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‘Tae Secowo teh: The Crear Kecession 
Sov - JSD AD, 


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he hae fered ; l- 500 7D, The tint Muar — hd als ee 3/3 — Tring, « Warf, Sen. Ways Cut . 


tn Soa weep, the yur Geepimn ao Ldewele calle 

At sod fier: 4 Wino Wr hasten Wag “yen frm Soe G40 AD 
Ba ele a, “Soo. < bea aN gs. Gren ane. Ue Yo forn Cuca 
Wao Cynwited , Thee Ba cee lee thd j rie eee lal 
dike the fold g the church ot 313 AD hen He Gorgon accepted 
Ak \waeuded ful, ond bya BK doweshak “t — wurtnge 
ae. him tvet—tag m, tex panac anced, the Me Spa: 7 
begin See be pan 32d ma j We = hunch o{ milte/ y beng 
Ae Prd. 4 Chink “A degeam ct became tte Clamud 4 “Cre 

Cf otal is ‘al Swleele \. dat Pe ied Athke Crip haat 4 eee 


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wal Me bu dvd years — Jew In <= bm AD bre 


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1K 7 Vag hat Ate [Le 4 thy ianeaan Tana vs) 
moat dete Olnd ber. AD, - Yb AD te be dxod. Ste Wa 


476 - Odve ey tz Wombrer, Atpnin \Gaadss ps re D 


Mae, Sil ame tk Orbe becmes bare 4 (lorena ely, 4b - (© 


Me AT whe. 4, LA [ES ad aa in th, bneah be (ee Was chetnned. 

Ile wna pane Cnpwotig G4 Oath Won wi a pel hang — | he Wud 

Shunced onede 24 ney orm Lis? thang h ber harinn — thy ole —& " 

WY Lee lad dW LO af [hee Pome hed obbned aliwn the Z 4s . conn 
ous tke se Tne wee salle Mr le te the i “ii? 


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the br bmons, = Yoo AD— A ih fll 4 Uae L Alone th Vergh 176 
AD - te aaa g tee west Uecrmes Uy Vaydin 4 Therdare ty Othall 
Adhd) itetade ave eee tile a2 workin the brian cle firm clone 


© ‘The all (Lime. 476 AD, 


OH 2 w Uc. Te clinniy 4 te-Silonde n Tbe doa Hine ip 
od te Fon diy 4 he ist Peme di ching banat, Gynuia Broodif. 


ie: (Guedrna,) 


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nid Kons 4 “Ke be Otrarhis (Dusdene ) seul haf Porcbed Ag dae ao Mode Gaon deg, as 


- he Goths Wee tata Abwy th Heelies ere “hik yez)| 
Arnodacts Wonstec Nake 4 nde, . GL a ee lal Yn La, eet 


preg May ony wh ae & Www ese Chom x Marron CMCAV.(9.4) Ue lacy 4 ue , a7 Wwe Soll ie, aie 
| ph aS axpligon “ po bell, hy ai und A yy wae ea Sb oe 
. lod Wwrot bk , Gun fewed le red Boras Fe ean 8 eros Ame oe ans 


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: as De) Lae ie gi ie a jy Ba Dxpamton 9 My — Comdyhy 
WA rae Tides, Tyme. hart, 4716 AD, Gol dycter 4 4 Co yar 


Uke - eo ian — = : a ace K WA Wwe si & y 
aslo ine | 


prtchcal Late os flea Proud. thy frend. Prstiesn Bee lnc ae 


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Makmat ef Cholemapne (143) oNpuco Se on ee : IE “Linge 


Cha Hr fall 4 2 Cherise depot) dd wet clfedt tig traf ciudia 4 pleas 
(peer ho ant, 102 Hes , Wet lante shen < ill. cate pre, ter Warten Cree 
Vedic SUS ied ts. bere bn (oe ; aoe the O straps 
bag Olaacen happih iwited Ut lo tear befell, bya & te 
Aral gran OO he oF ip mule — $s eas Wwe ke ereeed $m 
Weng 4 Ore Oumtenn f IS Te reed brreh Say ae ocewnd 
WAN Ot ae AD : MAC Bred. Peay piped, Poe cee ede: 4 
[paren As uw and te Sndte, meditovmin — dnd be Oh prdducle bad B® becrme 

! 4 1/ | mS Saree 
Sl - Saqppprling , wat 00 Irn wt an Medecevnl Dante. The “basa — Torn " 


Pro woo Mahamwed ; adel 


SSN 8 4g han ha hams the Cxthe s 
7 | ' A), f fs ra ] 
Ne ue 4 Unwliw bath, all Yo Grice es fhe OGthe Weed 


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UW Vv 9 par Wnt RK COME LAIN ¢ \ ho Lyon ran. hanrtces : We Ves 


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|} / A 


ie Hee eat, 


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Bee ee as wd tee hall Soe ae Alon 


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she <r “La 
< Ask ge pe og eS Seat ag li We Date 


Grd, Clow! wn - 


BA 4 1 tne oad ales herman Har peed 4 beped dices + 


tin Asdlnn we He ‘Me fur Restores lina aeseaeege_ cal 


sh Pee Ve Cnn in 9. Sunde” Minds delet Ul eecmmerte nee! ne 
Crowerrim 9 the Arman Umpire” , 6 Vrmd £ wld bem walk 524, 

ws becmne thet war the dete y te Clony 4 te Schab 4 Pale 

in theo, ad beconse At tame Hy dete wrmclly axrayned ao He yerr 

Bt RBuedict 9 Vinsy stim bel acu a Wras)-saly ar 4 Apel | Anni deste] 


Ler el week fr pryn wres hep Ick —boflederorrrertet—alinirt—deatlee] om 


Weng ad SO" | Valea ys Aly 4 flout feos, He ste wanascd He fre | 


domme Witt @ le } 
Aber Mee er es Fe Pe et ea eh Ste - 950 AD”. 


ae ly Wienauirdin dren m 
KR wna wd Ue hepniy onthe a lets Tat Bees | 
geen | 


oo wimelly adtarladad = Vhe Crimean, Whe bank venwstinre nd lel 

tw Marcestes tn 5. Freee lov yom earbin. Prt Gus limo On ancete’ 
a nbd, @ hoe fut mule wry “Tonme the Wl” ak hee Seems 
whe wan ied" aaa Te ee oe ae (Denisa, Trby My, p-rv2). 
Vmod om the hex bed aft a tome 4 abi drownl ao a hem, tes te 


adiue BK pomom inbhdrun . Tol. the Spin taal paleo 4 (yi. Coin. , ulld, Were 


Aujud wont Ter Walenio — be ha mms d | we a diva cybned prote a 
wot a9 cach, ~ Bimeibits rude aspunnsd tn chair — chuoldey , pues, -{ stabi - 


lyoko Whe oct wp ab 2 Jn iyo, al dows hy a rade demu, ad mae enshy ct 6. 
Dd all dhs fr nd fr wtthdraml, p bit fr tofu. 


5-@O~ 


He Aecrwtred, de cms dha plane’ 4 Hy Grext Caisasien — ly and 
woe dasejlee Derr cme nit by mckndnl sprinted usin bat 
by dhacplnce — of Beredats Rube ar it wns called became he tthnchrel 
hare In YE by avai p Cher hank acw™ Tanhe ip lige ee Seat Pe 
bn der te bm pa 4 dle Wa) ae Vy Vadim pias Secuk ef on hate 
wes [asl Limp bik te chide and de dongle . 
The cha 4 Comme 4 trteserg . 
525. Puch prc bide Covi — & rebient, iy & Wty ot, Gob 
Ostios fit Capito} fig 2 boll fn G Wn 
See ule tons ty teendliy as Kane Thevdorm i , ond Hs 
ee a ee 
st. tw fomdiny ee Wunaslernis a [re in, 
Tricky | me ie lame STH He mee vp the fice 4 Img — 


Od wine haanantory . SG ~ alu Spano lin ualf ho 
hw wade Pe. 


596 - Groping, ra bed dem Telit slants m the [mon Wanabact 
ad bed ashed the pope BK Lt bom ge ao 6 Wim, — bt 
td ed 2 Bemedackcr work dered Maparhne - ark 
WH a Iara i Lay. 


Mar $56, ret Cectmimn (rv 50 A) Cnt) 


A howe oped dwt 9 Wm iim So for im tho 
4 Pang: 
lewd cla “lo Jue Medea ‘by Lect ont pods 


deri 

) Of ee ee tain ths rae 

“ Chand ny the \ohly bo Hag pl Ky Vinge 6/: ) 

Ye Conmbiliey the Adndy : Mute 4 Toms Caplan foe pon?) 
Chins 2 Chet, (yer) 

@ Compr the gral 5 Wed Trlr) [edad (389. ¥e1) 

a whey coll ts tu (nia| ALi ern ¥ 


Wao tbe call, endonpered id Net pera by Min yard 
Winns 4 awash Hct detared (ana CLaane ard 
Ww the Ur . che 
(Y The hwhual ban basin 6 Vin ye 376 yo) — Mami . Yo 
( bthoithe ~ “therdne 476) 
Act wat Se Soww om Mach a1 A lt Wwe 
hein lee comme He ig th —Lanebinn, by the bring “thi, 
nudud fle im i ated Hen mea Cluvhtm , 
Oth pe barbaniue (tlm . Atfile rds Suge 5%.) bel avin a. 
fi Slavs, Ivars Padpars IK Pathan, bse. 
Pithte oer tx YS1PD, Qo wu. fw in; duibed oct 4 Constr 
at Stig ny Peddeawn . = Becbeira syn | 


~ biel 


# poe. (ae) oe 
(3) Mang Vie ile Pasha whe fev, Kone (Mon W Mra a We Spam 


ts ae | sel 
Ee 22, Misins til feb. Ub, /99 


TT. We Ved (hone - Go -ISd AD 
ded winfook Hee Celio Fal : 
0 sagt tlerchecal A barbara — bat Crmamczed ol Chaclan . 37- Ve 


- C 
414 - Ostr Ae, 


2) Fegan Vanaeere (Ys, Slavs , Bans Wet, wan fate (Sas 
Slavs, Pray bSeurs was Bebhney 669% 


Peaks» - frum Aralce ce Tere, Arig Maan cf NM. Arig AD Sead. 
ile ueetnesledenctetcy 
Al” Saved) cde abd te bleating the weds bod cH 
wl K windy nud meorer) fp the advaw 4 Ble. Te humder 4 pagte 
Wd rhea A chk a tte wT wth the Crema g He hanbarten bebe 
Shp aA foro Ap We Yosh, Wine thoy Wctoled Le WAL Mpeg A 
Ds dandy the Same ered Eb lms be ptioalel, le ywadrk bn & Wh das 
tir plied, Omer Aechy Qh 24% Cdn Mer, 5.62) bere a Sine 
| Ba oll duc A Guest mecom inn, Hace wire tis ngs nity 2 evil 
| We howe abedy uted AE Comtrrdnn 4 Cis + He bepinmpe 4 HE Corotronm 
4 Fro,  Progale 4 a facumrsng Wsrinis Hime + Hee Cometoiin 4 a bay 00 a 
twat | Caacicrimlan Cufin advance. Orch Mah vac wae “Oneal 
Caddy Aeweminal waking tty Cnn . vag to med, 
O00 lle from bl ; ieee 


WY 


hd wel eee aac, A teers , 


yb 
Cruachan ke 
f ¢ ed a 
Cheste = 5 > 2 
ee ia 


St. Moe 


Atlantic 


Te 
Canterbury 


Ocean 496—Clovis leaves 
Arianism for orthodoxy 


§ Aerie seckt: \ ~ 


_ Massilia ce » A 
Ss Rh Frame (410) 
Gregory ( ) fa it 


establishes temporal _— Rome 


2 


SP fey [alo ia hola a 


sae power of papas 


FAS {Valencia <~* NS sf 5 
NS = 4 
Augustine dies Se <i Genseric sacks 
4 ° mqCarthago Nova ieuring slege = aad \ “4 : Cae oe P 
Hippo Regius \ al Fi ST NX 
KK ews NG eee AG aves fy NS 
Calama \\ ) 


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LATIN 


cece ecceereeaseeresoas 


GREEK 


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Cisjcee 


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EMPIRE 


ee ERE yy ae eeu ed EEUU ESET I yyy, 


on 
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‘) Ne ranean Sea 
V . \ 
a Ae at: | [ ida Empue SSN Vandal Kingdom ; Genseric (439—77) FRA 
é f ea 1 by Roman Empire 138—395 + Christian pilgrimage center 
( 
I DECLINE OF ROMAN AUTHOR 
v STH-O6TH CENT 


ma-+ @) 
(2) 


Bet te Leptin 4 bin We wit HE ad patton, ttre 
See Ne Seem d ard potn Wr tm proc developmact” twas 6 Aes eons 
yA spmibal hare 4 Chunition oxpousim tho tk mee 4 Win sti 
Wnmwstionin, “The qe acemmpshwcA 4 te Jerre! was ust tho 
Dubie Ormuirrm 9 & Clans, Paneer adel gn 
4 le diated ce oq oll Oe 
Sry yea 4 The cen, 

T aaptm “A wth te yer 524 od the fads y 
Me wawwttin Imp ecedict - cL Pocke Corres , be eamse tm 6 Mens 
dhs wir He imal, Srccom ful dvrdam 4 Marian Wartnt Diy 
BA Weenie alum 4 2- ory oA ha tedlns a ig em 
hme rwking an ty tte emed Jum S02 950, 

Ie HE ve years Wel He pnyel wer Moy With, wat 
A 5 Ue ia Wyld; clrecdy rrenaitinn bad ben paced 
piled At ver begin) Ewe a plyll deed from 4 
Unilin, om He fan eather dele brad flame, “Me ews 
Gitce Cn Guihs ScAbah) Chaifaak + aid fue He cwctics (Rm 
ah Chic) at ech wd 4 Ae Crna Ware 9 Wr mopped och, 
taeda thet A Carin carring, SméTinds chdhny, Salwar tacpely fee & 


ay 


We iis Ae Ve wath ard He odpe 4 a quid old . 
Jun wee deg pect Teler, neh — 2 6 thy weil 
it Meg Bal 
bro unbs, P : | 
Q) Conte Cheertarenk: ae Sc! ier Vosecel Cb. coder. Wass tn, 432. 
@ Monn Med tang Eel oye cree pm Cb. 540; mar S46 
S Nedewin | flan iwes aac, 6c ee aia 


fi Cte: ve . 


Uo 


epg Ss Jrowtrful 4 Wir wy pruei — 


Ld we coy e tnd eh wht Wade 


PEE F 


Yo Uw 


ITo i, 


fp c , 2 «3 
AYwenwn " law ¢ VAs ds (313 -S¢ 


bs 2, (Made caster, Dermein ) 


35 Te ( Can casim) 
4% (Drevrdeng, WiTrathon, , Ocean) 
has ¢ MageR Nsom, (aar)nc ) 


3)3 -Sm AD, ema, V4 Selle 


g. 


B. ChussKonsk, Complttin the Conversion ¢ ams , Onl Sprtede Soth + Zant 
Wut ond Wat. (3/3- Sor). 
(313-50) 
Thin tttend haf He Tried 4 Font Advance (0.9) hari 
witkthe Cmmnsin 4 Ha (Fe Tengen (wiles: Gu) ad the tdaet 4 
Folutim Cuiland the wipe C313). Honk abicd Sov (529 
be ary When Yi) ni Chae the Scherks g [habospg Atkins . 
Prd romernben ARE chemelnpio. (Sra Oud he Mrmicd en brtiainly of 
You AD (KR. Wadi), thee at Yo aud the Sack g ame by thy barbarians 
in de Kani, a “A 430 and te dail 4 Lnpuitins . 
Bak heweney ts dated Cel bell std, tk the orhhon 
doke 4 Se), te jerned dude wate the Conon Sunfune ppermansclh— 
ad at leat hari ol, Chauatan, avd ty fewth Wx frowd 5 Drply Runa 
wil Arce SHE Suet Teena He Rad ad ee as 
Wade , QnA un the Mn ustthge np img Woe SL the Th uosl, Frumte,+ Snittheart hat. ) 


‘the Chirp og pect Kage Ard Baboss 


View ny tne unt ime Conlames ao a White and 
Crm arg te nd. 4 the per Ww dr ha inne: a Spo eon 
Chuye me | padlin 4 Chih advance 45 poe Capfpaaid tn 
Ke ua Srv Wwe hae Wawse A prim he clorry 4 he ferechon, wovelers 
[reales Wading tntrernsn f The ont Thite Londra gers — The 
be, bonpre [unio Svowpalds , Ine dank dmiphslical, wnt, Whe Camed 
A Gd nius tthe sheds ad anki tod cere httiial bey wale 
he the chao ad wdleyer 4 frau plete « 


Z. Yom Lrasen De Wwmpelezilion 4 The Comaen Soup (Mec GA , 
Mercer V., 1981, clop. £ ) [endo Heat 1, Hy Lala l fered indandisl ffm was 
Somnpert ba” aff Conilomtoce’ Th oy tuned chad, , mabiticf mals xe b, 
ld bay ht come the omens ap vcd 4 puitaned advance . 
L wot: Cyne Lette - - Clots Pulte was due 
cle olf , Botte offi 9 Pa ees and mdrrduel 
Can vbisumas._(£. p.2es |; aud Hanrache ~ ” He imesf prmerpel o m 
be Wain -.. ras te Chun hon colt im hn online L Puy. ty, pl 357]. 
So alo C.Y. Cum , The Comnerrin 4 Cine. — Umsrm vlty ket 
Labinalhen orate visltchioalim [tr the spt 4 « Bribes” Me hd. 
shud Gime cowry all bon endevnnit b the hetedy finn + betty. De clepy 
dubia Nive sll, on He free - ri ffer vpn 4 Ther Crmprepe una, pom 
pete in Smee pttnlar calling » L She devs fr bomen | ae Gr 
TM wan later Then allrg whal Ah teem Wve in Cheat t exit 
ts eo ek 


Wwe Rac ra dina sus, 5 wth tinal ae Ad the 
fee ran mh ered tain te tea pe 
Ace the ue i Conitaidne Whe varkes mat shin ae 
a = ery. sae a Ld Cat oy aise tf oe ites 
33 whee |p |re- Coil acianse is © pat - Cilia. adie . 


h. rsclasl Yrcn elas be hes “angela in Boe Carb Chrccly (tnd: 
Ladder + 5 iy (970, tp 2), bale aa wr bnfrmel vit Bog 
Nan vnck de hondtake bebo thet ~ 

. Ww wn 4 Chen Wns In peal Cam edhe by 
miaw 2 bnfrvivel wn nines ob hats, Maer 8 aepamsin 9 Wer a) Gnd 
adds " A hed alan le fo) Te ve bite, titinsless wow, 

Sy wifieadte”, Naymin, dtrvid 4 ‘frm Uielewicabtaimip. Cla beink, 
wae jum i mcepfim 2 Lay mmerat tal 5 Cortonned 
Jr 6 ramarba ly ay tin ia a Manse the antler mumntald, 
became | prtlenmila Prt aa saat, on AA 5 he food Hat 
ies wt HE ayrnites hut th Rosco Wins naatg wha th 
Herne wit, Ure Whintwen he rash! 


Beta ons Udi at ead PP ied 4 fol 
ig 0 Chita ae te the fies ai ae 
Ake Lak oA Incwnpe ae Dre pani. Te advence 4 i 
Wann] 20 ad + te por 4 bups and recenims 
dys - Te cnidral imal wf be ar- dustromn zed —AtAC wanders 
IL wad wt A papal amd Wome [ee fom aganiged thou mle 
Ke metic dn din cglms 4 Wma ery Sowice, — bat Here to bw 
me Tad 4 te advomce , ah he othe 4 Wren haat 
von debe Whethe abet whih own Umjrlond wthe acces 4 
Clune Winacen rpansin — mabiide! Chudian ustivm , the bait 
A te chads wabitidienl imwinion npamezctior, 0 the mt alarney binds 
Quprrtg pre 4 buys and, Lmefenns 


) lf ¢ the Gilly ~ Neri Biatandexs Cea. 3135) ) 


(4 2pm WW ui Ve Waa neste . 2) Vorlon # Aen re Bail - lex 306 - foo 41D 
Fi 7a aa Ethie Cee. 330? ) 


Constantine ; 3. 
Cae 


| a 
oe ye ee eae CR M Spee Chale eens P.. 
Zssitnn — the Stonlan singe Stadt ach Aisi sai 
Neate — We 4 Condo (Ie elsh, hobo) (ullped $e npg - Le ll ee 
bom x Suuke 4a «ple bo a) 
Ga barimond (week Pat ogeieace a 
| battle — eet yal pes tla heanptech - G N)- ime wae 
Sf ect N? Sua Ayre with sai ihe tron Ur Sitdice | rive, wend al cae 
MT 28-12 Depo elt we 4 Ulam did im bode 
779 - pact, uSin Oershin 
(ulate a tov, pM REE eT, oy PM ge ae en pad 4 gild.; Ae) AD 50, mo, 


Teptimime — ranged Ip Lipke vagee pacer’ Ounhe amid bert 
Sup sensrop - Lad mb We bub to Cmmypwrs Urebce!. We me pred then [mn Msetth; boo re relly bela 
Phclesaph, — trrmnceded b, dealin, - Neo - Mako, « Me Yythapreensm - Wrath, i» eel), 
| CoA te june One Crmmit he Lawn. 
| Cusks — beard hood ced a hyp; fertile acken im Lalla MMe 5 pata art 4 Cob 
Seal moh echprais — trnrtaion, enepharin am fice ly. 

Creed Detle, (Ve Wel thoy 


Whine, — 7 skigar + | w Prdeswon , Slaw, Crone, pas annes 4 Sto, Wh, 
need 4 twig decean honk, baton 4 


ee ee ee Se SS es a as a ea ee ee eee 


Died auth. 22 setined: nthpcon 

| ~ Fhe ur dby + nee. 

: eet rena testhey by plclotylnn bh ofl php 

H = mange ged (A Mor Limecine tthe) = Yl probed Spt 
Onde d - Paha 5 AYpirhah Mico tbe wir Abin > 


t : 


Rat he bey by step the ams ¢ Se flrs wha here 
gee Prominent “bil Avene” 

bawndelpher Cn. 14 AD >) 

haar Wh 4 tema (150 F) 

Tedale gq Irmo (30) Yueteq ) 

PS (Cm, 311) 
ee et Aeris, Com 2487 3yo? f- th Gonketice 4 Mai 

Sess Ving ane cath [ne Yio). (plan sami 34) 

Clovis, buy 4 the Pramke - 496 


aH eure o by tales tm Colonie — —hd 2Hhe. 
St Thomas and Grmdtetfe,. IND) 
O tt oer — 


Kon - by. 3,7, wheAspee - App pp 3-Y TOM / D ef 


; ~ WK AS (2) 
® Poaan 4 derae, (Onbeine )Obasuie5, ch 3 fy4-@ 7 4-23. eae 
Ghepbpee20 


io Trideke, | 


Cwtlavadaat ~ Way. \c vee eee Net bap ed mtl decth be, 
ba haweeen mk 4 Chadie® Cadlads= wes ulberes he 
Sermon i wflced Hee Wevium and Wubi 9 the chin. for Mel leh on 
Tee cas lene cr bing othe Omir Cad, ems a firme fein te 
chaise a A tepmmin de Clud,. 
Cudader CA, | Ae (tNherdey (Meare eed) brA han Sem Crovitandius TWh 
dilaton prreeredal prekinalty aobed o Arunctil suey Cin bu bafta ioe Paneleis 


wh” ated pwded the Lunfna 
Wha, depois pe Whin Chualiim muir in prned sencth— 


WAS Moy ssimd ch no Medley» lo thon it med wetth wel acre 

Hee Deke mk bepamn Kennet ty barbara Gils, twas hewtiall, 

Prrar . 

( Tena (Aone) tod ramus Key Spud Seth Cz, 330 Ap). 

Te dab, 4 Ae Commersin 4 Abassimn leapt oth a Shymud. A jildlocphs, 

ate 4 Te, Set ott fa Solos with > pp poke Pamuctis + Hedenes 

Mr tela es shite CAA dle 5 Slit As We. Npecad ont 

4 tec (led Sen. MU Ind the 2 bra wg dromel iy balled — 6A te bend Inere— 
Aah 00 lames tee reo fom kong ert at Prcuan Cuerr win bomana in trrtrenn Efren) 
Yrummactinn Iecrnds Ye rps Sortting | Medenn ban Cup-beaney, aod wir Sruct ferro, so-ttef 


ante pr decth , andthe accom 4 He ven bay Same, the 2 are Ged [redone 


Awidtcally Oadbsine roics Toya, bit Pumitinn say ok frome 0 kettle 


Crmprapdlinn 4 fruyn Tadoy , tod see Whsjromn. He aole the preat 
Pthanaoin is Merondns 1s _Comdetral lis Daigle eee ees 
aun 341 ND. Tan he pion A guuthall sven [ei Trane beomes 
Ctind, “Dare “Thao gl all be cbisimeied ao Lpand mere h vot 

Ate fed that the Wahu a He lag wen titre, Prumichion, wske @ booby 
(toad nepar, Somemiy Patlpeal Dirm, the ndtrmedate tea deater« pmerb— 
ia litimy. And $0 cpm» te Grrvemin He Uaiy 5 Dagmar, "the Conn 
4 Massing Collar be an bie fotki, He Aron de) - became ses varcrttions tm ha ara 


Nun nk Yoga, ae Dt hen Vater trine howe a Cum. (0.2 Gme De Chuchicg 4 Vig 
i Mme £. Clon. Ludtaowh ) jp. SSB | 


A frkndy — effin Y0 Mrypime tian Mandflycde The "4 Sains frm Spric” Cmalte—— 
Mae 4 the Pyacas Teefnt - prchebl, bee pla bininarres, cy plod 


liam pthvdy tinatn, aff, the Comel 4 Chalcedon 6 ¥S1 AD, As 


Aa\h 


Caan swells both . 

Powtlly: Viousathe And Biss (eq. Bul ce, 38; bnbey 33 1 1). 
ert Hl i bra Uhl 

Hse" Uo dete He opel mA vite 5 man pe WE Sanh. 
Or Pumintinn tty tt Sudk ude Mec. Lm wAitaline fritle » Ione, 
HE |p, covtcnd ty he “Clwtbem zed ve www fost Secabamsng ; While MMpnce 
Hef rsathed cl he Same time lume fir coidhowss lapel popan, ef tow 
tim Yn fod thom amy Abe Carteconl ix The unld. | 


Dome, a0 om Opie, Lent lntte inn Yio AD. - 


“) f * 1 j yy "il : (a 
lne Kr $ yet ice AMCe S$ toe ¥¥ 4 tk 2) yd oy oe J 


Volk = WELAS ond the Cou veesonl or tte Kort s | 


ba Uta AD the heavene fell ard ne Wao Sacked 
‘4 Mane We (tk. Tit bert [mo yeasc ofly He Comer, 4 
Cuslodee, No wrdey Smo bane ty fall 4 Came om tte Cuilam zehean — 
ds [n seh 4 the AA popan Wome let had nede t root Lo, 
by Ucomyle wos Lo bbrns Crmclusw — De Declrie onl Fell 4 tte Karwan Imre — 
decade, pasfirt We bod fo werloved Lime Yat “A was peters bere Hea 
"Wnmmacoud loarbonsiva , the Cole 4 Vandobe. = pee 
Prersin 9 Prmtig: buat, 4 dela mt 

ae: A ee ee nth he S porfase 4 Sof 
Ther yea) — Vath Sumit and Oiled 
The didiwe 4 the Immuclabd 4 the Srl — compe & Ontian', 

ben ho Yaoi 

@ —Miratbns fprmte 4 the aly church - Gbhm io peylired, 
@) Ven Vivo? — mnulde , chast. b, are mL wor s yt. 
Adil npaghn 4 HF Cla. 


