Kilwhiss, when Liebig
knew him. In the preface to his " Letters
on Modem Agriculture," he says that for
Letters VI. and VIL, he was " indebted for
a number of facts '' to MrRussdL

414

The Country Gentlemmis Magazine

When Liebig wrote " Modem Agriculture,"
he did net think itiuch of it as practised in
England at that time. However, he did not
give us a worse character than he gave our
neighbours. It appears to have been more in
sorrow than in anger he wrote, " Upon the whole,
EngHsh agriculture, as a rule, is based upon
the same spoliation system which exists else-
where; for though some certainly pursue a
rational system, there are but too many who
act otherwise." He thought practical agri-
culturists generally who accepted chemical
analyses which they did not understand well,
were from a want of proper insight into their
own pursuit, men who were in their blindness

the worst enemies of science " One

of the most important objects of the practical
man is to discover active manures, by the use
of which barren fields may be made produc-
tive, and the produce of fertile fields be
doubled ; but they will never be found, or
only accidentally, by seeking them blindfold
and in an empirical manner. The practical
man does not know that for years the study
of small and apparently insignificant things
must be pursued before the mind is prepared
to grasp questions of importance."

" Science," again he says, " should be the
common property of all; it should bestow
aid on all who require and seek it, and should
increase the intellectual store of rich and poor
who are sincerely striving after truth." With
the object in view of " making the educated
men of the nation acquainted with the prin-
ciples which have been established by che-
mistry in connexion with the nutrition of
plants, the conditions of the fertility of soils
and the causes of their exhaustion," Liebig
published his letters on Modern Agriculture.
" Should I," he remarked in his preface, " be
fortunate enough to impress upon a wider
circle the conviction of the value of these
principles, and of their extreme importance in
a national point of view, I shall look upon
one of the tasks of my life as accomplished*"
With reference to those agriculturists who op-
pose the teaching of science from ignorance of
its object he said : — " I hold it of the greatest
importance to be unwearied in our efforts in
ii—cting their attention to the facts upon

which scientific principles rest ; foir if ire
but succeed in inducing them to reflect a
the proofs of these principles, they m^be
considered as converts to the doctrines of
science. The laws revealed by the study rf
the natural sciences will determine the iiitot
intellectual and material progress of coanbia
and nations; every individual is personi]^
interested in the questions connected witk
their application."

Fortunately with the assistance of far-seeiD|
men the great principles which Liebig laid
down have gained their way, and have, widm
the last quarter of a century, materially in-
fluenced the practice of agriculture. But s
yet it cannot be said that they have been car-
ried out to their full fruition. At first the re-
cognition of the principles was slow, even by
those who at the time of the publication of
the "Letters" were regarded as advanced
thinkers upon agricultural science, and they
met with not a little opposition from practical
and ^//^/-scientific farmers. Liebig was very
severe upon all who upheld . the humotu
theory, and in replying to them he sometimes
altogether lost his temper. In the opening to
his Fourth Letter he says, *'It may be asserted
that nobody who possesses any knowledge of
the matter in farm-yard manure, now believes
that the produce of a field in carbonaceous I
substances bears any proportion to the
amount of humus in the soil, and that its fer*
tility can in reality be estimated, as was fw-
merly supposed by this humus. We have
now obtained more exact information on the
part played by humus in vegetation, and can
predict in what cases its presence will be bene-
ficial or hurtful. We know that // is only useful
when the soil contains in sufficient quantity the
fixed mineral constituents serviceable to fiants;
and that it is without action when tiiesc an
wanting."

Having spoken thus of humus in the letter,
Baron Liebig was i^Toth in the extreme
when he saw the old theory revived in the
Times of 1863, in an article under the head-
ing, ** Exhaustion of Vegetable Mould."
His attack on the writer and all who thought
with him, was one in very unmeasured terms,
fully confirming what we have said about hb

Justus Von Liebig 41 5

ence of contradiction. He says, refer- that so intimately concern the fiiture of the

) the Times article, which as it turned out human race, in so flippant a manner arrogate

ritten by Mr Patrick Matthew, Gourdie to themselves an opinion about matters

in influential Perthshire farmer) : *• I isim which they do not understand, and hinder

r at a loss to comprehend how, in the that very progress which, by their position,

It time and state of agriculture, it is they are called upon to promote."

•le for any one to express such opinions The accessibility of Liebfg and his humble-

ly as are to be found in that paper." mindedness [in his investigations] has often

going on to tell about the endeavours brought to our recollection the remark of

d made to teach farmers the natural Bacon, that " the Kingdom of Nature so far

ivhich govern the production of food resembles the Kingdom of Heaven in that

eh and animals, Baron Von Liebig con- no admission is conceded except to chil-

ids to mention the honours he has dren." How widely Nature's doors were open

I from all the academies of Europe, to Liebig we all know. At that time, now

e services which he had rendered to ten years ago, he wrote as if he thought the

e. Having done so, he bitterly, and hand of death was upon him, that Nature,

:ly fairly to agriculturists, proceeds : — whose secrets he had so penetrated, more in

.r, when a man has obtained the good love than curiosity, was about to take him

>n of the most distinguished individuals to herself. In his preface he said : — " As

countries, as recognition of what he for myself, I have reached the age when the

lone in science, this is certainly the elements of the mortal body betray a certaui

5t fame it is possible for him to pos- tendency to commence a new circle of action,

ind you may grant that for such a one when we begin to think about putting our

)plause of a thoroughly ignorant crowd, house in order, and must defer until no later

t of agriculturists for example, must be period what we have still to say."

itely indifferent to him." Now, ten It is pleasant for us to look back upon his

ago, agriculturists of England were not, first visit to Scotland in 1844, when a dinner

)ody, by any means an ignorant crowd, was given in his honour in Glasgow. It was

of them had intelligence enough to un- very numerously and influentially attended,

.nd Professor Liebig, and few of them It was presided over by the late Lord Eglin-

\ have been so discourteous to a corres- ton, and among those present were some of

int, or so sweepingly unjust to a class, his old pupils and admirers, Gregory, Thom-

also, of them would have remembered son, Johnston, Graham, and others. In re-

lowever high the station or illustrious the sponding to his health on that occasion, Liebig

of any one, he is not lifted up altogether was very happy in his phrases, and it will be

id the region of fair criticism. seen that from the principles he gave voice to

: the intense faith which Liebig had in then he has never swerved. Take, for instance,

)ctrines, and tlie great interest which he the following extract from his speech, and

1 promoting the fullest agricultural pro- say whether it does not bear out his after

)n of the land must be accepted as some utterances : — " Practical experience possesses

e for his occasional petulance. The unquestionable value ; but it is like A vessel,

usion of the letter we have been con- to which, in the form of science, the compass

ng is as follows : — " I esteem it a great or the pilot is wanting \ it is a treasure which

lity when men like yourself are the op- cannot be inherited. Science enables us to

Us of my doctrines — ^men who, if they bequeath this treasure to our children, and it

1 only give themselves the trouble to enables our children to increase the store.

themselves acquainted with them. Science gives us the consciousness of our

1 become warm supporters of them, strength, and thus inspires us with courage

further, I consider it a sin against God and energy. Science teaches us to recognize

[lumanity when such men, in questions the food of plants and the sources from which

4i6 The Country GentlemafCs Magazine

it is derived This knowledge alone makes is his extraordinary fertility in agricnll

us the true masters of the soil — the lords of researches — a mere side-branch of his sta

our capital." in the extensive fields of chemistry.

We have referred to Liebig principally as his amount of labour which Liebig has undei]

writings relate specially to agriculture. We is rewarded by a fame which will p

can only say, in conclusion, that which we have enduring as long as chemical annals c

said in these columns before, that that which and the earth continues to yield her <

is most remarkable in the character of Liebig increase.

IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES

THE Board of Trade Returns shewing extremely interesting, and it would sav

our outlay for foreign commodities large amount of trouble. By doing so he wo

for the month and four months of the current earn our gratitude, and that of many oti:

year have just been issued. Following our whom we know desiring similar informati

usual custom, we proceed to state the num- Each bullock we imported this year cost

bers, quantities, and values of agricultural on the average ;£'2o, 2s., which is the laig

items. Meat still being the great question of sum we have ever paid. Last year in the sai

the day, and animals first on the list of im- period we paid only ;^i9, 13s. 8d., and tl

portations, we note that there is in the was from £2 to ;;^3 per head more than

month a large increase in the receipts of 1870-71. The difference this year in co

oxen, bulls, and cows as compared with parison with last is 8s. 4d. per head. Comi

April 1872, and even slightly more than in to cows we find that for each animal tl

the corresponding period of 1871. The in- year we disbursed jQiS-^ last year we 01

crease in April this year over the like month paid jQiA^ is. 6d., a difference of ^3, i8s.(

in last was 6543, the numbers being 13,768 The animals have certainly been sent over

and 7225 respectively. In the course of the better condition this season than on any p

first four months of the present year we re- vious one; but this extra feeding does noti

ceived 32,723, in the corresponding term of count altogether for the increased rates pa

last year 30,152. It should be noted, how- There has been a tangible rise in the pri

ever, that there was not so many cows im- of stock. The total amount we expended i

ported this year as last In 1872 up to the cattle in the four months just passed ti

end of April the number of cows was more ^^643,404, in the corresponding period

than half of the beasts landed j this year they 1872 ;^s 13,675. Calves up to the end

formed only about one-fourth of the total. April cost us ^^33,969, last year 01

In calculating the difference in the price, ;;^i 8,973. They were also much dearer [

therefore, this fact should be borne in mind, head, although there was little or no impra

if we " slump" up both oxen and cows together ment in quality, the price being jQ^ 17s, 1

a fair contrast between the values of each per head, as against £^^ 5s. id.
year cannot be obtained. We shall therefore There was little difference in the numl

calculate the costs separately. (We should of sheep imported in the course of the men

like that some enterprizing clerk in the Sta- but there was a decline of upwards of 50,0

tistical Department of the Board of Trade in the longer period the Returns embiai

would suggest another column or two with The total number imported was 210,104,

the price per head, lb., cwt., and ton, as the an expense of ;^438,242. Last year in 1

^ase may be. We assure him it would be same time we received 260,949, for wh

Import and Export of Agricultural Contmodities 417

aid ;£S'S>S4S- The difference in fisivour together ^238,530 was disbursed as against

reign consigners this year was about 2s. ^^266,680. The supply of poultry and game

ead, as each sheep cost jQzy is. gd., last (including rabbits) from abroad is becoming

jQi^ 19%. lod. Swine we have received larger, which might be taken as an indication

rger numbers than in the corresponding either that there is a falling off in this country

d of last year, viz., 4042, as against 1815, of those animals which destroy crops, or that

expenditure being respectively ^12,319 there is being developed a keener gastrono-

^6296. Bacon reached us in much greater mic taste among the general population for

tities than in any previous year, the edible ferce natures^ whether four-footed or

tity we received in the four months being feathered. The sum paid up to the end of

5,731 cwt, as against 936,113, and the April for foreign poultry, game, &c., was

mts we paid respectively ^^2,345,307 ;^90,8S4, in the corresponding term of last,

;^i, 900,499. For beef, salted or ;^S7,2i5. Our expenditure for animal food

and slightly salted, we paid this year supplied to us from foreign parts in

6,966, in the corresponding period of the opening third of 1873 was altogether

'ear ;^207,384. On hams we expended ^64,52 1,941, or about half a million more than

.rear ;^2 14,786, in the first four months in the corresponding term of the preceding

71 ;^ 1 78,266. Meat, described in the year, when our debtor account for the same

rns as " unenumerated," cost us in the kind of goods was only;£4,o39,878.
months ;^7 0,024, little more than in the Our outlay for agricultural commodities

:erm of 1872. we have not yet exhausted. Dairy produce

eserved meat is evidently falling rapidly we have still to take into account Of butter

1 public estimation in Great Britain, or we imported 375,491 cwt. at a cost;^of

becoming more thought of in the colo- ;^2,o43,782 ; and 179,936 cwt. of cheese^jit

or else the raw commodity cannot be an expense of ;£539,8io. In the same period

lased at sums sufficiently moderate, to of last year the quantities we received were

le the various companies in Australia to butter 352,343 cwt, the expenditure being

ifacture and sell it at a price that will ;£ 1,869,43 5 ; and cheese 118,837 cwt — the

le them after all expenses to realize a payment ;C337,5ii. The value of butter per

actory margin of profit Probably all cwt this year was, roundly speaking, abotit

causes operate in a greater or less ;£5, 9s. ; in the same period of 1872, £^^ 6s.

le. The facts concerning preserved meat The expenditure for cheese per cwt up to

:orded in the returns are these : — four the end of April was £1 \ in the like term oi. *

hs ended April 1873, 62,267 cwt; four 1872 it was only £2^ 16s. 6d.
hs ended April 1872, 117,077 cwt. We have seen it noticed that in some parts

Ing a deficiency of no less than 54,810 of the country on account of high wages and

We paid this year for the " tinned " the dictatorial terms of labourers that farmers

;^i77,54o> i^ the corresponding term are thinking to throw down their land into

;t year ;^3o6,9o6, the apparent difference grass. The figures we have quoted shew that

r favour being this ;:^ 129,366. But let dairy farming properly conducted might not

^re the cost per cwt, this year and last, after all be a bad speculation,
see whether we are gainers in the For the first time since the close of the

ictions so far as they have gone or not. Franco-German war a decrease in the number

re losers by 4s. 6d. per cwt, as we paid of imported eggs appears. Last month there

yrear ;^2, 17s. while up to the end of was only 736,147 great hundreds imported as

1872 the cost of this commodity was against 813,212 in 1872. In the four months,

;^2, i2s. 6d. however, there was an. increase, the statistics

e quantity of pork we received was less shewing that we received 1,879,833 great

in the first third of last year, and the hundreds to compare with 1,727,853. Making

y paid less. For fresh and salted pork it less technical and perhaps more

YOU X. E£

41 8 The Country Getttleman's Magazine

ing, we have in the first portion of this year pended upon it this year being ;£2,33o,7

imported no fewer than 225,579,960 eggs as last year in the first four months, (

against 207,342,360 in the corresponding ;£8i3,539. The amount we have paid i

period of last year. Up to the present time, gether for " bread stuffs " in the third of

therefore, each man, woman, and child in the year is ;£i5,27o,476, last, ;£i2,863,2i5.

United Kingdom has breakfasted on seven The following tables shew the quantitic

foreign eggs ; last year they were limited to corn received, the countries from whence t

6yi per head. The total amount we paid for came, and the values : —

eggs up to the end of April last was £^^0,^2$*, quantities.

in 1872 the sum was ;:^686,999. For a great Four Months FourMc

hundred of 120 we this year paid 8s. lod., ^^^.q^P"^ ^^^£:

' * 30, 1872. 30, 107;

last, only 7s. 5d. Is it possible that we can Wheat. Cwt. Cwt.

urge more in favour of poultry-husbandry ? ^^^^^ 6,592,426 • 4.002,8;

rri* r* 1* ^ijj ^ J Denmark 46,000 204,12

Takmg foreign live stock, dead meat, and ^ *Z^\,«^ oTTq,

J . J I ., J J . Germany 775i725 874,8)

dairy produce together, we expended up to France 59,792 1,064,1c

the end of April this year ;;^7,935,858 — over Austrian Territories ... 2,641 i^^

a million sterling more than in the cor- Turkey, Wallachia, ) 282 oci ococ

J. ^ r n 1 xi • and Moldavia \ tyjo yjt^^

responding term of 1872, when the precise ^^^^ ' ^^^^^^^ ^^^^.

sum disbursed was ;^6,933,823. We do not United States 1,891,316 4,279.8:

say that this is too much under the present Chili 338,561 403,3:

system of land holding; we think it is too British North America 77.589 i9,a

much if a chance was given to skiUed farmers ^^^^^ Countries '68,147 812 ,83

to make the most out of their land. Total 11,030,200 12,296,0$

Our exports of wheat both in the month value.

and four months were greater than they were Russia jf3»768,779 £2^ 476,41

in the like periods of last year. England, we Denmark 29, 542 1 37» '5

have been told, is the granary of the world— Germany 5 1 2, 164 610,98

and we believe it. That is no reason why a^^?^-^ "^""'": ^?*S! L'w

^ Austnan Territones ... if004 lo^ic

our granaries should not be filled at less cost Turkey, Wallachia, ) .g

than they now are. Why not have more and Moldavia J ^^* ' 5^^

com of our own and less from foreign ^^ypt 404*125 275,38

^ • •% -K/r xjT \.- 1. r. • United States 1,203,216 2,851,71

countries? Mr Mechi has often given us ^.^^. '220^^1 252,15

good hints as to how we could increase the British North America 50,733 14,01

productiveness of the soil, and they have Other Countries 105,189 546,2c

been taken advantage of to some extent -, ^ , 77"^ 72 "TTTI

T^ • .U C .U U ^ J ^^^^^ ;f 6,480,986 ;f 7.906, 7a

During the four months we have imported

12,296,089 cwt. of wheat, upwards of quantities.

t/ -ii- . • , J- FourMonths Four Men

i^ million more than in the corresponding ended April ended Ap

period of the preceding year. The amount ^Cwt^^^ ^C t^^^

we paid was ;C7,9o6>726, as against Barley 5,180,436 4,342,674

;t6,48o,986. For barley, oats, peas, beans, Oats 3»22S,855 2,796,694

and Indian com, our expenditure was less. ^^^^ ^S^AH 344f973

The total sum we paid for these various ^^j^'corn'or \ ''"^^^^^ ^^^^^

commodities was ;£5,042,992, in the same Maize J 5»oS4i669 4t^5>39<^

lX)rtion of last year the amount disbursed value.

was ;C5j568,69o. The deficiency is notice- Barley ;f2,o43,728 ^1,897,270

able on every article, except peas, on which Oats i,i75»832 1,069,939

there is an increase reported of more than ^^^ 66,359 i49f538

one-half. The value of wheat meal and flour ^ ^!'' ";:•„;•••• , ^^^'^^^ 3^"^^^

Indian Lorn or / «. _ ^r _ -«_ ^ ^

hasahnost trebled itself, the amount we ex- Maize J '»*5o»*4o hbSStJio

Import and Export of Agricultural Commodities

4i§

QUANTITIES,

Four Months
ended April
30, 1872.
Wheat Meal, and Flour. Cwt.

Germany 3i7i3i8

France 114,010

United States 181,265

British North America 930

Other Countries 289,277

Total 902,800

VALUE.

Germany ;^289,26i

France 106,065

United States I37t2i8

British North America 819

Other Countries 280,176

Four Months
ended April
30, 1873.
Cwt.

319,557
1,244,232

280,731

7,368
601,120

2,453,008

jf3»3,869
1,181,563

• 251.774
6,860

576,692

Total ;f8i3,539 £2,330,758

The failure of the potato crop in our own
country last season gave foreign growers a
chance which it is to be hoped they will not
soon have again. The importations this year
have been much in excess of what they have
ever been. Up to the end of last month
4»8o4,558 cwt. had been received, while in
1872 the total supply in the same period
amounted only to 342,662 cwt. We paid for
these potatoes ;^i,3i4,o30] last year in the
like term our expenditure was only ;£'79,345.
In spite of the •excessive importations the
price per cwt. was this year higher than last,
for we paid at the rate of 5s. 6d. per cwt.,
while last year 4s. 4d. per cwt would buy the
small quantity we received. As the breadth
of potatoes planted this year in the principal
potato-growing districts, on account of want
of good seed and disadvantageous weather,
will be limited, we can scarcely expect that
the imports of foreign potatoes will subside
to their normal condition next year, but under
favourable circumstances they will be less
than they are this.

Turning to the manurial substances we
find that the receipts of bones have diminished
nearly one-third in the month, and in the
four about one-half, the total quantity we re-
ceived up to the end of April being 17,547
tons, while in the like term of 1872 we im-
ported 32,226^ This article is not at a dis-
count in the market, but there is difficulty in
procuring it Guano is reaching us in larger
quantities. In the month we had iS»448

tons against 4759 ; and in the four months
56,676 tons to compare with 30,202 tons.
The cost this year was ^648,562 ; last year
in the same space of time, ^275,505. The
latter figures do not seem to us to be quite
accurate, as we do not remember guano being
^9 per ton, as the quantity and the value
would seem to indicate it was in the first part
of last year. This year it is about £^1 1, 9s.
per ton. Nitrate of soda came in larger
quantities in the four months, the imports
being 731,099 cwt against 633,069, and the
respective costs ;^576,25i and ^5i2iS54-

Of oil-seed cakes we imported a less quan-
tity than in the preceding year, the price per
ton remaining about much the same. With
slightly larger supplies of cotton-seed our ex-
penditure was less by nearly ;:^So,ooo. For
flax-seed and linseed the demand was much
more moderate, and in rape a marvellous
decline is noticeable — not a fifth of last year's
supply up to April having been forthcoming.
There was a diminution also in clover and
grass seeds, and the same remark applies to
hops.

It will be seen from the tables we give be-
low that there was also a decrease in the im-
ports of wool, " countries in Europe " and
" other countries " being the defaulters. The
following table shews the quantities of wool
we received, the places whence we received
the article, and its value : —

QUANTITIES.

Four Months Four Months
ended April ended April
30, 1872. 30, 1873.

Wool, Sheep, and Lambs. lb. lb.

From Countries in Europe 12,692,032 9,915*034
„ British Possessions

in South Africa 11,975,491 11,989,880

„ British India 7,187,742 5,628,406

„ Australia 86,171,921 92,630,863

,, Other Countries ... 12,316,044 9,367,088

Total I30»343.230 129,531,271

VALUE.

From Countries in Europe ;f 745*036 ;^568,5I4
British Possessions

British India 310,173 252,790

Australia 5,425,185 5,7<H«9^

Other Countries ... 563,959 428,927

»»

f»

»•

Total ,£7,784.303 ;C7,774.5;

420 The Country Gcntlanan's Magashu

Our creditor account for agricultural pro- specially noticeable in the exports to the

duce is growing "small by degrees and beau- United States.

tifully less," which is a matter to be rejoiced Subjoined, we give statistics of quantities

at rather than grieved over, as it indicates and values : —

that we are appreciating our own butter, and ntities

cheese, and horse-flesh, and wool, more than „ ' , „ ^. ^

' , U • /. , Four Months Four Months

we were wont to do. Our receipts for butter ended April ended April

of our own manufacture, exported during the 30, 1872. 30, 1873.

past four months amounted to ;^63,i73 ; in ^^^\ Sheep, and Lambs. lb. lb.

the corresponding period of 1872 it reached '^° Germany 850,347 642,386

/- 0, >-.! i_ , • /• ^ II Belgium 726,700 257,916

^92,865. Cheese brought us m ^^26,395, ^^ p^^^^^ 3^^^^^ ^6.290

as against ;^26,903. This year it was higher ,, United States 1,260,249 277,215

in value than last. The necessity for horses „ Other Countries 392,430 202,426

at home is limiting the supply to the Con-

tinent The number exported during the last '^^^^ 3.609,266 i,436.*33

four months was 728, in the like term of value.

