Food and the war; a textbook for college classes

FOOD AND THE WAR

THE UNITED STATES
FOOD ADMINISTRATION

LIBRARY OF THE
NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE
OF HOME ECONOMICS

CORNELL UNIVERSITY
ITHACA, NEW YORK

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FOOD AND THE WAR

A Textbook for College Classes

PREPARED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF

THE COLLEGIATE SECTION

OF THE

UNITED STATES FOOD ADMINISTRATION

WITH THE COOPERATION OF

THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
AND THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION

Price So cents. Postpaid

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO

(Xbe Siitiei^itie pa0 Cambribge

-COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY HOUGHTON MXFFLIN COMPANY
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

CAMBRIDGE . MASSACHUSETTS

FOOD AND THE WAR

UNITED STATES
FOOD ADMINISTRATION

To the Women of the Universities and Colleges:

The United States Food Administration calls you to its serv-
ice. Our need is so great that we appeal to you to prepare your-
selves and to enlist for the great work that must be done.

All our questions now center in food; its production, its dis-
tribution, its use, its conservation. The more you know about
these things, the more valuable you will be, and the greater will
be your service to humanity.

We urge you to pursue those studies which deal with food,
and to train yourselves for real leadership.

The time is coming soon when the souls of men will be tried
as never before. They must have the truth that will make them
free. They will listen to you if you can give them that truth.

To-day your country asks you to resolve to do what you can
in this the hour of extreme peril to the democratic peoples of
the world.

Faithfully yours,

UNITED STATES
FOOD ADMINISTRATION

To College Men:

If you cannot get into the ranks, you can yet fight with your
fellows who have gone. Will you ?

The battle-field is here. The battle is now.

The struggle for Democracy is within you.

It is as important for you to do your duty at home as it is for
the boys to do theirs "over there."

It is as necessary to provide food for our armies, and for the
armies and families of the Allies, as it is to face the enemy.

Therefore,

1. Be intelligent; inform yourselves about food.

2. Create more food if you can.

3. Do not waste any.

4. Do not allow others to waste any.

5. Obey the food regulations, — they are the careful and

honest work of those who know what they are doing.

6. By every legal means prevent their violation by others.

7. Help every one who is trying to serve in the cause of food.

8. Be aggressive agents of the Food Administration wherever

you go.

What you are to he through life will he decided by what you do
lo-day in this crisis of human history.

FOREWORD

The following pages are a revision of the outlines for three
courses prepared for college classes and sent out in weekly in-
stallments during the Spring Semester of 1918. In Part I the
contents of the first two courses have been combined. The more
important statements which should be emphasized, and which
should be included in a survey course, are printed in large type.
More detailed matter is printed in small type. By this device
it is believed that the text is made suitable for courses of vary-
ing length and character.

Part I was written by Katharine Blunt, Ph.D., Associate
Professor of Food Chemistry, University of Chicago, assisted
by Florence Powdermaker, B.S., of the Department of Agri-
culture. Valuable assistance was also given by Katharine Gal-
lagher, Ph.D., Professor of History, Goucher College; James
Ford, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Social Ethics, Harvard Uni-
versity, with chapter xv; Dorothy Reed Mendenhall, M.D.,
University of Wisconsin and the Children's Bureau, with chap-
ter XIV; and by members of the Food Administration and the
Department of Agriculture.

Part n was written "by Elizabeth C. Sprague, Professor of
Home Economics, University of Kansas.

The authors have had' access to the records of the Food Ad-
ministration. They have consulted freely with those of its offi-
cials who are engaged with matters which have been treated in
the courses. Statements of methods and policy have been
passed upon by those who are responsible for them.

The Food Administration makes grateful acknowledgment
of the cordial support of the universities and colleges and the
efficient cooperation of the many hundreds of teachers who have
made use of these outlines during the past year, and indulges
the hope that in this revised form they will be found increasingly
useful.

OLIN TEMPLIN

Washington, D.C, Director of the Collegiate Section

August i, 1918.

CONTENTS

PART I

1. Introduction to the World Food Situation . i
II. The Composition and Functions of Food . .16

III. The Fuel Value of Food 26

IV. The Body's Fuel Requirements 35

V. Protein — Its Source and Importance in the

Diet 54

VI. The Meat Situation 70

VII. Protein-Rich Foods used in Place of Meat . 86

VIII. Fats AND Oils — Their Value and Use . . .104

IX. The Importance of Wheat 123

X. Flour AND Bread — The Wheat Substitutes . 138

XI. Sugar 163

XII. The Value of Milk 175

XIII. Vegetables and Fruits 195

XIV. Suggestions for an Adequate Diet — The Diet

OF Infants and Children 221

XV. Food and the Community 244

XVI. The Work for Food Conservation . . . .262

CONTENTS

PART II

I. Food Consumption and Food Values . . . 287
I. Rations and food allowances.
II. The proximate composition of food.

III. The fuel value of foods.

IV. The protein value of foods.

II. Principles of Cooking 295

I. Effect of heat on food materials.
II. Effect of heat on food constituents.

III. Principles of cooking food combinations.

IV. Principles of proportions in food combinations.

III. Preparation and Use of Protein Foods . . 304
I. Eggs.
II. Milk.

III. Cheese.

IV. Meat.
V. Fish.

VI. Poultry.

IV. Preparation and Use of Vegetables and Fruits 325

V. Preparation and Use of Cereal Products . .331
VI. Adequate Diet 358

VII. Preservation of Food by Canning .... 364
VIII. Demonstrations 372

Index 375

PART I
FOOD AND THE WAR

KATHARINE BLUNT
FLORENCE POWDERMAKER

FOOD AND THE WAR

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION

I. Food resources before the war.

In order to understand the food problem and to
realize its full significance in relation to the war, it
is necessary to know the many phases of the nor-
mal supply and distribution of food, as well as the
changes brought about by the war and the measures
taken by the different countries to secure an ade-
quate supply for their people. Many countries
produce the greater part of their food supply, espe-
cially those staples which make up the bulk of
the diet — cereals, animal products, potatoes, and
beans.
A. Europe.

1. Europe has always been a great agricultural
region. France, Germany, and Austria-
Hungary produced nearly all the food they
required, and Russia produced more than
enough for herself. But England and Belgium
were so densely populated that even with inten-
sive cultivation they produced only slightly
over 50% of their food.

2. The important foods imported were wheat,
meat, fats, and sugar.

2 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Food resources before the war (continued).

a. Part of these was supplied by intra-Euro-
pean commerce; e.g., Russia exported wheat
and dairy products to England.

b. But the chief sources of food imports were
the United States, Canada, Argentina, and
Australia. Wheat was imported from In-
dia also, and sugar from Cuba and Java.

3. Though nearly independent of food imports,
some of the European countries were depend-
ent upon the importation of certain mate-
rials essential for food production — fertilizer
and cattle feed. This was especially true of
Germany.
B. The United States.

1. Our fundamental available resources are
larger than those of any other country. "The
United States is the greatest granary, food
store, and butcher shop in the world."

2. But these resources had not, before the war,
nearly attained their maximum yield. Our
food imports even exceeded slightly our food
exports in money value.

II. The changes brought about during the war.

A. Low average yield of crops in 1915-16. This
happened in nearly all parts of the world and
was due chiefly to unfavorable weather condi-
tions.

B. Steadily diminishing production of food in Eu-
rope.

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 3

II. Changes brought about during the war (continued).

1 . Due to —

a. Diversion of men from the farms to the
army and the navy.

b. Decreased importation of fertilizer, which
is especially necessary on lands which
have been intensively cultivated for cen-
turies.

c. Decreased importation of cattle feed.
More feed could not be grown at home be-
cause the land available had to be used
for bread cereals.

d. Devastation of farm and cattle-grazing land.
One-fifth of France has been fought over.

e. Decrease in the available farm machinery
in some countries especially because of
lack of means for repairing it.

2. Resulted»in —

a. A cereal crop in 1917 for the Allies 525,-
000,000 bushels below normal.

b. A decrease in the number of animals in
the Allied countries by over 100,000,000
head during the first three years of the
war.

c. A greatly reduced production of fats and
sugar.

C. Greatly increased difficulty of importation into
European countries due to —
I. The submarine campaign, resulting in —
a. Decreased tonnage and the consequent

[ FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Changes brought about during the war (continued).
cutting off of distant markets. It takes
twice as much tonnage to bring supplies
from Argentina as from the United States
and three times as much from Australia.
About 1,500,000 tons of shipping could be
saved if it were possible to withdraw ships
now taking food from Australia, India, and
South America to Europe. (See the fron-
tispiece.)
b. The sinking of food. Earlier in the war
this was perhaps 10% of the shipments of
food.
2i Interruption of intra-European commerce.

a. The Western Allies cannot obtain supplies
as formerly from Russia. The Balkan coun-
tries are themselves in a destitute condition
and are separated from the Allies by the
enemies' lines.

b. Supplies from surrounding neutrals have
been reduced by the demands of Germany.

c. The railroads are in such great demand
for military purposes that their normal
pre-war functions are greatly limited.

D. Therefore, the main burden is thrown upon
North America, which must export much more
than ever before. "Ours is the splendid burden
of feeding the world." This obligation has been
met in part by increased production and in part
by conservation by the people of the United
States and Canada.

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 5

II. Changes brought about during the war (continued),
E. This shortage has resulted in one food crisis
after another in the warring countries of Eu-
rope, with actual starvation in large parts of
Roumania, Russia, Poland, and Belgium. In

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6 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Changes brought about during the war (continued).
England, France, and Italy there is enough to
live on, but the margin is so small that at times
the situation threatens to be of vital military
importance. The responsibilities of the United
States are very heavy and are of peculiarly per-
sonal significance, as it is only by the realiza-
tion and sharing of this responsibility by each
one of us that it can be fully met.

III. Need for some kind of food control because of these
extraordinary conditions.

A. To provide an equitable distribution between
the different groups to be supplied, the civilian
population, the Army and Navy, and neutral
nations.

B. To limit consumption of special foods when
necessary.

C. To prevent exorbitant prices due to hoarding,
to speculation, to excess profits, and to the
breaking down of the law of supply and de-
mand.

D. To effect cooperation between diverse yet
closely related activities, such as those of grain
production and the railroads.

E. To educate the public to the need and method
of food conservation.

IV. Methods of food control.

A. Control of the food industries.

I.- Partially, by setting a price; by making agree-
ments with the members of the industry as

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 7

IV. Methods of food control (continued).

to the distribution of their output; by mak-
ing a government license a necessity for do-
ing business, and if the regulations are not
obeyed, by taking away the license, etc.

2. Completely, by the taking over of the indus-
try by the Government.

B. Restriction of sale of food by dealers. This
is the method usually first adopted as interfer-
ing less directly with the personal freedom of
consumers. Some illustrations of the methods
are:

1. Prohibition of the sale of certain articles;
e.g., through the closing of meat shops in
France for three days each week; the prohi-
bition of the sale of cream in England except
in special cases.

2. Control of the quantity and character of the
food sold. This method has been adopted
for one commodity or another in all the
countries at war; e.g., the composition of
baker's bread; the 50-50 rule for the pur-
chase of cereals in this country.

3. Limitation on the amount and kind of food
sold in hotels and restaurants. This is in
force in all the warring countries.

C. Rations — the restriction of purchase by the con-
sumer.

I. Adopted early in the war by the Central
Powers, gradually forced upon most bellig-

8 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Methods of food control (continued).

erents and neutrals, at least in regard to a
few staples. All individuals or family groups
are registered and issued some form of pur-
chasing license showing the quantity of the
rationed food allowed. These are usually in
the form of a card or a book of coupons and
must be presented to the dealer before the
rationed article can be bought. Strict con-
trol of the distribution of rations is main-
tained, providing a more equitable distribu-
tion between rich and poor.
2. The adoption by the United States of com-
pulsory rationing as it is known abroad bris-
tles with difificulties.

a. Fifty per cent of our population are either
producers or live in direct contact with the
producer, and their consumption cannot
be restrained by any rationing system.

b. The population varies greatly in its food
habits in different sections of the country.
For example, the Southern worker con-
sumes perhaps not more than two pounds
of wheat per week, whereas the Northern
worker sometimes consumes eight pounds.
Any rationing of wheat, therefore, might
increase consumption in the South and
unnecessarily decrease it in the North.

c. A compulsory system would be undemo-
cratic because it would put the burden on
those who could bear it least well.

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 9

rV. Methods of food control (continued).

d. Very intricate regulations are necessary
to meet different cases; e.g., the variations
in the rations allowed persons doing dif-
ferent kinds of physical labor, provisions
for meals taken away from home, etc.

e. The cost of instituting and administering
a rationing system would approximate
?io,ooo,ooo to ^15,000,000 annually, and
would require the services of a small army
to carry it out.

D. High prices as a method of limiting consump-
tion. The national tendency in war-time to-
ward heavy inflation of prices, unless kept down
by control, results in conservation by the poor
but has no effect on the rich.

E. Voluntary regulation of individual consump-
tion under government direction. This may
take the form of —

1. Omission or general cutting down of certain
foods, or the substitution of other foods,
wholly or at specified times; e.g., wheatless
or meatless days or meals.

2. Voluntary rationing — limiting the quan-
tity of certain staples which an individual
will consume per week.

V. Food control abroad. (Details of the regulations
are given under the different commodities.)

The Allies, as well as Germany and Austria-
Hungary, have had to establish a Ministry of Food

10 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Food control abroad (continued).

with a Food Controller in charge. They have all
adopted a compulsory rationing system for one
food or another and all exercise a large measure of
control over food industries and dealers in food,
including hotels and restaurants. The baking in-
dustry is especially subject to careful and often
detailed regulation.

A. Until recently, Great Britain, more than any of
the Continental countries, relied on voluntary
cooperation. But in November, 1917, a scale
of voluntary rations of bread, cereals, meat,
fats, and sugar was introduced and widely
adopted. Later the consumption of meat, fat,
and sugar was limited by compulsory rations.

B. France made no attempt at government con-
trol of consumption during the first years of the
war. Then sugar and bread were rationed.
Both meat rations and compu;lsory meatless
days have been enforced at different times.

C The European neutrals have not escaped the
food shortage, and most of them have rationed
the most important food staples.

D. Germany's foods of almost every variety are
rationed. The system is carried farther than
in any other country, and in addition all the
food industries are working under the strictest
government cantrol and supervision. Besides
the ordinary staples — meat, fat, bread, and
sugar — such foods as potatoes, eggs, cheese,
and jam, and even coffee substitutes, artificial

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION ii

V. Food control abroad (continued).

honey, and sauerkraut, are rationed in some
cities.

E. Belgium has its food supply more entirely con-
trolled than any other country and it is this
control that is saving Belgium from starvation.
The Commission for Relief in Belgium imports
the necessities — mostly wheat, fats, bacon,
sugar, dried beans, and peas — and divides
them equitably among the millions of people.
The whole business of fiour milling and baking,
as well as the distribution of bread and the
profits of the men handling it, is under the im-
mediate control of the commission.'

VI. Food control in the United States — the United
States Food Administration.

A. President Wilson, on May 19, 1917, outlined the
food control program and asked Mr. Hoover
to become the Food Administrator. Mr. Hoover
accepted on condition that Congress grant
powers on which a competent administration
could be set up.

B. The Food Control Bill was passed by Congress
on August 8 and signed by the President on
August 10.^ The act authorized government
control of food, feeds, and fuel, from the time
they leave the producer to the small retail shop.

* Kellogg, v. Fighting Starvation in Belgium. Doubleday, Page, 1918.

2 See text of Bill: H.R. 4961. See also Van Hise, Charlea R., Conservation and
Regulation in the United States, p. 51 (1917); Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, A.E.:
The Food Problem, p. 20. Macmillan, 1917.

12 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI . Food control in the United States (continued) .

C. The policy of the Food Administration.

1. To accomplish its work in accordance with
our democratic traditions and therefore as
much as possible by voluntary cooperation
rather than by autocratic control.

2. To use compulsion only on those individuals
or organizations that refuse to cooperate.

D. Its great task — so to administrate America's
food resources that the American and Allied
morale will not be lowered through lack of
food.

E. Organization.

1. National headquarters in Washington con-
sisting of the Food Administrator and his
aids. The Food Administrator calls to his
assistance experts to deal with various prob-
lems as they arise.

2. Federal Food Administration in the States.

This is designed to decentralize the work
of the Food Administration and to coordi-
nate the state and federal activities. The or-
ganizations vary according to local needs,
but, in general, each Federal Food Adminis-
trator has among other members of his staff
a Home Economics Director, and has ap-
pointed County Food Administrators who
also have their staffs.

3. Cooperation with established agencies such as
the government departments, state agencies,

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 13

VI. Food control in the United States (continued).

educational institutions, commercial houses,
religious and fraternal organizations, etc.
F. The work of the Food Administration — a few
of its accomplishments. (Details are given in
later chapters.)

1 . The teaching of the people.

In order to secure intelligent cooperation
in its work a large amount of education was
necessary to acquaint the people with the
details of the situation, and to keep them
informed of the constantly changing condi-
tions. Many of the results which the Food
Administration has accomplished have been
made possible because of the knowledge
spread broadcast throughout the country by
the newspapers and magazines, by Food
Administration speakers, and by the effec-
tive cooperation of the women of the coun-
try and the managements of hotels and din-
ing-cars.

2. The maintenance of an even distribution of
food and the keeping down of prices.

Food riots due either to lack of food or high
prices are a mark of failure of a food admin-
istration. The Food Administration has not
only accomplished an even distribution of
food through such agencies as the Grain Cor-
poration, but it has prevented the rise in
price of indispensable commodities such as
bread and sugar, and it has done this in the
face of an unprecedented demand.

14 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Food control in the United States (continued).
3. The shipping of food abroad.

During our first year as a belligerent (April
I, 1917, to April I, 1918) we exported fifteen
billion pounds of food — an increase of more
than 200% over the pre-war average. The
food shipped was enough to ration completely
over 21,000,000 men, and to supply a con-
siderable surplus of proteifl-rich foods and fats
besides. Much of this surplus was the result of
the saving of the American people. This was
done in spite of the fact that the estimated
total production of the country for the fiscal
year, in terms of nutritional units was from
7% to 10% below the average of the previous
years. In a letter written on July 11, 1918,
to President Wilson, Mr. Hoover says that
he is "sure that all the millions of our people,
agricultural as well as urban, who have con-
tributed to these results should feel a very
definite satisfaction that in a year of univer-
sal food shortages in the northern hemisphere
all of those people joined together against
Germany have come through into sight of
the coming harvest not only with health and
strength fully maintained, but with only
temporary periods of hardship. The Euro-
pean allies have been compelled to sacrifice
more than our own people but we have not
failed to load every steamer since the delays
of the storm months last winter. Our con-
tributions to this end could not have been

THE WORLD FOOD SITUATION 15

VI. Food control in the United States {continued).

accomplished without effort and sacrifice and
it is a matter for further satisfaction that it
has been accomplished voluntarily and indi-
vidually. It is difficult to distinguish between
various sections of our people — the homes,
public eating places, food trades, urban or
agricultural populations — in assessing credit
for these results but no one will deny the
dominant part of the American women."

REFERENCES

American Academy of Political and Social Science. Annals, No-
vember, 1917. The World's Food, part i, pp. 1-34.

Kellogg, Vernon, and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem, chaps, i
and 3. Macmillan, 1917.

Smith, J. R. Indttstrial and Commercial Geography. Holt, 1913.

United States Food Administration, Bulletins i to 16.

Van Hise, Charles R. Conservation and Regulation in the United
States, 1917, part i; part 2, chaps. 5 and 6. (Part i, published by
United States Food Administration. Part 2, published by Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.)

CHAPTER II

THE COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD

Those now in charge of the feeding of a nation are
thinking of food not only as part of a meal, but as so
much protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, and
water and as a source of the necessary vitamines. Ex-
ports are frequently spoken of in terms of tons of pro-
tein or millions of calories. The private citizen is no
less interested in the constituents of food and the food
needs of the body. Such knowledge is the first essen-
tial of intelligent economy and conservation.

The brief general survey of the composition of food
in this chapter is given as a preliminary to more de-
tailed study in later chapters. Students who have
studied foods will probably be able to omit this chap-
ter.

Many foods contain most of the food constituents
mentioned above. Some few, such as sugar or oil, con-
tain only one. Students in connection with this work
should look up the composition of numerous foods, raw
and cooked and group them according to the predomi-
nating constituent.

I. Carbohydrates — the most important constitu-
ents of our food in point of bulk.
A. The important kinds.

I. Starch. This is eaten chiefly in grain prod-
ucts — in flours and meals made from wheat,

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 17

I. Carbohydrates (continued).

com, barley, and the other cereals. They all
contain from 60% to 70% starch. Bread is
about one-half starch and potatoes and sweet
potatoes are approximately one-fifth starch.
Some other vegetables and green fruit con-
tain small quantities.

2. Sugars. Several of them are found in food —
the ordinary sugar from cane or beet (chap-
ter IX) , glucose made from corn starch, and
the sugar (lactose) in milk, all of which are
similar but not identical. Fruits and many
vegetables contain considerable amounts of
the various kinds of sugar; e.g., a large
orange or one-fourth cup of raisins may con-
tain as much as two tablespoons of sugar.

3. Cellulose or crude fiber. This carbohydrate
occurs in foods in much smaller quantities
than starch or sugar. It is found in most
vegetables and fruits and in such flours and
other cereal products as contain bran.

B. Elements in carbohydrates.

Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When car-
bohydrates, therefore, burn inside or outside
of the body the products are carbon dioxide and
water.

C. Fate of starch and sugar in the body.

I. Digestion: — Both are practically completely
digested especially if the starch is cooked. If
raw starch is eaten, however, such as that in

8 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Carbohydrates (continued).

uncooked green bananas, some of the starch
may escape digestion and utilization.

a. Starch is acted on by the saliva in the
mouth, the action is continued for a time
in the stomach, and the process is com-
pleted in the small intestines. The large
starch molecule is broken up until the
simple sugar, glucose, is obtained as the
end-product.

b. Sugars are digested mostly in the intes-
tines, giving glucose or similar simple

, sugars. Thus starch and sugars are ulti-
mately changed to practically the same
products in the body.

2. The products of digestion are absorbed into
the blood. They are carried to the muscles
or elsewhere and burned as fuel to maintain
body temperature and to give energy for the
body's movements. That which is not needed
for fuel may be changed to fat and stored in
the body.

D. The function of cellulose.

Cellulose is scarcely changed at all in going
through the body. It serves as the indiges-
tible residue or "roughage" of the food. A cer-
tain amount is desirable, as a diet which would
be completely digested would be apt to cause
constipation.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 19

II. Fats.

A. Source in the diet.

They are obtained from isolated fats hke
butter, oleomargarine, and oils, and from foods
containing fat like fat meats, cheese, milk, fried
foods, rich cakes, and pastries. (See chapter
VIII.)

B. Composition.

They contain the same elements as the car-
bohydrates — carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen,
— but in different proportions. The composi-
tion of all fats is very similar, whether liquid or
solid, highly flavored or "bland."

C. Fate in the body.

They are digested and absorbed in the intes-
tines. They may be stored in the body or
burned to carbon dioxide and water.

III. Protein (see chapter V).

A. Examples of nearly pure proteins. No food is
composed only of protein, but some contain
only water and mineral matter beside the pro-
tein.

1. Cottage cheese made from skim milk is pro-
tein plus a fairly large amount of water and
some mineral salts (21% protein and 74% water).

2. Egg white is also almost entirely protein and
water (12.5% protein and 87.1% water).

B. Other protein-rich foods.

Among the more important of such foods are
lean meat, poultry, fish, legumes (peas, beans,

20 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Protein {continued).

peanuts), and cheese. Cefeals, while containing
somewhat less protein than these foods, are a
very important source of supply because of their
large quantity in the diet.

C. Elements in proteins.

Nitrogen is the element of the proteins which
gives them their value as distinct from other
food constituents. Proteins also contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, sometimes phos-
phorus and a few other elements, including iron.

D. Fate in the body.

1. They are digested in the stomach and in-
testines to small units (called animo acids).

2. The digestion products are absorbed into
the blood and used for —

a. Growth or repair of all parts of the body.
During the entire life of the body its
constituent cells multiply to provide for
growth and to replace the cells which de-
generate and die. Proteins are important
constituents of cells and must be supplied
to them by the food.

b. Manufacture of the various body secre-
tions.

c. Fuel.

d. Proteins, therefore, have a double func-
tion — they are fuel foods like the car-
bohydrates and fats and they are neces-
sary for the body's repair and growth.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 21

IV. Mineral constituents or the ash of foods.

A. The inorganic elements in food.

These are calcium, sodium, potassium, iron,
magnesium, sulphur, iodine, phosphorus, and
chlorine. Compounds of them are left as ash
when the food is burned.

B. Source in the diet.

1. They are present in all foods in the natural
state, but sometimes are removed during
processes of refinement, such as sugar and
the oils undergo.

2. The quantities in food are small, but they
are none the less important. The vegetables
and fruits are among the most important
sources, the content being highest in the leafy
vegetables like spinach and cabbage. Milk
is also important especially as a source of
calcium. Egg yolks, meat, whole cereals, and
many vegetables are high in iron. (See chap-
ter XIII.)

C Function.

1. They are essential for growth as a necessary
constituent of the cell structure; e.g., of
bones, teeth, nails, etc.

2. They must be present in proper amounts in
the body fluids.

V. The "vitamines."

These are recently discovered and little
known substances. They are as necessary for

22 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. The " vitamines " {continued).

health and growth as the other better known
constituents of foods.

A. It is believed that there are two, both of which
are present in various foods in minute quanti-
ties.

1. The fat-soluble A, so called because it is
soluble in fats, is present in milk, in butter, in
beef fat, especially in the fat within the or-
gans, in egg yolk, cod liver oil, and in the leaf
vegetables.

2. The water-soluble B is found in many prod-
ucts, milk, vegetables, fruits, meat, and whole
cereals, but is absent from fats, sugar, and
cereal products like white flour from which
the outer parts of the grain have been re-
moved.

B. A diet limited in either of these may cause a
generally unsatisfactory nutritive condition,
stunting of growth, disease, and even death.
This is discussed further in connection with
milk (chapter XII).

C. The ordinary mixed diet of the American peo-
ple, provided it contains milk or butter and
vegetables, is not likely to be low in these vita-
mines.

VI. Water.

A. The largest part of the majority of foods is
water. It varies from about 90% in such vege-
tables and fruits as cucumbers, lettuce, apples.

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 23

VI. Water (continued).

etc., to about 10% in dry crackers and cookies
and practically none in sugar and oils.
B. Water helps maintain the proper dilution of
the body fluids and the cells. It assists in the
elimination of body excretions. The drinking
of considerable water is desirable. The old
idea that drinking water with meals is harmful
has been proved incorrect.

VII. A very useful and simple way to teach the proxi-
mate composition and use of foods is to divide
them into five groups which emphasize simi-
larities in composition and function (compare
chapter XIV). Some overlapping is, of course,
unavoidable.

A. Vegetables and fruits. Useful chiefly for min-
eral matter and the vitamines, and therefore for
the growth, repair, and regulation of the body.

B. Meat and other protein-rich foods including
milk. Their main function is as body-build-
ing foods.

C. Cereals. Primarily fuel foods.

D. Sweets. Eaten for flavor as well as fuel.

E. Fats. Fuel foods.

VIII. The digestibility of food.

The above brief statement of the constituents and diges-
tion of foods does not take into consideration the complete-
ness of the digestive process. Most foods are almost, but not
entirely quite digested. A small, varying quantity is lost.
A. The coefficient of digestibility is the percentage of the food
eaten which is actually lost.

24 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. The digestibility of food (continued).

B. Digestibility in this scientific sense must not be confused
with ease of digestion, which depends to a large extent on
the rapidity with which food passes through the digestive
tract, especially the stomach, on the amount of food eaten,
and on slight irregularities causing discomforts, such as
the formation of gases. Ease or difficulty of digestion may
have no relation to the amount ultimately digested, al-
though it may have an importance of its own.

C. To determine the coefficient of digestibility of a food, —
e.g., butter — a weighed amount of it is fed in conjunc-
tion with a mixed diet in which it forms the only source
of fat, and the amount of fat in the feces is determined.
Coefficients for carbohydrate and protein in food are
obtained similarly, by comparing the amount of the food
fed with the amount in the feces. Coefficients for all three
constituents of a food may be determined simultaneously.

D. The values for the coefficients of digestibility.

1. For a general summary for proteins, fats, and carbohy-
drates from animal and vegetable sources, see table in
Sherman's Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, p. 76.
Note especially that —

a. There is very little loss in digestion of the common
foods, less than is popularly supposed.

b. Healthy individuals differ very little in their power
to utilize foods.

c. The animal foods, especially the animal proteins,
are digested somewhat more completely than the
vegetable — an average of 95% of the animal pro-
tein and 78% to 85% of the vegetable protein.

2. Coefficients for individual foods.

a. Look up the digestibility of various foods — as
given, for example, in Sherman's Food Products —
milk, meat, cheese, cereals, potatoes, beans, etc.

b. Note the similarity of different kinds of fat — e.g.,,
butter and oleomargarine — except the few fats of

COMPOSITION AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD 25

VIII. The digestibility of food {continued).

high melting point, and also the similarity of wheat
flour and its substitutes.
c. Read, if possible, accounts of some of the most re-
cent work on digestibility. (See References.)

REFERENCES

Bateraan, W. G. "The Digestibility of Egg White." Journal of
Biological Chemistry, 26, pp. 263-291. 1916.

Langworthy, C. F., and Holmes, A.D. "Digestibility of Young
Veal." Journal of Agricultural Research, 6, pp. ZTJ-^S?}. 1916.

Langworthy, C. F., and Holmes, A. D. Digestibility of Some Ani-
mal Fats. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 310.

Langworthy, C. F. and Holmes, A. D., Studies on the Digestibility
of Some Vegetable Fats. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulle-
tin 505.

Lusk, G. The Elements of the Science of Nutrition, chap. 13. Saun-
ders, 1917.

McCoIIum, E. V. The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. Macmillan,
1918.

Mathews, A. P. Physiological Chemistry, chaps. 2, 3, 4. Wood,

1915-
Pease, M.C., and Rose, A. R. "The Banana as a Food for Children."

The American Journal of Diseases of Children, 14, p. 379. 1917.
Rose, M. S. Laboratory Manual of Dietetics, chap. i. Macmillan,

1917.
Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, pp. 99-103.

Macmillan, 1918.
Sherman, H. C. Food Products, chap. i. Macmillan, 1917.
Stiles, P. G. Nutritional Physiology. Saunders, 1916.

CHAPTER III

THE FUEL VALUE OF FOOD

I. Food as fuel.

On burning, food, like everything else, liberates
energy whether the burning takes place within or
without the body. It is due to this energy from
burning food that the body has —

A. The power to do physical work, the mechanical
energy needed to make all the necessary vol-
untary and involuntary movements — the beat-
ing of the heart, the movement of the lungs in
respiration, the movement of the body when
walking, and muscular work in general.

B. The heat necessary to keep the body at the
temperature of 98.6° F., considerably above the
usual temperature of the surrounding air.

II. Measurement of the fuel value of food.

When a food burns inside or outside of the body,
a definite amount of heat is given off. This heat
can be measured by causing it to raise the tem-
perature of a given weight of water. In accordance
with the law of the conservation of energy, me-
chanical energy as well as heat can be measured in
terms of heat.

A. The unit for measuring fuel value. The large
calorie is the amount of heat necessary to raise
the temperature of i kilogram of water 1° C.

FUEL VALUE OF FOOD 27

II. Measurement of the fuel value of food (continued).
This is commonly referred to merely as the cal-
orie by the physiologist, but must be distin-
guished from the physicist's calorie, the small
calorie, one-thousandth the size of the large
calorie.

This can be better grasped if it is realized that 100
calories of heat (the amount of fuel available
from the ordinary serving of many foods) would
raise the temperature of 1000 c.c. of water from
the freezing to the boiling point, provided the
heating was done in an apparatus devised to
prevent any loss of heat to the surroundings.

B. The method of measuring the calorie value of
foods.

1. The apparatus — the bomb calorimeter. A
tightly closed vessel or "bomb" surrounded
by a known weight of water. The whole is
insulated so that the heat produced in the
bomb is absorbed by the water. A weighed
quantity of food is ignited in the bomb and
the rise in the temperature of the water
noted.

2. Results observed. With correction for the
little differences between burning in the
bomb calorimeter and in the body, it is found
that a gram of pure protein or carbohydrate
each gives the body 4 calories of heat, and a
gram of fat, 9 calories.

C The method of calculating the fuel value of a
food. If the percentage composition of the food

28 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Measurement of the fuel value of food {continued).
is known — i.e., the grams of protein, fat, and
carbohydrate in lOO grams of food — the fuel
value may be computed by multiplying the
percentages by 4, 9, and 4 calories respectively,
and the sum gives the total calories obtainable
from the 100 grams of food. The use of the bomb
calorimeter is thus not necessary for every food.

D. Relation between the elementary composition
of a food material and its heat of combustion. ■•

E. Differences between burning food in the calorimeter and
in the body.

1. Food is completely burned in the calorimeter. In the
body a small amount is left undigested and thus lost.''

2. The end products of combustion of protein are slightly
different —

a. In the calorimeter, the end products are nitrogen
and nitric acid.

b. In the body, the final product is urea, a compound
which is burned in the calorimeter with the produc-
tion of heat. Therefore, slightly less energy is ob-
tained from protein burned in the body than from
protein burned in the calorimeter.

3. There are thus two corrections to be made to the heat
of combustipn as obtained in the calorimeter.

F. The old and the new physiological fuel values — the
calories produced by the burning of one gram of protein,
fat, or carbohydrate in the body.

1. The old factors, 4.1, 9.3, 4.1, used in U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 28, The Chemical Com-
position of American Food Materials, and in most of
the older works are higher than the new, because

* See Sherman, Chemistry of Food and NuiriHon, p. 141.

* See coefficients of digestibility in chapter II.

FUEL VALUE OF FOOD 29

II. Measurement of the fuel value of food (continued).
only the first of the above corrections was made, and
no allowance was made for losses in digestion.
2. The new factors, 4, 9, 4, used in practically all of the
newer work, include both corrections.

III. The lOO-calorie portion — a dietetic unit for com-
paring the fuel value of food.
A. A convenient method of comparing the fuel
value of foods. It happens that the average
serving of many of the ordinary foods has a fuel
value of 100 calories. If the size of these por-
tions is learned, it is comparatively easy to
count up the total calories in a meal. For ex-
ample, 100 calories are obtained from two slices
of bread about 1/2 inch thick and 31/2 inches
square, an inch cube of butter, a banana, orange,
a large apple, a generous portion of oatmeal (five
heaping tablespoons). It takes a larger portion
of foods which contain much water, such as
lettuce, to furnish 100 calories and a much
smaller portion of dry or fat foods, such as
butter or nuts. (For other lOO-calorie portions
see References.)

B. Calculation of the weight of loo-calorie portions. It is
suggested that students compute the weight for half a
dozen foods.

1. Find the calories in 100 grams of the food; call this a
calories. Compute from this the number of grams
giving 100 calories.

a calories : 100 grams : : 100 calories : x grams.
This gives the weight of the portion in grams.

2. Convert these grams into ounces if, desired. Since the
gram is the easier unit of weight and is used in labora-

30 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The lOO-calorie portion (continued).

tories, and the pound and the ounce are the units for
market and household use, it is necessary for the stu-
dent to be able to convert one into the other readily.

I ounce = 28.4 grams.
1 pound = 454 grams.

C. Suggestions for comparing the size of loo-cal-
orie portions of different foods by exhibits
grouping the portions in various ways.

1. Group together foods which are similar in
composition; e.g., bread and other cereals or
vegetables and fruits.

2. Compare foods which the Government is
asking us to save with those which we may
use freely. Note especially the comparison
between meat and meat substitutes, such as
fish, cheese, legumes, and nuts, and between
wheat foods and their substitutes.

3. Group those foods for which the lOO-calorie
portion is smaller than an average serving
(concentrated foods) and also those for which
the lOO-calorie portion ig larger than an
average serving (bulky foods).

4. Make combinations of portions or fractions
of portions which would constitute a serving
and count up the calories of your combina-
tions; e.g., bread, butter or margarine, and
meat for a sandwich; lettuce, celery, and oil
for a salad.

5. Combine portions or fractions of portions in
a breakfast, a luncheon, a dinner. Count the
total calories in each case.

FUEL VALUE OF FOOD 31

III. The icX)-calorie portion (continued).

D. Cost of lOO-calorie portions — a very useful
method of comparing the cost of equal amounts
of fuel. This is a more sensible way to compare
foods than to make a comparison of the cost of
equal quantities. We must recognize that if we
buy the more expensive foods it is because we
like the flavor and not that we are getting more
or physiologically better food.

1. Method of calculation.

Find the number of loo-calorie portions of a food in
the unit which you usually buy, then calculate the cost
of this fraction; e.g., since the loo-calorie portion of
flour or other cereal is 28.4 grams or i ounce, there are
16 of these portions to a pound costing x cents. There-
fore the loo-calorie portion of flour costs 3c/i6 cents.

2. Average price for 100 calories of a few foods.

(American Food Journal, July, 1918. The prices of
various foods in different parts of the country and the
average price of 100 calories are given each month in
this journal.)

Cereals Cents

Corn meal 0.43

Wheatflour 0.40

Macaroni o. 87

Bread o . 83

Crackers i . 18

Meats

Beef, roundsteak 5 . 86

Chicken broilers 18 . 23

Salt mackerel 2. 47

Salmon, canned 4.48

Fats

Bacon 2 . 29

Creamery butter i . 48

Oleomargarine (uncolored) i . 00

Cottonseed oil ... , o. 93

32 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The lOO-calorie portion (continued).

Vegetables

White potatoes i-27

Split peas 0.95

Canned peas (No. 2 standard) 5. 40

Navy beans (dried) i • 06

String beans (canned No. 2 standard) . . .15. 88
Peanuts i-2i

Fruits

Evaporated peaches i • 3°

Canned peaches 6. 57

Raisins o. 96

3. The students should investigate prices in various neigh-
borhoods and compare the cost of fresh, canned, and
dried fruits and vegetables, bulk and package cereals;
various kinds and cuts of meat and fish; various kinds
of fat; granulated sugar, corn sirup, maple sirup, and
honey.

4. Compare the cost of similar foods, not those of unlike
function. Comparisons of the cost of calories from dif-
ferent kinds of foods — e.g., from vegetables and from
cereals — may give mistaken ideas of relative values.
We must have vegetables even though they are often
expensive as a source of fuel.

IV. General statement of methods of comparing the calorie value
of different foods.

A. The number of calories given by an equal weight or bulk
of various foods are compared:

1. Calories per 100 grams of food.

2. Calories per pound. This is a common and useful
method of comparison. It is used in the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 28 (computed by the old
factors) and in numerous recent food advertisements.

3. Calories per "serving." Interesting but less useful
than the loo-calorie portion because there are more
figures to remember and because of variations in servings.

FUEL VALUE OF FOOD 33

IV. General statement of methods of comparing the
calorie value of different foods (continued).

B. The weight or quantity of various foods necessary to give
the same number of calories.

1. The lOO-calorie portion.

2. The portion equal in calorie value to a pint or quart of
milk. (See the Laboratory Manual, Section I, III, B.)
Useful especially for emphasizing the value of milk.

3. The 2500-calorie portion which is about a day's
requirement. Sometimes used for comparing larger
quantities of food.'

C. Some advantages of the use of the loo-calorie portion.

1. The portions are fairly easy to remember, since for many
foods they are roughly an average serving.

2. It is a graphic way of showing the low fuel value of
watery foods and the high fuel value of dry and fat foods.

D. A possible danger of this and other methods of teaching
calorie value, if they are not wisely used, lies in an over-
emphatic presentation of the fuel value of food at the cost
of an appreciation of the other factors of an adequate
diet.

V. The present necessity for learning the fuel value of

foods:

A. Because of shipping conditions : — With the
present shortage of ships, it is obvious that only
foods of the most concentrated sort can be sent
abroad, such as fats and oils which contain little
water and have therefore a high fuel value. For
example, flour must be shipped rather than
potatoes, which are 80% water, and dried in-
stead of fresh vegetables.

> Gephart, H. C. and Lusk, G. "Analysis and Cost of Ready to Serve Foods.
American Medical Association, 1915.

34 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. The present necessity for learning the fuel value
of foods (continued).
B. For economic reasons: — A wise expenditure for
food demands knowledge of how much in actual
fuel value the money spent for food is buying.
The cost of food in calories, not only in pounds
or quarts, should be thought of.

REFERENCES

Lusk, G. "Foodin War-Time." Scientific Monthly, 5, p. 28g. 1917.

Lusk, G. "Food Values." Science, 45, p. 345. 1917.

Lusk, G. The Fundamental Basis of Nutrition, chaps. 2 and 6.

Yale University Press, 1915.
Lusk, G. The Elements of the Science of Nutrition, chaps, i and 21.

Saunders, 1917.
McCoUum, E. V. The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. Macraillan,

1918.
Mathews, A. P. Physiological Chemistry, chap. 6. Wood, 19 15.
Mendel, L. B. Changes in the Food Supply and their Relation to

Nutrition. Yale University Press, 1916.
Rose, M. S. Laboratory Manual of Dietetics. Macmillan, 191 7.
Rose, M. S. Feeding the Family, chap. i. Macmillan, 1917.
Sherman, H. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chap. 6. Macmillan,

1918.

CHAPTER IV
THE BODY'S FUEL REQUIREMENTS

The animal body is constantly producing energy
(heat and energy of motion), and therefore has to be
constantly supplied with fuel.

I. Apparatus for measuring the body's energy pro-
duction or fuel needs. /

There are several kinds of apparatus in use. One
of the most important is called a respiration calori-
meter. It is a large box or small room large enough
for a bed or chair or in some cases large enough for
a man to do various exercises. It is double-walled
and insulated so that there is no loss or gain of heat
from the outside room. Heat produced by the sub-
ject in it is carried off by a weighed amount of
water which circulates in pipes on the inside walls
and the amount of this heat is measured by the
rise in temperature of the water. A properly regu-
lated draft carries away the carbon dioxide and
water vapor produced by the subject and forces
in oxygen. These gases are all measured.'

II. What does the body burn to produce its energy?
A. It burns either itself or its food. By studying
the end-products of combustion — • the excre-
tions of the body in the form of carbon dioxide

• For pictures and diagrams, see Sherman, H. C, Chemistry of Food and Nutri-
tion, pp. i6i, 163, 167.

36 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. What does the body burn to produce its energy
(continued) .

and water vapor, and the nitrogen in the urine
— it is possible to know whether fat, carbohy-
drate or protein is being burned, and how much
of each.

B. The body's energy production and thfe body's
need for fuel are one and the same thing. The
two expressions may be used interchangeably.

III. How much energy does the body produce; i.e.,
what are its fuel needs as shown by the calori-
meter?

A. At rest the requirement is at a minimum.

A man lying quietly in bed, without food, is
still producing energy because his heart is beat-
ing, he is breathing, etc. This is his minimum
energy production — called his "basal meta-
bolism."

1. The basal metabolism for different individuals

of the same size varies only slightly and is
equal on the average to i calorie per kilo-
gram, (i K. = 2.2 lbs.) Students should
compute their energy production for the
hours they usually spend in bed.

2. It varies more with — •

a. Size. The basal metabolism of different
individuals is roughly proportional to their
size. Size is usually expressed as weight,
but such expression is slightly inaccurate.
The fat person, because his fat deposits

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 37

III. How much energy does the body produce (cont'd).
are not an active part of the body, has a
sHghtly lower basal metabolism for his.
weight than the thin person. Women have
on the average a very slightly lower basal
metabolism than men of the same weight,
probably because they often have larger
fat deposits,
b. Age. Children have a higher metabolism,
per kilogram than adults. Boys of 12 to
16 years average 25% higher than grown
men. This does not include their greater
energy production when active, but is due
to their quickened life processes. Old peo-
ple have a slightly diminished metabolism.
B. Activity greatly increases energy production.

Variations due to activity are much greater
than those due to any other cause.

1. Even the simplest muscular tensions or mo-
tions bring increased energy production.
Sitting as one usually does in a chair with
ordinary movements adds about 20 calories
per hour. Even sitting perfectly quiet requires,
about 5.6 calories per hour more than lying
in bed. A ten-mile walk may increase the
energy production by 6cx) calories.

2. It is thus easy to see that a person may vary
from day to day in fuel demands and alsa
that for two persons supposedly living the
same life, the greater restlessness of the one
may cause a somewhat greater energy pro-

38 FOOD AND THE WAR

JII. How much energy does the body produce (cont'd).
duction. These differences between individ-
uals are not so great, however, as is popu-
larly supposed. Ideas of differences in fuel
demand and food consumption are apt to be
exaggerated and often depend upon high in-
take of some one conspicuous food which
may be balanced by the low intake of other
foods.
3. Extreme muscular activity may increase
energy production (fuel needs) up to 10,000
calories for 24 hours. This excessive amount
has been observed for a professional bicyclist
working hard on a stationary bicycle.
■C. Mental work does not require increased fuel.

Students at Wesleyan University were put in
the respiration calorimeter to take examinations,
and at another time merely to copy printed mate-
rial. No increased energy production could be ob-
served during the hard mental work done in the
first period. This is at least in part explained by
the fact that the central nervous system is only
3% or 4% of the body and that only a very small
part of it probably increases in activity when men-
tal work is done. Mental fatigue and measurable
heat production have no relation to each other.
D. Taking food increases the energy production.
I. We should expect that feeding a starving
person would merely result in his burning the
food in place of an equivalent amount of body
fuel.

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 39

III. How much energy does the body produce (cont'd).

2. Instead, an extra amount of fuel is burned, a
small excess if the food eaten is carbohydrate
or fat, a larger excess if the food is protein.
The total extra heat production or fuel need
with an average diet is about 7 calories per
hour or 170 calories per day.

3. This effect of eating protein, called its speci-
fic dynamic action, gives it special value in
cold climates. An illustration is the useful-
ness of meat to Esquimos. It also makes
inadvisable the eating of too much protein
in summer.

E. Fever may increase the energy production.

This has been measured on numerous typhoid patients in
the bed calorimeter at Bellevue Hospital. The increase may
be 50% above normal. With the old, low-feeding method
of treating typhoid, the body burned its own substance.
The great emaciation and weakness and much of the dis-
comfort of typhoid were due to this semi-starvation.
The newer "high calorie" treatment gives the patient
3000 to 6000 calories per day, and prevents loss of body
substances and much of the usual suffering.

F. For details of work on the energy requirement of infants,
of men during starvation, of men walking, running, bi-
cycling, of vegetarians, of men compared with women, of
athletes compared with non-athletes, of patients with
diabetes and other diseases, see References.

G. Average figures for energy production (fuel
needs) allow 3000 calories for a man of average
weight (70 kilograms) at moderate muscular
work, for one at sedentary work, 2500 calories.
The woman's requirement is taken as eight-

40 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. How much energy does the body produce (cont'd).
tenths that of the man's since her average weight
is 56 kilograms. Figures for children of different
ages are given in Sherman's Chemistry of Food
and Nutrition, p. 197.
H. It is suggested that students compute the cal-
orie requirement for different families. (Com-
pare with .the Belgian ration, given in the Lab-
oratory Manual, Section I.)
I. A recent American experiment on reduced diet.

1. A remarkable series of experiments on reduction of
diet have recently been carried out at the Nutrition
Laboratory in Boston to get data which might be used
in case of national food shortage.

2. Twelve young men students of the International
y.M.C.A. College were the subjects. Before the ex-
periments their normal demand ranged from 3200 to
3600 net calories. Their diet was much reduced result-
ing in a reduction in weight of 12% within 3 to 10
weeks. After the loss in weight they maintained their
lower weight on about 2300 net calories, or approxi-
mately one-third less than their original requirement.
The experiment was continued for four months. The
diet was a varied one from the college dormitory.

3. Among the chief results, beside loss in weight, were
markedly lower basal metabolism, loss of body nitro-
gen, astonishingly lowered pulse rate — many as low
as 33 in the morning. The young men successfully
kept up their college work and their physical vigor.
Some said that they lacked "pep," but one won a
" hare and hounds " race at the end of the four months'
period. (This research will shortly be published by
Dr. Benedict and his co-workers in a monograph of
the Carnegie Institution of Washington.)

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 41

IV. The appetite as a guide to fuel requirements.

A. It is often a fairly good indication of fuel needs.

1. The constancy of the weight of many people
at a normal level shows that their fuel supply
and demand are approximately equal.

2. Studies of the dietary habit of well-nourished
people are on the average in fair agreement
with laboratory experiments.

B. It is not trustworthy if personal tastes or idio-
syncrasies prevent the consumption of a bal-
anced diet, such as an excess consumption of
alcoholic liquors or any particular food. Such
indulgence in a food because it is liked rather
than because of real physiological appetite is
very common.

C. It is a completely reliable indication only when
the body is kept in excellent health without
interruption for a long term of years. Labora-
tory experiments with animals on an inadequate
diet have shown that they may continue in
apparent good health for some time and then
suddenly fail, or they may remain in good
health and their offspring be abnormal. There-
fore scientific knowledge is a most desirable aid
to the appetite.

V. Fuel needs (as well as the needs for the food constituents)
as shown by food consumption — by studies of dietaries and
of the food supply.
A. What a dietary study is.

I . It is a direct quantitative study of the food consumption
of an individual or group. In sufficient numbers, die-

42 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Fuel needs (continued).

tary studies will give a picture of the food habits and
nutritive condition of a country. They may be made
by weighing all the food eaten by the individual or
group, or weighing the food at hand at the beginning
and at the end of the study, the food brought in during
the study, and all waste. All the foods are analyzed or
their composition is computed from published analyses.

2. Note must be made of the social status of the group,
of the income, housing conditions, and nationality, the
number, age, sex, and occupation of members of the
family or group, and the health conditions.

3. The results are usually brought to a uniform basis by
using factors representing the ratio between the food
consumption of persons of different age, sex, and occu-
pation and that of a man in full vigor, doing moderate
muscular work. This is usually called "per man per
day basis" or the "man ration" basis. For instance,
the food consumption of a woman is taken to be eight-
tenths that of a man of corresponding age and activity.
(Compare III, G, above.)

4. Conclusions may be drawn in regard to food habits and
nutritive conditions and possible improvements in diet.

B. Statement of a few of these studies.

Thousands have been made the world over, more syste-
matically in America than elsewhere.
I. Older work in this country.

a. The first extensive work was undertaken in 1886 by
Professor W. O. Atwater and C. D. Wright, to get
information about workingmen's food consumption
as part of a study of their budgets.

b. Since then many other studies have been made of all
kinds of people and institutions — families of various
nationalities around Hull House, Chicago, profes-
sional men's families, students' clubs, negro families,
hospitals for the insane, orphanages, etc. Much of

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 43,

V. Fuel needs (continued).

the work was done some years ago under the direc-
tion of the Department of Agriculture. (See Refer-
ences.)
2. More recent work includes such studies as those of the
food of groups with very limited incomes in Washing-
ton, D.C.^ in New York," and in Boston,' and of such
diverse groups including Eskimos and East Indians, sum-
marized by Lusk, Fundamental Basis of Nutrition, p. 27.
An extensive study, just being completed under direc-
tion of the Department of Agriculture, includes the
dietaries of many families of different nationalities and
financial status, and of many institutions.
C. Some conclusions drawn from dietary studies;

1. The close agreement in most cases between the ob-
served food consumption and the needs of the body as
computed from calorimeter requirements.

2. The remarkable uniformity in the fuel value of the food
consumed all over the world by people of similar size
and activity. For example, differences which the season
makes in the muscular work done by farmers make
greater differences in the energy value of their diet than
do nationality or the kinds of food used.

3. The increase in fuel value of the food with increase in
physical activity. This is shown by a comparison of
the 6600 calories obtained from the food eaten by mem-
bers of football teams and the 2500 calories for the man
of slight muscular activity.

4. The danger that the diet of the very poor may fall
below accepted safe standards. In a recent study of
the diet of 92 families under the auspices of the New

• "Cost of Living in the District of Columbia." Monthly Review, U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, s, nos. 4, s, 6. 1917.

2 Sherman, H., and Gillett, L. The Adequacy and Economy of Some City Diet-
aries. The New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. New
York, 1917.

3 M.M.Davis. Food Supply in Families of Limited Means. League for Preven-
tive Work, 1917.

44 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Fuel needs {continued).

York Association for Improving the Condition of the
Poor (1917), it was found that 59% of the families were
getting less than the accepted standard of 3000 calories
per man per day.

5. A rather unexpectedly high consumption is shown by
some exceptional groups —

a. The boys at St. Paul's School — a private school
where the boys are well fed and very active. Their
average consumption was 5000 calories per day.

b. The rather high diet at some young women's dormi-
tories.'

6. Waste in average American families.

It varies from nothing to 20% with a probable aver-
age between 5 and 10%. The rough estimate often
given for the value of food wasted per year in the
United States is made as follows: value of food con-
sumed per capita, $100; average household waste,
7% of food consumed, or $7.00 per capita; national
waste, $700,000,000. This estimate is probably low as
regards both cost of food and percentage of waste.

7. Discussion of the consumption of protein and mineral
matter is given in later chapters.

D. Study of the food supply by statistical methods.

Almost all the warring nations have found it necessary
to know the usual pre-war sources of the food supply and
the export and home consumption in order to control
their food situation. These have been computed chiefly
from agricultural and trade reports and therefore give
not the food eaten by groups, as do dietary studies, but
the total food used by the whole country.
I. In the United States complete reports are made of the
. amounts of the different foods in the country and their
distribution, and the amount of food imports and the

' MacLeod, A. L., and Griggs, M. A. "Dietary Study at Vassar College."
Journal of Home Economies', 10, p. 97. March, J918.

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 45

V. Fuel needs (continued).

prospective crops here and abroad. The amount needed
for home consumption is calculated, approximations
of the lieeds of the Allies are made, and in this way a
picture of the entire food situation is presented and
plans for conservation can be made accordingly.
2. In Germany a minute inventory of the food situation
was made in 1914, shortly after the war broke out, by
the Eltzbacher Commission. It was particularly neces-
sary, as Germany was a large importer of food and
feeds.

a. The study determined, among other things, the
amount of food consumed by Germany in a year;
the proportion produced in Germany; the propor-
tion produced in Germany from imported fertilizers;
and feeding stuffs; the amount which would prob-
ably be cut off by the blockade.

b. Calculations were made of the national per capita
consumption of protein, fat, and carbohydrate and
the fuel value of the food for 1912-1913.

c. Some of the findings and recommendations.