Ons 


Win me fell 4 Mane — it seemd, the ted 9 The | 
sok, Set lh, bad espa eer eats eet 
Ind, A bel y ie eee ee bee. conquer hy Udine, berth 
barbinsins frm "ibis the feele’  Theks a camactine : Whats wnye bil 
t? 


CN Gite Want i dncpar Hee contin 4 the ink . (see Hh un Fy | 
cH eal 4 grime dwn ty the With, Any rm Lr ies 
halstany omy wea Qrwrling the inches — te Dermal, be Pls  Wiermasré ~ F 
re ee 
Dike, ani Scholes im Rei md setret tn Gea pls Syne 
ch Hatlap tem wee Mprce — Tebnblan, Prpwitne 


Sy 


@) Te barbaninn wee too bpp brrhanc . The eeeprns weser ip 
widen int Es He Claefe: oO hadigus,a, fines: 
Veni ue Cad, b. 364) named drops 4 Stiticde 42 Vandel. 
@ Me “pope wie he Linger [apa . Marne was a Chndlini Ln fou 
Hea pack 4 ferme Wao Ania eset a. it opel, 
\pawlid Became be was a Unetim, he spared te chu. 
Ue pyr se The GRE ge te, hed eee, 
eran — cd lapel, by A War Vand Wea | Whe 
Wao bn icc: Sa etre yes behne ewe 
Tue Genes 
Ne CMV, Savy Jr dasure eee. Fit bast onar One_ 
form oe anes deme —flrorin acim ty Bellic kos Jorma 
wd Vlad a as Pe el ink 
fr" Sddands,” ) ee m Ye Man, Lote 6k fe ad ast 
fietae ys: wanes, Sy ae b, ala 2710-295 AD, prodh nap 
Srme (Lrmame felts whe the tm —Iacd vst ell (hence “Mnmame ”), 
They Iwid my Dank, wth 4 He Vane fr dro yy, mckh the 
Meow eli, | He tat sat lta py fed 
JL warts 4 myn Tom Wet >= Gt Jum Maid hie fon ans 
Cmttondine dfeak Hany — Id Wabas tim 4 bong Lied. oponot Henar Tan 
dihie Grad nerfed [in (Minera aie te de Wage of Sy 
hed. (cx. 3 AD) “a prnerful at Bon poms peye the dugern Valous 
Comin sith (267) mer & Indee 4 bist acy We Dawkbe - stays thom. i 
Voms apypar in True (370)- defect Cty who pace 376 oD ed by rue 
ST all’ thin Sth 4 the Darke, AER FS ties ay 


sult — | Vlme  ctirmes Him on the eel tAR io tr Prclpona Sernth 
4 Mma. Crpred, they rpumize BS Simm — Britiges. then 
alk nik caval Aefests He KCrman rm[ovthg and Sint rm 2 
etl — Chem is, Valent nor sof Hdrvam dye (he Trrbe,, Preew y Pl pans 
clnentt wart. Owe g webdl’s Avcione Iacdth, - sprebk g the ond 4 
Mee flrs. Spec ! 32 a. bts, Mant th Vow ith ge Cn 
CU yd te at 9 war in Sumy baw pitsddn ® cub. (bagh) - ad 
hatrmmed Dee White prope the ollie 4 the Wd goer Clongo , 
Cac. 4 Wierda DUA Wear. p. a). 
A by 4h hice i Manic ned eae eee = amet e 
Woe ell gree ra dd thet happn? the sto othe sty 
WU dor . 
Leeicas (b. 3 — w 3% om 
b.uhe CAA, Scott | RIN Anite Atha Goths Cam dnl: Mactan 1955 
2. A Novimpson The Via gfe in He To 4 WL. Ox rds Clrtrdm , (906. 


Uceicns C3il- ca 341 ( Alt lena fics ~ fs feck Mc) 


CALA, Scat (ijl, Apne 4-te CoA p.vii) we Uk nly 2m 
S Mau awe wode lustig anny te Sta 4 barbarsinn Liriig im om Mme’ 
PALL Manic ad Theoduric . Drag male Tein ame i wer, Thee io maby me, 
Whlar, Whee fame mudi om a belly frdeton. The name 4 WW brn, apiratle S— 


He Cathe and Imei He Sm 4 < Goth stich Jn peece, fr Iterctine, fy 


lan pas ham olmA 3il AD HE Sm pa Gh ond 0 Copipedocian 
ie bats won Cowon, — Whol stl rable. gr he wa wact by the fee 


J 


a tiie maken plete Ge tela drugs oe 


Jerrnnoet, 0-4 ; tha Sm 
deck became a wld Onan hewhe bebving thal Spres Chent Dike Chemeos ) Ye 
belissed m ; 
Fath, Irak wt Hee came Salystovig Chemeocsia). Le (Cit) i> “HE maby heft 5m 
Who oudet al); ad the Hsty Spd who a Wit bd wn bind bod He foul! Seward 
9», Chowne wat agrall pee 9 sol et ond theduit & the Gu walt hep nin as 
He Sin Guljedel Doedid in ol thay He Fallen” (4.4 Thane Da Visible thy Tod 
4) When. Oyferd: Clartden 1266, psx ) 
Ta Cualbindjle Wyler wes Cmaccrtted billy he Conanctaa the” 
Clumpion, p. xvi f, The badtinel dike 345 AD). 


Yuval wu HH olace (337 no), 4 way ect bale Eth boil BK imiok, & kn the. 


tle i» called Pork tthe Ce nk vite coreral thas abit Hat tile. — 


Cation , Whe paeker Sra Schule Hrmle by facta, wb —herteotlle rae hol 
yee Cte ins totter Lowe laven}, they Sule Hak leer hes fetter 
Wot Lome lee  Chuitsnn \uwrnin 4 he Yi Jr veg few pme She 
eee. Chita. 
© Ihe tun wet comsccriled a Wurst rib, bd HK conn ood eed | 
Oy ee Aneel ee CTrarmpson, Will aseills heise ba ore 
apport by (Lime fr Seve K wrecked anus drip Whe Limpure CO vi), 
UY da, spent Movin yea ag babyy ad haan brag by 
Vath. Th, wee a wild, duds bang ad poral. tadljerdat  precting hams trie 
lin pyle ~ aah bapa Eo emcerde the feud Cberbanir tm boon tomcbing. We wheeled | 
a pot m a Wordn cart Hell, the lps oA wtlood He un Rinsho 4. Cfhapin, pcr). 
To sive bes foie, WUfler rrcayed nth the, te soft avr the Dembe 


Whe Crmm Twit. He weer tect buch Bat they ede] abit Heirs he ceil, 
fhe, the Gilt reap (. 4h Hepes med Ly Wden acum Uy Daruhe wh the Lepr Haft 


Lats mame Fick gems Lhe a wane 4 Comsersions bor the Qithe ao @ Whe 


is Chandi, faith, 0 B.A Thacgien , vod on he 
herd, 9 Waa," Wile wo mst banc AE dikct Cane 
4 YE Comersicr 4 42-45, yeh Hat Crmvtniin Ural et hone Leen 
ached «., bad F wel bea fy les prea eee 
way hn tawilatinn 4 Me Pible site the apaye 4 the Gt 
Yat wel Wee Pe ee ah fe 
Cle be K ntmbnbned Wert — te fuk German pere h 


Ea Ne Chita * (Tarps, oe ). 


~ | Y i pains OM Onidins - UY o. 3 oY: ¥ 
“SRE 3 { Weel | ) Matlw A Tews [o e- YODA : ( [a 
\ Cec \URES / Jn | | ‘ MS, and, CO 332 , Re Mg 


bit sa Muaidts — py. b, ee forth Yk 3 Inspr A aud, 15-95 
pes. 473~ ¥So. Xt Cmgfale, Ree 4 (orn + Spreds = Ne Wy. 


bh hws - aon Dank Noh. Mt 


os . aed 
Fas : fh (i A or Alte ae Wie € Wb Soares, : Heit. 
ee a Ta bwhance WW Whine « ile ie ‘ai nil ae raat 
gf pao maak Spe 
Jat Cetimame foe & Neve soft: 
1. Wipes ben ex. 3. Erman ele fe ia tet at Cale ae Bact 
rm [emaune — crt i ich fe 


339 ie Meds bathe, pl, 


on Pan Qu hun eG b iS: < 
Sed Ae Wudire 


(yeh emer lin i yam. Pryr Asperger 
Write toh f ag by. 33 of Mood 3343 dud « 

A uke . — We prwndof Ao. fem 4 Own. Crt; i hore tas he pe WA] am, bra P 
{ Foes Lyv AD. Syne ene | uae 3 (eben 243 Wan Jade, Doub tai | 


yy | rem is tow, Neh Byrce 
Co ath Pro . ‘Divdvok hewn ee, Wants leita RATS 


a V ohh 
4 mi sl gg sca 51 St. Masy. 4 ¥34 47. 


o Den wernon Antes 4 ky Vevinws 


Cr 20 Euhh Ae eainee Cer din 340-38 
ts 


Orpar3. 4 Ah- Yo 9. 


Tus - DS: 43am - 34 


PS ed 


‘he Poe 

Jaje, bulips (Frac « Ula ie “Si hptled 
Deppdine pre, bat He epoca Lo He ioumtin dndzcons ) - 
bb dent fogetthe Pb. (nd ee 2 am bath Sent 
Crmlytatde Unseen Hse + a (ushstonis Smf.). 

Myre pred Hn the fern 4 am Onto. Mine 

Sue Wea We apie 4 bvthip. — Unhope no Ul Day wae 0 
Lwetic" a9 baht — Panera Heed uk oA Least 


Weal vr We Omwd bio Ving tty loccame orttialey Clunhane Art ttot 


Wh in Gpaim 
Pre Muli Who recs Wend alu 1, Uy Vertes vowing ‘Ora tn He rl, Say 5 thal 


be fe Wht Wlhlen pce the Go © Lanpreye = ain 
Hiei tn olfbolh A zthiny Ham Re wite toy wells audit oth 


dast bron Lbinan mmm in SEE 0, Corman dreded (Heke, p. 5). 


adWwomce, — the tee Veet fama ner poi ais ee 
io ne [epond Hitn luni, MEL eee eel REE 5, 
a bth, tlhe h feb war wrt, BM Asa. Once mre than, He wow 
ttl yeaa) dud boo taints Feeé ; — Ord AT le 4 Socbprerne 
Ste Mats oy Tuas <b, "ae Selene eceeet olla Meter call am eateate 
educa cusashes 4 He = c." CTW. Dhompsm, Atel, 4g Hirhoneed Worhig VA.E, boas, MY i442) 

Dua bap ily, prbbdhed slvtl bepere St. Maat ded 4, 347 

war a’ bet colle,’ pom Ramee Bo Supt. More bmn posh, Twas based m 
yorerel wits views wth Sora and , 47 Theripsr Saup , Crrbpcres rd 
“wate Hig Tat es avthendee ancl tet Shimt 4 Westin Xdem 
wonptlraed Sncbkin Cance ol Aad So ranch te bring mencttinom sty Lae, 
Inedotell, fe Crm fil Bh nedorwn Cideihiabisprs’ Chudfiont, df 
WS co 4 an tee hy CmlextacL sree nt arlarransm. feed 
bw the qearlte | Comjanwe mite St. Mir wei abd omerh 
pee 

(acd rPoe po. WT Ina, 

Madr, bm abnct 316 (fre yn. yer Hon We) i, Hayricim (appt): 
om ppb Njucer in, (lara  Beicy MOUS became a Sitdein dud ¢ Chustian: 1 Mrpnsed 
Baul Dow ocems He James tiny 3 hao inacT op hath 4, She watae hayyo (Bdine ,.!"?) 
Sim fetinds ha ia baptised , te gern Late dean the arn tod audio a 
rnonaiting — Vrandis in Tans 50 Praofabla qrendt ppt, thal the cit 
pr ike to shelly) HH dame fepanfemgle , Arce oA 4a denen frm the 
Sz + beh 2 Clk fare. Boy Hatine be died of 87%, ch) tm By, chet ff 
Ae Popnow oecine eC Ue ume © Fane flat Which ta, te felt). 


$i BLE . 
ee 


(Hells) Site y Wee Brace, Co pra te AS Kp). 


(c.>n-3H ns) 
lA poo —  prechy Wh a pm, Hak de chy He Sts feel, 
eget eased Cherthcws Wyler Meziven permvrn fm Coriicb 
ra hy & Loe yoy fe Fit atm Meee side Vga tintin, a2 


ad am pehel alanedls §- 
Bene ae pate Siti Lagos oe baiting — bed, trek tee 
tnd ance (« st, 4 lhe n reck le tis qhastcd jn oy be sting b, Stardyas 4 Goines Ne A): 
hee am alle Let. 


Wi, backetion 4 Bld: — 


1. Tala whe Syme Che Ditimeney) C. (To AD. 
ms Pasig herms We OA lhe ol Cfloye “en, 116-100 . 
x i Ul P fet m55 . Ca. 350 AD. 
3. Casthnc - Wt ao » he 390, PARE bm LEG Wimvmcd in a Geeuaee didak-t y. 5 
3. Pym Qiu ¥ te Vey he, wal heat al 4 acounde . 
yolk toby irldtin” (Hotes). “With teyphn’ 4 late Vidas 
Inne VnpmntehT 4 Aor Wer av ditint tie 4 aay 
own ( wo Uam i250). - hater, jest MT be ae. 
oN oT. hursep Ca 34). As Lecawe ne bn dec 
ae, ws Or dis buted - yrs eadut wag Cini. vtussin 4 Dut: anes 
thin ache, Horsey’ frm york, o Sahel; Syne \ 
4 ies — Fonte ae amy (hn, pes) a. GOB 
Vo Duchse. 


iY) 


_ 


(Mud a, Trt 4. tha 36, WA ng lr Ulan an thud in ta Nerang. 
a ”) e Me Hi: | 
m4 hrf Ano i ium OAK . At is became « pdr ned =< fee 
Yrs be Gow Smo, we Hy bef caf be fare dary. Srm nA, np d Leaner 
aie nee Prseckay tix Vomnn ck Gn “tidy cn gm Fine die ab 
Laven Jum ‘ + 


Ye ces mal c ohh. [ry te tice We hid wk oy, chit Yor By - 
abet Me Ae” Pop Fats ad beeing Chitin’ 


66. 


Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 87 ae 87 


The church in Asia east of Rome already had the 01d Testament, 
of course, thanks to its Jewish-Christian roots. But it was Tatian who 
brought to those Judaic roots the good news of the written gospels. On 
the foundation of the record of the mighty acts of God through Israel he 
placed the cornerstone, the revelation of the might work of God in Jesus 
Chieist. 

But neither the Old Testament nor the Gospels of the Syrians 
was quite like that of the western church. Their Old Testament was not 
the Septuagint Greek version used by Christians in the Hellenistic world, 
nor was it the original Hebrew text. The Syrian churches used the Aramaic 
version of the Palestinian synagogues. ‘This was a paraphrase which added 
to the text numerous explanations and illustrations. 65 


Tatian's version of the gospels was also different in form from 
that in which they appear in our New Testaments. As we all know, in the 
fluid years of early church growth the New Testament did not take shape 
all at once. The earliest books were probably the gospel of Mark and some 
of Paul's epistles, written from about 60 AD, not long after the death of 
Jesus. By 100 AD the New Testament was substantially complete. 66 But 
it was still not gathered together into a single authoritative whole, 
which is why the personal testimony of the apostles who had actually seen 
and heard Jesus was considered so important. As the apostles died, and 
soon their disciples also, those who had heard from the apostles' lips the 
words of Jesus, others arose claiming to be disciples but with contrary 
teachings, like Marcion, or with different Scriptures and strange Gospels. 
It suddenly became of extreme importance for the churches to know which 
writings contained the real teachings of Jesus and the apostles. 


The process by which the twenty-seven canonical books came to 


65. A. Voobus, History of Asceticism:.; Vole), Op. cile.. P-. co.) seeuNls 


Peschitta aus den altpalastinischen Targumim. Handschriftenstudien, in 
Papers of the Estonian Theological Society in Exile, vol. LX (1957), Stockholm. 


F.F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents, 5th ed., (Leicester: Inter-Varsity, 


1960), pp. 12 ff. Cf. P.R. Ackroyd and C.F. Evans, The Cambridge History of 
the Bible, vol. I, (Cambridge Univ. Press: 1970), pp. 


Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 88 88 


be recognized as the New Testament began about the middle of the second 
century and was completed in the west by the end of the fourth century. 

The Synod of Hippo Regius in 393 AD and of Carthage in 397 AD made official 
what most western churches by then had already accepted. 67 But in the east, 
where the churches outside the Roman Empire were imperceptibly beginning to 
separate from the west, the process took longer. 


As late as the beginning of the sixth century some of the books 
accepted in the west, like 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and Revelation, were 
still not generally read in most eastern churches. 68 On the other hand, 
some apocryphal books not recognized in the west as apostolic were widely 
popular in the east, such as the Acts of Thomas and to a lesser extent, the 
Gospel of Thomas. When Tatian came back from from Rome to his homeland he 
found the east full of such dubious and apocryphal gospels and "Acts". He 
set about, therefore, to produce an authentic life of Christ in Syriac, 
translated from the four canonical gospels as he had studied them in Rome, 

a work which he may have already begun before he left the west. It was 

not, however, a direct translation of the original Greek gospels. Instead, 
he arranged it as a harmony of the gospels, and called it the Diatessaron, 
which means "through Four". 69 So for the the first few centuries of the 

Asian church, its most widely used New Testament collection of the apostolic 
scriptures began not with the four separate gospels but with Tatian's con- 
venient arrangement which wove together as consecutive history the four 
parallel accounts of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. There is some dispute as 
to which is the oldest translation of the gospels from the original Greek. 
Some say the Old Syriac separate gospels. Some say the Old Latin. But an 
emerging conclusion by many scholars is that the earliest of all was Tatian's 
Diatessaron, about 170 AD. 70 This would mean that the first translation of a 
major section of the New Testament into any language was made in Asia. 


67.. FF. Bruce, ap. cit., pp. 21-28. 


68, Tbid..;° p.226. 


69. For the history of the text see Bruce Metzger, "Witnesses to Tatian's Dia- 


ed. P.J. Hyatt, op. cit., pp. 352-355. 


Moffett, Asian Church Hist. - 89 89 


It is a measure of the importance of Bible translation in the 
growth of the church that it was not until Tatian took the gospels out of 
what he considered to be its imprisonment in the Greek language, the 
language of Roman Asia, and put it into Syriac, the language of the common 
people in the villages, that Christianity began to spread outside the 
Greek-speaking cities into the Asian countryside. 1) Syriac, the 
language of Edessa and Adiabene and the Euphrates valley was, like the 
language of Jesus, a form of Aramaic. It was Syriac, not Palestinian 
Aramaic, moreover, that was the language of the whole Syrian and Mesopota- 
mian world, the trading lingua franca of the ancient Asian middle east. 

It became the ecclesiastical language of the church of the east as Latin 
became the language of the western church. It was the literary cutting-edge 
for missionary expansion into Asia. 


Tatian was emphatically and unashamedly Asian. "I am an Assyrian," 
he said proudly in his Address to the Greeks, 72 the only one of his 
writings to survive in its entirety. The whole thrust of that work is a re- 
capitulation of all the ways in which Asia (the whole non-Greek world, in 
fact, for he includes ancient north Africa) excels the west. Where did the 
Greeks learn their astronomy?, he asks. From Babylon (in Asia). Their 
alphabet? From the Phoenicians (also Asia). Their poetry and music? From 
Phrygia (Asia Minor). Their postal system? From Persia. "In every way 
the east excels," said Tatian (to summarize and paraphrase his argument), 
"and most of all in its religion, the Christian religion, which also comes 


from Asia and which is far older and truer than all the philosophies and 


crude religious myths of the Greeks". 73 


- - = - - - = - - -— =—=—§ ss ses = = = = we = - = —-— — — = 


70. "There can be little doubt that the first form of the gospels in Syriac 

was the Diatessaron," says the Cambridge History of the Bible, P.R. Ackroyd and 
C.F. Evans, ed., vol. I, (Cambridge: 1970), p. 345. Bruce Metzger, The Text of 
the New Testament, 2nd ed. (Oxford: 1968), pp. 69, 89-92, dates the Diatessaron 
about 170 AD; the Old Syriac "close of the second or beginning of third c."; and 
the Old Latin, "last quarter of the second century",'."But Altaner opines that 
Tatian used an Old Syriac translation already in existence. Patrology, op. cit. 
p. 128... See also A. Voobus, Early Versions of the New Testament.., in Papers of 


the Estonian Theol. Soc. in Exile, (Stockholm: 1954). 


71. F.C. Burkitt, Early Christianity Outside the Roman Empire, op. cit., p. 12 


72. Tatian, Address to the Greeks, ch.42. Eng. tr. in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, 
vol. IDI, (N.¥.: Seribner"s, 1903: 


73. Ibid, “Gh, 1, 21,020, 3leae 


IY Geeta ae oe gS “~ 
ie 2) 


Ren calle & wih the debts eae Lit 
; m — The inden dud Yi, — 


oe. win pra, ty bye ty. Mice 4 Maaco dy 
utwn, n ee toy 4 Ww tom beter inf vs 3hion rl. 


(1) Tibial Renna ar aa OPenig A iwimim ., Wo 
a lay wlnil; : Myre « hy. Dy. 3€7 oe ees 
eumouk Wit: Th clin mor . 
Git. Wham —~ The Crveniin 4 Lorde . 


@® poe ceiplecan| = Kase letowrele : Charitantys Succey Wwe Ane, oe 
Al Tle ofc 4 te de teal Wwe wrorus , a mbvidual Comers, 1, Te 
Lt; Mo ade mst tone) ape, bei UF Inumed by Pron bee fe. : 

ai “ie ieee “ her tin Loar) unky Who ste xu fn haan deo, he 
PA pol adits eet ek que Gwe, alf bn onde d & te pm ed heeds, 
n rm bh, rpoye Ww Swe Soudan celle... Sle peasy te Waly, , 
NS cor “aA calli , wd a Witong <8 live ih Chat LC ryt fn fihey. i 


Sy ae 3 (2. Glen. he. he Webi 20, 4 tH, i lf. Moen, Qa. Pose V,_ 451) 
Nadoske Yat vw erbck Ycd) mdb oft wie stinped, back oft Cuttack. - 
4 seed edn C Cnthe ..) - 
os natin pis: ©) fom n-320, dd uit ted. papa Ho 
Sue AT MET ty went egy 
“Yoh Ae mpi pt 4 


14) . @ fhm 32- Sythe 
| eu, wie te bg A Poi by + ded fold a Heck a pry Deu 
(B) Frm 39-337 be Weped Sn rer om He 


Al ee Metitiamtent Colados, 
be (- Vsvne 2 he a Pdr Pfrthe ale Comevrin 4 Com turd 
CA Sofa (Lowe ) 
Wyn - Whe , Crumerduin bk ook rnp du ( See oles W. Tk n, 4 
Te Hera 4 c Pabep . Lack. Der fin Ly ww [odd 4l2 , p- 143 (lp sucess Vrnudl Winns) 


Ried re oe 


Lctincdte’s basin 4 podpemed m advance and done » Te inflows 4 Teduo , 


fi pordentlel put lenaneade obit UE depamrien: CSee 7 Re Mnpusnclelle Lehi ) 
ie type 4 Chattonit spread > [lima Chute, Chie Utterly, Mortas, (uherl 
Lt, dd the Chava bn labrce syed ? 
Whit wee He Carat 4 )ereds 4 ne conus — 
Py Wht vcore did ot sprsedl”  Spmitinens- ovorpelady; prwer pics 
ee Wwe Gente tints pom AON. 
WT wa the vin Plume 4 CoaHants ym Cbnilannl, ? 
Whe warthe pelbomshy, betwee, Chaitin mites, di mflaser oo 
Callting, and Cuties’ tof lasnces opm Chuitand, 7 


Pere Ret 


AP 
aya 


Syria and Palestine, centering around Antioch and Jerusa- 
tem. eOunG Use, COnVers ton. Of tiearural Semitic population, very: 
slow. But in eastern Europe, from Constantinople under the great 
preacher and patriarch Chrysostom, missionaries and monks spread 
the faith widely throughout Greece and particulerly emong the 
Gothic tribes on the border. "There would be no more heathen," 
said Chrysostom, "if we would be true Christians". But it was 
Rome which became the great center for the conversion of Europe. 
As late as the end of the 4th century the majority of..the Roman 
senetors were still pagan, but the decline of the emptre turned 
people's eyes to the church as their chief streneth in time of 
trouble. The greatest bishop of the period was Ambrose of Milan, 


.and Bome's most famous missionary was Martin of Tours, born about 


316 to a military family who carried the gospel as soldier, monk 
and missionery bishop far up into the French countryside, preaching, 
destroying temples and baptizine. 


Outside the empire, also, the church began to move south and 
east and north. Frumentius, a castaway on the Ethopian coast of 
the Red Sea, preached to the emperor of Ethiopia at Axum, and in 341 
journeyed to Alexandria to ask Patriarch Athanasius for missionaries. 
"Go back yourself," said Athanasius, and promptly consecrated him 
bishop of Ethopia. On the northern edges of the eastern Roman 
Empire, Ulfilas, though somewhat heretical as a moderate Arian, 
was so successful in reaching the barbarian Goths for. Christ that 
he was made their bishop in 341. His greatest achievement was to 
reduce the Gothic language to writing and translate the Bible into 
its alphabet,--the first or second instance of what became a great 
missionary pattern. But in the east, across the Roman border in 
Persia, the conversion of a Roman emperor brought persecution, not 
rejoicing, for Christians were immediately suspected of being 
Roman sympathizers. There, from 339 to 379, forty years of intense 
persecution brought missionary outreach to a standstill. 


Nevertheless this was indeed the period of advance. In only 
a little more than four centuries the Christian church hed been 
transformed from an obscure Jewish sect in-a provincial corner of 
the empire into the unifying faith of the whole Roman world, and 
had begun to spread beyond its native Mediterranean culture north 
amone the European barbarians, south into Africa, and east across 
the, ereatest continent of all, Asia. 


What was the secret of its success. Latourette lists some of 
the reasons historians have given: 1. The favour of the emperor. 
Fut by the time Constantine became Christian, it was already so 
strong it would have won without him. 2. The disintegration of so- 
ciety. But why Christianity, then, instead of one of the other new 
faiths like Mithraism, which was so strong in the Roman army? 3. 
Strong church organization. But where did the church get the 
VWitality Ter this Kind of strength? 4. Its inelusiveness. Judaism 
wes Tor Jews; Mithraism for men, but Christianity for all. But why? 
5. The witness of the martyrs, and its moral character. But the 
Jews too had martyrs and high morals. 6. Miracles. But other 
faiths claimed miracles too. 


The only satisfactory rason for the success of the Christian 
faith, concludes Latourette, is Christ. "Without Jesus Christian- 
ity would never have been, and from him came the distinctive 
qualities which won. it the victory" (I, p. 108) r 


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400-800 AD 5 - 


half of the Christian church was as much through secular pressure as through 
gospel evang]ism. 