^^72, 995. The amount paid for the lot To Germany £lo,ifiS ;f54i977

sent away up to the end of April was ;^4i,3 20, 1, Belgium 63,880 23,883

or an average of ;^5 6, 15s. each. Last year, »» France 30i578 4.633

• ..u *• \t /• - .. United States 93,oii 20^763

m the same time the average was ;^55, los. '^' ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^JgJ

There is a vast falling off m the quantity -

of wool exported, the diminution being Total .. ;f 297, 126 " 1^121,043

TJu Country Gentleman* s Magazine

421

^kc Jfarm.

TURNIP CULTIVATION.

By Dr Garden.*

THE soils most suitable to the growth of
the turnip, mechanically considered,
are those of a friable and loamy character,
as they are more easily reduced to a fine
mould or tilth than those which chiefly
abound in clay. While the former soils are
mechanically best adapted for being brought
into a finely pulverized state, which is abso-
lutely necessary for the healthy germination
and growth of the infant plant, some other
soils of a more tenacious nature may contain
as much, or more, of the chemical elements
necessary to promote its healthy growth and
mature development Much has been done
within the last twenty or thirty years to in-
crease the range of turnip soils, by the use
of furrow drainage and deep cultivation ; but
very much in that way yet remains to be ac-
complished. As yet we are confined to
horse-power, at least in this district, for deep
cultivation ; but we trust the time is not far
distant when we shall be able to enlist in our
service the power of steam, not only to break
open the irony pan existing in many of our
cultivated fields, but also to enable us to cul-
tivate all soils capable of such cultivation to
a much greater depth than we are at present
able to accomplish by horse-power. No
doubt, the depth to which we can loosen the
soil is limited in many cases by natural
causes, such as a rocky subsoil ; but in most
of our fields the depth of the soil and its
crop-bearing capabilities can be materially in-
creased by deep cultivation, conjoined, where
necessary, with efficient drainage. Weknowthat
the roots of most of our grain-bearing plants and
grasses go very deep into the soil, when it is

* Read before the Vale of Alford Taniip-Growing
Association.

of such a nature as to permit their roots and
rootlets to penetrate it, and that they take up
many of their inorganic constituents from
thence, and store them up as necessary parts
of their substance, to be afterwards consumed
by our cattle, and built up into their bones
and flesh. When we add to the depth of the
soil by deep cultivation, though we do not
increase the superficial area of our farms, we
add very considerably to the cubic volume of
soil capable of supplying food to the plants
which grow on it, and may thus, to a very
great extent, increase its produce. To no
crop is deep cultivation of more importance
than to the turnip, the roots of which, when
the soil is suitable and pervious, often pene-
trate to the depth of betwixt two and three
feet. Having secured, where practicable, a
good depth of soil, the next thing to be at-
tended to is to have it thoroughly cleared of
weeds, and brought into a fine state of division,
commonly called a fine mould or tilth. This
can only be attained by the use of proper im-
plements at the right season, when the land
is in a dry state — ^avoiding all ploughing,
grubbing, harrowing, or rolling when the
ground is wet, when, instead of effecting the
objects in view, these operations consolidate
the soil still more, and prevent in it that free
circulation of air and water so necessary to
the growth of all plants. Of course, as is well
known to us all, the working of land in a wet
state will never enable a farmer to clear it of
weeds, which in all cases, is most important ;
but, on the contrary, when the soil contains
couch-grass (Triticum repens) or weeds of a
similar description, such an operation will
multiply them by dividing their roots without
severing their adherence to the soil.

422 The Country Gentleinafis Magazine

WHEN AND HOW TO APPLY MANURE. i6 lb.; phosphorfc acid, 50 lb.; sulphuric add,
The ground having been properly pre- 65 lb.; and chlorine, 80 lb. — in whole 500 Ibi
pared, the next thing to be attended to is a of inorganic materials. It must be observed
sufficient supply of proper manure, in such a that the turnip contains a small per-centageof
state of division and solubility as to be readily these substances— only 500 lb. per acre of 20
taken up and assimilated by the roots and tons ; but it must be taken into account that
rootlets of the plant as soon as the seed has the turnip bulb, on an average, contains about
germinated, and sent them down into the 90^^ per cent of water ; of nitrogenous sub-
soil in search of nourishment. It must be stances capable of producing fleshy about i)i
obvious to every one, when he takes into per cent; of non-nitrogenous matters fitted
account the smallest of the turnip seed — to support respiration, and keep up the ani-
probably weighing one twenty-fifth of a grain mal heat, as well as to lay on fat, about 7 per
—and the weight which a fair-sized turnip cent; and of inorganic matter or ash, about i
. attains when at maturity — let us say 6 lb., or per cent From this you will see that it is
one million times the weight of the seed — out of the one per cent of the whole weight
that the plant must have a ready supply of of the bulb that the 500 lb. of inorganic
all the materials necessary for its growth and matter is derived. When we have abundance
development And, when we consider that of farmyard manure of good quality, we can
the turnip arrives at maturity in litde more supply, not only the nitrogen in the form of
than five months from the time the seed had ammonia, but also all the inorganic constitn-
been put into the ground, we shall not be ents required for the crop ; but the fannyaid
surprised that it should require a ready and manure does not in general contain them in
abundant supply of plant food, but we must a sufficiently soluble state for the requirements
also see that such food must be in a soluble of the infant plant, and consequently we most
state, ready to be taken up by the roots, supply this deficiency by using extraneous
The enormous increase of the plant from the manures in a state ready for its use. Farmyard
small seed to the full developed turnip must manure varies very much in its composition,
be obtained through the agency of its roots according to the substances on which the
and leaves. The roots go down into the cattle producing it have been fed, as well as
soil and select and absorb from it, and from on the degree of decomposition which it has
the manures supplied to the crop, the various undergone. On an average, it contains about
substances necessary for the growth of the 75 percent of water; about i percent of
plant — more particularly the substances ammonia ; about i per cent of phosphate of
composing its inorganic part — in a lime ; and about y^ per cent of potash. Such
soluble state, which, by some chemical extraneous manures should contain ammonia,
power of action, it changes and assimilates phosphate of lime, and potash, more partir
to build up its structure. Along with nitrogen cularly the two first, in order to secure, at
in the form of ammonia, there are other sub- once, a vigorous growth, which is of the
stances of an inorganic nature equally esscn- greatest importance in the earlier stages to
tial to the healthy growth and development enable the plant to resist the ravages of Ac
of the turnip, such as potash, soda, lime, mag- turnip-beetle to which it is so liable to b^
nesia, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, car- come a prey. To supply phosphate of lime
bonic acid, silica, chlorine, and oxide of iron, we have a ready resource in dissolved bones
most of which exist in the soil in sufficient or superphosphate of lime, but we much
abundance, with the exception of two or three prefer the former, if pure, and properly dis-
— phosphoric acid and potash chiefly. In a solved. To supply ammonia, as well as
crop of 20 tons to the acre, the following are phosphate of lime and potash, we have Pen-
about the quantities of these substances en- vian and other guanos, containing a consider-
^'^ring into its composition, namely, potash, able per-centage of ammonia ; and should the
1^ ; soda, 28 lb.; lime, 116 lb.; magnesia, supply of farmyard manure be very smalli

Turnip Cultivation 423

we have the recently-introduced substance after treatment.

called Kainit, to supplement any deficiency The after culture is well known to us all

of potash. With a fair supply of good farm- All weeds should be kept down on the surface

yard manure— say from 10 to 14 tons to the of the drills as well as in the intermediate

acre— we consider ihe following proportions spaces, and the soil should be kept friable by

of extraneous manures to be sufficient for frequent hoeing and harrowing, care being

raising a fair crop of turnips, viz.:— 2 cwt. taken never to perform either of these opera-

of dissolved bones, and i cwt. of guano, well tions when the land is wet, as it would prove

pulverized and mixed, and allowed to remain very injurious by closing the pores of the soil.

in that state for a few weeks before being used, As to the distances betwixt the plants, we are

to allow any free acid in the dissolved bones of opinion that, from 9 to 10 inches for com-

to fix the ammonia in the guano. Of course, mon turnips, and from 1 1 to 1 2 inches for

where the farmyard manure does not amount Swedish, is about the proper average. With

to a fair supply of that 'fertilizing material, a drills 27 inches from centre to centre, the

much larger quantity of extraneous manures following is the weight of turnips per acre at

must be used, according to circumstances. 9, 10, n, and 12 inches apart, the average

SELECTING THE SEED. ^€\^\. of the tumips being ascertained :—

The ground having been properly pre- DUtanceof Area occupied Number of Weight of WdghU

pared, manured, and the drills closed, the ^^"'^ by Plants. PUuu.
seed should be sown in sufficient quantity —

not less than 3 or 4 lb. to the acre — for com- 9 inches 243 sq. inches 25,813
mon tumips, and a pound or two more for

Swedish, the seed being larger. The sowing 10 ,',' ^o ',', 23,232
should be made immediately after the drills
have been closed. Great care should be
taken in the selection of seed ; in fact, it is
nearly impossible to make sure of its quality
when purchased; and, on that account, it
would be well that every farmer should raise
at least a great proportion of seed for his own
use, taking care to have fresh bulbs or seed In most soils it is necessary that the crop
from a distance every two or three years, to should be furred up after the cleaning has
prevent degeneration. In selecting bulbs for been completed. We consider this operation
seed, the following points* should be carefully very important for two reasons. It not only
attended to, namely — That they are pure of allows the water to run off in wet weather,
the variety wished to be grown ; that the bulb instead of stagnating about the bulbs, but it
be uninjured, symmetrical in shape, whether also creates a free circulation of air amongst
globular or oblong, and free from lateral root- the leaves, which is absolutely necessary when
lets ; that the head be well-developed, and we recollect that the turnip draws a very
the neck small, and in the centre of the large — in fact the largest — ^proportion of its
crown of the bulb ; and that the tap-root be substance from the atmosphere, in the form
single, and finely drawn from the end. The of carbonic acid gas, which is taken up by
ground on which the seed tumips are to be the leaves, the carbon bemg retained to
planted, should be properly manured. Great build up the plant while the oxygen is re-
care should also be taken in growing seed to tumed to the air. The tumip also derives a
keep the different varieties as far from each good deal of its nitrogen from the atmosphere
other as possible, otherwise they will become in the form of ammonia and nitric acid,
hybridized through the fertilizing agency of brought down to it in solution in the showers
bees. which supply it with water.

%% If II II

•I II II 11

11 ,1 296 ., 21.120
•I II •• II

II II 11 If

12 11 i« II II

•I II 11 11

II II II II

lanu

\. per

Acre.

Lbs.

Tons Cwt.

23 I

34 "5^

46 2

20 14

31 I

41 8

18 17K

28 5

37 MM

25 18 V

34 "

424 The Coimtry Gentlematis Magazine

INCREASING THE PRODUCE. the cells being the determining element

Let us briefly notice the way in which the such results ; 2d, That there is no consta

objects of this Association may be best at- relation between the specific gravity of) ai

tained in ascertaining the best crop. Of the nitrogen contained in the bulb j and 5

course, the best crop means the crop which That such relation does exist between tl

affords the greatest amount of flesh and fat specific gravity of the expressed juice andtl

producing materials in each acre. The nitrogen compounds and solid constituent

question comes to be, " Does the absolute consequently, we may rely upon that as 1

weight, or the specific gravity, of the turnip indication of the feeding value of the seva

indicate the real nutritive value of the crop?" varieties tested." But, in such an assoc

It has been found by experiment that neither tion as the Vale of Alford Turnip Growii

the one nor the other aflbrds a certain indica* Association, it is impossible to adopt ai

tion of the nutritive value. In experiment- other test than that of weight, though it is c

ing on the expressed juices of the bulbs, how- opinion that other elements should also

ever, more satisfactory results have been ob- taken into account, such as thorough deani

tained, Dr Anderson, the chemist of the of the ground and leaving the plants at eqi

Highland and Agricultural Society, states, as distances from each other, with few blani

the results of many experiments and analyses Uniform, or nearly uniform, size should a]

— " I St, That the specific gravity of the whole form a distinguishing element, as indicati

turnip cannot be accepted as indicating its an equal and proper division of the mani

real nutritive value, the proportion of air in used.

THE ECONOMY OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES.

A MEETING of the members of the so that none of these will be carried away

Agricultural and Horticultural (Co- the water that, after percolating the soil, pasi

operative) Association, was held on Monday into the drain-pipes or the subsoil T

last, at Westminster, when a paper upon the soil has, however, no such power of retaini

above subject was read by Mr C. G. Roberts, nitrates. We should therefore be care;

hon. secretary to the Royal Agricultural Col- never to apply nitrate of soda to land that

lege Club, Cirencester. Mr T. Hughes, saturated with moisture, and in.general shou

M.P., occupied the chair, and in opening the not apply it freely until the soil is dry or t

proceedings, he dwelt upon the paramount plants are in such an active state

importance to the farmer of a knowledge of growth that they can seize upon it befc

chemistry. In noticing the death of Liebig, the rain washes it down out of their reac

Mr Hughes remarked that all would hear the In a lesser degree the same precautions s

announcement with the deepest sorrow, in- required in using sulphate of ammonia a

asmuch as he was one of the greatest agri- guano. If either of tiiese are applied btK

cultural benefactors that ever lived. Mr to young wheat in autumn, and a wet win

Hughes then introduced Mr Roberts to the should follow, much of their nitrogen will

meeting. We give as follow the salient converted into nitrates, and thus be earn

points of the lecture delivered by Mr down and lost to the crop. I think, wt

Roberts : — we wish to use these manures for wheat, il

The investigations of Way and Thompson best to apply only a small dressing in autao

have proved that most soils have the power reserving the rest till the plants begin tk

^^^etaining potash, phosphates, and ammonia, spring growth. The experiments of

The Economy of Artificial Manures

42s

s, at Rothamstead, shew very clearly
nitrate of soda, when applied freely to
lixed herbage of a meadow, so greatly
ases the growth of the true grasses that

will, in time, completely smother and
oy the clovers and most of the other
s usually found in meadow hay. In a
ir way nitrate of soda has a specially
ilating action upon all our grain
;, and, from its quick action and great
•ility, it may be successfully applied far
in the year than any other manure. I
a singular instance of this seven years
on taking a farm that had been for many

much neglected. In afield that looked
irately clean, oats were sown late in
:h, and grass seeds in April Imme-
ly after there was a great growth of char-
and other weeds that soon threatened
oke the [young oats. Going over the
in May with the former owner, this field
:d so bad that he told me I had lost my

for though great numbers of weeds had
pulled by hand the rest remained
3rs of the situation. Having great faith
Tate of soda, I gave the field \% cwt
Lcre on the 12th of May. The effect
marvellous : the whole benefit of the
ing seemed to go to the oats and none
to the weeds, the grain shot up rank and
g, soon topped the charlock and pre-
id its seeding, so that at harvest-time the
was well covered with a full and clean
As nitrate of soda contains but one
le food constituents of plants, it is dan-
is to use it ?ilone on poor land ; unless
►hosphates required for the grain are sup-
, either materially from the soil or arti-
ly by other manures, we shall obtain
I straw and but little com. Sulphate of

ammonia and guano, when used for spring
com should be applied at the time of sowing
the seed. A part of the nitrogen in guano is
in the form of fi-ee ammonia,, and will be
volatilized if it is sown late and left long on
the surface before it is washed in by rain.
Potash salts and common salts are not liable
to be washed out of the soil, and niay be
applied at any time, but are apt to produce
an objectionable cmst on some soils if sown
late in the season in large quantities. Phos-
phatic manures generally are not so quick in
their action as those containing nitrogen ; we
should, therefore, sow them with the seed, or,
when used for grass or growing wheat, apply
them before the end of Febmary, so that
they shall reach the roots before the first
spring growth commences. I fear we many
of us apply our top- dressings too late in the
spring, and do not give the plants a fair
chance of making full use of the manure.
The soil and climate must greatly influence
our choice and use of manures. To those
who think of applying top-dressings to un-
drained clays the best advice that can be
given is PuncKs advice to people about to
marry, for though the soil has power to re-
tain most of the fertilizers contained in water
that passes through it, it has no power to
abstract them firom water that flows down
the furrows over its surface. In a dry
climate, and where crops ripen early, heavy
dressings of nitrogenous manures can often
be used profitably, but they should seldom
be used alone where the harvest is generally
late and diflicult. Phosphatic manures ac-
celerate, while the nitrogenous retard the
ripening process.

A short discussion followed the reading of
the paper.

426

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

COMPARATIVE TRIALS OF ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZ

By Professor Tanner.

THE experiments which have been car-
ried out for the purpose of deter-
mining the action and value of fertilizers are
not only very numerous, but represent a vast
amount of personal labour and expense. The
data which have been obtained from these
experiments cannot be looked upon as afford-
ing conclusive or even satisfactory evidence.
The practical experience which has been
gained is of a very restricted character, and
although it has a certain local value, yet it is
still acknowledged to be indefinite and un-
certain when its more general application is
attempted. There is a want of harmony in
the views entertained in the laboratory, in the
manufactory, and in the field ; although in
each case there is a sincere and genuine de-
sire for the truth. As a necessary conse-
quence, although certain general principles
have been accepted, and under certain con-
ditions and circumstances are probably cor-
rect, still it may be safely affirmed that the
principles which should regulate the produc-
tion and the employment of fertilizers are
vague and indefinite.

SOIL AND CLIMATE IN CONNEXION WITH

TRIALS.

In obtaining an accurate analysis of any
soil for agricultural purposes, it is necessary
to isolate that which is absolutely the avail-
able matter of the soil, for this alone repre-
sents what is at command for the next crop ;
but inasmuch as more than this available
matter is usually extracted from the soil for
the purpose of analysis, we have a result
which embraces much which will not come
into use until future years arrive. With scru-
pulous care, by far the greater portion of the
fertilizing matter of the soil is, as it were,
locked up in the land, a safe provision for
many future years, and only a very small por-

* Read before the Royal Dublin Society.

tion is available for immediate u

culation which embodies more

available is likely to mislead, ai

is isolated, and definitely estims

mical analysis of any soil cani

upon for indicating the deficien

to be supplied. In the varyin

powers of the soil we have ani

ingly important agency which ha

disregarded. This power of ho)

has been shewn to be largely, if

dependent upon the condition

constituents of the soil, whi

definite chemical action to

whereby various fertilizing

held until taken up by vege

physical character of the soil

attention, for it also plays an im

especially in relation to the

climate, for the one largely modif

of the other. Take, for examp

ence between a close and retet

in a wet climate, and a porous

the same district, and it will be

these soils must differ materi

purposes of agriculture, and, cor

the advantageous employment oi

lizing materials. The influence

another agency which in praci

its full influence, however much

regard it, in our calculations.

the soil and the manure brouj

action, but the growing crop

affected by the climatic influen

it may be subjected. We are, tl

pelled to give particular attenti

fluence of climate in forming ai

as to the value of a manure.

of the seed, in connexion witl

mental trials of manures, has be

very much disregarded, and yet

that it has a greater influence (

than the quality of the manure i

Comparative Trials of A rtificial Fertilizers 427

tion has been too exclusively given to tiie firmation of these views, if we notice the de-
food supplied rather than to the capabilities scription of soil on which superphosphates
of the plant for making use of that food, give their most satisfactory results. It is,
We recognize this influence in animal life, with scarcely an exception, on soils in which
and carefully secure in our improved breeds there is carbonate of lime present Now, we
of stock those special tendencies which most know, as a matter of fact that when the
perfectly utilize the food we give. We know rapidly soluble form of phosphate of lime
that the food we employ can be more or less is added to such soils it almost im-
economically utilized, just in proportion as mediately " goes back " in the form
we regard or disregard those conditions of life of the slowly soluble phosphate of lime,
which influence and control the desired re- and its work is characterized by a steadi-
suit We do not content ourselves by testing ness of action which is not observable under
one kind of food against another regardless any other circumstances. Under certain con*
of the capabilities of the living structure by ditions of soil and climate, we shall doubtless
which the work has to be done. find it desirable to carry forward the manu-
facture as at present : but it may be stated,
VALUE OF PROPERLY ORGANIZED ANALYSES. ^^^ ^^^^ Confidence, that. Under other dr-

The production of a heavy weight of highly cumstances, this will not be done. This,
nutritious bulbs is the object to be attained however, can only be determined by a series
in the successful culture of our root crops, of careful experiments in the field. Embodied
We do not desire to see a rapid and high- in this question there is an annual saving for
pressure growth in the early stages, which the manufacturers supplying the United King-
rushes the crop into mildew when the first dom of from ;£i 00,000 to ;^20o,ooo, and for
check arises, but a steady and continuous the consumer probably four or five times that
development of the crop, and more par- amount It is, therefore, a very serious and
ticularly so in the finishing stage of the plant's important matter for both parties. That
growth, when the cells are being stored with there are difficulties connected with the esti-
the most nutritious food. If the manure and mation of these " reduced" superphosphates
seed both favour an excessively rapid growth, no one for a moment doubts ; but difficulties,
there is not sufficient time for tiie cells to be when they are discovered, receive but one
firmly constructed, and it often happens that treatment— they are surmounted. To carry
before they can be filled with the nutritious forward the manufacture beyond what is, in
food for which they were destined, decay the opmion of the maker and the buyer, most
commences, and the feeding value of the crop desirable, simply to meet the present accepted
is excessively small Here is the striking mode of estimating the value of superphos-
difference between the action of a phosphate phates, is so manifestly against public in-
of lime which is rapidly soluble, as distin- terests, that when the truth is recognized the
guished from that other form which is more practice must cease. It is also worthy of
slowly soluble, and which, while fast enough, comment, that although we have drifted into
is not too fast Now, it cannot be too dis- the employment of one class of phosphates,
tinctly suted that the present mode of esti- vi2., phosphates of lime, there is no reason
mating the value of superphosphates has to believe that other phosphates are devoid
acted most unfairly on the best manufac- of value, and yet they have been absolutely
turers, and has practically compelled them, neglected ; here again is a fine field for ex-
against their better judgment, to go in perimental research,
for what may be termed "racing" super-
phosphates, which analyze well The loss experimental stations.