(l) Comparison of the per capita consumption of
food before the war with food needs, showed that
the country had had a good margin of safety in
its food supply and could therefore stand consid-
erable reduction.

Food consumption Calculated

1912-1913 food needs

Protein 93-5 grams 6s grams

Fat io6 grams

Carbohydrate S30 grams

Fuel 3642 calories 2380 calories

(Notice that the food consumption is not on
the basis of per man per day, but is merely the
total consumption divided by the population. It
is interesting to recall that German scientists
have heretofore advised a ration high in pro-
tein and calorie value, but since the outbreak
of the war their ideas have been revised).

46 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Fuel needs (continued).

(2) Control of all luxurious living and the adoption
of the above standard of food needs was recom-
mended.

(3) The slaughter of one-third of the swine and 10%
of the milch cows was suggested, the numbers to
be kept at this level because the feed-stuff pro-
duction would just support them economically.
The fact that this recommendation was not car-
ried out at least partly explains the German meat
shortage.

(4) Reduction of use of grain for manufacturing
starch, alcohol, and for all other industrial pur-
poses.

"VI. Effect of eating too much food:

A. In some cases, chronic digestive disturbances,
in others, occasional disturbances with or with-
out permanent results.

B. Increase in fat deposits in the body. The food
eaten in excess of the amount needed is con-
verted into fat and deposited as such.

1. Results —

a. Physical and mental efficiency are often
decreased.

b. The "expectancy of life," as computed by
life insurance companies, is decreased, es-
pecially after youth. "After the age of
35 over-weight is associated with increas-
ingly high death-rate and at middle life
it becomes a real menace to health."

2. Methods of reducing body fat by lowering
the fuel intake below the body's demand.

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 47

VI. Effect of eating too much food (continued).

a. Increasing the amount of exercise taken
without increasing the amount of food.

b. Decreasing the fuel value of the food by-
decreasing the consumption especially of
carbohydrate and fat and substituting
bulky foods like vegetables for concen-
trated foods like sugar and fat.

VII. Effect of eating too little food — malnutrition
or undernutrition.

This is seen in occasional careless or neurotic
individuals among the well-to-do, but danger of
it exists most, of course, among the very poor.
The most markedly tragic effects are now being
experienced abroad. (No effort is here made to
distinguish between a diet inadequate in quan-
tity and inadequate in kind. The two are often
associated.)
A. Loss in weight.

The body consumes itself for fuel instead

of using food. It burns its fat deposits first

and then its protein.

1. For the obese this may be harmless or even
advantageous. For the thin or emaciated
it is dangerous much sooner because body
protein may be burned to supply the neces-
sary energy and it may result in great im-
pairment of the general physical condition
— weakness, general lassitude, and mental
depression.

2. A diet inadequate in kind may leave a per-
son still fat, but pale and flabby.

48 FOOD AND THE WAR

VII. Effect of eating too little food (contintied).

B. Diminished resistance to cold.

This shows the special necessity of adequate
diet for people too lightly clothed and for sol-
diers in camp and in the trenches.

C. Diminished industrial productivity.

1. It has been found necessary in some of the
warring countries definitely to increase the
food allowances for munition workers in
order to keep up their output.

2. The welfare workers in factories in this
country are appreciating in increasing
numbers the importance of an adequate
diet for the health and efificiency of the
workers.

D. Impairment of digestive power.

The effects of undernourishment, due to
necessity or to individual "notions" about
food, are often cumulative, digestive disturb-
ances caused by insufficient food making the
taking of food difficult.

E. Increased susceptibility to tuberculosis.

1. Noted recently, especially, in the occupied
portions of France where there has been a
marked increase of deaths from tuberculo-
sis.

2. Observed, among others in this country,
in a Phipps' Institute study of the garment-
makers' trade. "Malnutrition is one of the

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 49

VII. Effect of eating too little food (continued).

most potent causes of tuberculosis that we
have among the working classes." '

F. Certain diseases directly dependent upon
improper diet; e.g., pellagra and beri-beri.

G. In children, stunting, retardation in school,
"stupidity," general subnormal conditions.
(Further discussion in chapter XIV.)

1. A remarkable improvement in weight,
general health, and mental alertness fol-
lows the introduction of substantial school
lunches in the schools of the poorer dis-
tricts.

2. The Committee for Relief in Belgium thor-
oughly appreciated the importance of ade-
quate feeding of children. The result of
the "soupes," the children's "cantines,"
and the school lunches instituted by the
Commission has been an actual decrease
in the death-rate of the children.

H. Mental effects:

1. Lowering of mental power and initiative,
depression.

2. Possible loss of morale. The nightmare of
all food administrations is the fear that
lack of food may break down the courage
of their fighting men.

VIII. How widespread is subnutrition in the United States?

A. "Probably a fair statement to say that at all times five

^ Landis, H. R. M. "Dietary Habits and their Improvement." Annals, Ameri-
can Academy of Political and Social Science, 74, p. 103. 1917.

50 FOOD AND THE WAR

YIII. Subnutrition in the United States (continued).

per cent of the people of this country are on the verge of
subnutrition and that in times of industrial distress this
proportion may rise much higher."'

B. An estimate for the number of undernourished school
children is probably at least ten per cent of the school
population.

C. It is possible that there has been an alleviation of these
conditions since the recent increased demand for labor.

IX. Undernutrition and some of its results in a few of the
European warring countries.
A. Germany and Austria-Hungary.

1. The calorie value of the ration has varied.^ Only the

very wealthy can supplement the rations. During
the greater part of 1916 the total calorie content was
probably up to 2000, but' it was lower in the autumn
and has not been raised since. In the spring of 1917
the press and various medical authorities put it in
some places between 1200 and 1600 calories per man
per day. In Dresden, for example, young people and
men doing light work get 1200 calories, men doing
heavy work, 1600 calories, and those doing the heavi-
est work, 1900 calories. When potatoes failed the
ration at times ran as low as 1050 calories. This does
not mean starvation, but results in general weakness,
undernutrition, loss in weight, noted by every one
coming in contact with the Germans, and an increase
in the death-rate. In Prague it increased from as.!
per 1000 in 1914 to 15.3 in 1916.

A so-called " proletariat sickness" has appeared, the
name of which shows that the well-to-do are able to
get extra foodstuffs and escape these diseases caused
by insufficient food.

2. Some interesting observations have been made by

' Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem, p. 141. Macmillan, 1917.
' Maylander, Alfred. The Food Situation in Central Europe. U.S. Bureau of
tabor Statistics, Bulletin 242. 1917.

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 51

IX. Undernutrition (continued).

Dr. Jansen, of the Munich University Medical Clinic,
on 13 of his staff, II men and 2 women. The dietary
provided by the rations on which they had been
obliged to live averaged 1614 calories. The average
weight of the men was 63 kilograms and they had
lost from 2 to 7 kilograms. During the period of
observation the loss averaged .28 kilogram per day.
The subjects were thin and without much muscular
strength. Two of the men were sent on walks on 3
consecutive days of 11 miles, 12.5 miles, and 15 miles-
in length. They suffered acutely and increasingly
from exhaustion and mental depression. When 100 tO'
150 grams of lactose from the laboratory were added,
bringing the dietary up to 2000 and 2200 calories,
respectively, it stopped the loss in weight. Dr. Jansen
concludes that 1600 calories are not sufficient, but
that 2100 calories are.' (Compare this 2100 calories
with the 2300 calories which maintained the reduced
body weight of the young men in Benedict's experi-
ment, III, H, above.)
B. The occupied portions of Northern France.

1. The civil population is fed in part by the Commission'
for Relief in Belgium. Their daily ration gives 1600
calories and 35.5 grams of protein. The native foods-
which are to supplement these are mostly available
only to the well-to-do and to farmers.

2. The result has been a gradually aggravated impair-

ment of the physical condition shown by a progressive
loss of weight, in exceptional cases as much as 50
kilograms and even 60 kilograms. This loss in weight
has serious consequences for the thin and has pro-
duced weakness and lassitude among those formerly
corpulent. As a whole the population suffers from
gastric troubles.

> "Insufficient Diet of the German Civilian." Naiional Food Journal, i, p. 383-
Marcii 2^, 1918.

52 FOOD AND THE WAR

IX. Undernutrition {continued).
C. Belgium.

1. For the quantities of food in the Belgian ration pro-
vided by the Commission for Relief in Belgium, see
the Laboratory Manual, Section I. It gives about
2000 calories, 45 grams of protein and 43 grams of
fat. This ration costs about 8 cents a day delivered
to the commercial depots.

2. Many Belgians have lived on this ration for three
years, some of them doing hard manual labor; others
have been able to supplement it with native supplies
such as fruits and vegetables, and still others could
not even afford all of the ration. "They have not
eaten according to their hunger," wrote Maeterlinck.

3. This long period of privation and serai-starvation of

such a large part of the population is having its effect.
A mining company, employing thousands of men, has '
found that the mortality was 3I times as great during
the first 4 months of 191 7 as the average during the
same period of the preceding 3 years. Among 35%
of the workers, the weight had been reduced 10 to 40
pounds each. Three times as many men are sick as
before. All over Belgium and among all ages, tuber-
culosis is increasing rapidly.'

REFERENCES

Atwater, W. O. Methods and Results of Investigations on the Chem-
istry and Economy of Foods. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 21.

Atwater, W. O. Principles of Nutrition and the Nutritive Value of
Foods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 142.

Atwater, W. O., and Bryant, A. P. Dietary Studies of University
Boat Crews. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experi-
ment Stations, Bulletin 77.

Atwater, W. O., and Woods, Charles D. Dietary Studies in New
York City in i8q5 and 1896. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 46.
• Kellogg, V. Fighting Starvation in Belgium. Doubleday, Page & Co., 1918.

FUEL NEEDS OF THE BODY 53

Coleman, Warren. "The Influence of the High Calorie Diet on the
Course of Typhoid." .Journal of the American Medical Associa-
tion, 69, p. 329. 1917.

Goldberger, J. "Pellagra Causation and a Method of Prevention."
Journal of the American Medical Association, 66, p. 471. 1916.

"Government Control of Food Supplies in Germany." Monthly
Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 4, no. 5. 1917.

Howell, W. H. Textbook of Physiology, chap. 51. Saunders, 1917.

Jordan, W. H. Principles of Human Nutrition, chz.p.^. Macmillan.
1917.

Kellogg, Charlotte. Women of Belgium. Funk & Wagnalls, 1917.

Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem, chap. 4. Mac-
millan, 1917.

Langworthy, C. F. Food Customs and Habits in American Homes.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Experiment Stations,
Circular no.

Lusk, G. The Elements of the Science of Nutrition, chaps. 2, 18.
Saunders, 1917.

Mathews, A. P. Physiological Chemistry, chap. VL Wood, 1915.

Rose, M. S., and Jacobson, H. C. A Dietary Stzidy in a Children's
Hospital. Columbia University, Teachers' College, Bulletin 13.

Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chaps. 6 and 7.
(Note References on energy requirements at the end of chapter
VII.) Macmillan, 1918.

Stiles, P. G. Nutritional Physiology, chaps. 19, 20. Saunders, 1916.

Taylor, A. E. "The Diet of Prisoners of War in Germany." Jour-
nal of the American Medical Association, 69, p. 1575. 1917.

Walton, A. C. "The New Feeding in the Treatment of Typhoid
Fever." Journal of Home Economics, ^, p. i^. 1917.

CHAPTER V

PROTEIN — ITS SOURCE AND IMPORTANCE
IN THE DIET

I. Uses of protein in the body.

A. It is essential for life, since it is a requisite con-
stituent of all the cells of the body.

1. It is therefore necessary for cell growth,
which is of two kinds:

a. Enlargement of cells; e.g., muscle cells
which increase in size.

b. Numerical increase during growth and to
take the place of cells whose life is short,
such as the blood cells.

2. The quantity required varies according to
the condition of the body.

a. More is necessary per kilogram of body
weight when there is rapid growth of new
cells, as in youth, pregnancy, and conva-
lescence from wasting diseases.

b. Less is necessary after the body attains
its full size. Only a comparatively small
amount is needed to provide for growth
and the replacement of worn-out cells.

B. Proteins in excess of those needed for growth,
or not in suitable combination for growth, are
burned as fuel just as fats and carbohydrates

PROTEIN 55

I.* Uses of protein in the body (continued).

are or changed to fats and stored, the nitrogen
being excreted in the urine.

C. There is no increased need for protein when the
body exercises, merely increased need for fuel.

II. Composition of proteins.

The composition is studied on proteins separated from the
other components of food and carefully purified. All proteins
are found to be surprisingly alike in composition in spite of
marked differences in function in the body and physical prop-
erties.

A. Elements in the protein molecule.

Refer to chapter II and look up the percentages of the
different elements. Notice that the average for nitrogen
is i6%, and that the usual method of determining the
quantity of protein in a food is to find the quantity of

100

nitrogen and multiply this by 6.25 or — -• In many tables

ID

of analyses iVX6.25 stands for protein.

B. The amino acids.

1. Importance.

Study of the amino acids has thrown much light on
the constitution of the proteins. Protein chemistry and
physiology is now in large part the chemistry and
physiology of the amino acids. It is the constituent
amino acids that determine the value of a protein.

2. Description.

There are about twenty of these organic acids into
which proteins can be split. They are white crystalline
substances, all of which contain nitrogen. Several
metaphors are commonly used to make clear the rela-
tion between the large protein molecule and the amino
acids of which it is composed. For example, the amino
acids are called the building stones of the larger protein
molecule, or the links in the long protein chain, or the

56 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Composition of proteins (continued).

letters of the protein alphabet. Some of the best known
of the amino acids are glycocoll, tyrosin, tryptophan,
etc.
3. Differences in different proteins.

a. Most proteins contain all the amino acids, but in
different proportions and probably fastened to-
gether in different orders. Tremendous numbers of
proteins might result from variations in number and
arrangement of the amino acids.

b. The proportions of the amino acids in different pro-
teins vary greatly. Students may be interested in
looking up the percentages in various proteins and
noting some of the variations; for instance, that the
amino acid, tyrosin, is entirely lacking in gelatin and
present up to 4.5% in casein, and that glutaminic
acid makes almost half (43.7%) of gliaden of wheat
and only 9% of egg albumen.

III. Fate of the proteins in the body.

A. Digestion in the stomach and intestines.

It is a "breaking-down" process caused by the digestive
secretions. The proteins are gradually split into less and
less complex molecules by acids and enzymes until they
are resolved into amino acids.

B. Absorption of the amino acids by the blood.

The amino acids are absorbed from the small intestines
and are carried by the blood to all parts of the body.
After a meal of meat, for example, there is a distinct rise
in the quantity of amino acids in the blood.

C. Action in the tissues.

1 . Such amino acids as are needed for growth or repair of
cells are probably taken from the blood and combined
to make body protein.

2. Such as are needed to make digestive and other secre-
tions are probably also removed as needed. Neither of
these uses requires a large quantity.

PROTEIN 57

III. Fate of the proteins in the body (continued).

3. The excess amino acids cannot be stored for future use
as can excess fat and carbohydrate. Instead, they are
decomposed giving —

a. Urea, the nitrogenous compound which is excreted
in the urine. Some physiologists believe that the
necessity of excreting a large amount of urea and
other nitrogen compounds puts a harmful strain on
the kidneys.

b. A non-nitrogenous compound which is burned as
fuel or converted into carbohydrate or fat and de-
posited as such.

4. If the food does not supply the right kind or sufficient
quantities of amino acids for i and 2 above, body pro-
teins will be broken down, the less important ones,
such as those in muscle, in favor of the more important,
such as those in nerves. "Nitrogenous equilibrium"
is not reached ; that is, more nitrogen is being excreted
than is supplied by the food.

D. Occasional pathological manifestations.

There is danger in certain more or less diseased condi-
tions that putrefactive bacteria in the intestines may act
upon protein or its digestion products with the formation
of harmful substances. The result may be a state of " auto-
intoxication," with languor, mental depression, headache,
and according to some opinions, premature old age. The
symptoms may often be removed by lessening the meat
consumption.^

E. Conclusions. It is thus seen that —

1. When more protein is eaten than is needed for specific
bodily functions it is merely decomposed and excreted.
Much excess is a form of extravagance in eating.

2. A certain amount of excess is wise, a "factor of safety,"
in order to be sure to get the right amino acids in suffi-
cient amounts.

* See Stiles, Nutritional Physiology, chap. 23. Saunders, 1916.

58 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Comparison between the food value of different
proteins.

A. Certain protein foods when fed as the only-
source of protein are found to be thoroughly
satisfactory for all the protein needs of the body,
the "adequate proteins." Others when fed
alone are .inadequate; i.e., growth and health
cannot be maintained with them alone.

1. Adequate proteins include those of milk and
egg. This is to be expected, since these foods
are used by nature as the sole nourishment
of the young animal. Other adequate proteins
are those of meat and fish.

2. Less satisfactory are many of the vegetable
proteins and gelatin. But combinations of
these poorer proteins may be better than single
ones.

B. Differences in different proteins must be due largely to
differences in amino acid content.

I. It is most easily studied by experiments on small ani-
mals. Rats have been most used.

a. Method. The rats are fed a diet, in which the only
protein present is the one to be studied. The diet is
complete in other respects. If the rats grow normally
and bear normal young, the protein is shown to be
"adequate." If the rats do not behave normally
some amino acid is lacking in the protein, or is
present in too small amounts. Different amino acids
can be added until the diet is satisfactory.

b. Some conclusions as to inadequate proteins.

(i) Gelatin. Animals fast losing in weight on gelatin
can be made to grow normally when the missing
amino acids, tyrosin, tryptophan, and cystin are
added. Very striking changes in the animals are
noted.

PROTEIN

59

IV. Comparison between the food value of different
proteins (continued).

(2) Zein, a protein of corn, and gliadin, a protein of
wheat. Striking results like those with gelatin
are obtained. The other proteins in these cereals
are good, so that the mixture which we eat is
better than the simple isolated protein, though
not so adequate as the animal protein foods.

(3) The proteins of beans and peas. Much larger
quantities of these proteins — inconveniently
larger quantities — have to be eaten than of a
protein like casein, to get an adequate amount.

(4) Two or more inadequate proteins have been
found to supplement each other's amino acid
deficiencies in such a way as to make an adequate
mixture. This is true for example, of the proteins
of beans and oats.

2. Some observations on human beings.

a. On account of an enthusiastic report in 1814 of
the French Academy of Medicine, gelatin was used
largely in the diet of hospital patients. The results
were very unsatisfactory.^ Later work has shown
that gelatin fed with certain other poor proteins,
themselves of low biological value, is greatly en-
hanced in value.

b. The harm wrought by pellagra-producing diets may
be in part due to the fact that corn is almost the only
source of protein.

C. The coefficient of digestibility of animal proteins is slightly
higher than that of most vegetable proteins.

D. Some applications of these differences in pro-

teins to our choice of food:
I. Adults with a fairly wide choice of foods
seldom need to consider the question of ade-

1 See Howell, Textbook of Physiology, p. 902. Saunders, 1917.

6o FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Comparison between the food value of different
proteins (continued).

quacy of the protein of their diet, though if
the total quantity is low it is safer to have
part of it animal protein and to have a variety.

2. It is much safer to feed children at least
half of their protein from animal sources,
especially from milk. They do not need more
in quantity than adults, but there should be
greater care about the quality. (See chap-
ter XIV.)

3. The old idea of Liebig's that meat proteins
are a peculiar source of strength is without
foundation. Any unique value that meat
may have over other animal protein foods is
probably due to its pleasant flavor; its value,
that is, is psychological rather than physi-
ological.

4. As all animal proteins are adequate, the
amino acids of meat are no better than the
amino acids of fish.

V. The quantity of protein in foods.

A. Animal foods are usually rich in protein. Of
meat and fish about 20% of the edible portion
is protein, of eggs, 12% to 14%, milk 3.5%,
cheese, 18% to 35%.

B. Vegetable protein foods usually contain less
protein, but more than is popularly realized.
Uncooked cereals (flour, etc.) have about half as
much as meat (8% to 16%), nuts, about 10% to
30%, legumes — peas, beans, peanuts — 20% to

PROTEIN 6i

V. The quantity of protein in foods (continued).

25% when dried, and peas and beans, about 7%
when fresh. Potatoes contain only 2%, and
many other vegetables less.
C. A convenient method for studying quantities
of protein in foods and the quantities eaten is
the one-half ounce protein portion. This should
not be confused with the lOO-calorie portion
discussed in chapter III.

1. The 1/2 ounce of protein is contained in
approximately —

1 pint of milk, whole or skim.

2 eggs.

1/4 cup of cottage cheese, 2 ounces.

1 1/4-inch cube of American cheese, 2
ounces.

2 ounces of shelled peanuts.

A piece of lean meat without bone, about

2 X 2 X 3/4 inches, 21/4 ounces.
A similar piece of fish.

1 1/2 cups of cooked beans.

2 1/2 to 3 cups of cooked cereal.

6 slices of bread 3 1/2 X 3 X 1/2 inch.

2. Notice from these quantities that —

a. There are many substitutes for meat.

b. Cheese and nuts are so rich in protein that
the half-ounce of protein is contained in
a small amount.

c. Cooked cereals are not high in protein,
though a considerable part of the protein
of the diet is often furnished by them

62 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. The quantity of protein in foods (continued).

because of the large amounts eaten as
breakfast cereals, bread, biscuits, etc.
d. Combinations of these foods, such as
cheese and egg dishes, may give a large
amount of protein.

3, An exhibit of these portions should be held
and students asked to count up the protein
of their own diet from the number of one-half
ounce portions or fractions thereof that they
consume daily, and to notice the distribution
of their protein between animal and vegetable
sources. Figures calculated from women's
dietaries should be divided by 0.8 for com-
parison with studies below which are on a
per man basis. Express the results in both
ounces and grams.

4. From what foods do we get our protein?
A summary of four hundred studies shows
that the protein of the diet, expressed as
percentages of the total protein, is distrib-
uted as follows :

From rneat, 29.7%, fish, 3.5%, eggs, 4.1%,
dairy products, 10.0% — a total of 47.5%
from animal foods.

From cereals, 43.0%, other vegetable foods,
9.3% — a total of 52.3% from vegetable foods.

The surprising fact to most people in these
figures is that more than half of our protein
comes from vegetable foods and that the
cereals are quantitatively much more im-
portant sources of protein than meat.

PROTEIN 63

VI. How much protein is it wise to eat?

No definite statement is possible — it is a matter
of balancing and interpreting more or less conflict-
ing studies and experiments. Contrast this with
the accuracy of statement possible for the fuel
needs of the body.

A.' The older views advocated 100 grams (3 1/2
ounces) or even 120 grams (about 4 1/2 ounces)
for an average man.

I . They are based on studies of how much pro-
tein men actually eat.

a. They show, on the whole, a remarkable
similarity in the average consumption over
most of the world — somewhat over 100
grams of protein per man per day, for
moderately active people. (See the dietary
studies of the Department of Agriculture
given in the References at the end of
chapter IV.) The first tabulations from
the dietary study now in progress by the
Department of Agriculture also show about
this same amount — ■ they range from 81
to 109 grams with an average of 94 grams.

b. Variations.

(i) In general, people of the older, more crowded
countries eat less protein than those where there
is a large amount of land with many head of live-
stock per capita. For example, consumption of
protein in Australia and New Zealand is high,
but it is low in parts of India.

(2) The Esquimo, an almost entirely carnivorous
race, eats extraordinarily high amounts, an
average of 280 grams daily.

64 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. How much protein is it wise to eat (continued).

(3) The Bengali, weighing on the average only 50
kilograms and usually of inferior physical
physique, eats 52 grams of protein. This would
correspond to 73 grams for the man of average
weight (70 K.). The Bengali's low vitality may
be due to the presence of intestinal parasites
instead of to the low protein of his diet.

2. Weaknesses of this "biological argument."

a. The argument that, since throughout the
development of the race, men who could
get it have tended toward a fairl>^ high
protein diet, this quantity must therefore
be what they need, is almost equally ap-
plicable to the tendency to consume al-
cohol, which mankind is better without.

b. "The meat-eating races are the strong
races." It is probably more nearly true
to say that the strong races owe thei^
strength to their milk-drinking (Mc-
Collum); also that they got the much-
liked meat because they were strong.

B. Some of the newer views advocate a lower
protein consumption.

1. They are based on experimental studies, the
recent experiences of the warring nations,
especially of Germany, which appear to show
the adequacy of low protein diets, and the
general trend of opinion among many scien-
tists.

2. They advocate the consumption of about 75
to 85 grams (about 2 1/2 to 3 ounces) for

PROTEIN 65

VI. How much protein is it wise to eat {continued).

a man and four- fifths of this for a woman,
including at least some of the more adequate
proteins. With this lower standard it is
found that almost all of the diets which people
naturally choose contain enough protein when
the fuel value is satisfactory. Most people
are apt to eat more protein than is needed
rather than not enough.

3. Some experiments tending to show the possibility or
advisability of a low protein diet.

a. Experiments have been conducted in which ade-
quate fuel in the form of carbohydrate and fat, and
no protein was fed for a short time, to learn how
much body protein would be broken down. As little
as 2.2 grams of nitrogen a day (about 14 grams of
protein) has been observed. We are not justified
however in concluding that this is the whole of the
normal protein decomposition.

b. Experiments have been made to determine the
minimum protein intake possible with nitrogenous
equilibrium. This is dependent in part on the kind
of protein as would be expected from our knowledge
of amino acids.

c. Chittenden's experiments on professional men, uni-
versity athletes and soldiers at Yale, have led him
to recommend only 60 grams of protein as giving
"greater freedom from fatigue, greater aptitude for
work, greater freedom from minor ailments."

d. Hindhede's apparently adequate potato dietary, con-
sisting of from 4 1/2 to 9 pounds of potatoes daily,
and margarine, contained only from 38 to 53 grams
of protein.'

e. It is thus seen that men can live on a much smaller
quantity of protein than is usually consumed.

• Lusk, G. Elements of the Science of Nutrition, pp. 340-341. Saunders, 1917.

66 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. How much protein is it wise to eat (continued).
C. The general trend of scientific opinion is
away from the older high standards to one
recommending about 75 grams per day, pro-
vided at least a part of the intake consists of
adequate proteins and that the proteins are
from varied sources.

VII. Do recent observations show us to be in danger
of getting too little protein? (Compare the dis-
cussion of fuel needs, chapter IV.)

A. The Washington study. ^

Analysis of the diet of 31 of the families
showed that their average protein consump-
tion per man per day was 3.30 ounces (93.5
grams). The lowest observed was 2.34 ounces
(66.3 grams) for a colored family of 4 with
an annual income of ^520, and a fuel value
for the diet of only 1920 calories. Thus the
food gave only 64% of the necessary fuel
(3000 calories), but 88% of the standard
amount of protein (75 grams). Much of the
protein was from meat.

B. The New York study. ^

Of 92 families only 12 were getting less than
75 grams of protein and 45 were getting 100
grams or over. The caloric and mineral defi-
ciencies were far more marked than the pro-
tein deficiencies. Here, too, the amount of

I "Cost of Living in the District of Columbia." Monthly Review, U.S. Bureau
of Labor Statistics, s. no. 6i. 1917.

^ Sherman, H., and Gillett, L. The Adequacy and Economy of Some City
Dietaries. Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. New York, 1917.

PROTEIN 67

VII. Danger of getting too little protein (continued).
meat was fairly high. In the group spending
least for their food 37% of the total money-
was spent for meat.
C. The Boston study.'

This study measures the protein consump-
tion in terms of the percentage of the total cal-
ories which is derived from protein, taking 10%
as adequate, or 75 grams on the basis of 3000
calories. Of the 200 families 99% show 10%
of the calories from protein and 88% show
12% or more. Here, too, there was a much
greater deficiency in the fuel value of the food
than in its protein content. "They buy their
protein in expensive forms, chiefly meat and
eggs. Too much meat may merely mean
some lack of economy in a well-to-do family.
In a family of very small income, it may mean
actual malnutrition, because the meat costs so
much that other essential elements in the diet
cannot be sufficiently provided." ^

VIII. The psychological factor in the choice of protein
foods.

A. The high expenditure for meat by the poor is
probably partly due to habit and ignorance of
food values, and partly to a real psychological
value in meat due to its marked flavor — a
pleasant feature of an often otherwise un-
attractive diet.

' Davis, M. M. Food Supply in Families of Limited Means. League for Pre-
ventive Work. Boston, 1917.

' See editorial comment on this and the New York study in the Journal of the
American Medical Association^ 70, p. 234. January 26, 1918.

68 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. The psychological factor in the choice of protein
foods (continued).
B. Prisoners of war in Germany have had only
a third of a pound of meat per week and this
cooked in soup. "Men thus fed acquire a
positive homesickness for the sight, taste,
and touch of meat, they long for the act of
mastication of meat."

IX. The cost of protein foods.

A. The cost to the individual.

1. Protein foods, especially meat, are usually
the most expensive part of the diet. Often
much more money than necessary is spent
for them.

*

2. Relative costs of different protein foods
should be compared by computing the cost
of the one-half -ounce portions. Usually
dried legumes and cereals and dried fish
are much cheaper than meat and eggs. The
cost of the protein of milk is slightly less or
about the same as that of meat.

B. The agricultural cost to the nation. (Dis-
cussed under meat in the next chapter.)

REFERENCES

Chittenden, R. H. The Nutrition of Man. Stokes, 1907.
Chittenden, R. H. Physiological Economy in Nutrition. Stokes,

1904.
Editorial. Journal of the American Medical Association^, 70, p. 234.

January 26, 191 8.
Howell, W. Textbook of Physiology, chap. 47. Saunders, 1917.

PROTEIN 691

Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem, pp. 109-117.
Macmillan, 1917.

Lusk, G. The Fundamental Basis of Nutrition, chap. 3. Yale Uni-
versity Press, 1915.

Lusk, G. Elements of the Science of Nutrition. Saunders, 1917.

McCoUum, E. V. " Supplementary Dietary Relationship among
our Natural Foodstuffs." Journal of the American Medical Asso-
ciation, 68, p. 1379. 1917.

McCollum, E. V. and Davis, M. "Influence of the Plane of Pro-
tein Intake on Growth." Journal of Biological Chemistry, 20, p.

415- 1915-
McCollum, E. v., Simonds, N., and Pitz, H. "Effect of Feeding

the Protein of the Wheat Kernel at Different Planes of Intake."

Journal of Biological Chemistry, 28, p. 211. 1916.
Mathews, A. P. Physiological Chemistry, chap. 4. Wood, 1915.
McKay. The Protein Element in Nutrition. Longmans, 1918.
Osborne, T., and Mendel, L. B. A series of papers in the Journal of

Biological Chemistry, 12, p. 473 (1917); 17, p. 325 (1914); 18, p. i

(1914); 20, p. 35 (1915); 22, p. 241 (1915).
Sherman, H. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chap. 8. Macmillan,

1918.

CHAPTER VI

THE MEAT SITUATION

I. The world's meat resources.

A. Cattle and sheep.

1. Great production can take place only in
sparsely settled countries where there is an
abundance of land for grazing. As the popu-
lation increases, the great cattle ranges are
crowded out, giving place to cultivated fields.
For this reason, the number of animals in
proportion to the population is constantly
decreasing.

2. Countries having a surplus for export:

a. Cattle: Australasia, Argentina, United
States, Uruguay, Brazil, and Canada.
Before the war, Russia, Denmark, and
Hungary exported some cattle, but the
amount was not large.

b. Sheep: Australasia, South America, and
South Africa.

B. Hogs.

I. Hogs are raised everywhere. The United
States is the heaviest producer, the corn belt
being the great hog-raising region. Even
before the war (191 1) the United States
raised 42% of the world's swine.

THE MEAT SITUATION 71

I. The world's meat resources {continued).

2. The greatest exporting countries are the
United States, Canada, and the Baltic re-
gions of Europe.

II. Meat consumption before the war.

A. The greater part of the meat raised in a coun-
try is consumed localjy. Even in the crowded
territory of Europe, the proportion of imported
meat was never large except in Great Britain,
which imported almost half of her supply.

B. Differences in the kind of meat eaten. The kind
of meat eaten seems to be governed in part at
least by racial habits; e.g., Germany ate twice
as much pork as beef, in the United Kingdom
the proportion was almost reversed, and in the
United States about equal quantities of both
were eaten. The United Kingdom also had a
much higher per capita consumption of mut-
ton.

C. National differences in the quantities eaten.

I. Large amounts of meat are eaten in sparsely
populated countries with large grazing lands,
such as -Australia and New Zealand, and in
the wealthy industrial countries, like Eng-
land, which can afford to import. Shown by
their pre-war per capita consumption (com-
pare with the war rations given in IV, below) :

a. Australia — five pounds per week.

b. United States — about 31/4 pounds per
week. With decreasing grazing land, con-

72 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Meat consumption before the war {continued).

sumption has decreased. According to
some estimates, the 31/4 pounds is half
as much as was eaten in 1840.
C.England — 2 1/4 pounds per week, and
Germany — between 2 pounds and 2 1/4
pounds.

2. In Arctic climates, a large part of the diet is
meat and fish.

3. There is small consumption in densely popu-
lated regions which cannot afford to import
meat or prefer to raise dairy cattle; e.g., the
consumption in France, Denmark, and Switzer-
land is about one and a half pounds and
in Sweden, Holland, and Norway, it is even
less.

4. The consumption is lowest in parts of the
Orient; e.g., in Southern India, in the Philip-
pines, and in Japan. Large numbers of peo-
ple in these regions are prohibited by their
religion from eating meat at all.

III. The effect of the war on the supply of meat.

A. Exports to Europe.

Most of the great exporting countries being
regions remote from Europe are cut off because
of the dangers of transportation and the lack
of ships. (See the frontispiece.)

B. European herds.

The herds of both cattle and swine have
greatly decreased due to lack of fodder. Ani-

THE MEAT SITUATION 73;

III. Effect of the war on the supply of meat {cont'd).
mal feed could not be grown at the expense of
bread grains, and ships for importing it are in
greater demand for more immediate war sup-
plies. The total European loss for the first three
years of the war was estimated to be over 100,-
000,000 animals. The remaining animals are re-
ported to be greatly reduced in weight, so as
still further to reduce the meat resources. The
milk supply has decreased alarmingly.
C. The situation of the different belligerents:

1. Great Britain finds most of the sources of her heavy-
pre-war importations now cut off. Although the im-
ports from the United States and Canada were thirty
times as large in 1917 as those of 1914, they have not
offset the loss of the supplies from Argentina and Aus-
tralia. The home-grown meat assets of the country
(live animals calculated in terms of cattle according to
the proportionate amount of dressed meat they would
yield) have decreased 12.5%.

2. France has suffered a decrease of 40% in the number of
hogs, 18% of cattle, and 39% of sheep; due to —

a. Seizure of herds by the enemy. Practically 20% of
the cattle fell into the hands of the Germans.

b. Difficulty in obtaining fodder.

c. The low price for requisitioned wool. This has made
it unprofitable to keep sheep for wool raising.

3. Italy is in much the same position as France.

4. Germany before the war depended largely on imported
concentrated cattle feeds. These have been cut off and
her herds decreased in proportion. This increased the
meat supply at the beginning of the war. Now Ger-
many has lost over half of her stock of hogs, almost half
of the sheep, and a third of the cattle. The loss would
have been still greater if 'it were not for the cattle and

74 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Effect of the war on the supply of meat {cont'd).

hogs taken in occupied portions of France, and in Bel-
gium, Poland, Serbia, and Roumania. Those countries
are to-day almost literally without herds. In Belgium
in three months alone the herds diminished from l,8oo,-
000 to 700,000 head of cattle, and the decrease has con-
tinued until more than three-foi|rths of the cattle are
gone.
5. The northern neutrals, although always small meat con-
sumers, are also suffering from a shortage of cattle due
to lack of fodder.
D. The large amounts of meat for the armies:

All of the army rations are much larger than the civilian
consumption. This has increased the demand. It varies
from the weekly ration of seven pounds of meat and one
and three-fourths pounds of bacon which has been al-
lowed soldiers in the field by Great Britain to the four
pounds of meat allowed by Germany and Italy.

E. The production of the United States and exports
to the AUies. These exports must make up as
far as possible the deficiencies in the supply
abroad.

1. Since the consumption of meat in the United
States is far in excess of the physiological
needs, the amount we can ship to the Allies
should be limited only by the tonnage avail-
able. The exports of beef and pork in April,
1 91 8, were about 220% greater than in the
same month last year, and 830% greater
than in April, 1914.

2. Hogs have increased both in number and in
weight to meet the especially heavy demand
for pork products. The ordinary pork export
was about 50,000,000 pounds per month.

THE MEAT SITUATION 75

III Effect of the war on the supply of meat {cont'd).
In the heaviest export month during the fis-
cal year of 1917-18, 308,000,000 pounds were
sent across. This has enabled the English
to remove all restrictions on the use of bacon
and ham.

3. Increased shipments can be met only in part
by increased production and slaughter. It
takes three years or more to develop prime
steers, and too great slaughtering of cattle
is disastrous to the upkeep of the herds.
Therefore, although the number of cattle
have increased, continued conservation in
accordance with the requests of the Food
Administration is necessary to maintain our
shipments of meat to Europe.

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions.

A. Great Britain.

The English have thoroughly appreciated
the importance of keeping their herds intact,
but the slaughtering of cattle must now be gov-
erned largely by the amount of fodder avail-
able. This causes wide fluctuations in the meat
supply, which was not low in the fall of 191 7,
but became very short in the winter and spring
of 1918.

1. In November, 1917, the Ministry of Food
asked the country to go on a voluntary ra-
tion of two pounds a week.

2. Compulsory rations were put into effect in

76 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions (continued).

the end of February, 1918, in London, and
in April in the rest of the country. Each per-
son was allowed four coupons a week. Chil-
dren under ten were on half rations. At first,
three of these coupons could each buy five-
pence worth of fresh meat, and one had to
be used for bacon, ham, or game. The total
amounted to about one and one-half pounds
per week. In the late spring, because of the
increased exports of pork products from the
United States, heavy workers were permitted
two extra coupons for bacon, and boys be-
tween thirteen and eighteen years were al-
lowed one. But in order to prevent further
slaughter of cattle, only two instead of three
coupons could be used for fresh meat. Later
all restrictions on the use of pork products
were removed. (See IH, E, 2, above.)

3. Maximum wholesale and retail prices are
fixed.

4. Heavy fines are imposed for wasting food,
hoarding, and profiteering — fines as high as
£1000. The usual fines seem to range from
£20 to £50; prosecutions are made for even
such offenses as feeding wheat to poultry or
obtaining an extra piece of meat for a dog.

B. France.

I. Meat was not controlled at the beginning of
the war. In July, 1917, two meatless days
were set and no slaughtering could be done

THE MEAT SITUATION 77

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions (continued).

on the two preceding days. This ruling was
abolished in October, 191 7.

2. Three meatless days each week were insti-
tuted in May, 1918. Because of high prices,
also, consumption of meat has gone down
markedly. The London Daily News and
Leader, February 28, 1918, in a Paris letter,
states that rump steak and veal were both
selling for 45. 2d. a pound.

3. The meat ration of the soldiers at the front
was cut. It was formerly one pound per day,
in March, 1918, it was about 13 ounces.

C. Italy.

1. In December, 1916, an order forbade the
sale of fresh meat on two consecutive days
each week. (This applied also to hotels and
restaurants.) This was changed to three days
in 1918.

2. Part of the meat ration of the army has been
replaced by "minestroni," a soup made of
vegetables and rice. Salt fish also is provided
for those at the front.

3". Animals are on fodder rations.

4. The number of oxen to be slaughtered and
their minimum weight are determined in
each province by the Prefect in consultation
with a veterinary.

D. Germany.

I. Weekly rations of meat and sausages in the

78 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions (continued).^

towns of Germany in January, 1918, were
about 8 3/4 ounces per person. All kinds of
game and poultry are used as much as pos-
sible and in Breslau, for instance, dog meat
is used in sausage.
2. Control of cattle and feed is very strict.
Sometimes slaughter is prohibited, at other
times ordered, according to the amount of
feed available; for example, the Berliner
Tageblait of November 25, 1917, states that
the Food Controller asked all state officers
to bring about a quick surrender (voluntary
or by compulsion) of all pigs not intended
for home slaughtering or breeding, the stocks
being too large for the fodder available. To
prevent the use of corn and potatoes, all
kinds of fodder are used. In general, Ger-
many has slaughtered live-stock when neces-
sary in order to save grain.

E. Regulations and policies of the United States.
The meat situation is the most complex of

the food problems with which the Government

has had to deal.

I. The system of purchasing meats includes all
of the animal foods utilized by the armed
forces of the United States, the Allies, and
such agencies connected with the war as the
Red Cross, the Y.M.C.A., the Commission
for Relief in Belgium, etc. This applies also
to some of the other staples.

THE MEAT SITUATION 79

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions (continued).

a. A Food Purchase Board, composed of
representatives of the Army, Navy, the
Food Administration, and the Federal
Trade Commission, determines what foods
shall be procured by the Food Adminis-
tration which then allocates the orders to
different concerns throughout the coun-
try. About fifty concerns, selected be-
cause of their equipment and experience,
furnish, on a pro-rated basis, the meat
required.

b. The Allied countries operate through the
Allied Provisions Exports Commission,
through whom all orders are pooled and
standardized.

c. Reserves are established at favorable
centers and seaboard points to meet emer-
gencies.

2. Fair price determinations are ascertained by
various means and agencies, including the
Federal Trade Commission, through cost
investigations, by profit regulations of the
Food Administration and the investigations
of subsistence experts of the Army and Navy.

3. The effect of the general control of the Food
Administration is to abolish speculative
profits and to prevent undue profits. The
limitation of profits prescribed by the Food
Administration regulation made effective on
November i, 191 7, permits the packers to

8o FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions (continued).

earn a profit of 2.5% net on their total an-
nual sales, while in the case of the five prin-
cipal packers, they are further limited to a
profit not exceeding 9% on their investment
as applied to the meat business, which in-
cludes such by-products as wool, bones, ice,
etc.
4. The regulations in respect to the consump-
tion of meat are of necessity altered fre-
quently with the changing conditions of pro-
duction and consumption here and abroad.
Special rules must be made constantly to
meet temporary emergencies.

F. It is a much debated question as to how far it
is wise to feed grain to hogs and other animals
instead of feeding it directly to human beings.

1 . There is a keen military demand for pork.

2. A diversified agriculture with a fair emphasis
on cattle and hogs is undoubtedly sound
national policy.

3. Much of the grain raised is normally in ex-
cess of human demands and much of it is
not suitable for human consumption.

4. Yet feeding grain to animals, and then eat-
ing the animals, is by no means so economi-
cal as eating the grain directly. The animal
is not an efficient machine for turning grain
into human food, because it utilizes a large
percentage of its food in its own life processes.

THE MEAT SITUATION 8t

IV. Regulations to alleviate conditions {continued).

a. Roughly 15% to 20% of the protein of the
feed is recovered as swine protein, only
10% to 15% as beef protein, and about
33% as milk protein.

b. "It may be roughly estimated that about
24% of the energy of grain is recovered for
human consumption in pork, about 18%
in milk and only about 3.5% in beef and
mutton. In other words, the farmer who
feeds bread grains to his stock is burning
up 75% to 97% of them in order to pro-
duce for us a small residue of roast pig,
and so is diminishing the total stock of
human food." ^

V. Nutritive value of meat.

A. Composition.

1. Refuse. This varies greatly and must be
considered in comparing the relative cost of
meats. It may be as high as 62% in shank
of beef or as low as 4% in beef sirloin or
round.

2. Protein. There is very little difference in
the amount in different cuts and kinds, much
less than is often thought:

a. A maximum of 21.9% in porterhouse
steak and a minimum of 15.8% in beef
brisket.

b. The fatter portions of pork, salt pork, and

' Armsby, H. P. "The Cost of Roast Pig." Science, 46, p. 160. 1917.

82 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Nutritive value of meat {continued).

bacon are exceptions, having very little
protein.
c. A number of the proteins of meat differ
as to their solubility in water, the tem-
perature at which they coagulate, etc.

3. Fat. The amount varies considerably.

a. It is partly stored in quantities so large
as to be readily seen and partly distrib-
uted in invisible or almost invisible por-
tions throughout the muscle or organ.

b. Veal is generally lowest and pork highest
in fat content. Ham may run as high as
57% fat, and veal cutlet as low as 1%.

c. The fat content depends in part upon
whether or not the animal has been highly
fed before killing, an important point
when feeds are high.

4. Water. The amount is somewhat variable.

a. The content is high in lean meat and low
in fat meat. A cut of lean beef may have
75% water, while a fat cut from the same
animal may not contain more than 50%.

b. Meat from a young animal, such as veal
is apt to run slightly higher in water than
from a mature animal.

5. Ash. The percentage is fairly high, espe-
cially of potassium and phosphorus. It con-
tains significant amounts of iron, but is low
in calcium.

THE MEAT SITUATION 83

V. Nutritive value of meat (continued).

6. Extractives.

a. A miscellaneous group of substances pres-
ent in meat in small quantity, so called
because they can be dissolved out by ex-
tracting the meat with water.

b. They give to meat its characteristic pala-
table flavor to which meat owes its psy-
chological value as a food. <

c. Most important physiologically are the
substances called purins, which yield uric
acid in the body. These are probably pres-
ent in about the same quantity in most
kinds of meat, fish, and chicken. The con-
tent is considerably higher in glandular
material, like sweetbreads and liver, than
in muscle, and in meat soups and meat ex-
tracts.

7. Vitamines.

Probably neither of the two, fat-soluble A or
water-soluble B, is present in large quantity,
except in glands like liver and sweetbreads.
B. Digestibility of meat.

1. It is almost completely digested, both as to protein
and fat.

2. There is practically no difference between the different
cuts and kinds.

a. Cheap and tough cuts are as completely digested as
the more expensive.

b. Veal, even very young veal, is digested as well as
beef. The prejudice against it in America is not
universal. In Germany, for example, veal is popu-
larly believed to be very easily digested.

84 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Nutritive value of meat {continued).

c. Extracted meat — i.e., meat from which the ex-
tractives and hence the taste have been removed —
is almost as completely digested as whole meat.

d. Occasional difficulty in the digestion of pork is prob-
ably due to its high fat content which makes diges-
tion in the stomach slow.

3. The final digestion of meat swallowed in large pieces,
"bolted," is as complete as well-masticated meat, but
large pieces of meat remain longer in the stomach
than small pieces. This is not an argument for bolting
food, but a caution against too sweeping statements as
to the harm done by it.
C. Composition and value of meat extracts and bouillon

cubes.

1. Meat extracts are prepared by evaporating either the
liquid in which "the meat is cooked for canning, or
the water extract of the meat. Hence they consist of
the parts of the meat soluble in warm or hot water —
a little of the protein, the extractives, and the mineral
matter, with more or less water.

2. Bouillon cubes are similar in composition to meat
extracts, but without the water and with a large quan-
tity of common salt added.

3. Their nutritive value is practically nil. They are bo
highly flavored that only small amounts can be used.
The small amount of protein is negligible as compared
with the total protein of the diet.

4. What little value they have as a stimulant is due to
the extractives.

REFERENCES

Agricultural Production for igi8. U.S. Department of Agriculture,

Office of the Secretary, Circular 103.
Bigelow, W. D., and Cook, A. E. Meat Extracts and Similar Prepa-

THE MEAT SITUATION 85

rations. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry,
Bulletin 114.

"'Butter, Margarine, and Meat Rations." The National Food Jour-
nal, I, p. 249. February 13, 1918.

Ditewig, G. "The Meat Inspection Service of the United States."
Yearbook, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1916.

Foster, L. P., and Hawk, P. B. "The Utilization of Ingested Pro-
tein as Influenced by Undermastication (Bolting) and Over-
mastication (Fletcherizing)." Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 37, p. 134. 1916.

Holmes, G. K. Meat Situation in the United Stales. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Report 109. 1916.

Langworthy, C. F., and Hunt, C. L. Economical Use of Meat in
the Home. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin

391-
JLeach, A. E. Food Inspection and Analysis. Wiley, 1917.
Lusk, G. Food in War-Time. Saunders, 1918.
•Osborne, F., and Mendel, L. B. "Nutritive Factors in Animal

Tissues." Journal of Biological Chemistry, 32, p. 309. 1917.
Roorbach, G. B. "The World's Food Supply." Annals American

Academy of Political and Social Science, 74, p. I. November,

1917.
Sherman, H. C. Food Products. Macmillan, 1917.
Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Henry Holt,

1913-
"Woods, C. D. Meats: Composition and Cooking. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 34.

CHAPTER VII

PROTEIN-RICH FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT

I. Fish, eggs, cheese, milk, beans, peas, and nuts are
the chief foods used as meat substitutes. Milk is
taken up in chapter XII and peas and beans in
chapter XIII. As regards the use of these foods
it is interesting to note that the Allied Committee
on Alimentation, in deciding not to fix a minimum
meat ration, states that no absolute physiological
need exists for meat, since the meat can be replaced
by proteins of animal origin such as those con-
tained in milk, cheese, and eggs as well as by pro-
teins of vegetable origin.

II. The use of meat substitutes is important:

A. To save meat for the Army and the Allies, since
it is more easily shipped than most of the sub-
stitutes.

B. To introduce an important economy in the
individual's expenditure for food. Some, though
not all, of the substitutes are cheaper than meat.

C. To cut down on the use of grain for animal food.
III. Fish.

A. Consumption.

The United States eats far less fish than most
other nations. Our average per capita consump-
tion is only i8 pounds per year. (Compare this

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 87

III. Fish (continued).

with our meat consumption of 178 pounds.)
The British and Canadians, whose food habits
on the whole are similar to ours, consume much
more, 56 and 29 pounds per year respectively.
B. Availability.

Our low consumption is not due to lack of
fish, because quantities of it are available.
The potential supply is practically unlimited.
There are 19,000 varieties, some of which, how-
ever, are inedible.

1. Many inland waters are plentifully supplied
with little known fish that make excellent
food. Only a few varieties, such as whitefish
and trout, have been widely used, while fully
three dozen more varieties from rivers and
lakes are wholesome food and available in
our markets. The use of many of these has
been studied by the Bureau of Fisheries and
the State Colleges.

2. Edible varieties of salt-water fish also abound
in great numbers and should be utilized.
Varieties that have hitherto been more or less
despised and wasted have been attractively
prepared and now make a valuable addition
to the dietary. Whale is on sale on the Pacific
Coast and is also being canned, and so is
shark and seal meat.

3. The students should become familiar with
all the varieties of fish in their locality, espe-
cially the little-known kinds. In some of

88 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Fish {continued).

the smaller inland towns in which fresh fish
has not been available, an assured demand will
frequently make a steady supply possible,
or salt, smoked, and canned fish can be used.

C. Nutritive value and digestibility compared with

meat:

1. The protein is about the same in quantity
and quality.

2. The fat content is much lower. Few fish have
more than io% fat. Butterfish, shad, catfish,
herring, and salmon are among those con-
taining the most fat. Cod and shellfish have
little fat.

3. The water content is higher than in meat,
varying in most fish from 70 to 80%, and in
oysters up to 90%.

D. Fish supply.

1. The potential world supply is practically unlimited.
A large proportion of the catch never gets into trade.
The average value of the world catch before the war is
roughly estimated at $500,000,000, of which the
United States took one-eighth.

2. The great fishing regions are in the feeding banks,
a. American: off the northeast coast.

(i) Most important are the Grand Banks of New-
foundland, and the smaller banks off Labrador,
New England, and New Jersey.

(2) The Grand Banks of Newfoundland were known
to fishermen of Brittany shortly after the voy-
ages of Columbus. The right of fishing on these
banks was an important issue in the French and
English colonial wars from 1688 to 1763. Amer-

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 89

III. Fish (continued).

ican negotiators vainly tried to secure from
England concessions satisfactory to New Eng-
land fishermen at the close of the American
Revolution. The subject was brought up in
most of the Anglo-American commercial negoti-
ations. A satisfactory war agreement has at last
been reached in igi8, giving American and Brit-
ish fishermen equal rights in the waters or har-
bors of either country.

(3) Newfoundland and Labrador are supported al-
most entirely by fishing. Dried cod constitutes
two-thirds of the exports of Labrador to Great
Britain.

(4) The total catch of the United States is somewhat
smaller than that of Canada. Massachusetts
and Maine are the chief fishing regions of the
United States. The normal value of the Massa-

. chusetts catch is estimated at about $7,000,000
annually.

b. European fisheries: Off the northwest coast.

(i) The North Sea was the greatest fishing ground
in the world before the war. The catch in 1914
is estimated at 2,500,000,000 pounds, of which
Great Britain took almost half, or 22 pounds per
capita. Holland, Denmark, Belgium, France,
and Germany also were provided for from the
North Sea.

(2) The banks off the Faroe Islands, Iceland, and
the other northern islands are rich in fish. Nor-
way is very dependent upon these, as fish and
fish products form one-third of the Norwegian
exports.

c. Northeastern Asiatic fisheries: the Japanese dom-
inate the richest Asiatic fisheries, for Japan, having
few meat animals, depends largely upon fish.

3. Less important fishing regions are numerous, especially

go FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Fish (continued).

in the Pacific. The great salmon fisheries are not con-
fined to any one region, but extend from the rivers and
coast of California and Oregon northward to Alaska.

a. The salmon are caught either in the sea or far inland
in the rivers as the fish go far up the rivers to spawn.

b. The drain on the salmon supply had threatened these
fish with extermination. National and State Govern-
ments have established hatcheries to increase the
supply. In the State of Washington alone, there are
twenty-two salmon hatcheries where more than
100,000,000 salmon are turned out annually.

c. Salmon is the chief fish export of the United States.
Before the war we exported over 40,000,000
pounds.

4. Deep-sea fisheries.

Fishing in the open sea is both hazardous and ex-
pensive, but the catch is very valuable. European
fleets, especially those of Brittany, penetrate Ameri-
can waters and fleets from Maine and Massachusetts
go annually to waters off Iceland for herring and
mackerel, which last is the most important open-sea
fish. Sardines are found off the west coast of Europe
and the eastern coast of the United States. Herring
and sprat are used largely as "commercial sardines."