In Scotland, much of the Christian advance of Columba's Irish monks, 
despite their evangelistic zea], was due to the fact that Columba himself was 
as prince, deaJing with clan chiefs who were his own relatives. England was 
reached by the missionaries from Iona, but basic decisions were often made by 
princes like Oswald, King of Northumbria, Ethelbert King of Kent (the first see 
Christian king among the Anglo-Saxons), and Oswy, King of Northumbr ja , acon, (OE: 


Likewise,| fhe conversion of Clovis, King Of the Franks,,in 496 was bi dae 
a turning point in the history of the expansion of Christianity into northern 
Europe. Three years earlier, as a young and savage barbari 0 German chief 
fighting against Rome, he had married a Christian princest’ Fron Burgundy. Not 
long after, facing certain defeat and death in battle he cried out, “Jesus 
Christ, whom Chlotilda (his wife) praises as the Son of the living God" help 
me; and I will believe. He went on to win the battle, and Clovis kept his 
promise, and 5000 of his troops were baptized with him. This "conversion" 
of the Franks is often cited as a lesson in the superficiality of the Christ- 
janizing of nations through their rulers. The life of Clovis after his bap- 
tism showed little evidence of a true faith. He has been called "the most 
wicked Christian king in history". Nevertheless, the stubborn historical 
fact remains: as the conversion of Constantine turned the history of the Ro- 
man world decisively and permanently toward the Christian faith, so with the 
baptism of Clovis, France became Christian for the next 1300 years. 


As at the beginning of this period, with Clovis, so at the end, 
with Charlemagne, an even greater king of the Franks, the German tribes were 
still being Christianized through a ruler and by methods which we must consider 
dubious at best. The celebrated account of how Charlemagne in 772 set out to 
convert the pagan Saxons, marching against them with a great army and "all the 
bishops, abbots and presbyters" he could muster, and "partly by persuasion and 
partly by arms and partly by gifts, he converted the greater part of the 
people." The first generation may not have been very Christian, but what 
if Luther's Germany had never become Christian? Perhaps God can use even the 
inadequacies and mistakes of our missionary methods for His own glory. 


E. Nestorianism: Schism and Mission (400-800 AD) 


While Christianity in the west in this period was recovering its 
unity and bringing the Celtic church back into conformity with Rome, the 
church in the east was tragically splitting into three major segments: Eastern 
Orthodoxy in Byzantium (Constantinople), Nestorianism in Persia, and Monophy- 
sitism in Syria (the Jacobites) and Egypt and Ethopia (the Copts). The causes 
of schism were as much political as religious. Persia and Rome were hereditary 
enemies; and African regionalism chafed under the dominance of Constantinople 
in the eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). But there were theological differ- 
ences as well. The sharpest controversy centered about the relationship be- 
tween Christ's deity and his humanity. All agreed that He was both God and 
Man: But Nestorians were dyophysite ("two natures"), insisting that Christ 
had two separate natures, his humanity and his deity, and in terms of practi-- 
cal, ethical Christian living his humanity is perhaps even more important than 
his deity. The Monophysites ("one nature") replied that one person could have 


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Me Kas Ss Yowerhul th Www ny pree: — 


Missiology: Fall of Rowe to Reformation - 3 V2 aes, 


Aw Monastic Missions, 


"In the conversion of Birope," writes Prof, Roland Bainton 
of Yale, "three Christian institutions were at work: nonastici sn, 
the papacy, and the civil state, Of the three, monasticism was the 
most important because monks were missionaries, whoreas popes and 
kings were not." (Christendom: A Short Hist. of Christianity and Its 
Ippast on iestern Givilization. vol. I. N.i,: Harpers, 1946. p. 136) 


| Monasticism, like Christianity itself, came from Asia to 
the West. It was brought into westem Europe by Martin of Tours 
about 352 A.D,, aid was moulded into its distinctively western forn 
by St. Benedict whose monastery at Monte Cassino, founded in 529 AsDe, 
was not originally designed for missions tut rather for the glory of 
God and the cultivation of a spiritual life, There is, however, a 
explosive, outreaching quality in spiritual power, and what were at 
first only scattered comnunities of introverted, withdram, praying 
monks became soon, 2s Bainton puts it, “the church's militia in the 
winning of the West", (Ibid, p. 138) 


In 2 eee ways the monasteries were well suited 
as agents of Christian missinn, Tirst, they were spiritually revived 
and deeply committed commnities in an age of secularized Christianity 
when too much of the Bnpixe had been only nominally converted, Net chy Ld utediy Sutule 
Segond, they were ganters of loarming, Biblical as well as classical, 
preserving the Bible and the writings of the fathers when so mich of 
the heritage of the asst was being swept away by the barbarian 
invaders, Third, they were self-supporting and unencumbered with 
families, living on the land wherever they were gathered or were 
s@mt, at a tine when centralized, papal missions would have been 
impossible to maintain due to the collapse of the financial structures 
of the Bnpire. Finally, they had a discipline, which is an almost 
indispensable wark of a successful Christian mission, 


Two types of monasticism spearheaded the Christian conversion 
of Europe. ‘the first tas Irish-anthusiastic, independent and 
extrenely mobile, It resenbles in some respects the missionary 
strengths of modern faith missions. The second was Benedictino.~ 
more disciplined, organized, woderate and obedient to central 
ecclesiastical authority, like modexn caiominational missions 
(though the gonparison is, of course, over-simplified). 


ni, 

The creat period of Irish monastis missions Ber the Sth 
and 7th centuries. The irish (Scots, or Celts as thay were then called) 
were the pionser missionariesd in nearly all of Burope north of the 
Alps, and in all of Saxon Egland north of the Thames, It is 
{mportant to remenber that since the withdrawal of the Roman legions 
from the British Lsles in the early fifth century (/10.440), the 
Celtic ahureh had grow up independent of the Roman papacy. Irish 
monasticism, therefore, was more free of church control, less 
restrained by vows and rules, and, in a curiously indigenous way, 
was rather closuly tied to familics end clans, The {rish monasteries, 
says one historian of monasticism, were nothing but ‘clans reorganized 
under a religious form" (Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the ‘lest 


from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, 7 vols,, Edinburgh, 1841, ifi, p. 86) 


mseighe: 
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btm Ovid ee or 
ote, 


ew Theory — 
‘Points to Model 


For King Arthur 


ral 39] 9S 


By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD 


BRITISH scholar has uncovered evidence that he 
says establishes the identity of the man who 
may well have been the model for the mythic Ar- 
thur, the once and future king of legend. The real 
Arthur, according to the new findings, was probably a 
fifth-century ‘‘high‘king”’ of the Britons known as Riotha- 
mus. ‘ 
In a detailed analysis of the few written accounts of, 
* ‘the time, the scholar, Geoffrey Ashe, a historian who has 
worked closely with archeologists, found a striking coinci- 
dence between Arthur’s supposed exploits in Gaul and the 
documented expedition of Riothamus. He is known to 
have led an army of Britons in a vain struggle to expel the 
barbarian Goths from the pro-Roman region of Burgun- 
dy. Like Arthur, he 
advanced into Bur- 
E a ary , gundy, was. be- 
trayed by an associ- 
xpe ition to ate, fought bravely 


Gaul by a 5th but was defeated 


a and disappeared 


century ruler, (4177) from ay” in ’ 


abou 


‘Riothamus,is ~ rier re. 
é search gave Mr. 
cited. Ashe reason to sus- 
gilt sa) pect that Arthur 
and Riothamus 


were one and the 
same. He and Leon Fieuriot, a Celtic scholar at the Sor- 
bonne in Paris, working independently, discovered that 
Riothamus is not a name but a title, meaning “‘high king.”’ 
Since history records no other name for the king, Mr. 
Ashe decided, after years of what is called manuscript ar- 
cheology, that he had quite probably ‘‘found’”’ the man 
who was Arthur. 

In “The Discovery of King Arthur,’’ published re- 
cently in association with Debrett’s Peerage, Mr. Ashe 
wrote: ‘‘In the High King called Riothamus we have, at 
last, a documented person as the starting point of the leg- 
end. He is the only such person on record who does any- 
thing Arthurian. Or to put it more precisely, he is the only 
one to whom any large part of the story can be related.” 

The finding is not likely to diminish the Arthur of 
medieval romances, which are glorious fictions about a 
magic sword and the prophetic Merlin, gallant knights of 
the Round Table and the “‘brief shining hour’’ of Camelot, 
the adulterous love between Lancelot and Guinevere, 
Galahad’s quest for the Holy Grail, and the.king’s ulti- 
mate defeat and disappearance to Avalon. This Arthur, 
though he never lived, is immortal. 

But Mr. Ashe’s conclusions are certain to stir contro- 
versy among the scholars who have long sought to estab- 
lish the historical basis, if any, for the Arthurian legend. 
Some scholars doubt that there ever was a real Arthur. 
Others believe he was a general, not a king, who fought 
the invading Saxons and after death was given heroic stat- 
ure in Welsh and Breton folklore. Still others question 
whether he ever extended his military reach to the Conti- 
nent. 

Norris J. Lacy, president of the International Arthur- ,; 


Continued on Page C 


pee = = 


MAR 80/HIS 


agnus Sucatus Patricius, known to us as 
Saint Patrick, traveled to Ireland twice. 
He went once because of Irish pirates. 

He went the second time because of God. He did 

not want to go either time. 

His first visit came at a time of great turmoil in 
Europe. The Romans, who had controlled Britain 
for five hundred years, left in A.D. 400 to provide 
replacement troops in the war against the Huns. 
Britain was left at the mercy of Norse, Saxon and 
lrish pirates. These roving bands raped, looted and 
took slaves for sale in their homelands. 

| Patrick’s father was a deacon of the Christian 

church anda Decurion, a local official of the national 

government. He was also a minor member of the 

| nobility and owned a seaside villa which was 
particularly vulnerable to pirate raids. When Patrick 
was sixteen, the villa was attacked. 

Screaming barbarians charged up the slope from 
the sea, hacking down startled defenders and 
casting nets over fleeing victims. Although the rest 
of his family escaped, Patrick and many of his 
father’s servants were captured, bound and thrust 
into the bottom ofa pirate boat to wallow in the bilge 
water as the raid continued along the coast. Patrick 
” as on his way to Ireland for the first time. 

Land — bt ar be wntten, Wrlrrinn “f 
tea baz Cord. 
ain Slave to Saint 

In Ireland, Patrick was sold as a slave to a druid 
tribal chieftain, who put the boy to work herding 
pigs. Patrick felt lost and helpless; he had gone from 
nobleman’s heir to swineherd overnight. Slavery 
beat all pride and dignity out of him. He had no 
chance for education, no friends, no possessions, no 
name, no hope. 

He labored in filth and squalor among, the 
animals. Finally, deprived of every human consola- 
tion, he turned to God. In his book Confessions, 
he writes, . | was sixteen and knew not the 
true God but ina strange land the Lord opened my 
unbelieving eyes, and I was converted.” 

The new convert spent much time in the presence 
of the Lord and eventually came to thank God 
for his captivity as an opportunity to know Christ. 
He became convinced that his slave state was a 
gift from God, so he served his barbarian master 
well, laboring as unto the Lord. “Anything that 
happens to me, whether pleasant or distasteful, | 
ought to accept it with equanimity giving thanks 
to God... who never disappoints.” 

Patrick learned to pray as he worked or walked or 
rested. ‘Love and reverence for God came to me 
more and more, building up my faith so much that 


OS tat 


Wwe fm eo Vu 


JOHN W. COWART, formerly a collector and classifier 
of mosquitos, is a writer in Jacksonville, Florida. 
His favorite hobby is sand sculpture. 


daily I would pray a hundred times or more. 
Even while working in the woods or on the moun- 
tain I woke up to pray before dawn.... Now | 
understand that it was the fervent Spirit praying 
within me.” 

Because of his devotion to God, Patrick was called 
“Holy-Boy.”” He remained a slave of the barbarian | 
for six years—then came escape. 


Return to Britain 

One night as he lay sleeping, Patrick heard a 
voice in a dream telling him, 
is waiting for you.” He sneaked away and struggled 
through two hundred miles of hostile territory to 
the coast where he found a boat preparing to sail. 

The captain refused passage to the runaway 
slave, but as Patrick walked away praying, one 
of the crew called him back into the ship. After an 
arduous voyage and near starvation, he arrived 
home. ‘Again I was in Britain with my people who 
welcomed me as their son,” he writes. 

In his own mind, Patrick was through with 
Ireland and the Irish. At twenty-two, he had many 
opportunities before him: he could continue 
his education, catch up with his social life, assume 
his responsibilities as heir of a nobleman. 

Little is known about this phase of his life. 
Patrick may have studied in France or Italy; he may 
have entered the priesthood at this time. He does 
not tell us. The next event he relates in Confes- 
sions is how God called him to return to Ireland. 

“I did not go. back to Ireland of my own accord,” 
he writes. “It is not in my own nature to show 
divine mercy toward the very ones who once 
enslaved me.” C oncerning, his return to Ireland asa 
missionary he writes, “It was the furtherest thing 
from me, but God de me fit, causing me to care 
about and labour for the salvation of others... . 

This change of attitude toward his mission came 
in part as the result of another dream. He saw 
a messenger named Victoricus coming across the sea 
from Ireland bearing letters labeled ‘The Voice 
of the Irish.” 

When Patrick began to read these letters he 
thought he heard the people in the Wood of 
Focluth, where he had been a slave, crying out to 
him, “Holy- Boy, we beg you, come walk among 
us again.” He awoke knowing he had to go back. 


More Obstacles 

Patrick still faced three major obstacles: his 
family, the opposition of clergy friends and fi- 
nancing. His Confessions reveals how God dealt with 
‘each hindrance. 

“Since [ was home at last having suffered such 
hardship, my family pleaded with me not to leave.” 
They were justly alarmed; [continued on page 4] 


“Wake up, your ship | 


HIS/IMAR 80 


SAINT PATRICK [continued from page 1] 
as an escaped slave he faced horrible retribution. 
The druids were known to weave criminals and 
runaway slaves into giant wicker baskets and 
suspend them over a fire to roast alive 

Patrick often lovingly mentions his family and 
refers to the pain of leaving them. ‘‘Leaving my 
home and family was a costly price to pay; 
but afterwards, I received a more valuable thing: 
the gift of Knowing and loving God. 

“Many friends tried to stop my mission. They 
said, ‘Why does this fellow waste himself among 
dangerous enemies who don’t even know God?’ ” 


These churchmen considered the Irish to be barbaric 


enemies not worth saving. 

But Patrick believed his enemies were worth 
saving. He could later say, “Once the Irish wor- 
shipped idols and unclean things, having no 
knowledge of the True God, but now they are 
among God’s own people. Even the children of their 
kings are numbered among the monks and virgins 
of Christ!” 

Patrick insisted on paying his own way. “The 
reason I acted thus was to demonstrate prudenc C 
in everything... 1 did not want to give the 
unbelievers even the smallest thing to criticize.” 

But if he refused to accept financial help, how 
could he finance his endeavor? “I was born free, the 
son of a Decurion; but I sold my title of nobility— 
there is no shame nor regret in this—in order to be- 
come the slave of Christ serving this barbaric nation.” 


Back to Ireland 

Patrick used his inheritance money to purchase a 
boat and finance his mission-He and his party 
sailed back to Ireland in ‘A.D. 432, Landing at the 
port of Inver Dea, they were welcomed by a rock- 
throwing mob. 

They sailed along the coast of Ireland, landing 
and preaching ane the way. Patrick preached at 
isolated tarms, to hostile crowds on the beaches, 
to women and children drawing water at country 
wells. 

Atone farm, tradition tells us, Patrick came upon 
an old man who was dying. Patrick sought to 
comfort him and lead him to salvation in Christ. 
The invalid argued for his old way of life. Finally 
Patrick asked him, ‘Why are you grasping ata 
life which is even now failing you? Why do you 
neglect to prepare for the life to come?” 

The old man pondered the questions. Then he 
repented, believed and was baptized. He eventually 
recovered from his illness and became one of Pat- 
rick’s staunchest followers. As Christianity became 
more established Patrick assigned this man, Ros, 
the task of codifying Ireland’s laws, bringing them 
into conformity with Christian belief and morality. 


Z, 


J 


Patrick’s attempts at evangelism were not always 
so successful. He returned to confront his former 
owner, Miliuce, with the claims of Christ. Rather 
than forsake his heathen gods, Miliuce sealed 
himself inside his house and set it afire. The druid 
drowned out Patrick’s pleadings with screamed 
curses and invocations to his gods, while cremating 
himself and all his possessions. 

Patrick traveled over the Irish countryside in a 
chariot, spreading the gospel and bringing with 
it social reform and a written alphabet. He con- 
ducted open-air schools to teach his converts to read 
and write. 

Until this time, writing was the jealously guarded 
secret of druid wizards. But Patrick believed in 
educating his converts to read the Scriptures. — | 
A clash with the druids was inevitable. 


Easter Crisis 

The religion of the druids was firmly entrenched 
in lreland, They worshiped and tried to appease 
manifold spirits in the guise of stones, trees, storms 
and the sun. They constructed megalithic monu- 
ments to aid in their style of astrology. 

Druid sorcerers claimed to be able to control 
weather, so it was important for them to be aware of 
celestial changes. One of their most important rites 
occurred at the vernal equinox when the sun begins 
its return to warm the northern hemisphere. In 
A.D. 433 the vernal equinox fell on March 26th— 
Easter Sunday. Patrick chose that day to challenge 
the wizards. 

All the warlords of Ireland had met on a hill to 
seek the blessing of the druids. 

In order to call the sun back to the north, the — |} 
druid custom was to extinguish all fires in the king- 
dom. The chief wizard then ignited a bonfire as 
part of the ritual. Runners bearing, flaming brands 

raced through the fields carrying new fire to the 
hearths of the nation. Thus the druids showed 
that it was their enchantments which brought back 
the sun. 

On the night of the ceremony, as the warlords 
and wizards worshiped in the darkness of the great 
stone circle, they saw a huge bonfire burning on the | 
opposite hill. Patrick had lita blazing fire this Easter | 
to commemorate Christ, the light of the world. 

The druids were outraged. They dispatched 
troops to bring Patrick to the council and demanded 
an explanation for his blasphemy. Patrick spoke 


/ to them about the Trinity, the mystery of the 


Incarnation and the triumph of Christ’s resurrec- 
tion. Some believed; others attempted to kill him. 
Legend colors this encounter with fantastic 
miracles. No matter what actually happened that 
night, Patrick became a national figure and his 
controversial message was discussed everywhere. 


$$» ——, 


| MAR 80/HIS 


Patrick believed that he was living in the last 
days before Christ’s return and that the Lord 
deserved to be worshiped by men from every 
nation, even the barbaric Irish. So he felt respon- 
sible ‘‘to preach the Gospel to the edge of the earth 
beyond which no man lives.’” He says that Christ 
called his people to be fishers of men, “therefore 
we must spread a wide net so we can catch a teeming 
multitude for God.” 

He mentions one motive, though, which out- 
weighs all the others—he was grateful. 


Sheer Gratefulness 

Patrick’s sense of gratitude to God for creating 
and saving him permeates his writings. “I was 
an illiterate slave, as ignorant as one who neglects 
to provide for his future. And | am certain of this: 
that although I was as a dumb stone lying squashed 
in the mud, the Mighty and Merciful God came, 
dug me out and set me on top of the wall. Therefore 
I praise Him and ought to render Him something 
for His wonderful benefits to me both now and 
in eternity 

This gratitude and burning love for Christ drove 
Patrick to challenge heathenism wherever he 
found it. He entered the stockades of the war- 
lords, preaching to hostile warriors dressed in strips 
of fur or naked with their bodies painted with 
blue clay and scarred with whorling tattoos. 

He visited the waddle huts of slaves bearing 
comfort and hope. He even preached at the race- 
tracks, converting men in the midst of gambling, 
drinking and orgies. Thousands of rieaea 
were converted through his relentless evangelism 
motivated by loving gratitude. 


The Whole Gospel 

He not only preached but ministered to the whole 
person, bringing a gospel which raised the standard 
of life for the Irish. He paid judges’ salaries out of his 
own pocket so they could judge impartially rather 
than depending on a reward from the person who 
won a suit. Monasteries were founded which 
survived as centers of learning till the age of the 
Vikings. 

Having been a slave himself, he was concerned 
with the plight of slaves. “The women who live in 
slavery suffer greatly,” he wrote. ‘‘They endure 
terror and are constantly threatened. Their masters 
forbid these maidens to follow Christ but He gives 
them grace to follow bravely.” 

In one of the coastal towns, Patrick baptized 
a large group of converts. Shortly after the ceremony 
the town was raided by soldiers of King Coroticus, 
a nominal Christian king from Britain. 

The raiders slaughtered the men and children 
The good-looking young women—still dressed 


2s 


in white baptismal gowns—were captured to sell to 
a brothel in Scotland. 

Patrick was furious. He fired off a scorching 
protest to the people of Coroticus, excommunicating 
the perpetrators of this ‘horrible, unspeakable 
crime” and demanding restoration of the captives. 
“The Church mourns in anguish not over the 
slain but over those carried off to a far away land 
for the purpose of gross, open sin. Think of it! 
Christians made slaves by Christians! Sold to 
serve the lusts of wicked pagan Picts!” 

Because of his stands for righteousness, Patrick 
suffered insult and persecution. The druids often 
tried to poison him. Once a barbarian warrior 
speared his chariot driver to death thinking he was 
killing Patrick. 

Patrick was often ambushed during his evan- 
gclistic tours and at least once he was enslaved for 
a short time. He sometimes had to purchase safe 
passage through a hostile warlord’s territory in 
order to continue his mission. ‘‘Every day I expect to 
be murdered or robbed or enslaved; but I’m not 
afraid of these things because of the promises of 
Heaven.” 


Brotherly Betrayal 

Patrick faced opposition not only from nominal | 
Christians, pagan warlords and druid wizards, 
but from his church as well. Ecclesiastical au- 
thorities in Britain questioned his fitness to be a 
bishop and held a hearing at which he was not 
present and at which his dearest friend spoke 
against him. It is possible that for a time he was 
suspended or placed on probation. 

Although Patrick was restored to his bishopric, 
the most important result of this crisis was that 
it prompted him to write his Confessions. This doc- 
ument, his hymn and his Letter to the People 
of Coroticus comprise the only surviving record ot 
his life and thought. 

By the end of his thirty-year ministry in Ireland, 
Patrick had seen 100,000 souls converted and \ 
had established humerous churches. He had 
removed learning from the clutches of druid wizards 
and made it available for all. He influenced the 
eventual elimination of slavery and helped change | 
the status of women from possessions to persons. | 
His dignity, honesty and piety changed a whole | 
nation. 

Near the conclusion of his Confessions he writes, 

“The only reason | had to return to the people | 
once barely escaped from was the Gospel and its 
promises.” 

Patrick preached this gospel to ‘‘the edge of the 
world.” His message to us? “I wish that you also 
would exert greater effort and begin more powertul 
acts for God.” & 


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even more Strongly under Leo's adviser and eventual successor Hildebrand 
(Gregory VII, 1073-1085). Thus once again the reforming vitality of a 
"“sodality" was instrumental in breathing new life into the churchly "modality". 
The spiritual power of a Hildebrand, skillfully exercised and organized in his 
capacity as pope, proved more than a match for the secular power of an emperor. 
At Canossa (1077) the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV stood barefoot and penitent 

in the snow for three days begging Hildebrand to release him from excommunication. 
(See Hildebrand's own account in Henderson, Hist. Documents of the Middle Ages, 
p. 386 ff.) This has been called ‘the most dramatic illustration in church 
history of the power of the church in the world. But as in the crusades, the 
use of spiritual power for temporal ends brings mixed results. In the end the 
good pope died in exile and the final resolution of the controversy between 
pope and emperor over which had authority to elect and invest bishops was a 
compromise. The Concordat of Worms (1122) ruled that both pope and emperor 
must approve the choice of bishops and abbots thus recognizing a touch of 
spiritual authority in the state, and of temporal power in the papacy. 


E. The Decline of the Church in Asia. 

1. Mohanmedan mastery of western Asia. The four hundred years from 
800 to 1200 saw the great Christian centers of the mid-east--Antioch, Edessa, 
Ctesiphon (and Baghdad) transformed from radiating centers of Christian mission 
to ingrown Christian ghettoes in a Mohammedan sea. The ill-fated attempt of 
the crusades to rescue them only made their situation worse. 


For more than a century after the Moslem conquest Nestorian Christians 
were treated with remarkable tolerance by the Ommayad dynasty (661-750 AD, but 
under the Abbasid Caliphs (750-c. 1100) repression aradually increased. Perse- 
cution flared for a time in the reign of a Moslem contemporary of Charlemaane, 
Haroun al-Rashid of Arabian Nights fame (786-809, when Christians were accused 
of alliance with Constantinople. By the end of the 10th c. (987) the Moslem 
Caliphs had taken from the Christian bishops the riaht of electing their Nestor- 
ian patriarch. The mad Caliph al-Hakim (1009-20) was the fiercest of the per- 
secutors, forcing Christians he did not kill to wear five-pound wooden crosses 
around their necks. Far more effective than violence, was the steady pressure 
of persecution by taxation. Ever since the conquest the only escape for a 
Christian from the ever heavier financial harrasment was conversion to Islam. 


But the fate of the eastern church under the Moslems was, in the 
final analysis, the deliberate choice of the church and its people. What pro- 
duced the withered ghettoes of the Nestorians and Monophysites was not so much 
the sword of Islam as the law of Islam. The law permitted Christians to worship 
but forbade them to propagate their faith. Faced with a choice between survival 
and witness the churches of the eastchose survival. They ceased to evangelize. 
They survived, but what survived was no longer a whole and living church. 


2. The disappearance of the Nestorians in China. Some time between 
800 and 1000 AD the Nestorian mission in China vanished almost without a trace. 
Of the various reasons usually given for their decline, the following are most 
persuasive: the defeat of the Uigurs, a strongly supportive tribe; the qreat 
anti-Buddhist persecution (848-67) which spilled over against Christians; and 
the fall of the T'ang dynasty in 907. But the ultimate reason may have been in-, 
ner weakness, not guter opposition: superstition, moral decline, syncretistic 
compromise with oriental religions and failure to develop Chinese leadership. 

But even as it disappeared in China, beginnina about 1000 AD a new inviooration 
of the faith appeared in Central Asia among tribes destined to become the new 
dominant power of East Asia, the Monaols. 


400-800 AD - 5 - 


half of the Christian church was as much through secular pressure as through 
gospel evanglism. 


In Scotland, much of the Christian advance of Columba's Irish monks, 
despite their evangelistic zeal, was due to the fact that Columba himself was 
as prince, dealing with clan chiefs who were his own relatives. England was 
reached by the missionaries from Iona, but basic decisions were often made by 
princes like Oswald, King of Northumbria, Ethelbert King of Kent (the first 
Christian king among the Anglo-Saxons), and Oswy, King of Northumbria. 


Likewise, the conversion of Clovis, King of the Franks, in 496 was 
a turning point in the history of the expansion of Christianity into northern 
Europe. Three years earlier, aS a young and savage barbarian German chief 
fighting against Rome, he had married a Christian princess from Burgundy. Not 
long after, facing certain defeat and death in battle he cried out, "Jesus 
Christ, whom Chlotilda (his wife) praises as the Son of the living God" help 
me; and I will believe. He went on to win the battle, and Clovis kept his 
promise, and 5000 of his troops were baptized with him. This "conversion" 
of the Franks is often cited as a lesson in the superficiality of the Christ- 
ianizing of nations through their rulers. The life of Clovis after his bap- 
tism showed little evidence of a true faith. He has been called "the most 
wicked Christian king in history". Nevertheless, the stubborn historical 
fact remains: as the conversion of Constantine turned the history of the Ro- 
man world decisively and permanently toward the Christian faith, so with the 
baptism of Clovis, France became Christian for the next 1300 years. 