these " reduced " superphosphates are sup- In the judicious combination of manures

posed to have sustained is really their special we have scope for the exercise of the highest

excellence. We have, also, a singular con- ability, with every prospect of increased ad*

428 The Country Gentleinaiis Magazine

vantage and economy. It must, however, character of these soils to be examinee

be admitted that whilst we have such indefi- peculiarities of climate recorded by met

nite views as to the most economical employ- logical observations, the manure and

ment of individual fertilizers, that we are still employed to possess an unifonnity of

more deficient in that knowledge which racter, the cultivation to be carried 01

should regulate their combined use. Enough, approximately as circumstances permit,

however, is known to afford proof that when the produce weighed, and its quality <!

such information has been acquired, it will mined. With a view to simplify the a

be of the highest value. And, finally, it of operations, it is proposed, in the fire

should be borne in mind that in estimating stance, to limit the fertilizers used to

the produce obtained fi*om any fertilizer, we class, viz., phosphates of lime, and to so

have not simply to regard the weight of the them in various degrees of solubility, so 1

product, but its quality. We commonly hear determine the laws which regulate

of certain fertilizers producing 30, 40, or 50 action of this description of manure \

tons of roots per acre, as if these weights in- various soils and under different cc

dicated the result, whereas farmers know per- tions of climate. By the adoption

fectly well that the feeding powers of the this course of procedure the numbe(

lesser weight (30 tons per acre) may be of variable conditions will be diminished, foi

more value than those possessed by the cultivation, the manure, and the seed at (

greater weight (50 tons per acre) ; and if so, station will be as nearly alike as poss

the order of merit may be exactly reversed. The soil and the climate will then remai

The object to be attained is not simply the variable conditions, and these will be

production of the greatest weight inde- amined, observed, and recorded, so that I

pendent of quality, but the production respective influences may be determii

of the largest quantity of the most When the experimental trials have fairly i

nutritious matter. The more important cated the special peculiarities of the p

agencies which influence experimental trials phates of lime, other fertilizers may b? tie

of fertilizers have thus been rapidly glanced in a similar manner, and their respective

at ; and it will be evident to any one ac- fluences determined. In this way it is an

quainted with the experiments which have pated that whilst practical agriculturists

hitherto been carried out, that these con- have the fullest opportunity of forming 1

ditions have rarely received that atten- own opinions by these trials in the field, tl

tion which they demand. We have in who seek to deduce fi-om these experim<

fact a series of conditions to deal with, trials the principles which regulate the ac

of the most variable and inconstant of fertilizers will have full scope for sciei

character, and this difficulty has been in- research. The subject with which we

creased by the fact that few experiments, if dealing is by no means one of little prac

any, have been carried out under circum- importance ; it is calculated greatly to \

stances which admit of a proper comparison fit the commercial success of the manufac

being instituted. It is to meet this difficulty of artificial manures ; it deeply affects th

that it has been suggested that experiments terests of every cultivator of the soil,

should be carried out in this country, under consequently every owner of land ; it!

an arrangement which shall admit of the re- fluence on the prosperity of the agricul

suits being strictly comparable. It has been community is not to be calculated by t

proposed to select a series of stations in dif- sands of pounds annually, but by mill

ferent parts of Ireland, so that each geological and it opens up a very extensive field f(

formation and each variety of soil shall be search for men of every branch of agricu

operated upon, the chemical and physical science.

Tlu Country GentUmaiis Magazine 429

THE BREEDS FOR BEEF OR MILK.

the eastern and middle States of duce is a calf each year, and this is not of
America, cattle are raised for both milk sufficient value to pay the expense of a year's
eef, but more for milk than beef. In keep, and they must be made into beef. A
eater portion of the western and south- dairyman or milkmaker keeps all good milk-
rn States they are raised more generally ing cows until they are nearly worn out —
sef, though milk is to some extent a until they are ten or twelve years old or up-
ieration. Throughout the West are wards. For his purposes their milk-produc-
1, says a correspondent of the Albany ing capacities should be cultivated to
try Gentleman^ among all the large herds, the highest point, and they should be
loni bulls, and the Texas cows have bred from the best milking stock. High-
bred to shorthorn bulls to such an ex- bred cov/s of the beef-making families
hat some of the large herds shew a con- do not, at their best, produce more than 10
ible amount of blood. As there is no or 1 2 quarts of milk per day, while the best
ing in these large herds, milk is of no milkers produce more than 30 quarts. From
jquence, provided each cow supplies the milk of the best specimens of cows of the
5h to raise her calf. As the Texas cattle beefing families, not 6 lb. of butter can be
I on the western prairies and plains are produced in a week, while 20 lb. can be pro-
i, and possess no great inclination to duced from the best milkers in some of the
on flesh, and as beef is what is sought, best weeks. It must seem clear that the
:ross with the shorthorn must produce beef-making breeds and the beef-making
: admirably adapted to the plains and families of the breeds in which are found both
es. But how is it with the dau-ying in- beefers and milkers of good quality, are not
;s of the middle and eastern States i* The adapted to the middle and eastern States,
iers of shorthorns, Devons, and Here- When it is considered that bulls from these
, who have attained distinction, have breeds have been extensively used among
for beef only ; they have so bred out cattle kept for milk rather than beef, it is not
lilk-producing capacities of their stock, too much to say that the high-bred herds of
their cows have hardly supplied suffi- beefing cattle in the middle and eastern

milk to rear their calves, and from States have been nuisances. Mixing these

breeders are procured the bulls used herds with the cemmon cattle of the country

large extent to improve the stock of has probably reduced the milk of the average

States. The choicest animals from the of cows from one-fourth to one-half. An or-

s of these breeders take all the premiums dinary cow, instead of producing some 6 lb.

le State and county fairs, and farmers of butter a- week, should produce from 9 to 1 2

lude that they must buy from them the lb. Cattle adapted to the dairying portion
als that are to improve their stock. If of the country will not be produced until

were mere beef-makers, this would be dairymen shall raise their own cows, and the

^ht. A genuine beef-maker keeps no practice shall be adopted of using no bulls

I until they are five years old, except a except those whose female ancestry has been

which are regarded as superior. The first-rate milkers, and no heifer shall be raised

5 are marketed at two,, three, or four except from the cows which have proved them-

; old. The heifers, while they produce selves to be superior milkers, and the heifers

f each year, and themselves increase in raised shall be so fed and treated as to culti-

are profitable ; but as soon as they have vate and improve the milk-producing organs,

heir growth, the only income they pro- Under this practice there can be as little diffi-

430

TJie Country Gentleman's Magazine

culty in increasing regularly the milk produced
as has been found in increasing the weight of
the sheep's fleece, or the speed of the trotting
horse. The breeds adapted to the beef-mak-
ing regions of the west and south-west are
found in the Galloways, the Herefords, the

Devons, and the beefing Durhams. The
breed adapted to the dairy regions ofthe
middle and eastern States may perhaps be
found in the Ayrshire, the Aldemey, or the
Holstein, but more probably is yet to be p^^
fected by the practice above suggested.

THE PRESENT ASPECT OF STEAM CULTIVATION.

By J. K. Fowler.

THE Present Aspect of Steam Cultiva-
tion is the title of the paper for discus-
sion to-night, and I find no little difficulty in
approaching the subject. Had it been a
paper on steam cultivation pure and simple,
and had this system been a novelty, great
interest might be created by the announce-
ment of a new motive-power in agriculture j
but the present aspect is a rather difficult
topic and requires grave deliberation, and in
the present state of threatened disorganiza-
tion into which some districts are thrown by
the labour question, it may have a practical
bearing which did not exist even a year ago.
Still, the principle of steam cultivation must
be one of the greatest possible interest, and I
will endeavour briefly to give you my ideas
on the subject of its present aspect. It is
well-known with what indomitable pluck and
skill such pioneers as Williams of Baydon,
Smith of Woolston, the late John Fowler,
James Howard of Bedford, and others have
followed out their own ideas, and we may
congratulate ourselves on the success which
has attended their efforts. I believe it is
seventeen years ago since Smith of Woolston
began to put in actual practice steam cultiva-
tion j and it is rather singular that he seems
to have jumped at once upon a system that
was most excellent in its results, and which
has been but little altered since the very com-
mencement — I mean by this, that the Roand-
about, in contradistinction to the Direct sys-
tem, is, with only a few simple improvements
*^ detail, essentially the same as when it first
«>"':ed ; and for some years the question was

considered, and was perhaps fairly so, in an
experimental stage; the ;^ s. d. and its
effects on the soil had not been demonstrated
Notwithstanding the advocacy of inventors^
backed perhaps too eagerly by the press,
steady- going practical men held alooC
Various improvements continued to be made,
and purchasers multiplied. Still, no vay
great steps, considering the vast extent of
our tillage, have been yet made towtols its
general adoption. It will be useless for me
to weary you with all the details of cost per
acre, cost of machinery and tackle, quanti^
done per diem and per annum, increase of
produce, depths of soil moved, &c.; are they
not chronicled by that chronicler of results,
Smith of Woolston, over and over again ? and
by the reports of the judges at the Wolver-
hampton Meeting and the Commissioners ap-
pointed by the Royal Agricultural Society of
England in their Journals, which enter into
every particular, even into the quantity of
earth moved per acre by each implement oa
trial? These statements are authoritadvelj
made and published in the Journal of the
Society, 1867, Part i. No. 5.

THE HIRING SYSTEM.

The question naturally divides itself !nt0
the hiring system and that of being, the
possessor of your own set of implenoentSy and|
considered commerciaUy, I will take the
hiring system first. Does it pay those who
hire? and does it pay those who let out
tackle ? With regard to those who hixe, I
believe it does pay them at a certain pric

Tlie Presmt Aspect of Steam Cultivatiofi 43 1

if they can get their land cultivated when they Nevertheless, from a statement I have from

want it ; but all want the soil moved at the Messrs Fowler, of Leeds^ it appears there

same time. I have had practical illustration must be success somewhere, for they say : —

of this in my own neighbourhood. Last year '* We are making about one hundred steam

I was smashing-up some heavy clay with my ploughs a year for the English market, and

old Smith tackle, and heard the beating of about fifty or sixty for foreign countries. They

three other engines besides my own close by are principally of the double-engine class,

me. I found one was a new set of Howard's About two-thirds of those sold in England are

Roundabout belonging to the occupier on an let out on hire, and one-third for private firms,

adjoining farm, and which was doing excel- Steam cultivation is very much retarded in

lent work. The others were two engines of this country, because little or nothing is done

Fowler's direct action on hire, breaking up to assist it in the shape of roads, enlargement

some strong land adjoining most admirably, of fields, &c, so as to make the farms more

I found they were engaged to cultivate 40 suitable for the use of steam power. We

acres at 15s. per acre once over, and 24s., enclose you an account of work done by one

besides coal and water, per acre twice over, of our ploughs last autumn on several farms

and were doing about 12 to 15 acres per near Magdeburg, in Germany."
day. Two other neighbours were waiting
for it, and one had 12 acres and the other ™e cost of steam cultivation.

had 20 acres done — the latter had taken an But now comes another point for considera-
additional farm of strong clay in a foul state, tion, viz., the cost : — The charge made for
and wished to break it up at once ; he could, cultivating once over on clay land is about
however, only get his 20 acres done, as the i6s. per acre, and twice over 24s. per acre,
machine was wanted elsewhere, by agreement, besides coal and water, and if the cost of the
and the result was he lost his season, having work for once over be 7 s. 6d., and the second
depended on it, and is now begging to get it time 4s. 6d., the hirer must then pay above
this spring — and there seems no chance of los. per acre more than the actual cost, so
his doing so, as the tackle is about 12 miles that if 100 acres are done he is paying ;^5o
distant, and the farmer who now has.it won't more than if he had his own tackle; but if
let it go till he has finished. These three 200 acres are cultivated, it follows he is pay-
farmers are now aU strugglmg for the first ing ;^ioo more, which would be about one-
offer next autumn, and each tells the owner third the cost of a set of Roundabout tackle,
of the tackle that if he does not have it in the But there is another feature in the case,
months of August or September he won't nearly all who own steam tackle are enabled
have it at all. This is what does happen, to dispense with three to five horses, accord-
and must happen constantly, by the hiring ing to their holdings ; but when they are de-
system. However friendly neighbours may pendent on hiring, this is impossible, as it is
be with each other, I can see looming in the always uncertain if they can get the apparatus
future as much ill-nature brooding amongst when wanted. If steam cultivation is to be
neighbours as the bother between them about thoroughly carried out to advantage, consider-
shooting game in the month of September, able alterations must be made in the arrange-
I am convinced that autumn is the most ad- menis on a farm. First of all, approaches
vantageous time for steam cultivation, es- to the various fields must be greatly improved,
pecially August and September, and this is Even if tracts or roadways are practicable!
admitted by all who have put the system into oftentimes gateways are too narrow, and im-
practice, and, most people feeling alike, all passable ; and where the large traction en-
wish for it at the same time — ^and many are gines are used, and with their heavy tackle,
apt to neglect work with horses, waiting the gateways must be widened, and the
for their turn, and are overtaken by bridges and culverts strengthened, or serious
bad weather, and so lose their chance, accidents will occur, like the one at Biggies-

432 The Country GentUmails Magazine

wade, Beds, where, on a public road, the my own practical knowledge

bridge gave way, and the man on the engine pare most favourable with h<

was killed. Proper sheds for storage of im- I have shewn, in a favoura

plements must be built, and above all things, can smash up i8o acres of i

necessary provision for water ; so that it is days. Let us see how many

most unwise for this outlay to be incurred on required to do the same wor

the mere chance of hiring a set of tackle place no horse-power with

when wanted. I should strongly recommend smash up strong land ten in<

every one who has 2co acres of strong arable I will assume that four horses

land to have his own set of implements, inches deep. You would wa

About eight years ago I bought a set of do tlie work in the time ; and

Smith's tackle, made by Messrs Howard, of much of the first cost of steai

Bedford, the cost of which, complete, was see what 24 strong horses at

about ;^25o. I worked it with a double would cost : put them at jQ^o

cylinder lo-horse engine, made by Hayes, of and six good ploughs and sL

Stoney Stratford ; and, until last year, when ness would make the amour

the wet weather beat me, it has smashed up ;;^iioo. Of course I am not

in the autumn about 160 acres of strong land, can do without horses on a fai

The cost per diem was as follows : i engine must be charged to ploughing j

man, 3s. 6d.; i windlass man, 2s. 6d. ; 2 into this train of thought by

anchor men, 4s. 6d. \ i on cultivator, 2s.; 2 objection made to the cost of j

lads, rope-porters, 2s. 6d.j i boy and water- and I have no hesitation in s

cart and horse, 3s. 6d. — total cost of labour, ^ ^^jm of 400 acres, with

i8s. 6d. Coals 11 cwt, 9s. 3d.; oil, &c., ploughed land, upwards of foi

IS.; beer, is. 6d. — total cost of materials, ^^ dispensed with if steam

IIS. 9d. Year's interest on ;^25o, 5 per "sed. I shall refer my hearers

cent. ;^i2, los., on thirty days, i6s. yd. of the various societies in confi

Total cost per day, £2, 6s. lod. ; and as the statements, and feel confident t

average, including removals, done was six ^^ ^^ nation has been immens

acres a-day, the first time over the cost would ^^^ ^^ susceptible of far great(

be 7s. 9d. per acre. It would appear that the steam cultivation, that the disir

total cost of cultivating twice over would be f'^rtility of the soil will be vas

about I2S. 6d. per acre at 10 inches deep. ^^^^ ^^^ intellect of the labour

It may be said, what about wear and tear? of the farmers too— will be large

Well, I bought my steel wire rope new seven ^^^ ^^ minds of our landlorc

years ago, and I believe the cost was £(io ; expanded by the beating of our 1

it has not cost me a shilling since, but I sup- ^^ ^^"^ ^°^^' ^^^^ ^lays.

pose it will in a year or two. I will assume impediments to the progri

it lasts two years longer. I think it will be culture.

worth £(, when done with. This will reduce Still further, as to the present

the cost to ;^54, or a loss of £(> per annum, notice ought to be given to moc

which, spread, over thirty days, is 4s. per day, ments in steam culture ; but 1:

or an additional 8d. per acre. I have also tion novelties, let me for a mora

taken my actual blacksmith^s biUs for seven one of the earliest adaptations i

years, and find they amount to Ia,^, 15s., or troduced by Smith, of Woolst

about £;i per annum. This will give about believe he abandoned for a ti

another 8d. per acre, or an additional is. 4d. again commenced, and which I

to the former statement of 7s. 9d., or 9s. id. recommend from having used ii

per acre for once over, and for the second four years. I mean the double

^'me over 5s. lod. These results are fi-om subsoiling plough. After the k

The Present Aspect of Steam Cultivation 433

manured in the autumn either for root crop to ;^5o a-piece, and ploughs, harrows, and
or beans, it is put to work and throws up a harness in proportion. Insecurity of tenure
ridge, which from the bottom of the soil is another hindrance, for at present I believe
moved to the crown is quite 14 inches, and no claim can be made for the increased value
the crowns of the ridges are about -rfi inches of a farm by deeper tillage ; and I think I
apart. Early in February the beans are can see a gentleman present, or at all events
planted near the crown on each side of the one who is generally here, who had a six
ridge, about 10 inches apart, leaving a furrow months' notice to quit after he had cultivated
about 26 inches wide for the horse-hoe to his farm by steam-power, and could get no
work. I have grown the finest crop I ever compensation for so great permanent im-
saw by this process ; and when the judges of provement. Freedom of cultivation should
the Royal Agricultural Society for the prize also be allowed, as the land is so improved
farms in Oxford district saw my crop of beans that the old systems of cropping are quite
on their inspection (for I had the temerity to exploded. I recommend this remark, in
compete) they said the crop was the finest parenthesis, to the worthy lawyers who draw
they had ever seen. up modern leases from old forms, and adapt

After all, the real aspect of the question, as all soils and all circumstances to one dry
it shapes itself to my mind is — here is a power, level. There is another reason, from little or
which by a wonderful expenditure of skill no help being given by the landlord in the
and capital is at length fitted in every way erection of suitable buildings. Again, there
to deal with the tillage, and the deeper till- is the vis incrticc^oi the agricultural mind,
age, of our fields ; in what way can the farmers which is slow indeed to move, and which
of England best avail themselves of this has always answers for " How not to do it"
giant power ? There are several ways ; but There was also another reason, the imperfec-
notwithstanding all that has been said and tion of the earlier implements, and other im-
written on the subject there is no general pediments, which are too numerous to*
agreement as to the best method for the mention,
adoption of the farmer ; to him, it is not a
question of which apparatus is the most per-
fect in its mechanical principles and details,
nor even which upon a trial field for a prize Although you have seen in my paper that
can plough an acre in the least time or at the I am not a believer, to a great extent, in the
least cost, but the question for him is by what • hiring system, yet there has been great and
means he can avail himself of this might}' goo^l work done by various companies and
agent in tillage at the right season of the year, individuals, and they have done much to
and at a cost to repay him for its outlay, spread abroad a knowledge of steam cultiva-
There are many reasons why steam cultiva- tion. Before I conclude I must briefly
tion has not become more general. Amongst allude to the coal question, and I think I
the first is the prevalence of small holdings may dismiss it with a very few remarks. All
and small enclosures. The excellent letter of prices are permanently ruled by cost of pro-
Messrs Fowler, of Leeds, already quoted, duction, the present abnormal price of that
illudes to this, and I can corroborate their indispensable article cannot last long, com-
statements as I was wonderfully struck with petition will assuredly bring coal back ap-
the excellent cultivation near Magdeburg, proaching to its normal price, and if not,
when passing through that country about two we must not be deterred fi-om our great work
years ago. Want of capital is another by the addition of a few pence per day to our
reason for the non-employment of steam, labourers' wages, nor by a few shillings a-day
although if a man begins farming to the price of our coal, as the main point has
now he will find it almost as cheap to always been both fi-om the earliest adapters of
buy his own steam apparatus as horses at ^40 the system to every one of the present day to

VOL. X. F F

DRAWBACKS OF THE HIRING SYSTEM
MR MECHI AND LORD DUNMORE.