5. Shellfish and crustaceans.

a. The United States furnishes about five-sixths of the
world's oyster supply. The numerous bays between
Cape Cod and Galveston having shallow water and
a suitable temperature are the best in the world for
oysters.

b. Clams, crabs, and lobsters bring large cash returns,
and are important along the middle Atlantic coast.
The American lobster is threatened with exter-
mination. Most of the present supply comes from
Canada, Newfoundland, and Japan. These foods

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 91

III. Fish (continued).

are often too expensive to be frequently substi-
tuted for meat, but they should be used where they
can be afforded. The mussels of our east and west
coasts can be easily and cheaply obtained, and
should be more extensively used.
E. Effect of war on the fish supply.

1. The European supply of fish is greatly depleted. The
supply in Great Britain is only 46% of the normal
amount.

a. Mines abound in the North Sea and are a constant
source of danger. They and the German submarines
are a peril not only to the Allied fishing vessels, but
also to those of the neutrals.

b. Both ships and men are lacking. In Great Britain,
for example, 80% of the steam fishing ships have
been made into auxiliaries of the Navy, and fisher-
men of military age are in the service.

c. Fuel and equipment are scarce. Most of the large
fishing fleets of Denmark and Holland are laid up
in harbors because of lack of fuel (particularly
petroleum) and the high cost of fishing equipment.

d. The Norwegian herring catch, however, is still
good, and a survey of Norwegian fish stocks, fresh
and preserved, taken in December, 1917, showed a
a large supply on hand, sufficient to last even
twenty years.

2. In the United States the annual catch was smaller in
1917 than in 1916, because of the utilization of some
of the fishing boats by the Navy and because of the
high cost of equipment.

a. All salt-water fishermen as well as wholesale and
large retail dealers are controlled by license.

b. The National Government is urging the States to
remove certain less important restrictions which
limit fishing. No alteration is being made in regu-
lations necessary to conserve the supply.

92 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Fish (continued).

F. Preservation of fish.

1. Frozen fish. The development of this process
was of great importance for the transportation
of fish. Small fish are frozen together in large
numbers. Large fish (as halibut) are frozen
singly. They can be used with perfect safety
if they are not thawed until shortly before
using, as they deteriorate after thawing more
rapidly than fresh fish.

2. Canning.

a. The process was first used in the United
States in 1819. A few lobsters, salmon,
and oysters were canned. The industry
has grown tremendously until in 1914 the
value of the pack was over ^33,000,000.

b. The industry is scattered all over the
country — salmon is packed in Oregon,
Washington, and Alaska; tuna, in Cali-
fornia ; sardines and clams, in Maine ; crabs,
in Virginia; oysters, along the Atlantic
coast from Maryland to Georgia and on
the Gulf of Mexico; shrimp, on the Gulf
coast and as far north as Georgia on the
Atlantic. Roe, herring, and other marine
products are also canned.

c. Other new fish-canning industries are
being developed — an excellent method of
getting little known fish on the market
in an attractive form.

3. Salt fish. This is an important industry

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 93

III. Fish {continued).

centering in this country at Gloucester,
Massachusetts, and dating back to the time
of the settlement of New England. Mainly
cod, but some cusk and haddock are salted
and dried or preserved in brine. Their keep-
ing qualities make them useful for export
to Latin-American countries.

4. Smoked fish. Smoking is often thought to
improve the flavor and render coarser fish
more desirable. Herring, haddock, whitefish,
salmon, and various other fish are smoked,
especially those with a moderate amount of
fat.

IV. Eggs.

» A. Nutritive value.

1. Eggs are one of our most important and
valuable foods as would be expected from the
fact that they serve as the sole food of the

.embryo chick.

2. They are rich not only in protein, but in ash
constituents, especially iron and phosphorus,
and in both vitamines. Recall that an average
egg gives about seventy calories, half as
many as a glass of milk.

3. They are completely and easily digested.

a. Raw eggs are less completely digested than
cooked. The value of raw egg therapy is
probably exaggerated.'

' Bateman, W. C. "The Digestibility of Egg White." Journal of Biological
Chemistry, 26, p. 263. 1916.

94 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Eggs {continued).

b. There is no difference in the completeness
of digestion between hard- and soft-cooked
eggs, but the soft-cooked are more quickly-
digested — a difference that may be of
importance to the person of weak digestion.
B. The egg and poultry industry.

It is of world-wide extent, undoubtedly the most gen-
erally distributed of the animal industries, but only of re-
cent years has it been anything but a local industry.

1. In Europe before the war there was even greater pro-
duction than in America. Great Britain imported more
eggs than the rest of the world combined, getting about
half of her supply from Russia.

2. In the United States.

a. The total production of eggs is very roughly esti-
mated at almost thirty billion per year. Only l%
of this number are exported.

b. Our consumption, therefore, is slightly under one
egg per capita per day. This average, of course, is
very unevenly distributed, probably much more
unevenly than that of meat. Only one-third of the
eggs ever reach the large cities; one-third are con-
sumed on the farms and one-third in small towns.'

c. Many States produce no more eggs than they con-
sume. The region with an excess to ship out to the
great cities, to other states, and abroad is a large
area in the central part of the country, chiefly in the
corn belt and in the Southern States.

d. Grading of eggs is done by outward appearance
(size, cleanliness, and freshness), and by candling.

e. Because of special difficulties in marketing, many
efforts have been made to obtain greater efficiency.

1 Mandeville, P. The Cost of Marketing Eggs in tgi7. U.S. Food Administra-
tion. Cliicago, 1917.

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 95

IV. Eggs (continued).

It is estimated that nearly 8% of the eggs marketed
are lost — a cost of $50,000,000. (For various
methods of marketing see the Farmers' Bulletins
given at the end of the chapter.)
C. The war and the egg and poultry industry.

Even this widely distributed and comparatively little
organized industry has been greatly affected by the war.

1. In the United States the industry was seriously threat-
ened in the spring of 1918.

a. The supply of poultry had decreased greatly — it
was estimated that the farm flocks had been re-
duced about 50%. This was due to the steady ad-
vance in feed prices and a rise in the price of poultry,
making it more profitable to the farmer to kill his
poultry than to feed it.

b. The supply of eggs was seriously threatened for
poultry slaughtering had been so severe that the
supply of old hens and cockerels was practically ex-
hausted and the hens and pullets were being killed.

c. To avoid this disaster, the Department of Agricul-
ture, having received a special appropriation in the
fall of 1917 to aid in increasing the poultry supply,
used its agents to actively assist the poultrymen of
the country. The Food Administration issued an
order preventing the killing of hens and pullets be-
tween February 11 and April 30. This stopped the
enormous slaughter of hens, increased the produc-
tion of eggs and allowed them to go into storage so

> as to have a reasonable supply next winter.

2. Abroad the industry has been almost destroyed. The use
of eggs and poultry is confined almost wholly to hospitals
and invalids. In some of the German cities one and two
eggs a month are allowed — if they are on the market
and if one can afford them. In Leipsig in August, 1917,
eggs were $1.14 a dozen, as compared with 20 cents
a dozen in August, 1914.

96 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Eggs {continued).

D. Methods of preservation.

1. Numerous methods have been recommended
for the preservation of eggs at home. Cover-
ing the eggs with a solution of water glass
is probably the best. Only fresh, uncracked
eggs should be used.

2. Cold storage.

a. The commercial preservation of eggs helps
to maintain a supply through the winter
and a more nearly even price throughout
the year.

b. The number stored is variously estimated
at from 6% to 15% of the total production.

c. The changes in cold storage are very slight
if the eggs were fresh when put in. There is
a slow loss of water by evaporation through
the shell, and a transfer of water from the
white to the yellow. This results in a
weakening of the membrane about the
yoke, so that it may break when the shell
is broken. The change in flavor is also
slight, except under bad conditions of
storage, excessively long storage, or storage
of previously contaminated eggs. '

3. Frozen and dried eggs.

A growing industry for the preservation of
eggs out of the shell. The products are
used largely by the baking and confec-
tionery trade.

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 97.

IV. Eggs (continued).
E. Egg substitutes.

1. Numerous ones are on the market, most of them
wholly devoid of egg and different from egg in com-
position. They are practically valueless.

2. Some are composed chiefly of some kind of starch with
coloring matter and baking powder, and some of skim-
milk powder or other protein material with baking
powder.

3. Their production with much advertising, fraudulent
and otherwise, has developed considerably abroad
since the war.

4. Dried and frozen eggs are plentiful and far better than
the so-called egg substitutes.

V. Cheese.

A. General statement of methods of making cheese and its
composition.'

1. It is made by coagulating the casein of milk by the
enzyme rennet, usually obtained from the stomach
of the cow. The whey is drained or pressed out. The
flavor of diflferent kinds of cheese is due chiefly to the
kind of bacteria and molds which act during the ripen-
ing process.

2. Cheese contains the casein, fat (if made from whole
milk), and most of the calcium and iron of the milk.
Most of the lactose, lactalbumin, and the soluble part
of the ash is left in the whey. (See chapter XII.)

B. Antiquity of cheese-making.

Cheese is probably the oldest of the milk products. For
centuries it has been an important article of diet in the
older countries. Job uses cheese-making similes to illus-
trate his suflferings Qob 10:10) and the young shepherd
David brought gifts of cheeses to the army defending
Judah from the Philistines (I Sam.i7:i9).

C. Use in Europe.

' See Sherman's Food Products, chap. 4, for details.

98 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Cheese (contintied).

The food value is more generally appreciated in Eu-
rope and Asia than in the United States. The enormous
European supply has had to be supplemented even in
times of.peace by imports from North America and New
Zealand.

1. Great Britain.

a. Consumption.

(i) Cheese is classed as more of a necessity than
butter, which is now regarded as a luxury. It
is a regular article of diet in the workingman's
lunch. The average annual consumption before
the war was 336,000,000 pounds, less than one-
fifth of which was produced at home.

(2) Consumption has increased during the war. It
is included in the military ration. To stabilize
the market and encourage production, whole-
sale prices were fixed by the Food Controller
in 1917.

b. Imports. The average importation before the war
was 264 million pounds, over half of which came
from Canada. Imports from North America have
increased since the war, but the supply from the
Continental European "dairy belt" (Northern
France and the lowland countries across Europe to
Russia) has become insignificant.

2. Continental Europe.

a. The cheese supply at present is insufficient for the
demand, which has been increased because of the
shortage of other foods.

b. Cheese rations have been fixed in urban centers in
Germany at from 1/2 to 4 1/3 ounces per week.
The supply is running very low.

c. Cheese prices have been fixed in many countries,
the question of price being especially important in
Italy, where cheese is so very generally used.

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 99

V. Cheese (continued).

d. Switzerland and Denmark have both threatened
to stop cheese export because of the fodder situa-
tion and consequent scarcity of milk. Holland laid
an embargo on dairy exports in December, 1917,
but made an exception of cheese, which could be
exported to Germany in exchange for coal.

D. Production and use of cheese in the United
States.

1 . The centers of cheese production are New Yorlc
and Wisconsin. Before the war there were
some 2,000,000 dairy cows in Wisconsin and
2000 cheese factories. Both New York and
Wisconsin produce American modifications
of foreign styles, but the greater part of the
product is American (cheddar) cheese. Cot-
tage cheese is now being made in increasing
amounts from skim milk.

2. The per capita consumption is only 3 1/2 to
4 pounds per year, much less than in Europe.
About 95% of this is of domestic production.

E. Nutritive value.

1. Cheese is a concentrated and valuable food
which could well be used in much larger
quantity than has been our custom. Many
varieties are roughly one-third water, one-
third fat, and one-quarter protein. They are
therefore higher in protein and fat and lower
in water than most meats.

2. It is practically completely digested when
eaten as an essential part of a meal.

100 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Cheese {continued).

3. Cheese is often cheaper than most animal
foods. "It is a fair general estimate that a
given amount of money spent for American
cheese at ordinary prices will buy about twice
as much food value as it would if spent for
meat." ^

VI. Nuts.

The possible importance of nuts in our diet is
little appreciated. Their use could well be greatly
extended.

A. The supply.

1. Nuts are grown commercially over large
areas, especially in the South and Southwest,
and the crops are increasing in importance.
Peanuts (which strictly speaking are legumes,
not nuts) are grown in the cotton area es-
pecially in Texas and Georgia. In 1909, the
peanut crop had four times the value of all
the other nuts together, and now the annual
value exceeds any single vegetable except the
potato. The profit from the enlarged peanut
crop partially offset losses from the cotton
boll weevil in Texas in 1916-17.

2. The imports, formerly of considerable im-
portance, are now curtailed.

B. The place in the diet.
I. Composition.

a. They are highly concentrated foods, con-

1 Sherman, H. C. Food Products, p. io8, Macmillan, 1917.

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT loi

VI. Nuts (continued).

sisting chiefly of fat and protein. Chest-
nuts alone are high in carbohydrate and low
in fat. Recall that the lOO-calorie portion
of most nuts is very small; e.g., 12 to 15 al-
monds make a portion. They are, therefore,
to be regarded as staple articles of food
and by no means simply as relishes or
accessories.

b. Recent experiments show that peanuts
and probably other nuts are a satisfactory
source of protein.

2. They are considered as a very important part

of the diet by groups of "fruitarians" in
California.

3. Digestibility.

a. Nuts are almost completely digested under
the proper conditions. In experiments with
diets of nuts and fruit 90% of the protein,
85% of the fat, and 95% of the carbohydrate
was digested.

b. They are much less completely digested
if they are not properly masticated, as
shown by one of the subjects in the above
experiments; hence the great advantage of
the finely ground preparations like pea-
nut butter.

c. Occasional discomfort from their use is
probably due to insufficient chewing, or
eating them after an already sufficient

102 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Nuts (continued).

meal. There is no reason to believe that
salt adds to the digestibility.
4. Pecuniary economy.

Many nuts and nut products are a cheaper
source of protein and energy than some cuts
of meat. For example :

Twenty cents spent for sirloin steak (at
40 cents a pound) gives about 475 calories and
37 grams of protein.

Twenty cents spent for peanut butter (at
30 cents a pound) gives about 1825 calories
and 88 grams of protein.
Conclusions.

There is an abundance of excellent protein-rich
food in the country not needed for export. Its use
not only saves meat, but gives variety to the diet-
ary and can lessen the amount spent for food.

REFERENCES

(The United States Department of Agriculture and various
States have published many bulletins on eggs and poultry; the
Bureau of Fisheries and some States; bulletins on fish; the nut-
producing States, bulletins on nuts. Only a few are listed here.)

Atwater, W. O., and Bryant, A. P. Chemical Composition of
American Food Materials. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Office of Experiment Stations, Bulletin 28.

Bassett, C. E., and Kerr, W. H. The Community Egg Circle. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 656. 1915.

Cobb, J. M. Pacific Salmon Fisheries. Appendix III to Report of
the United States Commissioner of Fisheries for 1916, Docu-
ment 839.

FOODS USED IN PLACE OF MEAT 103

Daniels, A. L., and Laughlin, P. "Feeding Experiments with
Peanuts." Journal of Biological Chemistry, 33, p. 295. 1918.

Editorial. "Peanuts as Food." Journal of the American Medical
Association, 70, p. 850. 1918.

European Markets for Fish. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic
Commerce, Miscellaneous Series, No. 25.

Flohr, L. B. Marketing Eggs by Parcel Post. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 830. 1917.

Jaffa, M. E. Nuts and their Uses as Food. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 332. 1910.

Langworthy, C. F. Fish as Food. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 85 (Revised).

Leach, A. E. Food Inspection and Analysis, chap. ^. Wiley. 1917.

Pennington, M. E. A Study of Commercial Eggs. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 51. 1914.

Pennington, M. E. A Study of the Preparation of Frozen and Dried
Eggs in the Producing Section. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bulletin 224. 191 6.

Pennington, M. E. "Supplementing our Meat Supply with Fish."
Yearbook of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1913.

Pennington, M. E. Practical Suggestions for the Preparation of
Frozen and Dried Eggs. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau
of Chemistry, Circular 98. 1912.

Rich, J. P. Nuts and their Uses as Food: Bulletin of the Univer-
sity of Texas, October 20, 1914, and The Uses of the Peanut on
the Home Table, April 5, 1917.

Sherman, H. C. Food Products. Macmillan, 1917.

Slocum, R. R. Marketing Eggs through the Creamery. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 445. 1915.

Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Henry Holt,
1913-

CHAPTER VIII
FATS AND OILS— THEIR VALUE AND USE

The situation as regards the fat supply makes neces-
sary both an actual cutting down of consumption and
a substitution of one kind of fat for another — the
vegetable oils for the animal fats. This substitution is
not difficult, for the possible substitutes are numerous
and fairly familiar.

I. The sources of fat in the diet.

A. Fats and oils are all very much alike in com-
position and properties. The kinds which differ-
ent nations have eaten have depended chiefly
upon climatic and economic conditions; e.g.,
olive and cocoanut oils in tropical or semi-
tropical regions, and lard and butter in meat-
producing countries. In recent years with the
I development of industries and transportation,

we have a much greater variety, especially of
vegetable products.

1. The vegetable oils. Cottonseed, corn, peanut,
and olive oils are the most important in this
country.

2. Butter and butter substitutes — oleomarga-
rine and nut or vegetable margarine.

a. The term "oleomargarine" legally covers both
substitutes, though strictly it means only marga-
rine made from oleo oil.

FATS AND OILS 105

I. The sources of fat in the diet (continued).

b. The margarines are made by churning different fats
with milk. For oleomargarine, oleo oil, neutral lard,
and cottonseed or peanut oil are used and sometimes
butter is added for flavor. The nut margarines are
made of cocoanut, cottonseed, and peanut oils.

c. They are manufactured under restrictions in many
countries in order to prevent fraud and protect the
butter industry. Canada's law represented an ex-
treme — complete prohibition of the manufacture,
sale, and importation — but the demand for butter,
due to war conditions, became so great that the
prohibition was removed (1917) until "the present
abnormal conditions have ceased." In the United
States the uncolored product is taxed a quarter of a
cent a pound and the colored margarine, 10 cents a
pound. In 1917, $2,000,000 was collected from this
tax.

3. Lard and lard substitutes.

a. The lard compounds are mixtures of vegetable oils
with the harder animal fats.

b. The hydrogenated oils are solid fats made by pass-
ing hydrogen through the oils under proper condi-
tions. They are used in the same way as lard and
are sold under various trade names.

B. Foods rich in fat.

1. Chiefly animal foods: bacort, meat, cheese,
cream, milk.

2. Nuts, olives : almost the only vegetable foods
with much fat.

3. Fried foods, and some cakes, pies, and sauces.

C. Amount of fat in foods.

I. The following statements will give students
a rough idea of the amount of fat they are

io6 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. The sources of fat in the diet (continued).

eating. They show that a diet may be high
in fat, even though isolated fats are not
used. Most of the figures are merely approxi-
mations because the fat content of a food
often varies greatly. For that reason no
attempt is made to give portions similar to
the half-ounce protein portions given in chap-
ter V. For comparison, remember that a
tablespoon or a scant inch cube of butter
weighs 14 grams.
2. Some approximate quantities.

a. Cream — • most States have a legal require-
ment of not less than 18% fat, so that half
a pint of cream contains 40 grams. "Whip-
ping cream " contains still more.

b. Ice cream — legally contains not less than
14% of fat, so that if a quart is cut into 8
slices, each slice will have at least 15
grams.

c. Milk — 15 to 18 grams per pint.

d. Cheese — 7 or 8 grams in an inch cube.

e. Cooked bacon. The fat content varies
greatly with the amount of cooking and the
kind of bacon, anywhere from 37% to
80%. Probably 50% is a fair average. A
person eating 2 or 3 small slices of bacon
might get about 5 grams of fat. Much
fat is lost from bacon in cooking but this,
of course, should be saved and used. Bacon
itself, being an easily shipped form of ani-

FATS AND OILS 107

I. The sources of fat in the diet (continued).

mal fat, should be eaten sparingly, unless
there is a temporary excess of hogs in the
country, as during the summer of 1918.

f . Eggs — 5 or 6 grams per egg. The yolk is
one-third fat.

g. Meat and fish — variable, depending not
only upon the kind and cut of meat and
the way the butcher trims it, but upon
whether the individual eats the fat served
to him. From 10% to 15% fat in lean meat
is a fair average, or 8 to 10 grams of fat
in a two-ounce serving.

h. Nuts — high in fat, from 40% for peanuts
to 70% for pecans. The 2 ounces of pea-
nuts which gives 14 grams of protein con-
tains over 20 grams of fat, but this amount
is considerably more than is usually eaten.
i. Chocolate — 50% fat. An ounce square
(one-eighth of a half-pound cake) contains
about 14 grams,
j. Most vegetables and fruits are almost

completely free from fat.
k. Fried foods. These are often much more
extensive sources of fat in our diet than is
realized by a person not actually doing
the cooking.

(i) Potato chips — about 40% fat.
(2) Doughnuts — 20% to 30% fat or even
higher. One good-sized doughnut may
contain 20 grams or more.

io8 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Function of fat in the diet.

A. It is digested almost completely. There is no
difference between different kinds; e.g., butter
and oleomargarine are digested equally well.
The harder fats like beef and mutton suet, when
eaten unmixed with softer fats, are digested
somewhat less completely, but the difference is
not great enough to be significant in the ordi-
nary diet.^

B. It is burned as fuel.

1 . Fats are used for fuel as are starch and sugar,
and can be largely replaced by them. Recall
that fat gives 21/4 times as much energy
as an equal quantity of carbohydrate, and
that a scant tablespoon or a scant one-inch
cube of fat gives 100 calories.

2. All fats give the same amount of fuel. The
slight difference in the fats in taste, odor,
color, are due to minute quantities of "im-
purities " not removed in refining, and have
nothing to do with the nutritive value. Olive
oil and butter have more of these character-
istic substances than cotton-seed oil, which
has been refined to a greater extent, but
they give no more fuel. Olive oil, contrary
to a popular impression, has no special
medicinal virtues.^

C. The fat eaten in excess of the amount needed
for fuel is stored as body fat. Cutting down

1 For changes of fat in metabolism see Sherman, Chemistry of Food and Nu-
trition, pp. IIS-I18.

2 See the editorial comment in the Journal of the American Medical Association,
70, 698. March 9, 1918.

FATS AND OILS lo^

II. Function of fat in the diet (continued).

on fat is an easy way of diminishing an ex-
cessive diet.
D. Fat lengthens the time that foods remain in the
stomach. This may result in a feeling of dis-
comfort after a "rich" meal, and it postpones,
the sensations of hunger. A slice of bread and
butter will delay the feeling of hunger longer
than a slice of bread and jam, though it may give
an equal number of calories. The Europeans who-
are now so very short of fat are almost always
hungry even though their actual needs may bfr
satisfied.

E. Fat in the diet has a marked psychological value.
The European nations miss the fat from their
diet for this reason also. Food without fat is apt
to be without flavor and monotonous. If a food
is distinctly unpleasant and different from what
a person is accustomed to, actual digestive up-
sets may result.

F. The only important difference between fats is.
the presence of the fat-soluble vitamine.

1 . This is present in milk fat — that is, in whole
milk and butter — and in oleomargarine made
from beef fat, but not in lard and vegetable
oils. It is also present in cod-liver oil, egg
yolks, and in leaf vegetables.

2. It is important to consider this factor in plan-
ning the diet, especially of children. If a fair
amount of milk is used, the vitamine will be
provided. If milk is not available, this vita-
mine should be obtained from butter.

-no FOOD AND THE WAR

nil. How much fat do we eat?

A. The diet of the wealthy often contains more fat
than that of the poor; the meat-eater eats
more fat than the vegetarian; the American
more than the European or Oriental. There are
great racial and individual differences in the
quantity consumed.

B. An average of 1300 dietary studies, largely
American, but some from other regions, shows
that an average of 4 1/2 ounces per person per
day is eaten — far higher than most European
consumption to-day and much higher than is
necessary. This is the total fat of the diet, not
including waste.

1. Among the largest quantities was more than 13
ounces per day consumed by Maine lumbermen and
almost as much by members of football teams.

2. Smaller quantities, 2 1/3 ounces, were used daily by
poor families in New York.

3. Some destitute German laborers averaged only I
ounce.

4. A Japanese professor consumed 3/4 ounce.

' C. The distribution of our fat consumption between isolated
fats and fat in our other food also varies greatly. In the
recent Washington study of the diet of the poor, the total
fat averaged 3.9 ounces and the fat bought as such av-
eraged 2.2 ounces per day.

; D. The fat consumed in this country is chiefly butter and
lard. On an average about 20 pounds of butter and 10
pounds of lard is eaten annually per person, about 3/5
of a pound a week of both. Remember that this is an
average for both rich and poor. The amount of oleomar-
garine eaten is small as compared with the consumption
of butter and with the European consumption, but it is

FATS AND OILS ill

III. How much fat do we eat (continued).

increasing rapidly. In 1916 we averaged only a pound and
a half per capita for the whole year, or about a twelfth
as much as butter. In 19 17 the oleomargarine consump-
tion had gone up 50% — to 2 1/3 pounds.

E. Many other nations derive their fat chiefly from vege-
table sources, especially in hot climates. Spain, for ex-
ample consumes on an average 3/4 of a pound of olive
oil per week per person. The well-to-do may eat over a
pound a week and the laboring classes about 1/3 of a
pound.

F. Students should count up their own fat consumption as
nearly as possible, at least that part of it which comes
from isolated fats. Find the family consumption of fats
per week or month and compute the individual's con-
sumption per week or day. A rough estimate of fat ob-
tained from milk, meat, etc., may be made and the ■
entire fat consumption totaled.

IV. How much fat do we need?

A. It is impossible to say with definiteness. Vari-
ous older standards give a little under two
ounces a day as a possible minimum. (Rubner,
52 grams; Play fair, 51 grams). The Allied
Committee on Alimentation, at its second meet-
ing at Rome in April, 1918, fixed 75 grams
(2 5/8 ounces) as a desirable minimum ration
of fat.i

B. Some races live on much less; e.g., the Japanese
and Hindus and lately most of the Germans.

C. Three points may be considered :

I. Fuel fat can be largely replaced by carbo-
hydrate without harm to the body.

* "The Food Situation Discussed by Scientists." American Food Journal. 13,
p. 362. July, igi8.

112 FOOD AND* THE WAR

IV. How much fat do we need (continued).

2. Enough milk or butter should be eaten to
get sufficient fat-soluble A.

3. Enough fat is necessary to make the food
satisfactory psychologically. This quantity
will be less for a skilled than for an unskilled
cook, but it is difficult for most people to get
along with less than i 1/2 or 2 ounces per
person daily, of fats bought as such, espe-
cially if only a small quantity of fat meat is
used.

D. American wastefulness has been shown espe-
cially in our actual waste of fats — letting it
get into the garbage — and our excessive con-
sumption of it. By cutting down the waste of
fat, we may be able to eat as much as usual
even though we buy less.

V. The fat situation in the Allied countries.

A. Animal fats are very scarce all over Europe
because of the large inroads made in the stock
of meat animals. (See chapter VI.)

B. The butter and margarine shortage is espe-
cially serious in England but it is not so serious in
France and Italy because the English have al-
ways used considerable fat while the French
and Italians have used smaller quantities.

I. Cause of shortage in Great Britain.

a. She was the largest butter importer, for-
merly getting 65% of the world's exports.

b. These imports came mostly from north-

FATS AND OILS 113

V. The fat situation in the Allied countries (cont'd).
western Europe, the chief dairying region
in the world, Denmark, Russia, and Si-
beria, being the biggest exporters, and
Sweden and Holland next. Australia and
New Zealand were next in importance to
Russia as a source of butter.

c. Since the war.

(i) The neutrals have been supplying
Germany under pressure; they need
Germany's coal and other necessities.
(A glance at the map will show the
ease with which surrounding neutrals
can export to Germany.)

(2) Russia is now cut off. Supplies from
Australia and New Zealand are not
available.

(3) Although the United States has in-
creased her percentage of butter ex-
port very largely, yet if her total butter
exports went to the United Kingdom,
it would be only 6% of the amount
they imported before the war from
sources now mostly cut off.

2. Use of margarine.

a. It is much more widely used in both Eng-
land and France than in the United States.
In England about twice as much marga-
rine as butter is used. The reverse was true
before the war.

114 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. The fat situation in the Allied countries {cont'd) .
b. The manufacture of margarine in England
has increased greatly. The production of
vegetable oils from imported oil-bearing
seeds has increased until England is the
largest producer in Europe. The palm-
kernel oil industry which Germany for-
merly controlled has been developed in
England and peanut and cocoanut oils are
also refined in great quantity.

C. Regulations in England.

Four ounces of butter or margarine are al-
lowed per person per week — half our average
consumption. The lessened meat ration in the
winter of 1 91 8 further reduced the total fat
consumption. A ration does not imply a guar-
antee that the amount will be available; it
merely gives permission to buy the quantity if
it is on the market.

VI. The fat situation in Germany.

A. Probably the most serious individual food
shortage which they are facing.

I. Half their fat supply was imported before
the war. Now the supply has been largely
cut off.

a. The surrounding neutrals have had to
curtail their normal exports because of
lack of feeds, etc.; e.g., Switzerland has
prohibited the exportation of all dairy
products.

FATS AND OILS 115

VI. The fat situation in Germany {continued).

b. The embargo which the United States laid
on fats to neutrals still further curtailed
their export to Germany.

c. Their supply of vegetable oils from the
United States and the tropics is not avail-
able.

2. Their national supply of animal fats has been
greatly curtailed because of their inability
to feed stock.

3. The shortage of fats causes special difficulties
because of their national habit of using large
amounts of fat in cooking and on the table.
The food since the war has been considered
tasteless and unnatural. It is definitely un-
satisfactory because the rapidity of diges-
tion of food with little fat prevents any feel-
ing of satiation.

B. Regulations.

1. In December, 1915, two fatless days were
prescribed on which no fats could be used on
the table or in the preparation of food.

2. Rations have varied with the time of the
year, with imports from neutrals, etc. They
varied in 19 15 and 1916 from 90 grams to
280 grams of table fat weekly.

3. Clippings from local German papers (De-
cember 3-30, 1917) show that the average
total fat allowed was about 78 grams per
week. Rations vary in different localities.

.116 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. The fat situation in Germany (continued).

and are being constantly changed with the
supply, from 99 grams per week of butter
to none at all, and from 108 grams of oleo
to none. There are many indications of the
severe shortage. An interesting example
(Braunschweig Volksfreund, January 16, 191 8)
is that of an owner of a bootshop found by
the police to have 70 pairs of good shoes
which he would sell to customers only in ex-
change for butter, bacon, etc.

VII. The United States and the world fat situation.

A. The United States is the only one of the war-
ring countries which has more fat than it
needs and great resources in vegetable oils
besides.

B. The exports increased in 1915 and 1916 over
the pre-war average.

C. The exports decreased in 191 7 due in part to
the embargo on fats and oils to neutrals.

1. The United States determines the amount
which may be exported to neutrals, the
amount depending upon what we and the
Allies can spare and what the neutral coun-
try needs exclusively for its own use.

2. The result has been a tremendous decrease
to some European neutrals, following an
increase at the beginning of the war. For
example, Sweden, which imported from the
United States 45,000,000 pounds of lard

FATS AND OILS 117

VII. United States and world fat situation (cont'd).
in 1915, imported 1,000,000 pounds in
1916, and in 1918 was getting none at all.
Similarly our exports of oleo oil to Sweden,
Holland, and Denmark have been cut down
to a third of the 19 15 exports.
3. The chance has thus been diminished of our
fats going to relieve Germany's shortage,
or of the shipment to the enemy of com-
modities produced at home by neutrals.
D. Animal fats.

1. The export of butter has increased largely,
but it is only 0.1% of the production.

2. The total exports of lard have not increased,
but we export about a third of what we
produce. Due to the cutting down of ex-
ports to the European neutrals we were
able to double our exports to Belgium
in 1916 and steadily to increase those to
France. England gets about a third of the
total exports.

3. We export about half as much oleomar-
garine as we do butter and the amount
is increasing, but we export much more
oleo oil which is made into oleomargarine
abroad.

4. Any large immediate increase in our ex-
ports of animal fats must come through
the cutting down of our own consumption ^
because of the time necessary to increase
the herds.

Ii8 FOOD AND THE WAR

VII. United States and world fat situation (cont'd).
E. Vegetable oils.

1. The amount of vegetable oils can be in-
creased during one crop year by increasing
the acreage planted. This gives us a great
potential supply of vegetable oils.

2. Cottonseed oil is second to lard in the
amount exported.

VIII. The individual's part in fat conservation.

Unlike wheat, there is no obvious shortage of
fat. We can still buy as much butter or lard as
we want, though the prices have increased. Thus
fat conservation is a matter of voluntary, con-
scientious effort. There are many ways of saving
fat:

A. Use as little fat of all kinds as possible by cut-
ting down the actual consumption, and pre-
venting all wastes.

1. Bake, broil, and boil food more; fry less.

2. Modify recipes so that less fat is used; e.g.,
in cake.

3. When foods rich in fats — e.g., cheese,
bacon, or mayonnaise — are used, butter
or other fat is not necessary.

4. Serve butter in small pats and thus avoid
plate waste.

5. Use fruit and other simple desserts in place
of rich cakes, pastries, or whipped-cream
preparations.

6. Students should suggest other methods of
saving.

FATS AND OILS 119

VIII. Individual's part in fat conservation (continued).

B. Use vegetable oils in cooking and such fats as

the trimmings from beef, chicken, etc. If
properly used, cakes, pies, bread, etc., will
be just as goo<^. The oils can also be used
for frying.

C. Use any chicken, beef, or mutton fat which

may be saved, from the meat.

1. Separate the fat from the connective tis-
sue by melting and straining.

2. Chicken fat is especially good to use in
cakes, etc. Mutton fat has a distinct flavor
which makes it unsatisfactory except in
such things as gingerbread. Gingerbreads
made with mutton fat can be distinguished
from that made with butter by a slightly
different texture, but not by the taste.

D. Avoid loss through spoiling.

1. Fats grow rancid more quickly if they are
kept in the light and in warm places. Hence
avoid glass containers or warm bright spots.

2. Overheating prevents the possible re-use
of fats for frying, and may leave unpleas-
ant or even harmful substances in the
food.

IX. Utilization of non-edible fats.
A. Fat in garbage.

I. About 3% of fat can be extracted and the residue used
for fertilizer. The fat extracted is purified and made
into soap by treating with alkali, getting glycerine
as a by-product. Enough fat is recovered in this

120 FOOD AND THE WAR

IX. Utilization of non-edible fats (continued).

country to make 200,000,000 12-ounce cakes of soap
per year. It is also used in the manufacture of can-
dles, paints, perfumes, etc. Enough glycerine is also
obtained to produce 10,000,000 pounds of nitro-gly-
cerine.

2. Out of the 74 cities of the United States of over 100,-
000 inhabitants, 29, including most of the larger
cities, use this method. The rest either incinerate their
garbage, dump it, or feed it to pigs.

3. Due to the more careful use of food by the house-
keeper, the amount of fat available from garbage
has been decreased, in some cases to a considerable
extent. In Columbus, Ohio, the fat extracted from
the garbage in 1917 was almost 50% less than in 1916.
In 14 large cities with a total population of over
5,000,000, nearly 40% less fat was recovered in
March, 1917, than in March, 1918.

B. Fats spoiled in the kitchen, and waste fats in hotels,
army camps, etc., should be reduced to a minimum.
Such fats may be sold to a soap manufacturer who can
recover the glycerine as well as make soap ; or they may
be made into soap at home by mixing with lye, although
if this is done the glycerine is lost. An interesting ex-
ample of the conservation of waste fats is shown in the
army camps in Great Britain. Kitchen by-products,
such as drippings, bones, butchers' fat and greases, are
collected and the amount is sufficient to provide the
whole of the requirements of soap for the navy, army,
asylums, workhouses, and other institutions, and leave a
substantial balance for public use. The glycerine pro-
duced is sufficient at the present time to provide the
propellant for 17,000,000 shells for ammunition.

C. Fat from bones and other slaughter-house refuse. The
bones may contain from 12% to 20% fat, which is ex-
tracted by hot water, pressure, or by fat solvents such as
petroleum. This fat may be used much as garbage fats
are used.

FATS AND OILS 121

. IX. Utilization of non-edible fats {continued).

D. Various fats which have long been considered inedible
can now be purified so as to be without any unpleasant
taste or smell; e.g., cottonseed oil has been used for food
only within recent years. In Norway, whale oil is being
refined and hydrogenated and used in margarine. Hy-
drogenated fish oil is being used on the Pacific Coast.

REFERENCES

Atwater, W. O. Principles of Nutrition and the Nutritive Value of

Food. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 142.
"Cost of Living in the District of Columbia" (third article)

Monthly Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 5, no. 6, 1917.
Editorial comment. "Olive Oil not Essential." Journal of the

American Medical Association, 70, 698. 1918.
Garbage Utilization. U.S. Food Administration Bulletin.
"Governmental Control of Food Supplies in Germany." Monthly

Review, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 4, no. 5, p. 720. 1917.
Halliburton, W. D., and Drummond, J. C. "The Nutritive

Value of Margarines and Butter Substitutes with Reference to

their Content of the Fat-Soluble Accessory Growth." Journal

of Physiology, 51, p. 255. 1917.
Holmes, A. D., and Lang, H. L. Fats and their Economical Use in

the Home. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 469. 1916.
Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem. Macmillan, 1917.
Leach, A. E. Food Inspection and Analysis. Wiley, 1909.
McCoUum, E. V. "Some Essentials to a Safe Diet." Journal of

Home Economics, 10, p. 18. 1918.
McKee, M. C. "Fat Absorption in Frying Doughnuts.'' Journal

of Home Economics, 10, p. 49. 1918.
Monthly Summary of Foreign Commerce of the United States.

Department of Commerce, December, 1917.
Osborne, T. B., and Mendel, L. B. "Nutritive Factors in Animal

Tissues." Journal of Biological Chemistry, 32, p. 309. 1917.

(This article gives many references to other papers on the two

vitamines. Note especially those on butter, fat, egg-yolk fat,

beef fat.)

122 FOOD AND THE WAR

Picard, G. H. "Edible Vegetable Oils." American Food Journal,
12, pp. 621 and 668. 1917.

Rose, M. S. Feeding the Family. Macmillan, 1916.

Sherman, H. C. Food Products. Macmillan, 1917.

Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. Macmillan, 1918.

Thompson, H. C, and Bailey, H. S. Peanut Oil. U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 751. 1916.

Vulte, H., and Vanderbilt, S. Food Industries, chap. 14. Chemical
Publishing Company, 1916.

Williams, A. W., and Gray, C. E. Fats and Oils in Cookery. Uni-
versity of Illinois, Bulletin, July 23, 1917.

CHAPTER IX

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT

The wheat supply is one of the dominating forces
in the world to-day. The way in which the shortage of
wheat is met may be the deciding factor in winning the
war.

I. A wheat shortage is particularly serious and may
be disastrous.

A. Our diet contains more of the cereals, especially
wheat, than of any other food.

1. Even with the diminished supply during the
spring and summer, our stock of wheat
offered the largest supply of calories avail-
able from any single raw food material.

2. Of our average diet almost a third by weight
has consisted of cereal foods. They give us
43% of the protein, 9.1% of the fat, and 61.8%
of the carbohydrate of our diet. Most of this
in the past has come from wheat, only a minor
part from corn, rye, and other cereals.'

3. The diet of the poor contains a larger pro-
portion of cereals than that of the well-to-
do, because they can get more for their
money from these than from other foods.

4. Other countries consume even more wheat

* Langworthy, C. F. Food Customs and Habits in American Homes. "CT-S. De-
partment of Agriculture, OflSce of Experiment Stations, Circular i lo, p. 26.

134 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. A wheat shortage may be disastrous (continued).
than we do, and a larger amount in bread, for
which wheat is especially important. Over
half the food of the French people is bread.
(Discussed further in the next chapter./
B. Lack of bread affects the morale of a people
more quickly than lack of any other food.

1. The industrial classes especially are affected
as they are the largest users of wheat because
of its relatively low price.

2. The Commission for Relief in Belgium found
that the most insistent call of the people was
for bread.

3. German experience shows that the success of
their rationing regulations depends on the
amount of bread allowed.

4. A bread shortage reacts with the utmost
seriousness on the military situation. The
Army and Navy not only must be given
enough food to do their work, but all the
supplies of war depend on the morale of the
workers at home.

II. Causes and extent of the wheat shortage.
A. European supply before the war.

Of the world's wheat, excluding China, con-
sidefably more than half was grown in Europe.
I. Production in the different countries.

a. Russia, Roumania, and Bulgaria were the
only countries of Europe that produced
more than they used.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 125

II. Causes and extent of wheat shortage (continued).

b. France, Italy, Spain, Great Britain, Ger-
many and Austria-Hungary, although pro-
ducing large amounts, had to import some.

c. Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Scan-
dinavia depended almost wholly on im-
ports.

2. Sources of imports.

a. Russia and Roumania were the leading
sources of supply.

b. The United States, Canada, Argentina,
India, and Australia were important sources.

c. These seven countries furnished 94% of the
world export of wheat, and with Europe
constituted the chief world wheat areas.

3. Figures of wheat production, export and im-
port are given by G. B. Roorbach in The
World's Food Supply, Annals of the Ameri-
can Academy of Political and Social Science,
74, p. 9. 1917.

B. Effect of the war on the wheat supply.
I. Supply of the Central Powers.

a. Many of the usual sources of imports are
now cut off. For example, Russia, though
now partly open to the Central Powers,' has
not been able to feed herself.

b. Germany is in control of the large wheat-
producing lands of Bulgaria and Rou-
mania.

c. The supplies from these countries and from

126 . FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Causes and extent of wheat shortage {continued).
the rest of the Balkan States and Turkey-
satisfy part of their needs, but their own
slackened production has caused a serious
shortage for the last three years as their
diminishing rations show.

2. The Allies' supply.

a. The production of the Western Allies in
1917 fell far below the normal pre-war pro-
duction. One-third of the wheat lands of
France are barren, so in 1917 she was able
to grow but 40% of what she needed in-
stead of the 90% of pre-war years. Italy's
crop was short. Great Britain's crop was
good, but at best she must always import
very large amounts. Her home production
of wheat provides only about one-fourth
of the amount needed.

b. Russian wheat has not been available.

c. The Balkans are in the control of the Cen-
tral Powers.

d. Australia and India both have large crops,
but lack of ships and the submarine peril
make them largely inaccessible. Parts of
three crops are stored in Australia. (See
the frontispiece.)

e. Argentina had a poor crop in 191 6-1 7 and
her remoteness also creates difi&culties of
shipping. However, some wheat is ob-
tained from this source.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 127

II. Causes and extent of wheat shortage (continued),
i. The supplying of the largest part of the
wheat demand of the Allies has fallen upon
the United States and Canada.

3. The American supply.

a. The 1916 crop was small and the 1917
crop only four-fifths of the average pre-
war size — little more than we normally
consume ourselves. The exportable sup-
plies from June, 1917, to June, 1918, were
estimated at about 20,000,000 bushels
The needs of the Allies far exceeded this
amount. We had three possible alterna-
tives in January, 1918:

(i) To decrease the exports to the Allies
and thus have enough for ourselves.

(2) To keep on as usual for four months
and have none for two months.

(3) To cut down our consumption for the
^ entire six months.

b. The last method was adopted. Of our 191 7
wheat crop we actually exported about
141,000,000 bushels, seven times as much
as we could have exported had our con-
sumption been normal. In addition we
have shipped about 10,000,000 bushels to
neutrals who were dependent on us. In
May, 1918, half the product of our flour
mills went abroad.

c. This abnormally low supply and the exces-

128 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Causes and extent of wheat shortage {continued).
sive demand have resulted in the practical
exhaustion of our wheat reserve. There-
fore we come to the 191 8 harvest without
the usual carry-over, so that even if the
1918 wheat crop is unusually large, as
it promises to be, a large share will be
needed not only for export, but to build up
normal reserves here. This has been
brought out in the joint resolution passed
by the Food Controllers of the United
States, France, Italy, and Great Britain,
during their conference in London. It
applies to all our resources as well as to
wheat: "Resolved, that while the in-
creased production of the United States
renders it possible to relax some of the
restrictions which have borne with pecu-
liar hardship upon all our peoples, yet it
is absolutely necessary that rigid economy
and elimination of waste in the consump-
tion and handling of all foodstuffs, as well
as increased production, should be main-
tained throughout the European Allied
countries and in North America. It is only
by such economy and elimination of waste
that the transportation of the necessary
men and supplies from North America to
the European front can be accomplished
and that stocks of foodstuffs can be built
up in North America as an insurance
against the ever-present danger of harvest

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 129

II. Causes and extent of wheat shortage {continued).
failure and the possible necessity for large
and emergency drafts to Europe. We can-
not administer the food problem on the
basis of one year's war. We must prepare
for its long continuance if we are to insure
absolute victory."

III. Trade in wheat before the war (to compare with conditions
under the Food Administration and to show the need for con-
trol.)

A. Movement of wheat from the farm to the great terminal
grain centers, the "primary markets."

1. The wheat was sold by the farmer to the local grain

elevator, usually on the nearest railroad.

2. From the local elevators most of the wheat went to tha
terminal elevators at the grain centers or primary
markets.

B. Trade at the primary markets.

1. The primary markets — Chicago, Minneapolis, Duluth,
Superior, St. Louis, etc. — were in the great grain-
growing regions, and were both railroad and water-
route centers.

2. The terminal elevators received, stored, and trans-
ferred all the grain that flowed from the farm to the
primary market, operating on a stupendous scale. From
the terminal elevators the wheat was sent to millers or
to the seaboard for export, after being stored a varying
length of time, depending on the market. This unregu-
lated commerce resulted in a great deal of cross-
hauling.

3. The buying and selling of wheat were done in the grain
exchanges. There was comparatively little actual
transfer of wheat. A quantity was bought for delivery
at some future time and might be sold again and re-
bought many times before delivery took place. Each

130 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Trade in wheat before the war (continued).

transfer usually added to or subtracted from the price
of wheat without any change in its actual value, the
rise and fall in price being due to the "condition of the
market" which was dependent on forecasts of the con-
dition and size of domestic and foreign crops, shipping
conditions, etc.

C. The price of wheat. It may be understood froni
the above that —

1. The price the farmer got for his wheat might
have Httle to do with what the consumer paid
for it as flour, especially when there was an
abnormal demand.

2. There was opportunity for great inflation of
prices by manipulation and hoarding.

3. Despite speculation, the law of supply and
demand helped to keep the price fair.

IV. War always results in a rise in the price of wheat
when it is uncontrolled.

A. The law of supply and demand breaks down
because of the greatly diminished wheat sup-
ply and the impossibility of much increase of
the supply under war conditions, no matter
how great the demand or how high the price.

B. Unsettled conditions of the market result in
greatly inflated prices. A small shortage may
result in a vastly increased price.

C. Heretofore war has in all countries and in all
times meant unbridled speculation in foods.
This was shown in the Civil War, when wheat
increased 130% over the price in 1861, although
there was no actual shortage.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 131

IV. War always results in a rise in the price of wheat
when it is uncontrolled (continued).
D. The situation is further complicated by the
breakdown of the transportation system which
nearly always occurs during a war.

V. How the United States has met the wheat situa-
tion.

A. Stimulation of production by the Department
of Agriculture —

1. By educational methods through the state
colleges, county agents, press, granges, etc.,
especially by a vigorous campaign among the
farmers so to increase their wheat acreage
as to produce a billion bushel crop in 191 8.

2. By scientific control of the wheat and the
cereal crops; e.g., by constant help to the
farmer in selecting and testing seed and in
the eradication of destructive insects and plant
diseases.

B. Stimulation of production by the action of
Congress in establishing the minimum price of
?2.oo a bushel for the 1918 wheat crop. It
should be understood that the purpose of this
legislation was not primarily to keep down the
price to the consumer, but to encourage pro-
duction by the farmer. The price was increased
to ?2.20 by Presidential proclamation.

C. Development of orderly conditions in the wheat
and flour industry in place of the chaotic ones
immediately preceding and following our en-
trance into the war.

132 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. How the United States has met the wheat situa-
tion (continued).

1. Elimination of speculation and hoarding by —

a. Limiting the right to store wheat or flour
to thirty days, except with the approval
of the Food Administration, and so pre-
venting an artificial scarcity and an ad-
vance in price.

b. Prohibiting the sale of flour more than
thirty days in advance, thus making specu-
lation in flour contracts impossible.

c. Requesting the grain exchanges to sus-
pend all trade in futures during the war.

2. Establishment of the Food Administration
Grain Corporation. "A foresighted Ameri-
can action that has helped the Allies stave
off a disastrous peace months ago." It was
necessary to direct and finance the move-
ment of wheat.

a. The grain corporation has control of sup-
ply and distribution by directing the move-
ment of wheat from the farmer to the
miller and then to the dealer, and its sale
to the Allies and the Government. Be-
cause of the central control in each region,
there is the greatest possible economy in
time and transportation, through the pre-
vention of cross-hauling.

b. Method of operation:

(l) By consultation and cooperation with
the producer and dealer in wheat on

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 133

V. How the United States has met the wheat situa-
tion (continued).

the one hand, and the miller and dealer
in flbur on the other. Millers doing
about 85% of the business of the coun-
_ try have voluntarily cooperated with
the Food Administration.
(2) By licensing the dealers and millers,
thus bringing into line those who do
not voluntarily cooperate.
3. Control of price. Low prices are impossible
in war-times, but the Food Administration
strives for as great a supply as possible at a
reasonable price to the consumer and a fair
profit to the producer and dealer.

a. The Grain Corporation buys enough wheat
for the Allies and the Government, to con-
trol the market and so makes the legal
minimum price of wheat the maximum
also.

b. The profits of the millers are limited by
agreement.

c. The result has been an actual decrease in
the price of flour to the consumer, and an in-
crease of price to the farmer for his wheat,
(i) In May, 1917, when there was no food

control, the diiTerence between the
price of the farmer's wheat and the
flour made from it was ^5.86 per bar-
rel of 196 pounds. Fifteen months
later the difference was 64 cents.

134 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. How the United States has met the wheat situa-
tion (continued).

(2) Wheat, in February, 1917, sold for
?i.8o a bushel and in May for ^3.50 a
bushel, almost double. Since the sit-
uation has been controlled it sells for
^2.20 a bushel. If the rate of ad-
vance which held during the Civil War
had obtained, wheat would now be
selling at ^4.40.

(3) Flour sold for ^8.75 per barrel in Feb-
ruary and went to ^17.00 in May. The
average price in the United States in
July, 1918, was ^10.50 per barrel.

d. Voluntary and compulsory wheat con-
servation are discussed in the next
chapter.

VI. Control of grain supply abroad and in Canada. For compari-
son with the methods used in the United States, a few state-
ments in regard to the methods abroad are given here.

A. Italy.

I. Stimulation of production.

a. Minimum prices to the farmer were established, but
they have been increased from time to time. If crops
are raised under difficulties, or are in excess of nor-
mal production, the farmer may get a 10% increase
over the fixed rate for his crops.

b. The amount of increased acreage which any farmer
shall cultivate may be determined by the Govern-
ment. A landowner can be made to increase the
area rented to his tenants.

c. Expenditures for tractors, mechanical ploughs, etc.,
are encouraged by granting a subsidy of 30% or

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 135

VI. Control of grain supply abroad and in Canada
{continued).

40% when bought by a group of five or more. This
device has given great satisfaction and has had an
important influence on the increase of production.
2. Supervision of distribution.

a. A grain assembly in each province superintends the
supply and distribution of cereals and flour.

b. All native and imported cereals are requisitioned in
order to regulate their distribution.

c. Maximum prices are established.

B. France.

1. Stimulation of production by —

a. Financial assistance for the purchase of tractors and
other machinery.

b. Furloughs at seeding and harvesting times for some
agricultural laborers in the army and even removal
from the army of the older farmers.

c. The use of women in agriculture.

d. Fixed minimum prices to producers, progressively
increased because previous prices were not large
enough to induce farmers to grow cereals.

2. Control of commercial operations.

In October, 19 15, the Government was given the
right to requisition wheat and flour for the civil popu-
lation (it always could requisition them for the mili-
tary); also to buy these commodities abroad and to
distribute them. There has been similar control granted
for other foods.

C. England.

I. Some of the measures to stimulate production:

a. Minimum prices to the producer. A bill of April,
1917, provides a minimum price for wheat on a
diminishing sliding scale for six years (from $1.87 1/2
to $1.33 7/8 per bushel).

136 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Control of grain supply abroad and in Canada
(continued).

b. A minimum wage to farm laborers of 25 cents per
hour guaranteed for the above period.

c. Government aid to farmers to acquire grazing land
for grain production. England before the war had
a little less than 25% of her land under cultivation.
The acreage planted increased a million acres in 1917
over 19 1 6, and it is expected that in 19 18 the in-
crease will be no less than two million and probably
three million acres. This was accomplished by the
extension of credit to the farmer by the Government
aijd by compelling the farmers to cultivate the land
made available.

d. Restriction of acreage for luxury crops.

e. Furloughing of agricultural laborers from the army.

f. Organization of units of women for farm work. Over
half a million women of all classes are now working
on the land.

g. Governmental provision of seed wheat, farm machin-
ery, and horses to farmers. During 1917, 3500
tractors were placed at the disposal of farmers.

2. The Royal Commission on Wheat Supplies fulfills many
of the functions of the United States Grain Cor-
poration. Among other powers it has the control of
wheat importation, financing and distribution.

D. Canada.

A board of grain supervisors was established in Canada
in June, 1917, with power to fix the price of grain and con-
trol its distribution and sale. Infringement of its rulings
or orders are punished by fines and imprisonment. The
price for 1917 wheat was identical with that established
in the United States.

E. Germany.

I. Strenuous efforts to increase production were made,
which, however, have never come up to expectations.

THE IMPORTANCE OF WHEAT 137

VI. Control of grain supply abroad and in Canada
(continued).

a. The price of wheat was fixed.

b. The Government controlled seed and fertilizer (but
there was very little to control).

c. Prisoners of war and reserves have been used for
farm labor and men who were inactive on the East-
ern Front were sent to farms in Roumania, Poland,
and Courland.