As at the beginning of this period, with Clovis, so at the end, 
with Charlemagne, an even greater king of the Franks, the German tribes were 
still being Christianized through a ruler and by methods which we must consider 
dubious at best. The celebrated account of how Charlemagne in 772 set out to 
convert the pagan Saxons, marching against them with a great army and "all the 
bishops, abbots and presbyters" he could muster, and "partly by persuasion and 
partly by arms and partly by gifts, he converted the greater part of the 
people." The first generation may not have been very Christian, but what 
if Luther's Germany had never become Christian? Perhaps God can use even the 
inadequacies and mistakes of our missionary methods for His own glory. 


E. Nestorianism: Schism and Mission (400-800 AD) 


While Christianity in the west in this period was recovering its 
unity and bringing the Celtic church back into conformity with Rome, the 
church in the east was tragically splitting into three major segments: Eastern 
Orthodoxy in Byzantium (Constantinople), Nestorianism in Persia, and Monophy- 
sitism in Syria (the Jacobites) and Egypt and Ethopia (the Copts). The causes 
of schism were aS much political as religious. Persia and Rome were hereditary 
enemies; and African regionalism chafed under the dominance of Constantinople 
in the eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium). But there were theological differ- 
ences as well. The sharpest controversy centered about the relationship be- 
tween Christ's deity and his humanity. All agreed that He was both God and 
Man. But Nestorians were dyophysite ("two natures"), insisting that Christ. 
had two separate natures, his humanity and his deity, and in terms of practi- 
cal, ethical Christian living his humanity is perhaps even more important than 
his deity. The Monophysites ("one nature") replied that one person could have 


400-800 AD ee 


only one nature and emphasized the primacy of Christ's deity for only a 

divine Saviour could rescue man from sin. The orthodox center (Eastern Ortho- 
dox and Roman Catholic) accepted a compromise formula, that of the Council of 
Chalcedon (451 AD): one Person in two natures, human and divine. 


Beginning with two important councils in the early fifth century, 
the Church of the East (which only later was called Nestorian) developed its 
first national Persian organization (Synod of Seleucia, 410), and declared 
its independence from the authority of the western churches (Synod of Dadiso, 
424) . Then began its great expansion from Persia in all directions across 
Asia. It moved south into the deserts and had almost won Arabia for the 
faith by the time Mohammed was born. Christian Arab kings ruled in the north- 
east (Lakhmid), the south (Yemen), and the northwest (Ghassanid) which however 
was not Nestorian but at times orthodox and at times monophysite. 


Most impressive of all the Nestorian missionary achievements was 
the advance of the faith east across the Asian heartland as far as China. 
As early as 498 the White Huns or Turks of Bactria (Afghanistan) had begun to 
turn Christian. A remarkable combination of evangelistic, educational and 
agricultural missions commended the Christian witness to the nomadic tribes, 
of the Asian steppes and by the middle of the sixth century the Turkic chief 
was asking that the tribes be given their own bishops. By 781 they had their 
own archbishop. But already by then the wave of Nestorian missions had rolled 
on far beyond central Asia to reach the capital of China's mighty T'ang dy- 
nasty. In the year 635, while the successors of Mohammed (d. 632) were begin- 
ning to boil up out of the desert to conquer Persia, the first Christian 
Persian missionary, Alopen, entered Chang'an, was welcomed by the Emperor 
and asked to translate the sacred Christian books into Chinese. The Emperor 
Tai Tsung (627-650) even gave orders for the construction of the first 
Christian church in China in 638, and for the next two hundred years the 
church grew and established monasteries throughout the empire. 


The history of T'ang dynasty Nestorian aE aie the earliest 
church in northeast Asia, can be divided into six- periods: (after J. Foster) 


. The first Christian mission to China (635-638 AD) 

The early growth of the church in China (638-683) 

First opposition and persecution (683-712) 

Recovery of the church (712-763) 

Period of greatest influence (763-832) 

Disappearance of the Nestorians from China (832-980 AD) 


NnLwW Mm — 


It was in this period also that the Nestorians brought the ancient 
Thomas church of India into relationship with the Nestorian patriarch of 
Persia. Nestorian Christians fleeing from the great Persian persecution of 
340-380 AD may have been the first point of contact, although there is a 
reference to a Persian bishop Dudi (or David) undertaking an Indian mission 
as early as 300 AD. But by about 450 AD Nestorian missionaries had firmly 
cemented the authority of the Persian patriarch in India and the lanquage 
of the Indian church, like that of the Persian church, was Syriac. Even 
the island of Ceylon, reported a Nestorian traveler in the 6th century, 
Cosmas Indicopleustes, has a church and clergy “ordained and sent from Persia.. 
and a multitude of Christians". 


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ane a "9. hel fes bxbin ae ie heed ph etichsme 4 sus a lo thin Hy dmb ay hh ben uc a 


| I 
ab wate Uy 
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Through the daring ZURICH Ss 
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monks Christianity spread north- 
ward from Haly to the British 
Isles, and from there It wos car- 
tled Inte the heart of Central 
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MONASTERY 
FOUNDED BY 
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Bai whe) Rad ahs SiJabeUetle Wades peated eo Los =e ity += O Bey Bisesie 5 vu eid ies bal 


Nis AS i ik walt ccitaanaadaad et 
anieresh sa [ie sig 2 Ue ee a le 
pith) areas on en ee \ PAI ean Hires PP i NS Ge 
bial I : sa MED 

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at 


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an 
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Atlantic...;'. ey 
no ee Say Canterbury 

{ Ocean 496—Clovis lesves 

i} ‘1: Arianism for orthodoxy 
” molt i} rt oe yor 


Ye eye 


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al ait "44, Maositia ‘, ; Vie % | i a 
4 \ \-Gregory Seca Rom me 
arragona — establishes temporal = AF rs 


.” power of papity 


; Sas 
y 


D heer rine a 4 
alencia eh 
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1 te enseric ascke | 


fv Augustine dies oy FR ome (488), 34. 4. 
: > \, peek 


Ȣ during alege+430 Ape ; p 
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Ay Carre sae Cun bs 
foo supese Vandal attack 


Roman power deall severe \ : i Od 
“sa \ FEST, © poe Agr ae 
cao Y nic (439-77 
eeeee Boundary of Hadrans tinpue i | Hadian s Cmpue WS Vandal Kingdom of Gense ls ( 39—! ) 
“= 5 nte 
{ J} Attias Cinpire | ] Areas lost by Roman Empire 138—395 aa Christian pilgrimage center 


DECLINE OF ROMAN AUTHORITY 


a =o Li Gna 


framdlin tt. Litlell. tlw 


The uct pened A Ith mmwbic Wrolmns Came th 

te Pad 7% tt, a feord mm Wh te Toh Ct Cth 
ay Hag wee bled Hhe,) ree the frre vrrimanis in heal, all 9 
Tune Werth 4 HE Alps, ond i, all 4 Saxm, Gaplad wrth 4 he 
AMiginio a. | fe a wall gy - 5 beidake any fa 4 Wed tim on 
be Labicd — th hey tn Tosh wwrimin Whe fort dremined Armtuce St 
Prodan — S09 tems befre Leif Garcon, ard P00 heby Clim bs, Me 
PR Oe iad a Oh baad by dE ke oP 
4 with 32 Crme texte say bo) he vn Cpmpanne bythe Tele 9 Vrrme 
acwm te Moke’, Binder bam sil tar @ rt mb, and Sime butting 
habine be eval, Ad pra, Terdnd 

Ss es ee ee re 
Prin, Tot @ felled romk 4 oo frm thy Same adel Isis vas, 
Waneslin Hey abba 4 Ornark fm did abit Sm AD, the mks 
\nngee! nine siedintibg 3 hh ion er ee litt a2 the Pyke otlnd St. 


Clim ba 4 Ting Ca1-597). LZ, 46 


D 


Columba (521-597), "the apostle to Scotland" was the great pioneer of 
Irish monastic missions. Though of royal blood (his great-qrandfather i) 
was High King of Ireland yen Patritk was enslaved there, and three of his ¥ Le mgt hone 


cousins were Irish kings)“fhe entered a monastery to study and became a keene Keng 4 jane - 
Priest. But in 563 after a typical Irish dispute with his teacher, he KeWell p.§ 
set out with 12 disciples in an open boat on an independent mission to @ ink 
convert his fellow Celts, the Pagan Savages of Scotland. His center of 2,00 cows - p 4 
mission was the monastery of Iona which he founded on an island “off the hod Uy - stept one mack 


Coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every church A sear Su ae 
planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be a copy of 
the Scriptures given, which was no easy requirement in days when it took 
a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy of the Bible. 
Lt was—from-lona—atso,in—the-next—centurythat-nerthern-faghand-was 
Successfully reached with the-gospel,—by Aidan abeut—635 AD-after—papal 


mi re had_almost been wiped ou t—by Saxon -investons. 


~.C. Srmtiule, Fram Coma t Doble: The Size” 5 bc hehe 
Bus pe Ne em thas Sida byl UE, Thad e Mitinel 


Wes rmwrrin ents ch hy SefAp 9 Delnada hire bee Crwom, Conall rag 
bay, Oe the stetl Wane Same Vids & He Nath, Qn me 4 ben ne ir 
ring, be fro & ener , mangled hy @ Wither bent 1 the ee A 
td Se aL tig met with tr Sy, 4 te Cro C the inte bennne 4 — 
Mex ahijnm Aig Lech, Nepaeasten | | Wha heMenens Cant ta ute 
Coaerratis the bow oa foot Sh Cormmy arvended ty Betah buster AD. 574 — 
(McNeil, au), 

le dad shy ond, 705 - Mech a decile, be prryed — 
Dwar tit th naman walk aco Leyte 4 tome poms. Atari, Ui Meera 
Uw walt abt tm gear Uta bets 9 boo decth He sed gredl- bye & he 
falas warner In elaned peck - birt, Cempanem Am Imat ¢ Mrsitn fprrty — 
dunk dfecd He tonne AL lie fonrilethak — Cipgiag the Sergio - We nenched 


Ps. s4st0- "Bad bey Voc werk ee band shll wit wot ante Hal» pd '— 
ok de ln fen a Bastin woke bat lowe’ ool eA bed Riruap ct tredlaght - be bet 
a bis Pe ad dey bed He atl. 


We cel a Ylmjne 4 Ue Yet gy He em ly one gq He 
hymns eae Ay we: ul Cinp — SE 136. ee tagaos but 


Cali fa 547) Foo thm 
Chee tn tale, en 
a | Wide Y| ky pare 
1 Hwal 4 tac Wisden 
ir idl ; | ; 
@ uv tins} Ard } S 
Te Gan 4 Lt g L, VW 
¢ 


Nit hog, the Fecttn 
Ce tam |, egutlan One - 

\t( | ena be te Jesus : 
jis ate silo Leptin orn, 
flat fe He ae sand 

the feafedl Wunihys 
it ali the wulhs ie answer 


eas Jr Cid bar mma tn A om Lenn that Ur put duceenful 


Te Winn Ww ee ped et 
Aidan—td,65}) 


+ nortnern 
On the first attempt from Iona 
the missionary returned discouraged to say the English were impossible to 
convert, “uncivilized, hard and barbarous". "Brother..," said Aidan, "you 
were too _harsh. You should have followed the Apostles and given them the 
milk of simple teaching". And he went himself, invited by King Oswald who 
had been converted in Scotland. He began to preach before he even knew 
English,with the king acting as interpreter, and always traveled on foot 
so he could turn aside and ask people if they believed. 


NK daw POR Hey Che Ian UM Wether in Taw slichy darth dita nc te Scant 5 


Spel Seal acti . Ay tout 634, Hak EC ful afl taeda 
eer ene on pes i get a el Soy Bie oad helt Se 


C. 


400-800 AD eH 


Mission and Revival. While the Christian west (Rome) was falling to 
the barbartans (and converting them), and while the Christian east 
(Constantinople) was driving them back (but splitting apart into re- 
ligious factions), beyond the borders of the Roman Empire east and 
west new missionary movements arose to revive the church and spread 
the faith. The centers of new Christian mission in this time of gen- 
eral decline were Celtic monasticism in the west, the Roman papacy in 
the center and Nestorian missions to the far east. 


. Celtic missions. Two important points should be first noted about 

the Celtic church and its missions. First, its independence from Rome. 
Its center was in Ireland and Britain outside the empire, though its roots 
go back to Roman Britain. Second, its authority and vitality developed 
around monasticism and missionary abbots rather than diocesan bishops. 

Its pattern, therefore, was sodality (voluntary, limited societies) rather 
than modality (inclusive, unlimited societies). Modalities stress the 
unity of the whole group, e.g. the church; sodalities express the need for 
wholesome diversity within the unity, and for voluntary initiative (See 
Winter/Beaver, The Warp and the Woof, esp. p. 52 ff.) 


Patrick (c. 389-461) was "the apostle to Ireland". Taken as a slave 
from Britafn and held there for six years, he escaped, entered a monastery 
and later felt compelled by a vision almost against his will to return to 
Ireland as a missionary, in 431. He challenged the druid wizards, preached 
to the nobles and organized the church in bishoprics, but also encouraged 
the Irish monasteries, to become the real centers of learning and mission. 


tg~ : 
Columba (521-597), "the apostle to Scotland" was the great pioneer of 
Irish monastic missions. Though of royal blood (his great-grandfather 
was High King of Ireland when Patritk was enslaved there, and three of his 
cousins were Irish kings) he entered a monastery to study and became a 
priest. But in 563 after a typical Irish dispute with his teacher, he 
set out with 12 disciples in an open boat on an independent mission to 
convert his fellow Celts, the pagan savages of Scotland. His center of 
mission was the monastery of Iona which he founded on an island off the 
coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every church 
planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be a copy of 
the Scriptures given, which was no easy requirement in days when it took 
a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy of the Bible. 
It was from Iona, also, in the next century that northern England was 
successfully reached with the gospel, by Aidan about 635 AD after papal 
missions ther had almost been, wiped out by Saxon invasions. 


mn: A136. "Cll 
Aidan (d. 651) became thé instrument for the conversion of northern 
England where other missions had failed. On the first attempt from Iona 
the missionary returned discouraged to say the English were impossible to 
convert, "uncivilized, hard and barbarous". "Brother..," said Aidan, “you 
were too harsh. You should have followed the Apostles and given them the 
milk of simple teaching". And he went himself, invited by King Oswald who 


had been converted in Scotland. He began to preach before he even knew 


English,with the king acting as interpreter, and always traveled on foot 
so he could turn aside and ask people if they believed. 


Columban (550-615), a younger namesake of Columba, carried the gospel Mag Sane onedhi 
beyond the British isles into Europe. He set up a monastery Wo eounl as Teeeaares 
&@ missionary center like Iona, b ut was so bold in his denunciation of the Selamic ; marion fo 
immorality of King Theodoric of Burgundy and his concubines that he was aie iy Mabie 
forced to flee into Switzerland and eventually landed up in Italy where he ..WamPrrt 
was not afraid to challenge the Pope. The onty authority he would accept Ole | Mente. 
was Scripture and the right. ‘ 

See Mun Vepy- y.4, “We boa dae Ue duegl, 4 St hele, « St Tonk Cwt' by (He) Gf in tA em loaf tbe soph 


Cotte, 


The Irish Monastic Schools: 


Christianity with Culture 


Jim McGee 
EC22 Final Paper 
Mawe2e0, 19864 


be) 


2 


The rapid spread of Christianity in Ireland was largely due to 
the great influence of monasticism. My picture of a Celtic monk is an 
extreemly strict, ascetic, who has starved himself down to his bones 
and whose life is devoted to religious Anis. I do not Know any high 
school student in our day who would want to be an ascetic monk more 
than anything else. But during the fifth and sixth centuries, young 
people were flocking to the monasteries in droves. The Church 
historian, John McNeill, believes that "a larger percentage of the 
population than anywhere else entered monastic communities," and he 
goes on to say that "nowhere else in Christendom was the culture of a 
people sa completely embraced within monasticism."(1) What made the 
monastic life irresistably attractive to so many people in the fifth 
and sixth centuries? How is it possible to convert a whole nation by 
withdrawing into the wilderness to pray, fast, labor, and study? I 
believe that Celtic monasticism was so successful in spreading the 
gospel because it adapted itself so well to Irish culture. 

I want to discuss two ways in which the Irish monasteries were 
strangely relevant to their culture. First, the monastaries were 
patterned after the communal life of Celtic clans. This communal life, 
which was already accepted in the culture, easily lent itself ta 
Christianity. Second, the monastic schools were similar in structure 


1. John McNeill, The Celtic Churches ,(Chicago:University of Chicago Press), 
1974), p.70. 


to the bardic schools, where lay people received secular education. 


a 


The monastic schools worked in harmony with the lay schools, and they 
provided more people with the affordable opportunity to become 
educated. I propose to show how these two elements in Celtic 
monasticism helped to convert people in Ireland and to send out 
missionaries to the rest of the world. I will also touch on how the 
methods of Celtic missions might be relevant to contemporary missions. 

The Celtic clans were composed of people who shared a common 
ancestory. Each clan had a chief, who was respected by all members 
because of his strength and his ancestoral relation to former 
chieftains. The successor to a chieftain was usually his son or an 
immediate relative who was fit for leadership. Celtic missionaries 
during the time of Saint Patrick succeeded in converting the 
chieftains of the clans. With the conversion of the chieftain, the 
rest of the clan was also converted. Each clan had a heirarchy of 
leadership which observed strict odedience to the chieftain. 

Therefore it was natural for a clan to accept the Christian belief of 
their highest ranking, leader. 

The tribal structure of Celtic clans provided a pattern for the 
organization of monasteries. A monastery was like a clan with the 
spiritual purpose of following Christ, resisting the flesh, and 
serving as soldiers of Christ. The abbot was the head of the 
monastery and functioned like the chieftain of an ecclesiastical clan. 
All of the members of the monastery were usually descended from 
the common ancestor of the abbot(2a). The monastic community served as 
a family. In fact the Irish name for the monastic community was 


2a. Hugh Graham, The Early Irish Monastic Schools , (Dublin:Talbot Press 
hea | 


ho 


scripture to the whole family, allowing the family to pray together, 
and involving their children in the church at a very early age. The 
shared faith between family members might even help to Keep more 
families together. To spread the gospel we must work within the 
social structures of our society, of which the family is a part. 

Monasteries were not only centers of prayer and devotion but they 
also had the mission of educating people. Monastic schools flourished 
in Ireland between 500 and 900 A.D. The monastic schools drew so many 
students because the learned Irish monks were among the greatest 
scholars of their day. Perhaps the greatest accomplishment of their 
scholarship was the blending of Celtic, classical, and Christian 
learning. Monastic education successfully introduced classical studies 
Be See into the Irish culture. In addition to the 
ecclesiastical schools, there were also lay schools, which provided 
secular education. The curriculum of lay schools was limited to 
Celtic: learning. Howvever, both the monastic and lay school 
complemented each other because the Irish monks integrated their 
educational system extreemly well into the celtic culture. Historians 
have found evidence not of conflict but of cooperation between the two 
types of schools. Let me describe the structure of the lay schools 
and how the monastic schools were adopted into the Irish educational 
system. 

The Celtic lay schools existed from pre-Christian times, and 
since they were pagan, they were taught by druids.‘3) A person with 
the highest type of academic degree was called an ollamh , which 


might be described as a medevil Irish PhD. Ollamina , or doctors, 
A 


5. P. W. Joyce, A Social History of Ancient Ireland ,{New York:Longmans, 
Green & Co., 1903), p. 408. 


pre-Christian times. The fili were closely connected with druidism, 
and their songs and incantations were thought to have magical 
powers.(11) The fili would compose their verse by performing druidic 
rituals in which they would lock themselves in a dark room for a day, 
lie on their backs with a stone on their bellies and plads about their 
heads.(12a) As druidism died out and gave way to Christianity, the 
fili had a lower position in society. However, the poets who were 
not necessarily connected with druidism, maintained their high status 
and continued to function with some of the trappings of druid culture 
remaining. In spite of this distinction between these two types of 
poets, the term, fili is still used synonymously with "bard." Frank 
O’Connor says that monks and churchmen took over the roles of _fili 
and priests in the druid culture.‘12b) Almost everyone in 
ancient Ireland learned the art of story telling and reciting poetry. 
Though most people could not read or write, they had their own type of 
education by learning to recite poetry, historical tales, and ledgends 
for the amusement of people.(13) There were always amé tur reciters in 
every town. 

Monks like Saint Columba had a high respect for the bardic 
educational system. Columba himself, after finishing at the monastic 
school ,Finnian of Moville, studied under an aged bard named Gemman. 
Coumba’s high respect for the bardic schools is evident from his 
defense of the bards at the convention of Drumceatt in 573 AD.(1i4a) 


ij... Jbede 
12a, Ibidns peo 


12b Frank O’Connor, A Short History of Irish Literature , ‘(New York:GP 
Putnam’s Son’s,1967), pp. 20-21 


13. Joyce, op. 5 Ann “jo untees PSI 
14a yy bts )D. Dou a Bp Soy. jfe Historical Saint Columba , (Aberdeen:Milne 


6 


By 573, there were so many bards begging in the streets that the 
bardic vocation had been taken over by greed. Moreover, the bards had 
been Steins people in the aeeernt eiaeken the reputations of 
certain people. The sarcasm of the bards came to be hated so much 
that legal action was taken against them at Drumceatt. There was a 
proposal to abolish the bardic order all together. St Columbahad come 
to the Council to defend the Picts in Scotland. While he was at 
Drumceatt, he also stood up for the bards. Columba suggested that 
instead of abolishing the order, the educational system for bards 
should be reorganized, with one bardic school for each of the five 
regions. He proposed that the Ollamhna stiffen the requiements for 
membership to the order so that a surplus of bards would not flood the 
streets. As a result of Columba’s defense, the bardic schools were 
reorganized and the order cantinued to exist for the benefit of 
Ireland. Many bards praised Columba in song and Iyric for his help in 
restoring their order. Through the countless poems about Columba, 
more people were able to hear about the moral and spiritual character 
of this great saint. Columba’s effort at Drumceatt is an example of 
how monasticism worked hand in hand with the lay schools of the bards. 
Now let us examine the similarities between monastic schools and 
lay schools. Both types of schools had seven degrees that students 
could earn, and the degrees in the ecclesiastical schools corresponded 
with those in the lay schools.(14b) The seven degrees of the bardic 
school were spread over twelve years, but the monastic schools did not 
seem to have a twelve year schedule for the seven degrees. P.W. Joyce 


gives a comparative list of all seven graduated degrees in both 


schools, which I will now describe. (15) The first year in both 
schools was devoted to learning to read and to write. After the second 
year in the bardic school, the student would attain the degree of 
fochluc , which involved lessons japon tesogke: poems, and tales. The 
corresponding degree in the monastic school was felmac , in which a 
boy would learn specified Psalms in Latin. The second stage of bardic 
education was MacFuirmid , in which the boy was set to learn more 
advanced lessons in philosophy, poetry, phonics, and tales, During 
the second stage in the monastic school, freisneidhed , the student 
questioned the tutor, who gave the meaning of everything that was 
difficult for him. At the fourth year, the bardic student would earn 


the dos degree, in which he learned the law of priviledges for 


poets, more poems and tales. The monastic student progressed to the 
third stage of fursaindtidh , in which the tutor began to cross 
question the pupil to test his Knowledge of theological and 
philosophical difficulties. The fourth stage of the bardic study was 
called cana , involving the study of Gaelic articles and grammar. In 
monastic education, the fouth stage, sruth do aill , allowed the 
student to begin teaching younger pupils and explaining complex 
concepts in simple terms. Cli , the fifth stage oF t\e student bard, 
taught the secret language of poets and brought the student to an 
advanced stage of art and judgement. At the fifth stage , the 
monastic student attained advanced Knowledge of scripture and was 
called a professor of the cansfon. The sixth stage:the bardic student 
earned the anruth degree after studying bardic poetry, prosidy, and 


Gaelic glosses. The monastic student also earned an anruth degree 


15. Ibid. , 430-436 


0 


when he became preficient in every department of Knowledge including 
poetry, literature, and theology. He taught other students but did 
not reach the top of Knowledge. The final and seventh stage for the 
bard was ollamh . The student mastered 350 tales, and the four 
departments of Knowledge, thus becoming a man of learning, a poet, and 
a doctor. The final degree of the monastery was rosai , which means 


great professor. He was a professor of literature and theology. When 


Vale Wf 


he visited the palace, he sat with Kings and knew th four departinents 
of Knowledge perfectly. 

The curriculum for monastic schools, as indicated above, included 
the study of Celtic and Christian literature. Latin and the 
venacular language were used in instruction.1é6. Much attention was 
given to the study of scripture. Lay schools, however, focused more 
on secular learning in the Celtic language. The monasteries developed 
a more extensive curriculum and were therefore able to offer a mare 
quality education. However the two schools continued to exist without 


conflict. A legal document called the "Sequel to the Critin Gabhlach" 


states that the degrees of ecclesiastical schools and the bardic 
schools were both derived from the same wisdom: 


The degrees of wisdom and of the church <i.e. in the 
monastic or ecclesiastical schools? correspond with 
the degrees of the poets and of the feine or story- 
tellers <i.e. of the lay or bardic schools>: but 
wisdom is the mother of each profession of them 
<whether clerical or lay>, and it is from her hand 
they all drink.¢1?7) 
According to this law, Christian learning was given at least as much 


academic respect as the Celtic lay schools. The monks would have 
[ae 
problably said that theology comes from the higher wisdom of God while 


Lé6.Grahiam, OP. echt tne, 
i? JOyxce, (Op.c.iitel, pamoeer 


{> 
ie 
b | a | B) Pet - Saxon Missroms 
oy ea aan ( fafa) 


hap Pe 
aes iol (i) Wame recededed on wag absabed ond. “pane 3 
ly & a wee 4 Vrwruniy advange — Me Rrflo - Sry . Withiamns 
4 Me ic wetcds ang theina — Srwilinus Wmiordarite avcetinam, mdcendu 
tact riom well pores stilt athe “oath oa pyed SE) os 
he Yuwrdiion Me ties, dnd ho seprmns oxcefl Ue allt 4 lhe mmastiny 


wth My were olcched (6.1, TGA De Qoyl-Setm Pru rain tn erm 


Wade Work MY 1954 pix), 
" (nag Mg AC to 4, bla- Soyo bw Whom Diretd The scene My mk 4 Conver 


7 


bn wot ale Wed # be be bn eat Da vaso y Ay Corhe, tly Sith, Sarl 
wan FIL ohat, WA IC ante Ata Larne eed ealtZa Ancnpyeanol Din th cndicb-e.4 Cll den 


TAN hen i, Velie uh py ridin < Deptt din ; (Lg) 


DN&lo- SAXoW Missions 
(PAPAL ) 


400-800 AD = OSS 


2. Papal Missfons. There are also two important points to be 
noted about the Roman papal missions of this period. First, 
unlike the Celtic missions, they were more loyal to the papacy, 
more ecclesiastical (modal) and less independent. But second, 
they weee a mixture of modality and sodality, of episcopal and 
monastic forms. Their bishops were often former monks and their 
monasticism was not of the independent Celtic kind, but Benedict- 
ine and disciplined, following the rule of Benedict of Nyrsia 
who founded his monastery at Monte Cassino in Italy in 529 AD. 
Four important characteristics forged the monasteries into ef- 
fective instruments of Christian mission: first, they were 
deeply committed Christian communities in an age of nominal, 
Constantinian Chrittianity; second, they were centers of Bibli- 
cal and classical learning; third, they were economically self- 
Supportino; and fourth, they had a discipline. 