434 ^^^^ Country Gentleman s Magazine

do all we can in the autumn. I am aware exploded the fallacy and has taken to ra

that last year was a disastrous one to steam traction. So Romaine's and Talpa's ide

cultivation, but so it was to horses. The have been compelled to give way to tractii

elements beat us, nevertheless, the work goes direct and roundabout systems. In cond

bravely on. Last Tuesday my old Smith sion, the " present aspect of steam cuiti?;

was tearing through my land for the root crop tion " is full of promise for its future citei

after having knocked over 20 acres for barley; sion. Several great manufacturing finnsai

arid although all our work is backward, I see striving their utmost to improve the m

no fear of getting merrily on, whilst my chinery, and above all to reduce the cost c

neighbours are sighing for their long-pro- labour, which, in these times, is of the las

mised hired apparatus. I see one of importance. There are how sets of tackl

our most illustrious members from Kelvedon made by Fowler, Howard, and Barford, whid

here. I noted that in 1855 he said are worked by only two men and two bqjs

at the discussion at that time " if they could but this is attained, as I have previously re

get the engine to go over the land, and draw marked, by considerable extra cost of appan

the plough after it, it would be by far the best tus — and notwithstanding the twaddle of th(

plan." And in 1859 he said, " It is not what day, about breaking up large farms intosmal

an operation costs, but what it pays that must ones, I believe the tendency of the day is tc

be considered " ; and later on he said, ** The enlarge holdings ; and if that be the case

shilling flail is superseded by one that costs steam cultivation will be largely increased

;^3oo," and I have no doubt he will say the and many a poor clay will be rendered pio

six-guinea plougli must give way to one of ductive, for it has been proved incontestabl]

;;^25o or ;^iooo. No man has done more by Mr Prout, that strong clays, which hac

for us than Mr Mechi, and he has been the never been deeply tilled until steam powe

steady advocate for deep tillage for many a had been used, continue to grow crops od

long year. That model of a British noble- corn for several consecutive years, with du

man. Lord Dunmore, held to the fallacy of addition of a little superphosphate, thus add

making the plough follow the engine, and ing to the store of food for the people, anc

with his characteristic and indomitable pluck rendering productive that soil which, withod

put his ideas into practice, and has thoroughly steam, could not be cultivated at a profit

The Country Geniletnan's Magazine 435

LABOURERS' COTTAGES IN SCOTLAND.''

iyi glad to say that the subject of la- large as they are now, and far less capital was
bourers* cottages has been a good deal needed then, so that the saving, thrifty
ssed during the last two or three years, ploughman of that day had a far better
in the press and at public meetings, chance of becoming a farmer than he has
.he result is that it is admitted on all now.- If that be the case — and I think it
> that their houses are not what they will not be denied — seeing that there is little
to be. In some cases it has been prospect of his rising to be a farmer, it is
that they are living in miserable hovels very important that some inducement should
t for human habitation, where as many be held out, so that come of our best men,
I persons of both sexes and all ages are by practising the virtue of economy, could
and sleeping in the same apartment, look forward to the day when they could
Inhere it is impossible they could observe have at least a cow they could call their own.
Dmmon decencies of life. Such a state I am disposed to think that the most of farm-
in the very nature of things, have an in- servants would look upon the privilege of
s effect on their morals and character, being allowed to keep a cow as a prize worth
the last census taken, it has been shewn striving for ; as the produce of the cow would
one million, or about a third of the be of great service to them and their families,
population of Scotland, live in houses and at the same time it would make them
I room. Such a state of things is dis- less desirous of changing than they have been
able to us as a nation, and a disgrace of late years, which I think would be a bene-
: age in which we live. But I bfelieve fit to all concerned. There is at present a
me has arrived when a great change for Bill before Parliament, brought in by Mr
nter will soon take place. As a hope- Fordyce and others, to facilitate the erection
gn of the times, I may mention that of labourers* cottages and other buildings by
he other day Sir James Fergusson very agricultural tenants in Scotland ; and while I
r invited all his tenantry to meet him feel that there are two important omissions
kerran, when he told^ us that he had in the Bill, I think the general scope and ob-
up his mind to build a number of new ject of the measure is such as ought to secure
;es on his estate, so that our ploughmen for it the warm support of the farmers of
ther servants should have better houses Scotland. Its leading features are — That
5 in, and that to some of the cottages all buildings erected by an agricultural
uld give as much ground as would pas- tenant are to be his property ; that if the
cow in summer. Now when we see a landlord chooses, he has, by giving three
man like Sir James Fergusson, who for months' notice, a right to purchase the build-
Y years has been one of the most emi- ings so erected, at a valuation on the tenant's
nen in the country, and a good land- removal. Should thelandlordnotbuytliem, the
laking up such a position as that, I am out-going tenant has aright to sell them to the
lis example cannot fail to have a good in-coming tenant, who is, in that case, to have the
upon many others. As regards our same right as if he had erected the buildings.
iimen being allowed to keep a cow, I But should neither the landlord nor in-coming
vare some farmers are averse to it : on tenant agree to purchase, the out-going tenant
her hand, I am in favour of it Forty is to have the right to remove the buildings.
yr years ago, farms as a rule were not so The Bill also applies to fences, houses, and other
Idress deUvered before the Ayrshire Farmer*' erections ; and as r^ards labourers' cott

it goes a good deal further. It enacts 1

436

The Country Gentlemaiis, Magazine

wherever there are not on a farm suitable
cottages for farm-labourers at the rate of at
least one for every loo acres of arable land,
the tenant may erect such cottages ; and if he
complete them in a proper manner, the land-
lord is to be bound, on the tenant's removal,
to purchase them at a valuation not exceeding
;£'ioo for each cottage. The Bill requires
that each cottage should have three apart-
ments, and contain not less than 3000
cubic feet. I have thus briefly described the
main provisions of the Bill At present, if a
farmer build a cottage on his farm, the law
says it does not belong to the tenant who
built it, but to the^landlord. Such a law I con-
sider to be neither fair, just, nor reasonable ;
and should this Bill become law, that injustice
would be done away with. The Bill, of
course, provides that it shall not apply to any
building erected in pursuance of any specific
agreement with the landlord. It appears to
me that the Bill requires two rather import-
ant amendments, viz., it should provide that
all substantial improvements on and additions
to existing cottages should be paid for, as
many a farmer who has not the means to

build new cottages, could afford to alter old
ones into suitable dwellings, provided thej
were only secured against the forfeiture of
what they spent on them. I also think that
a tenant should have the same right to daim
for all suitable office houses erected by hin^
and necessary for the holding, as he has for la-
bourers' cottages, as the one class of buildings
would go as far to enhance the letting vake
of the farm as the other. While 1 think it is
one of the duties that fairly devolves upon a
proprietor to build sufficient cottages for oar
farm-servants, I also think it is the duty oi
tenants to give them all the assistance Uiey
can, by cordially co-operating with theoL I
might add that if a tenant finds he has not
sufficient accommodation on his farm, I, for
one, would have no objection to pay reason-
able interest — say from 4 to 4^ per cent for
all cottages that I really required. Often
when a landlord inherits an estate, with setd^
ments and other things, money for a time is
not very plentiful with him ; and we ong^
therefore to shew a disposition to meet them
fairly, when we see them desirous of doing
what is right and reasonable.

EAST LOTHIAN PROSPECTS OF CROP 1873.

PERHAPS there is no county in the
United Kingdom to which public at-
tention has been more directed of late than
East Lothian — a shire which has long held a
prominent position in regard to the agricul-
tural development of the country.

East Lothian enjoys many natural advan-
tages, and these have been cultivated to the
utmost by an intelligent and enterprising, but
it is to be feared, too sanguine and over-
speculative body of agriculturists, as the dis-
astrous results of crop 1872 have disclosed.
The system of farming which is now being
practised in the best cultivated districts is
undergoing a severe trial \ and should a
season resembling last ensue, even though it
' * much less unfavourable, we fear the re-

sults will be severely felt, both by landlord
and tenant. The heavy losses which farmers
sustained by the wet season of 1872 have
not yet been fully ascertained, and their
direful effects on the tenantry remain a pro-
blem still to be solved. It is all very well
to look for redress from the landlords ; but
it must be borne in mind that, owing to Ac
great fall in the price of grain — a large
proportion of the rents in East Lothian being
payable by the Fiars — there must be a con-
siderable shortcoming in the incomes of
proprietors. We do not wish to indulge in
gloomy forebodings, but we cannot blind our
eyes to the fact that at present the prospects
for crop 1873 are not over-bright
Owing to the wet autunm, a comparativdy

East Lothian Prospects of Crop 1873 437

breadth of winter wheat was sown, and he felt all the more from seeing so many

was sown is not generally lookmg well, friends around the table, numbers of whom

fields being the exception. Although differed widely from him in politics,
ave had a dry spring, the weather has Indeed, such a universal expression of es-

cold and unseasonable, and there is teem has seldom, if ever, been so publicly

vegetation. A large proportion of the and so deservedly shewn to any farmer in

5-sown grain has been very well put in, East Lothian. There are many honoured

liere is still a good deal to sow, the late- names connected with the agricultural fame

;hed fields of stiff soil liaving become so" of East Lothian, none of which will ever

and dry that it is impossible to sow them command more respect than that of George

we have rain. A much larger acreage Hope, Fentonbams.

jans has been sown, and considerably Although the agriculture of East Lothian is

potatoes planted — if we except the red- in a most depressed condition at present, we

district near Dunbar. This is easily ac- have still great expectations for the future.

:ed for from the high price of seed Having every advantage of soil and climate,

oes and the scarcity of well-made farm- and our farmers animated by the same spirit

manure-crop 1872 being deficient both to overcome all difficulties, and our landlords

raw and grain. The extreme prices of anxious to foster and encourage the enterprise

)n and beef do not put much money in of their tenants, we trust that with good sea-

ockets of the low country arable farmers, sons before us we may soon see East Lothian

\ to the high prices at which lean stock flourish as it did of yore. As a contrast to

purchased in autumn. the untoward season of 1872 let us recall the

ere are a number of displenishing sales year i860, when our agriculture was singularly

tised to take place in May, the most prosperous. A very large sum of money was

rtant being the.r^w/ of Farm Stock at realized that year by many of our farmers;

)nbams, where, from Mr Hope's fame the consequence was the demand for farms

I agriculturist, it is exp)ected the gather- was much increased, and a speculative system

f farmers and others interested in agri- of farming greatly encouraged. It is quite

:e will be very large. possible that the heavy blow we have this

a dinner given to Mr Hope, in Hadding- year received may in the long run tend to our

he room was literally crammed, and num- benefit. It has first of all opened our eyes

from want of sufficient accommodation, to the enormous losses to which, by our pre-

refused admission. This farewell dinner sent system of husbandry, we are exposed —

r Hope was given in connexion with the losses which cur most eminent agriculturists

ntation of his portrait. The Chairman, deemed an utter impossibility to ensue from

linloch, yr., of Gilmerton, in an excel- any single season. This will cause a change

speech delineated some of the leading in the nature of our agriculture ; it must also

es of Mr Hope's most successful career ; check the increasing speculation in land, and

Lord Elcho (who came expressly from place the farming of East Lothian on a safer

on to be present) also bore high testi- and more secure basis. We purpose in a

to his appreciation of the many ex- fiitiu-e paper giving our views regarding this,

it qualities of Mr Hope. In his reply and shall endeavour to shew how, in these

\ Chairman's toast, Mr Hope expressed times of high-priced agricultural material of

feelingly his heartfelt appreciation of the every description, a better system may be

ir conferred upon him, an honour which introduced. — S,

438

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

THE ADULTERATION OF AGRICULTURAL CAKES AND

MANURES,

THE following is Dr Voelcker's quarterly
report of the adulteration of feeding
stuffs and manures presented by the Chemical
Committee at the last meeting of the Royal
Agricultural Society : —

During the last quarter the following cases,
on which it is my duty to report to the
Chemical Committee, were brought under
my notice : —

1. A sample of guano was sent by Mr F.
K Cotton, Knolton Hall, Ruabon, to whom
it was offered as damaged guano, and who
desired to be informed what would be a fair
price to pay for it

On analysis, this guano was found to con-
tain in I GO parts : —

Moisture 14.68

^Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 17*25

Oxide of iron and alumina 8.50

Phosphate of lime 8.16

Carbonate of lime 27.55

Alkaline salts (chiefly common salt) 1 1 . 69

Insoluble silicious matter (sand) 12.17

loaoo

•Containing nitrogen 1.82

Equal to ammonia 2.21

It will be seen that this so-called damaged
guano was, in reality, guano largely adul-
terated with oxide of iron and alumina, car-
bonate of lime, and other valueless earthy
matter. It contained only about 8 per cent,
of phosphate of lime, and yielded but little
more than 2 per cent, of ammonia. Damaged
guano always contains more water than sound
genuine guano, whereas this guano contahied
from 8 to 10 per cent less water than genuine
guano of average quality. The sample sent
by Mr Cotton was worth only about jQ^ a-ton.
The name of the vendor, though applied for,
was not given.

2. A sample of linseed cake, sent by Mr

Samuel Brown, of Brockton, Shifhal, on
analysis, gave the following results : —

Moisture Ii.Ss

Oil 11^4

•Protein compounds 28.69

Gum, mucilage, &c 25.85

Woody fibre ^.. I7.<H

**Mineral matters 5**^

loaoo

•Containing nitrogen 4-59

••Containing sand 1.32

The analysis shews that this cake contained
3 much larger proportion of woody fibre than
genuine linseed-cake, and a subsequent exa-
mination under the microscope cleaily le-
vealed the adulteration with earth-nut cake.

Inquiry was made by whom and at what
price this cake was sold, and whether it was
bought as a pure or a compoimd linseed-cak&
No reply was giv^en.

3. Another sample of linseed-cake was
sent by Mr G. H. Martin, Little Downham,
near Ely, who desired to know whether it was
a pure linseed cake.

The examination of this cake, which was
branded "Pure," and was sold at ;£ii9 5&
per ton delivered, shewed that it was made
from linseed which had not been thoroughly
cleaned, and which contained a variety of
small weed seeds and starchy matter that
ought not to be present in " pure " linseed
cake.

This case has been reported in order to
call attention to the fact, that linseed cakes
which are branded " Pure " are sometimes
made from linseed which has been imperfecdy
cleaned, and that they are not therefore cakes -
of high quality, although very probably made
from linseed genuine as imported.

4. Another sample of linseed cake, sent by
Mr John Thomas Ringer, Brancaster, Kin^s

The Adulteration of Agricultural Cakes and Manures

439

Lynn, on analysis yielded the following re-
sults : —

Moisture 10.01

Oil 11.24

*Protein compounds S^'^Q

Gum, mucilage, &c 26.70

Woody fibre 10.28

••Mineral matters 9-oS

100.00

Containing nitrogen 5'23

Containing sand 3'^4

It will be seen that this cake contained
nearly 4 per cent, of sand, shewing that it was
made from dirty seed. Although the propor-
tion of albuminous compounds and oil was
as high as in genuine linseed cake, I found
that the cake was not a pure linseed cake,
for it did not get so mucilaginous when mixed
with water, and was wanting the agreeable
taste and other physical properties for which
pure linseed cake is justly esteemed by stock
feeders.

Mr Ringer informed me that the cake was
sold in the Fakenham and Lynn market at
jQ\o per ton, and that his stock, which pre-
viously had been eating a very good sample
of Marseilles cake, refused to eat this. The
name of the vendor, though applied for, was
not given.

5. Mr Thomas Rose, Melton Magna,
Wymondham, Norfolk, sent me two cakes
accompanied by the following note : —

** Melton Magna, Wymondham, Dec. 26, 1872.
Dear Sir, — I send you by the Great Eastern Rail-
way to-day two cakes. Please analyze which of the
two you like. My cattle have been doing badly on it;
they have had a nasty scurf all over. them; their
breathing has been bad, and one cow cast her calves
(twins). I should like to know if you think the cake
has been the cause of all this. — I remain, yours truly,

" Thos. Rose."

On analysis, the cake yielded the follow-
ing results : —

Moisture 11.66

Oil 12.80

•Albuminous compounds 28.69

Mucilage, sugar, and digestible fibre 30.73

Woody fibre (ceUulose) 8.84

Mineral matter (ash) 7.28

100.00

This cake was made from rather dirty lin-
seed, but contained no adulterating material.
I found, however, that the cake was mouldy,
and in so damaged a condition that it was
not safe to use it for feeding puq)03cs.

6. The next case refers to a sample of
cake which Mr Charles Neve, Amberfield,
Chart Sutton, Staplehurst, sent me for analy-
sis. Mr Neve writes to me : — " Should you
find it an impiure article, I shall feel obliged
by your ascertaining if there be anything in it
injurious to cattle. I have four cows appa-
rently under the influence of some poison, with-
out being able in any way to account for it"

This cake had the following composi-
tion : —

Mobture 8.56

Oil 10.92

* Protein compounds 26.81

Gum, mucilage, &c 37.H

Woody fibre 9.56

Mineral matters 7.01

100.00

•Containing nitrogen 4.59

•Containing nitrogen 4.29

On further examination under the micro-
scope, I found nothing of a positively known
injiu*ious character in the cake, which was
made from clean linseed, and nothing else ;
but, unfortunately, it had become mouldy,
and the mouldiness penetrated in large
patches into the interior of the cake.

In these two cases I am not informed
whether the mouldiness has arisen from bad
keeping, or whether the cakes were mouldy
when purchased, but! mention them as again
shelving the danger of using mouldy cake.

7. In conclusion, I may state that a short
time ago I analyzed a cake for a member of
the Lincolnshire Agricultural Society, and re-
ported it as an adulterated linseed cake, and
subsequently received the following letter : —

Dear Sir, — I am much obliged to you for your ser-
vice, in discovering the impurity of the last sample of
linseed cake I sent you. The maker's agent at first
disputed the correctness of your analysis, but now
acknowledges that he sent me an inferior cake.
Though it was branded "Pure" I do not know whether
I have groimds for an action without a written
guarantee. In a subsequent letter this gentleman
states that the cake which was branded '* pore " in
fully was invoiced simply as " linseed cake."

440

The Country Gentleman's Magazine

SOUTHDOWN SHEEP,

THE Southdown breed of sheep is treated
in an article contained in a recent
number of the Field. The following are a
few extracts : —

The breed of sheep known as the South-
downs, from the fact that they originated on
the line of hills so called, which extend from
Beachy Head on the east to the river Adur,
that falls into the Shoreham Harbour, on the
west, occupy, as regards short-wooUed sheep,
a position similar to that which the Leices-
ters hold among the long-wools. Both were
the starting points of improvements that are
still going on ; and not a type of short- wool
but has been benefited by a cross or two of
Southdown blood. Like the Leicesters, the
present value of the blood is rather in its
crosses than its purity, albeit we have naught
but eulogy for these sheep as seen on their
native hills. Nothing can be more dissimilar
than the active, restless Southdown, and the
sober, staid Leicester ; yet both have a com-
mon origin, and their peculiar features and
characteristics are doubtless due to local in-
fluences. In early days, when the majority
of the districi, and certainly all the high land,
was downs, sheep that could travel v:ell and
were hardy would be invaluable : the very
nature of the life, out all day roaming the
downs, driven at ni;^'ht into folds on fallows,
would tend to activity ; and an animal that
could bear fatigue would be of the highest
value. Mr Thomas EUmann, of Glynde,
Sussex, occupies a similar position in refer-
ence to the Southdown as is awarded to Mr
Bakewell in Leicester history. Hear the
description of the originals given by the in-
defatigable writer, Arthur Young, in 1788 : —
** The true Southdown, when very well bred,
have the following points : no horns, a long
speckled face, clean and thin jaw, a long but
not a thin neck, no tuft of wool on the fore-
head, which they call owl-headed, nor any
frize of wool on the cheeks; thick in the

:bo'iifif*r, open-breasted, and deep; both fore

and hind legs stand wide ; round and straig

in the barrel ; wide upon the loins and hip

shut well in the twist, which is a proje

tion of flesh on the inner part of tl

thigh, that gives a fulness when viewed b

hind, and makes a Southdown leg of muttc

remarkably round and short, more so than

most other breeds ; thin speckled legs, ai

free from wool ; the belly full of wool ; tl

wool close and hard to the feel, curdled

the eye, and free from projecting or strcM

fibres. These flocks not bred with particul

care and attention are apt to be coan

woolled in the back, but some are finei

over; weigh fat from 12 lb. to 15 Ih.

quarter." Contrast the above with the b(

specimens, as shewn by Mr Rigden, Lo

Walsingham, the Duke of Richmond, ai

others, and remark the attributes of the L

proved sheep as described by Mr Ellma]

himself, and quoted by us from Youatt ;

*' The head small and hornless ; the £a

speckled or grey, and neither too long n

too short; the lips thin, and the spa

between the nose and the eyes narrow ; t

under jaw or chap fine and thin; the c:

tolerably wide and well covered with wo

and the forehead also, and the whole spa

between the ears well protected by it as

defence against the fly; the eye full a

bright, but not prominent; the neck of medii

length, thin towards the head, but enlaigi

towards the shoulders, where it should

broad and high^ and straight in its wh

course above and below. The breast shoi

be wide, deep, and projecting forwa

between the fore legs, indicating a good o

stitution, and a disposition to thrive. C

responding with this the shoulders should

on a level with the back, and not too w

above ; they should bow outward from

top to the breast, indicating a springing

beneath, and leaving room for it, the 1

coming out horizontally from the spine, \

extending far backward, and the last rib ]

Soutlidown Sheep 441

g more than the others; the back flat necessary to imagine this. If he selected the

the shoulders to the setting on of the best specimens from his own and neighbours'

the loin broad and flat \ the rump long flocks, he would^ by care and judgment,

)road, and the tail set on high, and gradually produce a more symmetrical sheep.

,^ on a level with the spine. The hips Arthur Young, whose description of the

and the space between them and the breed before it had been undertaken by EU-

b on either side as narrow as possible, mann has been given, thus speaks of his flock

he ribs, generally speaking, presenting a when seen in one of his later tours : — " Mr

ar form like a barrel. The belly as Ellmann*s flock of sheep is unquestionably the

ht as the back ; the legs neither too first in the country, the wool the finest, and

nor too short The fore legs straight the carcases the best proportioned. Both

the breast to the foot, not bend- these valuable properties are united in the

inward at the knee, and standing flock at Glynde. He has raised the merit of

►art both before and behind ; the hocks the breed by his unremitting attention, and

g a direction rather outward, and the it now stands unrivalled." Mr Ellmann re-

or the meeting of the thighs behind, tired in 1829, when his flock was brought to

particularly full. The bones fine, yet the hammer, and realized prices which in

g no appearance of weakness, and of a those days were considered extraordinary,

led or dark colour. The belly well de- 770 ewes of all ages averaged ;^3, is. 6d.

d with wool, and the wool coming down each, 320 lambs 36s. each, 36 rams ^25'

I and behind to the knee and to the each, 32 ram lambs ;^io, and 241 wether

the wool short, close, curled, and fine, lambs made 21s. each.
ree from spiry j5rojecting fibres." In Mr EUmann's most noticeable successor
respects a good typical flock of Sussex was Mr Jonas Webb, of Babraham, Cam-
is at the present day would answer to bridge, who commenced operations about
30ve description ; in one respect, how- the year 1823, and, although we have no
a marked alteration has occurred, viz., records, he doubtless visited Glynde, as well
lour. Speckled faces and legs would as other noted Sussex farms, for the founda-
)e looked upon with horror, as indica- tion of his flock, which eventually became,
f bad blood. A uniform tint now pre- and was for many years, by far the most
varying from brown to fawn, or almost valuable collection in the country, and the

source from whence all the highest flocks

Ellmann is due the credit of first im- were invigorated. No man before or since

ig the Southdowns ; but it is equally made such prices for Southdown rams, and

that his attention would have been in the Babraham lettings were meets that drew

but for the facilities afforded in the from far and near.

h of root crops for a regular and nutri- The Dukes of F.ichmond have been sup-
diet. So long as the sheep were ex- porters of Southdowns for more than a cen-
d to work hard for subsistence during tury. In 1825 the late duke turned his atten-
ay, travelling long distances to and from tion to their improvement, and purchased
feeding ground, and often having to valuable sheep. Many prizes, especially at

much ground in order to obtain a belly- the Smithfield Shows, were gained ; but of

nd were folded at night on bare fallow, late years the success of the flock has not

jr early maturity nor perfection of form been so great, and for many years Lord Wal-

l be possible. We have but little direct singham's name was more frequently asso-

nce as to the method pursued by Ell- dated with the prize lists than any other

. Experiments were tried, no doubt ; breeder. On the death of the late lord, the

is possible that either he or others may flock was brought to the hammer, when large

introduced a dash of Leicester blood, prices were realized. The Merton flock had

I would give quality ; but it is not a large infusion of Jonas Webb's blood, and

442 llie Country Gentlemaiis Magazine

on such a good foundation the intelh'gent was sought as the first step in the impnr

energy of the agent, Mr Woods, and the great ment of other breeds. The Wilts ai

practical knowledge of the shepherd were Hampshire Downs, however little indebt

brought successfully to bear. The Merton originally, owe much of their present quali

sheep, like those of Mr Webb, were of a dif- and truth of form to Southdown influem

ferent type to the Sussex downs, from which The improved Hampshires, which now p

they originally sprang, so potent are the in- dominate,haveSouthdown blood in their vein

fluences of physical conditions. The great The Shropshires, which are probably mo

characteristic was length and spread, the cultivated than any other description of ^ce

fore quarter resembling Bakewell's Leicester have benefited by the infusion of Southdoir

rather than the active Southdown sheep, whatever may have been the effect of tl

Great weight was thus acquired, although other crosses that have been tried. As

not so valuable for the butcher \ the quality cross with the Leicester or LincolD, the pf

and ripeness evinced the tendency to feed and duce is most valuable for feeding purpose

the care bestowed. Mr Overman has repeatedly taken fii

Our notice of distinguished breeders, brief honours at Smithfield with animals so brc

as it necessarily is, would be unpardonably Like the Leicesters, the chief value (tf ti

deficient were we to omit the name of Mr Southdown has been in its crosses. As

Rigden, of Hove, Brighton, who has cultiva- pure breed we lack weight for food consume

ted and brought to great perfection the ori- although what we have is of the best Th

ginal Sussex Down^ and has of late years doubtless are well adapted to the spare swe

especially achieved well-deserved honours, herbage of the Downs; their light weig^

His rams, both at Cardiff and Wolverhamp- and active habits enable them to pick up

ton, were splendid specimens, models in living where the long wools would stsun

form, and of rare type and quality. He has On rich lowland they are not much cultivati

also been first for shearlings at Islington both being superseded by their crosses and anim

in 187 1 and '72, and at the present time like the Oxfords, which combine weight w

takes first rank as a breeder. His annual quality. The present Mr Ellmann gives

ram sale attracts many customers, and the opinion that the improved Lincoln, deri^

sheep are let at high prices. from a combination of Leicester, is m

The Southdowns took such a decided lead likely to afford the most valuable cross n

among short-wool sheep, that their influence the Southdown.