2. The feeding of wheat and rye to animals was pro-
hibited. This could not be enforced.

3. Maximum prices to the consumer were established.

REFERENCES

Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat. Judd, 1908.

Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem. Macmillan,

1917.
Merz, C. "Wheat for the Allies." The New Republic, February

9, 1918.
Report of the Secretary of Agriculture for 1917.
Sherman, H. C. Food Products, chap. 7. Macmillan, 1915.
Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Holt, 1913.
Soule, G. "Natural Laws." The New Republic, February 16, 1918.
"The World's Food." Annals, American Academy of Political and

Social Science, November, 1917.
Van Hise, C. R. Conservation and Regulation in the United States

during the World War. U.S. Food Administration.

CHAPTER X
FLOUR AND BREAD — THE WHEAT SUBSTITUTES

I. Wheat flour.

A. The structure of the wheat grain.

An understanding of this is necessary because
of its relation to the kind of flour milled. It is
similar for all grains. There are three main
parts :

1. The bran. A fibrous outer covering consisting
of several layers. It is largely cellulose and is
rich in mineral salts.

2. The germ. The small part of the seed from
which the plant develops. It contains less
starch and more protein and oil than the rest
of the berry.

3. The endosperm. The largest part of the
berry. It contains the nourishment for the
young plant and consists of carbohydrate,
chiefly starch, embedded in a network of
protein. The endosperm is the chief source
of white flour.

B. Flour-making.

1. It is a very ancient process. Excavations
show that since prehistoric times wheat has
been ground between stones to make flour.

2. The modern machinery also grinds the grain,

FLOUR AND BREAD 139

\. Wheat flour (continued).

but a complicated system takes the place of
the hand-turned stones and the product is
more refined.

a. Cleaning — removal of foreign seeds, dust,
and loose particles of bran, either in
"scourers" or by washing in water and
drying.

b. Tempering — by heating and applying
moisture in order to get the berry tough
enough to allow the bran to flake off easily
in the milling process.

c. Milling — a complicated process differing in
detail with the mills and the kind of flour
produced. It consists chiefly of passing the
cleaned and tempered grain first through
a series of corrugated and smooth steel
rollers and then through sieves or bolting
cloth of different degrees of fineness. This
pulverizes the berry and removes more or
less of the bran, the germ, and the coarser
parts.

C. Milling products.

I. The kinds of flour. The character of a flour
depends on the part of the kernel from which
it is made.

a. Graham flour. The entire berry is ground
into flour and nothing is removed.

b. Whole wheat or entire wheat flour. It is
made by removing from 10% to 15% of the

140 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Wheat flour (continued).

berry. This removes part of the bran and
germ. Note that the product is incorrectly
named.

c. "Commercial " Graham and whole wheat
flours. These are made to simulate the
above by sifting bran into straight grade
flours. This is the kind most frequently
found on the market.

d. Straight flours, sometimes called baker's
patent. These flours consist of about 70%
of the berry and contain less of the germ
and bran than the whole wheat flour.

e. Patents for family trade. The 70% flour is
refined so that it may contain as little as
56% of the wheat berry. By such refine-
ment a large part of the mineral matter and
vitamines is discarded.

2. Other mill products:

a. Wheat offals — bran, shorts, and feed
middlings. They are used chiefly as animal
feeds.

b. Low grade or red dog flours. They are
used in darker breads like pumpernickel
and rye breads, as feeds, and for technical
purposes.

D. Regulations of the Food Administration modi-
fying the milling process.
I. The degree of extraction shall not be less

than 74%. This prevents entirely the making

of the fancy patent flours.

FLOUR AND BREAD 141

I. Wheat flour (continued).

2. The product is still a fine white flour only
slightly different in appearance from those
on the market before.

E. Regulation of milling abroad.

Higher extractions of flour are generally re-
quired abroad than in the United States. It
should be noted that because of differences in
moisture (in the United States 13.5%, abroad,
17-5%) our 74% is approximately equivalent to
the 78% flour of the European mills.

1. France at one time required 85% extraction,
but since July, 1917, wheat flour has been
milled at 81%.

2. England has changed the milling requirements
as the situation changes, but the flour has
recently been of 81% extraction.

3. Italy requires 90% extraction, the so-called
whole wheat flour.

4. Germany's flour is milled at 82%, 93% and
97% according to the process used, the purpose
for which it is intended, and the class of people
to whom it goes. The larger part is milled at
82%.

II. Substitutes for wheat flour. Their advantages and
disadvantages as compared with wheat.
A. Composition of cereals and cereal products.
I. The composition of all the cereals is practi-
cally the same. They contain approximately
10% protein, 60% to 70% carbohydrate, and

142 FOOP AND THE WAR

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

small amounts of fat and mmeral matter.
Oatmeal is a little higher in protein, and rice
a little lower. Students should look up tables
of composition.
2. The amount of fat and mineral matter vary
most, depending partly upon differences in
composition of the grains (e.g., oatmeal is
higher in fat than the others), but chiefly
upon whether or not the germ and the bran
have been removed. Examples of the latter
point are:

a. White and Graham flour which have re-
spectively about 0.4% and 1.7% ash and
1.0% and 2.4% fat.

b. Old process and new process or "granular"
corn meal. The latter has most of the germ
and bran removed. There is no significant
difference between yellow and white corn
or even the red and blue and black varieties.
Both yellow and white corn meals can be
made by the old or the new process.

c. Ordinary polished rice, which is comparable
to white flour, and whole or brown rice.

B. Nutritive value.

I. The great importance of the substitutes as
sources of fuel in our diet and also as sources
of protein has been discussed in chapters III
and V. They all give practically the same
number of calories, roughly 1600 calories per
pound. The lOO-calorie portions vary only

FLOUR AND BREAD 143

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

from 25 grams for oatmeal to 29 grams for rice.
The variations in fat content between the
highly milled and the whole cereals are too
slight to make much difference.

2. The mineral constituents and vitamines have
been much discussed. The whole wheat berry
contains from three to five times as much cal-
cium, iron, and phosphorus as the refined flour
made from it. The water-soluble vitamine is
also contained only in the whole wheat. This
is important when the diet is limited, but
need not be considered in a varied dietary
containing milk, eggs, fruit, and vegetables.

3. The protein of corn is just as satisfactory to
keep the body in nitrogenous equilibrium as
the protein of wheat, even when the corn
meal provides one-half of the calories and
three-fourths of the protein.*

4. Variations in digestibility of the different
cereals under similar conditions are generally
too slight to be significant.

a. A soggy piece of wheat bread may not be
so easily digested as a well-made piece of
corn bread, but that is a question of skill
in cooking, not of differences inherent in the
cereals.

b. The digestibility of the proteins and car-
bohydrates of corn bread and wheat

* Sherman, H. C. "Use of Com as Human Food." Journal of the American
Medical Association, 70, p. 1579. June i, 1918.

144 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

bread, when fed in a mixed diet, is prac-
tically the same.

c. Cereal products containing the bran and
germ are not quite so thoroughly digested
as the refined products. The "roughage"
which they contain is not digested and
slightly lessens the availability of the other
constituents. This "roughage" is desir-
able for some individuals, while in others
it may produce digestive disturbances.
In such cases it can better be obtained from
fruits and vegetables.

d. Although whole wheat flour contains slightly more
protein than white flour, the lower digestibility off-
sets this so that practically the same amount of
protein is digested and absorbed from each. The
same is true of the amount of available energy.'

e. For the nation as a whole, lOo pounds of wheat
yields more digestible protein to human beings
when ground into loo pounds of Graham or 85
pounds of whole wheat flour than into 70 pounds of
white flour. The use of the wheat offals as animal
feed should also be considered.

f. The use of a high percentage extraction of wheat
flour abroad has aroused much renewed discussion
of its digestibility. The subject is still under debate.
Two questions are involved — the amount digested
and the general effect upon health and comfort.
Hutchinson has summarized the effect of war bread
on health in England. The much-discussed but
really very slight ill-effects he assigns to imperfect
grinding of wheat and the wheat substitutes, poor

' Sherman, H. C. Food Products, pp. 291, 292. MacmiUan, 1917.

FLOUR AND BREAD 145

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

baking, and unpleasant but harmless bacterial
changes occasionally resulting from unsatisfactory
storage of the bread in accordance with the "twelve-
hours order." The occasional diarrhoea in a few pa-
tients he assigns to defective teeth or very sensi-
tive colons. Finally he blames the mental attitude
of many individuals — "When in doubt blame the
war bread." '

5. Corn is not a cause of pellagra, as is sometimes stated.
Pellagra is probably due to a generally faulty diet.
No cereal, although it can be a large part of a well-
balanced diet, can be used exclusively without unfa-
vorable nutritional results.

6. "Heating" properties. Some cereals, especially corn
and oats, are sometimes said to be "heating." The
term means very little. Once in a long time a person
is found in whom these foods cause a skin eruption.
That corn is eaten to a much greater extent in warm
climates than in cold is sufficient proof that there is
practically nothing in the heating idea. Well-cooked
corn products can be eaten as well in summer as in
winter.

C. Availability.

In many sections not all the substitutes are
available or there may be temporary shortages
due to the difficulties of transportation. They
are, however, coming on the market in increas-
ing amounts.

D. Cost.

I. The cost of substitutes varies, but whether
they are more or less expensive than wheat
flour, they must be used when wheat must

' Hutchinson, R. " The Effect of War Bread on Health." The Practitioner,
99, p. SOI. 1917.

146 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

be saved ; it is one of the duties that the war
has brought us.

2. The cost of Victory bread, due to the Food
Administration's control of wheat and of the
milling and baking industries, will probably
remain at a reasonable figure, little or no
higher than the recent prices of wheat bread.

3. The price of war bread abroad is less than
in this country because the bakers have
been subsidized; e.g., in England bread sells
for four and a half cents a pound loaf, which
is below cost. To make up the difference to
the bakers, the Government has appropriated
^200,000,000.

E. Keeping qualities.

The ground whole cereals do not keep as well
as the refined flour, due in some cases to the
large amount of fat which may become rancid
and to the tendency to become infested with
weevils and other small insects. Such products
should be bought in quantities small enough to
be used promptly.

F. Bread-making power.

I. Wheat flour is superior to other cereals only
because its protein is largely gluten, while
the protein of the other cereals, except rye,
contains little or no gluten. It is the gluten
that makes the sticky and elastic dough
which is made porous and light by the gas
from the yeast.

FLOUR AND BREAD 147

II. Substitutes for wheat flour (continued).

2. Therefore it is easier to make a raised loaf
with some wheat flour. With some 'substi-
tutes it is wise to use as much as 75% wheat;
with rye, which itself has some gluten, as
little as 25%, and when a person has skill, no
wheat is needed.

3. Quick breads, like corn bread leavened with
egg and baking-powder, do not need gluten,
but because of their texture and lack of dura-
bility are home rather than bakery products.

4. Wheat is especially needed in France be-
cause all the bread is made at bakeries. It
is impossible to add unfamiliar baking tasks
to the labors of the French women already
overburdened in the munitions factory or on
the farm.

III. Control of commercial baking in the United States.

This was made necessary by the need for the
restricted use of wheat.

A. Importance.

1. It is roughly estimated that about 40% of
the bread is made in bakeries and 60%
in homes. The regulations, therefore, con-
trol the use of a large amount of flour.

2. Control covers not only commercial bakers,
but hotels, clubs, state, county, and muni-
cipal institutions, universities, hospitals, etc.,
which use three or more barrels a month.
Hospitals and sanitariums may be exempted

148 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Control of commercial baking (continued).

by the State Food Administration from the
rule requiring the use of substitutes.
3. It is of great interest because the many proc-
esses in the purchase of flour and the making
and selling of bread are regulated to an ex-
tent which has never before been attempted
in any private business in the United States.

B. Based —

1. On an elaborate investigation of the baking
industry made by the Federal Trade Com-
mission and the baking division of the Food
Administration.

2. On the advice and cooperation of bakers.

C. General business regulations.

1. All bakers using three or more barrels of flour a month
are licensed and all the books and premises must be
open to Food Administration agents.

2. There must be no unreasonable or exorbitant profita
or monopoly. It must be remembered that the Food
Administration has no power to fix the price of bread.

3. Without the consent of the Food Administration, there
must be on hand no more than the amount of flour
required to carry on business for thirty days.

4. Return of unsold bread by stores to the bakers is for-
bidden on account of the wastage which was found to
amount to at least 2% of the annual output or about
600,000 barrels of flour.

D. Limitations on the purchase and use of wheat.

1. Between February i and August 31, 19 18, pastry bak-
ers and cracker manufacturers could buy only 76% of
what they used in the corresponding period of 1917.

2. On February 24, 1918, it was ordered that all bread

FLOUR AND BREAD 149

III. Control of commercial baking (continued).

should contain 20% of wheat substitutes; later this
was increased to 25% and on Sept. i decreased to 20%.

E. Limitations on the use of other ingredients.

1. The amount of sugar is limited.

2. The amount of fat and the kind used was limited, but
later the specific limitations were removed although
economy in the use of fat was urged.

F. Limitations on size.

1. The loaf may weigh 3/4 pound, i pound, 1/2 pound
or multiples of I pound. These standard loaves are
desirable:

a. Because the loaf weighing a pound or more is the
most economical, requiring less handling for a given
amount of dough. The 3/4 pound loaf was author-
ized because many people could do with less than a
pound a day.

b. Because it fixes competition entirely on price and
good baking. Formerly the baker could decrease
the weight of his loaf a few ounces without the know-
ledge of the purchaser, and keep the price the same.

2. Rolls may not weigh more than 2 ounces.

G. "Victory" products.

1. The name may be used for bread, in the making of
which all of the Food Administration regulations have
been obeyed.

2. It may be used for other products, pies, cakes, etc.,
which must contain one-third wheat substitute. Waffles,
batter cakes, and quick breads must contain two-
thirds wheat substitutes to be "Victory" products.

IV. Regulations abroad.

All the warring nations of Europe have their bread supply
regulated much more strictly than the United States has.
It is of even greater importance abroad than here because of the
large amount of commercial baking done — practically all of
the baking in France and England is done outside of the home.

150 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Regulations abroad {continued).

A. England.

1. English bread must contain from 20% to 50% wheat
substitutes and the wheat flour is of 81% extraction.

2. Only a small amount of fat may be used and no sugar
or milk.

3. Loaves must weigh i pound or a multiple thereof and
cannot be sold until at least 12 hours after baking.

B. France.

1. Thirty per cent wheat substitute must be used.

2. No fancy cakes or pastries are permitted.

3. Flour is furnished certain bakers in each district and
they sell a regulated amount of bread to the families and
individuals on their list.

C. Italy.

1. The loaf must weigh 250 grams (8 1/4 ounces) and be
made of the 90% flour.

2. Baking may only be done between 10 a.m. and 9 p.m.
and bread may be sold only until I o'clock each after-
noon.

3. No sweet pastries may be baked.

V. Control of bread-making in American homes: a
very important part of the wheat-saving campaign,
the success of which has largely made possible the
greatly increased shipments.

A. The compulsory part.

For every pound of white wheat flour, a
pound of another cereal had to be bought; on
September i, this was changed so that only 20%
of othef cereals had to be bought with wheat flour.

B. The voluntary part.

I. In 1917 the Food Administration asked

FLOUR AND BREAD 151

V. Control of bread-making (continued).

households to observe two wheatless days
each week and a wheatless meal each day.
Later the requests were withdrawn, and in
April, 1918, the housewife was asked to ob-
serve a voluntary ration of i 1/2 pounds of
wheat flour or its equivalent in bread, cake,
macaroni, etc.
2. Large numbers of people in private homes,
clubs, colleges, hotels, etc., pledged them-
selves to eat no wheat at all until the 1918
harvest was in. The wheat they had on hand
was turned in to the Food Administration of
their State for the use of the Army, the Navy,
and our Allies in the war.

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes.
A. Corn.

1. Other names — maize, Indian corn. The word
"corn" in English literature, including the
English version of the Bible, commonly refers
to wheat or to the grains in general.

2. Where the world's corn is grown.

a. Three-quarters of it is grown in the United
States. The great American corn belt, a
more important corn region than all of the
rest of the world combined, extends from
central Ohio to central Kansas and from
Kentucky to Wisconsin, with Illinois and
Iowa as the leading corn States. Most of
the eastern and southern sections of the ,
United States also grow corn.

152 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (coniinued).

b. The Parana Valley of South America, in-
cluding Argentina, is very important.
Argentina grows much less corn than the
United States, but it exports more and
is fast developing as a corn-producing
country.

c. Various other regions have an extensive
corn production, but do not export; e.g.,
Italy and the Danube Valley.

3. The importance and use of the corn crop in
the United States.

a. In 1917 the crop was 3,000,000,000 bushels.
This is larger than ever before and more
than four times as large as the wheat crop.
It affords an enormous reserve supply of
material suitable for human food.

b. Most of it is fed on the farms to animals.
Only a small percentage is used as human
food.

c. The export had been very slight. In the
past three and a half years, July, 1914, to
January i, 1918, we exported to the Allies
only one-sixteenth as much corn as wheat.
The exports are now increasing very rap-
idly.

4. Importance in the diet.

a. In the United States, much more corn is
eaten per person in the South than in the
North. Corn meal formed 1.6% of the total

FLOUR AND BREAD 153

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (continued).
food of 72 families in comfortable circum-
stances, only 0.3% for 161 families, mostly
foreigners in congested districts of large
cities in the North. It formed 23% of the
total food among Tennessee and Georgia
mountaineers, and 32.5% among South-
ern negroes. "■

b. In Italy it is the main food for a large por-
tion of the rural population. Polenta is
practically our corn-meal mush, served in
different ways, often with cheese or tomato
sauce or meat gravy.

c. It is one of the principal foods in the Bal-
kan regions, southern Russia, Hungary,
Turkey, etc.

d. It is extensively used in Mexico and Cen-
tral America. The bulk of the population
derive their nourishment to a surprising
degree from corn and beans.

e. In France and Great Britain before the
wheat shortage almost no corn was eaten.
Now, in Great Britain especially, its use is
increasing. The reasons why an extensive
increase in France is almost out of the
question are discussed under bread.

5. Different forms of corn used as food —
a. Corn meal and corn flour, both white and
yellow. The milling is similar to wheat,
but not so elaborate.

• Food Value of Corn and Corn Products. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 298.

154 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (continued).
(i) In the old method the^corn is merely
crushed between grooved millstones
and the coarse particles of skin or bran
are usually bolted out. The modern
development of this is the "old pro-
cess" or "water-ground" corn meal.
Practically the whole grain is used and
it therefore corresponds to Graham
flour.

(2) The new method removes most of the
bran and germ. The products are
granulated corn meal, corn flour which
is more finely ground and bolted, and
cattle feed, the bran, germ, etc., which
comprise from 30% to 35% of the entire
weight of the grain.

b. Hominy. The germ and skin are usu-
ally removed and the rest more or less
crushed. There is confusion in different
parts of the country between the terms
"hominy" and "samp."

c. Pop corn — should be better recognized
as a valuable part of the diet.

d. Prepared breakfast foods and the various
corn products — starch, glucose, oil, etc.

e. Green corn, fresh and canned.
B. Barley.

I. Use as a flour in bread, biscuits, etc.

a. It is found to be probably the best of the

FLOUR AND BREAD 155

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes {continued).
substitutes for mixing with wheat for
bread-making. Recent improvements in
milling will put standard barley flours on
the market.
b. It is believed to have been one of the first
cereals used by man. It has been widely
used among the peasants in northern and
central Europe. But without wheat, bar-
ley makes a gray, heavy loaf because of
its small gluten content. Before the war
it had been replaced largely by rye and
wheat.
2. Production.

a. It is extremely hardy, and is grown as far north as
the Arctic Ocean in Russia and as far south as the
Nile and the Equator in eastern Africa.

b. Its drought-resisting qualities make it particularly
valuable as a crop in such regions as the part of
California near the desert.

c. It is grown much more extensively in Europe than
in the United States, though an increasingly large
amount is grown here each year.

C. Oats.

1. It is an excellent substitute for part of the
wheat in bread. It also makes excellent
cookies and crackers with little or no wheat.

2. It is available as oat flour, a small amount
of which is on the market; as the well-
known rolled oats which may be ground
in a food chopper at home to serve as a
wheat substitute; and as oatmeal which is
produced only in small quantities.

156 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (continued).

3. The supply of these products cannot be
greatly increased at once because highly
specialized machinery is needed. The mills
now in existence have been running 24
hours a day.

4. The oats crop.

a. Oats are our second largest crop, out-
ranked only by corn. In 1917 it was 22%
larger than in 19 16. We are the greatest
oats-producing country in the world. Most
of it is used for animal feed.

b. The export to the Allies is second to that
of wheat.

D. Rye.

I. Use for bread.

a. Its gluten content, though less than that
of wheat, makes it a bread cereal, and
when mixed with wheat flour it makes a
good loaf. When used alone it makes a
dark, heavy loaf, having a characteristic
flavor.

b. With barley it was the standard bread
cereal of Europe. In proportion as the
purchasing power of the Continental na-
tions increased before the war, rye sup-
planted barley and to a certain extent
wheat supplanted rye.

c. It is used to a smaller extent in this coun-
try. During the wheat shortage the use

FLOUR AND BREAD 157

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (continued).
of rye increased to such an extent that the
supply became very low. It was not in-
cluded among those cereals which the
housekeeper could buy on the 50-50 plan.
2. Production.

It can be grown on lands not adapted
to wheat and in colder climates.

a. It is an important crop in northern, cen-
tral, and eastern Europe. Russia and Aus-
tro-Hungary produce about 90% of the
world's crop.

b. In the United States it was more impor-
tant before the opening of the corn and
wheat lands of the Middle West. It is
now grown in the poorer, hilly country,
chiefly in the Appalachian region, and is
relatively unimportant as a crop. The 191 7
crop was 60,000,000 bushels or about one-
eleventh the size of the wheat crop. This
was a large increase over the crop of 1916.

E. Rice.

I. Food value and use.

a. It is of first importance as a world food,
forming the chief food of hundreds of
millions of people, supplemented by peas,
beans, fish, etc. The rice in the diet of
many Oriental people is comparable to the
wheat in the diet of Occidental people.

b. It is used either whole or as a flour for part
of the wheat in bread, muffins, etc.

158 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes {continued).

2. Production.

In those zones in which the rain-fall is abundant, the
torrid zones and the warmer parts of the temperate
zones, where ordinary grains cannot be grown, the
yield is high, about 35 bushels per acre, say twice as
much as the average wheat yield. This makes it very
important in densely populated regions.

a. The largest production is in China, Japan, southern
India, Java, Siam, and the Philippines, where it is
the chief cereal crop.

b. It is grown to a lesser extent in the southern part of
the United States, particularly in the Carolinas and
the Gulf States. In the latter States the production
is increasing.

c. Some rice is also grown in southern Europe, the
West Indies, and South America.

3. Commerce.

It is valuable for export because it keeps indefinitely.
Although China, Japan, Java, and the Philippines pro-
duce huge quantities of rice, their enormous home
consumption prevents them from having a surplus to
export. Most of the rice imports come from India,
French Indo-China, and Siam.

4. Milling.

a. An ancient method of milling is still used in parts of
the Orient. It consists in pounding the threshed rice
or paddy until the close-fitting, chaffy husk is loos-
ened. This leaves a brownish kernel, containing
most of the bran and the germ.

b. In the modern methods, the paddy is cleaned and
the husk removed. This gives the "cured" or un-
polished or brown rice. A huUer removes the other
skins and brush sieves remove more of the kernel,
including the rest of the bran and germ. It is then
more highly polished and the product is the ordinary
market rice. A layer of talc, paraffin, or glucose is

FLOUR AND BREAD 159

VI. The cereals used as wheat substitutes (continued).

sometimes added to give the rice a better appearance,
but this process is not desirable.

F. Buckwheat.

Buckwheat can be used as a wheat substitute,
being especially good in batter cakes. The crop,
however, is small (about 3% of the wheat crop),
so it is relatively unimportant.

G. Sorghums.

These are drought-resisting grains introduced
in the southwestern part of the United States
about forty years ago. They include kafifir corn,
milo, feterita, durra, and kaoliang. They are
of increasing importance as a stock feed and
can also be milled and the flour used like corn
meal.

VII. Some uses of the grains other than for bread.

A. Breakfast foods or cereals.

These are made chiefly from wheat, corn, oats,
rice, and less commonly from barley and rye.
There is an almost endless variety. Wheat is
used the most. Street states that of 112 kinds
found on one market, 48 were wheat, 29 wheat
laxative preparations, 18 corn, 17 oats, 7 rice,
2 barley, and i rye. The non-wheat ones are
excellent wheat substitutes.^

B. Crackers.

The size of the industry and the fact that
wheat flour was almost the only material

• street, J. P., The Cereal Breakfast Foods. Connecticut Agricultural Experi-
ment station. Bulletin 197, 1917-

i6o FOOD AND THE WAR

VII. Some uses of grains other than for bread {cont'd).
used makes the regulation of the industry-
important. The supply of wheat has been
limited. Graham, oatmeal, and rye crackers
containing at least onie-third substitute are
being made and are "Victory" products. In
the sweet cakes, an average of 25% barley,
corn' and rice flour, and corn starch is being
substituted, some of them containing the
necessary one-third to make them "Victory"
cakes, and others do not.

C. Macaroni and noodles.

Formerly these were made entirely of
wheat. Substitute flours can be used to make
noodles, and rice, hominy, and barley can be
used in their place entirely.

D. Grains used in the manufacture of alcoholic
liquors.

1. The grains used for both alcohol and alco-
holic liquors in the year ending June 20,
1916, amounted to about 2% of the total
production, but consisted mainly of feed
grains.

2. For distilled spirits in 1916-17 about
34,000,000 bushels of corn, almost 4,000,000
bushels of barley and a little over 2,000,000
bushels of rye were used. In 1917-18 none
at all was used because of the prohibition
on the distillation of liquors.

3. For brewing, about 43,500,000 bushels of
barley and 12,000,000 bushels of corn were

FLOUR AND BREAD i6i

VII. Some uses of grains other than for bread {cont'd).
used in the fiscal year 1917-18. The dried
brewers' grains used as a cattle feed con-
tains 30% of the nutritive value of the orig-
inal grains.

4. Students wishing to read on the effect of
drinking alcohol will find summaries of the
subject in most physiologies; e.g., Stiles,
Nutritional Physiology, chap. 25.

REFERENCES

"Differential between Packaged Foods and Foods in Bulk." Ameri-
can Food Journal, 12, p. 625, 1917.

Dondlinger, P. T. The Book of Wheat. Orange Judd, 1908.

"Economic Ratio of Bulk and Packaged Goods." American Food
Journal, 13, p. 98. February, 1918.

Finch, V. C, and Baker, O. E. Geography of the fForld's Agricul-
ture. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary.

Harcourt, R., and Fulmer, H. L. Breakfast Foods. Ontario De-
partment of Agriculture, Bulletin 162. 1907.

Hindhede, M. "Feeding Experiments with Coarsely Pulverized
Wheat." Skandinavisches Archiv. f. Physiologie, 33, pp. 263-
290, through Chemical Abstracts, 12, p. 54. 1918.

Hunt, C. L., and Atwater, H. Cereal Foods. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 817.

Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem. Macmillan,
1917.

Langworthy, C. F., and Holmes, A. D. Slttdies on the Digestibility
of Grain Sorghums. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin
470.

Leach, A. E. Food Inspection and Analysis, chap. 10. Wiley, 1917.

Lusk, G. TheElementsof the Science of Nutrition, pp. $62-^70. Saun-
ders, 1917.

Manufacturers of bakery products. Special License Regulations
No. 13. U.S. Food Administration. May, 1918.

i62 FOOD AND THE WAR

Policies and Plans of Operation, Wheat, Flour, and Bread. U.S.
Food Administration. February I, 1918.

Pugliese, R. G. "The Food Values of Different Kinds of Bread."
Revue Generate des Sciences, 26, pp. 612-617. 1915.

Report of Federal Trade Commission on Bakery Business in the
United States and Report of Bakery Section. U.S. Food Ad-
ministration.

Sherman, H. Food Products, chap. 8. Macmillan, 1917.

Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography, chap. 3. Holt,

1913-

Sprague, E. C, and Laughlin, E. "Breads from Unusual Flours."
American Food Journal, 12, p. 673. 1918.

Ten Lessons on Food Conservation. Lesson 9. U.S. Food Adminis-
tration.

Vulte, H., and Vanderbilt, S. B. Food Industries, chaps. 3, 4, 5, 6,
7. Chemical Publishing Co. 1916.

Willcox, W. H. "Rations in Relation to Disease in Mesopotamia."
Lancet, 2, p. 677. 1917.

Winton, A. L., Burnet, W. C, and Bowman, J. H. Composition
0/ Corn Meal Manufactured by Different Processes. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 215.

Woods and Snyder. Cereal Breakfast Foods. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 249. 1906.

CHAPTER XI

SUGAR

I. The function of sugar as food.

A. Sugar is a valuable fuel food.

B. It is not an essential part of the diet. It can be
replaced wholly or in part by starch without
lowering the fuel value of the diet.

C. It is valuable psychologically in making food
pleasant.

D. If too much sugar is eaten,

1. It may be converted into fat and stored.

2. It may cause digestive disturbances, especially
if eaten in concentrated form.

3. It may bring the diet down to a dangerous
minimum in mineral and vitamine content.
If the appetite is satisfied with a purely fuel-
giving food like sugar, not enough of the
mineral and vitamine-containing milk and
vegetables will be eaten. The danger to the
child or school girl who eats large quantities
of candy should be considered.

E. For the chemistry of the different kinds of sugar
and their digestion and metabolism, see Sher-
man's Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chapters
I and V.

II. Chief pre-war sources of sugar.

The world's supply is about equally divided

i64 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Chief pre-war sources of sugar {continued).

between the sugar made from the sugar cane and
that made from beets. The pure sugar from either
source is exactly the same in composition, jelly-
making properties, etc. Some of the early beet
sugar was not as completely purified as the cane,
but now this is not the case. Granulated, pulver-
ized, and lump sugar have the same composition.

A. Sugar cane — a tropical and semi-tropical plant
resembling a stalk of corn without the ears. The
juice contains from 12% to 18% sugar.

1. Production.

The largest producers are Cuba, British
India, Java, the United States and some of
its dependencies. South America, Formosa,
Japan, and the West Indian islands.

2. Trade in cane sugar.

Cuba, Java, the Philippines, Hawaii, and
Porto Rico are the largest exporters, the sup-
ply going mostly to the United States and to
England. Although India is a large producer,
there is no surplus for export. The United
States gets its supply almost entirely from
its insular possessions and Cuba.

3. For methods of extracting and refining cane
sugar, see Sherman's Food Products, chap. 11,
or a commercial geography.

B. Sugar beets.

I. Beets, like many other vegetables, contain
a considerable portion of sugar. By scientific

SUGAR 165

II. Chief pre-war sources of sugar (^continued).

selection, especially in Germany, this has
been greatly increased until now the sugar
content averages from 12% to 16%.

2. Pre-war production.

a. Europe produced about 93% of the beet
sugar of the world, most of it being grown
in the great northern plain from Normandy
to central Russia. Germany and Austria to-
gether in 1913 raised about one-half of the
beet sugar and one-fourth of the total
sugar of the world. Germany exported
about 60% of her crop. Austria, Hungary,
France, and Belgium also exported some.

b. The beet-sugar industry in the United
States started about 1895 and has steadily
increased until in 1915 it supplied nearly
17% of our sugar. Beets could be grown
successfully in many parts of the United
States, but the industry of sugar-making
is not so well adapted to our social and
industrial organization as it is to that of
Europe. Much of the work has to be done
by hand; in Europe women and children
are employed, while in this country only the
families of immigrants would be available.
Farm machinery adapted to beet cultiva-
tion has recently been developed, and this
will tend to increase the beet acreage.

c. There is a small production in Canada.

i66 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. War conditions.

A. Cane sugar.

The shortage of cane sugar is due chiefly to
a lack of ships. There has been an increase in
production since 19 13, but difficulties in ship-
ping make some of it unavailable. Java is
largely cut off from shipping to England, and
a considerable part of last year's crop is still
in storage. England must, therefore, draw on
Cuba for her supply, from which source France
and Italy must also supplement their own beet
sugar. This means that the Allies must get
their sugar from the chief source of supply of the
United States.

B. The beet-sugar situation. This shortage is due
to an actual lack of beets.

1. The northern part of France, in which prac-
tically all the French beet sugar was grown
and refined, is in German hands. In 1914 the
battle line eliminated 203 of the 213 sugar
factories. The line then changed, bringing
a considerable number back into French
territory (65 in 1916-17). The 1915-16 crop
was only one sixth and the 1916-17 crop,
one fourth of that of 1912-13. The drive in
the spring of 1918 again destroyed most of
the beet fields and factories.

2. All sugar grown in Belgium is in the hands
of the Germans.

3. Italy's beet-sugar crop was about 25% less
in 19 1 6-1 7 than before the war, and the

SUGAR 167

III. War conditions (continued).

estimated yield of 1917-18 is about 50% less.
The Austrian drive in the fall of 191 7 de-
stroyed many of the sugar factories and beet
fields.

4. In the United States it is estimated that the
19 1 8 beet crop will probably be slightly
below normal.

5. The sugar crop of Germany and Austria-
Hungary is of course not available to the
Allies, but some sugar is being exported to
the neighboring neutrals. But as the exports
were very heavy before the war, the decrease
in sugar consumption was not at first in pro-
portion to the decreased production, an actual
increase in consumption having occurred du-
ring the first year of the war. The crop for
191 6-1 7 (including that of Belgium) was less
than 50% of that of 1912-13 (see C, 4,
below).

C. Sugar rations as compared with pre-war con-
sumption.

This serious world shortage of sugar has
resulted in a drastic reduction of the amount
available for home use.

I . In England before the war the average house-
hold consumption of sugar was a little over
a pound a week per person. The ration which
became effective January i, 191 8, allows one-
half pound a week and can only be bought
on the presentation of a sugar card. One

I68 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. War conditions (continued).

must even have the card to get an allowance
of sugar for coffee or tea in a hotel.

2. In France before the war the consumption
was lower, the total (including that used by
the industries) being about 44 pounds a year
per person. In the beginning of 191 7 the
ration for household use allowed 18 pounds
a year, about 51/2 ounces a week. In
October, 191 7, this was reduced to one-fourth
pound a week. A small amount was allowed
for preserving in June.

3. In Italy the use of sugar has always been
limited. The ration like that of France,
allows about one-fourth pound a week, al-
though the actual amount obtainable has
been less.

4. In Germany and Austria-Hungary the con-
sumption in 1913-14 was 45 pounds and 30
pounds respectively. The following year
this increased to 75 pounds in Germany and
39 pounds in Austria-Hungary (see B, 5,
above). But production later decreased so
much that the ration in 191 8 allowed about
6 ounces a week, not quite 20 pounds a year.

5. In the United States in 1917 the total per
capita consumption was 1.6 pounds a week.
(In 1823 it was 8.8 pounds per year.)

a. The average household consumption was
about 61 pounds a year, a little over a
pound a week. The larger part of the

SUGAR 169

III. War conditions (continued).

remaiiider was used in food industries —
candy, soft drinks, ice cream, bake-shop
products, condensed milk, etc. A small
amount was used in other industries,
leather, tobacco, etc.
b. To enable the Allies to maintain even their
reduced sugar rations, the sugar resources
of the United States must be shared with
them. That meant, of course, a reduced
consumption, as well as the supervision of
distribution and price. Housewives were
asked to observe a voluntary ration of 3
pounds a month for each member of their
family. Hotels, boarding-houses, and din-
ing-cars were permitted to use 3 pounds
for every 90 guests served. On August i,
1918, the voluntary ration was changed to
2 pounds a month and the allowances for
public eating-places to 2 pounds for every
90 guests served. Candy and soft-drink
manufacturers received 50% and ice-cream
makers 75% of their former consumption.

D. Control of the sugar situation in the United
States.

I. All importations of raw sugar are purchased
by the International Sugar Committee,
which turns the sugar over to the Refiners'
Committee. This is composed of representa-
tives of all the cane-sugar refineries and is
appointed by the Food Administration.

170 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. War conditions (continued).

The Committee divides the sugar among the
various refiners according to the size of their
previous sugar meltings.

2. The United States is divided into zones and
the refiners are permitted to sell only within
certain zones, the limits being fixed with refer-
ence to the economical and equitable distri-
bution of the available supply.

3. The distribution of the refined sugar is con-
trolled in great detail. The Federal Food
Administrator in each State is permitted a
certain amount of sugar for distribution accord-
ing to the population and the amount used
in industries. Each retailer and eating-place
serving more than 25 people must file with
the State Food Administrator a statement of
the amount he used previously. He then
receives a certificate of the amount he can
buy. This is sent with an order to the jobber,
who, when he receives a sufficient number,
sends the certificates and orders to the refiner
in his territory. The refiner cancels each cer-
tificate and sends it to the Food Administra-
tor who issued it. In this way hoarding is
prevented. Any one hoarding sugar bought
before this ruling went into effect is punished.
One hotel company controlling a number of
the largest New York hotels and restaurants
was found to have on hand 170,000 pounds of
brown sugar purchased in November, 1917.

SUGAR 171

III. War conditions (continued).

The company was required to close its con-
fectionery department for three months and
to contribute ten thousand dollars to be di-
vided equally between the Red Cross and the
Y.M.C.A.

4. The price of sugar is regulated by a series of
margins or differentials. The International
Sugar Committee buys sugar at a fixed price.
The refiners and jobbers sell their sugar at a
fixed margin over what they paid for it.
Inspectors investigate the prices charged by
retailers and wholesalers and report profiteer-
ing. This control of price was evident in the
Eastern States during the shortage in Decem-
ber, 1917, when the prices were kept level.
Refiners said that, without control, sugar
would have retailed for 25 cents or more a
pound. During the Civil War when there was
no real shortage, sugar sold for 35 cents a
pound because of speculation.

5. A Sugar Equalization Board was formed in
July, 1918, to equalize the cost of foreign
and domestic sugars and arrange an even
distribution throughout the country. It is
capitalized at ?5 ,000,000 in order to be able
to deal in foreign sugars.

IV. Possible substitutes for sugar.

The chief of these are the various sugar sirups —
concentrated solutions containing usually from 15%
to 25% water and from 75% to 85% sugar. They

172 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Possible substitutes for sugar (continued).

consequently have a high fuel value. Some of them
contain moderate amounts of ash and other sub-
stances giving characteristic flavors, and are there-
fore less limited in their use in the body than pure
sugar. This is especially true of molasses.

A. Molasses.

Molasses is a by-product from the making of
cane sugar. It is the liquid drained off from the
crystals in various stages of the sugar crystal-
lizing and purifying processes. It contains vary-
ing amounts of cane sugar, invert sugar, ash,
etc.

B. Maple sugar and sirup, sorghum sirup, honey.

The supply of these substitutes is more
limited.

C. Corn sirup or glucose.

I. Manufacture and composition.

a. In 1917, 540,000 tons were made, or about
one-eighth as much as the sugar consump-
tion.

b. Starch is heated under pressure with very
dilute hydrochloric acid. The resulting
liquid is neutralized with soda and evapo-
rated to a sirup. By further treatment
a solid known as corn sugar is pro-
duced, available to bakers, but not to the
retail trade. In this country the starch
used is all made from corn. Similar pro-
ducts have been made from potatoes

SUGAR 173

IV. Possible substitutes for sugar {continued).

abroad. Corn sirup is not ordinary sugar,
but a mixture of dextrin and two sugars,
maltose and glucose. The change in the
starch is similar to the change during
digestion in the body.

2. Uses.

a. About 40% of the total amount manu-
factured is used as a table sirup. One va-
riety, known as "corn sirup with cane
flavor," is a mixture containing 10% or
more of molasses or cane sugar.

b. About 35% of the total is used by candy
factories. The candies containing most
corn sirup are pastes like gum drops, and
marshmallows. The latter are chiefly corn
sirup, corn starch, and gelatin.

c. The use of corn sirup is somewhat limited
because it is not so sweet as sugar and does
not crystallize and so cannot be used in
large amounts in such candies as fudge.

3. Nutritive value.

a. It is a valuable food, as valuable as any
other kind of sugar, as would be expected
from its composition.

b. The reason some people still have a prej-
udice against it is probably because —

(i) Before the passage of the Food and
Drug Act, in 1906, it was sometimes
fraudulently sold as maple sirup and
other more expensive sirups.

174 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Possible substitutes for sugar {continued).

(2) At one time it was made with acid
which occasionally contained arsenic
as an impurity, but for years past it has
been free from ^arsenic as showta by
many analyses.

D. Sweet dried fruits like raisins, fruit butters.

E. Saccharin.

Saccharin is a crystalline compound manu-
factured from coal-tar, with 300 to 500 times
the sweetening power of sugar. It has no food
value, but it has been used abroad in increasing
amounts since the war.

V. Summary of ways to save sugar.

Use less of the sweet foods — candy, frosted
cakes, sweet drinks, sugar on cereals and in tea and
coffee, sweet deserts. Eat, instead, more fruits,
fresh or dried. Learn to use the sugar substitutes
in desserts, candy, etc. Can fruits without sugar.

REFERENCES

Abel, M. H. Sugar and its Valzie as Food. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 535.

Kellogg, v., and Taylor, A. E. The Food Problem. Macmillan, 1917.

Mathews, A. P. Physiological Chemistry, chap. 2. Wood, 1915.

Palmer, T. G. Concerning Sugar. U.S. Sugar Manufacturers'
Association. Washington.

Robinson, E. Commercial Georgraphy. Rand, 1910.

Sherman, H. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. Macmillan, 1918.

Sherman, H. Food Products. Macmillan, 1917.

Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Holt, 1913.

Soule, G. "Natural Laws." The New Republic. February 16, 1918.

Vulte, H. T., and Vanderbilt, S. Food Industries. Chemical Pub-
lishing Co. 1916.

CHAPTER XII
THE VALUE OF MILK

The importance of milk can hardly be over-empha-
sized. There is no other food so vital to our national
health and efficiency. Students should use every effort
first to learn, and then to inform others, of the high
food value and economy of milk.

I. The composition and nutritive value of milk.

These subjects have already been discussed or
touched upon in the earlier chapters. It is sug-
gested that they be reviewed and developed further
here, and that methods of teaching them popularly
be considered. Several very valuable government
publications on milk which have recently been
issued should be read by the students. (See Refer-
ences.)
A. General statement of composition.

I. The average figures are 87% water, 4% fat,
5% milk sugar, 3.3% protein, 0.7% ash. Note
particularly that this liquid food is higher
in total solids than many of the vegetables
and fruits. The composition can be made
more vivid by a display of weighed quan-
tities of the substances in a pint of milk. It
is doubtful whether this is of as great value
for teaching purposes as comparisons made
with other foods as suggested below.

176 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Composition and nutritive value of milk {cont'd.).
2. Find the legal requirements for the composi-
tion of milk in your State. ^

B. Protein.

1. Two proteins are present, the casein which is
the principal constituent of cheese, and the
lactalbumen left in the whey and coagulated
by boiling. These proteins are especially
desirable constituents of the diet.

2. Recall that the half-ounce protein portion in
milk, whole or skim, is one pint and that a
large part of the protein of our diet can there-
fore readily come from milk. Consider the
great value of skim milk as a meat substitute.

C. Fat.

Discuss the common fallacy that the fat of milk
is its most important constituent and the "rich-
ness" a complete measure of its value.

D. Carbohydrate.

1. The milk sugar or lactose is similar to ordi-
nary sugar (succrose), but is not so sweet.

2. It is used for fuel, like all carbohydrates, and
has a special value in correcting putrefaction
in the intestines.

E. Fuel value.

I . Comparing the fuel value of milk with that of
other foods is one of the important ways of
teaching the relative importance of milk. It
is more striking than the protein equivalents,
but less striking than the calcium.

1 Summary given in Sherman's Food Products^ p. 67. Macmillan, 1917.

THE VALUE OF MILK 177

I. Composition and nutritive value of milk (cont'd.).

2. The fuel value varies, of course, with the
composition of the milk. A fair average is
145 grams (about two-thirds of a cup) per
100 calories.

3. Recall the lOO-calorie portions of other foods
as compared with milk or show the quan-
tities of food equal in fuel value to a pint of
milk (340 calories), such as four eggs, or a
half-pound of lean meat. '

F. Ash.

1. We get more total ash from a pint of milk
than from comparable quantities of most
other foods.

2. Calcium is an especially important part of the
ash.

a. It is essential in the food of both adults
and children for the formation and constant
renewal of bone, teeth, etc. About 2% of
the body is calcium, more than any other
inorganic element. About 0.67 grams of
calcium per day, according to Sherman,
should be supplied in the average diet.

b. The ordinary diet is probably more apt to
be short of calcium than any other element.
About 50% of the American dietaries, the
calcium content of which has been studied,
show less than the desired amount.

c. Milk and cheese are by far the most im-
portant calcium containing foods.^

* See Sherman's Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, p. 269. Macmillan, 1918.

178 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Composition and nutritive value of milk (cont'd.).

d. To get the 0.67 grams of calcium requires
less than i 1/4 pints of milk and only 21/2
ounces of cheese, but over 7 pounds of
white flour and 21 pounds of beef. Turnips
and carrots and some other vegetables are
fairly high in calcium, but it takes 21/3
and 21/2 pounds respectively of these
two to give as much calcium as in the piece
of cheese.

e. Thus we can see that a diet high in meat
and low in vegetables, and especially a diet
low in milk and cheese, is practically sure
to be deficient in calcium. "Every family
should be using at the rate of at least one-
third of a quart of milk per man per day to
provide the calcium requirements of that
family." »

f. An exhibit can be prepared, showing por-
tions of food each containing, say, o.i
gram of calcium, about one-seventh of the
day's requirement.

g. See the United States Food Leaflet No. 1 1
on Milk for a graphic presentation of the
relative calcium content of milk and other
foods.

3. The iron content of milk is low. Supplement-
ing milk by green vegetables and eggs in the
diet of even quite young children is necessary
if an iron deficiency is to be prevented. Iron

• Sherman, H. C, and Gillctt, The Adequacy and Economy of Some City Diet-
aries, New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, 1917.

THE VALUE OF MILK 179

I. Composition and nutritive value of milk {cont'd.).
in food is discussed in connection with vege-
tables in chapter XIII.
G. Vitamines.

1. Milk contains both the fat-soluble A and the
water-soluble B, as would be expected from
the fact that it is the sole food of the young.

2. Methods for measuring quantities of these
substances have not been worked out sufifi-
ciently to make definite comparisons between
quantities in different foods. Fat-soluble A
is found in both the cream and in the aqueous
part of the milk and is distributed so that
roughly the small amount of cream on top
of the milk contains as much as all of the
skim milk below it. Skim milk is thus com-
paratively poor in this vitamine.

3. The presence of the vitamines in milk and
the body's need for them for the growth and
health of the young and the health of adults
is one of the chief points to emphasize in
teaching the value of milk. The lack of, or
a too small quantity of either one may result
in a generally poor condition or even in dis-
ease.

a. Lack of water-soluble B may result in
beri-beri. There is not much chance of
this with an even moderately varied diet.

b. Lack of fat-soluble A may result in a dis-
ease called xerophthalmia. This has been
noted in groups of young children in Den-

i8o FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Composition and nutritive value of milk (cont'd.).
mark and elsewhere, where separator skim
milk has been fed as almost their only food.
The children were cured when whole milk
replaced the skim milk. This is not an
argument against the use of skim milk,
especially by adults, but for the use of a
sufficient quantity of whole milk by chil-
dren.
H. General statement.

The importance of milk is not only shown by
the occurrence of these diseases, but also by a
generally unsatisfactory condition that often
results when whole milk is not used. On the
other hand, the free use of milk tends to build up
a strong nation.

II. Economy of milk.

If we wish to persuade people to use more milk
it is vital to the success of our efforts to make clear
that milk is really a cheap food.

I. Compare the cost of milk in your neighbor-
hood, not with pounds or quarts of food, but
with the calcium or protein content or the fuel
value,

a. Calcium. A study of the cost of this ele-
ment is the most striking way to show
the cheapness of milk, for it takes 21 pounds
of meat to give the same amount of cal-
cium as in I 1/4 pints of milk. (See p. 178.)

b. Fuel. According to the average prices
listed in the American Food Journal, July,

THE VALUE OF MILK i8i

II. Economy of milk (continued).

191 8, milk costs slightly less than 2 cents
per 100 calories; round steak (beef), about
51/4 cents; fresh eggs, 41/2 cents. Milk
is much the cheapest fuel from any animal
source except fats. Fuel can, of course,
be obtained more cheaply from cereals,
c. Protein obtained from whole milk costs
about the same as that from moderate-
priced cuts of meat. Protein in skim milk
or cottage or other skim-milk cheese is
the cheapest form of animal protein.
2. Compare the quantities of calcium and pro-
tein and the number of calories which can
be obtained for a given sum in the different
foods.

III. The sensitiveness of milk consumption to variation
in price.

A. This sensitiveness is probably due to — •

1. Ignorance of the value of milk and the habit
of considering it as a beverage only, not as a
food.

2. The fact that milk is often the only food for
which the consumer has a separate bill. A
rise in price of any one food is lost in the large
total of the grocery bill, but the milk price
shows plainly.

B. When the price of milk went up in the fall of
1917, the use of milk decreased to a degree
altogether out of proportion. This was most
unfortunate.

i82 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The sensitiveness of milk consumption to variation
in price (continued).

1. "The Chicago milk consumer is mad at milk.
When it went from lo to 13 cents a quart, he
cut off one-fourth of his consumption. Even
now that it has dropped back to 12 cents he
still consumes about 16% below normal. . . .
Chicago is actually spending less total money
for milk to-day than it spent for milk when it
retailed at 9 cents a quart." '

2. The poor, especially, are affected by the
increase in price. In New York City, accord-
ing to the report of the Mayor's Milk Com-
mittee, the total consumption of milk in the
fall of 1 91 7 was reduced 25% and the con-
sumption in certain tenement regions 50%.
At about the same time a count of the under-
nourished school children showed approxi-
mately twice as many as the year before.

IV. The amount of milk available and the amount
advisable in the diet.

A. A quart a day for every child, a pint for every
adult, is urged by many as not too high an ideal.
Some pediatrists, however, prefer to recommend
at least a pint for each child.

B. We are using much less than this, probably only
about 0.7 of a pint per capita.

V. Production and use of milk in the United States.
The total amount produced is variously estimated
at from 0.82 to 1. 15 quarts per person per day.

• Dean Davenport, in the "Review of tlie Milk Situation." American Food
Journal, 13, p. 128. Marcli, 1918.

THE VALUE OF MILK 183

V. Production and use of milk in the United States
(continued).

B. Only 43% of this is estimated to be used directly
as milk (roughly 0.7 of a pint per person), 41%
is used for butter, 5% for cheese, and the rest
for condensed milk, ice cream, or food for calves.'

C. Economy in the use of the milk supply.

1 . The most economical way to use milk so that
we get the benefit of all the food in it is, of
course, as whole milk, or condensed, evapor-
ated, or dried whole milk.

2. The next most economical way is in whole
milk cheese, since all but the whey is used
in it.

3. Less economical ways are as cream and butter
unless all the skim milk is used, as the butter
utilizes only about 4% of the milk.

D. The numerous uses to which our huge quantity
of skim milk is put.

1. The largest part, an unnecessarily large
amount, is fed to animals. Some is actually
thrown away.

2. It may be used as a beverage or in cooking.
Discuss the advantages of having it, properly
labeled, on the retail market.

3. Making it into cottage cheese is probably the
most practical method of using it on a large
scale. This was emphasized in the spring of
191 8 in the campaign of the Department of

• Aericultural Situation for igi8. Part II, Dairying. U.S. Department of Agri-
culture. Circular 85.

i84 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Production and use of milk in the United States
{continued).

Agriculture. Other skim-milk cheeses are
also made.

4. Some of it is condensed or made into skim-
milk powder.

5. It is artificially soured and sold as buttermilk.

6. It is used for the manufacture of casein for
technical purposes such as sizing for paper,
ivory substitute, etc.

E. Condensed, evaporated, and dried milk.

These forms of milk are important because
of their smaller bulk and better keeping qualities
as compared with whole milk. They are there-
fore easier to ship.

1. Condensed milk is the term usually applied

to sweetened milk, which has been concen-
trated to about two-fifths of its original bulk.

2. Evaporated milk or unsweetened condensed
milk has somewhat the consistency, taste,
and appearance of thin cream.

3. Dried milk or milk powder contains as little
as 5% water.

a. Skim-milk powder is widely used in the man-
ufacture of ice cream and milk chocolate.

b. Whole and "half-skim" dried milk have
been of late years widely used for infant
feeding in Belgium, France, and England.

F. The great importance of maintaining the milk
production —

THE VALUE OF MILK 185

V. Production and use of milk in the United States
(continued).

1. Because of the importance of milk as a food
not only for ourselves, but for Europe. The
United States is the great milk reserve for
Europe until the European herds are built up
again after the war.

2. Because of the length of time taken to replace
herds. If a factory is closed down it can be
reopened again when the need for its product
arises. If a cow is killed it takes practically
three years to replace it.

G. Methods of keeping up production —

1. By arranging fair prices. Many large cities
have recently had milk commissions to settle
the price to be charged the consumer and the
price to be paid the farmer.

2. By constant effort to have the product pro-
duced and distributed at the lowest price con-
sistent with a good, safe product. The cooper-
ative cow-testing and bull associations are
important developments in economical produc-
tion.

3. Stimulation of consumption by educational
means.

VI. American import and export of dairy products.

Before the war we imported dairy products from
no fewer than 24 countries. Our exports were unim-
portant. Now not only has importation largely
stopped, but exports have increased immensely,
especially of condensed and dried milk. During the

i86 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. American import and export of dairy products
(continued).

six months ending with March, 1918, we exported
in condensed milk, the equivalent of almost
28,000,000 quarts of whole milk.

VII. The milk situation abroad. (Compare with chapter XIV,
section VIII.)

A. There is a serious, universal shortage of milk all over
Europe due to the depletion of dairy herds. The farmer
found that it paid better to sell his cows than to feed
them, because of the lack of fodder and farm labor.