Gregory the Great (c. 540-604), the "father of the mediaeval 
papacy” was the son of a rich Roman senator but aave up his wealth 
to found monasteries and enter one himself. Obedient to a call from 
the pope, however, he left the monastery to re-enter the world and 
assist in the administration of the Roman church, first as one of 
the seven deaoons of Rome and then as ambassador to Constantinople. 
Again he was allowed to return to the life of the monastery he loved 
but in 590 was called to become pope himself, in which capacity he 
served as virtual head of the western Roman empire, makina a separate 
peace with the invadina Lombards and more importantly for mission, 
granting to Benedictine monasticism as anents of papal missions a 
partial exemption from the control of local bishops. The well-known 
incident of the English slaves he saw in the Roman market ("They are 
Angles, but may they become angels") is said to have been the beain- 
ning of his interest in missions. 


Gregory's principles of missionary stratecy are outlined in a 
famous letter ‘he wrote in 601 to the missionary team he sent to 
convert the English. First, the mission is to be church-centered 
and church-controlled; it must be organized as soon as possible. 
Second, missionaries are not to condemn everythina in the paaqan re= 
ligions but should "baptize" as much of what they find in them as 
possible, makina it Christian and using it as a bridae into the 
full Christian faith. ‘Third, the Christian mission 15 t6 be direct- 
ed toward the conversion of kinas and rulers in order that their in- 
fluence may be used to win the people. 


Augustine of Canterbury (d. ca. 604) was the leader of Greaory's 
team o missfonaries. He landed in Enaland in 597 and following 
Gregory's third principle proceeded to convert the kina of the Saxon 
kingdom of Kent with the help of its Christian queen. Kent was the 
leading kingdom in the Saxon henemony of seven kinadoms, and within 

a year ten thousand Saxons became Chr$stian. In line with the sec- 
ond principle he adapted the old heathen temples into churches, and 
then, as the first principle uraed, he quickly oraanized a national 
church under direct papal control with himself as the first Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury. 


mar 


pidice - Wc. Swentle , Firm Fone Dan Mone p. Ie) 


To their lBiblical, evangelistic approach the wandering Irish 
missionaries (they were called peregrini, "wanderers" for Christ) 


added a fiarce Irish independence, Golunban (550-615), a younger name Mn cued 

sake of Columba, set out for Europe when he was forty, set upa . 7 mule —DF 

monastery (Luxeuil) as a missionary center like Iona, but was soci), ne os. Sl 
«i bold in his denunciations of the immorality of King Thesdoric of “jane 


Burgundy and his concubines that he was forced out of Burgundy into 
Switzerland and eventually ended up in Italy where he was not afraid 

to tangle even with the Popb. The only authority he would acdept was 
Scripture and the ieut right. "We Irish," he wrote to Pope Gregory, 
#,.are the disciples of St. Peter and St. Paul and of the other disciples 
who have written under the dictation of the Holy Spirit. We receive 
nothing more than the apostolic and evangelical doctrine... With us 


4t 4s not the person, it is the right which prevails." (quoted by C | Prat ern 

H, Robingon, The Conversion of SEBS, | Londong Longmans, Green, 1917, See camedta 

Pe 197). { 2 sure. 
EW GLAND 


Gud te yl ea tie Clube tne oll teal 
K war paths wept, wh agit Sheek fauvenbd- — Uhaly roland tues becom icp 
Cilia dnd murirnary, below Weduons wall, whieh copnced sewage SecKard 
Wom Pamanaagh Sep, Silnd wats letany oyomged. he epacte 
4 Hor marin ete He nls. Sours pm natin Germany Oo He 
nmin Legume tenthdrn  effer Yoo AD, We arbamsne pared wm. 
Pn wis Ailfewed bocd 9 Cangas Het tte ar bain Un verinns iy 
HE Vandy wmsindend ofl oe awe tid. — Tr wan & mare ogittin mt (Try 
He Hlrmoms bak adc fr Yor gens hot wotre ton) deaving, § A ieee ‘the Crnguastt 4 feryle 
the ed been cflnnged, coiliged and pbteled by a frafa army — aA lho bed pry 
le te defend dm color, The Harpile war shod bf ak Compile all ois pers 


Xe Seg Dre, Ne, 


De wit site sed, |! 1B, tidy 1 “the Ppl. Sane Chums no jnte “a7 44/ dercn be, mf “h. Yan Nelle, and One ($\Sscnw 
4 Bors, Haed lac Syed Prdredgcsslc , A Bly cll Hef dunclt Maren , Sot ct a Sayle Britin wes Vee Lyf.” B, Ssu they hd 


tA Kock (Stes). way al tailin aed by By chal Gio. ate, fed oa Tagld Bd oa Wales Wale, tao Woe, kchn.. AA 


Missiologys Fall of Rome to Reformation, - 4 


It is only natural, therefore, to find that the outstanding 
missionary in Irish missions was a prince, a leader in his clan, St. 
Columba (521.597). He is known as the “apostle to Scotland" for in 
563 A.D. he set out across the stormy waters of the Irish sea in a 
little hide-covered wicker boat on an evangelistic mission to convert 
his fellow Celts, the pagan savages,of Scotland, His center of mission 
was the famous monastery of Iona which he founded on an island off the 
coast. Central in his missionary preaching was the Bible. To every 
church planted by the Iona missionary bands he insisted that there be 
given a copy of the Scriptures, a difficult requirement in days when 
it took a scribe ten months of continuous work to make just one copy 
of the Bible, (W. CG, Somerville, From Iona to Dunblane; The Story of 
the National Bible Society of Scotland to 1986, Edinburgh, NBSS, 1948, 
pe 8). it was from lona, also, that northern England was successfully 
reached with the gospel, by Aidan about 635 A.D., afterkke papal 
missions there had almost been wiped out by Saxon invasions, 


To their lBiblical, evangelistic approach the wandering Irish 
missionaries (they were called peregrini, "wandsrers" for Christ) 
added a fierce Irish independence, Columban (550-615), a younger namee 
sake of Columba, set out for Europe when he was forty, set up a 
monastery (Luxeuil) as a missionary center like Iona, but was so 
bold in his denunciations of the immorality of King Thesdoric of 
Burgundy and his concubines that he was forced out of Burgundy into 
Switzerland and eventually ended up in Italy where he was not afraid 
to tangle even with the Popb. The only authority he would acdept was 
Scripture and the trut right. "We Irish," he wrote to Pope Gregory, 
W,.,are the discivles of St. Peter and St, Paul and of the other disciples 
who have written under the dictation of the Holy Spirit. We receive 
nothing more than the apostolic and evangelical doctrine... With us 
it 4s not the person, it is the right which prevails.” (quoted by C, 
H, oe The Conversion of Europe, Londons Longmans, Green, 1917, 
pe 197). 


The papal mission to England at the end of the 6th century ww wa hil, Git) 

{f was of a different kind, but no less notable. It was ecclesiastical, 
not independent, and though it, too, had monastic connections, its 
missionary monks were not Irish but Benedictine, The story of the 
beginning of the mission is familiar, Pope Gregory I saw Mnglish slaves 
in the Roman market, and impressed by their golden hair and huge size 
excaimed, “"Angli sunt, angeli fiant” (They are Angles, but may they be. 
come angels. And he promptly commissioned a missionary expedition to 
England, He himself had once wanted to be a Benedictine monk, and the 
man he picked to head the mission was a Renedictine, Augustine (know 
as Augustine of Canterbury to distinguish him from the theologian Aug- 
ustine of Hippo). 


The Inglish mission, unlike earlier Irish missionary work, 
was under direct papal authority, and Gregory took an active part in 
determining its missionary policies, Three significant missiological 
principles are stressed in the Pope's correspondence with the mission, 
First, the mission 1s to be church-centered and church-controlled. In 


22 


‘ Brioude 
; Na F 


: Massilia = 
Gregory Soon ions ane 
‘arragona establishes temporal oT 


“ Centhago Nova 


Hippo Regius a j ‘NG 


Sa <I Por x : Lace 


M e 
d i 
O 
. 
*y) - Pe fe 
: 
NN 
se 
») \\ 
° 
439—Carthage succumbs ° 
© suprise Vandal attack : 
Roman power dealt severe ) 
blow " 
“SN 
eeeee Boundary of Hadrian's Empire Hadrian's Empire 
[| Attila’s Empire 7] Areas lost by Roman Empire 138—395 


= hlaric sacke : 
a Rome (410) 


io. _ power of papaty AN ~% Ty 
4 nah SS Af Napoli wg 
+ <~ . . SS of 
Augustine dies Nae 3/_Genseric sacks 
+ during siege+430 y 34 ome (455) 


° 
° 


Prerire te 


oe ete 
eS 
or i 
“ 


Se. 


ed sas waserevee 


eeeeeeee ee 


SN Vandal Kingdom of Genseric (439—77) 
oe Christian pilgrimage center 


FRANKS = Arian tribe 


DECLINE OF ROMAN AUTHORITY 


STH-oOLe CENT. 


BY the tme of Theodosius | (3467-95) the tensions between the 


Eastern and Western halves of the Empire were clearly evident in 
politics and religion. The Emperor was required twice to invade 
Italy to secure the rule of his “Co-Augustus™; the division of the 
realm became permanent under his sons. Under Theodosius II 
(401-50), Emperor in the East, the Theodosian Code was issued 
(438). But his rule was unstable and heavy tribute had to be paid 
Atula, King of the Huns (fl. 433-53). Under Justinian (Byzantine 
Enip.: 527-65), there was a resurgence of imperial power. Control 
of Italy was reclaimed from the Ostrogoths and North Africa was 
regained from the Vandals. Justinian issued a codification of Roman 
law (Corpus Juris Civilis), expounded the doctrine of caesaro-papism. 
and built the great church of Hagia Sophia. His authority was 
severely checked, however, by the rise of the Monophysite churches. 

In the West, the “wandering of the tribes” and the emergence of 
tribal kingdoms continued. Such continuity and stability as could be 
identfied centered in the Bishops of Rome, of which Leo the Great 
(pope: 440-61) was a representative type. By skillful diplomacy he 
extended the power of the Roman see throughout the West, and at 
the Council of Chalcelon his legates played a conclusive role in the 
settlements. He resisted the Huns and succeeded in getting their 
forces to withdraw beyond the Danube (452). Symbolic of the 
division in Christendom, as well as of the changed cultural base in 


the Western churches, is the fact that Leo the Great wrote extensuely 
in Latin but had no use of Greek. 

In Gregory the Great (pope: 590-604), who laid the founc dle 
for the papacy of the Middle Ages, the Western half of the Empire 
found one of its greatest leaders. Raised in privilege, he sg; 
property and distributed his wealth to the poor. He was a mak 
before joining the papal staff, and he remained a strong pat 4 
monasticism and the works of charity. As pope he proved aq(t# 
administrator of the extensive church lands and a skillful peli 
leader. He resisted the Imperial power and the claims of the Pahoul 
of Constantinople, made a separate peace treaty with the invade 
Lombards, eliminated the power of the Byzantine exarch at Ravenna 
and launched the Latin missions to Britain (596) with Augusty< 4 
Canterbury. Among Gregory's extensive writings on Chvs(vm« 
thought and practice were a book on the work of the bishop #1, 
became the textbook of the medieval episcopate, and commer 
on the Scripture. He also laid the foundations of “Gregorian ghe«t 
He contributed greatly to the mse of shrines expressing pei 
religious devotion, to the veneration of relics, and to the pejwl 
cult of miracles attributed to the martyrs and confessors. 

In spite of a few leaders of ability, however, the numbe# 4 
cultural condition of Christianity — rent by internal divisioas om 
suffering from the political instability of the times — deed 
generally from c S00 to c 950. 


the Gsltic and Roman churshes were brought together, the combination 


Missiology: Fall of Rome to Reformation - 5§ 


i ‘plan J) Teg ap Neo fe nis s Ulogiced Ngee! je Oe rae ibe he lags conwpnds, o mk, th hussom 


VUSSim WH ke Chu cd bb 
June 601 Gregory wrote to he eee far the right to “ordain 
bishops in twelve,.places, to be subject to thy jurisdiction, with a 
view of a bishop of the city of London... receiving the dignity.. from 
en holy and Apostolical See, which by the grase of God I serve", 
quoted in B,J, Kidd, Documents Illustrative of the History of the = 
Church, vol. 144, p. 41). “yrl4 


Gregory's second principle of misaionary policy was the 
policy of accommodation. Do not condemn everything in the pagan Meglish 
culture but "baptize® as mich of it as possible, he instructed his 
missionaries, using it as a bridge to bring the Mglish over inte the 
Christian faith, In another letter that same year he wrote, “The 
teuples of idols,,should not be destroyed, but the idols that are in “3/4 /' 
them should be, Let holy water be prepared and sprinkled in these 
temples.., since, if they are well built..thay should be transferred 
from the worship of idols to the true God,” He gives mech the same 
advice consceming pagan rites and ceremonies, Let them keep then, he 
writes, bus “in a changed form", "Let them no longer slay animals to 
the devil but..to the praise of God for their own eating, and retum 
thanks to the giver of all for thelr fulness... For it is undoubtedly 
impossible to cut away everything at onae from hard hearts, since 
one who strives to ascend to the highest place mst rise by steps 
or paces, and not by akin (Thid, pe 42 ff.) LA wise pla - bd wtarthay 
wh. Hows nee 4 Shilae, « secu |rdtav » (yo ale bts jum Sha cos deed”), cin Shame ; 
His ‘third pact a was one we heve already observed in 
earlier cmturies, Thos Christian mission was to be directed toward 
the conversion of kings and rulers, We shall note this point in 
greater detail later, But whatever the merits or demerits of the 
third principle, Pope Gregory's letters give us, as Stephen Neill 
points out, "almost the first example since the days of Paul of a 
carefully planned and calculated mission" (Hist. of Missions, p. 67) 
the success of which can be measured by the fact that only this week oy 6 “ht 
when @ new Archbishop of Canterbury was enthroned, he was hailed as ()-7 Pregrsivos 8 
the 100th successor in direct line of Augustine of Canterbury, Pope 
Gregory's first missionary to England. d= 


i SAz, ¥¥ 
Moreover, when in the 7th century at the Synod of Whitby as 
Ww ive ~ 


of Irish enthusiaga and Roman organisation sent a fresh wave of 
Anglo-Saxon missionaries to plant their Wenedictine monasteries 

deep in the pagan forest of the Frisians, the Saxons and the Germans 
and assure the completion of the conversion of Murope. The biographies 
of the most eninent of these pioneers (The Life of St. Willibrord by 
Aleuin, The Life of St. Boniface by willibald, The Letters of St. 
Boniface, ~~ The Hodoeporicon of St. Willibeld by Huneberc, The Life of 
Ste Sturn by cil, The Life of St. Leoba by Rudolf, and the Life of 
i. Lebuin), all written by thar 8th century contemporaries, “have 
been translated and auticmiad in one volume be ©, H. Talbot, The Anglo~ 


_ Saxon Missionaries in Germany (N.Y., Sheed & Ward, 1954). 


It 4s true that the principle of accommodation was an in 
portant part of papal missionary stratezy, at this was almost always 
held within limits, and pagan practices, where they were considered to 
compromise the purity of the faith were severely condemed, The mst 


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400-800 AD -4- 


3.Anglo-Saxon Missions, In 664 the two streams of western Christianity, inde- 
pendent Celtic and disciplined Roman, were brought together at the fate- ee, 
ful Synod of Whitby. The issue was what seemed to be a minor dispute over bali 
the date of Easter, but beneath it was the question of the authority of 
Rome. The Irish claimed the authority of St. John; the Romans that of St. 
Peter. Wilfrid argued for Rome but it was the king, Oswy, who made the 
final decision in favor of St. Peter (since he had the keys of heaven). 
The Celtic church only slowly and reluctantly surrendered its independence 
but the resulting combination of Irish enthusiasm and Roman organization 
sent a fresh wave of Anglo-Saxon missionaries to plant their Benedictine 
monasteries across northern Europe from Frisia to Germany. Unlike the 
earlier Irish pereaqrini (wanderers for Christ, or missionaries) who some- 
times iaaeesank missions as much from ascetic and penitential motives as 
for evangelism, the Anglo-Saxons systematically planned and organized the 
conversion of Europe around a. papally sp pn averae church structure. 

ion he ngllly *pr Aetna , & tcdy 
bert (d. 729), a Saxon monk, in an Irish monastery was the pioneer who, 

in 69 conceived ae vision of an organized mission specifically designed for 

the conversion of the Frisians in what is now Holland. When a shipwreck kept 

him from reaching his destination he stayed behind to train and send other, 

challenging them that as their fathers had left the continent as pagans 

some hundreds of years earlier, now as Christians they must take back the 

gospelto their distant kinsmen who were still pagan. When the mission was 

well under way, in 712 he retired to Iona to persuade that center of Celtic 

missions to accept the authority of Rome. 


Willibrord (658-739), "the apostle to Frisia" was also Saxon and studied 
first under Wilfrid the champion of Roman authority at the Synod of Whitby, 
before going to Ireland to train under Egbert and accept his challenge to 
missionary service in Europe. In 692 he crossed the channel to Frisia and 
evangelized against great opposition from the mouth of the Rhine to the edge 
of Denmark. In 695/6 on the advice of his friend King Pippin of the Franks 
(father of Charles Martel, grandfather of Charlemagne) Willibrord was made 
Archbishop ie Utrecht by the pope. 


ponieaee teak 754)" "the ohh OS oy St el ‘9 Sprints Pett teed Seal MEALS Saas Che al ¢ Be 


the Anglo- ace a Scien ibrord ‘in 

sion to the Frisians and in 719 ia a pope's approval for a mission to the 
Germans. In a spectacular confrontation with pagan German religion he began 
to cut down the sacred oak of Geismar, and when a sudden gust of wind toppled 
the tree he was acclaimed as a miracle-worker. More importantly, he estab- 
lished missionary monasteries (Benedictine), strengthened the German and 
Frankish churches' ties with the papacy, and reformed the declining Frankish 
church at the request of the King, Charles Martel, who at the same time was 
Saving southern Europe from conquest by the advancing Mohammedans. Boniface 
is well described (by Latourette) as "a man of prayer..steeped in the Scrip- 
tures, a born leader of men..a superb pease .a great in o,f ue bho es 


ef P (fe 
ere ae IDE Via Rea al a ann ee whe eee Pubs 
D. Kings and hd "the eae As Bee DP 3% a ie dain Bae flog on. nee ne 


Perhaps the most questionable, but at the same time most effective 
feature of the church's strategy of development in this period (as also in 
the latter part of the preceding period) was its emphasis on converting nations 
through the influence of converted kings and princes. All too often the con- 
version of kings was more political than spiritual, and their influence on be- 


Ba 


RK See Lal anellr Te, yp 16 


Chronological Chart 
YoULFACE 


A.D. 675 (some scholars believe 672 or 673, even 680) St. Boniface 


(NG 
718 


722 
732 
738-39 
741 


742-47 


754 


(Winfrith or Wynfrith) was born. His place of birth is 
a Matter of debate among the scholars--Devon or Crediton. 
Educated in a monastery in Exeter and then under Winbert 
at Nursling. 


First missionary journey to Frisia where Wilfrid and 
Willibrord were pioneers. 


Elected abbot at Nursling but refused 


Went to Rome for the first time to seek papal support 
from Gregory II. Was sent to Bavaria and Hesse, but 

on the way there from Rome, he heard of favorable 
conditions in Frisia. Went to help the aged Willibrord, 
remaining three years. Went then to Hesse and enjoyed 
great success. Reported the success to the Pope. 


Called back to Rome and made Bishop. 
Gregory III made him Archbishop of Mainz 
Visited Rome once more. 


Charles Martel died allowing Boniface to hold councils 
to overhaul to French church. 


Series of councils were held to reform the churches of 
France under Canioman and Pepin. Monasteries were brought 
under the Rule of St. Benedict. 


After returning to Frisia, he was killed at Dokkum by 
a band of angry pagans. Some fifty companions were 
killed with St. Boniface. 


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Missiology: Fail of Rowe to Reformation - 3 Par LL) 


A, Monastic Mis CG. telneeg Pable Romeo, 4s bahar ® v 
tonastie Wisalane, (4. fh Bi lab 

"In the conversion of Burope," writes Prof. Roland Bainton 
of Yale, "three Christian institutions were at work: monasticism, 
the papacy, and the civil state. Of the three, monasticism was the 
most important because monks were missionaries, whereas popes and 
kings were not." (Christendom: A Short Hist. of Christianity and Its 
Impact on Western Uivilisation. vol. I. Ne¥,: Harpers, 1946. p. 136) 


Monasticism, like Christianity itself, came from Asia to 
the West. It was brought into western Europe by Martin of Tours 
about 362 A.D., and was moulded into its distinctively western fora 
by St. Benedict whose monastery at Monte Cassino, founded in 529 A.D, » ! 
was not originally designed for missions tut rather for the glory of 
God and the cultivation of a spiritual life, There is, however, a 
explosive, outreaching quality in spiritual power, and what were at 
first only scattered communities of introverted, withdrawm, praying 
monks became soon, 2S Bainton puts it, "the church's militia in the 
winning of the West", (Ibid, p. 138) 
In Fact PE ways the monasteries were well suited 
as agents of Christian mission, first, they were spiritually revived 
end deeply committed communities in an age of secularized Christianity é 
when too much of the Bnpire had been only nominally converted, Net chiky, Ld utedey Sethe, 
Segond, they were centers of learning, Biblical as well as classical, 
preserving the Bible and the writings of the fathers when so much of 
the heritage of the aast was being swept away by the barbarian 
invaders, Third, they were self-supporting and unencumbered with 
families, living on the land wherever they were gathered or were 
sent, at a tine when centralized, papal missions would have bee 
impossible to maintain due to the collapse of the financial structures 
of the Enpire, Finally, they had a discipline, which is an almost 
indispensable wark of a successful Christian micsicr. 


Two types of monasticism spearheaded the Christian conversion 
of Europe. The first tas Irish-enthusiastic, independent and 
extremely mobile, lt resenbles in some respects the missionary 
strengths of modem faith missions, The second was Benedictine. 
more disciplined, organised, moderate and obecient to central 
ecclesiastical authority, like modern denominational missions 
(though the gomparison is, of course, oversimplified). 


The great period of Irish monastis missions was the Sth 
and 7th centuries. The Irish (Scots, or Celts as thay were then called) 
were the pionser missionariesd in nearly all of Europe north of the 
Alps, and in all of Saxon England north of the Thames, It is 
{mportant to remember that since the withdrawal of the Roman legions 
from the British Isles in the early fifth century (410-440), the 
Celtic church had growm up independent of the Roman papacy. Irish 
monasticisn, therefore, was more free of ohurch control, less 
restrained by vows and rules, and, in a curiously indigenous way, 
was rather closuly tied to families and clans, The Lrish monasteries, 
says one historian of monasticism, were nothing but “clans reorganized 
under a religious form" (Count de Montalembert, The Monks of the West 
from St. Benedict to St. Bernard, 7 vols,, Edinburgh, 1841, 444, ps. 86) 


q 


BI) 


a 


: NAAT De « Me Gall fis Jom 
Ae acinar oete 4 pH al 


-“‘Misshologys Fall of Rome to Refornation of ¥ 


‘gifts, he converted the greater part of the people.. entrusting (them) 
to the care of the blessed Sturm..." Given the methods used in this 
royal mission, it is not surprising to find later on in the record of 
a combined military and missionary operation, that "the Saxons, that 
depraved and perverse people, abandoned the faith.. gave thenselves 
over to vein errors; and collecting an amy," broke out in rebellion, 
(Vita Sturm, oc. 22,23, in Bede Kidd, op. Cite, i141, pe 77). 


Alcuin, the king's wise counselor, after a few more such 
unhoppy wissionary experiences in campaigns against the Huns, finally 
found the courage to give Charlemagne some advice on missionary strategy. 
But it is not, as we would expect today, a rebuke on the king's use of 
force to convert pagans, In the middle ages, that was too common and 
too wall-accepted a practice to arouse disagreement. In essence, what 
Alcuin suggests is that the king is expecting too mch from his new 
bear and he quotes Augustine (from On Catechizing the Unlearned) 

who advises instruction in the faith in easy stages, sunita had also, 


r Ke havrany 
<<) you reraaber, condoned he | use of force An conversion. ee E Ce fr ntti ra fe eth 


eter tS ea ht ES (en rake Co Ogcpoetsy these Sell ¢ 
Thi's prevailing reliance “in the Middle Ages on political 
and military weans for Christian mission led straight to Ss oe 
missionary mistake in Christian history, the Crusades, first 
Gall of Pupe Urban IZ in 1096 to the kings and princes of Christendom 
to unite to drive the infidels from the Holy Land~ "An accursed race,, — 
a barbarous people estranged from God has invaded the lands of the 


g Christians,. They have torn dow the churches of God,. (They) befoul 


the altars with the filth oft of their bodies... torturing Christians.. 

bending their heads to try if their swordsman can cut through their ae 
necks with a single blow of a naked sword... ravishing the women Eee wll 
(Harold Lamb, The Crusades, N.Y. 1930. ppe ® f. Jemtosthe fall o ; 
Jerusalen in 1099 when the victorious crusaders poured like Christian 

wolves through the streets trampling on severed Moslean heads and hands 

and riding through hunan blood that switled above the fetlocks of 

their horses (ibid, p. 236 f. from finestocckant the first crusade 

to the last in 1271, neither the motivation nor the method of this 

kind of Ghristian mission was anything but "irreparable disaster", as 

Bishop Nieill calls it. (Hist. of Christian iissions, Pe 173) 


fie Le ey gah day) 7 Gls { Wes 
a Kanda 


7) me,, — 


1o4b ae 4 tim. 109 | 
i eee stole : ee Pratsth ‘pl = see deg pee ). nae a. 


q ned . 
Seems 2 47. es "sextant wom m Gunde), Urmio TE 4 Pee, Comd, HRE — fends. tw prmnlle? 
tract have ber Lithrayed by CusTadamele. 


Nand ee eUlee Sobeda thir Teulon - The Ouvsede 4 Vanrys 1 eaiilserese pela as Hadad Ay 6, Fade 
Cant 120d. Rape 4 CorAdinsylc “Frye alma” Somaelin 


fw 
ee (eke oe pee hat | 
frome xe Gt rag, Conte aporct Eryp ade fel — Powe full 124) - dost lax’ straplad , 
| Seeth felon 0, Vo rtornnen Se 


Sunt Unces be : 


¢ 
Migstologys Fall of Rome to Reformation os 


famous illustration of this in this period is the story of Boniface 
cutting down the sacred oak at Gelanar. Here is the account from 
willibald's Life of St. Boniface: (The date is 723 A.D.). 