Tlu Country Gentlefnaiis Magazine 443

^Qtiniltttral ^nQtneering.

ECONOMIZATION OF FUEL IN STEAM-ENGINE FURNACES.

IN a recent article under the head of the " reason why " this should be, sufficient it is
"Economical Use of Coal," we alluded to state that it is. When the bars are too
to the effect which the construction of the thick, the portion of each exposed to the
fire-bars had upon the consumption of the action of the burning fuel is so large that the
fuel. This is a point not always attended to bar is rapidly burnt out, and the frequent re-
in what may be called furnace and boiler placing of bars is a costly matter ; and when
engineering, and yet it is well worthy of at- the bar is made too thin, in order to secure
tention being paid to it. Yet, to judge from a less surface of material exposed to the
the number of patents which have been burning fuel, the same rapid decay is too
taken out for fire-grate bars, one would be often experienced, and if the bar is made to
forced to admit that attention to it had been secure a large amount of cooling surface,
paid, and of a very decided kind. But the the draft is obstructed. From what has
number of " patterns " which have been in- been said the reader will perceive that
troduced from time to time affords no index the problem to be solved is one of
to the correctness of the principle upon which no common difficulty, involving as it does
they have been designed ; and that the right one or more contradictory elements. These
principle has been overlooked in many cases lattice bars or blades of wrought iron have
is evident enough, when we find so few of the been tried and give admirable results, but we
so-called new inventions have turned out to are not in possession of any facts as to their
be good ones. The requisite points to be durability under lengthened trial. We are in-
attended to are — first, thinness of the edges dined to believe that the solution of the prob-
in which the fuel to be con€umed rests or is lem lies in the direction of having cast-iron
laid, so as to give as little metallic surface as bars, but in place of being solid having them
possible for the burning fuel to come in of a cellular construction, so as to afford large
contact with; second, the inconvenience of air siuface and great strength with little weight,
solid obstruction to the draft or passage of and having the minimum of surface exposed
air through the spaces behind the bars on its to the burning fuel. Much also has yet to
way to the burning fuel, lying upon them ; be discovered in the way of reducing the ex-
third, the maximum of surface e^^posed to the pansion and contraction by a judicious ad-
air which passes across their sides; and mixtiu-e of irons in the castings; probably,
fourth, means by which the injurious effects also, in the application of some of the new
of unequal contraction and expansion, or any methods of heating metal Enough has been
excessive amount which may be reduced to a said to shew that ** anything in the shape of
minimum. Three of these requisites may be a fire bar " is good enough, is not the wise
secured by having very thin and deep bars, saying some think it to be ; also to shew that
and the fourth by the judgment of the fitter the " whole " of good and economical furnace
in placing them in situ, or by novel modes management is made up of a series of little
of hanging them. But simple as all these things, or parts, each of which in its place
requisites in fire-bars seem to be, it is by no must be attended to, if the best results are
means an easy matter in practice to secure desired.
them. This is not the place to state the In connexion with this point of fire bars,

444 '^he Country Gmtlemaiis Magazine

we alluded, in the conclusion of our former amount of water evaporated was 384 inch

article on this subject, to the waste of fuel the consumption of fuel per hour per ir

brought about, not so much by the frequent being 132 J^ lb. With the grate bars ill

use, but by the injudicious use of the stoking trated in fig. i, the fuel consumed per he

irons, with which some stokers — so called — was only 91^ lb., the water evaporated 3

are perpetually " poking at (or between) the inches, and the gross weight of coal a

ribs" of the furnace, disturbing the fuel and sumed in the same time only 15 tons 4 a

causing much of it to fall unconsumed into i qr., shewing a saving per week of 7 toi

the ash-pit, and to cause other inconveniences 12 cwt. i qr. by the use of the new fire b

and losses which are " waste." The necessity — an amount which, if converted into mone

for this frequent poking does not in reality would go far to pay the cost of the apparati

exist ; a good stoker seldom practises it, a the real cost of which, be it remembered,

bad one does, and seems to like nothing only the difference between the cost of t

better than practising it ; the practice can new and of the old or ordinary bars, for tl

however be altogether, or nearly so, dispensed is not a case where the new invention may

with, by the adoption of the " moveable dispensed with altogether, as bars of soi

furnace bar " to which we then also alluded, kind must be used. We draw special att(

We give in fig. i an illustration of the set tion to this point, which is apt to be ovi

patented by Mr Wright, which is used very looked, but which has an important ecoi

extensively in Lancashire — that land of fur- mical bearing. In another case where t

naces and firemen — and has a corresponding consumption of fuel was less the saving \

reputation for thorough efficiency. As will be week was 2 tons ; in another the saving

observed from fig. i, the bars ^i df rtt? are hung every 10 tons consumed was equal to vc

or suspended on bars h /;, which reach across nearly i J^ tons. One very great advanta

the breadth of the furnace \ each bar being obtained by the use of these bars is tl

furnished with a curved and slotted end into their peculiar action prevents the accumu

which the cross bars fit. These bars are tion of masses of clinker or slag at the brid,

supported in bearings at each end and by (see fig. i), a result almost invariably attei

means of shut levers are actuated or ant upon the hand system of stoking.

acted upon simultaneously by the rocken the action of these patent fire bars the slag

shaft r, to which motion is given by the brought gradually forward and deposited <

rocken handle or lever //, placed within easy the " dead " or " dumb plate " at the door

reach of the fireman near the furnace door, the furnace, from which they are easily

By working this handle the bars a a are moved. But not only is this advantage (

moved to and fro, and with such a rising and tained by the use of these fire bars ; I

falling motion, that the fuel resting upon it is found in practice that the amoi:

them is stirred or moved in a much more ef- of slag or clinker is very much

fectual way than can be done even by the duced, as compared with that of the res

most experienced and most careful stoker, of hand stoking, the slag being broken

So thoroughly is the whole mass moved that into small pieces before it is allowed

the air is freely admitted throughout its parts ; concrete, so to say, into the large, ha

and yet so gently tliat very little of these is masses so familiarly known, and such a soui

passed uselessly into the ash-pit, and as a of trouble to those concerned in the worki

consequence clinkers are formed in very small of boiler furnaces. The agents for Lancasb

numbers. By the use of this apparatus a are Messrs Thomley & Spence, Little Le^

large economy of fuel is secured, as will be near Bolton, and the price per cwt is fin

seen from the following facts and figures. In i6s. to i8s., fitted and fixed complete. I

the case of a furnace with ordinary grate bars scarcely necessary to say that, beyond

^'^ fuel consumed was, during a certain desire we have and the duty we owe to >

^H '"> tons 1 6 cwt. and 2 qr., and the readers to let them know of a good thing,

Economization of Fuel in Steam-Engine Furnaces 445

have no further interest in thus drawing special of hand firing. Every " little," they say,

attention to these fire bars. " makes a mickle," and the addition of a

In considering further, but yet very briefly, number of little things, in the management

the subject of stoking as bearing very closely of furnaces and boilers, makes» a wonderful

upon the economical use of coal, it should difference in the cost of maintenance during

always be borne in mind that it is worth while any given period.

to stoke carefully, not merely because coal is The great object to be arrived at in hand-
so saved, but because another source of saving firing, which will, for obvious reasons, be the
is effected in the avoidance of the large system always, or at least for a long time
amount of ** wear and tear " in which boilers under the present circumstances of farming
are subjected under the influence of bad, or employed, is to keep the coal in the interior
careless and indifferent stoking. When bad of the furnace always in a state of combus-
stoking is the rule, the accumulation of tion, not of distillation. This advice carries
clinkers resulting necessitates the firequent with it, in fact, the whole theory and practice
opening of the furnace doors and the keep- of good and economical firing. If the coal
ing of them open for a much longer space is supplied carelessly to the furnace in gelar
of time than would be necessary under good masses or in thick, deep layers, an enormous
stoking ; and further, the hap-hazard, careless amount of gases and smoke, at a low tem-
way in which coal is supplied to the furnace perature, is evolved, and this is the " distilla-
brings also about the frequent opening of the tion " above referred to ; and which is equiva-
door. Now, let it be remembered that every lent to the process of gas making in retorts,
time the furnace door is opened there is a This distillation is thoroughly wasteful \ not
rush of cold air to the interior of the fiimace. only is the temperature of our furnaces kept
And this, coming in contact with the boiler down, but a very large proportion of the coal
plates, brings about a double evil. In the passes off through the flues and chimney in
first place, as it is the very object of the con- the state of black smoke, which is, in fact,
sumption of coal to heat the boiler plates, unconsumed coaL But if the coal is supplied
and through them the water, the cooling ot to the furnace in the way and at the times
the plates is obviously so much coal needlessly we described in the first of our papers on
consumed; in the second place, all cooling this subject (see p. 102 in the No. for Feb.
of the plates brings about an unequal con. 1873) then it is consumed in the best way,
traction and expansion of them. This may, and the " combustion " above referred to is
to some, appear a very trivial matter, but it secured.

is not so ; quite the reverse, as this action. In addition to the mode of firing de-

frequently repeated, tends to crack the scribed in our February number, we may,

plates, and to make old flaws to leak. The in concluding this, refer to the method of

immense advantage of " machine • firing," in what may be called " double-firing," very fre-

which the coal is supplied to the fiuiiace by quently adopted in Lancashire. No doubt it

machinery, thus obviating the necessity of demands the exercise of careftU watchfulness

at all opening the furnace door arises, indeed, on the part of the stoker, and the use of his

from this very circumstance; for the door "head" — ^at least, the "brains" which are

being kept always closed, there are no inrushes in it — as well as the skill of his hands, but if

of cold air permitted to the interior ; and the he cannot exercise both, or if he has only

plates of the boiler being thus kept at a nearly hands and no head or brains, all we can say,

uniform temperature, the boiler is found to he is not, and cannot be, a good stoker, and

last much longer ; and when repairs are neces- should be " sent about his business," as the

sitated through the gradual and otherwise phrase is, for it is obvious that whatever that

inevitable decay of the iron, these repairs are may be, stokmg is not it The system of

themselves found to keep good for a very double-firing is easily explained, and consists

much longer time than imder the old system in supplying the firesh fuel to the side only

446

The Country Gentlematis Magazine

of the furnace-grate, this supply being
given to it at such a stage that the
fuel is in a state of thorough incan-
descence, or red heat, but not in very
active combustion, just in fact when it
is about to become dull. When at this stage
the fuel at the other side . of the furnace, if
method be properly managed, is in a state
of the most active combustion, passed that
stage at which smoke, at least in very great
quantities, is being given out, at that, in fact,

Fig. I.

in which it is giving out the maximum of its
heat. The smaller space between the two
sides, or that in the centre of the furnace being
covered with a thin and uniformly deep layer of
red hot coal. The result of this management
of the fuel supply is this, simply — the intense
heat of the actively burning mass on one
side, and the action of the red fuel, on which
the mass of freshly added fuel rests, in raising
the temperature of the mass. Smoke and
gases pass off, and as they approach the
bridge they meet the intensely heated flame
and gases, which pass from the mass at the
opposite side of the furnace, and are instantly
flashed into flame, and this and the heated
gases pass along the flues and out at the

chimney in the condition of invisible
almost invisible vapour. If the systen
well carried out, it results in a most deci
saving of coal, and the formation of sn
almost prevented. By it the two processc
distillation and combustion, already lefe
to, are well balanced, each being cazried
at its own special side of the fmnace,
under circumstances best calculated to
mote its speedy and most economical n
zation. In one form of boiler this desin
system of firing is greatly facilitated by
boiler being provided with two furnaces^ s
by side, but quite separated from each ot
by a water space, they both open into n
is called a combustion chamber behind,
smoke from the newly supplied furnace ni<
ing the intensely heated gases and flai
passing from the other furnace which is at
maximum condition of intensity of coml
tion, is being again flashed into flame,
products of the combustion chamber \
from it through a single flue in the centr<
the remaining part of the boiler. This
rangement is obviously applicable to lai
boilers and not — at least not so practicall;
to the small boilers used on farms. ]
where a stationary engine is used with am
fire, greater space to its boiler furnace,
system of double firing or a modification
it may be applied with good results. H
principle which it involves is, however, wc
considering, and if consideration be giver
it, some way of supplying it may be hit up
The principle lies at the very root of g<
and economical hand firing.

The Country Gentlemaiis Magazine 447

STORM OR SURPLUS WATER TO BE STORED.

THE STORAGE OF WATER.

the Farmers' Club on Monday, Mr rivers to the sea without entering the ground

Bailey Denton read a paper upon the at all, taking the west and east side together,

e of water. He commenced by elabo- is at least 15 inches, or nearly four times the

calculating the amount of rainfall on perennial flow, and nearly half the average

rface of England and Wales, arriving at mean rainfall. This quantity will necessarily

nmense total of 27,019,632 millions of also vary very considerably, according to the

s as the quantity of water which on an depth of rain and the character of the con-

!;e of years falls on the surface at the tributing surfaces.
f the population. Referring next to the
ity of water required for all purposes —

r sanitary arrangements and for do- It is the surplus or waste water, which I

: and trade purposes — Mr Denton came compute at a mean of 15 inches, or rather

conclusion that 1000 millions per diem, so much of it as is not already appropria-

,000 millions of gallons per annum were ted, that may be stored with advantage,

ined, which is only a 74th part of the The quantity already appropriated is com-

ainfall. Mr Denton then proceeded as paratively small, and though several large

s : — towns have been supplied by this means, the

ave taken pains to put these figures quantity so appropriated is fully compensated

you, and I lay stress upon them be- by the water of underdrainage, which is now

they cannot fail to shew you that, with becoming greater in quantity every year, and

1 quantity of water at our disposal, it which consisting for the most part of rain

s of the ridiculous, if not of ingratitude, which before drainage had been upheld in

1 plain at one time of scarcity of water the soil until it was evaporated, is actually an

)mestic, sanitary, and trade purposes, additional or new source of water supply. By

t another, of the extreme wetness of the many persons it has been supposed that the

I. We have only to adopt as a nation . effect of underdrainage has been to diminish

)mmon prudence of household life, of the water supply rather than to increase it —

:ing and husbanding our resources to I presume on the supposition that the springs

: plenty at all times ; for, although would be weakened by the loss of that pro-

and averages do not form with en- portion of the rain which would be upheld in

s the usual data for water supply, it is the 3 or 4 feet of surface soil which alone is

within the power of man to equalize affected by drainage. A little reflection will,

ties for his own use by storing excess however, satisfy every one that this cannot be

npensate for scarcity. We have it in the case, inasmuch as water cannot run out

)wer, in fact, to provide for every pos- of the drains until the subsoil is filled with

(rant connected with human and animal water up to the level of the drains, and the

id to become independent of dry years; soil between the drains and surface is in a

ily thing required being sufficient re- state of supersaturation. When, in winter,

r-space to provide against a succession this condition has been reached, a large pro-

, or possibly three, dry years, when we portion of the rainfall is discharged fi*om the

ave to deal with minima which may be underdrains within twenty-four hours of its

to represent a third less than the quan- reaching the surface, if the surface soil be

we have recorded as averages. The properly cultivated and rendered absorbent

\y or proportion of rain whidi finds its In the summer there is little or no discharge

^er the surface to be dischaiged by the from the underdrains of clay lands, though in

448 The Country Gentleman s Magazine

many instances a never-ceasing and copious extent of England and Wales, would co

discharge is obtained from the draining of of the higher grounds of both divisioi

surcharged free soils. There is no doubt the country, and would, in the aggr^

that with extension of underdrainage an im- deliver its surplus waters at an available i

provement of our rivers and watercourses height of at least 150 feet To reduce

has necessarily been effected, and that to horse-power by the ordinary calcuk

the water from the under-drains, when dis- would be an easy matter, but I am afraid

charged, as well as that which overflows the the lesult would not be considered tang

surface, are carried down into the valleys with I am therefore content, at this moment

greater rapidity than before. The result is a assert that a power equal to at least

considerable increase in the aggregate, though, that obtained from the use of coal m

for the most part, the quantity obtained is be secured from this source alone. At

due to the winter's discharge and not to that sent it is estimated that 30,000,000 J

of the summer. Few would suppose that the of coal are used annually for steam pc

quantity of land already dramed, which is as- in locomotion and manufactures, and 1

sumed to be 3,000,000 acres, would furnish the power obtained is 1,905,700 h.p.

an effluent water of superior quality, equal in there should be any doubt of my " as

quantity to nearly half the water supply re- tion," it is only necessary to bring to beai

quired by the whole population of England W. Armstrong's water-pressure machinery

and Wales, for domestic, trade, and public pur- which power is collected in an apparatus ca

poses. It is nevertheless true, inasmuch as an "accumulator," and any doubt vanis

the discharged water amounts to a mean of The use of this accumulator, like tha

160,000 millions of gallons on an average of every provision of its kind, is to equalize

years. The practical value of thi& fact will duty of the engine in cases where the qi

be acknowledged when it is understood that tity of power to be supplied is subjec

even in dry years, the under-drainage water great and sudden fluctuations,
from an acre of land will be sufficient to sup-
ply four persons all the year round with 25 storage to be adopted in rural
gallons each per diem. At present we are districts.
content to draw the water out of the land, Though the storage of water must c

and instead of turning it to account, allow it mend itself to most people as an objeci

to increase the evil of surface floods by its great importance, the subject would ha:

discharge into the valleys at times when they he appropriate if it were limited to generalis

may be under water ; and this we are doing and were I not to shew how it may be 1

when water has an increasing value as a fully applied in rural districts for the vill

source of motive power in consequence and the farms. I need not recur to that v

of the advancing price of coal. Allowing which we are all familiar, viz., that dry !

the new water of under-drainage to com- sons frequently prevail in which the lab<

pensate for that proportion of the surface ing poor of our villages and the stock of

water tliat is already utilized, it may be as- farms have been deprived of their full sup

sumed with certainty that, although 15 inches of water, and have had to resort to surfc

may be taken as the mean depth of storm ponds and other means of supply, the qua

or flood waters run off the whole surface of of which has been as filthy as it could well

England and Wales on an average of years. When farming on the hills of Hertfordsl

there are at least 20,000,000 of acres out of I have myself had to cart the whole of

the whole 37,324,883 acres which, in the water used by my horses, cattle, and sh<

aggregate, do throw off a mean of 25 inches a distance of 2 miles, while my poorer ne

of the rainfall which may be stored for useful hours have had to pay by the pail for

application. This area of 20,000,000, repre- water they consumed. AVhen the poor

senting rather mor. than half the superficial paying by the pail on such occasions it she

The Storage of Water 449

be understood that the inhabitants of towns of water from rain and dew is collected in the
are supplied at all times and in the upper course of the year, the private houses will
storeys of their houses at from 6d. to 2s. per have the command of 28,280 gallons, and the
1000 gallons, whereas the amount paid by cottage 7070 gallons in a year. To make it
the poor villager, when a id. is charged for clear that this quantity of water can generally
a pailful of 2 gallons, is 42s. per 1000 gallons, be obtained, it should be stated that the pro-
Many are the farms and villages with which portion lost by evaporation, &c., from a slate
we are all acquainted where the want of water covering will not exceed one-sixth of the total
is a most serious item, and it is not many quantity of rainfall with the deposition of dew
years since that the loss in sheep was vciry added. The supply of water to villages, how-
great in some districts. I remember, when ever, should not be dependent upon indi-
on the Romney Marsh, hearing of a large vidual action altogether, for the occupiers
number being lost entirely for the want of themselves are powerless, and cottage owners
water. Now, with mutton at from lod. to as a rule are not very liberally disposed in
IS. per lb., this ought not to be, particu- the provision of this necessary of life. There
larly if I am correct in stating that even in should be some public supply, to render vil-
the driest winter the excess that exists lagers independent of their landlords. Where
beyond what is wanted distinctly proves a rivers or streams of pure water exist near
capability of storage which might easily be at hand, or where there is a subterranean
brought to bear. The storage of water in water-bed easily reached by sinking wells
small quantities is necessarily an expensive down to it, it is needless to think of storage,
Proceeding, for open shallow ponds and but so long as there are a large number
eservoirs, encouraging, as they do, the of small communities with rating values so
p-owth and decay of vegetable matters, are low as to negative the power to charge any
o be avoided if possible, and either deep, large outlay upon them, it behoves us to con-
>pen reservoirs or covered tanks should be sider with the utmost care any plan which
esorted to. The use of concrete as material will enable us to secure a sufficient supply of
or the construction of underground tanks, pure water at a cheap cost. In villages it is
lowever, reduces the cost very considerably, unnecessary to aim at the supply of from 20
md will, I hope, help greatly their introduc- to 25 gallons a head. Two gallons of water
ion in rural places. No dwelling or set of per head per diem is as much as is at present
buildings, of which the roofs are slate or tile, consumed in the majority of villages, and 10
ihould be without its tank, unless the occu- gallons are quite ample. To supply 10 gal-
lants are otherwise abundantly supplied. Ions a head should not be a difficult matter \
rhe e are few places in England, and cer- though in cases where there is no land that
aif-ly none in Wales, in which 20 inches of has been artificially underdrained near at
ain may not be collected with certainty, even hand allowing of the underdrainage water
n the driest year. Taking an ordinary being utilized, or where there is no other
■niddle-class house in a village, with stabling means of collecting surface water, it may be
md outbuildings, the space of ground covered absolutely necessary to combine several vil-
3y the roofs will frequently reach 10 poles; lages, and by a properly devised system, pro-
vhile the space covered by a farm- vide for the whole.

abourer's cottage and outbuilding will Much may be done by insisting that cot-

36 2Yt poles. Assuming that the roof tage owners should pi-ovide each cottage

is slate, and the water dripping from it with such a tank as I have spoken of, or the

is properly caught by eave-troughing and con- share of a tank with other tenants ; and by

iucted by down-pipes and impervious drain- the addition of a common Umk to hold a

Dipes into a water-tight tank, sufficiently month's supply for the whole village, the ob-

:apacious to prevent overflow undei any cir- ject might be secured at a fair and moderate

:umstances, and that by this method 20 inches cost.