B. In the face of this shortage great effort is being made to
have the milk used by those who need it most, rather
than by the rich alone. Special regulations are in force
to insure a supply for children, nursing mothers, and the
sick, and to provide milk for these classes at cost or free,
if necessary. Every effort is being made to keep up this
supply. The ideal ration is considered to be about a
litre for each child, but the quantity actually supplied
often falls far below this standard. The use of milk for
adults is considered a luxury and it is now, especially
on the Continent, practically unobtainable by them.

C. England.

1. Local authorities are empowered to supply milk to
children and to nursing mothers and invalids, free
or at cost if necessary. Dealers must supply these
classes first. The work is in the hands of medical
ofificers and child-welfare associations working with
the local authorities.

2. Children under 18 months may have i 1/2 pints and
those from 18 months to 5 years may have i pint
daily. Others may obtain as much as the mciical
or other authority prescribes.

3. Maximum prices are set, varying at different times
of the year and for the city and county districts from
10 cents to 14 cents per quart (fall and winter of

THE VALUE OF MILK 187

VII. The milk situation abroad (continued).

1917-18); 2 cents extra per quart may be charged
for bottled milk.

D. France.

1. Paris at first did not ration milk, but only attempted
to insure a supply for her poorer children; now the
larger French towns seek to secure a supply for all
children. In Paris a special card for children under
3 years and for the sick enables them to secure the
full amount of milk necessary at dairies before any
one else. They must apply before 9 o'clock in the
morning. In April, 1917, it was arranged to. supply
I litre per day free or at a low price to poor children
under 3 years.

2. In order to conserve the supply no milk could be sold
, in cafes and restaurants after 9 a.m.

E. Germany. In peace time there was a large production
of milk and an extensive use of dairy products.. The war
brought about an immediate and heavy reduction in the
number of milch cows as well as other animals, but steps
were taken very early to secure an adequate supply of
milk for the children and the sick.

,1. In November, 1915, an imperial decree required all
large towns to secure a supply of milk affording one
litre to infants up to the end of the second year or
to their mothers while nursing was continued. Chil-
dren over 2 years were allowed one-half of this
quantity.

2. In 1916 three-fourths of a litre was decreed as the
allowance for children between 2 and 4 years.

3. In the winter of 1917-18 in most towns the privileged
milk supply was threatened.

a. In December the War Food Board instructed the
municipalities to do their utmost to secure the
milk supply and to keep on hand a small store of
milk preparations and a reserve of wheat flour if
their plans fail.

i88 FOOD AND THE WAR

VII. The milk situation abroad (continued).

b. Children over 6 have difficulty in obtaining their
ration. At Essen, Hamburg, and Hanover in
December, 191 7, for example, the authorities had
to curtail the children's rations. Bavaria allows
children from 7 to 13 years only skim milk.

F. Austria-Hungary.

1. Vienna and Budapest were both visited by a very
severe milk shortage before the rationing system
was in complete working order. The result was a
great deal of suffering among the poor, even though
the infant-welfare stations were well developed.

2. In Vienna, a litre of milk was allowed children for
the first year. In April, 1917, the ration for children
from 2 to 6 years was reduced to one-fourth litre.
This had to be bought before 9 a.m. Every one else
theoretically had one-eighth litre, which was obtaiiied
before 10 a.m. Then, if any were left over, it was added
to the children's allowance. In the fall, children from
6 to 14 years were allowed one-fourth pint.

G. Northern European neutrals.

All these countries were formerly great dairying
regions, but are now very short of milk on account of
the feed shortage. It is very expensive in most cases.
Cheaper milk is provided for the poor, usually by some
sort of rebate ticket for the dealer, whom the muni-
cipality or other organization reimburses. There is also
the preferential treatment for the sick.

VIII. A safe milk supply — milk sanitation.

The importance of milk as food cannot be over-empha-
sized. But the milk should be "safe"; that is, free from any
chance of causing disease. This is especially important,
since milk has to be carried such long distances, sometimes
400 miles or more to market, and passed through so many
hands. An intelligent handling of the milk problem result-
ing in an efficient inspection system and pasteurization of
all but certified milk or its equivalent, will afford a safe
milk supply.

THE VALUE OF MILK 189

VIII. A safe milk supply — milk sanitation (continued).

A. Necessity for sanitary control.

I. Milk is an ideal food for bacteria as well as for human
beings, and bacteria therefore multiply with great
rapidity in milk if the milk is not kept cold.

2. The many opportunities for the entrance of bacteria.

a. From the cow itself, if it is diseased.

b. From outside sources of infection — dirty uten-
sils and milk bottles, the milker's hands, the air
and dust of the stable. Each time the milk is
handled, if care is not exercised, another oppor-
tunity for contamination is offered.

B. The most important milk-borne diseases.

1. Tuberculosis is the commonest disease with which
cows are affected. Unless the cow is tested by bac-
teriological methods, it can rarely be detected. It is
especially dangerous for children, who are more sus-
ceptible to the bovine tuberculosis than are grown
people. Milk may also be inoculated with tubercle
bacilli from human sources.

2. Sore throat epidemics may occur from bacteria from
the diseased udder of the cow.

3. Typhoid, diarrhcEal affections, diphtheria, and scar-
let fever may all be carried in milk. The water with
which the cans are washed may be contaminated,
or the disease may be spread from many sources if
there is a case either on the farm or in the dairy.

C. Methods of making milk safe.

I. Prevention of all possible contamination by those
handling the milk on the farm and in the dairy and
by proper care of the cow.

a. Ordinary market milk varies enormously in its
bacterial content according to the way in which it
has been handled. The most important factors in
getting a clean milk supply are:
(i) Having cows and persons who handle the milk
free from disease.

190 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. A safe milk supply — milk sanitation {continued).

(2) Milking with clean, dry hands into covered
small-top pails and sterilizing all utensils.

(3) Prompt and thorough cooling of the milk and
continued care in handling until consumed.

b. These measures involve care, but do not involve
great expense and could well be made compulsory
by city or state legislation, which should also pro-
vide an adequate system of inspection.

c. Certified milk or its equivalent is milk produced
and cared for under exceptionally sanitary condi-
tions and constantly supervised and inspected by
a medical milk commission.^

2. Destruction of any pathogenic bacteria that may get
in.

a. Pasteurization is a necessary safeguard for the
general milk supply. It consists in heating the
milk and keeping it hot for a sufficient time to kill
pathogenic bacteria, but not all the bacteria which
cause it to sour. The shorter time the milk is held,
the higher within certain limits the temperature
must be. Pasteurization also includes the prompt
cooling of milk after this heating to prevent the
growth of bacteria.

(i) It is necessary because the great expense at-
tached to the production of certified milk
makes it too expensive for ordinary use. But
pasteurization should not be used to cover
careless methods of production. Standards as
high as is practicable should be insisted upon.
It is equally necessary for milk and cream
whether it is to be used as a beverage or for
ice cream, cheese, or butter.
(2) Its use has been greatly increased in the past
ten years. The general tendency is toward the
pasteurization of all market milk except the

^ For the standards and methods of production and distribution see Slierman's
Food Products, Appendix C.

THE VALUE OF MILK 191

VIII. A safe milk supply — milk sanitation (continued).

certified milk, and in some large cities it is
compulsory.

(3) Three methods of pasteurizing in commercial use.

(a) "Flash" method. The milk is heated rap-
idly, for from 30 seconds to i minute, to a
temperature of about 160° F.

(b) Holding process. The milk is heated rap-
idly to 140° or 150° F. and held at that
temperature between 20 and 30 minutes.
The milk may be chilled and then bottled
or run hot into bottles heated with steam,
and then cooled. This is preferable to the
flash method.

(c) Pasteurization in bottles. The raw milk is
placed in bottles covered so as to keep out
the water and then heated in water to
145° F. and kept at that temperature for
20 or 30 minutes. This prevents recon-
tamination.

b. Milk may be pasteurized at home.

A ready-made pasteurizing apparatus may be
bought, or one may be made at home. A cooking-
utensil with a close-fitting lid, and large enough
to hold a bottle rack, may be used. The bottles
are placed in the rack, surrounded by water and
the water heated to the boiling point. The whole
is then removed from the stove and the bottles
left in the water for 20 minutes and then cooled
immediately.

c. Boiling the milk instead of pasteurizing it is often
more convenient in the home. The question of the
use of boiled milk in infant feeding is discussed in
chapter XV.

3. Proper care of milk in the home.

The student must be ready if the need arises to
teach the importance of keeping milk on ice, or, if

192 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. A safe milk supply — milk sanitation {continued).
that is impossible, in an "iceless refrigerator"; of
keeping out flies and dirt, of buying milk in bottles
and not pouring it out of the bottle until ready to
use it, and of using clean utensils for milk. "Keep
milk clean, cold, and covered."
D. Grading milk.

Some cities have regulations providing for the division
of the milk supply into grades according, to the equip-
ment of the dairies and the methods employed, or the
bacteriological count of the raw or pasteurized milk, or
both. The grades usually include a raw milk similar to
certified milk, pasteurized milk, and milk employed
only for cooking or industrial uses.

IX. Adulteration of milk. ,

A. Milk offers an excellent opportunity for adulteration be-
cause of its opacity. It may be skimmed, or water added,
thus reducing its value as food. If the water added is im-
pure, it also offers an opportunity for contamination.

B. Preservatives were formerly used to keep it from sour-
ing, but are now used to a much less extent.

C. The community may be safeguarded against such fraud
and against the actual danger of contamination, by an
adequate system of inspection. A discussion of the sub-
ject together with standards of purity is given in Sher-
man's Food Products, pp. 62-71.

X. Eternal vigilance is the price of a safe milk supply, and it is
worth it. Some cities have a properly safeguarded supply
and others are approaching it. Every community should
have an adequate system of inspection and provide for the
pasteurization of all milk not certified, or its equivalent. An
intelligent public opinion is of the first importance. Study
your local milk ordinance and compare it with those of
other towns and with the model ordinance suggested in
Hoard's Dairyman, 51, p. 376. 1916.

THE VALUE OF MILK 193

XI. Summary of points to be emphasized in con-
nection with milk.

A. Do everything possible to stimulate the pro-
duction of safe milk and to get it distributed
at the lowest possible price consistent with a
reward to the producer and distributor suf-
ficient to keep them in the business.

B. Be ready to cooperate in the efforts of the
Children's Bureau for adequate milk supply
during their "Children's year" which began
April 6, 1918, in the work of the milk stations
to supply milk to the poor at cost, and in all
similar activities.

C. Use every means to make people appreciate
the unique value and economy of milk, and
so prevent in this country the tragic results
which are already following the cutting-down
of milk consumption abroad.

D. "Use More Milk!"

REFERENCES

Agricultural Situation for IQ18. Part II, Dairying. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Circular 85.

"A Model Milk Ordinance." Hoard's Dairyman, 51, p. 376. 1916.

Ayers, S. H. Present Status of Pasteurization of Milk. U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 342.

Brown, L. P. "The Experience of New York City in Grading Mar-
ket Milk." American Journal of Public Health, 6, ^. 6^1. 1916.

Editor, The. "A Review of the Milk Situation." American Food
Journal, 12, p. 127. March, 1918.

Editorial. "Rising Cost of Milk." Journal of the American Med-
ical Association, 70, p. looi. April 6, 1918.

Lane-Claypon, J. E. Milk and its Hygienic Relations. Longmans-
Green. 19 16.

194 FOOD AND THE WAR

MacNutt, J. S. The Modern Milk Problem. Macmillan, 191 7.
Mendenhall, D. R. Milk. Children's Bureau, Publication No. 35.
MUk and its Relation to the Public Health. Hygienic Laboratory,

Bulletin 56. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service of the

United States. 1909.
Milk, the Best Food We Have. U.S. Food Leaflet No. 11.
Milk Prices and the Poor Wage-Earner. Weekly Bulletin of the

Department of Health, City of New York. November 3, 1917.
Rose, F. Milk : A Cheap Food. Cornell Reading Course, Lesson IH,

Food Series.
Rosenau, M. J. Preventive Medicine and Hygiene. Appleton, 1917.
Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chaps. 10 and 13.

Macmillan, 1918.
Sherman, H. C. Food Products, chap. 3. Macmillan, 1917.
The Food Value of Milk. U.S. Food Administration, Bulletin 13.

CHAPTER XIII
VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

I. Vegetables and fruits represent a different and
happier phase of the food situation than that of
most of the staples. They represent a great poten-
tial reserve of foods for home consumption. Not
only does their presence in the diet add to health,
but it releases other foods for shipment abroad.

II. Composition and value in the diet.

Vegetables and fruits are similar in many re-
spects.

A. Water.

Most vegetables and fruits are very high in
water, many of the "watery" ones like cab-
bage, celery, spinach, and berries contain from
90% to 95%. Potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn,
peas, beans, and also bananas and grapes, have
much less water.

B. Proteins.

1. The protein is very low in most vegetables
and fruits. Potatoes have only about 2% in
the edible portion, and most others have even
less.

2. It is much higher in the legumes — beans,
peas, lentils, and peanuts. Lima beans and
green peas, for example, even when fresh,
have 7% protein, and when dry, from 18%

196 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Composition and value in the diet {continued).

to 25%. Thus baked beans, bean loaf, and
similar dishes are meat substitutes, though
they cannot be depended on too largely.
Beans and peas are valuable and important
meat substitutes if used in a diet containing
some animal protein. (See chapter V.)

a. The varieties of beans and peas are numerous. Use
the newer varieties as well as the ordinary white
navy bean.

b. In response to a patriotic appeal, the 1917 bean
crop was approximately 50% larger than normal.
Nearly all of this increase was in colored beans,
principally Colorado and New Mexico pintos and
California pinks. They are much like the white bean
in taste, composition, and in the method of cooking.

c. Soy beans, which have been much discussed lately,
are high in protein (38%) and in fat (15%) — higher
than other beans, but they are somewhat difficult
to cook without a pressure cooker, tinless made into
meal.

d. The Army and Navy are using vast quantities of
legumes and have contracted for practically the
entire white bean crop.

e. The Food Administration purchased last year's
entire crop of pinto beans,, in order to distribute
them to different markets, to keep the price stable,
and to encourage the farmer to continue production
next year.

C. Carbohydrate.

This is fairly high in some cases, notably in
potatoes, which contain from 18% to 20%
starch. Sweet potatoes have even more starch
and sugar. Bananas have 22%, mostly sugar
when ripe and starch when green. It is instruc-

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 197-

II. Composition and value in the diet (continued).

tive to group the vegetables and fruits, as the
diabetic patient must, into groups containing
5%, 10%, and 15% carbohydrate. Note that the
leaf vegetables are all in the lower groups.

D. Fuel value.

The fuel value depends chiefly upon the
amount of starch and sugar present. For leaf
vegetables it is very slight. For some others,
especially potatoes, sweet potatoes, bananas,
and other sweet fruits, it is an important part
of the fuel of the diet.

E. Crude fiber.

Fruits and vegetables contain a relatively
high percentage of indigestible fiber. This fiber
with other substances present tends to prevent
constipation.

F. Ash constituents.

1. Vegetables and fruits are one of the richest
sources of the necessary ash constituents of
the diet. This is one of the most important
points to emphasize in teaching the value of
these foods. They are especially important
as sources of iron and next in importance to
milk as sources of calcium.

2. The ash content is higher in leafy vegetables
like spinach, cabbage, and Brussels sprouts
than in seeds. In dried leaves there is from
three to six times as much ash as in seeds.

3. A large quantity of the ash may be lost if the
vegetable is cooked in a large amount of?

T98 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Composition and value in the diet (continued).

water and the water thrown out — with
spinach as much as 50% of the iron may be
lost. The figures used below assume that the
vegetable is cooked without additional water
or that the water is used.
G. Iron.

1. Need for iron. (See. Sherman, Chemistry of
Food and Nutrition, chap. 11.)

a. It is one of the necessary constituents of
the hemoglobin of the red corpuscles of
the blood and of all other active cells. "

b. Very little iron is stored in the body, so
the supply must be kept up by getting iron
from food. When there is little in the
diet there may be a lack of hemoglobin and
ansemia may result.

c. The quantity needed daily is probably about
15 milligrams. It is desirable for women
and children to have as much as men in
spite of their lower calorie requirement.

2. The iron content of some diets.

a. Approximate estimates of 150 American
dietaries give 14 to 20 milligrams per man
per day for the majority. "The typical
American dietary does not contain any
such surplus of iron as would justify the
practice of leaving the supply of this ele-
ment entirely to chance."

b. Of the 92 dietaries recently studied by
Sherman and Gillett for the New York

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 199

II. Composition and value in the diet (continued).

Association for Improving the Condition
of the Poor, a disturbingly large number,
33, showed less than 15 milligrams of iron.
c. Computations of the iron in the diet of a
number of young women students has
shown quantities very near the border-line.

3. Foods supplying iron.

a. Egg yolk, meat, whole cereals, and many
vegetables are high in iron. Even the
vegetables and fruits that are low in iron
are often eaten in such large quantities
that they furnish a good supply.

b. The compounds of iron in meat are prob-
ably not used as advantageously as those
in eggs, milk, and vegetables.

c. Milk and some fruits and vegetables, and
especially the cereal products made chiefly
from the endosperm like white flour and
polished rice, are low in iron. Fats and
sugar contain no iron.

d. It is suggested that the class make a dis-
play of portions of food each containing,
say, 2 milligrams of iron, so that 71/2
of the portions will contain enough for
a day. Some portions containing 2 milli-
grams of iron :

200 grams of white flour, enough for

3/4 pound of bread.
40 grams of Graham flour, equivalent

to 2 medium slices of bread.

:2oo FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Composition and value in the diet (continued).

22 grams of egg yolk, from i 1/2 to

2 eggs.
50 grams, almost 2 ounces, of lean meat.
56 grams, 2 ounces of raw spinach, about

1/3 of a cup of cooked spinach.
A little over 1/3 pound of string beans,

about I 1/4 cups.
A third of a pound, one good-sized Irish

potato.
Almost a pound of sweet potatoes.
21/4 pounds of oranges, 4 large ones.
810 grams of milk, almost a quart.

e. Note from these portions and others like
them that the 15 milligrams is easily ob-
tained if eggs, whole cereals, spinach, and
many other vegetables are eaten, but that
the iron may easily fall below on a diet
consisting largely of white bread, sugar,
fat, and certain fruits. A child eating large
quantities of candy and white bread will
not get enough iron or other mineral con-
stituents.

f . A diet containing a large amount of vege-
tables, whole wheat bread, and the cheaper
sorts of fruits, with milk but without meat,
was tried in an experimental study in New
York and resulted in a gain of 30% in the
iron of the diet while the protein, fuel
value, and cost remained practically the
same as in the ordinary mixed diet.^

"• Shennan, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, p. 308. Macmillan, 1918.

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 2or

II. Composition and value in the diet (continued).
H. The basic residue.

The ash left when foods burn in the body is
either basic or acid in character. It is probably
desirable to have the residue from the whole
diet basic. Meats and cereals give an acid
residue, vegetables and fruits a basic residue.
Therefore, the eating of vegetables with meat
is a wise habit. Eating bread or rice with
meat does not serve the same purpose.

I. Vegetables as a source of vitamines.

1. Water-soluble B is fairly widely distributed
in most of them.

2. Fat-soluble A is not so widely distributed.

a. The leafy vegetables contain it. Their
value is in part due to its presence.

b. Most seeds have very little of it. It is pres-
ent in the germ of the seed, but is prac-
tically absent from the endosperm. Hence
beans and peas need to be supplemented
by leafy vegetables or milk.

c. Tubers and roots are more like seeds in this
respect than like the leaf vegetables.

J. Summary of the value of vegetables and fruits
in the diet.

1. They give a pleasant and varied flavor and
texture.

2. They supply the much-needed ash constitu-
ents, especially the leafy vegetables.

3. They supply vitamines, the leafy vegetables

202 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Composition and value in the diet {continued).

especially supplying the less widely distrib-
uted fat-soluble A.

4. Some give considerable fuel, and legumes
considerable protein, thus serving in part as
substitutes for both wheat and meat.

5. They give a desirable bulk to the diet.

6. The leafy vegetables (with milk) should be
looked upon as protective foods which can
correct the deficiencies found in most of the
other foodstuff. This "protective" charac-
ter of milk and the leafy vegetables "should
form the main thesis of the teacher of nutri-
tion and dietetics." '

III. Use of vegetables and fruits instead of the staples
needed abroad.

A. To save wheat : The potato drive to use the sur-
plus of the huge 1917 crop has fixed in every
one's mind the interchangeableness of these
two foods. One medium-sized potato supplies
the same number of calories as a large slice of
bread and contains more mineral salts than
white bread. Sweet potatoes are equally good
instead of wheat.

B. To save meat: Use legumes. Use all the vege-
tables as "meat extenders" in stews like the
French "pot au feu" and in meat pies.

C. To save sugar: Use fruit, fresh and dried; dates,
figs, raisins, and prunes are among the sweetest.

• McCoUum, E. V. "Some Essentials to a Safe Diet." Journal of Homt Econo-
mics^ 10, p. 49. February, 1918.

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 203

III. Use of vegetables and fruits (continued).

D. To save fat: Use jam. It has high fuel value
and is a "spreading material" like butter. It is
part of the ration of British soldiers.

IV. Do we eat enough vegetables?

A. Workers among the very poor of our cities almost
always have to urge a greater use of vegetables.

1. The New York Association for Improving
the Condition of the Poor recommends:
"Spend not more for meat and eggs to-
gether than for vegetables and fruits."

2. In the Boston study the expenditures for
meat, fish, and eggs taken together, was gen-
erally at least twice as much as for fruit,
fresh vegetables, and potatoes.

3. In a negro community in New York City
that has the highest infant mortality rate of
any community in the city, the diet of 75
mothers was observed in the fall of 191 6 and
winter of 1917. They ate vegetables on the av-
erage only twice a week and fruit about the
same number of times.'

B. Many young people "do not like vegetables"
and must deliberately cultivate a taste for them.

C. Many adults could improve the flavor and nu-
tritive efificiency of their diet by increasing the
vegetable content, and at the same time sub-
stitute these perishables for a large proportion
of the wheat and meat.

1 Hess, A. F., and Unger, L. J. "The Diet of the Negro Mother in New York
City." Journal of the American Medical Association, 70, p. 900. 1918.

-204 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Increasing the production of vegetables.
A. The 1917 war gardens.

1. The response of both professional and ama-
teur gardeners last spring and summer to the
imperious need for increasing the food supply
was one of the country's significant contri-
butions to the war.

2. A few examples of the response to the appeal in 1917.
These are merely illustrative of what occurred through-
out the country:

a. The school gardens. They are of particular value,
not only because of the food grown, but because of
the valuable lessons taught.

(i) The Food Production Committee of New Hamp-
shire found that high schools of that State pro-
duced $36,610 worth of vegetables. The grade
schools maintained 17,000 gardens, the value of
their output not being recorded.

(2) A systematic survey of Indiana discovered
500,000 gardens maintained by children or young
people throughout the State.

b. City efforts.

(i) A permanent committee on home gardening was
maintained in Los Angeles; 8,000 acres were put
into war gardens in and about the city.

(2) New York maintained a Food Committee and
utilized at least 12,000 city lots in war gardens.

(3) Interesting community experiments were tried
at Denver and Cleveland. In Cleveland, the
Mayor's Advisory War Committee advertised
for lots and gardeners. They set an official
planting day for the entire city. Financial aid
was given to gardeners in need of seed and tools,
and a soil and production expert and a corps of
assistants were maintained by the city to super-

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 205

V. Increasing the production of vegetables {continued).

intend and correlate all efforts. It is estimated
that $300,000 worth of vegetables were grown.

(4) One interesting garden was made under great
difficulties by the employees of a copper mine in
Arizona. They were from many countries and
few spoke English. The region was arid and five
artesian wells had to be drilled to supply the
water for irrigation. Double crops were obtained
and the food that could not be used at once was
dried or canned.

(5) About 3,000,000 gardens were planted aside
from the increased acreage planted by farmers.
Vegetables estimated to be worth jf350,ooo,ooo
were raised. The value of the produce of home,
school, and children's gardens alone was esti-
mated at $100,000,000.

B. The increasing need for gardens.

1. The food situation abroad grows worse as
the war progresses, so the burden on us be-
comes heavier. More and more the railroads
must be kept free to rush coal, munitions,
and all the supplies of war from one part of
the country to another. Local food supplies
relieve transportation difficulties. Make your
neighborhood self-supporting. The war gar-
den offers an opportunity for service within
the reach of every one with a plot of ground
and the willingness to work.

2. Intelligent care is of great importance.

a. Seeds and fertilizer are scarce ; therefore plant
only as much as can be properly cared for
and choose the vegetables which can best be
raised in your region. Get expert advice.

2o6 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Increasing the production of vegetables (continued).

b. Send for The Small Vegetable Garden, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bul-
letin 8i8.

c. Consider the value of a community garden
for your neighborhood rather than a series
of private gardens or as a supplement to
them. Experience has shown that labor-
saving^ implements and better tools can
usually be bought by the larger organiza-
tion and expert superintendence employed
to greater advantage.

C. The war gardens in the United States are not the only-
ones. The American Army Garden Service is planning
truck gardens in France to supply our troops with fresh
vegetables in the summer. Great Britain has ordered all
her unused lands to be placed under cultivation. The
Woman's Auxiliary Army Corps of England is planting
similar gardens back of the lines to supply the English
troops. At one of the great munitions factories in England
employing thousands of people, a hundred acres of the
surrounding waste land are intensively cultivated, so that
the employees are entirely self-supporting as regards
vegetables. In 1917 the French army fed many of their
men from similar gardens.

D. War work of women on farms.

1. Continental Europe. Women have always worked in
the fields and of course have been doing so in increas-
ing numbers since the war.

2. England. About a quarter of a million women from
every profession and class are doing all kinds of farm
work. They met with opposition from the farmers for
the first two years of the war, but they have dispelled
prejudice by their good work and by the fact that the
male labor simply could not be secured. In many cases
the women are given a short preliminary training. The

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 207

V. Increasing the production of vegetables (continued) .

movement is under the direction of the Board of
Agriculture.

3. Canada. Both British Columbia and Ontario success-
fully organized groups of women for farm work last
summer. The care of the girls was undertaken by the
Y.W.C.A.

4. United States.

a. The movement was started in 1917 by Vassar Col-
lege students who for two months successfully did
all kinds of work on the college farms. Nine units
were organized by the Mayor's Committee of Women
on National Defense, New York City. Eight units
worked in fruit-growing districts. The_ Mt. Kisco
unit was the largest, consisting of 73 women, most
of whom were college girls, though various trades
and professions were represented.

b. In 1918, the Woman's Land Army of America car-
ried on a vigorous campaign to enlist women in farm
work and to overcome the prejudices of farmers
against employing them. For information write to
their headquarters at 32 Fifth Avenue, New York
City.

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits.
A. Kinds of spoilage.

1. The less important kind is a mere deteriora-
tion of flavor after picking. This is brought
about by normal processes in the plant. The
change goes on more slowly if the food is kept
cold, and is checked if the food is cooked.
Therefore products canned as soon as pos-
sible after picking give the best-flavored
product.

2. The more important decomposition is caused
by micro-organisms, bacteria, yeasts, and

2o8 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
molds. These come from the soil, fertilizers,
dust, the hands of workers, etc. Their
character may depend upon many variable
factors such as rainfall, temperature, geo-
graphical distribution, the kind of vegetable,
and the length of time and method of keeping
after picking. The question is more compli-
cated than is often realized.
B. Methods of preventing spoilage by destroying
the micro-organisms or preventing their activity.

1. Refrigeration.

2. Removal of water. A certain amount of
water is necessary for the growth of bacteria.
Therefore, dehydration is a satisfactory
method of preventing spoilage. (See section
E, p. .215.)

3. Adding substances in which micro-organisms
cannot grow.

a. Salting.

This method is applied to meats and some vege-
tables, especially string and wax beans, spinach,
greens, and corn,
(i) Dry pack.

(a) With only a small amount of salt, 2% to 3%
of the weight of the vegetable. This allows a
certain degree of fermentation to occur. The
best known product of this method is sauer-
kraut.

(b) With enough salt (25% of the weight of
the vegetables) to prevent fermentation or
growth of yeasts and molds. Dandelions,
beet tops, spinach, cabbage, string beans,
peas, and especially corn, are satisfactorily

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 209

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
preserved by this method. All except corn
are salted without cooking. Salted corn may
be cooked on the cob to set the milk, then cut
and packed with one-fourth of its weight of
fine salt.

(2) Wet pack.

It is sometimes found more satisfactory to use
a 10% salt solution, about 6 tablespoons of salt
to I quart of water, for salting some vegetables,
especially cucumbers.

(3) These methods require little time, small expense
for fuel and containers, and the products are easy
to store. But there is a change in flavor and a
loss of nutrients in the brine.

b. Pickling. Vinegar, salt, and spices are the preserving
materials. The method is applied chiefly to cucum-
bers, onions, greens, and tomatoes.

c. The addition of "preserving powders" or chemical
preservatives. While some of the substances are
probably harmless, others are not, and their use
should not be considered in the home.

d. "Preserving" and making jelly and jam. The pre-
servative is the strong sugar solution.

e. Canning. This involves destruction of micro-
organisms by heat "processing" and their subse-
quent exclusion.

C. Commercial canning.
I. Importance.

a. "Canning, more than any other invention since the
introduction of steam has made possible the build-
ing up of towns and communities beyond the bounds
of varied production." ^

b. A century or two ago men on whalers after a voyage
of a year or two often came home with scurvy.
Nansen and his men drifted in the Arctic ice for

' Smith, J. R. Commercial and Industrial Ceosraphy, p. 22T. Henry Holt, 1913.

210 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
years and remained in good health because of their
supply of canned vegetables, fruits, and meats.

c. This comparatively cheap, convenient method of
preservation removes any limitations of time or
distance upon the consumption of fruits and vege-
tables in an attractive form. It affords a market for
a large crop of such a perishable article as peaches
and offers a convenient form to transport large
quantities of such fruits as Hawaiian pineapples.

d. Especially important now because of the value of
canned vegetables and fruits in feeding the Army
and Navy. They give variety to the meals and keep
the men in good health. Their use prevents scurvy
on board ships and in the Army when fresh vege-
tables cannot be obtained.

(i) The Army and Navy commandeered about 25%
of the canned beans, 12% of the corn, and 18%
of the tomatoes of the 1917 pack. Large amounts
will be needed this year also.

(2) To supply our troops in France next winter, the
Government has entered into an agreement with
the French Government by which our armies are
to be supplied with vegetables and fruits canned
in France. The shipping space thus saved will
be considerable.

e. A large amount of our products were also exported
in 1917 to the Allied Governments.

2. Extent of the industry.

a. The United States is the largest producer and con-
sumer of canned goods in the world, and the value
of the output is increasing. In 1914 the value of the
canned vegetables and fruits was Si 17,000,000. The
value of the vegetables was almost four times that
of the fruit. The pack of vegetables had increased
84%in value, andof fruit, ii2%overi904. Thequan-
tity packed had almost doubled. The 191 7 fruit
pack, with the exception of apples and berries,
showed an increase.

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 211

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).

b. The most important fruits packed are peaches, pine-
apples, and cherries, in the order named. Of the
vegetables, tomatoes come first, corn second, and
peas and beans third. The industry is widely dis-
tributed.

c. California produced 64.2% of the total value of the
fruit canned in the United States.

3. Method.

a. Grading is done at each step in order to insure uni-
form, standard products.

b. Preparation of the material for sterilization.

Much of the work is done by machinery. Most of
the vegetables and some of the fruits are " blanched ";
that is, kept in boiling water from I to 15 minutes
to soften and also to remove the objectionable
gummy substance from the surface of some vege-
tables. The cans are filled with vegetables by
machinery, or, with the higher grade of fruits, by
hand to prevent crushing, and the brine or sirup
is added. The cans are "exhausted"; i.e., some of
the air is removed. They are then sealed and steril-
ized or "processed."

c. Processing.

Two factors are involved in processing. The tem-
perature must be high enough to destroy all the
micro-organisms, but it must not be too prolonged
or too high, or the taste and appearance of the prod-
uct will be injured. Fruits do not need a tempera-
ture above the boiling point and they are generally
sterilized in water baths. Vegetables need a higher
temperature and the cans are usually heated in
steam under pressure in autoclaves.

D. Home canning. (For definite directions see the
Laboratory Manual, section VII.)
I. All who can get fresh vegetables should can
or otherwise preserve enough to supply the

212 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
needs of their families during the winter in
order to make their family and community
self-supporting as far as possible and thus
decrease the demand on transportation and
supplies; to preserve the excess products of
the growing season for future use; to add
variety to the winter diet and furnish a lib-
eral supply of mineral-containing food.

2. It is of doubtful policy, unless a market is
secured beforehand, to can large quantities
for sale.

3. Community canning is likely to be superior
in results to canning in private kitchens. (See
chapter XV.)

4. There are a number of different methods, the
relative values of which have been debated
at considerable length, so that students may
be familiar with all of them.

a. Open kettle. The old-fashioned method
still used somewhat for many fruits and
for acid vegetables.

b. One-period processing in the jar, usually
at the temperature of boiling water. It is
commonly known as the cold-pack method,
though the term might be equally well
applied to method c.

c. Intermittent processing in the jar. A
longer method, but preferred by many
people for such vegetables as beans, peas,
and corn.

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 213

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).

d. Processing at higher temperature by use
of the pressure cooker.

5. A few important points in regard to process-
ing:

a. Most bacteria, yeasts, and molds are
easily destroyed by heating to 100° C. or
even to a considerably lower degree. There
is a variation in resistance among different
kinds of bacteria and even among different
strains of the same kind.
h. Some kinds of bacteria produce spores
which are resistant to heat unless the heat-
ing is long continued or higher than 100° C.
Otherwise the spores may develop into
active bacteria after the food is cool.
Spores of some species of bacteria have
been known to resist boiling for five hours.
In order to destroy spores, heating on a
second or third day is often resorted to —
intermittent heating.

c. Destruction of bacteria is made easier by
the presence of acid, salt, and sugar. For
this reason canning fruits and vegetables
like tomatoes and rhubarb is easier than
canning the non-acid ones.

d. The vegetables with comparatively small
surfaces exposed to bacterial contamina-
tion, like beets, seem to be easier to can
than those- with more surface, like aspara-
gus. Removal of the skin before canning
also seems to help.

214 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued),
e. The way the food is packed in the jar

makes a great difference in the length of

time required for processing.

(i) Heat penetrates only slowly into a mass
of vegetables or fruit. This is one of
the most important points to under-
stand for successful canning. There
may be entire failure to get the in-
terior of a jar hot enough to destroy
the bacteria present.

(2) Heat penetration is quicker when there
is free circulation of liquid than when
the food is very closely packed. The
commercial canner often agitates his
cans during processing to bring about
this circulation.

(3) In some experiments of Bitting's in a
pressure cooker it took an hour for
the center of the can of dry, tightly
packed corn to reach the temperature
of the outside water bath. A can of
peas with the large amount of water
usually packed with peas was heated
in 6 or 7 minutes.

(4) Pumpkin and squash, with their pasty,
semi-solid consistency, also require a
long time for heat to penetrate, and
heavy tomato pulp takes longer than
tomatoes surrounded by liquid.

(5) Air is also a very poor conductor of
heat. Therefore care must be taken to

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 215

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
have the cans filled to the top with
liquid.
(6) For successful canning, therefore, pack
the jars full, but have plenty of liquid,
or else continue their processing longer.

f. For proper penetration of the heat to the
contents of a jar, the water in which the
jar is placed should come almost to the
top of the jar and the water bath should
be tightly closed.

g. Quick cooling following the processing is
desirable.

6. Changes brought about in canned food when
processing is insufficient.

This subject is not completely understood.
If sterilization is not completed and the con-
ditions are favorable for spoilage, the canned
goods will not keep. Substances with dis-
agreeable flavors and gaseous products may
be formed or acids without gas (flat sour).
In rare cases, poisonous products may be
formed.
E. Drying.

This is probably the oldest method of pres-
ervation. It was extensively used in the farm
home before transportation facilities made
the shipments of fresh fruits and vegetables
easy.
I. Two methods are employed: —

a. Outdoor drying, which is used so exten-
sively in California.

2i6 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits {continued).
b. Dehydrating vegetables and fruits by
artificial heat both commercially and in
the home.
2. Advantages.

a. Keeping qualities. The dehydrated vege-
tables and fruits if stored in suitable con-
tainers seem to keep indefinitely. Some
vegetables dehydrated for use in the Boer
War were not all used ; at the beginning of
the present war the barrels were opened
and the vegetables were found to be in
excellent condition and were used by the
English Army in 1914.

b. Transportation. The saving in freight
charges, cars, and shipping is obvious when
it is remembered that fresh vegetables and
fruit often contain over 90% water and,
when dried, only from 8% to 10%. This
fact is of the greatest importance now.

c. Containers. If the products are not to be
exported, metal or glass containers are not
necessary. Pasteboard boxes, stout paper
bags, or parafifin paper cartons can be used.
It is only necessary to keep out dust and
insects.

d. Economy. A great possibility for national
saving, making use of the vegetables that
might otherwise spoil on the farm and in
the market.

e. Cost of dried fruits to the individual. The
actual cost of a pound can of vegetables

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 217

VI. Preservation of vegetables and iruits (continued).
or fruits may be less than the cost of a
pound of dried fruit ; but when the amount
of water in the can and in the fruit or
vegetable is considered, the dried product
is much cheaper, though more labor is re-
quired to prepare it for the table. A 100-
calorie portion of dried split peas costs on
an average about i cent and of canned peas,
a little over 5 cents. The cost of a loo-calo-
rie portion of evaporate peaches is i 1/3
cents and of canned peaches 61/4 cents.'-
F. Commercial dehydration.

1. Commercial dehydration received its impetus from an
endeavor to supply vegetables to men who were cut off
from fresh supplies. The Hudson Bay Company
bought dried vegetables for the use of its men in the
long winter trapping season. Later, vegetables were
dried for the New England fishing fleets, and in Oregon
some were dried for the Alaska miners. Vegetables
were also dried for the men in the Spanish 'War. The
early products in many cases were not very good —
they did not "come back" properly in water.

2. Present situation in the United States.

a. The process has been brought into prominence by
the war. The need for utilizing every ounce of food,
the shortage of tin containers, transportation diffi-
culties, and the sugar shortage combined to bring
this method of preservation to the front.

b. Investigations have been conducted by private con-
cerns, universities, and the Bureau of Chemistry of
the United States Department of Agriculture, and
excellent methods have been worked out, by which
distinctive flavor and texture are retained. These
methods are now being used by a few concerns.

• These prices are averages given in the American Food Journal, February,
191S.

2i8 FOOD AND THE WAR

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits (continued).
Others put out an inferior article. There is need for
standardization.
c. The Government has placed orders for several thou-
sand tons of dehydrated potatoes for the use of the
Army and will probably use other dried products
also, as they can be obtained.

3. In the approved method, vegetables such as potatoes
and carrots, and fruits such as apples, are pared and
sliced. They are then blanched in steam and dried in
a current of air at a temperature between 110° and 140°'
F. Tomatoes are dried and ground and used in hotels
for soups, sauces, etc. A combination of certain dried
vegetables is known as "soup mixture." Even corn on
the cob can be dried if the pith is removed.

4. The valiie of the product depends on the ■ care with
which the above processes are carried out. The vege-
table or fruit must be dry enough to arrest the growth
of molds and bacteria, but not too dry or dried too rap-
idly, so that the cellylar structure is broken down. The
water content should be from 8% to 10%.

5. The process is used to a much greater extent abroad
than in the United States.

a. It is widely used in Germany. Before the war there
were about 500 commercial plants, and in 1917 there
were over 2000; 37,000,000 hundred-weight of pota-
toes alone were dried in 1916.

b. Canada has sent abroad within the past three years
over 50,000,000 pounds of dehydrated vegetables,
about two-thirds of which was the vegetable soup
mixture, and one-third dried sliced potatoes. When
reconstituted this would make about 400,000,000
pounds of vegetables.

G. Home drying.

I. The process has been in use for generations
pn farms. The methods were crude and some
of the products were probably much inferior
to those dried by the best modern methods.

VEGETABLES AND FRUITS 219

VI. Preservation of vegetables and fruits {continued).
2. Within the past year it has been reintroduced
as a home industry.' Excellent results can
be obtained, but care and skill are necessary.
Too little drying or too much results in the
product's molding or not "going back"
properly when soaked.
H. Community drying plants.

A more efficient and convenient outfit can be
bought if a number of people combine and the
cost of using it will be nominal. The drying
must be accompanied by instruction on the
necessity of long soaking of the product before
cooking.

REFERENCES

A Siiccessfid Community Drying Plant. U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Farmers' Bulletin 916.

Bailey, E. H. S. The Source, Chemistry and Use of Food Products,
chap. 6. Blackiston, 1916.

Benson, O. H. Home Canning by the One-Period Cold-Pack Method
as Taught to Cannirtg Club Members in the Northern and Western
States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 839.

Bitting, A. W., and Bitting, K. G. Canning and How to Use Canned
Foods. National Canners' Association. 1916.

Bitting, A. W. Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning of
Foods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 196. 1915.

Bitting, A. W., and Bitting, K. G. Bacteriological Examination of
Canned Foods. Research Laboratory, National Canners' Associa-
tion. Bulletin 14. 1917.

Buchanan, E. D., and Buchanan, R. E. Household Bacteriology.
Macmillan, 1913.

Canned Foods. Miscellaneous Series, No. 54. U.S. Department of
Commerce.

1 See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 841, Drying Fruits
and Vecstables in the Home, for descriptions of desirable outfits and processes.

220 FOOD AND THE WAR

Canning and Preserving. Census of Manufacturers, 1914. U.S.
Department of Commerce.

Corbett, Z. C. TJie School Garden. U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Farmers' Bulletin 218.

Creswell, M. E., and Powell, O. Home Canning of Fruits and Vege-
tables as Taught to Canning Club Members in the Southern States.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 853.

Drying Fruits and Vegetables in the Home. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 841.

Food Supply in Families of Limited Means. League for Preventive
Work. Boston, 1917.

Germany's Vegetable Drying Factories. Commerce reports. Febru-
ary 27, 1918.

Hunt, Caroline. " Increasing the Iron Content of the Diet." Journal
of Home Economics, 7, p. 584. 1916.

Jordan, E. G. Food Poisoning. University of Chicago Press, 1917.

Powell, O. Successful Canning and Preserving. Lippincott, 1917.

Round, L. A. and Lang, H. L. Preservation of Vegetables by Fer-
mentation and Salting. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers'
Bulletin 881,

Sherman, H. C. Food Products, chap. 9. Macmillan, 1917.

Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition, chap. 9, 10, and
II. Macmillan, 1918.

Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Holt, 1913.

The Small Vegetable Garden. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 818.

Women on the Land. Woman's Land Army of America. New York,
1918.

CHAPTER XIV

SUGGESTIONS FOR AN ADEQUATE DIET — THE DIET
OF INFANTS AND CHILDREN

This chapter gives a brief review of our knowledge
of an adequate diet, and shows how the subject niay
be taught both in scientific and popular terms.

I. Summary in scientific terms.

A. A diet to be adequate should include sufficient
fuel, sufficient protein of the right kind — pref-
erably partly animal, a sufficient amount of
the right kind of the mineral constituents, and
enough of the two unidentified essential con-
stituents — fat-soluble A, and water-soluble
B. It should have a texture such as to assist
in the elimination of the feces and it should be
satisfactory psychologically.

B. The total quantity of protein is not often below
what is considered adequate. On a limited and
strictly vegetarian diet, the quality of the pro-
tein may be inferior, especially for children.
The diet is most apt to be low in the amount
of calcium and iron, the fat-soluble A, and
occasionally, especially among the very poor,
in fuel value.

C. Specific foods most helpful in correcting these
deficiencies are milk, vegetables — especially
the leaf vegetables — and fruits.

222 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Ways of teaching essential food facts in the simplest
terms — "the five food groups." (See p. 23.)

A. Teach people to think of their foods as being
divided into one of five groups: (i) vegetables
and fruits; (2) meats and meat substitutes
(milk, eggs, fish, cheese, beans, peas, peanuts) ;
(3) cereals and other starchy foods; (4) sweets;
(5) fats. This grouping is given in many leaflets,
bulletins, and articles. Some of the earlier state-
ments put the protein group first. The grouping
given here puts vegetables and fruits first in
order to emphasize their importance.

B. Emphasize the following points about these
groups :

1. Choose some food from every one of the
groups daily and not too much from any one
group.

2. Remember that sweets, while important
psychologically to help make the diet palat-
able, are not, so far as we know, essential
physiologically. There is no proof that we
need any special amount of sugar weekly or
daily. Sugar and sirups are valuable means
of getting supplementary fuel cheaply and
pleasantly.

3. Emphasize milk, especially for children, far
more than the other protein-rich foods. Some
teachers consider it a weakness that this
grouping does not sufficiently emphasize the
unique value of milk.

4. Note the possible substitutes in the same
group as wheat, and emphasize the fact that

AN ADEQUATE DIET 223

II. Ways of teaching essential food facts (continued).
they are just as good for the body as wheat.
People are by no means yet free from the idea
that cutting down on wheat may injure their
health.
5. Note that some foods can be put in more than
one group; e.g., potatoes go in group i or
group 3, sweet dried fruits in group i or group
4. Milk, from its composition and varied
function, might well be considered in all five.
C. The groups may be called :

1. By the names of the foods.

2. By the names of the most significant com-
ponents — foods important for minerals and
the vitamines, protein-rich foods, starch-rich
foods, etc.

3. According to their functions — fuel foods,
which take in the last three groups; body
building foods, those in the first, second and
third groups; "body-regulating foods," the
first group.

III. The quantity of food desirable:

A. In scientific terms (as stated for calories, protein,
calcium, and iron in previous chapters).

1 . It is not difficult for the intelligent person to
compute his own consumption if exhibits
of portions of food representing respectively,
100 calories, 1/2 ounce protein, o.i gram
calcium, and 2 milligrams iron are made.

2. The danger is that in such calculations em-
phasis will be placed on one feature of the

224 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The quantity of food desirable {continued).

diet only, and that the person computing his
calories, for instance, will know nothing about
whether these calories are obtained in the
wisest way. Computing the calories, and
the protein, calcium, and iron content,
and considering the vitamine content and
the indigestible residue, would probably show
whether the requirements were satisfied, and
give more valuable and accurate information
than could be obtained in any simpler way.
B. In household terms — based upon pounds and

ounces of food from the different groups.

I. Complete definite statements of the number
of pounds needed, of course, cannot be made,
but statements showing a fair range are
possible. The following table ^ shows satis-
factory quantities of food per day as pur-
chased for a man at moderate work.

Rich and more Plain and

expensive diet cheap diet

Vegetables

and fruits . . . from 2 1/2 lbs. down to i 1/2 lbs.

Milk 8 oz. 8 oz.

Meats, eggs,

cheese, etc from 14 Oz. down to 6 oz.

(Use 2 oz. less for every additional half pint of milk)

Cereals from 8 oz. up to 16 oz.

Sweets from 3 oz." down to I 1/2 oz.

Fats from 3 oz. down to i 1/2 oz.

These quantities have been formulated
from the study of many practical diets of

1 By C. L. Hunt. From unpublished material of the Ofl&ce of Home Economics,
U.S. Department of Agriculture.

AN ADEQUATE DIET 225

III. The quantity of food desirable (continued).

satisfactory calorie, protein, and ash content
(approximately 3000 calories or over and 90
grams of protein). There is much allowance
for variations depending upon necessary con-
servation measures and upon prices, taste,
and availability of different foods. More veg-
etables and fruits are often eaten and can be
used now to save wheat.

2. To make these quantities vivid, the students
might weigh them out and distribute them
into three meals. The pound and a half of
fruits and vegetables might be made up by
a combination of an apple or orange, two
large potatoes, and an average serving of
some other vegetable. If dried fruits are
used, one ounce is considered about equal to
six ounces of fresh. The growing custom of
buying vegetables and fruits by the pound
will make the estimation of this group of the
diet easier. Knowledge of whether one is
eating in accordance with this table, or feed-
ing one's family in accordance with it, will
give those daily procedures an added interest.

3. In using this quantitative standard it is most
important to be sure that enough vegetables
and milk, and a not excessive amount of
protein foods are being used.

4. Calculating the quantities by the week in-
stead of the day will be found more satisfac-
tory for a study of the diet, because it mini-
mizes the daily variations. If a dietary study

226 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The quantity of food desirable (continued).

was made at the beginning of the laboratory
course, calculations may be made from that.

5. The quantities given in the table should be
multiplied by 4/5 for a moderately active
woman and by 3 1/3 for a family consisting
of a moderately active man and woman and
three children of from 3 to 12 years. ^

6. The calories and protein of a diet whose
weight is known in this way can be very
simply calculated. (See the Laboratory
Manual, section VI.)

IV. Wise distribution of the money spent for food.

A. This is a vitally important question. "A rea-
sonably satisfactory diet, with adequate allow-
ance of milk, sufficient vegetables and fat, a
little fruit, a very moderate allowance of meat
or fish, and no luxuries, could not, at the prices
prevailing a few months ago, or even at less cost,
be purchased by a family of average size for
less than 10 cents per thousand calories, and in
most instances for not less than 12 cents. The
facts seem to be unmistakable. Never was there
greater need of competent advice in food econo-
mics." 2

B. The following recommendations have been made
for expenditures for low-cost diets:*

■ See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fanners' Bulletin 808, How to Select
Poods. I. What the Body Needs.

2 Editorial. "The Cost of Adequate Nutrition." Journalof the American Medi-
cal Association 70, p. 311. February 2, 1918.

' Food for the Family. Nev/ York Association for Improving the Condition of
the Poor. 19x7.

AN ADEQUATE DIET 227

IV. Wise distribution of money spent for food {cont'd).
"i. Spend from one-fourth to one-third of your
food money for bread, cereals, macaroni and
rice.
"2. Buy at least from one-third to one-half quart
of milk a day for each member of the family.
"3. Spend as much for vegetables and fruits to-
gether as you do for milk. If you use one-half
quart of milk for each member of the family,
this may not always be possible; then spend
as much for vegetables and fruit as one-third
quart of milk a day would amount to.
"4. Spend not more for meat and eggs than for
vegetables and fruits. Meat and eggs may
be decreased with less harm than any of the
other foods mentioned. The amount spent
for meat may decrease as the amount spent
for milk increases."
C. A valuable discussion of the percentage of the
food expenditure for different groups of food
is given in Sherman's Chemistry of Food and
Nutrition, pp. 386-400. (1918 edition.) The
following table represents the expenditure in
Sherman's household of three adults and four
growing children:

Per cent of

total cost

of food

Meats, poultry, and fish 10-15

Eggs 5-7

Milk 25-30

Cheese 2-3

Butter and other fats 10-12

Bread, cereals, and other grain products. 12-15

Sugar, molasses, and sirups about 3

Vegetables and fruits 15-18

228 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Wise distribution of money spent for food (cont'd).
D. If data are at hand, students should discuss the
expenditure in their own families. Even approx-
imate figures will be illuminating.

THE FEEDING OF INFANTS AND YOUNG CHILDREN
By Dorothy Reed Mendenhall, M.D.

Of the Children's Bureau, United States Department of Labor

I. Breast feeding.

A. Importance.

Mother's milk is the normal food of all young animals,
and in each species the milk is adapted to the growth
needs of the young of that species as well as to its digestive
powers. Unlike most young animals the human infant is
born long before the time at which it was intended to dis-
pense with maternal nourishment, for it does not develop
teeth or the ability to take solid food for many months
after birth. An infant deprived of mother's milk to which
its partially developed digestive system is adapted, must
be fed with the greatest care and intelligence. There is
nothing "just as good" as mother's milk.

B. Depends largely on the health of the mother.

1. Good food and care during pregnancy.

2. Skilled assistance at confinement and sufficient rest
immediately afterward.

3. An abundant, varied diet, — 3 or 4 regular meals iia 24
hours, — water between meals.

4 Regulation of constipation, especially by proper food.

5. Sufficient sleep and rest.

6. Gradual exercise, outdoor airing, recreation.

C. The quantity of milk can be increased by an adequate diet
containing a high percentage of animal protein. Cow's
milk furnishes the most suitable animal protein and also

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 229

I. Breast feeding (continued).

supplies calcium in sufficient amounts. Without enough
of these constituents, the mother's own body material is
used to keep up the milk supply.

D. The quality of the milk can be modified only slightly if
the food of the mother is adequate. Milk is a secretion,
not an excretion, and the constitution cannot therefore
be easily altered.

E. Breast milk can be adapted to suit the baby, and every
attempt should be made to do so before resorting to wean-
ing —

1. By attention to details of maternal hygiene given above.

2. By giving water, 1/2 to I ounce, or thin cereal water
or dilute alkali (lime water) before nursing.

3. By shortening the length of nursing or lengthening the
interval between nursings.

F. Mother's milk, if scanty and inadequate as the total food
for the infant, should be conserved and augmented by —

1. Attention to the hygiene and food of the mother.

2. One or more artificial feedings during 24 hours. It is
better to begin supplementary bottles after the third
or fourth month with most infants, as it gives the
mother a long period of rest, prolongs the nursing period,
teaches the infant to take artificial food, and makes
weaning easy at any time. Part breast milk and part
bottle at the same feeding is safer if more than one bot-
tle is given, as the breast milk is apt to fail if the child
does not nurse at frequent intervals.

3. Giving some artificial food at one or more or every nurs-
ing — the mixture with breast milk helps the digestion
of cow's milk — either before or after nursing.

G. Interval of feeding (breast and artificial).

Regularity of feeding is as important as the food. Chil-
dren are born without habits. The foundation of good or
bad habits rests with the mothers. Infants must be
taught to "expect certain things at certain times."
I. Three different feeding intervals are in use at the pres-
ent time:

230 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Breast feeding {continued).

a. Four-hour interval. Five feedings in 24 hours after
the first month.

b. Three-hour interval. Seven feedings in 24 hours,
usually reduced to six after the early months.

c. Two-hour interval. This was the customary interval
in the past ; it is seldom used now by pediatrists,
except for the first month or the first two months.
(Read Grulee, West, or other references given at the
end of the chapter on this point.)

2. Either the three- or four-hour interval does very well
for the average child. The stomach is more surely
emptied during the longer interval, so that in indiges-
tion, colic, etc., the four-hour interval is preferable.
The longer interval gives the mother a longer free
period, gives the breast time to fill between nursings,
and, if managed properly, gives the surest results.
H. The amount of food.