"Some (of the Hessians) continued secretly, others opmly, to offer 
sacrifices to trees and springs, to inspect the entrails of victims; 
some practised divination, legerdemain and incantations; some turned 
their attention to avguries, auspices and other sacrificial rites;... 
Others, of a more reasonable character, forsook all the profane 
practices of heathenism and committed none of these crimes, With the 
Counsil and advice of the latter persons, Boniface in thelr presence 
attempted to cut cown, at a place calbed Gaesmere, a certain oak of 
extraordinary size called by the pagans of olden times the Oak of 
Jupiter, Taking his courage in his hands (for a great crowd of pagans 
stood by watching and bitterly cursing in their hearts the enemy of the 
gods), he cut the first notch, But when he had made a superficial cut, 
suddenly the oak's vast bulk, shaken by a mighty blast of wind from 
above, crashed to the ground shivering its topuost branches into frag. 
nents bn its fall. As if by the express will of God.. tne osk burst 
asunder into four parts... At the sight of this extraordinary spectacle 
the heathens who had been cursing ceased to revile and began, on the 
contrary, to believe and bless the Lord. Thereupon the holy bishop took 
counsel with the brethren, built an oratory from the tiner of tim the a te 
oak and dedisated it to St. Peter..." (Ce H. Talbot, ODe eit. De As f. Bs x 


B, Kings and Rulers, 


Perhaps the most questionable feature of the missionary 
stratezy of this period, as also in the first five hundred years, was 
4ts emphasis on converting nations through the influence of ruling 
kings and princes, All too often the conveysion of kings was more 
political than spiritual, and their influence on behalf of the Christian 
church was more often exerted through secular pressures than through 
gospel evangelisn, 


In Scotland, mech of the Christian advance of Columba!s 
Irish monks, despite their evangelistic zeal, was due to the fact 
that Colunba himself was a prince, dealing with clan chiefs who were 
his own relatives, gland was reached through princes like Oswald, 
King of Northumbria, and Ethelbert, King of Kent, the first Christian 
king among the Anglo-Saxons, (Latourette, i1, p. 6). France, the 
German tribes, Bulgaria, Poland, Russia and the Scandinavian countries 
were all Christlanised through their rulers, and Christian kings, 
however nominal may have been their conversion often took Christian 


mission into their own hands, 
(172-24 997, 


Here is the celebrated account of how Charlemagne, ,King of Hz 
Frankg, set out to convert the pagan Saxons of Germany (772-602), 
The Life of Sturm, missionary abbot of Fulda records that "In the 
fourth year of King Charles's xekgn happy reign, the Saxons were a 
people savage and hostile to everyone, being mich give™m to heathen 
rites, King Charles, ever devout and Christian, began to consider how 
he could win this people for Ghrist. He took council with the servants 
of God,. Them he collected a large amy, called upon the nane of 
Christ, and marched to Saxony: taking in his train all the bishops, 
abbots, presbyters and all the orthodox and faithful... After the 


king had arrived... partly by ams, partly by persuasion and partly by 


\ 
Misslologys Fall of Rome to Reformation - 7 


gifts, he converted the greater part of the people... entrusting (then) 
to the care of the blessed Sturm..." Given the methods used in this 
royal mission, it is not surprising to find later on in the record of 
a combined military and missionary operation, that "the Saxons, that 
depraved and perverse people, abandoned the faith.. gave themselves 
over to vain errors; and collecting an army," broke out in rebellion, 
(Vita Sturn, cc, 22, 23, in Bede Kidd, Ope Site, 444, Pe i7OF 


Alcuin, the king's wise counselor, after a few more such 
unheppy missionary experiences in campaigns against the Huns, finally 
found the courage to give Charlemagne some advice on missionary strategy. 
But it is not, as we would expect today, a rebuke on the king's use of 
force to convert pagans, In the middle ages, that was too common and 
too well-accepted a practice to arouse disagreement. In essence, what 
Alouin suggests is that the king is expecting too much from his new 
converts, and ho quotes Augustine (from On Catechizing the Unlearned) 
who advises instruction in the faith in easy stages, Augustine had also, 
you reu@aber, condoned the use of force in conversion, 


This prevailing reliance in the Middle Ages on political 
and military weans for Christian mission led straight to the greatest 
missionary mistake in Christian history, the Crusades, from the first 
Gall of Pupe Urban IL in 1096 to the kings and princes of Christendom 
to unite to drive the infidels from the Holy Land "An accursed race,, 
a@ barbarous people estranged from God has invaded the lands of the 
Christians.. They have tom down the churches of God,. (They) befoul 
the altars with the filth oft of their bodies... torturing Christians... 
bending their heads to try if their swordsman can cut through their 
necks with a aingle blow of a naked sword... ravishing the women .," 
(Harold Lamb, The Crusades, N.Y. 1930. ppe 3 f. j--to the fall of 
Jerusalem in 1099 when the victorious crusaders poured like Christian 
wolves through the streets trampling on severed Moslen heads and hands 
and riding through hunan blood that switled above the fetlocks of 
their horses (ibid, p. 236 f. je-from firstochaxkaut the first crusade 
to the last in 1271, neither the motivation nor the method of this 
kind of Ghristian mission was anything but "irreoarable disaster", as 
Bishop Neill calls it. (Hist. of Uhristian Missions, p. 173). 


AX x ; 4 


CHURCH IN THANG Kg 


a eee 


THE NSSTORTAN 
Bibliography: 


IIT CHINA 


“The 
12S 


2 *ogste 2T 5 
Saeki, The Nestorian ionunent in 


ae 


John % 

Pols 
The First Christian Mission to 
Growth of the Vharch in China (635-633 4.).) 
First Bape ae and cee Uy! 3-(12 see) 
Recovery Ah dvance (‘7l2é- 


Outline: 


S. The Period of f Greatest Tf wanee (756-751 A.D.) 
64. The. Di Sy savantnae of the Nestorian Ohirch in Ohi 


first Christian Mission to China (625-635) 


H.G. Moule, Christians in China Before 
Church of the Ting Dyn 


ear 1550 4 A.D 


he 


China 


—— 


China (635-638 «.D.) 


(781-980 A.D.) 


Beyond the lands of the turkish and Wongol 1 ic onnural Asia day 
the great Empire of china. from early tiucs Western Ghristians have reflected 
traditions and talus of how the Guspel was preagchsd even to the Tninese who live 
at the end of the world where the sun rises from the sea, 3ut were the old 
traditions true? Did Christian Missionaries ever actually break throuc: th 
ring of fYerce warrior tribes that separated China from the a Wera they over 


able to cross the huge deserts and high mountains that make ntral Asia the most 
iso,ated part of the world? 
When the Jesuits r3ached China in the sixteznth century, they und a 


but no Shristians. £ tha 
out wishful thinkin 
Then came a dramatic discovery, Jn 1623 


Hsian (the ancient Chang'an) uncovered a 


colony of Jews inKaifang, 
missions to China were nothing 


Parhao 


a 
0 
he 


sors 
} 


of huge stons 


r2ports 


wen diggi 


9 facet high 


OL AHNCEG 


ar the towm 
ee = Repel 


gh 24 


a-third feet wide, of black limestone, beautifully inseribed in Shinesc charactars 
deneath a dcsign at tho bep contering about a cross. Largs charactsrs Te eeerca 
it to be "A ionumont comienorating the Propagation of the Ta-ch'in (Syrian) 


Luminous Religion in Unina", [t wis a lonament execto 


tellin: of 


the arrival of a Nestorian missionary named Alopen in China in 635 A.D. and with 
the discovery of this stone, the history of Christianity in the far Bast was push- 
ea back about 1000 years. 

is shall diseuss thy monument agin La » bit first lot us trace someth- 
ing of the background history of Christianity; Sentral 43 fore it reached 
China in 635 A.D. We hava noted ths orogress of Caristinatty anone the Turks 
from ths Persian side, kot as now turn to obs the aporoach of Christianity on 
the chinese side of the bie iwbland, (S POSuex, Wake wert 

Tho Turks, who beran to be recarmisad as a distinct unit of the Huns 
about 450 A.D. wer ished ont. of Liang territory into Kansw by the cxnanding 
Kingdom of Wel.” At that tise they wers 4 smell trivo of only SO fanilies. Troy 
became the servants of a rélated tribe of Huns called the THE ws In 5he, 
however, the Turkish soarvants defeuted their mastsrs and the Chief of the Turks 
bagan to call himself the Khan. They oegan to dominate the nears of the continent, 
lriving tha Bast Tartars toward Manchuria, ind defeating the Yeshthalite duns in 
3actria, dere the Turks found Christians anong the Huns as xe have socn, and 
-began to turn Christian theinselves, 

Shaporo, the lit. Knan of the Turks, was acknowled.2d4 as Eater of the 
Turks west of the desert by Yaina, and in return sent nominal tribute to the 
Sul Emperor, mach as Korea did on the other side of the gupiro. His SuUCCgSSOF, t 
the Sth Khan Duli (1. 599 4.9.), even warrisd a Shinese princess. - 3ut ha riled 
only t sagtern Turks, and .wsg depsndant on Chinase heln against the Vestern 
Turks of the Stenpes. His Son Sikir (the 6t Khan), ruled from the Great wall 


3 


“4c 
WAS 


or of 


e do 5) fall 
st Empero 


eurk 


The Sui dynusty fell in cit 

Dynasty of China, The founier and 
pula named Li Yuan, was hislf 
popular man named Li Yuan, hg] 


. 
S 


family and was said to have oenn a ‘ies "Kk 
help~--3,009 Turkish cavalrv sont by ‘Sibir the Khan--that Li Yuan captured the 
ui, Bin 


o 


capital, Chang'an from the las ivevor. 


But at this point the Turks 
welcomed some of tru oui princes ona soldicrs 
raiding the Shansi aorder. In 627 
T'ai Tsung, joinod with the Western [Turks 
front and rear, routed them, took their land, 
Turkistan beyond Kansu. The Smpzror 

Prom the West came 


5) 
Hasternd leleys 


pushed 


himss 
to offer trib 


ewbassigs 


pions iS 2 } 


His nae 
torian VUhristian. 


“an to 
as refugecs. 
and 626 the second T'a 
ind smashed the 


Lf took the 


oy the ‘wreat T'ang 


he new dynasty, a powerful, 
was a Tur the Tu-ka 


7 


Tt Turkish 


ey, 
ws - 


sianee and 
Also began 


the sreat 


ay 
ihe, 


nv auiperor, 


Bastern Turks from 
the frontiers of Shina into 


7 


i 
Lurks. 


at 


the 
amperor 


tawL 2 9 Knan 
ite to the Khan 


OL 


Changan, and it wis with one of thuse embassies, says Foster (P. 17) that the 
first missionariss came, 
Fostcr gives ecridence that Alopen probably cam: with the embassy from 


the frontier state of Khotan. Samarkand in 635 } ‘D. 


+ 


t a lion as erie 


sen 


Kasheir sent ambassadors with vresents of nendess but the King of Khotan "sent 
his son" (and a Christian bishop? Whe ae is perhaos why the missionariss who 
accompsanicd him reacvived such an OEE reception. The "Chancellor, Duke 


Fang Hsuan-ling (led) an sscort to the western 


suburb 


aa i a1] 1. 
" AS ¥ 1G Pablet 


ithe es 
Stabe Sy 


(Worstcr p, 22f.) 

The wart welcome oy the great Emporor Tai Tsung (627-6550) as an unan- 
tic a 24 providenca, Yad the mission arrived earlier in his reign they might 

yell | ean enetted for T'ai Tsun beg is rule with an aversion to 

Ronse Dect toca He favored Confucianism, for it alone was thoroighly Chinsse, 

Buddhism he rajocted as Western. "The Suddhs was of the West", his ad- 
viser Fu-'lih tole him, “Wis words wer: iwischievous,. and he was far from uSece. 
Tdlc vagaoonds donned the cowl in order to evoid the usu forced ie pour.... Lhey 
ese are always é a for 
yoars lator, bh 4 id toleration 
toward all reli tc ad the "hsisnll 
(of "Y%eavan-Spirit") rcelizion v @ capital. This S proonoiv Zoroastriasaisi 
(or Manichagism) from Persin. 17635 £,9,. he welcomed Christian? > Luree 
years lete: he issued an edict inj.versal toleration towird SGhristianit 
(Foster P, 1) 

Ths ros for this tolorant attitude was vorobably the Smocror's intense 

| interest in a revival of learnine. fe was not only 4 warrior, but patron of 

learning. The library he built in his capital Ghangan right naxt to his palace 
is said to hava contained two hundred thousand volumes, "one of the greatedst 
libraries of the ancient world" (Lbid p. 39) It was the beginning of a universi-~ 
ty. Ho keot 1 ‘gt! riscied scholars there working on the Confici classics. 
When he discovered that the new faith which the Porsian missionaries brought 


religion of a book, he euimgntianeied bara: 
flopen 4s an ed guest, 
translating Scriptures, 


ssion to China. 


=} 
honor 


his It was an auspicious be 


6 
( 


2ée The Growth of the Church in China (638-683) 


é 


; Tt was in the yaar 63% that the first Chris 
China for th. missionmirias from Persia, Rv that tin: 


purniea some Chines 


apital, 


hay | 


1.3 eet: 


orsian, but 
"uction in the 


9 


lal honor 


44 
canst 


Shina, probably 
rders for shag 
ind as a m 


av) 


brought him into tho library, 


with funds from hi 


at, J 


3d. He 


, 


ad 
-cived Bishop 
rdersad him to begin 
stian 


and 


ginning for the 


Oh iri 


tian church was as in 


thers ware 
The Emperor hi 


Ge 
13 


a 


own treast 
on the 


t> be hun: W 


Between 1916 and 1222 some important manuscript. aiscuvered in Shina 
ware identified by Japanese scholars as early Nestorian wtings, Saeki «nd 
Forstor bolieve thay are the original documents translate: by bha first Jestorian 
missionaries in the great library of duperor Tlai Tsung belwean 639 and oll, for 
one of them refers to the date of the Messiah's birth "sis hundred and fort»-one 
years (ago)," The four manuscripts whichave exceeding!’ ‘*mportant in throwing 
light on how those first ‘lastorians tried to explain t'zfr faith to the Emnsror 
of China (foster, pp. 45 ff.) 

(1) Discourse the Second, a tract on monothasm 

(2) Goncerning she Unity of Heaven, 2 more «inplete defense of monotheisa. 

(3) Gonserntng the Vorld Hondradaone's Char-iy, contains the sermon on 

the Mount and other deren Ue crucifixion, resurrection, 
Ascension, Pontecost, and the sprvad of the faith thifught Rome and Persia. 

(4) An Trt eapctton to the vabbiate which 24 an outline of tue Lifs of 

TJasiis; but which begias with a An accountof Man's fall, and idolatry, 

and a summary of the 014 Tastament Law (including an extra-Bibdlical 
. command to serve the Emperor}) 
When Tac Tsung died in 650 A.D., he was sucecdsd by Hs son Kao Tsung (& ‘o Jong 
(650-653), who following in his father's footstaps "#ided the fingl embellishment 
to the truo suct", the tablet states, In every prefuter, it adds, he sstablished 
"Tllustrious nonastarias", which would mean 358°of thm-probably a puous exaggera} 
tion. There are records of at lorst nine sugh churclxys a3 the time, however, and 
there were probably many more. The nino were Chang! in (3), Lovanes Chow=Chin 
(forty miles from chang 4n; the ruins have been found), Miengtu, Mt. Omei, Lingwa 
and four others, 

Sometime during his rcign be mide Alogen archb.shop of China, undoubdbte- 
dly with tho consont of the Persian patriarch, The tablit refers to Alopen 
receiving the title "great soiritual lord guardian", Th: date is uncertain, but 
it was after 650 4.0. and before 7°1 4,D. (Tt was after 150, becauso tha Patria- 
rch I sho Yahb ITI refers to 20 vishops and 2 archbisho,} "in the East", in 650; 
and the be archbishops werg Kashgar and Samerkarid, Andit was befor; 761 4.D 
because in that year the Patriarch Timothy. speaks. of appinting an archbishop in 
China— (Foster, P. h3) 


3. First Opposition and Pers. 2cution, (663- -712) 


Sut for all his kindnesses to the Shristians the Emperor Kao Tsung did 
them one almost fatal disservice, Hu took one of his fwher's concubines, Wu 
Hou, who had retired to A Buddist numery after the Emoctor's death, 
This was a sin by all stancards---Confucian and Buddnic) as yell as Christian, 
and he wid dearly for his sin, The strong-minde: ycrwlly ambiticus wu fiou in 
656 A.D. murdered her own son born to the Emperor and ¢:amesd the Empress. The 
Sipross was degraded and "iu Hou took her place, finaly. forcing Kao Tsung to rec- 

ognize her as his reigning equal, ‘Yhen he died in.6€), the first days of growth 

for the Christian church ented, and nnder the Buddhis! Empress Dowazer, the 
wicked Wu BONG the days of adversity Negan. 

Wu Hou quickly depogad her son the nowy Emp sor and took power herself, 
setting up a now dynasty. Sho was powlrful but sinf.., taking a Buddhist monk 
as a lover. Sho was fanatically pro~3uddhist, and «jvarontly privately encourag2 
opposition to the Christians, Parsscution bagan in {78 4,D. when the monastery 
in Loyang, an ancient Buddhist strongholi for 600 yetS, wos sucked, The persecu- 
tion wis never official but fortzon years later it aid reachad the capital of -  ;’ 
Qhang' an where the grat Nestorian Church, the fime in China, was invaded and 
Violated, 


oi, MMe re ae 
A Visuing, WE Kovtom eornle auschid: Champlin ty 50, Hagel O11, Twamn’ Prithvi. Paselse 


ee 


he Recovery of of the Church (712. 63) 


The violation of the great Chang!an Vhurch was the last dying spasm 
of the anti-Christian oppsition, for by that time tho power behind the persecu- 
tion hat: alpsady diced, [ho wicked gnpress, eighty years old hai retired in 705% 


The next. strong Superor, after a fow puppets was Hsuan Tsung ( } whose 
reign was the longsst in the T'ang dynasty; (712-756). It was 2 period of rece 
ovary for the Church, ‘but of decline for the tynasty, us it faccd the riso of a 
new power in the Wost, the Arabs. j : 

Tho Arabs, it will be romemoered swept through Persia in 
By 637 thay fad s-cked the capital, Otesiphon, and forced the Pers 
Kings to flee to Balkh where he Apoealed in vain for Chinese hein, He was 
killed, but his son uscAped’ ani fled east finally finding PoPUBts ITT: A ar 
in Chang'an, “When ha diad the Chinese gave his son the title "King of Persia", 
but he too dis in exile there in 707 A.D., the last of the great Sassanid 
royal linc, 


% 


Fortunately for the Nestorians in China, 


enenies were the Turks and the Koreans, not the Arabs, 
asylum to the last of the Sassanids, he did not £9 tO war on their behalf against 
Such a war would have cut the Nestorian lifeline between its mission 


the Arabs, 
in China and its home base .in Persia; 


Moreover the Arab conquest of Persia did 
Nestorian home church’as had beon feared. Up wu 


of Arabian Nights fame (786-809 A.D.), the “ohamnedan 
tt eemtenietin t 


wine AL “i pion fae ee 
tolerant of the Nestorian minority in the lundds 


Zoroastrianism in Persia, for it was the stnbe religion of the cox 


But towards the Christian minority they were ve 
arch Ishoyabh TI (626.6)3) is aic 1a be 
rch Ishoyabh II (620-643) iss q to, have een 


the Emperor Kao Tsung's tiajor 
So altho he gave 


not prove as disatrous to the 
Myidi-the reign 
~rans were conarkably 
they conquered, They destroved 


ry Lenisnt. 


Bibliotheca 


Orientalis TIT, 11, 2)°95) Wohamnaedta successorg, the Onayvad Saliphs (661-750 


A.De), granted the sume relisioy 
widely in high adwinistrative 
Arabs learned much of the Gr 


, 


ca 


orians s2‘r 
rian missionas, 
Nestorian missionaries 
ariva 


eee wee 


to the rigors of the 014 Silk Road, 
T'ang court in 
¢ 
bishop, Chi-lish, who is mentioned in the 
The Arabs saened to be mild iZ use of a 

missionaries as interpreters and advisers 


3y this time 
France, all acrogs 
China itself. Pome had shrun 
centurh were the Arabs and the Yvhinese, And as 
Chinese west, the to dmpires seemed to be on a 
frad armies moved east toward T Alarncd at 
Emdire and Tibet might Unite in a fearful allian 
Emperor Hsuan ‘sung (712-756) sent his syeatest 
e3ta1l the union, 
sitral Asta an one of 


story, Gens Kao moved from Kashgar 


rice 


4sien-chih 


iountains and 
, 


sush to the rection betwaan the Oxus and the Indus, 
ssful in breaking up the feared coalition, but four years later, in 751, at Talas, 


0 the Nestorian mission to Shina wag vninterriotel, 


(See 4.0. Luks, Mosul and its ¥ 
: “ aces ae RARE eS ae 

accompanying Arab enbassics to vidua, 
intega of Arib sea and trade routes to the Far ast which were far superior 

The first Arab embassy to China reached the 
the carly years of Kao Tsung (650-683) 
later, in 713 A.D. Andowith whe third, in ‘732 Aly, 
Nestorian experience 


inscription on the 
7 


132-4.D,. the Arab world stretched f¢ 
2) 


8 freedom to the Nestoriaas aad employed them 
Soeeus, It was fron the Nestoriang that the 
eek science and learning which they were later to 
pass on to a Burope which had in the meantime lost: it 


. 


S$ ancient Greek heritage, 


in fact, some histq 


that tho spread of Arab emoire across Asia actually stimulates Yesto- 


° 
1 


inorities) We find, for example, 
armarently taking 


- A second followed much 
vnere came a Nestorian 
Nestorian Tablet, 
in China by anoloying 


OM Spaia and Souvhern 


> 


North Africa and uhe wastes ol Central asia to the borders of 
sj the imperial giants in the world of the Sth 


the Arabs movei1 east 
collision cours:. 37 Tir a.D. 
the prospect that the Arab 
78 against hin, the Shinese 
general, a Korean, named Kao 
Uarching his troops over t' 
the most extraordinary Sampai ens 
across the Paitins and the Yindy 
Phereas in 747, he was suece- 


“£3 
+t? 


v2st of the mountainous hdart of the continent, near Ferghana, he was defeatad 


by an Arab arms, 
area ranots from the centers of Chinese and Arab 
ful battles of history, 
and tha Sdeinning of five aa, 
ItoiPsy Tt algo markad the 
San tha arGa Was odrmar 
BAS Gla Tin Ghd teadtsion, 


SAX eats § 


Pe ho ty} 


> 


ie ee ee > = 
Sw a as Se henge apres 


"This encoun itor," says B.0, Reischauer, “Yalthou-n fought in an 


power, was one of the most fate- 


It marked the end of Chinese control over Sentral Asia 
cburiss of steady military. decline for the Chines3 
Seginning ef the Arab canqucst of Sentral Asia, — 
ananbly convarhed to Tslam,! 


(Reischauer and Fairbank, 


of Haroun 4l-Rashid, 


quered dynasty. 
The Vestorian Patri-~ 

given a promise of’ safety for all 
Christians by Mohammed binsdlLM  (Stawaees p, 214, quoting Assemani, 


34 4)) favorite concubina, Yang Kwoi-fel, had no will to fight, an 


bteyar)hs 


Phe Nestorian Tablet tolls us wore of this period of the recovery of the 
church than of auy other. The church, which had baon gravely threatened by tha 


pessecutions of the Empress Wi Hou, was soon restored to life and vigour, 


Tha Tablet tells of the arrival of Bishop Chi-lieh in Canton in 71h; and 
of his final reception in the capital in 732 after many frustrations. He was 
welcomed with the gift of 4 purple robe, (Fuster, p, 73) The Tavlet also tells 
of the restoration of she Nestorian churclics, and of the vranting of imperial 
‘portraits to tha ehurch as a sign of its return to the favor of the court, 

New missionariss arrivyad in 74, 4.0. and were invited to say mass in the palace. 
In that same year the official Chinese name for the Christ!an religion was chan- 
ged from "the Persian religion" to "the Syrian relivion, which was a help in 
avoiding its confusion with such Persian religions as Zoroastrians and Hanichae- 
ism. Tho edict readss sie ee: 


"Tie Persian scriptural religion proceeded from Ta Ch'in (Syria). 

. BY preaching and practice it came, and has long ago spread to China, 
Yrom the first it established iwonasteric&. Concerning the name which 
is used, it is for the futures wished that men should be instructed 
toat it is nesessary to restore the original, Its ‘Persian Monasteries! 
in the two capitals shall therefore be changed te 'Ta Chtin (Syrian) 
Monasteries! ,") (Foster, pp. 8, 89) 


F3r 
5. The Period of Greatest Influence. (768-888). 


3} 


volted and 


In 756°A.D, a Turkish general of the Emperor Hsuan Tsunz 
t leath of his 


nz re 
seized the capital, Changan. The Emperor, still mourning deat 

abideated in 
favor of his gon, Su Tsung 96-763) who with the helo of his famous general, 
Duke Kwoh Tau-1, rallied three armies to dsfoat the rebels. With these three 
armies, three forsign religions rose to power in eighth contury China. The 
first was Buddhism, which was the religion of the Emperor aud his own royal 
armye The second wag islam, which was the religion of an Arab army seit by 
ths Galiph in Baghdad G@s @ gesture of friendship, The third was Nestorian 
Christianity, the religion of many of the Emperor's Uigur allies in later years, . 
and porhaps at this tine already strong among this warlike tribe, though they 
ware also strongly influenced by Manichagisn, 


Q, 


Three men also sband out in this period as influential in the Nestorian 
Church in China: (1) Duke Kwoh Tzu-I, (2) Issu (or Yazdbosed), and (3) Adan. 
They are all mentioned in the Nestorian Tablet. 


Duke Kwoh Tausl, the greatest general of his time, has been called by 
| AN de "One of the finest characters in all Vhinese history". (J. MacGowan, 
The Imperial History of China, Shanghai, 1906, p. 325) Under Emperor Su Tsung 
ante the tn La-shan rebellion, Jaden PAR (hate Emperor, Tai ronan (763-780) 
he saved the country from 4 Tibctan iavasion and quelled a mutiny of the Vigurs. 
His very nane was enough to frighten enemies away, and he died in-honor at the 
grest age of G5, early in the reign of Teh~Tsung (called Chic:. Chung on the Tab- 
let; r. 780.808), “Nuch of the favor which the Nestorian church enjoyed at court 
during these years may have bean due ‘ta the patronage of this powerful mlitary 
leader. It is not sure whether he was himself a Shristian, but he was at least 
& eroat friand of tha church, (See Foster, p. 89, 97) He 4s a symbol of tha 
military protection which the church enjoyed, 


bs 


oe Shes ao £3 ib * 3 


se Serra eer enero ee —S- Ek oy Se an aloe 


Issu tho Priest was one of 
name was probably Yagdbozid, 


Ae 
which is not surprising, since he 


1 
1s 


the Duke's most trusted officers, 
Tablet hag a great deal to say about him, 
the man who arected the Tablet. 


His Syriac 


Ee is 


called "Warden of the Palace Gate, Vice-Guard of the Northern Marches, Joint 
Probationary Tmper Age Chamberlain", and "claw and tusk" to the Duke, and "eye 
he was a griest, and thé 


to the A riy 


and ear" 


son of a priest in Balkh (Afghanistan). 


only .in 
Sauki, 


He was powerful 10% 
titles indicate. 


symbol of thea politic: 


Bishop, 
as his 
He 15 @ 
China. 


ee meron oe 


Probably the third most 
w2o may well have becn, as Foster assar 
tion on the Tablet. His Shinese name 
the identification is correct, he was 
lar, a translator, and thse author 
works survive, discoverc| among 
notable of these is 


: 
5 
+ 
a 


PRs 
cal 1, protuetion whiea the char: 


Af Luentia 


rt 


$2 


Tu o 


7... More inportant for the church, 
hangan he became assistant to the 
the chureh out 
63, Gls Foster, pp. 1 


1 ny 


civil : 


yy 


1 Christian of the 


ae 


the son. of Tssu. 


documents 
his "yan of the Saved .to tha iT 
(Sae AG Ki 


of the Syriac "Gloria in Rycelsis eo', 
Bishop Oyriacus, whose neme, Lliks Adsm! 
But Adam, and the Hastorians in csn 

4+ 


Suddhist than Christian. So grest wis Adam's fame as a scholar that evan a 
Buddhist missiouary from India, naned Prajna, céme to hin in 7.6 for help in 
translating 3uddhist sutras into Shinaso3 and so tolerant was cdam that he 
agreed to do (foster p. 110 f,) -fhis-pliability of the Nestorians in their 
relation to other religions has op »enad thom to the charge of synicretisin,. It Cre 
willbe ramemoured that it was 3 Novcorian Atk the helped nohumicd write the 
Korca, Whathor it was raligions aynsretism, or wgssary cultural intcrchange, 

he Tablet is full of Confucian, Saddnlst.and| Taoist conceasts, 

6, Disapeorrance of the Nestorians from China, (81-990 -4.D.) 