VOL. X. • G G

45 o The Country GentUmafis Magazine

FIELD STORAGE. legislative powers are wanted which i

I have pointed out on more than one oc- extend the proper distribution of wate

casion, how, on clay land farms, where the whole country. From what appear

thorough drainage has been adopted, or is me to be the mistaken views of the Gov

required, the water of under-drainage may ment, the country has been apportioned :

be preserved, sometimes in ponds, but more districts for sanitary purposes which are

frequently in underground tanks for the use fectly incompatible with a right treatmen

of the cattle of the farm and for steam cul- the objects in view. It may flatter our 1<

tivation. The facilities with which such pro- prejudices to leave the management of ^

vision can be made have not been suf- matters in the hands of boards of guardi

ficiently acknowledged. A lo-horse power as " the rural sanitary authority," and in th

engine requires, for the cultivation of an of boards of health, as "the urban sanil

acre of land, from loo to 125 gallons of authority," but it will not be until s(

water, and an underground tank capable of superior presiding authority having JB

holding 2500 gallons would, therefore, be diction over watershed districts, that dr

sufficient for the cultivation of 20 acres, age, sewerage, water supply, and sc

For this quantity the tank should be 8 feet other kindred objects can be effecta

wide, 10 feet long, and 5 feet below the level and economically treated. Towns h

of the drains, and if concrete were used the been sewered without caring what becoi

cost need not exceed ^15 or ;^i6. This of the sewage; lands have been drained w

tank might be placed in any position con- out providing proper outfalls ; districts bi

venient for the steam plough or cultivator, been improved by trunk drainage with*

and none here will deny the great value of regard to neighbouring districts of the sa

such a supply of water wherever steam is watershed ; and thus one community, or p

employed in the cultivation of land, situated of a watershed, has been freed of sewage

on hills where water is now difficult to water, while another has been injured by 1

get. Before concluding I must again revert discharged liquid. In fact, it would aim*

to the more comprehensive view of the seem to be the object of our legislature,

subject with which I started. I am sanitary matters, first to encourage us to

fully impressed with the fact that each case wrong, then to point out the error we lu

of water supply, as well as any other local im- committed, and, finally, to leave us withe

provement, must be dealt with upon its own any power of rectification. It cannot be (

merits ; but, to secure any action at all, there pected, while this course of action continu

must be general obligations in the form of a that any general scheme for the storage

legal code to be enforced by central authority, water should receive attention. If wateisli

I cannot expect, at a time when the agricul- areas were under proper conservancy, or

tural interest is jealously watching the ques- there were a disposition to acknowledge su

tion of local rating, with a full determination boundaries of jurisdiction to be the rif

to bring its relations to national taxation to ones, there might be some hope of a sou

a point, that you will unhesitatingly adopt conclusion on the points I have put befi

the opinion I am about to express, viz., that you.

The Country Gentleman's Magastne

^jrinrltural Imflttnenta anb ^achinee.

Tf(£ price of manual labour havingnsen combined arrangements, dragging on the
greatly of late years, it behoves the headlands or into the fields becomes quite
larmer to look out for the best machines, in
order to carry out his operations with the ut-
most economy and expedition. The self-act-
ing anchor here illustrated meets a very im-
portant requirement of the agriculrurist, and
as steam cultivation is extending its merits,
the invention wiU, doubtless, become more
appreciated. The following advantages Mr
Greenslade claims for his invention : —

ist. The tines oscillate ; are raised out or
the land by the slack rope by gearing from
the pulley around which the rope passes,
which acts only in one direction and only for
the time required to raise them. As there
are no tines in the soil when travelling for-
ward, it allov/s the anchor to be weighted
heavier to resist any amount of strain that
can be brought against it, and yet travel for-
ward to its next position immediately
the strain comes on it with greater
ease, and which also enables it to travel
up hilly land better than any other.
2d. The tines are placed in the forward part
of the anchor, it being well understood that a
considerably greater amount of strain can be
resisted by a thrust against it than by a pull
after it 3d. The pulley being placed in the
rear compels it to endeavour to run in a
contrary direction to the strain. 4th. The
peculiar shape and fixing of the tines compel
them to gradually penetrate the soil imme-
diately they are brought into contact with it,
and quietly bring the anchor to a stand-still,
wliereby all sudden strains and liability of
the parts giving way are prevented. The tines
are SO arranged that the forward moving of
the anchor— and not the weight of it— drives
them into the soil ; are self-containing and
self-adjusting to the depth required to stop
the anchor, and must penetrate the whole an impossibility. 5th. Very little strain
distance they are set before it can move a being thrown on the steerage wheels, it is
jot. It will be at once seen that, by these therefore very easy to manage.

452 The Country Gentleman* s Magazine

When the ploughman comes up to the anchor ought to have been let down
anchor he pulls a small cord, which throws hole and more weight put in the b
the clutch into gear for raising the tines, and Mr Greenslade being desirous to {
places the pin into one of the holes in the anchor a fair chance to drag, let t
pin-wheel, according to the distance it is in- chiner}- remain without alteration. -A
tended to travel, and his work is completed; as the cultivator was brought to bear {
even this can be dispensed with if he thinks moved on and stopped as pre vaously,bui
necessary, by placing three or more pins in proceeding far it was found that the oil
the wheels, and tying back the spring con- drew deejjer, and the lifters raised the
nected to the cord. The anchor will then that it touched the beam, the earth
travel and stop itself, the ploughman having carried on several feet before it ecu
no occasion to leave his seat. The pin-wheel clear. The engine, with 80 lb. %^
is supplied with twelve holes, so that the down, managed to draw it slowly, h
anchor can be set to travel 3 or 30 feet by juncture it was seen that the tines of fl
one pin only, or several ; as the pin, or pins, chor were hardly deep enough to resist
are driven round when travelling, they come signal was made to the driver to stop, I
into contact with the lever, raise it, and drop did not observe it However, just al
the tines, when the anchor at once becomes same moment they obtained a firm hold
fixed. now, for want of more weight, the hind

On Thursday May i a trial of this anchor of the anchor was pulled a little roun
took place on tha farm of Mr G. T. Wright, wards the work, and out of this positi(
Wokingham, near Reading, Berks. The land could not be moved. The claw am
ofiered a very good test, it being a kind of began tp give way one after another.
stone-rush on a sandy subsoil, which has been crossing the field the second time the
once cultivated, and now crossed 10 in. deep, tivator got completely blocked, and coul
The tackle used was Howard's, of Bedford, be moved. The claw anchors were
with a lo-horse double cylinder engine by drawn so far that they were obliged to
Clayton & Shuttleworth, worked up to 80 lb. up \ but the Greenslade anchor refiise
pressure. After cultivating about an acre in yield. That it would stand any amou:
the most satisfactory manner, Mr Greenslade pressure was quite evident, and its grea
desired that it might be tested up to as much sisting power, and impossibility to drag
as the engine would pull. This was acceded established beyond a doubt. After resc
to by the engineer, and two more tines, as the snatch blocks, one tine and lifters 1
well as a complete set of lifters to the 12-in. taken off, work again proceeded. Ai
shares, were put on to the cultivator, making next move the anchor was straight again
in all five tines. Here we must remark that continued to work during the remaindi
to resist this extra strain, the tines of the the trial very satisfactorily.

Tlu Country Gentleman's Magazine

^mtiom §sAt%.

THE EMIGRATION OF FARMERS. taxation appear to be the order of the day.
"• ARMERS, as well as their labourers, are The land is free from tithe or poor-rate, and
finding out there is a more profitable '* >s believed that, as population increases,
1 for their rapital in the United States land will become much more valuable than at
1 in England, and that they can take a present. Only half or one-third of the pur-
ition there as landowners with less capital chase-money is required in cash ; but I fOTgot
1 they can here as tenants. Since the 1° ^k how long a credit was given for the
lilion of slavery in America the Southern remainder.—/ /. Mechi.
i and slave owners, being deprived of their

capital invested in slaves, are compelled BASKETS for bouquets.

ell a considerable portion of their land at Theeditorofthei'RevueHorticoIe'' found
' low prices, indeed so low, that in many in Bordeaux some baskets designed for carry-
is the buildings and offices have cost ing bouquets. He is so delighted with them
:h more than the sum demanded for the that he not only gives engravings, but a long
;hase of the land. This migration is account of the history of his discovery and
cipally to Virginia and North Carolina, the exceUence of the articles for the purpose
re the land is rich and the fee-simple only
s about £j2 to ;£3 per acre, payable
ly in cash, including residence, buildings,
huts for the now free negroes or labourers,

labour most assiduously for about £,^
month and their food. British farmers

have visited me and are now owners
iome of these properties, stated that
re purchasing, they- made a tour
ispection occupying several weeks, and
■ most hospitably entertained and wel-
sd by the resident landowners, and made
acquMnted with every detail They con-
ed that the coloured labourers worked
er than our own would have done under
same circumstances. They also spoke
ly of their honesty and ready obedience,
their usefulness as house servants. Pcr-
some of your readers who have been or
esiding there can confirm these state-
is. I have also been visited by some intended. We give the figures, one shewing
have made large purchases of prairie the basket empty and open, and the other

in Minnesota. It is evident that with it enclosing the bouquet. A hollow foot
al will go where it is best remuuerated, for the handle of the bouquet, a little ridge
- things being equal Proximity to rail- at the mouth of the opening to support the
stations, education fi'ee, and moderate bouquet where it most needs it, a properiy

454 "^^'^ Country GentUmatis Magazine

shaped bottom and cover, and a handle at qiiirements,as thiaenergeticfirraarepreii
the top complete the whole affair. It will be at the shortest notice, to provide man
seen that a bouquet can be carried in one of fitted to accommodate any number of pa
these baskets without mjury from the heat of from 50 up to 5000, If, at any Votk, th
the hand and the flowers on account of the lunteers have to turn out to do battle for
open work of the basket can have all needed hearths and homes, the " tented field'
bear witness to the kind of shelter aifo
our brave defenders, and it is so far sati
tory to know that, failing Government
plies, privatp enterprise will be able to
vide, in almost unlimited quantity, this
necessary portion of the tnaiiriel of
Having spoken as to the quatUity of I
Messrs Edgington are able to turn oul
may, perhaps, be expected to say a word;
their quaUly, but the reputation of the fii
so well-eslablished in this respect, that eu
is unnecessary.

A STRAWBERRY TRIMMER.

In an American periodical caHed
" Fruit Recorder," we find the folio
description and illustration of a Strawt
Trimmer. It is a hoop, z or 3 in

. 2. - Boiiquul l);t3kcl- tilled.

.\ bouquet in such a basket,
])roperly covered with paper or cloth to keej)
out Oust, can be sent a long distance without
injury, and a.s it can be hung by the handle
to the roof of a railway carriage it will ride
with perfect safety. Thinking that some of
our own florists might find this contrivance
useful, we brinp; it to their notice.

MARQUEES AND TENTS.

Messrs John Edgington & Co., Marquee
and Tent manufacturers, of Ixjng Lane, \Vesi
Smithfield, London, have just issued an en-
larged edition of their trade catalogue. It
cMcnds to 44 pp. 8vo, and contains illustrateil
and descriptive notices of the primitive an<l
temporary erections which, in this country,
ihe return of summer weather renders ncces- Mru«i«rfy iriinmur.

sary to the complete enjoyment of out-of-door wide, and about 3 feet long ; the ends la|
meetings, .iports, or excursions. The mana- and fastened with a set screw. This ]
!;ers ol iiorticultiiral and floricuUural shows, is of saw plate, the lower edge sharpc
HLid the giveis of garden jiarlies, need be at while to the upper are attached thin stri
10 loss where to find tents suited to their re- iron which unite to a wooden handle 1

Ratidont Notes 455

t long. One downward stroke with the much better economy to breed from the

line removes all the runners from the . largest and best birds, even at high prices.

, like cutting out biscuit with a cake- In the spring of 187 1 I purchased a fine

r ; and it is so much less fatiguing than young cock, weighing 25 lb., the oflFspring

ling over and blistering one's fingers with of a pair that weighed 62 lb. I mated him

s. with a flock of young turkeys. With one or

two exceptions the chicks were strong and

healthy, and I thought made birds good

RAISING HEAVY TURKEYS. cnough. In the spring of 1872 I kept

correspondent of the Poultry Bulletin the same cock, weighing then 31 lb. with the

5 as follows : — In theory most people same hens, adding two or three young birds.

re that weight in the parent turkey I raided 10 1 turkeys against 70 the previous

11 the offspring. In practice they are season ; they matured earlier, and both the

content to breed from light weights, cocks and hens that I have sold during the

ise they are more easily found. In tur- fall and winter have run larger,

•reeding, where weight is the main thing I have no doubt that much is gained in the

aiding profit at the close of the year, weight of the flock by breeding from two and

fanners out of ten will breed from a three year old birds of the finest form and

d litter cock, weighing 16 lb. or less, if heaviest weight If only 2 lb. to the bird is

lappen to have him, rather than invest gained, it makes quite a difference in a flock

or ten dollar bill in a stout, well-built early of one hundred. It is somewhat difficult to

weighing a third more, or in a yearling get hold of yearling toms that will weigh 30

ing double. Very few breeders have lb. and upwards. It costs something to feed

enough in heavy birds, to keep a cock a big turkey a year, and the breeder who has

;he second or third year. They want possession of the bird generally has a use for

xtra flesh on him sold at the market him. Turkeys do not attain their full size

I have tried breeding from both young until the third year, and it is safe • to breed

Id birds, and have no doubt that it is from them four or five years.

456

The Countty Gentleman's Magazine

%\iz (Dlb J[arnwr'0 ^ok-f oxrk.

WELL, in the course of my long life I have
noted many strange things, but not in all
my wanderings, nor in all my readings, have I
heard of or known about anything like this,
which I clipped out of a provincial newspaper
I picked up the other day. It seems to me so mar-
vellously strange that I cannot resist giving it
preference in my Notes over the weather —
the primary source of conversation in all well-
educated British society, whether the members
thereof belongtotheland-owning, the agricultural,
or the manufacturing interests. Here is the
jotting from the Aberdeen Free Press :—

Resignation of Calcraft.— Calcraft has an-
nounced his intention to shortly retire from an official
life, and seek the repose of cultivating Roses, Dahlias,
and Tulips, for which he has a great taste. His suc-
cessor is said to be one Robert Rickard Evans, a well-
to-do fanner of his own land, of Llangain Fami, near
Carmarthen, South Wales, and who has assisted at
executions for the last fourteen years, out of pure
devotion to the "noble art." The Corporation of
London will pension Calcraft on his full honorarium
of j^i per week, and the Home Oflice are asked to
supplement this. P'armer Evans, who will probably
succeed Calcraft, is a robust, middle-aged man, and
his master has certified to his skill and ability to keep
up the dignity of his station, with credit and fame to
his country and profession.

On reading it I thought to myself what a
wonderfully benign effect upon human nature
the influence of flowers must have. I always
believed, and frccpiently when opportune occa-
sions presented themselves, have given expres-
sion to the belief, that a cultivation of flowers
tended to soften the manners and refine the
minds of those who tended them. But never in
my wildest dreams— and some of them have
been nearly as appalling as any that De
Quinccy or Bayard Taylor ever dreamt under
the influence of opium (I never taste that drug)
—did I imagine that a love of Roses and Dahlias
and Tulips could seduce the last executor of the
griunnest of laws from his post. Henceforth it
will stand recorded in history and poetry that
•^e charms ot music are not at all comparable

with those of flowers. " Music," we have I
told by Congreve,

— ** has charms to soothe a savage breast.
To soften rocks or bend a knotted oak,"

and the praises of the Divine Nymph have I
sung by nearly every bard before or since.
music never excited so striking a change u
human character as flowers have done in
special instance. They have transformed a i
whose name is a horror — a man callous to n
kind, into a quiet peaceable horticulturist. Sui

Spake full well in language quaint and olden.
One who dwelt beside the castelled Rhine,

When he called those flowers so blue and golda
Stars that in earth's firmament do shine.

Stars they are in which we read our history,
Not as the astrologers and seers of eld,

Not wrapt about in fearful mystery
Like the burning stars which they beheld.

To me it appears almost now that there i
mystery about flowers, and one that is c
pleasant, rather than of a painful kind. If t
can so convert Calcraft I must believe with ]
Hemans —

Flowers ! when the Saviour's calm benignant eye
Fell on your gentle beauty ; when from you
That heavenly lesson for all hearts He drew.
Eternal, universal as the sky ;
Then in the blossom of your purity
A voice He set as in a temple shrine.
That life's quick travellers ne'er might pass you b
Unwarn'd of that sweet oracle divine.

Do, gentle readers, pardon an old man y
was once fond of the poets, and who has I
carried away miles from his Note-book bythe
heard-of ascension of Calcraft from the basest
most brutalizing of offices to the most plcasur:
and elevating of studies. I think the editor
all horticultural magazines should present
with at least one copy gratis.

Having done with Calcraft, I say my old h
boils with indignation within me when I i
that it is a farmer who has undertaken the
grading place which Calcraft has vacated.

The Old Farmer's Note-Book 457

is a farmer for whose prosperity I cannot con- land to lie half-tilled and the cottagers to live in

scientiously pray. I had better not say more hovels worse than pig-styes. I was pleased to

on this point lest my temper might get the better see that the great principle of compensation for

of me. improvements was universally applauded. I was

Well, now (I have had a long pause over the not much surprised, however, to notice a spirit

conversion and perversion this paragraph re- of opposition evoked to the 12th clause. It

cites, because I was so excited with wonder and seems to me to grate too harshly upon the ear,

wrath I could make nothing with the pen on and I am afraid that if it be insisted upon toto

paper except spider-like daubs), I come to the c<elo that the measure will be delayed for a

weather, which has lately been very delightful, season — and that is undesirable. I think it might

It is true there have been some slight frosts at be so arrangedthat the spirit of the 12th clause be
night, and in exceptional instances the blades of preserved without the text. I hope so, as I should

the young cereals have suffered, but the country like to see before I " have shuffled off this mortal

has benefited much by the dry, almost summer- coil," a measure so fairly constructed passed into

like weather prevailing since, I last wrote, law, as it would tend to promote friendship

Things are not nearly so backward nor so bad between owner and occupier, and increase the

as most people thought, and I among the num- fertilizing properties of the soiL " Delays are

ber, they were likely to be a month or six weeks dangerous " to both contracting parties, in all

agone. I am saying this from experience, be- cases, and in the instance of land tenure espe-

cause, taking advantage of the fine weather, I cially. It appears to me that on the main points

have been visiting numerous friends in the of the Bill landlords and landholders are brothers

country. I am sorry to say, however, that the — not adversaries, and they therefore ought to

grass does not look in a very flourishing con- " agree quickly while they are in the way ** with

dition. Indeed, its growth has been subdued, each other.

and fodder not being plentiful it is not easy, and ,

rather expensive to keep stock in good condition. By the way, I noticed the other day in the

'course of my reading some very suggestive hints

The Landlord and Tenant Bill I have thought ',*» those who proposed embarking upon fanning

, , ^ . .^ 1 • J I. r *i. ur« I am under the impression that it was m one of

much about since it was laid before the public. , . . '^ , , .

J, c a ^ * A,, *T, • * 1 the American papers that are now and again

Its frammg reflects great credit upon the mtel- ^ , r • j • 1 1 , ,

i. J .1. J r • *• V J- 1 sent to me by friends m that almost exhaustless

ligence and the deep sense of justice it displays .1. . r -^ -n ^ ^

on the part of Mr James Howard and Mr Clare *=°""*'y '^^' ^ '^'^ "• ^^"* ""^ matter whether

Scwcll Read. They have earned for themselves *«, ^^f^' ^^^ °^^ V. '"^ "' ""'' !. P"";

the gratitude of facers by the devotion they c.ples laid down for obtammg success stand good

, ** , r ^1. • • * * J T *u- 1 4.ul all over the world. They are these : — i. Tho-

have shewn for their interests, and I tnmk the ,, iji.vi..-i «

landlords are much indebted to them also for rough knowledge both of principles and practice,

the endeavour they have made in their measure f- Natural adaptation for the pursuit. 3. Suf-

to have even-handed justice meted out to both fi"««t capital, invested and in hand. 4. Adap-

contracting parties. For although I am getting t^*'"" "^ P^°du<:ts to accessible markets. S-

old, and have, as aged people mosUy have, ^^^ ^rrB.ngcd for the future as weU as the pre-

u 1-4.^1 4. J ^ * ^ ^^^rr.4^:^^ T sent 6. Concentration of energies on leading

perhaps a little tendency to conservatism, I , , t^ , , , , ,

\. u'A r ^c4.u 4, branches. 7. Purchases to be made to the best

cannot hide from myself that , « r„, . , , ,

advantage. 8. The most economical methods

The old order changeth, giving place to new, of production. 9. Knowledge of the cost and
And God fulfils Himself in many ways, profit of different products. My friend Mr
Lest one good custom should corrupt the world. ^^^n has long been urging upon agriculturists
Now it depends much, I think, upon how a the necessity of applying commercial principles
measure of this kind is received, whether the to farming practice as the surest and indeed the
change from the old order to the new shall be only way of arriving at a correct notion as to
violent or peaceful, whether relationships of the whether farming is a profitable or a poverty-
most amicable character shall subsist between stricken occupation. I was sorry to read in
landlords and tenants, or whether it shall be the proceedings of an important meeting of
strife between them ; whether, in short, both farmers recently that one gentleman fervently
shall work together so as to make the most out thanked God that farming was not conducted
of the land and secure the greatest comfort for upon commercial principles. I think more pro-
thc labourer, or whether they shall allow the duce would te obtained from the land if it were.