The actual amount of food taken at different times dur-
ing a day varies considerably in a breast-fed child, but the
total amount taken by the child in 24 hours does not
materially change. It varies with the individual child,
and with the feeding interval. Children fed on the four-
hour interval take considerably more at a feeding, but
seem to take, if anything, less in the entire day than those
fed at shorter intervals.
Average Infant Intake at a Breast Feeding

AGE AMOUNT

1-3 days 1/2 ounce

I week 1-2 ounces

I month 2 1/2-3 1/2 ounces

3 months 4-5 ounces

6 months 6 ounces

8 months 8 ounces

In cases where the infant is not doing well, weighing
before and after nursing will determine the amount re-
ceived at a meal. In artificial feeding, this table will be
useful in deciding how much to give at a meal.
1. Length o\ each nursing and nursing technique. (Consult
Grulee or West.)

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 231

II. Artificial feeding of young infants.

As many children have to be weaned during the early
months of life, it is necessary to know what is the best form of
artificial food, and to study the methods of adapting it to the
needs and digestive capacity of the average young infant. No
exact rule can be given to fit even the average case. Infant
feeding is both an art and a science.

A. Cow's milk is not the milk most like human milk, but it
is the best substitute for mother's milk at our disposal.
To be a fit food for human consumption and a safe food
for infant use, milk must be clean and free from preserva-
tives or other adulterants, free from disease germs, kept
cold after production and relatively fresh (under 36 hours).
(See the discussion in chapter XII.)

B. The most significant difference between cow's milk and
human milk is the low protein, low ash, and high sugar
content of human milk.

fat sugar proteim ash

Cow's milk 3-5-4% 4-5% 3-5% 0-7%

Human milk 3-5-4% 6.5% 1.5% 0.3%

The complete chemical composition should be looked up.

C. An artificially fed child should have water offered it
several times a day in addition to the food to insure a
normal intake during 24 hours.

D. The giving of fresh fruit juices (orange, apple, peach, etc.)
should be begun early in all artificially fed children to
insure normal nutrition. Orange juice may be begun as
early as the second month. Breast-fed children may also
be given water and fruit juices, but their use is not so
urgent.

E. Vegetable water may be used as a diluent, instead of
cereal water, and furnishes minerals and also the vita-
mines.

F. Modification of cow's milk for infant use.

I. In the past, from a mistaken notion that chemical
similarity would produce equal digestibility, the em-
phasis has been put on modification of cow's milk to
make it as like human milk as possible. Top milk or
cream mixtures were used.

232 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Artificial feeding of young infants (continued).

2. Now whole milk mixtures (4% fat) are generally used.
Whole milk is diluted with boiled water or cereal water,
and sugar is added. These mixtures have the advan-
tage of being —

a. Better suited to the average infant and produce nor-
mal growth and development.

b. Easier to digest. Mixtures relatively low in fat and
high in protein digest more readily in early life.

c. Simpler to prepare and more uniform.

d. Cheaper than high fat formulas.

G. Method of calculating the proper feeding mixture for an
infant.

1. The amount of food is calculated according to the
weight of the child, rather than its age. Its food should
give an average of 40 to 45 calories per pound of body
weight the first year and 40 calories per pound of body
weight the second year.

2. Most of the food should, of course, be milk. It has been
found that 1 1/2 ounces of whole milk per pound of body
weight is needed to maintain growth. An ounce just
maintains nitrogen equilibrium, 2 ounces approaches
the danger point in fat content. When beginning arti-
ficial feeding, use a low proportion of milk for the
weight of the child, and if the infant is very young or
if its digestive powers are weak, increase the food very
gradually.

3. Some additional sugar or other carbohydrate must be
given. (Refer above to the larger amount of sugar in
mother's milk than in cow's milk.) In the past, milk
sugar has been used, but it is more expensive than cane
sugar and has no significant advantage over it in nor-
mal cases. Malt sugar which has a laxative effect is
preferable to either cane or milk sugar, for the average
infant, but it is also expensive. Infants thrive best on
mixed carbohydrates; so besides the sugar in the milk
and the added sugar, cereal is added, at first as cereal
water as a diluent of the milk, and later as gruel.

4. Table for computing the calories and measuring the
food.

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 233

II. Artificial feeding of young infants (continued).

Calories Level teaspoonfuls
per ounce per ounce

Whole milk 20 4

7% milk 30 4

Milk sugar 117.0 9

Cane sugar 1 1 7.0 6

Malt sugar (dextri maltose: malt

sugar 51%, dextrin, 47%) .... Iio.o 10

Oatmeal 1 17.0 9

Wheat flour 102.0 12

Barley flour 102.5 15

5. Mineral salts need not be added, but as milk is rendered
more easily digested by alkali, sodium bicarbonate —
which is neither laxative nor constipating — or lime
water may be added. Boiling, diluting, and mixing
with cereals also increase the ease of digestion of the
protein.

6. After calculating the amount of milk and sugar indi-
cated by the weight, age, and digestive capacity of the
child, the mixture is diluted so as to furnish the proper
volume for the stomach of the infant (see H above).
Boiled water is used at first as the diluent, then thin
cereal water, and later gruel. (See West or Grulee.)

7. The intake of the average infant at feeding. The
amount offered should slightly exceed the stomach
capacity for a child of a given age. Example: A baby
six months old, weighing 14 pounds — stomach ca-
pacity at six months of age, 6 ounces; therefore, try 7
ounces at each feeding; five feedings of 7 ounces each
will give 35 ounces; l 1/2 ounces of milk for each
pound that the child weighs gives 21 ounces; i ounce
of sugar added.

Final Formula
Milk (whole). . . 21 ounces 441 calories

Water 14 ounces

Sugar I ounce 117 calories

558 calories or
40 calories per pound

234 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Normal weight curve in infancy.

The food of an artificially fed child should never be pushed
in order to obtain a more satisfactory gain in weight. The
main object during the early months is to avoid digestive
upset, until the digestive powers are established. A breast-
fed child should gain 6 to 8 ounces a week in the first six
months, and 2 to 3 ounces a week during the rest of the first
year. An artificially fed child may make a gain of only 2 to 4
ounces a week and still be doing satisfactorily. (See Grulee,
p. 70, for ideal and usual weight curves.)

IV. Signs of health.

Gradual steady gain in weight the first year of life is the
best index we have of health, but good color, quiet sleep, and
normal stools, digestive condition and physical activity, are
always to be considered. A rising weight curve may be
accompanied by dangerous symptoms, such as a pale, puffy
skin, restless sleep, constipation or diarrhoea, vomiting, and
listlessness. An excessive gain in weight in a bottle-fed child
(over 8 ounces a week) indicates over-feeding.

V. Outfit for the preparation of food and technique of food
preparation. (See Grulee or West.)

VI. The question of fresh, pasteurized, or sterilized milk for in-
fant use and of the use and abuse of patent or proprietary
foods should be discussed. (See Mendenhall, pp. 16-18, and
Grulee.)

VII. Infant hygiene.

The well-being of a young child depends largely on the
daily routine of its life and the detailed physical care given
him by his mother. The secret of healthy babies and a low-
ered infant mortality is to have more infants breast-fed and
properly cared for by their own mothers in their own homes.

VIII. Feeding of older children.

The question of the nutrition of the child population has
become one of the vital issues in the present world crisis.
The falling birth-rate and the loss of man power in war has
brought all civilized nations face to face with the necessity
of stopping the waste of life at its source and during the
early years of life.

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 235

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).
A. Weight as an index to nutrition.

1. The relation of the height to the weight in childhood
gives a rough index of whether or not health and
development are normal.

2. Children of the same age may vary greatly in height,
according to whether they come of tall or short par-
ents or whether their growth has been stunted by
lack of the proper food, by infectious diseases or by
remediable defects. Disregarding their age, children
of a given height, if their nutrition is properly main-
tained, should average nearly the same weight. Cer-
tainly any child 10% below the average weight for
his height should be considered in the physically sub-
normal class and in need of medical inspection.

3. A Table of Heights and Weights for Children under
16, just published by the United States Children's
Bureau, has been widely distributed.

4. The United States Children's Bureau is asking the
Nation this year to weigh and measure every child
under six years of age. This test was suggested in
order to make families and communities realize their
responsibility in regard to the nutrition of the child
population. It is also important as a preliminary to
the saving of one hundred thousand infants hitherto
unnecessarily sacrificed to neglect and to ignorance
of the proper care of the mother and her child.

B. The periods of life most easily affected by inadequate
food.

1. Early infancy. In the cities especially, a great deal
of work has been done to safeguard this period by
public health agencies. The child triples its original
weight during the first year and adds about 50%
to its height — a greater gain in weight than in any
other period. This is also the time of greatest brain
growth.

2. Adolescence. Here we have to consider a greater in-
crease in weight (roughly ten pounds a year) than at

236 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).

any other period after the first year of life, the devel-'
opment of important organs and the special strain on
the nervous system. Boys especially from 12 to 16
seem to need and to be able to use a diet far in excess
of the calorie value often thought necessary for their
age. Girls at this period frequently take too little
food.

C. Most neglected period of childhood.

The pre-school period from 2 to 6 years — the "run-
about period." In the tenements the child during this
time mostly takes care of himself and often has no settled
meals. Agencies to look after him are being developed
abroad (nursery schools) and are being advocated in
this country.

D. Effect of the war on the malnutrition of children.
I . Work in Europe.

a. Work along prenatal and infant welfare lines has
been intensified since the war. The infant death-
rate in Great Britain and Ireland in 1916 was
lower than before the war. The 1917 rate in Eng-
land and Wales has risen 6 points, but is even now
lower than the average rate in the United States
in times of peace. In France and Belgium, work
for the protection of maternity and early infancy
has also greatly increased. In France, children
under 2 years received special care and extra food
and the death-rate decreased. Those over 2 did not
receive this attention, and the death-rate increased.

b. In Germany the infant death-rate, since the be-
ginning of the war to the end of 1916, declined.
Reports seem to show that children under 8 are
still protected from any serious undernutrition.
From 8 to 18 years of age the conditions are very
serious, for the children, besides being under-
nourished, are overworked and subject to great
strain. In Dresden, for example, they get about
1200 calories per day, except the very wealthy

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 237

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).

who can afford to supplement the ration. The
children are told not to run or to play vigorous
games or take long walks.
c. In the child population over 2, reports from Eu-
rope show, in general, a gradual increase in the
amount of malnutrition and of diseases such as
tuberculosis which are influenced by inadequate
food.
2. In this country,
a. Before the war.

(i) The prevalence of malnutrition in both city
and country is shown by such an investiga-
tion as Dr. Thomas D. Wood's survey of the
comparative health of rural and city school
children. In this survey, malnutrition and re-
mediable defects were found in considerably
greater proportion in rural children than in
city children.

(2) Undernutrition is not confined to the children
of the poor. In a study of over 5000 children
in Boston, ' some of those found undernour-
ished came from well-to-do families.

(3) This malnutrition is due in part to ignorance
and neglect as well as to poverty and can best
be met by teaching proper food habits. The
meals offered children are often hopelessly
inadequate: coffee and a sweet bun for break-
fast, a noon luncheon bought with a few pen-
nies in the city at the cake or candy shop, or
in rural districts, a few scraps from breakfast
and a piece of soggy pie, and a meager supper
that cannot make up for the inadequacies of
the other meals.

(4) General enlightenment on the essentials of an
adequate diet and popular teaching on the
planning of meals are needed. School lunches
and the hot noonday meal in rural schools
should be instituted.

238 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).
b. Since the war.

The high cost of living and ignorant substitu-
tion in the matter of customary foodstuffs must
lead to a marked increase of undernutrition, es-
pecially at the periods of most active growth, un-
less active preventive measures are undertaken.
Reports from our large cities show that this ca-
lamity has already overtaken us. In the New York
public schools, the cases of grave malnutrition
rose from 6% in 1916, to 12% in 1917.

E. Essentials in the diet of the child.

1. The diet of young animals relative to their size must
contain more body-building material than the diet
of adult animals. Food for growth must contain an
abundance of protein, minerals, vitamines, as well
as afford abundant fuel.

2. The protein for the best growth and development of

the child must consist, in part at least, of animal
protein.

a. Animal protein is found in milk, eggs, meat, in-
cluding fish and fowl. Of these milk is the most
valuable for the child.

b. The protein of certain vegetables and nuts is ade-
quate for body-building purposes, but it is doubt-
ful if, aside from laboratory experiments on lower
animals, these foods can be used as the sole source
of protein to produce the best growth and develop-
ment in the average child. Undoubtedly, however,
life can be sustained on a vegetable diet alone.

3. Character of the diet.

a. Indispensable articles of food in childhood. Plenty
of whole milk, or skim milk with butter, green
vegetables, especially leaf vegetables and cereals,

b. Desirable articles: some eggs or meat — including
fish and fowl — fruits and sugar.

F. Diet during the second year of life.

I . Four meals a day, occasionally five, including —

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 239

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).

a. A quart of milk a day, rarely more.

b. Cereals and breadstuffs.

c. Fruit juice and pulp — fresh or cooked.

d. Vegetable soup or broth or vegetable pulp.

e. Coddled egg.

2. For details of meals see Mendenhall and Daniels, or
Rose. (See References.)

G. Diet from the third year throughout childhood.

1. Number of meals. From the third year, three meals
a day are sufficient for the normal child. Eating be-
tween meals is a matter of habit, and should be dis-
couraged except in the subnormal individual, as the
child eats no more food and the digestion is overtaxed
with too many meals.

2. Noon dinner. Children do better with the heavy meal
at noon. Night dinners are especially bad for the
young child. Light suppers produce quieter sleep and
a better appetite for breakfast.

3. Forbidden foods for young children. (See Menden-

hall and Daniels, or West.)

4. Food groups to be represented in the diet. The indis-

pensable and desirable foods in childhood have been
previously mentioned and are well summarized in
Hunt's two bulletins given in the References. New
foods must be introduced gradually and carefully into
the child's diet. Palatability and appetite have to be
considered more as the child grows older.

5. The amount of food taken increases as the child in-

creases in size. The calorie need per pound weight
gradually falls.

6. Details concerning meals. (See Hunt and Rose.)

H. Serious errors in diet. Diet in childhood may be —

I. Deficient in the essential vitamines, causing beri-beri
(deficient in water-soluble B) or xerophthalmia (de-
ficient in fat-soluble A.).

240 FOOD AND THE WAR

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).

2. Insufficient in general or deficient in various essentials
causing such diseases as pellagra, general malnutrition
or obscure nutritional diseases, rickets, and possibly
scurvy. The causes of rickets and scurvy are still in
debate.

a. Rickets is a derangement of metabolism, chiefly
of calcium and phosphorus, causing local or gen-
eral disturbance in the normal process of ossifica-
tion. Diets deficient in fat and high in carbohy-
drates are frequently followed by this disease. It is
less common and less severe in breast-fed children
and appears most often between 6 and 1 8 months
of age.

b. Scurvy is characterized by a tendency to hemor-
rhage. It is rare in the breast-fed, but common in
artificially fed, infants during the second half of
the first year. It seems to appear more frequently
in children fed condensed or stale milk. It is
easily cured by lemon or orange juice, or the juice
of fresh vegetables. (See Mendenhall for further
discussion.)

I. War substitutes in the child's diet.

1. There is no substitute food for milk or green vege-

tables.

2. Fish and chicken are in many ways better for a child

than beef.

3. One cereal is just as good as another if well cooked.

Some individuals have difficulty with cellulose in
coarse cereals. Quick-baked breads or cereals cooked
for a short time are difficult for immature or weak
digestive powers.

4 "Victory" bread contains nothing injurious to the
small children and can be given to an infant if stale or
oven dried. (American Pediatric Society, 1918.)
J. General directions for the child's diet.

I. Do not restrict the child's diet.

a. Give an abundance of food at regular meal-time.

THE FEEDING OF CHILDREN 241

VIII. Feeding of older children (continued).

Teach the doctrine of the full dinner plate before
teaching the clean dinner plate.

b. Cut out eating between meals. It spoils the appe-
tite for regular meals and actually decreases the
amount of food taken in 24 hours. The food chosen
between meals is apt to be less easily digested and
injurious to the child — candy, nuts, sweet cakes,
etc. Besides, the habit is wasteful.

c. A varied diet is an advantage. Children should be
encouraged to like new foods. There is more dan-
ger that a diet restricted to a few articles may be
inadequate than there is with a varied diet.

2. Three meals a day after the third year should be given,
except the mid-morning lunch (milk or milk and oat-
meal cracker) advocated for subnormal school children.

3. Arrange for a hot noonday meal for the school child
who takes this meal at school. Every child needs a sub-
stantial warm noonday meal.

4 . It is the parents' duty to select an adequate diet for the
child, to provide appetizing, well-cooked meals, and to
enforce discipline. The child, if well, should eat what is
put before it and not be allowed to leave uneaten por-
tions.

K. Periods of diet to be studied in childhood:

1. Early infancy. The change from milk diet to solid food.

2. Diet from 2 to 6. Gradual introduction of new foods.
The food should be well-cooked, mashed, and finely
divided. Hard crusts may be included to develop the
power of mastication.

3. Diet from 6 to 12. A varied, abundant diet; noon
dinner.

4. Diet during adolescence. Special requirements because
of growth and the development of new functions.

242 FOOD AND THE WAR

REFERENCES ON ADEQUATE DIET

Choose Your Food Wisely. United States Food Leaflet No. 4.
Editorial. "The Cost of Adequate Nutrition." Journal of the

American Medical Association, 70, p. 312. February 2, 1918.
Editorial. "The Food of the Poorer Classes in War-Time." Ibid.,

70, p. 234. January 26, 1918.
Editorial. "Unwise Economics in Diet.'' Ibid., 69, p. 1435. 1917.
Hunt, C. L. "A Quick Method of Calculating Food Values." Jour-
nal of Home Economics, 10, p. 212. May, 1918.
Hunt, C. L., and Atwater, H. C. How to Select Foods. I. What the

Body Needs. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin

808.
Lauck, W. J. Cost of Living and the War. Cleveland: Doyle &

Waltz Printing Co., 1918.
Lusk, G. The Elements of the Science of Nutrition, chaps. 12 and 21.

Saunders, 1917.
Rose, M. S. Feeding the Family. Saunders, 1917.
Sherman, H. C. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. Macmillan, 1918.
Stiles, P. G. An Adequate Diet. Harvard University Press, 1916.

REFERENCES ON THE DIET OF CHILDREN

Editorial. "The Food Requirement of Healthy Children." Journal
of the American Medical Association, 67, p. 1698. 1917.

Grulee, C. C. Infant Feeding. Saunders, 1917.

Holt, L. E. Diseases of Infancy find Childhood. See "Feeding"'
chapters. Appleton, 1917.

Hoobler, B. R. "Effect on Human Milk Production of Diets con-
taining Various Forms and Quantities of Protein. American
Journal of Diseases of Children, i^, p. 105. 1917. See also Journal
of the American Medical Association, l/\, p. 421. 1917.

Hunt, C. L. Food for Young Children. U.S. Department of Agricul-
ture, Farmers' Bulletin 717.

Hunt. C. L. School Lunches. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 712.

Lucas, W. P. "Work of the Children's Bureau, Department of
Civil Affairs, American Red Cross, France." Journal of the Amer-
can Medical Association, 71, p. 359. August 3, 1918.

REFERENCES 243

Meigs, G. "Infant Welfare in War-Time.'' Journal of Diseases oj

Children, 14, 80. 1917.
Meigs, G. L. "The Children's Year Campaign." Journal of the

American Medical Association, 71, p. 243. July 27, 1918.
Mendenhall, D. R., and Daniels, A. What to Feed Children. Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, Circular 69.
Mendenhall, D. R. Milk. U.S. Department of Labor, Children's

Bureau Publications No. 35. 1918.
Rose, M. S. Feeding the Family, chaps. 6, 8, 9, 10. Macmillan,

1917.
Sadler, W. S. and L. K. The Motlier and her Child. MacClung,

1916.
West, M. Infant Care. U.S. Department of Labor, Children's

Bureau. Publication No. 8. Child Care. Publication No. 30.
West, M. Prenatal Care. U.S. Department of Labor, Children's

Bureau. Publication No. 4.
United States Food Leaflet No. 7.

CHAPTER XV

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY

This chapter deals with some of the community
efforts to solve the feeding problem.

I. Public kitchens.

A. Cqmmunity or mass feeding has been carried
out to a much greater extent abroad than in this
country, especially since the war. In the United
States the necessity for public kitchens has not
yet been felt strongly enough for any widespread
movement for their establishment, although a
few have been started.

B. Impetus given the movement abroad by the
war due to —

1. Prevalence of underfeeding, especially among
children.

2. The large number of women at work away
from their households.

3. Difficulty of getting food, the annoying wait-
ing in "queues." The marked development
of public kitchens abroad has followed the
introduction of rations, and their success is
due in part to the fact that more value for
the food card can be obtained at the kitchen
than at home.

4. Difficulty in obtaining servants.

5. The conservation of food as well as fuel pos-
sible in large-scale cooking.

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 245

I. Public kitchens {continued).

C. Two kinds from an economic standpoint to be
discussed —

1. Those which do not pay expenses and supply
food below cost or free, the money being
furnished by individuals or by the authorities.
Before the war this was the prevailing type —
charity organizations which fed the poor free
or at a low cost. As far back as the last decade
of the eighteenth century, Count Rumford
established kitchens for large-scale feeding of
the poor in Munich, London, and Dublin.

2. Those whose prices are such as to cover all
costs, but not to allow a profit. The line
between these two kinds cannot often be
clearly drawn. For example, at times a build-
ing or part or all of the equipment is pro-
vided, and the sales, therefore, do not have
to cover rent and part of the invested capital.

D. The war has brought many interesting develop-

ments, but especially noteworthy is the
establishment, without any stigma of charity,
of kitchens which pay their own expenses
and are of the greatest convenience to their
patrons. To patronize them means no loss of
self-respect, as they are democratic institu'
tions started by the authorities, owned by
the community, and operated without profit.

E. In England.

I. At first the Ministry of Food had to contend
with much prejudice among the middle class.
This has been largely overcome by the

246 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Public kitchens {continued).

kitchens themselves and the need for them,
as well as by the vigorous support of the
Ministry.
2. Organization. The kitchens are scientifically
planned and have a capable and economical
management.

a. A Defense of the Realm Act provides that
a local authority such as a city or rural
council, the mayor or aldermen may estab-
lish and maintain a National Kitchen and
as many distributing depots as necessary.
The power may be delegated to the local
food committee.

b. The Government will provide 25% of the
initial outlay and loan 25% more. The
local authorities must supply the remain-
ing 50%. They are conducted on a self-
supporting basis and have no volunteer
help.

c. A director of National Kitchens has been
appointed under the Ministry of Food.

d. All kinds of buildings are used — park
buildings, public baths, kitchens serving
school lunches, etc.

e. The service depends somewhat on the
community and the available space. In
some places there is a cafeteria service, or
the cooked food may be taken home. In
others, all the food is eaten at home. Usu-
ally only dinner is served. Two methods
are in vogue — cooking at separate kitch-

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 247

I. Public kitchens (continued).

ens in various parts of the city, and
cooking at one central kitchen and sending
it to distributing depots.

f . Two National Kitchens have been es-
tablished as experimental models, one of
which is in London.

g. In places where shops for the sale of cooked
food exist, the authorities may cooperate
with them and enlarge the extent and scope
of their work.

3. Success.

a. Some have been in successful operation for
over a year. On March 26, 1918, Lord
Rhondda reported that there were 47
kitchens and distributing depots in Lon-
don, 75 in Greater London, and a total
of 250 in the whole country.

b. One example is that of the People's Kitchen
at Hammersmith, London. It supplies
6000 customers a week, which represents
probably from 12,000 to 15,000 consumers,
as many customers buy for their families.
Another in South London, an industrial
community, serves about 2000 meals a day.
At Bradford, the food is prepared at the
central school lunch kitchen and is distrib-
uted by motor vans in heat-proof vessels
to convenient centers. No food is eaten
at the depots, but it is carried home for the
family meal.

4. Price of meals.

The prices to an American seem surpris-

248 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Public kitchens (continued).

ingly low, especially in the face of the food
shortage, but it must be remembered • that
standards of wages as well as living are lower
abroad. A dinner can be bought for as little
as 1 6 cents. Some of the prices quoted for one
kitchen on March 22, 1918, are: carrot soup,
id. the pint, a serving of fish roll, 2d., of beef-
steak pudding, 4.d., of rice pudding, i 1/2 d.,
two large potatoes, id. At " the Bradford
kitchens, meat dishes were 6d., soup 3<f.,
and puddings 31^.
F. In Germany. No complete survey is possible.

1. Up to the middle of 1916, the public kitchens
were largely philanthropic, but Germany saw
the necessity of greater development before
the Allied countries did.

2. A strong movement for cost-price kitchens
began about August, 1916. They were often
started by town councils which provided
capital and equipment. Munich offered a
course of instruction in the management of
these kitchens as early as November, 1916.
They were officially approved. The President
of the War Food Bureau asked that they get
their full coal requirements as important war
industries. The War Food Committee urged
their initiation wherever needed.

3. Various types, of kitchens exist, both middle-
class and philanthropic. Some industrial
concerns feed their workers' families. In some
cases free meals are given. Children and

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 249

I. Public kitchens (continued).

soldiers' families may get meals more cheaply
than civilians. Cooked meals are also deliv-
ered; e.g., Diisseldorf uses its tram cars and
some cities have motor conveyances.
4. The extent of the use of the kitchens depends
on the quality and quantity of the rations.
When the rations are generous, the attend-
ance at the kitchens falls off. It is difficult
to estimate the number of meals served.
Of the 563 communes of 10,000 or more in-
habitants, only 56 had no arrangements for
mass feeding. In most towns only a midday
dinner was served. In Berlin the Lokal Anzei-
ger of September 19, 1917, states that there
are almost a hundred kitchens for the middle
class and officials, and soup kitchens which
serve daily 35,000 portions of foods, 14,000
portions of soup, and 8000 portions of bone
soup.^
G. In Austria.

The war-kitchen movement has developed to
an extraordinary extent. There is a Central
Union of Commercial War Kitchens which
assures supplies to all such kitchens in Vienna
and all of lower Austria. All buying is done by
a purchasing department. The size of the kitch-
ens varies — they feed from 30 to 7000 in the
different kitchens. The midday meal costs from
30 to 47 cents. (Die Zeit, September 19, 1917;
the paper states further that it is doubtful
whether these prices can be maintained.) ^

* Maylander, A. Food Situation in Central Europe. TJ.S. Bureau of Labor Sta-
tistics, Bulletin 242. ' Ibid., p. 99.

250 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Public kitchens {continued).

H. In Italy.

The fuel shortage in 19 17 caused an extensive
development of "family restaurants" in the
big cities. The foundation was often the restau-
rant that had existed in cooperative society
stores.
I. In Belgium.

Community cooked-food centers on a large scale
all over Belgium were established by the Com-
mission for Relief in Belgium. They include :

1. The "soupes," kitchens at which men and
women — '- a million of them — are supplied
once each day with thick soup and bread.
Very occasionally a small piece of herring
can be supplied.

2. Dining-rooms for infants in almost every one
of the 3000 "communes" in Belgium. Some
communes have several.

3. Similar dining-rooms giving a meal each day
to weak and defective children.

4. School lunches in practically every schools
house.

5. Canteens providing cooked food for expectant
and nursing mothers.

II. Restaurants or canteens in commercial establish-
ments.

These are increasing rapidly with the realization
of their social importance and the knowledge that
the employee does better work if he is well fed.

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 251

II. Restaurants in commercial establishments (cowf(i).

A. United States.

1. A survey made by the Bureau of Labor
(published in December, 1917) gives a pic-
ture of the extent of these restaurants in the
United States. Of 431 typical establishments,
representing a great variety of industries,
stores, and offices, 52% had either restau-
rants or cafeterias. They were patronized
by about a fourth of the employees. The
lunch-rooms were frequently run at a deficit.

2. The War Department is developing lunch-
rooms as an important part, of the welfare
work in some of the many factories producing
munitions and other war supplies.

B. England.

The Health of Munitions Workers Committee
(January, 1916) emphasized the need for fac-
tory restaurants and furnished complete direc-
tions for their establishment and equipment.
In June, 1917, the Minister of Munitions re-
ported canteen accommodations in national
and controlled factories for somewhat less than
half of the 1 1 ,750,000 employees. A later report
(October) says that over half are now supplied
with restaurants. Canteens are required where-
ever women are employed at night.

III. College commons.

A well-developed and important form of com-
munity feeding.

IV. School lunches.

A. The school lunch is one of our best-developed

252 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. School lunches (continued).

types of community feeding, but there are still
far too few of them. Though feeding only one
group in the community, many of the same prob-
lems are involved as with the other forms of
community feeding and they offer the same
opportunities for improving nutritive condi-
tions. They can easily be developed into com-
munity food centers supplying after-school
demonstrations to the women of the neighbor-
hood, serving as canning and drying centers,
and being available in emergencies.

B. History of the school-lunch movement, including its great
development abroad, its beginnings in this country in
Philadelphia in 1894, and its slow but steady spread to
many other cities and rural neighborhoods, is well given
in Bryant's School Feeding. (See References.)

C. Methods of initiating and financing school
lunches.

1. Groups of public-spirited citizens, women's
clubs, groups of parents, etc., have frequently
paid for equipment and given volunteer serv-
ice.

2. The city or school district in the rural com-
munity sometimes initiates the lunches, but
more often takes them over after private
groups have shown their necessity and value.

3. The cost of the food, and sometimes of the
service, but not the cost of the original equip-
ment, is met by the children's pennies.

D. Kinds of lunches served.

The constant problem is to give as much food,

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 253

IV. School lunches (continued).

as many calories, and other food requirements
as possible, for the children's pennies. This is
made possible by economical management and
by intelligent, large-scale buying.

1. In rural schools. In one-room schools usu-
ally one hot dish, soup, stew, or cocoa is pre-
pared often from the food that the children
themselves contribute instead of from pur-
chased food. This is supplemented from the
child's lunch-box. In the consolidated schools
one or more hot dishes can be prepared in
the cooking laboratory.

2. In city elementary schools.

a. A number of different foods are for sale,
each portion costing a penny — milk, nutri-
tious soups, cocoa, peanut butter, meat and
jelly sandwiches, and fruits. With the in-
creasing cost of food the size of portions
has had to be reduced. An adequate lunch
cannot be bought for several cents.

b. Ingenuity on the part of the manager,
variety in the food, and consideration of
the wishes of the children are essential
if the children are to be led to patronize
the school lunch rather than the push-cart
man outside.

3. In rooms for tubercular or subnormal chil-
dren maintained in some places by philan-
thropy.

A fairly elaborate lunch, equivalent to al-
most half of the child's daily needs is often

254 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. School lunches (continued).

served. In 1917 the Elizabeth McCormick
Fund in Chicago served such meals for as
little as 13 cents per child. Extremely careful
large-scale purchasing is necessary.

4. In high schools.

In the high schools a somewhat different
problem from that of the elementary school
is presented. The lunch-rooms are more like
the ordinary inexpensive cafeterias. In some
places they are run by caterers. Usually
cheaper and better-balanced meals are served
when they are in charge of a dietitian and
run in connection with the domestic science
department.
E. Some results often following the introduction

of school lunches.

1. Increased mental alertness of the children.
Teachers almost invariably comment upon
this and upon the greater ease of discipline.

2. Lessened malnutrition. Marked gain in
weight is noticeable only with the more elab-
orate lunches. Many illustrations might be
given. (See chapter IV for the importance
of fighting against malnutrition in school
children.)

a. A striking and frequently quoted example
is the experiment in Bradford, England,
in 1907, where about 40 of the most needy
children were given two meals daily for
three months and their gain in weight
compared with that of a similar group

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 255

IV. School lunches (continued).

getting their meals as usual at home. The
first group of children gained 21/2 pounds,
and the others i 1/4 pounds.

b. The "food scouts" of Public School No.
40, New York City, were a group of 25
boys from a malnutrition clinic, which for
ten weeks were given a noonday meal
ranging from 900 to 1200 calories. The
children themselves were greatly interested,
their mothers' cooperation was secured, and
revolutionary changes wrought in the home
diet of the children, chiefly the dropping of
tea and coffee and the use of milk. The
constipation from which almost all the
children were suffering at the beginning
was corrected by liberal use of coarse breads
and fruits. All but one of the boys gained
in weight, 15 of them from i to 4 pounds
more than the normal gain. Those who
gained less were handicapped by colds,
sore throats, etc., or by the lack of cooper-
ation of the mother.

3. Important educational advantages.

a. The lunches can be a great socializing and
Americanizing influence.

b. Children can be taught to eat the "foods
that build strong boys and girls," and to
have high ideals of health.

C. The parents can be taught by the lessons
brought home by the children.

256 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. School lunches (continued).

d. The Food Administration's requests as to
substitutes can be followed and made prac-
ticable to the children and their parents.

V. Cooperative stores and buying clubs.

"One of the products of war is the cooperative
organization of consumers. Throughout the coun-
try, buying clubs, canning clubs, community gar-
dens and kitchens are spontaneously being formed
on grounds either of economy or of food conserva-
tion." The organizers and members "should study
cooperative literature and acquire the vicarious
cooperative experience which it affords." ^

A. The need. This has been felt especially in Europe.

1. A movement to lower the cost of living by giving to
the consumer the advantage of large-scale buying.

2. The increase of food prices as a result of the war has
awakened more people to a desire to take action them-
selves to lower costs and to acquire for themselves the
middleman's profits.

3. Public price control is less successful in reaching the
retailers than the wholesalers or the food manufac-
turers. For example, it is possible to control the max-
imum price paid for meat at the great packing-houses,
but more difficult to prevent the rise of retail prices if
there is a local shortage in the retail markets of a town.

B. The efficiency of cooperative associations to serve the
consumers in war-time is shown by the increase of the
sales of the 12 chief cooperative wholesale societies in
Europe from 1(360,000,000 in 1915 to $500,000,000 in 1916.

C. Cooperative stores in Great Britain.

I. This movement was begun in 1844 in the now famous

^ James Ford, Annotated Bibliography of Consumers' Cooperation. The Sur-
"ey, 39, p. 517. February 9, 1918.

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 257

V. Cooperative stores and buying clubs {continued).
Rochdale store by 28 flannel weavers who had just
emerged from an unsuccessful strike.

2. Some of their principles of action, which are also prin-
ciples of successful cooperative enterprises everywhere:

a. "One member, one vote.''

b. Market prices asked for goods — no credit allowed.

c. Shares of small size and only a low rate of interest
paid on them. Net profits divided among members
in proportion to their purchases.

d. Management in the hands of the officers and a com-
mittee elected periodically.

e. Cooperative associations are thus absolutely demo-
cratic and open to everybody. They utilize the
higher ability of the working-classes which has been
called by the English economist Marshall "the
waste product in the world's history."

3. Development before the war.

a. The cooperative stores grew slowly at first and then
astonishingly fast. In 1914 there were over 3,000,-
000 members, comprising, with the families of the
members, between one-fourth and one-fifth of the
whole population of Great Britain; 1400 retail stores
with many branches, and two great wholesale so-
cieties; and a trade in both retail and wholesale
societies of $650,000,000.

b. The retail association expanded so as to form whole-
sale societies to furnish a "cooperative source of
supply." These are federations of retail associa-
tions. They carry on a large and varied business —
buying, banking, farming, and manufacturing. They
own the four largest flour mills and the largest boot
and shoe factory in Great Britain.

4. Some effects of the war.

a. The cooperative stores have proved a highly advan-
tageous means of keeping retail prices at a reason-
able level. They kept their goods as long as possible

258 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Cooperative stores and buying clubs (continued).
at pre-war prices, and thus, by competition, les-
sened the rise in price by profiteering retailers and
so saved money to all the consumers in Great Bri-
tain.

b. When, to the satisfaction of the cooperators, gov-
ernment regulation of prices was introduced, the
prices adopted were often those of the wholesale
societies.

c. Membership in the cooperative societies has vastly
increased. In 1917 there were over 4,000,000 mem-
bers.

D. In France.

1. Great progress has been made since 1914 both in the
rapid growth of membership and in the extent of the
transactions. The shortage of foodstuffs and the general
advance in prices have attracted the so-called middle
classes.

2. In Paris, the Government has made great use of the
cooperative societies, has given over to them the dis-
tribution of milk, coal, and frozen meat, has advanced
them funds for equipping motor vans to sell goods to
soldiers at the front, and has entrusted them with
much of the war relief work.

E. In the neutral countries, the development has been no less
pronounced.

F. Cooperative stores in the United States.

America has lagged far behind Europe. Organizations
of consumers have developed here less rapidly than organi-
zations of producers. Almost no cooperative stores have
succeeded that have catered to the well-to-do. Most of
the successes have been among immigrants. Many stores
have started and failed. In 1917 there were estimated to
be over 800 in the United States.

G. Buying clubs in the United States.

Buying clubs are merely groups united for the purpose
of getting food at wholesale rates.

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 259

V. Cooperative stores and buying clubs (continued).

1. A great many of these, both large and small, are in
existence all over the country and the number is in-
creasing rapidly.

2. As a war-time measure, yielding quick results, buying
clubs have many advantages over the cooperative
stores — much greater simplicity of organization, no
need for capital, and almost complete elimination of
overhead expenses such as cartage, rents, taxes, insur-
ance, clerks, advertising, and depreciation.

3. They have besides most of the advantages of the co-
operative stores — reducing the number of middlemen,
buying in quantity at wholesale prices or better, buy-
ing and selling for cash, and eliminating unsalable
stock because the members agree beforehand on the
amount they will buy.

4. They are especially economical in the purchasing of
staples and canned goods, where delay in delivery is
not serious. In buying sugar, cereals, and canned goods
there may be a large saving even by as small a group
as ten. According to Sullivan, twenty heads of families
clubbing together can buy a side of beef, a dressed pig,
or a whole mutton and save as much as 38%.

5. Clubs are especially successful among groups of em-
ployees of manufacturing concerns. Their community
of interest and taste, their common pay-day, and their
chance for a common meeting-place makes group buy-
ing logical. Frequently they have access to the storage
facilities and unloading platform of their firms and
sometimes they have received an advance of funds.

H. Clubs have often failed or approached failure in city

neighborhoods because of a lack of common interests.
I. In organizing and running a buying club strict business
methods must be followed.
VI. Canning clubs, cooperative and otherwise, are discussed in
the next chapter.
"VII. Agricultural cooperation in the United States.

A. Farmers' organizations have been developed much
more than cooperative associations of consumers.

26o FOOD AND THE WAR

VII. Agricultural cooperation in United States (cont'd).

B. The Department of Agriculture now has the names of
about 14,000 organizations. These transact approxi-
mately $1,500,000,000 of business annually.

1. The leading cooperative States are Minnesota, with,
almost 1000 organizations in 1914, Iowa with 500, Wis-
consin with 400. No State is without some coopera-
itive society.

2. The chief cooperative organizations are elevators,
creameries, wholesale and retail stores, cheese fac-
tories, and companies dealing in fruit, produce, cot-
ton, tobacco, and live-stock.

VIII. Public markets.

A good method for the direct sale of perishables to the
consumer by the producer.

A. These are by no means new — formerly every town and
village had one, but of recent years they have grown into
favor in many of the large cities.

B. Sales may be made from stalls in a regular market house
owned by the city or by individuals, or from the wagon
of the farmer drawn up at the curb — a curb market.

C. It is suggested that interested students study the mar-
ket conditions in their own town, and the facilities
afforded farmers to market their produce directly to
the consumer.

REFERENCES

Andrews, I. O., and Hobbs, M. Economic Effect of the War on
Women and Children in Great Britain. Carnegie Endowment for
International Peace. New York.

Bassett, C. E., and Jesness, O. B. Cooperative Organization By-
Laws. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 54.

Bassett, C. E. "The Cooperative Purchase of Farm Supplies."'
U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook. 1915.

Bassett, C. E., and Kerr, W. H. The Community Egg Circle. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 656.

Bassett, Moomaw, and Kerr. "Cooperative Marketing and Fi--
nance." U.S. Department of Agriculture Yearbook, 1914.

FOOD AND THE COMMUNITY 261

Bexell, MacPherson, and Kerr. A Suroey of Typical Cooperative
Stores in the United Slates. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bulletin 394. 1916.

Brown, E. "Feeding School Children." Journal of Home Econo-
mics, 7, p. 119. 1915.

Bryant, L. S. School Feeding. Lippincott, 1913.

Durand, E. C, and Price, H. B. Cooperative Buying by Farmers'
Clubs in Minnesota. University of Minnesota, Bulletin 167.
1917.

Durand, E., and Robotka, Frank. Cooperative Stores in Minnesota.
University of Minnesota, Bulletin 171.

Ford, J. Annotated Bibliography of Consumers' Cooperation. The
Survey, 39, p. 517. February 9, 1918.

Ford, J. Cooperation in New England, Urban and Rural. Russell
Sage Foundation. 1 91 3.

Harrison, F., and Percival, O. B. The Rural School Lunch. Uni-
versity of Illinois. 1916.

Henderson, E. F. "War Orphans and Child Welfare in Germany."
The Survey, 40, p. 39. April 13, 1918.

Hunt, C. L. School Lunches. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 712.

Jesness, O. B., and Kerr, W. H. Cooperative Purchasing and Mar-
keting Organizations among Farmers in the United States. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 547. Contains a bibliog-
raphy.

King, C. L. Lower Living Cost in Cities. Appleton, 1915.

Laidler, H. W. The British Cooperative Movement. Published by
the Cooperative League of America. 1917.

Perky, C. W. Cooperation in the United States. New York Inter-
Collegiate Socialist Society. 1917.

Powell, G. H. Cooperation in Agriculture. Macmillan, 1913.

"Public Kitchens Abroad." National Food Journal, i, p. 293- April
10, 1918.

Public Markets in the United States. Second report of a committee
of the National Municipal League. Philadelphia, 1917.

Report of the Chicago Board of Education. 1916.

Sullivan, J. W. Markets for the People. Macmillan, 1913.

Terman, C. L. The Hygiene of the Child. Houghton, Mifflin, 1914.

Whitney, A. L. "Lunch-Rooms for Employees." U.S. Bureau of
Labor Statistics, Monthly Review, 5, p. 207. 1917.

CHAPTER XVI
THE WORK FOR FOOD CONSERVATION

This chapter is an effort to give a picture of the work
in food conservation being done throughout the coun-
try, especially by the women. No complete survey of
the work done or in progress would be possible at this
time. The chapter merely presents statements of a few
of the lines that have been followed with marked suc-
cess in one or in many places, to serve as suggestions
to those in the work, and especially to give students a
glimpse of the diversity and extent of the movement of
which they are a part.

I. The chief state agencies working in food conserva-
tion.

The orgainizations in the various States differ,
so that a State may not have all of these agencies.
A. The United States Food Administration.

I. The Federal Food Administrator in each
State appointed by the President. The deal-
ings of the Washington office of the Food
Administration with the States are conducted
through this officer. General instructions and
information on food shortages and on poli-
cies are sent to him. His duties include the
enforcement of Food Administration rulings,
and the solution of special problems of distri-
bution of food in his State. Much of his work
is carried out through his appointees in the

FOOD CONSERVATION 2^3

I. Chief state agencies in food conservation (cont'd).
counties, districts, and cities, and through the
various members of his staff such as the State
Merchant Representative, the Library Di-
rector, and the Educational Director.

2. The Home Economics Director, a woman
appointed by the Federal Food Administra-
tor with the sanction of the United States
Food Administration. She is a member of the
staff of the Federal Food Administrator and
is in charge of the conservation of food in the
homes. Instructions and information from
Washington go to her either through the
Federal Food Administrator or directly from
the Home Conservation Division of the Food
Administration in Washington. She usually
has a group of her appointees and their
committees in the different sections of the
State.

3. The Secretary of Volunteer College Students,
to make effective use of the college women.

B. The Women's Committee of the Council of
National Defense through its chairman of con-
servation.

In many States this is the same woman as
the State Home Economics Director.

C. The United States Department of Agriculture
and the State Agricultural Colleges which
jointly employ many extension workers.

I. These workers have been in the field for a
number of years. After we entered the war.
Congress authorized an emergency appro-

264 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Chief state agencies in food conservation {cont'd).
priation which has. enabled them to extend
their number and usefulness. Because of the
greater age of their organization, it is possible
to give more figures on their accomplishments
than for some of the other conservation
agencies.
2. The organization.

a. Each State has a Home Demonstration Leader who
in many States is also the State Home Economics
Director and the Conservation Chairman for the
Women's Committee of the Council of National
Defense. In the States where these offices are not
held by one woman, there is usually close coopera-
tion.

b. Agents under the direction of the Home Demonstra-
tion Leader are assigned to a rural or urban com-
munity at the request of a group of people, made
either to the Director of Extension Work at the
State College or to the Department of Agriculture.
Part of the funds must be raised locally by an
appropriation from taxes, or by the board of trade
or other organizations.

c. The work is nationally administered in two sections,
north and west, and south. The Southern States,
where the work was started, have over a thousand
agents and they are considered the greatest single
educational force in the South. The first Home Dem-
onstration Agent in the North and West was ap-
pointed in the fall of 1914. There are now over 600
agents and leaders and the work is making great
strides.

3. Scope of work.

a. It is now directly connected with food conservation,
but includes also all phases of home work.

b. The agent is often responsible for the organization of
her community arid the development of its work.

FOOD CONSERVATION 265

. Chief state agencies in food conservation (cont'd).

c. Canning, garden, and poultry clubs are some of the
most important phases of the work. In the Southern
States the canning clubs had a membership in 1917
of almost 62,000 girls. Besides canning, each girl
cultivates a tenth of an acre garden. There are al-
most 4000 home demonstration clubs for women
and 3000 women are members of poultry clubs. All
the clubs use the same mark on their products —
the"4H."

d. In order to extend her service the Home Demonstra-
tion Agent trains volunteer assistants which help in
giving demonstrations for the conservation of specific
foods. This volunteer work offers an opportunity for
college women to supplement the work of the paid
agents of the Government. In Toledo, Ohio, for ex-
ample, there were thirty-four of these trained volun-
teer workers.

D. Public and private schools, colleges, universi-
ties, and normal schools.

These have done much in food conservation
through their own teaching and through the
public work of the faculty and students.

1. This college course was given during the win-
ter and spring of 19 18 in over 700 colleges and
normal schools, the students in the courses
numbering about 40,000. In other colleges
the material was incorporated in courses
which had already been planned. Courses
were also given in the summer schools.

2. To those who satisfactorily completed their
work a certificate was awarded by the Food
Administration.

3. In order to use these students and other col-
lege women to best advantage, a State Sec-

266 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Chief state agencies in food conservation (cont'd).
retary of Volunteer College Workers was ap-
pointed in 191 8 at the end of the academic year
to direct their work. Each student was asked
to sign up for volunteer work and her name
was then sent to the Secretary of her State.
I The records of the number of girls and their
work are not yet complete, but there are an
average of 300 girls working in each State.
(One State has over iioo volunteers.) They
have been organizing and assisting in canning
and drying clubs, in exhibits and demon-
strations. They have also rendered valuable
clerical help in the offices of the Food Admin-
istration in their localities, have written for
the newspapers, and have given talks on
food. These are only a few of the varied kinds
of service which they have given to the Food
Administrators and their staffs as well as the
State Demonstration Agents and the Chil-
dren's Bureau in its baby-saving campaign.

E. Innumerable private agencies — churches, fra-
ternal organizations, newspapers and maga-
zines, women's clubs, farmers' societies, public-
spirited business houses.

F. The Community Council.

Many localities, at the suggestion of Presi-
dent Wilson and the Council of National De-
fense, are unifying all their war efforts, includ-
ing food conservation, by bringing all the citi-
zens and the war organizations together into a
Community Council.

FOOD CONSERVATION 267

II. The subjects being emphasized throughout the
community are:

A. Wheat saving and the use of wheat substitutes.

B. Meat, fat, and sugar saving and the use of their
substitutes.

C. Canning and drying.

D. Use of foods of which there is an abundance,
and of perishable foods.

E. Adequate diet and increased knowledge of food.

F. Increased production and gardens.

In general the idea has been to make every
man, woman, and child in the country under-
stand the need for food conservation, to teach
them how to conserve, and how actually to
make the necessary effort and sacrifice.

III. Methods used to promote food conservation.

These are many, varying with different parts of
the country, and among different kinds of people,
urban and rural, rich and poor, more and less edu-
cated. The following statement gives some of the
more conspicuous and successful undertakings.
They represent types of the work in which the
student should be ready to help.
A. Exiucation through newspapers and magazines.
It is hardly an exaggeration to say that every
reading family in the United States is reached
by Food Administration news.
I. Every State has an Educational Director.
News is sent from Washington to him, and
he adapts it to his locality and relays it to
the publications of his State.

268 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).

2. The Home Economics Director and others
also work up much material of local interest.
In this the women of the State have a large
part.

3. The women cooperate with the local news-
paper editor, giving him up-to-date local news
items, making him a member of any com-
munity publicity committee, obtaining space
from the local advertisers through the adver-
tising man on the newspaper and the board
of trade, encouraging the women to send in
recipes and getting them published. There is
much work to be done.

B. Posters.

These have a penetrating effect that comes
from no other form of publicity.

1. The familiar ones from the Food Adminis-
tration and the new ones constantly being
brought out, can be obtained from the Fed-
eral Food Administrator in each State. Some
of the best artists in the country have con-
tributed posters and the result is a series of
unusual power.

2. Many localities have produced special posters
of their own. Valuable educational work,
both for the children and for the community,
are the poster contests which have been held
by art departments in numerous schools.
Street cars, local sign painters, and retail
stores are usually ready to cooperate if their
help is asked. Boy Scouts are usually avail-

FOOD CONSERVATION 269

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
able for placing the posters out of doors or
for distributing material from house to house.
3. If a special campaign is on, spectacular de-
vices are valuable to show its progress. A ther-
mometer, or a clock showing the daily prog-
ress, set in the most crowded four corners, a
large outlined star, which can be filled with
color section by section, a gigantic sack or
sheaf of wheat in outline, which slowly takes
color as the campaign progresses will give
the necessary stimulation to the movement.

C. Distribution of literature.

Huge quantities have been distributed all over
the country through many agencies including all
public libraries.

I. To get the greatest possible effectiveness:

a. Choose all paths of distribution carefully.

b. Choose your literature to suit the people,
the locality, market, and conditions. Don't
give out bulletins exploiting unobtainable
fish, or recipes for quick breads calling
for wheat substitutes which are not on
the market, or recipes calling for expen-
sive ingredients.

c. Distribute leaflets wherever possible in
connection with demonstrations. Give the
audience the printed recipes of foods pre-
pared in its presence. The spoken explana-
tion makes the printed leaflet more effec-
tive.

270 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (contintt^).

2. The sources of distribution of the Food Ad-
ministration literature in every State are the
Federal Administrator and his staff.

3. Some publications of the United States Food Admin-
istration.

a. Bulletins issued from time to time dealing with the
broad phases of the subject. These are not meant for
general distribution, but may be found at all libra-
ries and are valuable to speakers. Numbers i to 15
have been issued.

b. Rules and regulations governing various industries,
such as the baking industry.

c. A large number of publications giving directions to
the housewife. The^ have been most widely dis-
tributed and students should be familiar with them.
Some of the material is purely ephemeral, as it fits
a temporary condition like the severe wheat short-
age of last spring and summer, and the potato sur-
plus, but it is none the less important.

(i) Some of the wheat-saving material: Until the
Next Harvest, Wheat-Saving Program for the
Household, Wheatless Recipes. Many "tested
recipes" for wheatless quick breads, desserts,
potato dishes, printed simply on slips of paper.

(2) United States Food Leaflets: published by the
Department of Agriculture and the Food Admin-
istration jointly. Twenty of these have been
published. They have been printed in large
editions, some of them, especially the corn meal,
oat meal, and milk leaflets, running up to mil-
lions. The Massachusetts Food Administrator
had the first of these leaflets translated into ten
or more languages for the foreign population — ■
Yiddish, Finnish, Lithuanian, French, Swedish
Polish, Italian, Syrian, Armenian, Portuguese.
They are printed both in the foreign language
and in English. The translations have been

FOOD CONSERVATION 271

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued)^
printed in foreign newspapers, distributed in
factories, churches, and at all kinds of meetings.
(3) The Ten Lessons in Food Conser jation, the first
of the home conservation publications, designed
especially for teachers, is now out of print. War
Economy in Food, directions for the housekeeper,
with a statement of the food situation at the end
of 1917, wheatless and meatless menus and reci-
pes, is also almost exhausted. Much of it has
been reprinted in other forms.

d. Miscellaneous publications to appeal to the general
public, as well as to the housewife. Until the Next
Harvest in the wheat-saving campaign is of this
important character, and also the statements on
dining-car and hotel menus.

e. The College Courses — Food and the War.

f. The Food Guide for Home Service.

4. The Day's Food in War and Peace. A series of lessons
on food suitable for women's clubs.

5. Publications of the Department of Agriculture.

These have long been the mainstay of the teacher of
foods and the housekeeper. Many have been referred
to in this book. Among the most recent ones, beside
the United States Food Leaflets, are circulars on Use
Potatoes, Use Peanut Flour, Use Barley — Saw Wheat,
Cottage Cheese Dishes. These are Department of Agri-
culture, Office of the Secretary, Circulars Nos. 106, no,
III, and 109 respectively.

6. Publications of the different States.

State universities. State agricultural colleges, and con-
servation committees all over the country have published
much valuable material. The use of foods abundant in
the locality is taught, for example, in Colorado's pinto
bean supplement to the United States Food Leaflet on
Dried Beans and Peas, the Illinois bulletins on local fish.
New Mexico Products in the Family Dietary, and many
others. All food conservation workers should, of course
be thoroughly familiar with their state literature.

272 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation {continued).

D. Libraries.

It is estimated that there are 18,000 libraries
in the United States, one for every 6000 inhabi-
tants.

1. A Library Director is on the staff of the Fed-
eral Food Administrator. He sees that libra-
ries are equipped with books, pamphlets, and
maps on the food situation; that they have
food bulletin boards with up-to-date infor-
mation; and that they encourage the use of
library auditoriums for lectures and food dem-
onstrations.