Sometime in tae two huadred ycarg between 761 aad 9604.0. the Nestorian 
church completely vanished in vhina, an Arab record written io 937%-reeis: : 
"Zahind the church in the-Cnristian ouarter (of Baghdad) I fs11 in #ith a 
cartain monks. who saven voars before had begn sgnt to Chins by the Patriarch 
with five other ecclesiastics to orine ths affairs o Christianity in thet cou- 
try into ovder,,.. Joaskad him adout bis trav3ls @nd ne told me that Jaristiani- 
ty had become axtinet in hina. Tha Christians hid verished in various ways, 
Their church had bean destroyed. 4nd there réeuainsd not on Christian in China,," 


(Aoulfarar, quoted by Poster; . 115) 


This evidence of the di 
ated by tha fact that fron that period on 
ceas3 to be mentioned in Shines. historital 
What hapnensd to wipes out a 


No one 


EraAt gel akee & suceass in Uhnina? 
tory ansvor, Sut ws may List bolow sana 
Ain how tha Nest 
fF 


Sy 
oral, have 


of other works 


fomd 


» Ti 


church which 
nas yout 
of - the 


beside the Tablet. 
Tun-nuang cave. 


az 


en critic 


r 2d 
CLA 
4c 


w 


ti9 


DES, 


108.£.) the ai 
ms to have been Ching-ching, 
He was a classical 


2 
bhi 


itfairs as well 
102-10h), 


enjoyed in T'ang 


d was Adan, 
of the inscrip- 
and if 
scho-~ 
Three such 
The most 


orio 
hor 


inity", a Chinese translation 


3 Saree. 


ascribes this hym to 


the Te iblet. Pe 248-265 doe ) 
iaed as being more 


sanpecarance of “gstoriani 
until the Yuan 
20rds 


fiven 
\ tentative 4 
borians could so somplotely idsapjear from Far distcorn history: 


iS) 


except in 


seemed on the 
eompl 
ngwers 


A 


from Cnina is corrodor~ 
masty, the Nestorians 
the past tense, 


verge of such 
sfac~ 
2xpl- 


sb3sly sati 
#iven to 


ee OMe AS eat ae MENS Re es ie Pa > a uaa es oo ern 


j 


Loss of Uigur military and political Bippoct; The YVigurs, as we 
have niet yore fh Dowerful” Tarkish tribe which controlled the great slains and 
deserta of what 13 now Sinkiang, north of Tibet, throurh which the old Silk 
Read ran on its way‘to China. They were one of the principal : wilitary allies 


+ . 


of the Tang dynasty, strong enough to danand and receive for taeir Khun dau- 
ghters of the Chinese gmporor for wives, But in the 9h g2nkur ry a Viv red. tri: 


ba, the Kiran Turks, began to rise to pover. In 032 A.D, they" 
Jigurs, gor of whom filtered 2s refugees into Shansi, wails others survi ree 

as units only around the Tarim River basin, One pf their major religions was 
Vanichaaism.® Ae thoy fell from pow2r, this relizion was order21] destroyed by 
the Latar T'ang Emporors, In Uhangan ahone 70 Maniches nuns were killed, tom- 
ples onrned, and books obliteratcd. (Fostur, p. LIE f, 5) 


The persecution and destruction of Manichicism probably also affected 
ths Nestorians, which, as anotheY "Persian r: ligion was often contused by 
ths Chinese with Manichasism and Zoroastricnisn, -& touple iascription dated 
610-520 aD, says, "Of the three barbarian religious,—-those of ike i(tlanichac- 
ism), {a Chtin (Ghristianity) and Ysiea (prooably Zoroastrianisn)--thers are 
not mors’ monasturios in the whols Supire tha: one would find of Baddhist jaon~ 
astories in ona small city", (cuoted oy Foster, p, 119) 


2, Anti-3Buddhist reastion and Cersccutions.: The nuxt "foreica peolic 
gion to fesl THS wolahs of porssculion was “aio sa. Ths superstitious ercdue 
lity of some of the wdaker Tang Bmperors in the doslining ycuars of thir power 
disgusted Confucian intollectuels., ‘Woen jmporor Asien. Tsung (£56-521) YOUNG 
an alleged bons of Buddha's finger into Changan and veve it sn Tiperial wele+ 
one, the Confuciinists pavlicly aa aye? In 840 Sonfuctanisces conbined with 


ths Taoists in a great anti-. , 8 
yearse By aps vial decree, 4,600 duddhi st monastaries and normituces were 
ordered closed or deutroyei, oxcept for particularly desucifiil ones, and ons 
in each of the 356 prefecturcs. Thu bells were ordered nieltcd into coins; the 
procious images wera given to the treasury; tho 261},500 uionks and nuns were 
ordcred to return to productive work, Buddhism never fully recovered from 
this erushing blow in Vhina, (See Foster, pv. 121-125) 


The same decras dealt with the lesser foreirn religions, Christianit 
and Zoroastrianism, "43 for the Ta Ghtin ind Muh-hu forms of vorshin, Bae 
Buddhism has already haan cast out, those heresies must uct alone be 2Llore 
to survives. | Paople belonging to these also ara to be compelled to return 
the bh tats fs Jecons tax-payors, ss for FOES 2 let them os returnes 
to their mm. country..." (Ibid. 2. 123) The deercs statas that morc than 
3,990 christian aid Zoroastrian inonks vywre compli saeko return ie) Boe world. 
If Buddhism, vowerful as it was, never comoletely pecoverad fron that oersuc- 
ution, how mach more Crippling it wist have bzen to the Littl. soristian 


arouvs, When a new edict of toleration was issued in Oh7 4.D. it may heave 
besn too Late Ths astoriar misaiona apices Wst@ probably alr Hae sone, deport- 
ed. And the at Aes leadership probably scattered to their Villages, trying 


to ‘naks a living. 


 2¢ The Pall of the Mang dvaasty, t+ this coint u fresh infusion of 
Lleadarsh*p Fro from Persia nent. have 5559 sble to ravive the Nestorisn remnants, 
but the death strurclas of ths great Ting dynasty, and its fall in 907 &.D. 
go diaruptod the linags of eomiasication ta the Woet that i+ is doubtful that 


See HS 


mies 


ss 


From the Stone Tower the road into China passed through lands of fierce 

Turk and Mongol tribesmen, through citios which tho Romans called Issedon Scyth- 

ca (probably Kashgar or Kucha in modern Sinkiang) and Lenedaneaeraes Giitah nalibo 
Kucha or Louelan) in the Tarim River valley bofore that river runs dry at Lop.-Ner 
in the burning sands of the desert. (This ig one of the inost isolated soots in 
the world, chosen therefore vv tha Red Chinese as the place to ex lode their 
first atomio bomb), Then the road from Antioch, the roal of te. Christian niisse 
jonaries, joined an even older road from India over which for 500 years Buddhist 
missionaries had been traveling into Shina, This was in the laid of the Uigurs, 
and among them too the missionaries were eventually to have great success, 


3. Missionary Methods and Success (498-761 A.D.) 


a ee e+ 


All along the old silk road the Nestorian missionaries preached to the 
nomads of the steppys, those restless shifting horssaen and fierce warriors that 
roamed like bandit gangs along the edges of the great ommires of Persia «and China, 
Individually they were the greatest fighters in the world, bit they rarely stuck 
together in any larze groups long enough to form a raal ariz Yet among these 
blood-thirsty warriors of the furkish tribes the gentle Gh stan faithe of the 
Nestorians b2gan to win converts, 

Eng" missionary methods of the Nestorians are duscrived by a contemporary 
Jacobite Christian writing in 555 4.0. We deseribes how two Shristiaus who fled 
with King K eolea to Bactria in })95 penlgings there for thirty years, married and 
had choldren. They bogan to evangelize among the Huns (or Turks), and found 
Christian captives from. Byasnting Rome acong the Turks and ministered to then. 

Both of these two missisnariss werc laymen, one of thei was a tanner, Latsr they 
were Joined by ordained missionaries. A Bishog of Arran, named Karadusat, arrived, 


with four missionary Priests, These ordained missionaries stayed seven years, 
converting, baotizing and evan ordatisin riests from among the Turks. ‘These 


missionaries, it is anit Lived on a rigorous diiiy ration of only saven loxves of 
bread and a jar of watcr a day for all. seven. 

Vith their ovangslistic work they combined education. re; taugnt the 
Huns to write their own langusge. It was the Nestorians for examvle, who brought 
phonetic wri Tartar tribes’ Like the UJighurs. This is sh wmdtii: from 
which modern Mongolian and Manchu ars descended. Swoa Shu miss’ nari 
joined by a practical Arngnian bishop who taught thu Christian 72 .-ks 
verutables and sow corn. (i‘ingana, OD, Git. Ds 303f,) 

Within 50 years, by the middl: of the sixth cantury (§59 A.D.) this eor- 
bination of evangelistic, educational and agricultural mission asd beourwlt such 
guccesg that the Bactrian Huns (intershangeaoly called Hyephthalite Yuns, «white 
Huns, or Turks - the Syriac name for then wis Haphtrayc) asked the Persian Expcror 
aud the Nestorian Patriarch Apa I to uppoint them a bishop of their ovm. The 
mnperor Chosroes was amagzcd to hear that even the wild Huns recognized the sythor- 
ity of the Nestorian Patriarch, and gave his parmission, So the m:ssenger £ 
far-off Bactria who was bimself a Hun and a ea: ib, wae ordaiis.d Si shopiof tre 
Huns-th3 first Turkish bishop. By 501 there were so many Chri.:tiais among the 
nung that whon Rome (Byzatine Rome, that is, the Groek Constantinoole) warred with 
the Turks, thay found that thair Turkish prisoners all had srosses tattooed on 
their foreheads. It is ironic that today the work "Turk" is practicall synonmmous 
lth Moslem, as Mingana observes, whereas in roality their ancasbeors were zealous 
Christians before Mohamaed was eveh born, (Thid. pis 31, 30k fap 

Beginning about the middle of the next century (6h A.D.), just—aethe 
fyrahs +> syoaning into 2 the southwassers—reaches af tha fallins 2 Peysian timp >, 
04 1$s sOrtheastorn frontiar the missionaries wo re exulting in mags-corrersions 
) te Aue 5, A Hoste 


Aad Mtn, Weer ae on oe | sae AL Wee < |r Ze yyes 


ting 


sean ia len atin caine eeenn eae 


had surrounded himself ibn Shristians who wore assured that the imperor would: 
goon turn Christian {1,0. jestorian) himself. lis personal clerks were Nesto- 
rian, and Nestorian ohana was placed in front of the royal teat, with 

public chants and tha beating of toblebs loudly taking place at apoointed horus, 
(W.W. Rockhill, ODe Cite De 29) 


Gatholic envoy, Villiam of 


second Ronan 
“arakormm, Mangu Khan (hsi-nsg ), son 


Some years later, in 1253, 2 
Rubruck, reached the Monzol court at 
of Tuli, was now Emperor. Wis mothor was the erait orincess, Soyorgnactani-~ 
bagi, whom Jenghiz had married to his son Tuli, Rubruck found that the capital 
had twelve haathen temtes, tro Nohsimmedan mosques, and one Nestorian church 
(Rockhill, Ope cit. De 221). claim that Mangu was fae ly baptized by 

Armenian bishop, attributed to Yaithon (fist. Orient. p. 35f.) who dates the 


ny 
419 


eer in 1253 when the Armenian kinz, Yer Thun ry Visited the Pate Court. La 
disputed by Rockhill, (op. cit. p. 239) In all of Rubruck's contacts with 
the Great Khan, Mangu, notably i che farious debate before ths court betveen 
Wanichees, Moslems, Nestorians aad Rubruck, revresenting Roman Catholicisn, 
the Zmperor only listened tolerantly, “o-vave no Bien of conversion. ‘In fact, 
afterwards he confided his ow faith to Rubruck as follows: "Jo...believe 
there is only one God,,..but as God ives us the ese finvers of the hand, 
so he gives to men divers ways..." His parting word was aliuost a confession 
that his basic faith remained shamanist, "God gave you the Scriptures," he 
said, "aid you do not keep them; ne save us diviners, we do what they tell us, 
and we,live’ in peace," (Rockhill, ov, cit. po. 230 ff., esp. 235, 236) 
+ne iby gna of the three brotusirs (angi, Uulagm and kholei), from 125) 
to 129h A.D., marked the ish ooint of Nestorianism in the Yuan dynasty, and 
under Khublai it wag brought back into China. The following Gynastic chart 
indicates tha central position of this oeriod ia the dynastic history: 
1. Jenghiz Khan (4, 1227) 
— be 
2, Iyvodai (r. 1229-1211) Tuli (dy 1232) - &. Soyerghackay -begi (Srrecan) 


\ 


3, Koyuk (vr, 12h6-12h0) 
tod en er a ore 
he Maney (r. 1251-59) a) Hulaeu (ys 1263-65) 5, Khaublai (r. 3. Asia, 
1260-129) 
a ULE Se | 
Malca (1265-02) nmed (2292.2) ae 
run (12 L) ae 4nar (129); ~1306) 
Six Bmperorsg 
Hudrpn- adwocti by a Western 13. Tovhon-imar (1333-64) 
Khabla- « 9 Chanter Sthtlan 
~ BGR ve 


Fan Gry - i do rad CO a hae) 


The Keraits wore not the only important “Neateed an influence in seca 
China, Three of the powerful Mongol trives were in large part Christian. peat 
The Keraits, as has bean noted, were in high offices in the courts of Jenghiz, 
Ogodai and vangu, thanks to their marriage connection with the Khans. ‘The 
Onguts were snother tribe with a large concentration of Christians, They were 
strategically tinportant for their contro) of the major land routes between 
China and Mongolia, A third tribe, the Turkish Uighurs, were still militarily 
Simificant and had been converted by tho Nestorians jn ey Cs hoped bers . 


; (ug 
since tha days of the Trang dynasty [de at a 
Y r dynasty. Ins « Fase ~ aide nag hel t Baghdad Be Msi rAd 


Sometime around the yaar 1270, with the defeat of Sung China, Khublati a 
fhan becams @mperor of Ghina and moved his caoital from Karakorum in Mongolia “thy 
to Cambalue (Peking). With him the Nestorians came back into China to reastab— ‘Meld 
lish their archbishopric in the capital, and in Ehublai's reign Chinese lestor- ® 
lanism reached its avex of international significance, and for the first aise 
Nestorian missions ah if oe A » pepenpiced SSRN with the east sending its PARP et sh 


to. the west. Yon oh ies Bde aga | 

it: aay Ake 

se aye i rah A tae Bante ac tek sh Me 
‘e it L275 rela hark Lehs ne of a hye eee acol, and his 

friend, Bnother Nestorian ai fis te Satna, left Poking for a pilgrimage to 


Jerusalem. Stopping on the way at tre Nestorian vabriarchate in 3aghdad, they 
visited some of. thd andiont liestor.an holy placeg--Arbela, and Nisibis, site 
of the ancient thedlogical semivary. Wien troubled political conditions pre- 
vented them from proceedins to Jerusalan, they decided to stay in Persia rathe® 
than return to oe although the Patriarch urgad Mark to go back und offerad 
hiin the vosition of Metrooolitain (Archbish nop) 9 f Ghina. Wark finally consent- 
edy:; and was Miganorsie archoigshop in L260 4.9. ug the age of 38 But tie 
Noung, hindgome, dascerbevded" “ine tane wag destined evar to ude hks homelund 
agains For more than two years he onde to cross the nigh roads of asia, but 
wars blocked his passage, In the neantime, tho Patriarch of the Nestorian 
Church had died, and una<pectedly bh high council chose a3 his Sidcessor the 
stranger from far-off China, He was shocked... "I cannot even speak Syriac (the 
mere of the church)," he said, But the wise Nestorians who fad lived 
successively under Roman, PsPsian and uray cdnauerors, knew that in the 13th 
céntury it was the Mongols who ruled the world, and they were therefore deter- 
mined for polibical reasons to hava a Mongol Patriarch. 


Their visdom was soo Apparent. In 1257 Khublai Khan, ruler in tie 
east, acting on the advice of the Ilkhan Argun, tulor in the west, appointed 
the Patriarch! s Chinese friexn@ and companion, the bishoo Rabban Sauma, to repro- 
sent the Mongols on 4 diplomatic iission to Rome and Paris.. Once again the 
star of the Nestorian Shurch had risen highs as the bishop from the cast met 
with dignity the kings of the west, ey the Fair of France, and Edward the 
T of Sngland,- JAS Pula - ‘terial bree g k pani, 4 Wok (ore) *£ 
jie ie ith eu, Makes. 
Pajrtents 1 wdhiopeGlng ae 3 
Politics, however, are a: tne Bens at best for pvowar and stability 

in the Chrfstian church, aad thy Westorians who had pinned their hopes for 
revival tothe Mongrel Mois wero not to enjoy the results of solitienl favor 
for'ldtic,: 

Reainah by a H 


ine Mike rg 


Site a a Coothand « 


re ht eh sr pe 


The immediate results of e¢lose connections with the Western Khans in 
Persia and Syria gave a temoorary illusion of a return to Nestorian power. 
Under Arghun, who died in 129], and under his two brothers who succaeded hin, 
Kaikhata (1291-95) and Baidu (1295), the Monczol Patriarchate had great influ- 
ence, The governmant gave lavishly to the building of magnificent Nestorian 
churches, particularly in and around Baghdad, But none of the Khans was actua- 
lly converted or baptized, When Baidu died soon after he ascerded the throne, 
his successor wags Kaikhata's sou, Ghazan. And Ghagan was an ardent Moslem. 


swiftly the prospects of the Nestorians in Persia changed. Churches 
were destroyed by thea Moslems. The Patriarch, Mongol though he wis, did not 
escape arrest. Hung up, head dowrrard, with a handkerchief full of ashes ovser . 
his mouth, he almost suffocated and barely escaped with his Life. Intermittent 
persecution continued for years. Onl; the friendship of a Christian queen saved 
him, ‘hen churches were rebuilt, they were ouickly destroyed again. Christians 
ware heavily taxed, The Mongol Patriarch, Mark, known as Nar Yahballaha ITI, 
who had Seen crowned at Mar ok: nuar 3azhdad on Nov. 2, L26L with such high 
hopes of political suecess, diad anidst widcesoread persecution in 1344 Aes 
The Nestorians novor ies came back to power. (See E.G. Moule, Shristians in 
China before 1559 es Ope M-127) at 


et ae ee 


Prégacuted by tha last of the Sy oaag in Porsia, eid only bolorated or 
the Great Khans in Pekinz, the iestorians did not survive the >reak-uo of the Pets 
liongol Smpires In Persia the:riia of the ‘iongols crumbLad after 1335, and the sche 
Moslems once more todk over tho wear Basb, ae i 

In China, where a renort adout 1330 4.9. declared tiat thore were wore 
than 30,000 Nestorians in Qathsy; the Mongol. Emperors fell to the victorious 
Chinese Ming dynasty in 130°, und sua Mesborians fell with thew. Peking wag 
almost re aa aS and di the massacres that followad, all thut had connection aye F 
with the Monogols was rootad ont. "Vith the Mongols Maps shed bueie probsges, ky oe 
the roketunanut mites Vichael Prawdin, in his The Mongol Binoire, Whe Chri- i oe | 
Stian settleme nbs and the Nohamredin colonies were ea ‘the bishoprices ey Fe 
ceased to exise;s the priusts were murdered, even the cemeteries were dismantle?," | fay 
(if. Prawdin, The Mongol Smpire: Its Rise and Legacy, London, allen &% Jmrin, 

150. pe 388)., Tha lay word in the abova sanhanes, perhaps, is "forciener", Ag = | 
After seven hundred vears in C* ina, bhe Nestorians were still. foreien it * y ; 

Syrians, then Keraits and Jiechurs and Monvols,. “ut not Chinase. cause they ais: . ; 
had failed to win the Ghinesoa to Shrist, they vanished from Ynina almost «ithe an i 
out a trace, ie 


William of Rubruc]+, in his nlancholy description of Iestorian at the 
L a4) - ‘ ay L » \ 
court of the L3th century Khang suzceuts why thoy had host the voner to 


22 


yy, Lae Rama Aath $4 - nw ‘ -o = a * 1 
convert. AS a Roman Catholic ho periavs axacceates Testorian AGAKNIeS3eAs, ob 


ry 2 


/ 
| 


from the picture he resents it 
anism was any longer really Christian, 
aro Nestorians," he writes, about 1254 A.D. 

they say their servica and hive sacred books 
they are 


in Suriac 


ignorant) from which they sing just like uneducated monks 


is questionable whether Mongolian Nestori- 
"In fifteen cities of Cathay there 
"(They ) know nothing. 


For 

of which 
anongst 
they are 


(a 


lansuage 


First 


go Lato church they wash their 


ourselves; and in this way they have become wholly corrupt. 

usurers and drunkards. Soma of them also, who live with the Tartars, have 
several wives like the Tartars, When they 

lower Limbs like tha Saracens, They eat flash on Friday... 


out rarely in that Land--scarcely once perhaps 
all their boys, evon in the cradle, to be ordained 
ALL their men are priest, and after that they mar 


contrary to the deerecs of the Fathers; and thoy 
the priest marry a second wife when the first is dead, 


v 


to simony, Administering no sacrament without a fee. 
; g 


in fifty years. 
priests, so that 
rv, which thing is 
commit bigamy, for 


4 bishop comes 
cause 
almost 
dlainly 
even 

are also given 


™ r 
They 


They 


They are concerned for 


their wives and children so they strive not for the spread of the faith but 
for gain, And so it comes to oe that when any of them bring up some of 
the sons ty the Moal (Monsol) r bles, althoush they teach them the Gospal 

id the faith, yet by their =i Life and covetousness they still. more 
TE tham from the Christian religions sor the lives of the Moals them- 
SClveéSee arg mors innocent than their lives." (Qubruck, in Roc} ill, ope 
cit. ppe 157-159) 

So completely did Christianity disapoear with the fall of the Mongols 
that it is not clear what roally hagpened to the Christians. Most of what 
was left of the Mongols became 3uddhiste So, too, probably did the Ncstor- 
lang in China, In Persia and Centr a asia the chet am becans Moslem, 

Timur (Tamerlane, 1336-1405 4.0N.), last of the'Nongol conquerors rode out of 
is capitel in Samarkand and SED Nestorians all across Ceatral «sia 
ind Persia, Only a f sockets found refuge in the high mountains and sur- 


; 
° 4 
vived, notably in Kurdistan (Assyria), whera sone 


renna 


nts exist to this 


da <) 
cat @ 


aly. ae ver ae 
rie: 
be 
: er pane Re.) 
| a Missew TL The Scavs 
“We be ba nynelm print by bs 


aoe ae ee i ae ‘aac Q 
Spina) wraion — Iych ents tel ec eirk—ee-denbr 
SE AGN AE ee cae Wan sat Sore 
AE wei June) in Spintnel ois. Cyrall ee are Hones chan 
A mail Aree B donen di ae physcaf ee 
Det Ais Egger arnin oe ugh 
tenn , whether Spntind 9 jhamcel — ut Srutlimes tas duabific and 
syanttin the syiuntial fm the plpcl a polka and tak o 
wt on accept, Chin allomctne ef Oa mad 


Ald Tak 9 = Be ag Cpls 


"a Hee wlll bed thy 

Nowhane x ynsasm lwbng daca in racers as Lencarn 
Khia, BE Spink od thlleyeal osfede 4 hmmm ed Ee ffhgnce/ 
cA petitiel — He empuony imiitne 4 tinal colaites and the 
Witton Melt 4 thr Lye im the wnld — whos » Hetero 
Yne tbvitina, Wore firs), sf Mere deapre Connipeimly speed 
aA wttimutet, wre Loqrcalh, mmtoried an mm 9% coring Garpe — 


A the prem inirrim g Col 4 Méthedrnn Ue Shwe 4g Mane 


Cyl A Methedinn were Susly — sult 4 Te 
peed peso man Tenpte wwe toll By spin, based in omtinpted 
Crwstoncton ple — Stell pramy tm Anches a play, undefeste, Bom yeas cod rw 
cfr wopht, Wwe C5 wétlim city) fell ttle barhenans 
Be Te te Indie ere bom mun the bepinn) 9 the 92— 
Cabin, — Methrdans the Ader, sbnch G1; Conf (ale mee fr 
writ 4 bie Wy wey Custerdin’) im $26 n 27 Wp. Hf wre 
Ja Them | Ae hes g tots A He st 4 Comes ~ Bo pct Veeder | 

9° ection Sunde im Watny wry Wena tome he 
Bom Doh tiny wolh thee we poskao, Th way a me 
Want acd iver tind penpeninimttstte—prrmene — Vika form Me 
vt: Slavs um He sant,  Gtrmans fom Uy wet; thabs 
a eee he PT 
Yajur — Catt ovadon we, ae 

Fel a Vint 9 the bith 4 he naluin ~ Rance 
cud Yorn become Separcted fm te Jomf tine. Tick append a9 
a Arparihe prnrepalt — Small DT gammy fa ty pct tome. Pedgana (uit it, bpd wk 
Sime 4 oe did o. child- oo ie bas | ae 
Vil d wetter the Aves, the Mnavians Culho were me day frm Byala shred. 