45 8 The Country Gentletnan's Magazine

and even the old-fashioned ones should learn on the glass in the window, and on the insit

not to bellow at the word " commercial," as a bull signifies a serene and cool air, and inclinal

at a red rag. I was once, I confess, rather timid drought If the sea appear very calm wi

and angry at the phrase being flaunted in my murmuring noise, it Signifies wind. If oe

face, but I have lived to find it not only harmless surface of the sea you discern white froth,

but helpful. I have pencilled down what an unto crowns or bracelets, it signifies wind,

eminent American agricultural authority has said . the more plainly they appear, the greater wil

upon the matter, and it is so good that it is worthy wind and tempests be. If the waves swell i

of transcription in your columns : — " The intro- out winds, or the tide rise higher and (

duction of this [the commercial principle into ashore more swift than usual, it presa

farming] would lead to earnest study regarding winds." I have noted many more strange p

the best rotations, the best and cheapest methods nosticks, but I think I am getting rather ted

of creating and sustaining a higher fertility in and shcdl content myself by the remark tl

lands — whether under the plough or in grass — may come back to them again when I think

to improving the hereditary characteristics of will prove interesting.

domestic animals, and to the most profitable

methods of feeding and treatment. It would i cannot conclude without describing

lead to a conviction that our children require, in meat question being the paramount one of

order to h^ good farmers, more and higher and day) a bonne bouche in the Lews, where^ <

better education, and more special training for knows, the people have Jittle chance of g?

this profession than we ourselves had the means mandizing, although they are not discontei

of obtaining. It will lead to division of labour, with their lot. I wish they were more so, fort

and to associated effort, so far as these can be more might be got out of the land.
brought to bear in aid of this pursuit. It will Take two eggs, with a little butter and m

lead to a freer use of capital in farming, both whip them all well together, and place on

for permanent improvements and for floating use. top of a hot barley bannock. Spread ev<

It will lead to a firm faith in good farming as over, and hold a live peat above until it ft

both a safe and remunerative occupation." sufficiently to allow the cake to be toasted bd

the fire. This done properly, no instruct]

Dear me I how the gadding about that I have are required as to its disposal It is a favou

been doing lately, does change the current of the " piece " for herd boys ; and one was formt

thoughts. So mixed up with " the living pre- due to any one who first discovered a cow a

sent " have I been lately that I had almost for- calving — one or two eggs being given accord

gotten " the dead past," as it is presented in my to the sex of the calf. With beef at a premi

Note Book, and in truth I was only reminded of and cattle at a ransom, we advise, in the

the Note Book now, by a prognostication in a terests of society and the herd boys, an

daily newspaper, that we were to have a very mediate return to the practice.

hot summer — upon what grounds was not stated.

The word prognostication straight carried me The question as to what is sowens I have s

back to old days, and I looked and found this more than once asked. 1 will tell you how it ism

about " prognosticks taken from the earth and in the Lews, where the old small black oat,

water." " If the earth appear more dry than or- white not growing well, is still cultivated. Be

dinary, or if it greedily drink in rains lately too dark for porridge, the meal of these oats

fallen, or floods suddenly abate, it signifies more made into sowens thus : —
rain to follow. If the earth or any moist or fenny As the meal comes from the mill it is stee

places yield any extraordinary scents or smells, in water, until the grain dissolves and the wl

it presageth rain. If the water, being formerly sours ; this takes from three days to a week.

very clear, change to be dim or thick, it signifies is then strained, and the fine allowed to se^

rain. If dews lie long in a morning on the grass, while water is added regularly to keep it i

&c., it signifies fair weather, the air then being right consistency. This is kept for makin

more serene and not of an attractive or spungy kind of pudding called sowens, which, when ^

nature. If dews rise or vanish suddenly and strained and not allowed to become too sou

early in the morning, it presageth rain. If a most agreeable and exceedingly nourisl

marble, stones, metals, &c., appear moist, it indi- food. Eaten with milk, it is a favourite su]

cates the inclination of the air to be moist and both among the natives of the Hebrides

ai'bip'-t to rain ; but if in the morning a dew be many parts of the mainland of Scotland.

The Old Fo rmef^s Note- Book 459

ill, I never was so astonished in my life was exhausted, and then went down to the lobby

was the other night when I went up to to find to my cliagrin and sorrow that it had to

iouse of Commons. I had procured an be postponed on account of Mr Howard's illness.

for the gallery from an old friend of So you see, dear readers, I had my journey up to

—a farmer's member, you may be sure — town for nothing.

I hastened early with it, expecting that

would be such a crush for seats by those This disappointment about the Landlord and

isted in agricultural matters that I should Tenant Bill ruffled me a good deal for two or

to wait my turn to be balloted for, and pro- three days, in fact I have not got quite over the

' would not get a seat at all if I were not fatigues of my train-travelling and its fruitless

the exact time. I don't like sitting upon results yet. You must therefore be content this

:old benches among cold statues in that month with only one or two jottings.

anteroom, or corridor, where the belated

like the foolish virgins, have occasion to The following about the oiling of harness is

for hours with only the faintest prospect of not quite so important perhaps as it was at the

ig in, after the mental feast they came to time of my jotting it down, but still it is just

was over. Such waiting is bad for an old as well to know that we should clean and oil

afflicted with rheumatism as I am, and the harness at least once a year, to keep it in

Iful draughts play hide-and-seek round you good condition, and to reduce the wear and tear

?en these two guardian doors, dividing the as much as possible. Don't let the job out to

and the outer temples. Judge of my sur- the harness-maker : but some of these stormy

when on this — the night of the Landlord days when the harness is not in use just take it

Tenant Bill — one of the most important into the workshop and commence operations.

ures, in my opinion, that has been brought Take the harness all apart and scrape of all

Parliament, as affecting the landed interests scurf, hairs and dirt ; and wash the leather clean

s country, for any number of years within with soap and hot water. Then heat 2 or 3

nemory — when I found that the corridor quarts of neats-foot oil in a long shallow pan,

;mpty of every living thing ; nothing to be and draw each piece of leather through it

in it but the marble representatives of the slowly, bending the leather backward and for-

ficd senators of yore. Still wider did I ward and rubbing the oil in with a cloth or

my eyes when (thinking that with all my sponge. Hang near the fire to dry, and repeat

uality 1 may, nevertheless, have been fore- the process until the leather is saturated with

d), on enquiring whether the gallery was oil ; mix a little lampblack with clean tallow,

was told by the Rhadamanthus at the and with a cloth rub it into the leather while

gate that he did not believe there were warm, until the pores are fflled and the surface

; three upstairs. Pondering much over this becomes smooth and glossy. If a harness is

isness about a momentous question, I found oiled in this way it is never gunrniy, and will.

If in the gallery where there were absolutely therefore, keep a long time. Sometimes linseed

hree listeners. I sat down and looked down oil or adulterated oils are used, but they dry on

the members, who were sparsely represented, the leather and make it gunrnriy, dirt and hairs

r benches were empty, but on the front stick to it, and the harness gets so filthy as to

left and right from my position, I soil everything it touches. After the harness

nizcd Mr Gladstone and Mr Disraeli, has had a good oiling, an occasional rubbing

'oster, and the imposing presence of Mr with tallow and lampblack will keep the leather

I Hunt. Somebody was speaking whom I tough and pliable, and prevent it from cracking.

not see : but whoever he was he spoke long •

Ircarily, speaking, as I thought then, against Regarding bee stings, the following may be
for some purpose which I do not care to useful to some of my readers who may unfor-
Short shrift was given to him after his tunately happen to be attacked by these sweet-
h ; a division followed immediately, which making but sometimes vicious insects. The
cd that his almost interminable words had sting of the bee is barbed at the end like a fish-
as idle as the empty wind. More speeches I hook, and consequently is always left in the
ed to, but they went in at one ear and out wound ; that of the wasp is pointed, so that it
other. Long I waited for the Landlord can sting more than once, but a bee cannot
Tenant Bill— it was only it I came to hear When a person is stung by a bee, let the sting
it came not. I waited until my patience be instantly pulled out, for the longer it remains

460 TJu Country Gentletnan's Magazine

in the flesh, the deeper it will pierce and the Although I am an old bachelor and never l

more poisonous it will become. The sting is the croup, I give the following recipe, which 1

hollow, and the poison flows through it, which almost always been found effectual in curing tl

is the cause of the pain and inflammation. The dangerous malady in children, as likely to

extracting of the sting requires a steady hand> useful in farm-houses, where the doctor cam

for if it break in the wound the pain will con- always be easily reached : — ^Just before going

tinue for a long time. When the sting is ex- bed grease the breast thoroughly with go(

tracted,' suck the puncture, and thus prevent grease, and lay on it a double thickness

inflanunation. Spirits of hartshorn, if applied flannel. If the strangling comes on sudden

to the affected part, will more fully complete the mix Scotch snuff and lard together, put on

cure. The poison is acid, and the alkali will piece of brown paper, and apply instantly to 1

neutralize it. If hartshorn is not at hand, breast, rubbing the throat meanwhile with 1

saleratus can be wet and laid upon the place, grease, or lard, or oil. Or you can do this : I

and sofl soap will often ease the acute pain. On a flannel in water, as hot as it can be borne, 1

some people the sting of bees and wasps has it on the breast, take salt butter, spread 01

little effect, and it greatly depends upon the state piece of brown paper, and apply to tlvs bre

of the blood whether it will prove injurious; and throat. Salty butter rubbed on the thr

but these simple remedies, if applied immc- and chest, just before going to bed, is a in

diately and carefully, will in the majority of excellent remedy for sore throat, two or th

cases effect a cure. applications being enough to effect a cure.

The Country Gentleniati s Magazine 461

Ulu darben.

MODERN S YSTEM OF BEDDING.

WE give the following designs for ar- of itself if the plants all grew well and uniform,

ranging bedding-out plants, in the forming an outline of the most unexception-

hope that they may prove useful to many of able character, and studded with bright pink

our readers. They are intended for isolated flowers — one of the most distinguished indeed

beds cut out in lawns, but they may be laid of Cloveworts, that looks best in a circle by

down on gravel, and either edged with box itself, either having grass or gravel for its
or grass. Being simple in outline, they are
scarcely out of place in either one or other of
the forms of general designs for laying out
villa grounds. They are intended here not
so much to illustrate internal form as to

Fig. 2. — Design for Flower Bed, No. 2.

margin. Take Pelargoniums again, and they
look to best advantage by way of contrast.
They would do to occupy that portion of the
circle marked i, and could have either
flowering or ornamental plants as a margin

Fig. I.— Design for Flower Bed, No. i. u i^* *.

* ' or belting at 2.

shew internal modes of planting. There are If a more intricate arrangement were de-

so many ways of filling beds, and all more sired, then that mode of division might be

or less effective, that we commend the general adopted shewn at fig. 2. The centre is

consideration of the question to all decorative intended for distinctive tallish growing plants,

planters. We have been all along of the as the dots round it suggest Humea elegans

opinion that artistic bedding did not depend would form a most excellent centre-piece, with

upon the mere geometrical figure, but that it its feathery, drooping inflorescence; or, failing

was due to the wise method of grouping that, some of the so-called sub-tropical plants,

plants in any given design to make each let it be a Wigandia, or Solanum, or Pampas,

other, if possible, look better than if they The wedge points must all be filled with one

were alone. kind and colour of plants, unless they were

Take the simple circle, fig. i, and if it to be studded here and there with a flowering

were planted with one description of decora- plant rising from such a cushion of foliage

tive plant it would be pleasing enough, but as Cerastium tomentosum or Santolina incana

not half so attractive as it would be if it or Alyssum variegatum produces. Then the

were grouped with two colours and two forms indented outline might be either one colour

of decorative plants planted as at i and 2. or more at pleasure, but to be unobjectionable

There are certain plants that form exception to the eye of taste one colour ought to be the

to the general rule, take Saponaria calabrica rule,

for example. That plant would look superb Fig. 3 is a combination of circles which, if

462

The Country Gentleman^s Magazine

grouped with suitable plants, would make a
most effective design. In all designs some
leading distinctive plant ought to fill the
centre. It should always be taller — it may
be considerably taller than its compeers.
The eye prefers to rest upon something
effective, beginning always at the centre and

Fig. 3. — Design for Flower Bed, No. 3.

tailing off at the margin. Supposing, then,
that this was decided upon as a general
mixtiu*e bed, where the colours and forms of
the plant were expected to blend or contrast,
as the case might be, and yet not be offen-
tive to the eye of taste, the designer has a
difficult task before him. He must not have
2 or 3 taller than 4, neither must he have 5,
6, or 7 out of proportion to 2, 3, or 4, nor
yet out of proportion as to size with each
other. It must necessarily, indeed, be a
formal bed altogether, but if planted well >vill
be an exceedingly pleasing one. Let us give

Fig. 4. — Design for Flower Bed, No. 4.

the names of a few common plants that
would appear to advantage in this design.
We do not name high-priced plants which
are beyond the means of many villa gardeners;
we only give those that everybody grows who
has pit and frame accommodation. Let the
centre be a group of dwarf-growing Dahlias,
surrounded with the hoary-lcaved Cineraria
maritima ; tlien fill 2, 3, and 4 with Purple
King Verbena, intennixed with Alyssum
variegatum. Let 5, 6, and 7 be filled with
Alternantheras and Iresine Herbstii, kept
^^nched to be uniform in height with the

Alternantheras, and let the outline or m
be the hoary and captivating Genu
tomentosum. This would make a
effective display, and could be got up at
cost Of course there are many way
doing such a thing, and each must be gu
by the material at command in resolvin
plant.

Take yet ancyther mode of exhibiting flo
ing and ornamental leaved plants to ad
tage in the serpentine outline of fig
This is a very formal design, and
generally planted with three colours.
might be varied, however, according to ta
Mixtures of proper couples are exceed!]
effective. We named Alyssum and Pu
King Verbena as one. We might a
Arabis variegata and Lobelia spedosa
another, and Mangles' Variegated Pda
nium and Verbena venosa as a third. E
Cerastium and Arabis, in their green and {
and hoary mixtures make a very telling
play alongside of bright colours. Loh
and Gazania contrast excellently too ; in t
they should scarcely be out of company
with the other. Centaurea ragusina spri
elegantly from a bright cushion of crimsoi
scarlet flowering Verbenas, and almost e^
good habited flowering plant looks be
rising from a pale green cushion of St<
crop. Stocks, Intermediate Stocks, of
scarlet class might do for the centrepiea
fig. 4, which might again be surrounded ^
the decided tone of a purple Verbena,
margined with the golden shining Ar
lucida.

The double triangle shewn at fig. 5 pres

Fig. 5. — Design for Flower Bed, No. 5.

a groundwork for displaying plants effectii
and perhaps may be said to be more in k
ing in gravel than cut out in a lawn.

Modem System of Bedding

463

centre here must be raised, but not too pro-
minently, to conceal the design from the eye
of the beholder ; 2 must have one descrip-
tion of plant or plants, and so must 3 and 4 ;
indeed, 3 and 4 should be filled with different
coloured Verbenas so as to give proper
uniformity of habit and height. It would be
very pretty to have a deep blue margin of
Lobelia if the design were surrounded with
either red or white gravel, and if the locality
were sufficiently propitious for the production
of flowers. Many localities are more favour-
able for leaf than for flower growth, and that
is why we interpose the remark.

In the remaining design, which shall occupy
our attention at present, the intention is to
have the tallest plants at the broadest end
of the bed, running out in height as they
verge to the point. We prefer such a
design as this grouped in company with
others in a flower garden rather than

advise its laying out as a detached bed on a
lawn. We give it here, as it is useful as a
variety, and may prove suggestive to those
who give their attention to formal methods

Fig. 6.— Design for Flower Bed, No. 6.

of planting. Many of our lady readers are
such adepts in the art of arranging colours
and marshalling forms, either by way of con-
trasting with one another or shading into one
another, that we are less under the necessity
of going into minute details.

MODERN SYSTEM OF BEDDING,

[We give, by permission of Mr Cannell, an illustration of a Geometrical Flower Bed laid out in that gentle-
man's Nursery in season 1872. We also give Mr CanneU's remarks on the plants employed.

FROM the very earliest period in the
history of mankind, it has always been
the pride and delight to decorate the frontage
of his dwelling with the brightest and choicest
floral display, and long has there beeu con-
tention as to the best way in doing so, what
plants to use, and the best style, and what
form to put them in. The ordinary style and
kinds of flowering plants are very showy for
the time they last, but are devoid of what
constitutes the charm of a modem Garden
Bed. For refined taste and choice design,
little trouble, and a continuance of display,
the system I have adopted for these last two
years in my trial garden certainly eclipses all
beds hitherto seen, having hit upon a happy
medium by using our dwarf bright foliage
plants, intermixing various dwarf succulents
and flowering plants of bright and glowing

colours, producing a grand effect, and evok-
ing the surprise of all beholders, the raised
centres and bordering adding greatly to its
beauty ; the shape and succulents so arranged
to present a prominent and attractive face
whichever way it may be viewed from, leaving
the old flat carpet style far in the rear. It
was freely acknowledged by the most com-
petent judges to be the best Floral Bed ever
yet seen and arranged. In the first instance,
one would suppose that great difficulty would
be experienced, a deal of art, and much
skill required, but if the thing is once begun,
mistaken ideas soon vanish and it becomes
easy enough.

First of all, exercise your own judgment,
planning out on paper the design tliat would
be most suitable to the place and bed, not
forgetting the plants you have at command,

464

The Country Gentleman's Magazme

which should be got out each year, when
growing, that their colour and habit of growth
can be correctly seen. Those are very im-
portant items to be ascertained. After due
consideration, the next is to set about pre-
paring the number and kinds required to
carry out the design when the time arrives
for commencing.

In the first place, in preparing the ground,
let it be well trenched or dug very deeply.

intended to be raised, build up tlic wiflj
firmly with the ordinary soil, inserting Iht
succulents, not forgetting to use all aviiiabie
judgment at hand, and allowing sutfidoi
space for growth between each. In the b*
torn series, in the present engraving, is Scm-
pervivura tabu Ik forme, a most invaluahlt
succulent for bedding, and now grown iij
thousands, and which has the appearance of
a green plate standing on its edge ; next ii i
row of Echeveria secunda glauca, also oncef
the best. Be particular that even-sized pbnO

atid the surface Irorlden, so that no aft r ari. cl oscn u ^ t^i, 1 trt,er in the centre if

settlement can occur. Make sure that ill tl s s sk If lly done and vhen all is finished,

corres]ionding heights and levels are perfectly tlevaro si s 11 have a shaded appear

parallel with each other, and after all is anre il cl greatly e ha ces its value The

thoroughly stumped anil the angles correctly ti r 1 1 n th c ntre bed s a narrow oneof

taken, so that all points properly meet wh i \lt r t 1 ra i i n, a a Ij 1st above this row

the planting is finishcl —otherwise all beaut) of tl t \cn. 1 ^.ly n -it fe.™ v ng htlle succu

is lost, and a lop-sided api)earance given — 1 t ^i n] r v n n ontanum hich bnogf

then proceed with the ceTitrn. which if it s u; tl c d a nond to a fine shape and then Ccn

Modem System of Bedding 465

ragusina compacta, planted to fit the Now comes the white margin, as it were, to
of the bed, and rather sunk, so that the a fine steel engraving, and without this is
corresponds with the other plants, and wide, dense, dwarf, and boldly defined, the
be Coleus in the two oval end beds;' remainder becomes deteriorated. This I
with the Centaurea, of course, are occa- formed of Antenuaria tomentosa, as hardy as
ly pinched in to keep them in a suitable a brick, and always come-at-able from any
, and to prevent the raised soil being vacant bit of ground ; its only secret is to
d away with heavy rain. Roman divide it up early in February, prick it in
It should be mixed about half-and-half in small pieces very thickly where it is re-
he soil, and a thin coating of it just quired, or in small pots, and plant it the same
ng the raised parts laid on, sprinkling it time as the others, except having its edge
whilst soft with soil, to prevent the occasionally cut straight ; this is all it requires,
It being detected. as it never exceeds more than an inch in

oval beds, 7 feet long, 3 feet wide, height. All round this is a very narrow line
»nd 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, after the (to form a beading) of Altemanthera amoena,
centre raised parts are neatly finished, a very deep red magenta, which gives a fine
ig sure all sides, points, and heights effect. After this the following forms the frame-
ipond ; then commence the next line, by work of the whole picture or bed, and raised
ling the surface soil for the reception of as high as circumstances will permit, and taste
obelia Brilliant, which is by far the best may think advisable. The first margin point-
le most compact of the speciosa class, ing inward to the bed is Sempervivum cali-
small plants, and planting thickly. After fomicum laid sideways in one regular straight

1 double row of Golden Feather, form- line all round as per engraving. This is a
belt 6 inches wide. It is also important splendid hardy succulent, and can be planted
hese should be small, sown about the and got by thousands in any waste dry comer
f April, and pricked-in very closely, so of the garden, and opposite, forming the ex-
is soon as they make an effect half of treme outside rows, a similar row all round of
can be pulled up. Next is a double Echeveria secunda. This can also be obtained
f Altemanthera magnifica, 7 inches wide, from seeds or suckers in almost any quantity,
.ted up and put in a warm comer, and and only requires the protection of a very dry
mting time gradually hardened off like pit in the winter; to exclude frost after these
oleus, no difficulty need be experienced, are all in their allotted places cover the roots
^maining space to form the square, filled with soil, then a narrow neat line of Alteman-
:h that most invaluable bedding plant, thera amabilis. On the top of each row of
mbryanthemum cordifoUum var. These succulents in the centre to form the round is
e planted as far as 6 inches apart, being * planted and filled with Coprosma Baueriana
ick growth, soon filling up, and may be variegata and Lonicera aurea reticulata pegged
ito any shape required. Then a thickly down. Both these have a variegation of
ed row of young Lobelias pumila grandi- bright yellow in the leaves, and are exceed-

which is a remarkably dense-growing ingly pretty ; the former is tender and choice,

^, and the only secret of its lasting in the latter quite hardy, and almost any quan-

ction all the season, and making one of tity can be propagated in the spring, and

lost effective lines, is by planting in at planted thickly, and when pegged down and

small plants, hardly large enough to kept close to the soil it is very neat, and one

flower ; and when it has grown and of the best edging plants we have, and is but

its allotted space, to clip off about an little trouble. Each comer is formed with

or two of its side; this prevents splitting plants of Sempervivum arboreum about 16

with heavy rains, and greatly improves inches in height — a fine succulent, well

ntinuous flowering, and adds a fine charm adapted for this purpose, and easily propa-

e whole. gated tt also is a fine ornamental succulent

VOL. X. H H

466

The Country Gentleifian's Megazuie

for the ' greenhouse throughout the winter, if they were placed there by band), gini

These, surrounded with Sempervivum hirtum perfect finish to the comers ( see engmii^

(known also as the "Family Plant," as the To reach any part of the bed, a ladder ■

mother plant is in the centre, and the little plank should be placed across, suppcated Ij

ones all round, and the growth as r^lar as a box on each side.