2. A bulletin. Food News Notes for Public Lib-
raries, is sent monthly from the Washington
Office to over 8000 libraries.

3. The librarians are cooperating with schools,
women's clubs, and other organizations in
putting on exhibits and other forms of food
propaganda. In Boston, for example, most of
the women's organizations are cooperating,
including such varied groups as the Massa-
chusetts Normal Art School, the suffrage and
the anti-suffrage organizations, the Women's
City Club, and the Municipal League.

E. Exhibits.

I. Patriotic food shows. The first food show
different from the cut-and-dried commercial
type was held in Chicago in January, 1918.
It was essentially a patriotic endeavor to
reach and to teach Chicago's two million in-
habitants "what to eat" in war-time and

FOOD CONSERVATION 273

III. Methods to promote food conservation {continued).
"how to cook it." The several colleges and
universities took entire charge of all demon-
strations. St. Louis, Boston, and other cities
since have held somewhat similar shows.

2. Fairs and expositions. At many of the state
and county fairs much space has been de-
voted to food conservation. Some have had
exhibits, others demonstrations, and many
have had both. The value of this work lies in
the large number of people reached who are
not touched by the ordinary methods of pub-
licity.

3. Miscellaneous organizations. A multitude of
local organizations throughout the country
have held food exhibits almost continuously
during the past year.

4. A few essentials to an exhibit. Select the
material carefully — do not allow extraneous
matter to creep in ; label everything fully and
neatly; arrange the various units so that a
glance will show where each belongs; do not
overcrowd the material — it is better to
leave out some of the less important; have
the exhibits where they can be easily seen by
all: if possible have a definite beginning and
ending. Make the exhibit clear and simple.

F. Classes, demonstrations, speeches: essential
methods of teaching food conservation exten-
sively developed in many parts of the country.
I. The public schools have taught food con-
servation. They have used the United States

274 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
Food Leaflets or books and pamphlets of
their own.' Some schools have presented
most effective plays and pageants.

2. Classes outside of schools.

a. Schools of country supervisors to teach
the use of wheat substitutes for their re-
gion.

b. Well-organized classes of different groups
of women, with some of the courses planned
by the state agricultural college or the
Home Economics Director. Some of these
courses, according to the reports, are based
on the college courses, simplified. Ari-
zona, for example, gave courses in 40
counties; Missouri, in every county. St.
Louis had 53 Food Substitute Cookery
Schools in March and April, with 8cxx)
women per week in attendance. Innu-
merable other instances might be cited, and
also many places where the work needs
to be developed. Get the help of the Home
Demonstration Agents and the Home
Economics Teachers. Ask churches, clubs,
fraternal societies, and other organizations
to cooperate.

3. Lectures and demonstrations innumerable,
many of them of great effectiveness. See the
Laboratory Manual, section VIII, for in-
struction on giving demonstrations.

* See Our Country's Call to Service^ by J. W. Studebaker, of Des Moines, pub-
lished by Scott, Foresman & Company, and the arithmetic, Food Problems^ by
Fanner and Huntington, published by Ginn & Company.

FOOD CONSERVATION 275

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued),
G. Personal work of Food Adnainistration or Home
Demonstration Agents.

This may be very extensive and may range
from house to house visits, to advice given in the
office on the use of the substitute cereals, wise
purchasing, canning and drying, and general in-
structions of the Food Administration. It is
a most important work and one needing well-
trained women.
H. Bureaus of information in various cities to an-
swer the constant stream of queries.

Boston, for example, has a Food Facts Bu-
reau with which twenty-six organizations are
allied. It assembles and displays printed mate-
rial on food and facilitates distribution. It has
a force of expert volunteers to validate informa-
tion given out and issues a bulletin called Food
Facts. ^
I. Educational work by retail stores.

I. Many of the retailers have been a great edu-
cational force for food conservation. They
have "played the game," not only in their
trade practices, but by advertising food con-
servation in their newspaper space, on their
wagons and in their window displays, by dis-
tributing leaflets and by giving demonstra-
tions in their stores. One organization of
400 chain stores which sell food gave a series
of window displays in all their stores for six
weeks. Upwards of 12,000 other retail mer-

' The Food Facts Bureau, of Boston Journal of Home Economics, 9. 4Si. 1917.

276 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
chants have donated a large amount of space
on the front page of their catalogues or fashion
sheets.

2. Copy for advertising and many suggestions
are sent out by the Food Administration to
the State Merchant Representatives, from
whom they may be obtained.

3. The women of many communities are en-
couraging this work and urging it upon their
merchants.

J. Community canning kitchens.

"Last year community canning kitchens
sprang up all over the country. . . . This year
the impetus for canning kitchens has increased
a hundred fold. This impetus should be wisely
guided, and directed, so that the work of these
kitchens will be sound and effective. If they
are hurriedly, flimsily organized, and ineffi-
ciently operated, they merely contribute to
confusion and ultimate waste instead of con-
serving food and labor." '■

1. Extent of the movement in 1917. No gen-
eral statement is possible; these examples
are merely indicative of what can be done.
It is probably true that most States have had
at least one, and some many, of these kitchens.

2. Some examples.

a. North Carolina had 142, besides the usual
canning clubs in the country. One cotton

• Report of New York State Federal Food Board, 1918.

FOOD CONSERVATION 277

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
mill established a big dryer as well as a
steam-pressure canner for the women.

b. New York reports that more than 100 were
established; Westchester County had 18,
putting up 30,000 quarts of food. During
the spring of 1918 the New York State Fed-
eral Food Board prepared a mimeographed
statement, Preliminary Material on Com-
munity Kitchens. Much of the same ma-
terial is given in The Country Gentleman of
April 13, 1918. This section quotes largely
from these two papers.

c. The New York City Canning and Drying
Kitchen was undertaken primarily to
salvage the food wasted at the wharves
and terminals, where a case containing a
small percentage of spoiled or imperfect
fruit or vegetable is often discarded be-
cause it does not pay to re-sort it.

(i) A well-equipped school kitchen and a
truck were loaned by the city. The
organization consisted of a manager,
two canning experts, a bookkeeper,
and five unskilled workers, as well as
from 30 to 40 volunteer helpers a day.

(2) Some of their accomplishments. The
food was first sorted, and some was
sold to the poor. The rest was dried,
canned, or salted. On one typical day,
33 barrels of squash, 1000 pounds of
apples, 150 pounds of grapefruit, 1200

278 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
pounds of cabbage, and 300 pounds of
turnips, were transported from the
piers to the kitchens. An average of
3000 pounds of potatoes was sold daily
to the poor at one cent a pound. A
total of more than 8cxx) quarts of vege-
tables and fruit were put up. In all,
10 tons of food, which would have been
dumped into the river, were saved. ^

d. Springfield, Massachusetts, maintained a
great canning demonstration tent in Court
Square in ' the busiest part of the city,
where lessons in canning were given morn-
ing and afternoon.

e. Many other cities and villages had suc-
cessful enterprises.

f. In rural regions, community canneries
close to extensive vegetable gardens and
orchards have accomplished a great sav-
ing both of food and of transportation.
In a fertile region in Idaho, six miles from
the railroad, the county commissioners
equipped a cannery at a cost of ?6oo and
the County Farm Bureau operates it at
cost. Forty-two thousand quarts of per-
ishables were canned. In the winter, beef,
mutton, pork, and chicken were canned —
5000 quarts had been canned at the time
the report was made.

' Descriptions of this enterprise are given in the Forecast of September, 191 7,
and the New Republic of August 11, 1917.

FOOD CONSERVATION 279

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).
3. Important points for a successful community
kitchen.

a. A careful preliminary survey. Know the need and
the prospects of success before starting. Determine —
(i) The amount of material there is likely to be

available for canning.

(2) The number of families who will wish to can for
themselves or to have material canned in the
kitchen, and how much each will require.

(3) The amount of canned products still on hand
from last year.

(4) The number of glass jars available.

(5) The local tin can situation.

(6) The canning situation in the local canneries.

(7) If volunteer labor is to be depended upon, how
many skilled workers can be found to pledge
themselves for a definite number of hours a
week in the kitchen.

b. The direction and constant supervision of a thor-
oughly trained person. Last year's experience proves
that a paid supervisor is an economy in the end.
There is much risk of spoilage through unscientific
or careless methods of canning, and much oppor-
tunity for inefficient management of the plant.

c. Good organization.

(1) Canneries may be started by many different
organizations in the community, singly or com-
bined — the Food Administration Committee,
a school, a woman's club, the Girl Scouts.

(2) There must be a chairman with committees
under her on such matters as location, finance,
equipment, supplies, kitchen management, ancl
the disposal of the finished product.

d. Wise location. It should be centrally located, pref-
erably conspicuous because of its educational value.

28o FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).

and in a room already equipped with water and heat
like a school or church kitchen.

e. Modern equipment.

(i) While the simplest home equipment and oil
stoves can be made to serve if the enterprise is
on a very small scale, usually a pressure canner
of adequate size, and the best labor-saving de-
vices will ultimately save money, time, labor,
and material.

(2) The Government estimate of the cost of a com-
plete community canning outfit is J300 to j56oo.
That means modern equipment — an adequate
canner, slicers, paring-machines, seeders, can-
ners, sealers — capable of turning out several
thousand quarts a day. Two or more neighbor-
ing communities might share the expense of this
equipment.

f. Sound financing.

(i) Kitchens last year ranged in financial success
from one which put up 300 cans at a cost of J500
to those in which an initial loan was repaid with
interest and a sinking fund put away for the
next year.

(2) It is essential to have some working capital to
begin with. This may be borrowed, given by
individuals or organizations, or collected as a
membership fee from those wishing to use the
kitchen.

(3) The current expenses may be met by charging
either for the canning done for others by the
kitchen, or by a small fee per quart for the use
of the kitchen by those doing their own canning.
Instead of payments in money, a percentage of
the cans may be given to the kitchen and sold
by it.

4. Some advantages of community over home
canning.

FOOD CONSERVATIOU 281

III. Methods to promote food conservation (continued).

a. Greater chance of good products and less
chance of spoilage because of the expert
supervision and the better equipment.

b. Saving of money through purchasing jars,
etc., in large quantities, buying large ma-
chines instead of several small ones, and
saving of labor.

c. Marked educational influence, stimulating
people to can at home as well as at the
kitchen.

d. Great democratizing and socializing influ-
ence.
K. Other community kitchens.

1. Wheat-saving kitchens. They are chiefly
demonstration kitchens, to serve the impor-
tant purpose of teaching people how to use the
wheat substitutes. Some of these sell small
loaves of bread and other products.

2. Kitchens for the general sale of cooked food.
(See chapter XV.)

L. The greatest factor of all in food conservation —
the daily work and sacrifice of the individual
woman in her home. In discussing all this ma-
chinery, we must not forget that its ultimate pur-
pose is to reach every one and that it is the
daily service of all of us that has made possible
the successful carrying out of the food conserva-
tion program.

PART II
A LABORATORY MANUAL

OF

FOOD SELECTION, PREPARATION
AND CONSERVATION

ELIZABETH C. SPRAGUE

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT

This laboratory outline is designed for the use of college
students, who do not intend to specialize in Home Economics,
but who desire general training in the subject of food prepara-
tion. The course is elastic so that it may be adapted to the re-
quirements of various types of institutions and of classes.

By careful planning and judicious selection of material the
essential points may be covered in thirty-two two-hour labora-
tory periods, or two periods per week for one semester. It will
be found profitable, however, to extend this to forty-eight peri-
ods, which may be divided into either three periods of two hours
each or two periods of three hours each per week. The latter is
a more economical use of time. In either case ample time should
be allowed for a thorough discussion of results, in order to fix
the principles firmly in the student's mind.

The work is planned to encourage scientific habits of thinking
regarding food problems as well as to equip the student with a
usable fund of information. As much technical skill as possible
should also be acquired, but the fact that real facility can only
be acquired by considerable practice should be emphasized.
This necessary repetition may be made a requirement for out-
side work.

For the sake of clearness, the manual has been arranged in
outline form ; for brevity, as many details have been omitted as
was thought wise. A few typical recipes have been included
where they seemed necessary. In general such material has
been omitted for two reasons; first, to make the emphasis upon
the development of principles more evident; second, because
there already exists a bewildering mass of recipes. It is hoped
that the student may be taught to see that these are simply
variations from a few type recipes. Mastery of the principles

286 FOOD AND THE WAR

involved in these type recipes frees one from dependence upon
innumerable formal recipes.

While it is intended that the laboratory work shall be given
in connection with Part I, the plan of development is not
identical in the two parts. For example, eggs are used in the
laboratory to introduce the subject of the cooking of protein
foods, leading up to meat, fish, and poultry. In the first
part, the discussion begins with meat, and eggs are treated as
a meat substitute. It is believed that these two courses may be
correlated without much difficulty. Since the point of view is
different in the two parts, repetition at intervals may be an
advantage. Change in sequence will be possible, however, at
the discretion of the instructor.

Since intelligent conservation methods must be based on a
knowledge of normal methods, they have been introduced as
part of the whole subject rather than in special sections. The
limitations of a short course seemed to justify the elimination
of certain subjects, such as frying, which should not be en-
couraged at present.

Throughout the course the conservation features should be
strongly emphasized, but these must be modified as the regu-
lations of the Food Administration change with changing
conditions.

A LABORATORY MANUAL

SECTION I

FOOD CONSUMPTION AND FOOD VALUES

I. Rations and food allowances.

A. Purpose: To visualize in terms of actual food
materials the amounts of food which are being
consumed by different groups at the present
time, in order to furnish a basis for understand-
ing systems of rationing.

B. Weigh out and assemble the amounts of the
materials in each ration given below. Become
familiar with these quantities in some practical
unit of measure, either weight or volume or
dimension. Show how the average American
ration may be apportioned in three daily meals.
I. Belgian daily ration.^

War bread 12 Bacon (about) .... i

Potatoes 10 1/2 Lard (about) 2/3

Rice 21/8 Brown sugar (about) 2/3

Cerealine i 2/3 Peas and beans,

(dried) 12/3

(Many Belgians have lived on this ration
almost exclusively for three years.)

1 Distributed by the Commission for Relief in Belgium. Kellogg. Fighting
Starvation in Belgium, pp. 160-166. Doubleday Page, 1918.

288 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Rations and food allowances (continued).
2. Average American dietary (per day).

a. With limited resources:

oz. oz.

Bread 12 Meat, eggs, and cheese 6

Cereals 8 Sugar 11/2

Potatoes 12 Fats i 1/2

Fruits and vege- Milk 8

tables 12

b. With moderate resources.

oz. oz.

Bread 6 Meat, eggs, and cheese 14

Cereals 4 Sugar 3

Potatoes 12 Fat 3

Fruit and vege- Milk 8

tables 28

(See section VI, Adequate Diet.)

c. As outside work, make an approximate
estimate of the average amounts of food
used per person per week, in the student's
family or group. Tabulate the results.
(See page 289.)

Great care should be taken to secure
accurate data so that this material may be
used later to calculate the food value of
the dietary.

II. The proximate composition of food.

A. Illustrate the proximate composition of food
by a separation of the constituents of milk.
The characteristics of these constituents should
also be noted. (This may be performed as a
lecture demonstration if laboratory facilities or
time is limited.)
I. Apparatus needed — 100 c.c. graduate, funnel

A LABORATORY MANUAL
Estimation of Food used per Week

289

Kind of food {as purchased)

Total amounts used
in group

Number
Persons
in group

Average amounts
per person

Measure

Weight

Measure

Weigkl

u. Foods subject to regulation
according to military ne-
cessity

Meat — Beef, veal, Iamb.

Wheat — as baked prod-

— as flour in cook-
ing sauces,

— as macaroni,
spaghetti.

Fat — especially animal
fat

■

6. Foods, the use of which
is unrestricted

Milk

Meat substitutes (animal)
Fish

Poultry

Sweets, honey, com sirup.
Veeetables

1

II. The proximate composition of food {continued).

and filter paper, 2/500 c.c. beakers, a stirring
rod, crucible or old aluminum pan in which to

290 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. The proximate composition of food (continued).

burn the residue in a, and a watch glass or
saucer on which to evaporate d.

a. To 50 c.c. of milk add 200 c.c. of water,
and to this mixture add 10% acetic acid,
drop by drop until no further precipitate
forms. (Note: An excess of acid will pre-
vent complete precipitation.) Filter. Save
both precipitate and filtrate. Wash the
precipitate on the filter paper, first with
a little alcohol, and then with ether.
(Carbon tetrachloride may be used instead
of ether, which is highly inflammable and
should be used with great care.) Dry.
This is the casein of milk.

b. Evaporate on a watei* bath the ether so-
lution. The residue is fat.

c. Boil the filtrate saved in a until reduced
to one-third its original volume. Filter
and preserve both filtrate and residue. The
latter is the albumen of milk.

d. Evaporate the filtrate from c to dryness,
being careful not to char it. This is the
sugar of milk (lactose) and the mineral
salts.

e. Char the residue from d until no further
change occurs. The residue is the mineral
matter or ash of milk.

2. At the discretion of the instructor qualita-
tive tests as given in any Food Chemistry
may be applied to the above substances iso-
lated from the milk.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 291

II. The proximate composition of food (continued).

3. A graphic method of representing the com-
position of milk is often usefuL A series of
carefully labelled bottles of graduated size
may be arranged to contain the food con-
stituents separated from a pint or a quart of
milk.
B. The percentage composition of foods.

1. Using the food portions weighed out in I, B,
on page 287, arrange in groups as follows,
those having a high water content, i.e., dilute
foods; a low water content, i.e., concentrated
foods; those rich in fat; in carbohydrate; in
protein; in ash.

2. Note those which may be classed in more
than one group.

3. Refer to tables in any standard text giving
the percentage composition of foods; or to
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 28,
The Chemical Composition of American Food
Materials.

III. The fuel value of foods.

A. Show the amounts of various foods which are
equal in fuel.
I. The loo-calorie portion.

a. Apparatus — Scales ; Harvard trip-scale
type is desirable, using either gram or ounce
weights. Scales of the spring-balance type
should be avoided unless they have been
carefully tested for accuracy. There should
be one pair of scales for each two students,

292 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The fuel value of foods (continued).

if possible, but the number may be reduced
to one for four . students if conditions de-
mand. This laboratory exercise may be
performed as a class demonstration if only
a limited number of scales are available.

b. Weigh out lOO-calorie portions of foods
chosen from the groups below. The num-
ber of these portions which can be studied
must be determined by the size of the class
and the laboratory conditions, but repre-
sentative foods from each group should be
included. (For data refer to tables in Rose,
Feeding the Family, or other texts.) Stu-
dents should compute the weight in several
instances in order to understand the method
of calculation. The student should become
familiar with these amounts in order to be
able to estimate roughly the fuel value of
the food consumed in a day.

Beverages — cocoa ; tea and coffee with
varying amounts of cream and sugar.

Breadstuff s — especially various types
of war breads, — with and without
butter.

Cereals — uncooked, cooked, ready-to-
serve.
Dairy products — milk, whole, skimmed,
condensed; cream, thin (i8% fat),
thick (40% fat); butter; cheese; eggs.

Desserts — ^uAdm^s; pie; custard; cake;
cookies.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 293

III. The fuel value of foods (continued).

Fruits — fresh, dried, cooked; canned;
preserves; jelly.

Meats — including fish and poultry. Ba-
con before and after cooking is espe-
cially interesting.

Nuts — in the shell, shelled.

Salads — fruit; vegetable and meat;
salad oils and dressings.

Soups — meat, cream of vegetable.

Sweets — sugar, granulated and lump;
sirups; chocolate; candy.

Vegetables — watery, starchy; legumes,
fresh, canned and dried.

c. Arrange the above portions in the form of
an exhibit, attaching clear and uniform
labels giving the weights and some descrip-
tive measure for each food. Group the por-
tions in such ways as to bring out sugges-
tive comparisons.

d. Keep a record in terms of lOO-calorie por-
tions of all food eaten for a period of i, 2,
or 3 days.

2. Comparison of the fuel value of typical foods
using I quart of milk (or i pint) as a basis.

In non-technical classes and for public
exhibitions this method of comparison often
seems more graphic and may be uteed in place
of the exercise on the lOO-calorie portion, or
as a supplement to it.

Calculate the amounts of the typical foods
listed in i, which will be required to furnish

294 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. The fuel value of foods (continued).

the same amount of heat as i quart (or I
pint, if preferred) of whole milk.'
Assemble as an exhibit as in i above.

IV. The protein value of foods.

A. Purpose.

1. To determine the amounts of various foods
which may furnish the protein of the day's
ration.

2. To compare these as to cost and availability.

B. Assemble the following quantities of food which
yield approximately one-half ounce of protein :

2 eggs

1 pint of milk

2 oz. cottage cheese '
2 oz. ordinary American cheese

2 oz. dried fish

21/2 oz. lean meat or fish
21/2 oz. beans (dried), about i 1/2
cups cooked

3 oz. oatmeal (raw), about 3 cups cooked

4 oz. macaroni (uncooked)

5 1/2 oz. bread
2 oz. peanuts

1. Record some descriptive measure of the
quantities; e.g., the number of one-half-inch
slices of bread, the size of the piece of cheese,
etc.

2. Make a number of combinations of the pro-
tein units so that each group will furnish the

-' See Rose, M.S, Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics, pp. 52-53. Macmillan. 191:.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 295

IV. The protein value of foods (continued).

supply of protein adequate for an adult for
I day.
3. Compare these combinations as to —

a. Availability under war-time conditions.

b. Conformity to dietetic principles.

c. Cost.

C. Using the units given above, keep a record of
your own protein consumption for i, 2, or 3
days and judge as above.

SECTION II
PRINCIPLES OF COOKING

Typical illustrations of the general laws underlying
the application of heat to food materials, alone and
in combination.

I. Effect of heat on food materials.
A. Change in weight.

1. To show the difference in bulk and weight
between food materials as purchased and as
consumed.

2. To learn the weights of certain measures of
food.

In the following exercise, emphasize the rela-
tion between the uncooked and the cooked food
in measure and in weight so that the student
will learn to translate rations, which are given
in amounts of food "as purchased," into terms
of the food as consumed.

296 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Effect of heat on food materials {continued}.

I . Expansion of foods.

a. Cereals.

Cook the cereals as indicated below,
weighing and measuring before and after
cooking.

(i) Cook 1/4 cup rice in i 1/2 cups boil-
ing salted water (1/4 teaspoon salt)
for 25 minutes, or until the grains are
softened. Stir occasionally with a fork
while cooking. Drain well and dry
as for serving before weighing.

(2) Stir 1/4 cup corn meal into i 1/2 cups
warm, salted water (1/4 teaspoon salt)
and boil gently for 30 minutes. Stir
frequently.

(3) Cook 1/4 cup rolled oats in r/2 cup
boiling salted water (1/8 teaspoon salt)
for 5 minutes; continue cooking at a
lower temperature, in a double boiler
or over an asbestos mat, for 30 minutes.

To avoid danger of burning and to
reduce the labor, an asbestos mat or a
double boiler may be used in each case.
In the latter case the amount of water
should be decreased and the length of
time increased.

Flavor in cereals such as corn meal
and oat meal may be developed by
cooking from I to 3 hours in a double
boiler or in a fireless cooker overnight.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 297

I. Effect of heat on food materials (continued).
b. Dried fruits and vegetables.

(i) Weigh a measured quantity of dried
fruit or vegetables, soak in water for
several hours or overnight. Cook until
softened in the water in which they
are soaked to avoid loss of food mate-
rial. (Exception: The water in which
some legumes are soaked should be re-
placed with fresh water before cooking.)

(2) For fruits use twice their volume of
water and for vegetables three times
their volume of water. If an excess of
liquid remains when cooking is com-
pleted, concentrate by boiling.

(3) Most fruits will cook in about 20 min-
utes; vegetables, with the exception of
legumes, require 30 to 40 minutes. The
legumes need from 2 to 3 hours.

(4) The sugar contained in the dried fruits
will form a sirup which in many
cases will be sufficiently sweet. If not,
sweeten to taste using equal parts of
corn sirup and sugar.

Record change in weight and in vol-
ume as in a above.

2. Contraction of foods,
a. Spinach.

(i) Wash thoroughly 1/4 pound of spin-
ach, remove roots and any other por-
tions not suitable for use; weigh the

298 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Effect of heat on food materials (continued).

cleaned vegetable and the refuse and
calculate the percentage of the latter.

(2) Cook the spinach (if full grown) in its
own volume of boiling salted water for
20 to 30 minutes. Half the volume of
water may be sufiScient. Drain and
press out the water. The water should
be used in making soup.

(3) Measure and weigh the cooked spinach.
Calculate the average number of indi-
vidual servings that may be obtained
from I pound of spinach as purchased.

b. Meat.

Determine the change in weight and
bulk of a piece of meat cooked for the stu-
dent's family or group. (Outside work.)

Example: Note the approximate dimen-
sions of a 3-pound roast before and after
cooking. Determine the change in weight
and estimate the number of individual
servings. What is the weight of the indi-
vidual serving before and after cooking?

The above experiments may be performed
individually, in groups of two or four or as
class groups or demonstrations, as condi-
tions permit.
B. Change in composition.

1 . To what is the change in weight of foods dur-
ing cooking principally due?

2. How is the composition of the cooked foods
affected by cooking?

A LABORATORY MANUAL 299

I. Effect of heat on food materials (continued).

3. Compare the composition and nutritive value
of rice, before and after cooking, with that of
the edible portions of potatoes before and
after boiling.

II. Effect of heat on food constituents.
A. Protein.
I. Types.

a. Soluble in cold water, coagulated by heat;
example, egg albumen,
(i) Solubility — Cut a raw egg white with
scissors; dilute a portion with 10 times
its volume of water, shake thoroughly,
and filter. Boil a portion of the filtrate.
What is shown with regard to the solu-
bility of albumen in water?

(2) Coagulability.

(a) Fill a test tube 1/3 full of egg white;
suspend the test tube in cold water
so that the surface of the egg is be-
low the surface of the water. Place
a thermometer in the tube and heat
the water slowly. Note the tem-
perature at which the coagulum
is first apparent; the temperature
at which the whole mass is coag-
ulated; the consistency when the
water reaches the boiling point;
the consistency after boiling sev-
eral minutes.

(b) Drop I teaspoon of egg white into

300 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Effect of heat on food constituents (continued).

a bath of smoking hot fat. Observe
great care to avoid the spattering
of the fat. Note character of coagu-
lum and explain the phenomenon.

b. Insoluble in cold water, hardened and con-
tracted by heat; example, casein of cheese.

(i) Heat a teaspoon of grated cheese with
a tablespoon of milk in a test tube,
stirring with a thermometer until they
blend, noting the temperature at which
this occurs. Continue heating and
notice the succeeding temperatures
and changes.

(2) Heat a small piece of cheese in a fry-
ing-pan.

(3) What conclusions can be drawn as to
the effect of heat upon the various con-
stituents of cheese?

c. Insoluble in cold water, rendered soluble
by boiling; example, collagen of connec-
tive tissue.

Boil a piece of connective tissue or ten-
don in water until the liquid gives a test
for protein.

d. Soluble in water, not coagulated by heat;
example, gelatin.

Soften I teaspoon of gelatin in i table-
spoon of cold water. Heat to boiling in a
test tube observing the temperatures at
which changes occur.

A LABOBIATORY MANUAL 301

II. Effect of heat on food constituents (continued).

B. Fat.

1. Place equal portions of a solid fat in each of
3 tubes. Insert a thermometer and heat the

first to 175° C, the second to 200° C. and the
third to 225° C. Note the kind and amount
of fumes given off at different temperatures.
Cool and compare the color of the samples
after they have solidified.

2. Repeat the foregoing, using samples of butter
at temperatures of 150° C, 175° C. and 200° C.

C. Carbohydrates.

I. Sugar.

a. Show the weight and volume of sugar that
may be completely dissolved in a cup of
cold water. To a small portion of the solu-
tion apply the Fehling sugar test. (See
any Food Chemistry.)

h. To the above sugar solution add enough
sugar to make the total volume of sugar
used equal to 2 cups. Heat slowly and stir
until dissolved. Boil without stirring and
note changes in temperature. When the
sirup begins to boil and at each of the fol-
lowing temperatures (103° C, 105° C,
110° C. and 115° C.) take out 5 c.c. as a
sample, place in a test tube and set aside
to cool. Test a portion of the last sample
with Fehling's solution. At 115° C. test
also by dropping a small portion in cold
water. Heat to 123° C. and again test in

302 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Effect of heat on food constituents {continued).

cold water. Reserve this sugar for future
use.

Note the thickness of each sirup when
hot and when cold, its tendency to crystal-
hze and the kind of crystals formed. Com-
pare their sweetness and thickness with
commercial table sirups.

c. Repeat with a similar solution of corn
sirup.

d. Caramelize a small portion.
2. Starch.

a. Mix I teaspoon of cornstarch and 1/2 cup
of cold water and let stand 1/2 hour. Fil-
ter and test the filtrate for starch.

b. Mix a teaspoon of cornstarch and 1/2 cup
of cold water — heat to 70° C. Let stand
several hours.

c. Mix I teaspoon of cornstarch and 1/2 cup
of water; boil 2 minutes; let stand for sev-
eral hours. Examine a specimen from each
sample under the microscope. What is
shown regarding the solubility of starch
and the effect of heat upon the starch
grain?

d. In a small dish heat carefully with constant
stirring, i teaspoon of powdered starch.
When it is a uniform light brown, add
water, boil for a minute, and filter. To a
portion of the filtrate add twice its volume
of alcohol. Test this with iodine.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 303

II. Effect of heat on food constituents (continued).

To the rest of the filtrate add a few drops
of HCL and boil for a few minutes. Neu-
tralize and test for sugar.

Name several instances of the formation
of dextrin in the processes of cooking.
When may sugar be formed?
e. Methods of combining starch and a boil-
ing liquid.

(i) Pour "1/4 cup of boiling water over i
teaspoon of cornstarch.

(2) Add I teaspoon of cornstarch to 1/4
cup of boiling water.

(3) Blend i teaspoon of cornstarch with i
teaspoon of sugar, fat or cold liquid.
Add to 1/4 cup hot liquid and boil.

Explain the results by reference to
the first three parts of this experiment.

III. Principles of cooking combinations of food mate-
rials.

From the results in II, formulate directions for
cooking the following combinations of food mate-
rials giving reasons for each step of the process:

A. Milk, eggs, and sugar in making a custard.

B. Milk, cornstarch, eggs, and sugar in making a
custard.

C. Milk, eggs, and cheese in a Welsh rarebit.

D. Milk, fat, flour, and cheese in a Welsh rarebit.

IV. The principles of proportions of food materials in
combination.

A. For thickening liquids.

304 FOOD AND THE WAR *

IV. The principles of proportions of food materials in
combination (continued).

1. With egg. See section III, custards, p. 308.

2. With starches. See sections III and V,
sauces, pp. 309, 331.

B. For enriching.

i.With fat. See section III, sauces, p. 309.

2. With egg. See section V, puddings, p. 332,
sponge cake, p. 341.

3. With both egg and fat. See section V, butter
cakes, p. 341.

C. For consistency (doughs and batters). See sec-
tion V, muffins and griddle cakes, p. 335.

SECTION III
PREPARATION AND USE Of" PROTEIN FOODS

I. Eggs.

A. Grades of eggs.

1. Purpose.

a. To become familiar with the different mar-
ket grades of eggs and their desirability
for cooking purposes.

b. To compare their economic value.

2. Collect samples of all the different market
grades of eggs locally available. Examine
these as follows:

a. Make the ordinary practical tests for fresh-
ness by noting the character of the shell,
by shaking and by floating in water and
in a 10% salt solution.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 305

I. Eggs (continued).

b. In a darkened room candle the eggs used
in a.^

c. Open samples of each variety, observe and
describe the physical characteristics of the
different parts of each egg.^ Observe par-
ticularly the "two layers" in the white.

d. Test the suitability of the different grades
of eggs for cooking purposes by cooking in
several ways. Poached eggs, omelets, and
sponge cake offer especially severe tests of
an egg's quality.

B. Household preservation of eggs.

Preserve as many eggs as may seem practical
under local conditions.

1. Select absolutely fresh, clean eggs. Do not
use dirty ones or those that have been washed.

2. Water glass solution (potassium or sodium
silicate).

I pint commercial water glass.
6 quarts freshly boiled water.
Stir until the ingredients are thoroughly
mixed. Cool before using. This makes a
quantity sufficient to preserve from 6 to 8
dozen eggs.

3. Wash and scald thoroughly glass jars, crocks,
a keg, or barrel, according to the number to
be preserved. The container must have a
tight cover.

1 See Shennan, Food Products, p. 144, and U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Farmers' Bulletin 471, Eggs and their Value as Food, pp. 17 to 24. How do the
practical tests compare with candling?

' Sherman, Food Products, p. 152.

3o6 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Eggs {continued).

4. Pack the eggs in layers, pouring the solution
of water glass over each layer so that every
part of the shells is covered. The top layer
of eggs should be about 2 inches below the
surface of the liquid. Cover closely and keep
in a cool place. Rinse before using.

C. Cooking of eggs. ,

1. Purpose.

a. To apply the principles of cooking protein
foods using eggs as an example.

b. To acquire some skill in making egg dishes.

2. Select 3 eggs of equal weight. Place 2 of the
3 in 2 pints of boiling water; cover and re-
move immediately from the fire. Take out i
egg at the end of 5 minutes and the other after
7 minutes. Place the other egg in boiling
water and boil 3 minutes. Open each egg
immediately at the end of the time of cooking
and compare.

What are the standards for properly cooked
eggs? Give a correct method for preparing a
hard-cooked egg.

3. From the results above and in section II,
p. 299, formulate general directions for pre-
paring dishes in which eggs are used for pur-
poses other than for leavening, such as thick-
ening, binding, clarifying and coating (cro-
quettes).

Note: The results of the experiments on
solubility and coagulability will determine the

A LABORATORY MANUAL 307

I. Eggs (continued).

temperature at which egg will combine with
other materials, e.g., with milk in custards.
It will also suggest the temperature of the
water into which an egg should be dropped
for poaching. The coagulation temperature
and the consistency noted in the experiments
in section II, II, A, will also explain the use
of a double boiler in making soft custards.
4. Apply the principles of cooking illustrated
in the foregoing experiments in the prepara-
tion of an egg by poaching and in the follow-
ing types of omelets: ^

a. Those using only egg, a little liquid, and

seasoning,
(i) French omelet.

(2) Foamy omelet (sometimes called plain
omelet).

b. Those in which the egg is extended with a
thickened sauce using either flour or bread
crumbs.

(i) Rich omelet.
(2) Bread omelet.

c. Souffles. (Note the similarity to rich ome-
let.) Types suitable for use as meat sub-
stitutes.

(i) Cheese souffle.

(2) Vegetable souffle.

(3) Fish, chicken, or meat soufflfe,

' See Boston Cooking School Cook Book, pp. ios-108. Mrs. Allen's Cook Book,
pp. 177-183.

308 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Eggs {continued).

d. Many variations of the above types are
given in standard cook books.

5. Prepare custards, baked and soft, using the
following proportions :

Milk Egg Sugar or substitutes Salt Flavoring

I c. 1/2 I to 2 tbsp. Few grains To taste

I c. I I " 2 " " " " "

I c. I 1/2 I " 2 " "

The principles of proportions (2), of methods
of combination, and of cooking are the points
to be emphasized. The amounts of salt,
sugar, and flavoring are matters of taste. If
recipes are needed, refer to a standard cook
book; e.g., Boston Cooking School Cook Book,
PP- 377i 307. and 262; Mrs. Allen's Cook
Book, pp. 173-186; U.S. Food Leaflet No. 8,
Instead of Meat.

6. Make a table showing the cost of the amount
of each of the egg preparations made, which
would be necessary to serve 4 adults; to fur-
nish 1/2 ounce of protein ; to furnish 100 cal-
ories.

II. Milk.

A. Purpose.

1. To emphasize the fact that milk is a food
rather than a beverage.

2. To show the many ways in which milk can
be used in the diet.

B. Food value and cost of milk beverages.

Compare the quality of the products, and the
cost of —

A LABORATORY MANUAL 309

II. Milk (continued).

a. Cocoa or chocolate, made with (i) whole
milk, (2) half milk and half water.

b. (i) Coffee served with cream.

(2) Cafe au lait; i.e., strong coffee added

to an equal volume of scalded milk or

twice the volume, depending upon the

strength of the coiTee.

For recipes for these beverages see any

good cook book. Weigh out the amounts of

each which will furnish 100 calories.

C. Milk sauces.

1 . Proportions — with i cup of liquid.

a. I, 2, 3, or 4 tablespoons according to the
thickness desired.

b. Fat — varies from i to 4 tablespoons. 2
tablespoons is the amount most frequently
used. It may be reduced to i or even 1/2
tablespoon.

c. Salt — 1/4 teaspoon.

d. Pepper — to taste.

2. Methods of making.

a. Blend the starch or flour with enough cold
liquid to make a paste, add the remaining

• liquid and boil. If fat is to be used, add
it last.

b. Combine fat and flour in a ball and stir
into the hot liquid until it thickens.

c. Melt the fat, add the flour, and, when it is
blended, add the liquid gradually and boil.

310 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Milk (continued).

d. The first method makes it possible to re-
duce the amount of fat to a minimum and
is therefore to be recommended as a war-
time economy. For example, i teaspoon
instead of i tablespoon of fat may be used
with a tablespoon of flour. For large quan-
tities, where care must be taken to avoid
burning, use a double boiler or an asbestos
mat. It is an advantage in that case to
heat the milk before combining, but this
is unnecessary in preparing small amounts.
Use the sauces in scalloped and other
creamed dishes, in souffles, and omelets,
and with rice and other cereals cooked
with milk. Note the improvement in
quality, and food value due to the use of
milk. (See also classification of sauces,
page 33.)
D. Milk soups.

Cream soups are usually thin white sauces
flavored with vegetable stock (the water in
which vegetables were cooked) or vegetable
pulp.

1. As types of cream soups prepare —

a. Potato soup or cream of pea soup.

b. Cream of celery or cream of spinach soup.

c. Cream of tomato soup.

2. Note the difference in the amount of thick-
ening required in a and b.

3. What new principle of cooking must be con-
sidered in c?

A LABORATORY MANUAL 311

II. Milk (continued).

4. Use a wheat flour substitute for thickening.

5. Weigh out 1/2 ounce protein portions and
lOO-calorie portions as before.

E. Milk in desserts.

1. Varieties.

a. Irish moss blanc-mange.

b. Cornstarch puddings.

c. Custards, plain and with rice or tapioca.

d. Baked rice puddings, "creamy rice" or
poor man's pudding.

e. Indian puddings, plain or with tapioca.

f. Milk sherbets.

(For recipes see any standard cook
book.)

2. Suggestions.

a. For class preparation, select those varie-
ties which are either less well known, e.g.,
Irish moss blanc-mange; or those in which
a good standard for the finished product
is especially important, e.g., creamy rice
pudding and Indian puddings.

b. Note that in making milk sherbets the
curdling by acid (lemon or pineapple) is
not important as the curd is beaten smooth
in freezing. An especially good flavor is
produced by using shredded pineapple
for part of the lemon juice.

c. Show that skim milk may be used in al-
most all of these preparations with little
or no alteration of quality.

312 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Milk (continued).

d. If desired, comparisons may be made also
as to the results when evaporated milk is
substituted, especially in the beverages
and cooked desserts.

III. Cheese.

A. Purpose.

1. To show the many ways of using cheese.

2. To apply further the principles of protein
cookery in cheese preparations.

B. Uses of cheese.

1. As a flavoring material, e.g., with soups,
vegetables, souffles, salads, sauces.

2. As one of the chief ingredients in, e.g., Welsh
rarebit, rice fondue, hominy and cheese,
cheese sandwiches.

3. Because of its concentration and marked
flavor, cheese is combined or eaten with a
starchy food.

C. Economic value of different varieties of cheese.

Collect samples of different types of cheese
locally obtainable:

1. Hard cheese, e.g., Cheddar, Swiss, or Edam.

2. Soft cheese, e. g.. Brie, Neufchatel or cream,
Camembert.

3. Very soft, e. g., cottage cheese.

D. Which of these are suitable for use as flavor in-
gredients only and which may be used as meat
substitutes? Why? ^

1 For chemical composition see Sherman, Food Products.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 313

III. Cheese {continued).

E. Select recipes and prepare dishes to illustrate
the different uses of cheese. "^

1. With soup.

2. As a meat substitute.

3. As a salad.

4. As a dessert.

5. As a garnish or relish.

F. To apply the principles illustrated previously,
each student should prepare one or more of the
following dishes. (These will give an oppor-
tunity for the development of technique. The
products should be judged for appearance and
palatability as well as for the condition of the
protein material.)

1. Toasted cheese sandwiches.

2. Cheese fondue.^

3. Welsh rarebit (custard foundation).

G. Modification of cheese recipes to meet war con-
ditions.

To avoid the use of wheat products:

a. Instead of macaroni and cheese, use whole
hominy or rice.

b. In Welsh rarebit, use a cheese recipe thick-
ened with egg rather than with flour. Add
tapioca or rice to the rarebit to avoid using
toast or crackers.

' See U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 487, Cheese and its Economical
Uses in the Diet.
' Boston Cooking School Cook Book, p. 377-

314 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Cheese (continued).

Baked Rarebit

2 tablespoons small tapioca i /2 teaspoon salt

I pint milk I teaspoon mustard

I egg well beaten i cup grated cheese

Pepper or paprika to taste

Put all the ingredients into a baking dish
and cook in the oven until quite thick, stir-
ring occasionally.
H. Weigh out the amounts of cheese and of some
of the prepared cheese dishes which will fur-
nish (i) 1/2 ounce of protein and (2) 100 cal-
ories.
I. Cottage cheese making.

An application of the principles of protein
cooking. To be done in groups of two or more.

1. Note the appearance of i cup of thick sour
milk and test for acid.

2. Pour I cup of boiling water on i cup of
thick sour milk.

3. Heat I cup of thick sour milk over warm
water to 60° C. Strain through cheesecloth.

4. Arrange to have one group reserve 1/4 cup
of sour milk. Heat this to boiling and strain
through cheesecloth. Compare the ciird of

3 with those of i and 2. Season for cottage
cheese. List the possible ways of serving cot-
tage cheese.

5. Note the volume and weight, in terms of
household measures, of cheese obtained from
I cup of milk and calculate the yield from i

A LABORATORY MANUAL 315

III. Cheese (continued).

quart of milk. Estimate the cost and fuel
value. What is the volume of i pound of
the cheese? Compare the cost of the commer-
cial product with that of the cottage cheese
made at home.
J. Use of cottage cheese.

Prepare some of the dishes for which recipes
are given in U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Bulletin 109, Cottage Cheese Dishes.

IV. Meat.

A. Purpose.

1. To illustrate some of the principles involved
and the methods used in cooking meat.

2. To compare the economical and nutritive
value of different cuts of meat.

3. To show the methods of separating fat from
animal tissue.

B. In connection with this lesson, study by means
of charts and illustrations in standard text-
books the following points :

1. Skeletal structure of beef, as a basis for the
division of the carcass into both wholesale
and retail cuts. (Note the similarity between
mutton and pork. The smaller size of these
animals is the only reason for the smaller
number of cuts.)^

2. Muscular structure of beef —

a. Gross structure — arrangement of muscles
in the carcass."

' Maria Parloa, Home Economics, p. 169. ' Ibid,, p: 177.

3i6 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Meat {continued).

b. Microscopic structure — muscle fibers, etc.

3. Wholesale and retail cuts of beef, mutton,
lamb, veal, pork. Through visits to the mar-
kets and by study of charts and illustrations,
students should become familiar with the
names, the characteristics, and the cost of
the chief types of meats in the form of the
cuts used in the household.
C. Relative economy of different cuts.

As preparation for this lesson, students should

list the local retail prices of typical cuts of the

different kinds of meat.

1. Using the form given below, collect and tabu-
late the data necessary to give a good gen-
eral idea of the amounts of expensive and
economical cuts of meats which will —

a. Serve 4 adults (or 6, or some other suitable
number).

b. Furnish 100 calories.

c. Furnish 1/2 ounce protein.

2. Suggested comparisons.

a. Tenderloin steak.
Skirt, i.e., flank steak.
Porterhouse steak.
Round steak.

b. Rib roast.
Rump pot roast.
Chuck rib roast.

c. Lamb cutlets (round).
Lamb chops (rib).
Lamb chops (loin).

A LABORATORY MANUAL

317

IV. Meat {continued).

3. Comparison of cost of different cuts of meat.

Price

per
pound

Amount required

to serve four

adults

Half -ounce
Protein portion

lOO-calories
portion

Weight

Cost

Weight

Cost

Weight

Cost

Compare the amount of fat, lean, and bone
in each cut.^ Note especially the possible
"kitchen" waste and "table" waste of fat.
Much of this information may be secured in
the homes. Include in the tabulation also
such data as may be secujred in the labora-
tory in the meat lessons.
D. Principles of cooking meat.

I. Constituents chiefly affected by heat.

a. The water evaporates.

b. Protein.

(i) Albumen coagulates.

(2) Myosin and protein of connecting tis-
sue shrink and contract.

(3) Hemoglobin coagulates and changes
color.

c. The fat melts and is pressed out by con-
traction of the tissue. At a high tempera-
ture, the fat decomposes.

■ See Sherman, Food Products, pp. 209-211.

3i8 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Meat {continued).

2. Effects may be shown by the following dem-
onstration experiments.

a. Protein.

(1) Effect of dry heat.

From a 3-inch square of lean beef,
scrape out the soft portion with a dull
knife, separating the connective tissue
as completely as possible. Make the
separated pulp into a small cake and
heat both it and the connective tissue
in a frying-pan. Watch the changes
carefully.

(2) Effect of moist heat.

Soak I tablespoon of ground beef
in, 2 tablespoons of water for 10 min-
utes. Strain the liquid into a test tube
and heat gradually to boiling, noting
all changes. (Compare with the experi-
ment on p. 299, in I , a.)

b. Fat.

(i) Extraction from the tissues.

Choose several varieties of fat tis-
sue, e.g., beef suet, mutton fat, chicken
fat. Put through the meat chopper or
cut into small pieces. Heat over boil-
ing water until the connective tissue
shrivels up. Cool and while still liquid
strain the fat into glass jars. Calculate
the cost per pound of the extracted fats.
Save these fats and the extracted fat

A LABORATORY MANUAL 319

IV. Meat {continued).

tissue ("cracklings") for use in future
lessons.
(2) Cooking of fat tissue illustrated with
bacon or salt pork. Cook 3 slices of
bacon as follows:

(a) Cook I slice (in a small frying-pan)
until it is crisp, but very light
brown. Apply the heat cautiously
so that there are no obvious fumes.
Pour the drippings into a beaker
or jelly glass. Drain the bacon on
absorbent paper.

(b) Cook another as in (a), but more
quickly and without observing care
in regard to excessive heat and
smoke. Treat drippings and bacon
as in (a).

(c) Cook the third until it is very dark
brown with the same treatment as
in (b). Compare the cooked bacon
and the drippings (when cold).
Color in both indicates the degree
of decomposition of the fat. To
what extent is a color change de-
sirable for the production of flavor?

E. Methods of cooking meat.

I. May be classified in several ways:

a. Method of applying heat —

Dry; moist; combination of dry and moist.

b. Duration of process —
Quick; slow.

320 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Meat (continued).

c. Object to be attained.

To retain the juices; to extract the
juices; to partly retain and partly extract
them.

2. List the ordinary methods, i.e., broiling,
stewing, etc., under their proper headings in
each of the above classifications.

3. Illustrate the cooking of —

a. Tender meats.

(i) Pan broil or broil beefsteak, lamb, or

mutton chop.
(2) Beef roast.

b. Tough meats.

(i) Hamburg steak or Swiss steak.

(2) Boiled or stewed meat.

(3) Pot roast.

(Refer to standard cook book for processes.)
Note: The quick processes may be carried
through in this lesson. Longer ones may be
begun during this lesson and completed either
before or during the following one. Discuss
results in the following lesson. The meat cooked
in this lesson may be used in the preparation
of some of the dishes in the next lesson.

F. Conservation of meat.

Show the possibility of the extension of meat
flavor by combination with other materials.
I. Materials suitable for carrying meat flavor,
a. Vegetables — Potatoes, carrots, turnips,
celery.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 321

IV. Meat (continued).

b. Cereals — Rice, barley, hominy, com meal.

c. Liquids — Milk, water, vegetable stock,
(i) Water in soup.

(2) Thickened with starches for sauce.

(3) Stiffened with gelatin for jellies.

2. Methods of extending flavor.

a. Stews which include large proportions of
vegetables.

b. Pies, molds, and croquettes, using cereals.

c. Soups with vegetables or cereals.

d. Scalloped meats, croquettes, soufifl6s, and
minced meats, using sauces as extenders.

e. Jellied veal, chicken, etc.

3. Meats suitable for such use.

a. The tougher cuts such as neck, flank, and
soup meat.

b. Trimmings and other less presentable
pieces such as rib ends.

c. Left-over meats.

Have the class prepare as many dishes
of the various types as are necessary to
illustrate the above methods; if recipes are
necessary, refer to current bulletins and
standard cook books.
General References:

Maria Parloa, Home Economics, chap. IX.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulle-
tin 391, Economical Use of Meat in the Home.
U.S. Food Leaflets: No. 5, Make a Little Meat Go
a Long Way; No. 3. A Whole Dinner on One
Dish.

322 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Fish.

A. Owing to the great difference in the fish avail-
able in different localities, this lesson, even more
than the others, must be adapted to suit local
conditions.

Chose from the following types of fish, those
which are locally available. Compare their cost
and desirability.

1 . Fresh fish —

Fresh water.
Salt water.
Shell fish.

2. Preserved fish —

Canned.

Salted.

Smoked.

Is canned, salted, or dried fish more or less
expensive than similar fresh fish?

Are there any disadvantages connected with
the use of preserved fish? Of fresh fish?

B. Principles and methods of cooking.
I. Fresh fish and shell fish.

a. Effects of heat ire practically the same as
for meat. To emphasize these, the experi-
ments in section II may be repeated using
oysters instead of egg albumen and heating
to different temperatures.

b. Because of the lack of fat in fish, it is often
added in cooking; e.g., as salt pork or
bacon.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 323

V. Fish (continued).

c. Acid (lemon juice oi vinegar) is often used
either to add or to modify flavor. Acid
added to the water whitens boiled fish.

d. Owing to the difference in the thickness
and character of the connective tissue of
fish, the time required for cooking is less
than for similar pieces of meat.

e. Sauces served with fish are important; to
add flavor (lemon juice, vinegar, or tomato
sauce); to add fat (e.g., tartar sauce); or
to add moisture (white sauce).

2. Salted and smoked.

a. Need of preliminary treatment before
cooking,
(i) To remove excess salt; e.g., soaking salt

cod.
(2) To restore moisture; e.g., soaking

smoked haddock (Finnan Haddie) in

milk and water.

3. Prepare the fish chosen from A, 2, above, to
illustrate as many as possible of the different
methods of cooking.

a. Broiled (avoid frying to save fat). Serve
with sliced lemon or tomato sauce.

b. Boiled. Serve with egg sauce or sauce
tartar. '

c. Baked fish — planked or stuffed. (What
kind of stuffing can be used?)

d. Fish cakes or balls. Use either salt fish

' See Boston Cooking School Cook Book, pp. 267 and 277.

324 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Fish (continued).

or canned fish flakes and bake instead of
frying the balls. ^
e. Scalloped fish.^

In re-heating scalloped dishes in the
oven to brown the crumbs, be sure that
the boiling temperature is reached through-
out the mixture, as it has been shown that
disease has been transmitted through con-
taminated dishes of this type which had
not been sufficiently heated.
4. Compare the cost and nutritive value as in
previous lessons.

VI. Poultry.

A. In the preparation of poultry the principles in-
volved are the same -as those in the cooking of
meat and fish. It may not be practical to re-
peat many of these cooking processes except as
they may be essential for the study of the eco-
nomic value of different kinds and grades of
poultry.
B. If the laboratory facilities are limited, such
studies may profitably be carried on as outside
work. Problem suggested for home study —
determine the relative economy in serving
chicken :

1. Roasted and stuffed.

2. Fricasseed.

3. Stewed with potatoes and corn meal dum-
plings.

' Boston Cooking School Cook Book, p. 178. ' /6td.,'p. 176.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 325

VI. Poultry (continued).

4. Creamed chicken.

Note: In all preparations, apply conserva-
tion principles by using wheat flour substitutes
and avoiding excess fat.

SECTION IV

PREPARATION AND USE OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS

I. Purpose:

To illustrate the principles underlying the cook-
ing of vegetables and fruits.

II. Effect of cooking vegetables.

A. Softening the cell wall. This is especially im-
portant in tubers and roots, as potatoes, beets^
but is less important with celery, cabbage, onions^
which are often eaten raw.

B. Change in flavor. Improved, in potatoes, green
beans, spinach. Changed without impairing, in
onions, celery, cabbage, if cooked carefully.
Destroyed or impaired — long cooking of celery
results in loss of flavor due to loss of volatile
flavoring substances; long cooking of onions,
turnips, cabbage, results in the production of
strong flavor.

C. Change in color. Color in white vegetables,
(onions, turnips, cabbage) and green vegetables
(peas, beans, asparagus) is retained by limiting
time of cooking. Darkened color results from
long continued cooking and is accompanied by
an impaired flavor.

D. Moisture content. It is reduced in baked vege-

326 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Effect of cooking vegetables (continued).

tables, e.g., squash, potatoes, but it may be in-
creased sjightly in cooked green vegetables, more
markedly in "soggy" boiled potatoes.
E. Losses. Kind and amount depend upon —

1. Method of cooking; e.g., whether baked or
boiled.

2. With and without skin.

3. Size of pieces.

4. Amount of water.

III. Demonstration of effects of cooking.

In order to show some of the most important of
the above principles, samples of vegetables should
be prepared either by the instructor or by such
students as may be able to give additional time.
These samples should be ready for, exhibition
and discussion at the beginning of the lesson pe-
riod. In each case secure three samples by taking
■out the following portions:

1. Vegetable cooked until just soft enough to
be pierced by a fork.

2. A portion cooked twice as long as in i.

3. A portion very much over-cooked.

Note in all cases the character of the vege-
table broth as well as the vegetables. Use the
vegetables and broths in the preparation of
creamed vegetables and vegetable soups.
Ji. Carrots.