MISSIONS and Tourtics senna 4 he Slavs 
Gate damn 4 Gre $60, a Weve ¢ rw amd kiko 


mbm learbardinn awit th Soke ¢ “drdldin haabeton” mpen Guitancbn ye, 
Sn Dee bee Hay lade hem he wel yg We topic, The emferrr 
was amy by AS Mar — fyhting the Maobion Prabs Phe frplliced 
Liyle begged the Pebruwh ‘Phatcs © coll fr Cevds poet, trad be 
Cormid a Saou poh — 0 parma 4 the Verge Moay — ig firrceran clang 
We lny Wel, a fim Aaa, He invedlos desumle, a == 
wngnarlel suburbs, tah opaiy Hh Tain bosch will, pest bifh> ond 
Oe ee ly 
Bekiide ean ieee “Wun “ie beenber, Ba seicuds celled “Har, 
Rhos, a wr hang Seal eaten leptin smith + ead fpr the 
pelle or dees wmajnd, 4 Slows Whe bad Came watt fom oo Sct 

Jum acticta, tte Vithele in Shel bo mw Poland, ard He Drniojen C2: Mumix ). 
Pron wd wan He cy g Kiey - whi we Slodl me Bb bw bd a 

de ead 4 He bap my 4 te nrapeligeten: 4 ty Varn Ga Sto, 
haninn, AG were apame tnd bearhanaion Le tte Srces- mam yah 
The elle 4 She) wks Dvemik, “Way thins fool dined endech nth, Dy swuctine 
eee Goes wn te Sl 
Wom 4 Cl ee) otk bit ett. Slas wis He 


C p.¥4-s1) 


, 


Ynfnl wher beh potted Meredemse ‘S is, Shore tur Smet bgpinny 

4 He Fe C57) (Denk, p) Peas Col 1 al, aMacked fr Yuck 

Te aleakel cK Ae Ls lc ge a 
“s nM paras destindach= 4 ciel Nated sone tert ets 


Yn | ge ed es tele Ee 


a ere wen Ss ee ee 
mvadue feror—bocte be Me Lnrpdbn 4 a aa ake He Khas, 


whe bid Ling beam nancy weit form Cou Ase “he Irntorn 0h 
Condtintmnle , Mrcbol BF, bar or bribed te Vrunbev!, derailed % tgptoe | 
FE pmb, 4 am alm 4 Corbarcrngle vith He Kazan ypamt te 
Cammn strom farm Mev — Hee rruins. With te dalamae marin Te 
tee Unegel bed. g m Ye Shnts 4 the See 4 Ag fhe nmi 4 hye — 
Din, he was admccd Hse e thallapn’, fo Uy Aazele bec deo ben | 
vem winlh wey lean Se be en Atbrums aud prod nah puma 
dhacttin  — Sujringly, Alig wen Younsh, sat ty mace bt by Comeenin. duit 
tral the yay 730-770, Ase math, 4 fe mb the myn cho had 
connected Lo (nda The eye a9 « White wey tlh imdecdeal aan 
lean He mag dle eatin subpar, Flam od Chast 
(Un i i hl, ee eee 


Ge Falk te tee Sap, oad 

be dic Wrath 4 Cnibudrale, This "me 4 beablif chedinn 4 
He £47) City to ond eTrmstle casculser bw rack Plect 
peermwinhed 2 former Stetat bis, 5 gmp callin named 
Crmitode” - 1 Cyd as he Uehe come be called, ond wih 
Cwitondene - Cyr weit bin olde, Iota, Meth rcdina. 

We bw a gract deed abt Cpl ad Methedir 
Bracke tee win any bis peshheg AIK Weta berm vs 
Mivdewin, im “Irerscrnke, He cA Wik Yaad wnte bin lettin we 


: FH, tke. fethe, Was ae 
tte wrt blond bullke, ae Cb 

Nn 4 WE pomh 9 beatin Cmel . Pe cand eal 

+4 AG — wena i Comal le 1G pchalanshep fam He pune 

nut ROE Vd, di che, vite « e fandy nliqums hap n Cow deroble— 


bike ab 6 ay ech Bat toddler Be bap 
oe fy 10 5 See 
awech oh AM pled ost ud Aracplais Maem, he absy ey ee 
plone , onthe’, aor, Mua , and Ae Fs holler ate (rane okey p,S6 


Bat thst 4 aa “a Nwdebewd a9 Am bn crmjarrc ble Linguist, Bt HEA Came Let . 


Bete OR Cm Pe Ae Lf 4 lithe dais Cl the “ihrmnuan Cpendy | Vunwk ¢ difend, 
MA Wad 4 Ay 4 tk Re 1 aA wncting Teter caStrmon op iop~ phn orabolbiol mod p. 336 nb. 


Coral - Conte ng bye clureags Q lo moenan Duby of thy 
wh 4 bio bye dd he Aahe Wonest tc ws and Kin denbth Wat be Was der 
odomed 6 wl Ve remy tomate Ui, bly Mathodring became 
uc array, Int Cyt romared nt a doecm. (Prva, p57, 142), 
- 7 a 5 Ong 4 hus bows newarkeble Plstuis, was dik] (bruni and 
hic les scl{lastic abst, al Cwilosclan ope Wan be hd advon tenscd . He | 
a bu wed - 
Wns the paw, Ld f, the ne he» Nnejuowded He Poh ct wpoitend 
woeralll, | 2 
bwin ch tte pabiosh CoA ud-jabied, A “Uranus (npn a 
3 matte petal bawarcit’ jonf th Chcsh, 
besa” pomp dad wt apf hs Ma « shit Fae ami 
Aienipensale sod Ue food Wieecke eke 1p ea Ohl, te fn 4 
ee 
tin Wilco Muay ont Wah fn boy - 
er Toesk Condtadesn | hal ra be Aerynid A enlead 2 Womattbcg 
lis tee fa ae Wrio im thet brnodhf bums. 
beck umm Welltetie! ty @ Wumeiten TL Churhas actin in Hy rd. Te 
(Hazen) 
Cowt vacled a Mrudtam Sh, acempin He dplmits Le ee Kupyg Mazen (x 3) Ge 
Di. uty. 36 wyo SU teh ME bine - 
ad te Chine Cd, Vg wale ysl Preven a0 @ Wasim — 
TT was moe 4a ea Se Chee ee Aptana Gur, ed bit apaant Mateos 
ded bry peels Jr quvek prot, dnd dis paging mre Clirernen thom Compan 0 dunitron 


Muedtdor, 
Bae in An patton ark ced petty, Gyid did acct lam self wll 
Un edie show Ne wars 4-Cortmrnies A a pacesffic, orhedl bun 
bo rok — Od Cyl roplid “LT am Adam's ranim”, Hehe Jenny 
a po opat de Ys, th =| fo Aden, 
Shanes phaled Pitre beds Ores (5). We wher 
pat Your, tae rideled Ae rdee Hebe] 9 tte Prarnefinn, he 
Crafted flim = tahicy He Waite appear 0 « bur buh A o camer,” 
Vn Why ertd ba rit hive epperwA mm eainan frm’ — wong 
Linn — Ick wet neh, aownitice tr profnd teller ld tary 
Tio wth he wir tothe Hhesars fr wha Gye 
od Wethodin are romertined, Diy sill clame be bart ag He 
hyntes Rte Slavs . — Wy A, 
De Shaws wee tela 4 wih wsmsde fom KE 
Plame Lime 4 atin Dm cline Ya Ble Lex hy jada 
We A tow. tee SOO te, ee dts Od oMnern 
ve hk nad Cypeborlveli,- ed math vide Pond, Sth 
wai Voy Thay Wee & pitend rd Wome 4 Wenpritin, oft the 
Soh a Nhs Ad the 8 A 9D coc, Tow 


Sit tan, ty 
Wawer 4 moun bum 17. fs dn met aud med o 2oit cated 


‘haols) = ee 
luke: German and Slav, “The Seve pci ali Bi ‘veal 
Ay we — Hee Gonch » ant £ : . 
Lap tole fae) ges SL: earl and Sth, rm bi thinveitemn Urdde ; Ue 
ans eo Mere wea] avd Src Jum Ue hndew g Ase ad 
Aude. Ne Webwmim Cyl CCralantine) Method is amyl 
Je ine they no thee ant 9 Vasil 4 ele, tae 
matty 4 Anus Whine the Sey Wepre We] Se uel” ames 


; (.franle) oree 
Kune lima pre ) 4 Charbnupne , ty ber keg 
| GH war 4 he Meee uh Hamace wed Chae the ald, te sheficr Conke, Un, “he 
tent olan qundfdtinr Unde coat g He fine = oF 
lowis's Cod, was Devaai. In Sw thea] Youmany . eck hs Abed cll 47, te mad 
yes 4 He 9 cocks (gar-¥7¢). , 7 , 
Hersieedte tail wen thy Lome Rouse bry 4 Prana Contk tt code, at Taper), 
vier 
eA Minnvia jah 
Lene AE Saami crated yn im drlawut, We hikes & 
oid Iw tirrtong aortwards , ond tm nan tony Lubope 4 Wrtrem bt CMlomellens he 
WA wramainer wis Boheme TK camicd the papan Chuefe en pole 
a ue Cog 4 Chale moyn 
emopre — Boflom had patted 


3/9/47 


bo will a, Aalp wwe wets, lads help, Th He hi Conve become 
“puck 4 Me daweine spe tht, hod ea acl the mir ranion | A Dip fat Yq Conld coiled 


ub Nice 


At ali, the otk Marans Nias iid) ae 
live fence wath the Pmks~ fry Mnania trae to mat fy 
Pe ee 
Nurtid bA the ovwel 4 ep ee ee: 
Marsan wdefendance (Danmch, p.77, 96), — aa Fay 2% df bis chev 


oganil the Vaan 
Mey rebelled , ae oe (Wes £46 AD) omtrvan thy Cony, 


tm mat dled “the dead toes vo Catalan, «2 = bomb ag 
Wort Crm) Jobe fila a Charts, aT eee 
Comguara Hyl be hed sthed bee frldlm, bt Le meclmed wrmy. Kathe bw 

prwech Niven ball, able, amd esthemt Hlvwily mortaaed We ae 

Mireviame Wittind alarmny (ows the Gernon. le ee noms, 

hed Wade - it A wh. the iam Sf bor Ler ts foe's 


ee ee as ae Corman Cobbaines, Ox ie 


no pl oops ee oon ie Wert . 
te Sh (Poe (EADY, 4 te Lee Qed tan Ban tery 


— Cita: 


' I ha aby usta , Sith 
ll ts tensile Rebetika CUfe 4 Gut edey Dy nivale p73 


A) 


The Gangeon termed aptacr Se Cab lralicine , as be bad ore 
Lda Tae taxe” fo an odd. asa pred 
bm cil) ay 0. Slade mamma Uy Cheele Imerrem , atime the 
pwerairm Wis Te be he the Slows — ed my He omer prnded ol 
Cyl De tamop Sloat, he hed atti oc igs igdell a aoc 9 
Dendrmka Srv years oarbin , toll stil Splo a frm 9 Baik, neato 
2a wall ao he Leen Yrtck dled. 

Conk acer] We weroun, It pit & unk fuk T 
maieuameeri: og 
a ttiertey Ca bal) ct fae “teeth. , HE Sam doomed teat F 
wold oe baja He wit, Slose tn fuck. Te Srmds 4 the “te 
Vampreper 04 Allin bree te dhasimndlin. Thre wea uo frock Settes fr 
ty ny 9 ty Llane sede YL bo wypetled © lead, thon, be dened, 
he Iywat lupe Ing desing am ablthalst fr thi — amd thle, Hebd tor 
Quick Veta trwdh da. Bod, K Gice tim nition file col a otha 
docks g Tin tm — fr Col A Sateen appenna ures tm Callin innlewalat - he woe 
LE gine thm Sethe naw, ni Somethin bencncd from teats cond geins be rm — 
Liding, Gch, Ctr, Uelrewp, Syrin  Cimaman  lerrin, Neb oe So he inwadef 


© Wide fh Nednis ® Cl, ® ‘Th aa sia De yon od lado, 


mal 


u 
an Maem ol fhekal ppl ‘yeh wr. dae ae Fi Mca 
© Cull al buat” sosted Jy He Maan ore Hon the Cyrlbe cbplela wh » 


bel wy « Ke Been 
se A pion ae wna. tle ee L Dirmk, p.723/], 
Seth's en elite rere aoe . 


hmmnitle |p ed aS ee prcpoed 


7 


wih Wo Metheduns 


eae oe the Ba Wni19 Lyng det Thensabbrn la \™ 


td Aiion Lead emse Yast deh fm Conttcdoryle Heh Durable a 

me — peed berm Lote Aprte Tend Sr your aarbin - the Vig 
grein Ma prt m te Cepeom 5 Dprhecum Bebra») i, Alls 
Cepelme, —  hemin ter rats Vem , and Hire bythe ad Arn 
Coad corn the Cactrim Dhps % te Danae A vp He Mereve nmin Se tte 
Meas le daccue at ilate tae Ty anmech pally in £43 AD. (Drrale, pts). 

Lee ded He re brats bmi that ay tre tering mle 
am vector utica) Wintel, Uhre howe Comes mat bere and And 
Her oeclosuptea) watts. To tray cunect erg 


| : Alana eo) «cra eae oa HS Corhervng | (Lrnam Ime. 
Se Sie i ao 
Neer foas) @® Ie Tra ae). pm the he - fate pe 4 
Wehm Lme fs ke barhanou, a ae Oe 
Crile Wet cd an »o dd. amy een 4 Mtg nena ret 
luncge Ca bad devided (France, Holy, Germany) - 
bed chaning jetta g tee pope eccles iste prwe, . 


s Nie Adhere Lain Faw. — Cat: Doni perso ky wealing Wsvally Te age Ahern — > omigercr chemin ont 
> : man & mg 4 f 
(v KS. fomele bat 4 Lygweans Vie ft. : p. Th ie Wat : pepe 4 Gimpawn. hn lig’ bd we talon 5 Teas Tee 


wreaking Ce 


i 
WE Ge 


MB at 
a a 


\ Yin 


v 


Slavs. (7) 


is Oe wise ) were «cl Al 
acta teh, Pa 
win Ano abba 4. Collie ae all Ko bmy Th. 

er tar Srbs fr am lima) Lugdem - 

Ma, wee mat the fb mesma bth Slevs. amie 
[Catal wae abroth 2 Chatting UGE many 4 ber chop wee CP 
pep Fe Cats Tra Seats nis — 4 pougnine Lad nrecched Bowens 
J, te bapinm) 4 He TP cxnbi | Am the cad Crs 754) Salsbuge 


Hes C145- 134) 


Mh 
Pyne 4 Caninsther ), | Sart cla 6 Mra altered alin, We lv bape 

din ch baby, of He Gand. tae CSodenty eee pens bo amb but (82 mi. 
dem Actim pom flman a tHe Drrwbe — katie LE tvnen jm Viewwe wer Fe / 
oboe 4 Moana . Ok ofa Chelanwina , Gertan WER poet te 

GI — A AE ruioime became lrccelized GLEE missions , gm oreo bey — 

bat x winuclin bhai te hdl, Ona Ga, pai 

del dhe wantin bel ram ue “tuclan, facet, Cnowitc) wdbendire , bebe, nit te drect 
der eect 4 te bd CTE pe 

Doin Vane openks 9 te ste | thon onthe flonan, Brahe ae Ne 
Finds Lah wen pole ae pba in Then A ey — oady Hongshan ried be dap 


| 


Sls = @®D 


Ah ep sles 
1  bwen Ne bule oo ae Hoy of) ve yt Hee ne ns erly, Mra - 


ee ae 

han do allan He wo hd Lo hime & Comdinbele tte 

Corman Woroimwdts Whe peomed & Lyn Do be tte Seerhoed 4 Banbnh 

vie) onjansiom . Grt—Gwitind Prt le hod aded rc Irth ~ and 

Cane Metdiach oh deta. pha be 

ryndled Meat Ha aA wet made thorn rome balls ‘es brat tg 

a Iubap. [oe we howe oem tat small Sip ical sip dpemsd tat pal, Cntd 

Upplang ihy FE Sli Cped-clnhe byt the ‘Rrman CISLE anceerm: 

ted, A wh ale Hh Tein Oth | 

Dd cpt ade Newthelin Cyl sat af mee 

bes on 4 ramaltig tHe DSiepy 4 the gnpele nde Sone pes 

lin tin) mnction UK Yeplthe Semple ). TE smd toh 

pata: Bho — buck pam te Wied Uppmdcon  Foit, eg the Germans Come 
bee at or Wrckial prNeddim  Idatrolan’s Mnawian rceo Were terror ba 

a warrior Giriwam odthick fom Ha a gonr aften te Wrhtes annved ($14).(Droml. 


WA the Germon Wettig dh Wario marisa pttinwed » and 


eo 


7 SUD 
Charlemagne (165-54) ae 
Lares He Veins (%'4- Yo) dun 
ee are ee ae 
a eas —~__ bermany 
OG ees, eo | Levis thy boron (812-574) bog be, 
paxminn) = Waits) a 
Lnis LZ (en- 4) % mae Prowl, bg Gone (#59 - 874) 
Fedawa, (979- 657) 2 ser ae 


Clavte, Ue fey (584-6 


Cajun - ¥- $7) 


f Z 
re Eco ert 
Cr O4s- Su) | ativs rv Wi aie Aejrned by Bred 
te Cen: iss) yee . 

eit Dlactinn (6717-996) deyral par 


ots 
oc 


Rachie 2 (85s -87) - 
C Adwe, 8 CEO )— 57>) - Ncthadin ve hnaned 
| -082)< h be Awe X : 
Lela wry Wwe Fie ( £12-6%) es fee aed 
pr \ Wik, (yfo- sry) 
| foment Coty. &5) 


\ Sug, F Cs% - 41) 


oy devlha > heise 2 ev 
Pretivey lb piers ba) Cli bw 4 Minin Bao (413-49) - Ope Yay Cat tnd tre ed), 


Kprtiee + Vecbites dwablok 4 Marwan Chis iw plow) [Sy vate sly Cand pon Vi kewy 
| Vledimn (cked 95>) - 


Vedlav (Wersetin) (425% ) 


eH by | hod Caps hap ptr. 

Te ye Won will Wenet lsd te) Wewevoe deed © Uy lea! beepers, 

Whe Wee So bpiler nth Shane pm ces ble He ruber gq 

Dancin tA Finneran tank Matepmeze ok underttind le padi si acest 
| Pad lh, dd Vee Wobnirarien acecytt bie witches ? Wat He 


Clans : Et Litt tema 


The way le bet Utell rams Ung the ris ici (ore 


WA Cita 
© “ey pa bata ct tka yatecn 


Ret eee ae 4 SEs mi ae filet im Gualoudendle 


Leagpanr thir a tae : * 1a Cheb ise! —— : Vin 
Ce ee a 4 Sa: 

pees wnethods — ramakdlin, 4 Ae np, L tie ew in “te 
Sethe am Vain sake, ko ww ld be Sis ormeA_ apa fF t the Pouky ig es 


O) 3 : aa nino 
Oh @ Veaay te col, pa the watide 4 Akos Charan warn rig the Slee Cat ohne 


ize 


ES, Ee OIL ITSY, 
Qraptheo helt eh pled A Uetnetcien ae Ae 

Wer |r tte Maavions with whem Wey had ited — nsf 

wth Busan, Geman Calin 1  brermom prtcted ar all tee 
y dene yeh Bp portal atte ae Biles | 


dies te han conser pi ae Crate 
Use Then Lowe, Wrap , Corr 


Momell werrded — and , ible cds tantdaacttoely best pitted the 
Mrrwan th Jom Marve A Om idotte te oe, pe 


Joep Yeviesin Clrmrlam tn Wry 1 4 pow dn Linn rad 

Chom frm rnc Cmatoctanye , He Oped che! Gonna 
DB. Fern. Wait epi ee pele gl euet eral ce Ragen Mele 
3, AT nn na, maid 4 Adlanry DV meh brme base 


im Coudlarctom ale, Ag vated K~ Tme. Cowstaicint [lama river seed 


yt back Lo Cwilotbnate. Net ae ae 18% ee arg 
i: \, le Wao rd A= Rl A). 4 be ee 
Ans ty A & ve) ee 


ad wept nace Le fe oe Blarttin, Sac 


® 


| 


Shs CED 


D. Walk Conte [yl gre, tao rifle, Methralinn ino 
wk aston Wire - eid Lime awn cts C htiion 
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VLADIMIR THE RUSSIAN VIKING 
By Vladimir Volkoff. . 

Illustrated. 384 pp. Woodstack, N.Y.: 

The Overlook Press. $18.95: 


By John Greppin 


HIS is an impressive biography of Vladimir 

I (9602-1015), the sainted ruler of Russia 

who brought Christianity to that pagan land 

by the force of his imperial power. Born-the 
bastard son of Prince: Svyatoslav of Kiev and a 
lady-in-waiting, he distinguished himself early for 
his uncommon wisdom, courage and guile in battle. 
He also distinguished himself for his prowess with 
women, and ‘‘Vladimir the Russian Viking,’’ by the 
novelist Vladimir Volkoff (‘‘The Turn-Around”’ and 
“The Set-Up’’), is to a great extent a lurching 
from gory battles to carnal sprees of gargantuan: 
proportions. 

Many of the earliest Russian princes were in 
fact Scandinavians, Vikings if you will, who moved 
east from their traditional homes to the land of the 
pohitically backward Slavs. Following the extensive 
river systems, they settled as far south as Kiev,.and 
it is there that probable descendants of Rorik of Jut- 
land ruled. Indeed, the name “Rus” itself is of 
Swedish origin, and in the ninth and 10th centuries 
its use referred to Norsemen rather than Slavs. 
These Norsemen, however, having settled in Slavic 
lands, eventually adopted the Slavic language, and 
the blood of these two vigorous.peoples merged. 


flowing Russian rivers; it was these rivers in part 

that made the Slavic lands important, for they car- 

H ried commerce. The Dnieper leads from the north 

down through Kiev and on to the Black Sea, whence 

larger ships could proceed to Constantinople, the 

4 |capital of the Byzantine world. And taking the 
Volga, one debouched into the Caspian:Sea; from 
there one could go by another boat to Persia and 
thence to the fabled Baghdad of the Arabs and on to 
India for trade. 

At this time in history the eastern Slavs were 
hard pressed by Turkic tribes coming from Central 
Asia. The Pechenegs, a Turko-Tatar people, were 
particularly meddlesome, a nomadic nation that 
harassed the settled Slavs with scant remission. 
But it was these Turkic people, as well as ather 
Slavs, that Vladimir managed to control during his 
impressive 37-year reign. Sent from Kiev to Novgo- 
rod far in the north as a 12-year-old prince, he even- 
tually, after the death of his father, took Kiev from 
his brother’s control and added to his own power 
many other cities, among them Smolensk, Rostov 
and Pskov. Thus Vladimir became the first to bring 

under one rule the far-flung cities of ancient Russia. 
F He did this from his throne in Kiev; so was begotten 
_| Kievan Russia. 


Vladimir was born a pagan, a worshiper of an- 
cient Indo-European gods: Perun, who controlled 
thunder; Volos, who guarded cattle; and other ob- 
scure dieties. These gods did not recommend the 
meekness urged on Christians by their Scriptures. 
Mayhem and rape were the rule. An ancient Rus- 
sian chronicle records that Vladimir had, before his 
conversion to Christianity, 300 concubines in one 

city, 300 in another and 200 in a third. The monkish 


| .|| chronicler notes that he was ‘‘insatiable in vice.” - 


} His energies were apparently so great that Thiet- 
mar of. Merseburg, who traveled in Russia, called 
| him ‘‘fornicator immensus et crudelis.’’ But these 
comments might be exaggerated, attempts to show 
| the sordid state of Viadimir’s soul before he em- 
raced Christianity, for to this butchery and rape 
i must be added a theme of religious discovery. 
Viadimir was a thoughtful man. He respected 


4 _ John Greppin is a pro 
3 | Clev land State University.’ 


< A # aot? *) 


5) Pagan Into Saint 


There was considerable traffic on the south-- 


the Greeks in Constantinople and was intrigued by 
their God. He slowly came to see his paganism as a 
backward religion and sought out spokesmen for 


. other religions to enlighten him. There were numer- 


ous possibilities: the Islam of the Turkish tribes; 
the Roman Catholic Church in Germany; Judaism. 
as practiced by the Khazars; and, of course, the Or- 
thodoxy of Byzantium. Enlightenment was readily 
available to a prince so powerful. The believers of 


_ Islam told him of their glorious god but informed 


him he would be compelled to give up alcohol. This, 
Vladimir said in true Russian fashion, was prepos- 
terous. He was intrigued by the Jewish Khazars 
until hé was told that, as a punishment, their god) 
had banished them from their land. Vladimir had 
taken considerable pains to create his empire, and 
didn’t want to risk it for a god who might Send him 


St. Vladimir (960?- 1015), icon in the cathedral, 
Archangel, U.S.S.R. Illustration from “‘Vladimir 
the Russian Viking.”’ 


from it. Inquiring of the Germans, he learned that 
one must fast to the limit of his strength.. This too 
was uninteresting to Vladimir. But the beauty of the 
Greek church, its ritual, its song, its grandeur, 
eventually prevailed. Vladimir was baptized by 
bishops from Byzantium in 988, as were the people 
of Kiev shortly thereafter. Others followed. 


O Kiev, the site of the first capital of Rus- 
sia, became Christian. At this stage there 
was no distinction between the Ukraine and 
Russia. And though the Russian spoken in 
northern Russia was without question different 


' from the language of Kiev in the south, it was not 


until the 12th century that the Ukrainians were seen 
as a people separate from-the Russians. This fact 
now creates a difficulty, for 1988 will be the 1,000th 
anniversary of Russian Christianity. The people in 
the south of the Soviet Union see it as a Ukrainian 
event as it was initiated by Vladimir in Kiev, now 
the capital of the Ukraine; others see it as a Rus- 
sian event for it occurred in the land of the Rus. It is 
likely that the Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev; 
will wisely leave it to others to’decide the issue. 
Mr. Volkoff is a credible popularizer; he 
creates clear pictures, he has an eye for the attrac- 
tive, and he is knowledgeable as well. Yet he lacks . 
continuing insight. He does not write at the level of 


-Robert K. Massie, for example, whose book on 


Peter the Great was so successful. Nor does he 
match W. Bruce Lincoln, whose study of the Roma- 
novs has added so much to our understanding. But 
material on Vladimir I is hard to come by. ‘‘Vladi- 
mir the Russian Viking’’ answers a need. O 


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PRINCETON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY (2) C enh. pow re) 
CN82!1 7 
PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 08540 


SAMUEL H. MOFFETT 


_ 31 Alexander Street 
Professor of Mission and Ecumenics 


Princeton, N.J. 08540 


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3, Afb. 


Cho Druste ch tedoftcdect When Ulfln brcie Nin beh te become 
“Main Tempra ar wal a» Din sprctiak Coad, Mistake anche, “Uhr wee 
My Inik4 th 3% 4 Danke fli, Lan phy  347-¥ 
i Voor Yoo inskeiig by feahs nN ™ wep — ay Vas Anceiirs hed dae 
| wi 4 te Dern pe 1, 
Wy. Sang 
Un ein = wel Ta tre bossa besa Pol 
or tos uth Bab Mn fucesmed + bir Gy come] 4 Cdn KGa © 
589 AD Cy. Wb) Taytd Ay Of, +t Sule ear. Sn-ypoe- Cir Aigo 
4 ates - Sex phins i Then vn Lape Nepetig - cd AN Cernndine dey ee cle 
vi 4 fre le La (y. 1] Tee. 4 aliphelal, toolk + Aue if Amal 
“eet. ple), Sf Wil tar wc ay he dail Com te Green 
A 392-95, A Heh Cmmeinn gh es ince, ech tay... hed fe oct em 
fr ie parla wey pole Epon: ln diacglar - Avpertnn Marini ¢ Selon. 


Crewerin \ Cerwone : 
© I Lug as Ale, warned 
pena ener “he Yagi bmn 
Chwito. bee WIE AP 
@ Nk fle ve wt Ay [revit bef Hak dete 
ty Crnvitted ch Kh, Inthin 4 yotutlin fae, anivel i, 


wdc dj the Qrnm indies one 4p 
wala’) bocawe aed cmvmen tl 


mae . 
* @ Ve Crusim Wt bt & but hth eHutkes 4 leaner , 
asi veal Gd Wn Undies bil b, Cae rea: Lal a 
paces 4 the (Acc Wii wee Te neers CM hea, {Lote fact — 
Mog Wee Wm oe Cerwons Who we cued, Livi, i thy Simone 
rn arteche Ki portion” (po 7 — see is apm ty EA Tega, The al | 
Gerwann , Oy frd, Her) 


fats n Cons - Anca, cy ow oe nslpun @ tramafer 4 lhe ithe commucty AS « (Onan. 
mu mth a Lye clan a pty ts | Inu (3) tin Sie ra Sr ar P ae 
beb—d Wa drt 4 He perth (ream iomy ) rah bh sacha