PLANTS REMARKABLE FOR BEAUTLFUL FLOWERS.

DiANTHus DiADEMATUi PLENissiMUS. illustration of it will provc a lemindtrK

NO border flowers are more beloved those who are on the alert for the good ad
than Pmks,theyate dwarf in growth, beautiful, whether it be new or old It«
and the flowers in comparison are so large
with so many tints. The one now sub-
mitted is a very double form of the Hedde-
wiggii section, and is sportive in its character,
being now of the richest blood colour, agam
marbled and mottled with pink and white.

best Eo have a succession of young plants, u
old biennial tufts never yield the ridi harreS
of flowers that younger plants da

BRACHVCOME IBEHIDIFOLIA.

This charming small-growing Swan Rive

Daisy (Brachycome iberidifolia) is mud

prized by cultivators of aimuals. It seldoi

Grown in a good soil and kept clean, tliis grows above 6 inches high, but it branchc

Pink will do splendidly. out to a width out of proportion to its heigb

___ and consequently forms tufty masses beaiio

quite a galaxy of blue or white Cincraria-M

DIANTHUS HVBRIDUS. flowers. It is possibly best adapted for rod

This is commonly called the Mule Pink, work, but it does quite well for edging smi

and is found only in limited numbers in the beds. It must be set a-going in heat u

gardens over the country. It is a great Iransplantcth Care, therefore, is necetti

'ivourite where known, and we trust that our to get it well rooted before finally tranqibi

plants Remarkable for Beautiful FlmUers

467

i properly hardened off as well. With appear the central or at least the comnland- •
irecautions any one may succeed with ing object of a group. Its long feathery in- ■
florescence, by no means individually attrac-
tive when seen in the full developjnent of a
well-grown plant, is about as pleasing an object .
as could well be desired. To grow this plant
well it must have the treatment of a biennial,
and must have shelter during one winter to
keep it in action. The great object in its
cultivation is to keep on as long as possible
its full complement of leaves, so that when it
evolves its inflorescence, there is something
like power and reciprocity between the roots
on the one hand and the leaves on the other,
to give forth the necessary nourishment for
"> myriads of flowers. It can be used either in-
doors as a decorative plant, or out-of-doors.
It is much more attractive in colour when
Te fully exposed to the summer's sun, and we
nee attracted the notice of our readers, commend it as a desirable plant.

Brachycome iberidifolia.
I it will charm them when it

HUMEA ELEGANS.
favourite decorative plant has 1

Humea clegans.
gaiil habit renders it a striking object convolvulus mauritanicus.

rer placed. Possibly it should always One of the most beautiful plants' t

46S

T/u Country Gentleman's Magasine

can be made available for in-door de- basket. It is one of the peremualkindstli

coistioD, within the conservatory or green- can be had in flower same season, if sen

house, is the subject of our present illustra- early. Its flowers are pale blue. It shoa

tioD. All Convolvuluses are beautiful, many be grown near the glass and be exposed

of them superlatively so, and such is the pre- bright light

Convolvulus Maurltanicos in a Hanging Basket.

Eent one under consideration. It has a thin For the illustrations, we are indebted
Uailing habit, as will be noticed, and conse- Messrs Henderson, Wellington Niirso]
quently seen best when hanging over a John's Wood.

The C^utttry Gentkmaiis Ma^mne

t<S9

NEW AND RARE PLANTS.

X)Tii£A CONSPICUA.— PRINCE ALBERT'S William Lobb, the collector sent out by them,

YEW. and was named by him in honour of the late

[IS remarkable plant, an evergreen Frince Consort

hardy coniferous tree of great beauty, Saxe Goth»a may be very shortly de-

Braceh of the Sftxe Gotbiea caott^ctM— natnial dee.
le Andes of Patagonia, was introduced scribed ^ a genus with the male flowen of
isrs Veitch, It was discovered by Mr a Podocarp, the females of a Dammar, the

470

Tite Country Gmtkmatis Magatine

fruit ofa Juniper, the seed of a Daciydiutn, abortive membrane, enveloping the buecfAe
and the habit of a Yew. Its fleshy fruit, seed. Sir W. Hooker compares Saze-GoOn
composed of consolidated scales, enclosing to a Podocarp with the flowera in a caoe-i
nut-like seed, and forming what is technically view which he was probably led to take bj
called a galbulus, places it near Juniperus, the condition of the ovule, and which mtf
from which it more especially differs in its be regarded as the most^philosophical mode
of understanding the nature of this singiik
genus ; to which Nageia may be said to be
a slight approach, and which is not ditto-
guishable by habit from a Fodocaip.

DIANTHUS HEDDEWIGOIL

We present here an illustratioD of the c»
moner form of D. Heddewiggii The flora

Saxe Godirea conspkua.
I, Spilce of male flowcre ; 2, Anihcr ; 3, Scale, from the
iniidc ; 4, Hipe fruit ; 5, Seed, all more or less mag-

Dianthus Heddewiggii.
in this instance are single or nearly to, vA
are much sought after by all lovers of [dadi
who have at all formed theii acquaintance

GYNERIUM ABGENTEUM.

This noble plant, native of Bnuil and
Montevideo (called the Pampas Grass, i«

consequence of its inhabiting the vast [diiv
of S. America), was introduced through Ml |

vin 'Rntnnic HanW '

anthers not being peltate, nor its fruit com-
posed ofa single whorl of perfect scales, and
in its ovule having two integuments instead
of one. In the last respect it approaches
Podoearpus, and especially Dacrydium ; but
the exterior integument of the seed is a ragged

Moore of the Glasnevin Botanic Gaidcs>
Although but a grass it forms one of the mot
useful objects for villa garden decoration o)^
tained for many years. In stature it linli
the Bamboo, growing in its native plain
several limes as high as a man. The lea»fl
are hard, wiry, very rough at the edge, Mt
hall an inch broad at the widest part, of*
dull grey colour, much paler below. Thq

New and Rare Plants 471

are edged by sharp points or teeth, little less a sUvery whiteness, owing to their bnng
bard than the teeth of a file; Hie flowers cQv«r«d with very long colourless hairs, aod

Ths PampM Crass -Gynerium wgenleom.

appear in panicles from i^ to i^ feet long, themselves consisting ot colourless memtea-
resembling thoseoftheconunonKeed, but of nons glumes and pales.

47^ The Country Gentlematis Magazine

^airg aiib Jotiltrg garb.

THE DERBYSHIRE CHEESE FACTORY.

THE experiment commenced in Derby- guarantors from aU further obligation, aD<

shire three years ago of making cheese ^^^ "PO" themselves at once all the ]

in factories instead of in separate dairies in o^ the working of the new system. But th

farm houses has now, says the Derby Reporter, who represented the Derbyshire Agriculti

reached a stage which affords solid ground Society, had superintended the experimi

for estimating the results. The experiment continued their oversight for the third y<

was justified by considerations of considerable and the whole make of 1872 having b

force. The principal was the success of the sold they have put forth a report of

plan in the United States. American cheese year's working, which is a most valua

not many years ago was very inferior. It contribution to practical dairy farming. I

fetched a very low price, and no one would >vritten with great clearness, it is full of dct

eat it who could afford to buy a palatable and and general results admirably arranged, 1

wholesome article. But gradually the quality it furnishes ample means of judging of

improved, and the price advanced, until a practical merits of this plan of produc

large portion of the ordinary English make cheese. Every one specially interested in 1

fetched lower rates than that imported from question should procure the report, but

the States. As the working classes were, by the information of the general public we gi

reason of increased wages, able to buy a some of the leading points,
better article, the inferior English cheese It is hardly necessary to say that the f

gradually grew to be quite a drug in the mar- attempts were made under considerable <

ket. The improvement in American cheese ficulties. A new plan will on that very

was due to the adoption of the system of mak- count have to resist much prejudice. Adc

ing it in factories. And notliing seemed more to this, special trade interests were arraj

natural. Success in cheese-making depends against it, the process pursued in Amei

upon the nice observance of many require- needed considerable modification, and tl

ments, and it was likely that when the process the first year and even the second did i

was carried on under the supervision of a man offer a fair criterion. But these obstac

specially devoted to it, with every mechanical have been overcome. The cheese has for<

and other facility at his disposal, it would be its way into the market against all oppositi

improved, and rendered more certain in its and has secured a good price ; the qua!

results. It therefore seemed highly probable has been adapted to English tastes, and 1

that the adoption of a plan which had sue- working of the year 1872 may be accepted

ceeded so well in America would prove a fair basis on which to test the new pi

equally satisfactory here. It is claimed for the new system that it p

Three years ago this was only reasonable duces a greater quantity of cheese from

anticipation : it is now a demonstrated fact, same quantity of milk, that the cheese ms

The three years allowed for the experiment fetches a higher price, and that the cost

have expired. As previously stated, at the making is less than in the ease of che

close of the last season, those who sent their made in home dairies. If these claims ;

»it to the factories agreed to relieve the made good, the success of the sysf^na '« ^«*j

Tlie Derbyshire Cheese Factor)^ 475

lished. More cheese, of better quality at less that the process of making cheese which

cost includes every element of success. leaves considerably more than twice as much

Before the two factories at Derby and butter in the whey as that adopted at the
Longford were started, a good deal of inquiry factories must be inferior. Whatever, how-
was made as to the quantity of milk required ever, may be the value of the cream taken
to make a certain quantity of cheese, and away, or the greater value of the whey re-
the general estimate was that the average for maining, may fairly be considered as an addi-
the season- was that 9j^ pints of milk would tion to the price of the home-made cheese,
produce i lb, of cheese, and the equivalent in comparison with that produced at the fac-
by weight of this would be 12 lb. 25^ oz. tories ; but we imagine that no one will sug-
At the Derby Factory last year cheese- gest that this would raise its value to near the
making ceased at the end of October, and price which the factory cheese fetched,
the production of cheese in proportion to The next point is the cost of production,
milk increases as the year advances, yet the In the case of the factories that is ascertained
results shew that i lb. of matured cheese was with accuracy ; at the farmtiouse it must be
produced from every 11 lb. 4 oz. of milk ; partially matter of conjecture. It is desirable
whilst at Longford, where the factory was to separate the working expenses from that
kept open during November, the quantity part which includes rent, taxes, &c. The cost
was I lb. of matured cheese to 10 lb. 12 oz. of erecting dairies at each farmhouse would
of milk. certainly be greater than that of putting up

Again, the cheese was superior, and fetched one factory for a number of farms. After
a higher price. The whole make at the Long- paying a manager J[,\oo a-year at Longford,
ford factory sold at 74s. io>4d. per cwt of all the labour only amounted to ;^2 15, 1 8s. 3d.
120 lb., and at the Derby factory at 74s. 7d. for 458 cows. It is stated that ten dairy-
No doubt some few makers obtained as good maids were saved, representing 300 cows, and
prices as these, but the cheese produced at the report gives the expense of these at ;;^4o
these factories represented thirty-seven dairies, a-year each, or ;;^ 15 for wages and ;;^25 for
and the price must be compared with the board. The latter item may be considered
average rate for Derbyshire cheese, which no large, but even if the expense were put at
one will deny was considerably under these £^\ per cow, or ;^3o for 30 cows, the actual
figures. There is, however, a deduction from amount would be more than double that
these higher prices. It is acknowledged that paid at the factory for labour, and the only
the whole of the cream does not and cannot be extra item, the cost of conveying the milk
put into cheeses produced by the ordinary to the factory is put down at 3s. per cow per
mode of manufacture, and that the whey after annum, where two or three farmers join
the cheese is made is of better quality. The together. There can be scarcely a doubt
report fairly claims both these differences as that materials are economized by combined
recommendations ; and no one can question and careful management.

474

The Country GenttemaiUs Magazine

WHEY AS A FEED FOR CALVES.

AT the annual meeting of the Michigan
State Dairymen's Association, held in
Adrian, Mich., in February last, an interesting
discussion was had in regard to the value of
whey for feeding. At many of the Michigan
factories the whey is taken away by the
patrons, and not unfrequently is the cause of
trouble to the factory manager, with dissatis-
faction and dispute among patrons. The
difficulty comes from an unequal distribution
of the whey.

The question as to the most profitable
use to which whey can be put elicited con-
siderable discussion. Some contended that.
On account of the low price of pork, the whey
could be used with better advantage as a
feed for calves. Several dairymen gave it as
their experience that good calves could be raised
on whey, and, considering the importance of
each dairyman raising his own stock, select-
ing his calves from deep-milking parents, the
whey in this way could be turned to good
account There is great objection to the
feeding of hogs in the vicinity of a factory
The odour from the sly fills the air for a
considerable distance around, and is wafted
often, by the wind, into the cheese-rooms,
thus tainting the milk. There is less objec-
tion in keeping calves and feeding in con-
nexion with factories than with hogs. If the
yard for calves be located a proper distance
firom the factory buildings, and a good are
rangement be made for feeding and shelter,
the whey may be conducted in pipes to the

premises, and thus be turned to good accotuit
It would be an advantage to have the re-
quisite amount of pasturage connected with
the establishment for the calves. Even if the
whey was to be carted back to the farm, its
value as a feed for calves would be perhaps
more than for hogs ; at least at the present
low price of pork.

A correspondent of the Western Farmer^
in discussing this subject, says : — " I have had
considerable experience in feeding whey to
calves and pigs, and have raised some very
fine ones too. Three years ago I milked, I
think twelve cows, and raised seven cahres,
which had nothing but whey during cheese-
making season, except the grass on about ^
acre of pasture, in which they ran all summer.
They drank about two pails full each, per day,
of sweet whey. These calves were admired
by all who saw them. One yoke were sold,
at three years, for loo dols.; one ditto, at two
years, for 66 dols. In other years I have
kept hogs growing, and in good order, upon
nothing but sweet whey. Ten years ago I
was though the State of Vermont, among
the cheese -makers, and observed they were
raising the finest grade stock I ever saw, feed-
ing the calves exclusively on whey while
making cheese lasted. Upon the whole, my
experience teaches me that with plenty of
sweet whey I can raise as good calves as I
can with sour milk, indeed, I should fully re-
commend the use of sweet whey in preference
to sour milk whenever it can be obtained.

The Country Gentteittaiis MagdtUie 475

^ke Cotmtrg (S^tttletooman.

OUR CONSERVATORY.

is only a aige south window^ but the rounding it, lest the "alive" thing should
un shines brightly through the glass and prove formidable. I clapped my hands with
lovingly on our " green things growing." delight It was a small Amaranthus salid-
len I was married last summer, it was fblius, with the exquisite colouring of its
and idea to have a cosy little green- graceful foliage gleaming already as the sun's
open from our sitting-room. I spoke rays fell upon it I recognized, in this al-
arlie about it one day, and he seemed most a " special providence," the hand of my
:d with the idea, and said it should be good brother, who well knew my weakness.
; but he could not afford the expense. A small, round box, with the bottom re-
I did not like to give up my flowers, moved, was then placed in the centre of my
lany of the golden autumn days which garden, filled widi earth, and my cherished
nt alone I thought of every possible treasiure elevated to a due post of honour,
s of having them around me. There Then I planted delicate Heliotropes, Gera-
le south window of our sitting-room, niums. Verbenas, and Calla Lilies. Around
to be sure, but not nearly large enough the edge I made a border of Lobelia, with
)rd room for one half my flower pots, its flowers like azure stars. Throughout my
lay a bright thought struck me — I would garden at intervals I grouped, where it would
\ box the size of the wmdow seat, fill it best add to the effect, a rich-coloured Coleus
^arth, and so have a "window gsurden" and a Japonica with its dark livery. Then
i This was done, and one glorious in the comers I planted Coboea scandens,
oon last autumn, when Charlie had a some Canary Creepers, and a thrifty plant
leisure, we went forth into the woods of the Maurandia Barcl3rana, which a kind
athered a quantity of old dead branches fiiend sent to me. Then I left all to grow,
n upon the earth by the winter's storms. Now let me tell you just how it looks this
d, gnarled, and twisted, but so much the bright sunny spring morning. Those ugly
'. Then he fixed them securely in the bare branches are now shewing symptoms of
of a rustic bower over the window, becoming a "thing of beauty." The climbers
miserably they looked ; not one bit seem to be having a merry race for the top;
itic or graceful. If we looked at them and what a bower of beauty I fancy I see
y, to be siure there were little coral before me, their beautifiil and delicate foliage
and patches of silvery-grey lichens, mingling together ! My canary's cage hangs
Jtiful exceedingly," and tiny mosses — in the centre, and as he shakes the sunlight
ill they looked so odd in my neat room, from his wings and the melody from his
ie, dear fellow, rallied me a little, but a throat, they together fall like a benediction
ittle, for he saw that I was not altogether on my ear. We had so many bitter storms
nted with my plan thus far. during the past winter that I found my frame
50od while I debated with myself in re- took a great deal from the unpleasantness of
:o a centre piece for my garden ; I was the picture I saw through the window. I
puzzled, when one day a package came have written my " experience," thinking it
J labelled " Alive." I gazed upon it with might be perhaps an aid to some who wished
ioning wonder. What could it be ? to beautify their homes with little expense-
very carefully I unrolled the papers sur- Cora.

47^ The Country GentktHatis Magazine

PLANTS FOR THE DINNER TABLE.

ACACIA LOPHANTHA. abovc them, or the stems must be bare for

IN a young state it would be difficult to some 12 or 15 inches so that a clear view

find a more elegant plant for the decora- may be obtained below the foliage. This

tion of apartments than this, whilst if grown rule may, however, be set aside where the

into a large specimen it will enliven the leaves and branches of the plant are whoOj

greenhouse, or conservatory, with its cylindri- of such a light and feathery descriptioii as to

cal spikes of yellow flowers, during spring be readily seen through,
and summer. At the same time it may be For dinner-table decoration Acacia lo-

remarked that it is sufficiently robust in con- phantha should be grown from seeds, which

stitution to stand in the open air during the are readily obtained, and they should at once

summer months, and forms no mean or in- be sown in Hght soil, and placed in gentk

conspicuous object in the sub-tropical garden, heat in order to induce them to germinate

Most of my readers will imagine that a suf- quickly. When they are transplanted from

ficient number of qualifications have been the seed-pot the soil must be peat and loam

adduced to promote its general cultivation, in about equal parts. It should be confined

but I have yet another purpose to apply it somewhat for pot room, the better to render

to, namely, the decoration of the festive it available for placing in ornamental pots or

board. a silver vase when required for use. The

I am impressed with the idea that every plant should not have the x>oints injured as

person of taste enjoys floral decorations upon it is desirable to confine it to a single stem,

their dinner table. By this I do not mean When grown in this way its elegant leates

the overdone Jack-in-the-green style of thing and symmetrical habit are seen to the greatest

which one is often treated to at club dinners, advantage. This plant grows rapidly, has

&c., neither do I call it decoration when elegant feathery; bipinnate, Fern-like, dark-

anything in the shape of a plant is set upon green leaves, which arch gracefully. Its

the table, for unless the objects used are bottom leaves fall off" naturally when quite

elegant in outline, and graceful in habit, they young. I am quite positive every one who

serve only to mar the general effiect. As I has grown this plant will quite endorse all I

have before remarked, the subjects used for have said in its favour, whilst those who may

this purpose must either be sufficiently dwarf be induced to try it have a great treat in

for the individuals seated at the table to see store, — Vive Vale.

S62A

END OF VOL. /v

COMPLETING THE FIRST SERIES.

■'-' \

.V\^

^" ,

^ ■

:.....%

•:..),

' • i ■

t •

■ ■' - V> • ' * " ' . i

s > -

, V.

■ 1 ' '

V- ^^

><<.

'J^

\ ^

.'*#

■'^'-^ >*i

J?*

■*•-

.- \

^' ,

A '

■»'

•

:."'

,*^

"^.

.p**

^it'^- \

' :^-

4 ■

^ '

.■\

.^'I.. -r.

t .»

. \

i i / -

■J- ,0^ .

1 f / -

^<<

5 •

.■:.J :

■ ^

..V

0--

■J - ,

^ 1 •

■%^

♦ tf , A

V> s ^ • • ^

^^. * .

"^/■

O *• G ^

•J" .'

\ ' I

X^"^ '''*-.

.x^^'

,■*. ..I-....

V -^ " " I ^^

/ •' >T^ ^ \ - V ^r'^ » c >• ' *' ■ V. =» .\

^-^

t \

> <

^ / *« A

,.;«

x^^^.

. -J-'

-*> ' »

, s

>' "^

'>,

» <

"^^ ^^

v">'

A ' '> . .'1

Mjj ! J

Internet Archive Audio

Featured

Top

Images

Featured

Top

Software

Featured

Top

Books

Featured

Top

Video

Featured

Top

Mobile Apps

Browser Extensions

Archive-It Subscription

Save Page Now

Full text of "The Country Gentleman's Magazine"

See other formats