I. Cooked whole.

a. In boiling water.

b. By steaming.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 327

III. Demonstration of effects of cooking (continued).

2. Cut in slices, cubes, or straws.

a. In a large excess of water.

b. In as little water as possible.
B. Cabbage, onions, or turnips.

1. Cooked in large pieces or whole.

2. Cut in small pieces.

IV. Class work.

A. Prepare potatoes as follows to insure a mini-
mum of loss:

1. Baked.

2. Boiled in the skins. While still hot remove peel-
ing, and brown (whole) in a small amount of
savory fat (bacon fat or fat saved from the
experiment in the meat lesson) or vegetable
oil.

3. "Stewed" potatoes. Cut pared potatoes in
thin slices, barely cover with water, and add
salt and butter to season. Boil until the slices
are tender but still whole and just enough
water left to make them juicy. No water
should be poured off.

B. Contrast the methods of cooking old and young
spinach if both are available. (Emphasize in
both cases the necessity of thorough cleaning.)

1. Young spinach. Cook without the addition
of any water for 10 minutes, chop fine, season
with fat and salt. Simmer for 10 minutes.

2. Old spinach. Blanch, to remove rank flavor.
Cook in a limited amount of water. The time

328 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. Class work (continued).

will vary with the age of the vegetable. Finish
as in I.

C. If time permits, prepare such vegetables as are
available on the local market to illustrate the
above principles and attractive methods of
serving.

D. Dried vegetables.

If cooked at ioo° C, all dried vegetables
should soak in cold water from 8 to 12 hours.
If cooked under 15 pounds pressure, the soaking
is unnecessary.

1. Succulent dried vegetables. Green beans,
carrots, onions, etc., should be cooked in the
water in which they were soaked to avoid loss
of the mineral constituents.

2. Dried legumes.

a. Some legumes, such as cow peas, are rank
in flavor so that the water in which they
were soaked cannot be used.

b. Cook by boiling or under pressure, dried
soy beans, pinto beans, lima beans, peas,
or other legumes.

c. With the cooked vegetable prepare baked
beans, bean or pea soup, bean loaf, bean
croquettes, and other preparations which
may serve as meat substitutes.

V. Compare the economic and nutritive value of these
dishes with similar portions of meat.^

> For recipes, see U.S. Food Leaflets, various state publications, Sprague, E. C,
" Nutritious Vegetable Soups," yowrwaZo/ Home Economics, ID, p. 80, February, 1918.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 329

VI. Fruits.

A. The principles of cooking are practically the same
as those involved in cooking vegetables.

B. Fruits as a source of sugar.

Soak well-washed dried prunes overnight in
enough water to cover them. Cook in the same
water until tender. Remove the fruit and re-
duce the juice to a thick sirup to be poured over
the fruit. Note that no added sugar is necessary
to sweeten them.

C. Fruit sweetened with sugar and sugar substitutes.
I. Cook three equal portions of the same fruit

and sweeten them respectively as follows:

a. With sugar, recording the weight of sugar
used.

b. With the amount of corn sirup which con-
tains the same weight of total solids as
the weight of sugar used in a. (See note (3)
below.)

c. With the amount of corn sirup which con-
tains the same weight of sugar as that used
in a. (See note (4) below.)

Is there a noticeable difference in sweet-
ness or other qualities in the three samples?
A note on the quantitative relation between com-
mercial corn sirup and cane sugar,
(i) Composition of corn sirup:

78% commercial glucose
32% dextrose
9% sucrose
37% dextrin, etc.
22% water
Density of a 78% sugar solution = 1.4.
Weight of I cup of sirup — 237 X i .4 = 332 grams.

330

FOOD AND THE WAR

3/4 cup sirup
9/16 "
3/8 "
3/16 "
1/2 "
1/4 "
sugar = 3/4 tablespoon

VI. Fruits (continued).

(2) Calculation for substitution on the basis of total
solids (commercial glucose):

332 grams X 78% = 260 grams commercial
glucose in i cup of sirup.

— - = e.77, or approximately 3/4 cup of sirup =
260

I cup of cane sugar (200 grams).

(3) Measures containing the same amount of total
solids (commercial glucose):

I cup sugar is equal to

3/4 " "
1/2 " "

1/4 " "
2/3 " "
1/3 " "
I tablespoon
sirup.

(4) Measures containing the same amount of sugar:

I cup sugar is equal to i 3/5 cup sirup

3/4 " I 1/5 "

1/2 " " 4/5 "

1/4 2/5 "

2/3 •• " " " " I 1/15"

1/3 " " " " " 8/15 "
I tablespoon sugar = 1 3/15 tablespoon
sirup.

Substituting sirup for sugar on the basis given
in (3) does not give a very sweet product in
cakes, therefore the equivalents on the basis of
the sugar in the sirup have been used in the cake
recipes given later.

With either basis, it has not been found satis-
factory to use all sirup. Half sugar and half sirup
have given the best results in our experience.

Owing to the amount of water in the sirup, the
liquid in the type recipe must be reduced accord-
ing to the amount of sirup used. With I cup of
sirup use 1/4 cup less liquid.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 331

VII. Vegetables and fruits as salads.
Emphasize —

A. Importance in the diet.

B. Principles of preparation.

C. Classification of salad dressings.

D. Food value and cost.

SECTION V

PREPARATION AND USE OF CEREAL
PRODUCTS

I. Cereal flours.

A. Comparison of thickening power.

Make a sauce with each of the flour substitutes,
using 1/2 tablespoon with 1/2 cupful water and
boiling for i minute. Compare as to consist-
ency, texture, color, and flavor. Tabulate re-
sults and determine which is best fitted for con-
servation purposes under present local condi-
tions.

B. Apply these results in making some of the fol-
lowing types of sauces, which should be served
in suitable combinations. List the ways in
which each may be used.

Types of sauces:

I. Named according to the liquid used.

a. White sauce — using milk (inaccurately
called cream sauce).

b. Cream sauce — using cream.

c. Tomato sauce — using tomato juice.

332 FOOD AND THE WAR

I. Cereal flours (continued).

2. Named according to the treatment of the in-
gredients.

Examples — drawn butter, brown sauce.

3. Named according to flavoring materials used.

Examples — egg sauce, mushroom sauce.

C. Practical application.

1. Make white sauces thickened with the most
suitable flour substitutes and use in the prep-
aration of creamed vegetables, meat, or fish;
macaroni, rice, or similar dishes.

2. Prepare puddings including some of each of
the types below. The principles of propor-
tion, and the methods of combining and cook-
ing are the same as for sauces.

a. Molded.

(i) Thickened with cornstarch or other
cereal to make a firm mold when cold ;
e.g., plain cornstarch pudding, choco-
late cornstarch pudding.

(2) With egg as part of the thickening;
e.g., lemon cornstarch pudding, straw-
berry cornstarch pudding.

b. Soft.

(i) Plain — fruit pudding, using either
fresh or dried fruits; e.g., "Norwegian
prune pudding," "thickened prunes."

(2) With egg; e.g., "soft lemon pudding,"
"floating island." ^

* Recipes for the above or similar dishes can be found in Mrs. Allen's Cook
Book, pp. 511-513. the Boston Cooking School Cook Book, pp. 411-412, and other
standard cook books.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 333,

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours.

The substitution of other cereal flours for wheat
flour in dough and batter mixtures has presented
one of the most difficult war-time problems in cook-
ing.
A. Principle of substituting weight for weight.

1. Recipes have been worked out on the prin-
ciple that a given weight of wheat flour may-
be replaced by an equal weight of a substitute.
This does not mean that other methods of
substitution may not be satisfactory. Some
flours in equal weights may absorb more
water than others.

2. The measures of equal weights of different
materials will vary according to the character
of the flour or meal. The weight of a stan-
dard cup of flours and meals is affected by
many factors, such as the fineness of the
material, whether it is sifted or unsifted and
how the cup has been filled.

3. The table of weights and measures on page-
335 has been adopted as a result of repeated
weighings in the experimental laboratory of
the Food Administration in cooperation
with the Office of Home Economics of the
Department of Agriculture, using flours avail-
able on the local market. The measures used
in the succeeding recipes represent the
weights in this table. For the benefit of those
working with them, plus and minus signs
are used to show that the measures are not
exact; 8/9 of a cup, for instance, must be

:334 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
translated either into i cup or 7/8 of a cup,
and the sign shows which has been done.
There is, however, so much variation in the
size of the measuring cup, and also so much
difference in the ways of measuring, that
there is no greater error in this translation
from one fraction to another than is bound
to occur in any use of measures.
4. It must be remembered that measures are
not accurate and that more uniform results
may be secured by weighing. Note especially
the difference in the weights of bread and
pastry flours. The amount of substitute to
be used will depend upon the kind of flour
used in the original recipe.
.5. Weight of I cup of uncooked cereals.

Commeal, coarse 130 grams := approximately s oz.

Hominy grits 134 " " S oz.

Oats, rolled 7S '* " 3 oz.

Oats, line, granulated. .. .136 " " s oz,

•6. Weight of i cup of cooked cereals.

Hominy 258 grams ^ approximately 9 oz.

Oats, rolled 257 " " 9 oz.

Rice 270 " " 9% oz.

The weights of cooked material will vary
considerably according to the way the mate-
rial is cooked and packed in the cup. The
weight of the rice given is for that cooked in
a double boiler with four times its volume of
water; no water was unabsorbed at the end
of the cooking and the grains were soft but
whole. Steamed rice lightly piled in a cup
may weigh as little as 148 grams (5 1/3 oz.).

A LABORATORY MANUAL

335

7. Equivalent Weights and Measures

I cup = J quart = 237 c.c.

Wheat flour

Substitutes

UnU

Bread

Pastry

Barley

Ground
rolled oats

Cornflour

Oa< .flour
and fine
corn meal

Riceflour,
buckwheat
and coarse
cornmeal

I cup

40Z.

sMsoz.

2%OZ.

3%oz.

40Z.

4H oz.

4% ox.

113 gr.

100 gr.

76 gr.

98 gr.

109 gr.

125 gr.

133 gr.

Oz.

Cups

C«/>J

C«i>s

Cups

Cb#s

Cups

Cups

I
2
3

3%
4
5
6
8
10

%

%

I

1%

2
2%

%(+)

%(+)

% (-)

I

iVs

i%(+)

i%(+)

2%

2%

%
%
iH
iH
1%
1%

2^4

3

3%

%(+)
%(+)

I

1%

1% (+)

i%(+)

2%

2%

y4

%
%

I

2

2%

H(-)
%(-)
%(-)

I (-)

iH

i%(+)

1%

2V4 (+)

%(+)

y*

%(+)
i%(-)
1%

1% (+)
2% (-)

(+) indicates generous measure.

(— ) indicates a scant measure.

B. Quick breads.

Purpose: To show the use of wheat flour sub-
stitutes in quick breads.
I. Muffins.

a. Proportions. A wide variation may be
made in the proportion of materials used

336 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
in muffins. The following are suited to
the average taste and may be used as a
basis for substitution. If sour milk is used
instead of sweet, the amount of flour
should be reduced to i 3/4 cups, with 1/2
teaspoon of soda and 2 teaspoons of baking
powder instead of 4 teaspoons of baking
powder.

Liquid Flour Pat Sugar Egg B.P. Salt

Sweet mUk i c. 2 c. i T. i T. i 4 1. H t.

If a softer texture is desired, i 3/4 cups,
or even i 1/2 cups of flour is all that is nec-
essary.

Substitution should be based in terms of
percentage, by weight, of the flour used in
the type recipe.

For example, the 2 cups of bread flour
in the muffin recipe weighs 226 grams, or
about 8 ounces, (i standard cup measures
1/4 guart or 237 ex.)

25% substitution requires S6 grams or 2 ounces of tlie substitute.
50% substitution requires 113 grams or 4 ounces of the substitute.
75% substitution requires 169 grams or 6 ounces of the substitute.

b. Substitutions to save wheat,
(i) Flours and meals. ,

Show that successful muffins may
be made using different proportions of
wheat flour and meal substitutes.

Instead of the 2 cups of wheat flour
given in the type recipe use the fol-
lowing proportions by measure, all of
which are equal to 75% substitution by
weight :

1% c. buckwheat flour
1% c. com flour
1% c. commeal (fine)
i^ c. commeal (coarse)
iH c. rice meal (coarse)

A LABORATORY MANUAL 337

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

(o) Barley muffins % c. wheat flour, 2V1 c. barley flour

(6) Buckwheat muffins.. .% c. "

(c) Com muflins % c "

(d) Commeal muffins . . . . Va c. "
Commeal muffins . . .% c.

(c) Rice muffins % c, "

(fi Or, by weight, 56 grams (2 ounces) of wheat flour and 226 grams (6
ounces) of any of the substitutes.

For the softer muffins use a total of
7 ounces instead of 8 ounces. These
will require greater skill in handling.

(2) Uncooked cereals.

Show that only 25% of cereal in
this condition can be substituted to
make a satisfactory muffin.

Instead of the 2 cups of wheat flour
in the typ)e recipe, use the following
proportions :

Oatmeal Muffins
I 1/2 cups wheat flour, 3/4 cup
rolled oats.

Method — Heat the i cup of liquid
to boiling, pour over the oats, let stand
until cool, then mix muffins as usual.

Other uncooked cereals are not satis-
factory.

(3) Cooked cereals. In using cooked cere-
als as wheat flour substitutes allowance
must be made for the water which they
have taken up in cooking. This is an
uncertain factor, as the amount will
differ according to the method of cook-
ing. The following proportions are

338 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
for well-cooked, but n,ot "mushy'
cereals.

(a) Instead of the i cup of liquid and
the 2 cups of flour in the type recipe,
use the following proportions :

Hominy grits — 2 tablespoons
liquid, I 1/2 cups wheat flour, and
I cup of cooked hominy, equal to
1/3 cup uncooked.

Oats, rolled — No liquid, i 1/2
cups wheat flour and i 1/3 cups
cooked rolled oats, equal to 3/4
cup uncooked.

Rice, 1/3 cup liquid, i 1/2 cups
wheat flour, 3/4 cup of cooked rice,
equal to 1/4 cup uncooked.

(b) Notes.

Only 25% by weight of the whole
cereals can be used to make a
good light muffin. By grinding the
rolled oats in a meat chopper, a
meal can be made which will allow
75% substitution as in (a).

A combination of two or more
of the cereal substitutes is usually
more satisfactory than one used
alone.

With cooked cereals and potato,
the mixture is very stiff, almost
like biscuit dough because the
moisture is held by the cereal. It
must be thoroughly mixed.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 339.

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
Rice flour muffins are improved
by increasing both the egg and
baking powder one half.

The basic recipe makes 8 large
muffins (2 3/4" X 2 X I 1/8")
or 16 small (i 3/4 X i 1/4 X 3/4).
The latter are more desirable, be-
cause they are more thoroughly
baked. Bake about 30 minutes at
205° C. (400 F.) which is a mod-
erately hot oven.
c. Modifications to save other materials,
(i) Reduce the amounts of fat and sugar.

(2) Substitute vegetable fats for animal
fats.

(3) Use corn sirup instead of sugar.

(4) Omit eggs.

These modifications may alter the
quality of the muffins somewhat, but
should not do so markedly.

The size of the class and the labora-
tory conditions must determine the
number of variations which should be
made. The work should be carefully
planned so that the results of the class
work will indicate clearly to the whole
class the differences due to the varia-
tions. Each member of the' class should
begin to acquire skill in the handling of
doughs and batters.
2. Griddle cakes.

.340 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours {continued).
Typical proportions for griddle cakes :

laquid Flour Fat Sugar Egg Leavening Salt

Bweet milk i c. ly^ c. i tbsp. i tbsp. i 3 tbsp. B.P. % tbsp.

■Sour milk i c. i^ c. i tbsp. i tbsp. i (.V2 tbsp. soda) % tsp.

(i tsp B.P.)

a. If a thinner mixture is preferred, i 1/4
cups of flour with sweet milk and i 1/8
cups with sour milk can be used.

b. Compare with the proportions for mufi&ns.
Why do they differ?

c. Make the same substitutions in the pro-
portions for griddle cakes as were made for
muffins and determine the desirability of
each.

d. For future use the results in this lesson
should be recorded either in tabular or in
recipe form, so that they will be easily avail-
able for practical use.

3. Corn breads.

a. Those made from corn meal, liquid, and
salt with a possible addition of fat and
sugar.

b. Those which include eggs.

c. Those which lise cooked corn meal.

d. Those which use corn meal alone.

Select recipes representing each of the
above groups from U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 565, Corn
Meal as a Food. Note the points in which
the program of the Food Administration
requires changes in ingredients and make
the necessary substitutions.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 341

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
C. Cakes.

I . Types of cakes.

a. Sponge cakes.

General Proportions
Showing typical variations using pastry flour.

(1) 4 eggs, I cup sugar, i cup flour, i tbsp. lemon juice, i tsp. salt

(2) s eggs, I " " I " " I " " " I " "

(3) 6 eggs, I " " I ■• " I " " " I " "

b. "Butter" cakes. (Many other fats may
be used instead of butter.)

General Proportions
Showing typical variations, using pastry flour.

Liquid

Fat

Egg

B.P.

Flour

Sugar

Flavor

Salt

Plain I c.

ViC.

I

6

3 c.

I%C.

I

%tsp.

Rich %c.

%c.

3

4

3C.

iVac.

I

" "

Very rich % c.

I c.

6

3

3C.

I%C.

I

" it

For methods of mixing see standard
cook books.

Note the degree in which the above recipes
violate the conservation program. If cakes
are to be used at all in war-time, only very
simple ones should be made, substituting
as far as possible —
(i) For wheat flour — other cereal flours,

substituting on the basis of the weight

of pastry flour.

(2) For animal fat — vegetable fats.

(3) For sugar —

Reduce the amount of sugar. Use
one-half sugar and one-half corn sirup.

342 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours {continued).
(Note — If sirup is used in sufficient
quantity to make cake sweet, it also
makes it heavy. See quantitative re-
lation between corn sirup and sugar,
P- 330.)

When sirup is used, the addition of
raisins, citron, and other fruits increases
the sweetness. Honey, maple sirup,
and molasses are also used in special
cases.
2. Proportions for war cakes.
a. Sponge cakes.

(i) As substitutes for wheat flour, rice,
corn, potatoes, and .barley flours may
be used, alone or in combination, in
amounts equal to the weight of the
wheat flour.

*

(2) For the i cup of flour in sponge cake {a
above) the following substitutions can
be made:

Barley flour 1% cups.

Corn flour % cup.

Oat and rice % cup oat flour.

Vi cup rice "
Oat and corn V2 cup oat flour.

% cup corn "

All of these are equal to 100% sub-
stitution by weight on the basis of pas-
try flour.

(3) Calculate measures which would be
equal to 33 1/3% and 50% substitutes.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 343

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

b. Variation of proportions in plain "butter"

cakes.

By reference to weights of flour substi-
tutes given in the muffin lesson, vary the
proportions for plain or rich cake, using
the cereal flours in amounts ranging from
50% to 100%.

c. Other cakes made with wheat flour sub-
stitutes.

(Sirup substituted for half the sugar on
the basis of its sugar content (41%). i cup
sirup (11 1/2 oz.) = 4 3/4 oz. sugar.

Chocolate Cake (i)

50% rice flour 50% barley flour

50% sirup on basis of glucose content. See p. 330. "
1/2 cup fat I cup rice flour

2/3 cup sugar (about 4 3/4 oz.) 2 cups barley flour

I cup sirup (about 11 1/2 oz.) 6 teaspoons baking powder
3 eggs I teaspoon cinnamon

3/4 cup milk I teaspoon vanilla

I teaspoon salt 2 squares chocolate

Cream the fat, sugar, and egg yolk. Add the sirup and mix
well. Add alternately the liquid, and the dry ingredients sifted
together. Add flavoring and melted chocolate. Fold in the well-
beaten egg white. Bake about i hour, starting in a moderate oven
(350° F.-i77° C). After 20 minutes raise the temperature to
400° F.-205° C.

Chocolate Cake (2)

75% buckwheat flour 25% ground rolled oats

(50% sirup on basis of glucose content.)
1/2 cup fat I 3/4 cups buckwheat flour

2/3 cup sugar (4 3/4 oz.) 1/2 cup ground rolled oats

344 FOOD AND THE WAR

Chocolate Cake (2) {continued).

I cup sirup (11 1/2 oz.) 6 teaspoons baking powder

3 eggs I teaspoon cinnamon

3/4 cup milk 2 squares chocolate

I teaspoon salt i teaspoon vanilla

Mix and bake as above.

Spice Cake (i)

100% barley flour
50% sirup on basis of glucose content. See p. 330.
1/2 cup fat 6 teaspoons baking powder

2/3 cup sugar (about 4 3/4 oz.) i teaspoon salt

I cup sirup (11 1/2 oz.) I teaspoon cinnamon

3 eggs 1/2 teaspoon cloves

3/4 cup milk I teaspoon allspice

I teaspoon vanilla 3 3/4 cups barley flour

I cup raisins

Method — Cream the fat, sugar, and egg yolk. Add the sirup
and mix well. Add alternately the liquid, and the dry ingredients
sifted together. Add the flavoring and fold in the well-beaten egg
whites. Bake for i hour in a moderate oven (170° 0.-350° F.).
After 20 minutes raise the temperature to (205° 0.-400° F.).

Spice Cake (2)

50% rice flour 50% buckwheat

50% sirup on basis of glucose content. See p. 330.
1/2 cup fat 6 teaspoons baking powder

2/3 cup sugar (about 4 3/4 oz.) i teaspoon salt
I cup sirup (11 1/2 oz.) I teaspoon cinnamon

3 eggs 1/2 teaspoon cloves

3/4 cup milk (6 oz.) I teaspoon allspice

I teaspoon vanilla i cup rice flour

I teaspoon ginger I cup buckwheat

Mix and bake as above.

d. Cakes containing no egg and a minimum
of fat.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 345

(1) Canadian War Cake
Recipe Substitutes

2 cups brown sugar 3/4 cup molasses or i cup corn sirup

2 cups hot water

2 tablespoons fat 2 tablespoons corn oil
I lb. seedless raisins

(raisins make the cake richer)
I teaspoon salt
I " cinnamon

I " cloves

3 cups flour 3 cups of barley flour

Boil all except the flour for 5 minutes after bubbling begins.
When cold, add i scant teaspoon of soda dissolved in i teaspoon
of warm water. When cool stir in flour.

Bake in 2 loaves for 45 minutes in a slow oven.

This cake is better if allowed to age for a few days or a week
before using.

(2) Gingerbread

Prepare gingerbread from the following recipe:

I cup cornmeal i teaspoon baking powder

1 cup wheat flour i teaspoon baking soda

2 teaspoons cinnamon i cup molasses

2 teaspoons ginger i cup sour milk or buttermilk

1/2 teaspoon salt 2 tablespoons fat

Sift the dry ingredients and add molasses, milk, and fat.
Beat well and pour into a grezised pan. Bake 25 minutes.
Notice that this recipe uses corn meal ' or half the wheat flour
ordiucirily used.

(a) Compare this with other recipes in
any standard cook book and note
conservation features.

(b) Substitute rye flour for the i cup
of wheat flour.

(c) Substitute barley flour for the i
cup of wheat flour.

346 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

(3) Frostings add greatly to the consump-
tion of sugar. As conservation measures,
either omit altogether, or before baking
sprinkle the cake lightly with a mix-
ture of spice and sugar, or place split
almonds or other nuts on top.

(4) Calculate the fuel value of a piece of
sponge cake, of plain cake, very rich
cake, or plain cake frosted.

Assume that sponge cake in the pro-
portions given maybe cut into 16 pieces,
and that the butter cakes may be cut
into 24 pieces.
D. Biscuits.

I. By class demonstration, show methods of
mixing and the proportions of liquid in drop
biscuits and in molded biscuits.

General Proportions for Biscuits

Liquid Flour Fat Baking powder Salt

To be determined i c. i tsp. 2 tsp. 1/4 tsp.

a. Drop biscuits.

Using wheat flour (white) with propor-
tions given above, sift the dry materials,
mix in the fat thoroughly, and add enough '
liquid (note the amount) to make a dough
which is too soft to be handled. Drop by
spoonfuls on an oiled pan and bake in a
hot oven (225° C).

b. Molded biscuits.

Repeat a, but add enough liquid (note

A LABORATORY MANUAL 347

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours {continued).
the amount) to make a soft dough. Mix
barely enough to combine the ingredients.
The dough should not look smooth. Cut
out one biscuit (i). Knead the rest of the
dough slightly — until it looks smooth.
Cut out two biscuits (2 and 3). Knead
the remainder of the dough very thoroughly.
Cut into biscuits (4).

Bake biscuits (i), (2), and (3) immedi-
ately in a hot oven (225° C). Let (3) stand
a half-hour, then bake at same tempera-
ture as others. Reserve these biscuits,
which should show characteristic differ-
ences, to compare with those made with
wheat flour substitutes.
2. Use of the substitutes.

a. Use those available in your locality, choos-
ing one of each type.

Flours

Meals

Whole cereal

Corn

Corn

Rolled oats

Rice

Oatmeal

Rice

Barley

Kafir corn

Buckwheat

Feterita

b. Proportions.

For either drop or molded biscuits as
much as 75% to 100% of the flour and meal
substitutes may be used.
E. Pastry.

This subject may include a comparison of the
qualities of the different kinds of fats, the amounts
of each required to produce tender crusts and their
economic values.

348 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

1. Principles and proportions in pastry are simi-
lar to those in biscuits except that a larger
proportion of fat is used.

General Proportions

Liquid Fat Flour Salt

Plain pastry Amount 1/4 c. i c. 1/4 tsp

variable

Rich pastry " 1/3 c. i c. 1/4 tsp.

2. Tenderness of pastry depends —

a. Upon the amount and kind of fat used.

b. Upon the amount of water — the smaller
the quantity of water used, the more tender
will be the crust.

c. Upon the handling of the dough; too much
or too heavy kneading toughens the pas-
try, s

3. Suggested substitutions.

a. For wheat flour, use from 50% to 100% of
rice, com, oat, or barley flours, or a mix-
ture of two or more.

b. For lard, butter, or fat compounds, use i
to 2 tablespoons of vegetable oil in place
of 1/4 cup of the solid fats. With the oil,
very little water is needed; e.g., from i 1/2
to 2 tablespoons for i cup of flour and 2
tablespoons of oil.

4. Emphasize the use of the one-crust pie.
F. Bread.

I. Purpose.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 349

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

a. To compare the properties of different
grades of wheat flour, if these are on the
market, with those of suggested substi-
tutes.

b. To compare the character of the different
kinds of yeast.

c. To demonstrate the different methods used
in bread-making.

2. Gluten test.

May be done as a class demonstration.

a. To 2 tablespoons of flour add water to
make a stiff dough which can be worked in
the hand. Wash this in cold water until
the liquid is clear, noting the changes.
When the ball no longer gives the iodine
test for starch, bake in a hot oven. Repeat,
using such grades of flour as are available.

b. Repeat a, with rye, barley, and other wheat
substitutes. Compare the results with a.
Why does wheat give the best flour for
bread-making?

3. Yeast.

a. Examine under the microscope samples of
dry, compressed, and liquid yeast.

b. Demonstration. Making liquid yeast.

Proportions

1 cup potato water.
1/2 cup dry yeast.

2 tablespoons corn sirup.
2 tablespoons flour.

I cup mashed potatoes.

Cool the potatoes and i cup of the water

350 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours {continued).
in which they were cooked until lukewarm.
Soften the yeast in part of the liquid and
combine all the materials, mixing thor-
oughly. Keep at an even temperature
(about 30° C.) overnight (10 to 14 hours).

Other flour substitutes may be used in-
stead of the potato, but at least water in
which potatoes have been cooked should
be used, as it contains substances which
favor the growth of yeast.

Measure the volume of the liquid yeast
after it has fermented. What amount of
this yeast should be used if a loaf of bread
is to be made on the basis of one-half cup
of water, using only that present in the
liquid yeast? The yeast starter made in
this demonstration should be reserved for
use by the class at the next lesson.
4. Processes of bread-making.

a. Methods.

, (i) Long process — overnight process, re-
quiring 12 to 16 hours.

(a) Starter, sponge, and dough.

(b) Sponge and dough.

(c) Off-hand dough.

(2) Short process — requiring only 4 to 6
hours.

(a) Sponge and dough.

(b) Off-hand dough.

b. Proportions (these should make an 18 to
20 ounce loaf).

A LAPORATORY MANUAL 351

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours {continued).
(i) Long process — sponge method.

1/4 cup liquid 1 °'.}/^ •="? li'l"''^ ^''i ''1-
1/4 cake dry yeast f ""^ T^st asm B, 2. above,
J to give 1/2 cup water.

I tablespoon corn sirup.

I teaspoon salt.

I tablespoon vegetable oil.

3 to 4 cups flour.

Heat the liquid to 37° C. and add
I 1/2 cups flour, the sirup, and the
yeast. Beat thoroughly and set to rise
at an even temperature (30° to 32° C.)
overnight. In the morning, add i
tablespoon fat, i teaspoon salt, and the
remainder of the flour. Knead thor-
oughly. Place in bread bowl and al-
low to rise until double in bulk. Cut
or knead down, allow to rise again, and
mold into loaves. When it has dou-
bled in bulk, bake about 45 minutes
(even temperature 195° C. for 10 min-
utes, then lowered to 185° C).
(2) Long process with a starter and sponge.
Starter —

3/4 cup water or potato water ) to make about
1/2 cup mashed potato J I cup liquid.

1/4 cake dry yeast.

I tablespoon corn sirup.

I tablespoon flour.

When the water is lukewarm (37° C.)
mix all the ingredients thoroughly.
Keep overnight at an even temperature
(30°-32" C). In the morning, add i

352 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
cup flour, beat well and allow to rise for
I hour. Then add i tablespoon fat, i
teaspoon salt, and knead in enough
flour to make a dough that does not
stick to the hands (2 cups). Allow to
rise, knead down, let rise again, and
mold into loaves. Place in pans and
when double in bulk bake (at a tem-
perature of 195° C. lowering to 185° C.
after 10 minutes) about 45 minutes.
(3) Short process.

Proportions the same as in b, (i),
above, but substitute 1/2 cake com-
pressed yeast for 1/4 cake dry yeast.

(a) Sponge method. Soften the yeast
in part of the liquid. Make a sponge
and follow directions in b, (2),
above.

(b) Off-hand method. Soften the yeast
in part of the liquid, combine all the
ingredients to make a dough, and
proceed as usual.

5. Demonstration.

a. Plans for demonstration.

The bread made in this demonstration
should be carefully made into model loaves
for comparison with the Victory breads to
be shown later.

In order to show each step of the proc-
ess, have ready at the beginning of the
demonstration the following items:

A LABORATORY MANUAL 353

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

(i) All material, carefully measured (or

weighed) for i loaf of bread. (See b,

(i), below.) The proportions given

below will make a good-sized loaf.

(2) A sponge, light and ready to be made
into a stiff dough. Use proportions
given in b, (i), above. (P. 351.)

(3) A dough which has risen and is ready
to be made into the loaf. Use twice
the amounts given in b, (i), above.
It is desirable also to have a loaf which
has risen and is ready to be baked, and
a baked loaf, but for purposes of econ-
omy this may be omitted.)

b. Procedure.

(i) Make a sponge of i cup of liquid at
37° C, I tablespoon sirup, 1/2 cake
compressed yeast, and 11/2 cups flour.

Beat thoroughly. Show the consist-
ency and explain that this is to be set
to rise at an even, warm temperature.

Use this as an illustration of the
sponge process, explaining the differ-
ences when the dry and compressed
yeasts are used.

Emphasize the fact that it is advis-
able to make the sponge even for the
' so-called short process. The quality of

the bread is improved and the time is
not materially lengthened, if 1/2 hour
is allowed for the sponge rising, instead
of using the off-hand method.

354 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
Without allowing the above sponge
to rise, add i teaspoon salt and enough
flour (about i 1/2 cups) to make a stiff
dough. This will serve to illustrate the
off-hand method. Let the dough rise,
mold, and bake it as in the other
processes .

(2) Take the sponge (see a, (2), above)
which is well risen, add I teaspoon salt

• and flour (about i 1/2 cups) to make

a dough that can be handled easily.
Rub lightly with fat and set aside to
rise.

(3) Use the dough (see a, (3) , above) which
should have risen twice, to illustrate
the following processes:

(a) Cutting or kneading down the
dough for the second rising.

(b) Kneading and forming the loaf.
Use half the dough.

(c) Forming different shapes of rolls.

Brush with fat, allow to rise, and
bake. Keep all conditions absolutely
uniform, so that the finished loaves
may be compared. Save these loaves
also to compare with Victory Breads.

G. Victory breads.

I. Purpose.

To show the use of wheat flour substitutes
in making yeast breads and rolls.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 355

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

2. Wheat-saving substitutes include:

a. Cereals.

Whole — rolled oats, rice, barley, hom-
iny.

Cracked ■ — rice, granulated oat meal,
pearl barley, hominy grits.

Meals — corn, peanut meal, kaffir corn
meal, milo meal, barley meal, soy
bean m.eal, shorts, middlings.

Flours — corn, cornstarch, barley, po-
tato, sweet potato, milo, feterita,
banana.

b. Vegetables.

Legumes — peas, beans.
Other vegetables — potatoes, sweet po-
tatoes, dasheens, pumpkins, squashes.

c. Miscellaneous.

Alfalfa, bran, bread crumbs.

3. Make as many types of bread as conditions
permit, selecting those wheat flour substitutes
which are easily obtainable, and substituting
a definite percentage by weight of the flour
in the type recipe. Include at least one from
each of the following groups to show different
methods of treatment.

It is not satisfactory to attempt to carry
through the bread-making process in one
laboratory period.

Because of the importance of the subject,
arrangements should be made to have the

356 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
students come into the laboratory at such
intervals during the day as will be necessary
to carry on the process normally.

Each student should make bread by both
the long and short processes and should have
experience in using both dry and compressed
yeast.

4. Preparation of substitute.

a. Cereals.

(i) Whole — type, rolled oats.

(a) Scalded with the liquid to be used
in making the bread.

(b) Well cooked. Weigh the water and
the cereal to be used in the bread
(reserve enough water to soften the
yeast). Cook thoroughly. Weigh
and add enough water to restore
to the original weight. Proceed aa
usual.

(2) Meals — type, corn meal.

(a) Scalded (see above).

(b) Well cooked (see above).

(c) Sifted with flour — no special treat-
ment.

(3) Flours — type, com, barley, or rice.
Sift with the wheat flour.

b. Vegetables.

(i) Legumes — type, beans.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 357

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).

(a) Cook thoroughly and mash, using
the hull and pulp.

(b) Put through sieve or potato ricer,
discarding the hull. ,

(2) Other vegetables — type, white potato.
Use mashed.

c. Miscellaneous.

(i) Shorts, middlings, etc., sifted with the
flour.

(2) Bread crumbs, softened in water before
incorporating. If very fine they may
be sifted with flour.

5. Victory bread must contain at least 25% of
some substitute. On account of the high
moisture content of potatoes, 4 pounds of
potatoes will be considered the equivalent
of I pound of other substitutes.

6. Proportions and methods.

Weigh the amount of flour which was re-
quired to make a loaf of bread in the previous
lesson. Substitute for 25% of this, an equal
weight of any of the above materials. Other
ingredients are the same as previously given,
with such modifications of methods as are
required by the treatment of the substitute.
If time permits, make other samples, using
33 i/3%-

For conservation purposes, fat is reduced
to a minimum or omitted entirely. Enough

358 FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Doughs and batters using cereal flours (continued).
corn sirup may-be used to favor the growth of
yeast. 1
7. Victory rolls.

Convert the Victory bread recipes and
those used in A into proportions suitable for
rolls by adding fat and sugar in the propor-
tions allowed to commercial bakers.

1% of vegetable shortening, either vegetable
fats or oils or fat compounds containing not
more than 15% of animal fats.

3 1/2% of corn sugar or 3% of cane or beet
sugar. (Expressed in per cent of total flour
or meal or any mixture thereof.)

Shape and bake in typical roll forms:
Parker House, finger, cinnamon.

SECTION VI
ADEQUATE DIET
I. Purpose.

To show the application of the principles of
adequate feeding in the preparation of meals for
the day.

II. Meals should be shown in amounts suitable for a
man at moderate muscular work; a woman at mod-
erate muscular work; and a child of 12, based upon
the following table for a man at moderate muscular
work.

1 For the effect of substitution of different amounts of flours see Sprague, E. C.^
and Lauglilin, E., "Breads from Unusual Flours," American Food Journal, 12,
p. 673. 1917.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 359

I II

Comparatively Comparatively

expensive diet cheap diet

Vegetables and fruits from 2 1/2 lbs. down to 1 1/2

lbs.
Milk 8 oz. (1/2 pint) 8 oz.

Meats, eggs, cheese, etc., from 14 oz. down to 6 oz.

(Use 2 ounces less for every additional half-pint of milk)
Cereals from 8 oz. up to 16 oz.

Sweets from 3 oz. down to 1 1/2 oz.

Fats from 3 oz. down to i 1/2 oz.

A. Each group of two students working together
may plan, prepare and serve one day's meals
based on one of the following:

1. Comparatively expensive diet.

a. Using figures as given in Table L

b. Using high milk allowance.

c. Using medium milk allowance.

d. Using expensive foods.

e. Using cheaper foods.

2. Comparatively cheap diet.

Using figures as given in Table II, making
the same comparisons as given in i.

B. Calculate the cost and the food value. The pro-
tein and calories may be estimated either by
determining the exact weight of the materials
served and calculating these values from the
tables in Rose, A Laboratory Mantial of Diet-
etics, or by using the weight in pounds of
the materials as purchased and the empirical
factors given below which have been developed
from the average composition.' Note especially

' See Hunt, C. S., " A Quick Method of Calculating Food Values," Journal oj
Borne Economics, lo, p. 212. May, 1918,

36o FOOD AND THE WAR

II. Diet for moderate muscular work (continued).

that the weights are always used as pounds or
fractions of a pound and that the results are
calories and pounds or fractions of a pound of
protein.

1. Fruits and vegetables.

Weight of fresh or canned plus (weight of
dried fruits and vegetables multiplied by 6)
multiplied by 250 = calories.

Same data divided by 70 = protein (lbs.).

2. Protein rich foods.

a. The less watery — meat (except salt pork
and bacon) , fish, eggs, cheese, peanut butter,
dried soy beans not included in first group,
— use the actual weight.

b. The more watery — milk, skim milk,
oysters, clams, etc. — use 1/4 of the actual
weight.

Sum of a and b multiplied by 900 = calor-
ies.

Sum of a and b divided by 7 = protein
(lbs.).

3. Cereals.

The actual weight of dry cereals plus 3/4
the weight of bakery goods multiplied by
1600 = calories.

The same divided by 9 = pi'otein (lbs.).

4. Sweets.

The actual weight of sugar plus 3/4 the
weight of sirups multiplied by 1800 = calories.

A LABORATORY MANUAL

361

II. Diet for moderate muscular work (continued).

5. Fats.

The actual weight of butter, lard, etc.,
bacon, shelled nuts (except peanuts and
chestnuts), and unsweetened chocolate plus
1/2 the weight of cream and ice cream multi-
plied by 3400= calories.

The same divided by 30 = protein (lbs.).

6. Example.

Application of the Liberal Diet given on p. 359

Calories

Protein

Fruits and vegetables

2% lbs. X 250 = 62s

2% lbs.-!- 70 =.04 lbs.

Meat %lb.

MUk H X % lb. = % lb.

Total lib.

lib. X 900 = 900

I lb. -s- 7 = 0.14 lbs.

Cereals

Rice, cereal flour and
breakfast cereals

% lb. X 1600 = 800

% lb. -5- 9 = 0.05 lbs.

Sweets

Sirup Va oz.
Candy loz.

%Xi%oz.= iHoz.

Sugar iHoz.

Total 3 oz.

%6 lb. X 1800 = 338

Fat

Cream 2 oz. X % = % oz-
Butter, etc z% oz.

Ha lb. X 3400 = 637

Total 3 oz.

3300

III. Judge the day's diet also as to ash constituents and
other points as given in the Dietary Score Card;
Rose, Laboratory Manual of Dietetics, p. 69.

362 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. The tabulation given on page 363 showing one day's
food, conforming to the amounts given in II above,
and their arrangement in rrienus, is suggested as a
convenient method of planning.

The method is much more satisfactorily used if
the calculations are made for a family than for
an individual, and for a week or a month instead
of a day. , Awkward and inaccurate fractions and
irregularities due to daily variations are thereby
avoided.

Menus
(Using foods tabulated below)

Breakfast

Orange Top milk, sugar

Hominy grits Wheatless muffins

One egg Coffee

Luncheon

Jellied salmon Baked potato

Rice spoon bread Cheese

Baked apple Tea

Dinner

Beefsteak Mashed potato

Buttered onion Wheatless bread

Tomato and lettuce salad Sponge cake (wheatless)

Strawberries Coffee

A LABORATORY MANUAL

363

Food for a man at moderate muscular work for one day
{June, 191 8)

Kind off<.od Total Distribution

Vegetables

Potatoes

Tomato

Lettuce

Onion

Fruit

Orange

Apple

Strawberries —

MUk

Top milk

Sldm milk

Skim milk.. ..
Skim milk.. • •

Meat, etc

Fish....
Meat ..
Cheese.

Cereab

Hominy grits. .

Breads ■

Rice

Cereal flfturs,...

Sweets . .
Sugar.

Sirup

Candy.. ■

Fats

Butter...*
Cream. ..

Cooking fat ■ ■

14 oz

8 oz.

12 oz. (2 medium)

4 oz. (i small)
I oz.

3 oz. (i medium)

8 oz. (i medium)
6 oz. (i medium)
6 oz. {2 cup)

Hcup

^^cup

% cup (scant)

V^cup

4 oz. (2 average)

3 oz.
6 oz.
I oz.

1% oz. (H cup =

% cup cooked)

3 oz. cereal flours,

% of 4 oz. (two 2-

oz.. servings)

1 oz.

2 oz. for cooking

1% oz.

y2 0Z. )_%0Z.

% OZ. J sugar

^ cup =^^oz. fat
(14 of 2 oz.)

Use

I I , Lunch, baked
1 I, Dinner, mashed
Dinner, salad
Dinner, salad
Dinner, cooked

Breakfast
Lunch, baked
Dinner, dessert

Breakfast, cereal
Breakfast, muffins
Lunch, spoon bread
Dinner, potato

Breakfast, iH (egg and muffin)

Luncheon, H (spoon bread)

Dinner, Vi (sponge cake)

Lunch, ^ (salad dressing)

Lunch

Dinner

Dinner

Breakfast, cereal
Breakfast, wheatless bread

Lunch, I oz. spoon bread
Dinner, ^ oz. sponge cake
Dinner, ^ oz. salad dressing

Breakfast, H oz. coffee
Breakfast, H oz. cereal
Lunch. H oz. tea
Diimer, V2 6z. cake, ^ oz. dessert

Lunch, baked apple

Each meal, % oz. fat
Breakfast, 2 T. for coffee
Dinner, 2 T. for salad

Muffins, mashed potato, salad
dressing, onion

SECTION VII
PRESERVATION OF FOOD BY CANNING

I. Although at certain seasons there is little naaterial
suitable for canning, probably enough can be se-
cured even out of season to illustrate the methods.
A demonstration lecture is advised in order that
each step of the process may be clearly and care-
fully shown, emphasizing the following points:

A. Brief summary of principles of food preserva-
tion. (See pp. 207-219.)

B. Selection of material.

C. Preparation of material.

^ D. Methods of canning. Advantages and disad-
vantages of each method.

E. Types of apparatus.

F. Types of jars and cans and rubber rings.

G. Application of these principles to community
canning.

II. Selection of material for canning.

A. Choose fruits and vegetables for canning at the
height of the season or to save the surplus at
any season.

B. Firm, well-grown, and not over-ripe fruit, and
young, quickly grown vegetables are most suit-
able for canning. All blemishes must be re-
moved.

C. Procure fresh products; if possible, can them
the day they are gathered.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 365

in. Preparation of material.

A. Clean thoroughly.

B. Pare or otherwise prepare for cooking, removing
all blemishes.

C. For best results, grade as to size, degree of ripe-
ness, and general appearance.

D. Special preparation of each according to charac-
ter and method of canning used; e.g., "blanch-
ing" by dipping certain fruits and vegetables
in scalding water.

IV. General directions for demonstrating canning
methods.

A. For the demonstration or for class work, the
steps in each one of the processes given below
should be carefully shown and as far as possible
the following types of materials included :

lu Fruits — rhubarb, strawberries, pineapples or

apples.
a. Vegetables.

a. Those easily sterilized — tomatoes, beets,
carrots.

b. Those difficult to sterilize — beans, peas,
spinach, asparagus, dandelion greens.

3. Meat (probably the most difficult of all foods
to can in the home).

B. The different methods may be illustrated as
follows :

1. Open kettle (hot pack) — beets, carrots, ber-
ries, pineapple.

2. One period or continuous (cold pack).

366 FOOD AND THE WAR

IV. General directions for deynonstrating canning
methods {continued).

a. Ordinary temperature — tomatoes, berries,
or rhubarb.

b. Under pressure — asparagus, beans, peas.

3. Intermittent — asparagus, beans, peas, greens.

4. Combination of open kettle (hot pack) and
cold pack (continuous) — meat, carrots, or
beets.

For details of some of the manipulation
and the length of time required for processing
the different foods see the government bulle-
tins given at the end of the section or state
bulletins.

V. Methods of canning.

A. Open kettle method. This might well be called
the "hot pack" method in contrast with the
"cold pack." It is the earliest method used in
the household.

1 . Method. Cook the fruit and vegetables thor-
oughly in an open kettle. Fill sterilized jars
with the cooked material as nearly at the boiling
point as possible. Seal air tight immediately,
using all precautions to avoid contamination.

2. Advantages. The boiling point is quickly
reached throughout the mass and it is there-
fore more likely to be completely processed.
Little time and only simple equipment is
needed.

3. Disadvantages. It requires considerable in-
telligence to guard against contamination at

A LABORATORY MANUAL 367

V. Methods of canning (continued).

various points. It is troublesome because
everything must be handled while very hot,
as near the boiling point as, possible. Fruits
and vegetables may be crushed by handling
and packing after cooking.

B. The methods in which the food is packed cold.

1. As indicated in the name, in these methods
the uncooked or partially cooked food is
packed in the cans or jars while still cold or
heated only as long as preliminary prepara-
tions require. The cooking or processing of
the food is accomplished in the container.

2. Advantages. It is convenient because packing
process can be carried on at will and requires
the least handling of hot materials and uten-
sils; permits careful and symmetrical packing,
and crushing can be avoided.

The flavor, texture and appearance of most
fruits and some vegetables are better by this
method.

It is less liable to contamination during
canning since there is the least handling of
open jars after processing.

3. Disadvantages. It usually requires an extra
process, "blanching," partially to soften and
shrink material which can then be packed
more satisfactorily and in some cases to im-
prove the flavor.

C. The one period process at the ordinary boiling
point, widely known as the "One Period Cold
Pack" method, although cold packing is prac-
ticed in several other methods.

368 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Methods of canning (continued).

1. Method. The filled jars are heated in a water
bath which is kept boiling (ioo° C.) for
varying lengths of time according to the
kind of material to be preserved. The water
bath is made by supporting the jars on a rack
in any kind of closely covered vessel in which
they can be surrounded by water at the boil-
ing point. Steam cookers and the "water
seal '' cookers are modifications of this method.

2. Advantages. For many foods it is the easiest
and most convenient method. The apparatus
necessary may be contrived by using uten-
sils found in any household, such as kettles,
washboilers, or large dishpans.

3. Disadvantages. Because of the slow penetra-
tion of heat through the material, sterilization
may not be accomplished, unless the time of
heating is long continued.

D. One period heating under pressure, from 5 to
15 pounds or from 108° to 120° C. (227° F. to
249° F.).

I. Method. The jars, filled as in C, are heated
in a vessel having a closely clamped cover
so that steam pressure can be secured in a
pressure cooker. Much of the liquid in the
jar will be lost unless care is taken to avoid
sudden changes in pressure. By observing
a few precautions this may be reduced to a
minimum.

a. Allow petcock to remain open until live
steam blows from it.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 369

V. Methods of canning (continued).

b. Maintain uniform pressure during proc-
essing. There should be no fluctuations
up or down.

c. When processing is complete, open the
petcock when atmospheric pressure (zero
on the pressure gage) is reached.

It should be remembered that cooking
is continued during the slow cooling and
the time of processing may be reduced
accordingly.

2. Advantages. It is a quick, safe method with
all foods and is especially valuable for com-
munity kitchens as a large amount of canning
can be completed in a very short time with
the least chance of spoilage.

3. Disadvantages. It requires special apparatus
not common in the household. The first cost
is comparatively high. Overcooking with
loss in flavor may easily occur if the high tem-
perature is applied for too long a time.

E. Intermittent method or fractional processing.

The jars, cold packed as in C, are heated in
the water bath usually for i hour (after the water
bath boils) on each of 3 successive days. This is
preferred by many to the one period heating
for peas, beans, corn and some other vegetables.

Disadvantages. The method is troublesome
because it must be carried over several days and
the jars must be handled a number of times.

F. Combination of open kettle method and proc-
essing in the jar.

370 FOOD AND THE WAR

V. Methods of canning (continued).

Some materials, as carrots and beets, are often
cooked in the open kettle, then packed and
processed in the jars by the one period method
to counteract the effect of possible contamina-
tion in handling. Meats may also be previously
cooked, sometimes by frying, then packed, and
the processing completed. This is probably the
simplest and safest way to can beans, peas, and
corn about which there is so much debate.
G. Cold water method.

Acid fruits, such as rhubarb and gooseberries,
are sometimes kept by merely sealing in steri-
lized jars with clean (preferably sterile) cold
water. The method is not always successful.

VI. Show the penetration of heat from the water bath
into the jars by the cold pack method by inserting
thermometers in the center of a packed jar and
observing the temperature at different stages of
the process.

A. At the beginning.

B. When the water in the bath begins to boil.

C. When the water has boiled 15 minutes; 20 min-
utes; 30 minutes.

For the best results a very long-stemmed
thermometer is needed. A hole may be cut
in an old jar cover and in a kettle cover for the
insertion of the thermometer so that the tem-
peratures may be more nearly normal. If this
cannot be arranged, the observations taken in
the uncovered jars and kettles will be of interest,
though less accurate.

A LABORATORY MANUAL 371

VII. After the demonstrations each student should be
given opportunity for as much practice as
possible. She must not consider herself skilled
until she has canned again and again and found
that her products keep. More detailed informa-
tion of the process will be found in the references
below.

REFERENCES

Benson, O. H. Home Canning by the One Period Cold Pack Method,
as Taught to Canning Club Members in the Northern and Western
States. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 839.

Bitting, A. W. and K. G. Canning and How to Use Canned Foods.
National Canners Association, 1916.

Bitting, A. W. Methods Followed in the Commercial Canning of
Foods. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 196. 1915.

Bitting, A. W. and K. G. Bacteriological Examination of Canned
Foods. Research Laboratory, National Canners Association,
Bulletin 14, 1917.

Buchanan, E. D. and R. E. Household Bacteriology. Macmillan,

1913-

Creswell, M. E., and Powell, O. Home Canning of Fruits and Vege-
tables, as Taught to Canning Club Members in the Southern States.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin 853.

Jordan, E. O. Food Poisoning. 1917.

Powell, O. Successful Canning and Preserving. Lippincott, 1917.
Similar bulletins on canning are published by many States. Stu-
dents should become familiar with the instructions given
through the extension service of their States.

Round, L. A., and Lang, H. L. Preservation of Vegetables by Fer-
mentation and Salting. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers.
Bulletin 881.

SECTION VIII

DEMONSTRATIONS

I. Purpose.

To make the student familiar with some of the
methods used and to give a little practice in demon-
stration work so that she may be better able to
assist official demonstrators, if opportunity should
arise.

II. Each student should be required to present a topic
in the form of a demonstration lasting from 15 to
30 minutes. This demonstration must be confined
to a simple process which can be easily covered in
that time.

A. Such topics as the following are suitable:

1. White sauce, showing the use of substitutes,

2. Cheese souffles as meat substitutes.

3. Wheatless sponge cake.

4. Wheatless muffins.

5. Wheatless biscuits.

6. Wheatless short cake.

7. Corn bread.

B. When baked dishes are prepared, duplicate
samples may be in readiness to show the finished
product. Or the dish may be put into the oven
at the proper time and the result shown some
time later. The former method is the more
desirable.

C. The chief value of teaching by the demonstra-
tion method lies in the fact that large numbers

A LABORATORY MANUAL 373

of people can be reached through a single lecture;
that certain details of manipulation, which are
not easily understood, can be actually shown;
and that better standards may be set through
showing methods of work and the finished prod-
ucts. The disadvantage is that only a super-
ficial knowledge is gained and attempts to
repeat what has been shown may meet with
failure.

D. For these reasons, the student should present
carefully written plans so that the aim and the
procedure are clearly indicated.

E. If desired, students may demonstrate in groups
of two, one acting as assistant to the other.

F. The part of the class serving as the audience
should be required to observe the demonstration
critically and hand in a written statement
judging it on the points noted below. (These
demonstration exercises may serve as part of
the examination for the course.)

III. Points to be considered in giving demonstrations.

A. Purpose.

The chief purpose of the demonstration
should be clearly and definitely stated. In
demonstrating an omelet, one may merely show
how it is made or both how and why it is so made.
The process may also be merely incidental in a
demonstration showing the use of meat substi-
tutes.

B. Organization.

I. Of working arrangement — tables, stoves,

374 FOOD AND THE WAR

III. Points to be considered in giving demonstrations
(contintied).

utensils — their suitability for the purpose;
convenience, neatness, and order of arrange-
ment.
2. Of subject-matter — should be clear, syste-
matic, logical, suited to the audience and the
locality, and adapted to the time available.
C. Presentation.

1. Personal appearance — details of costume,
neatness, and cleanliness.

2. Delivery — manner, voice, interest in the sub-
ject, sympathy with the audience.

3. Technique — skill, neatness, orderliness.

4. Use of illustrative material, such as charts,
pictures, food samples, etc.

5. Finished product — success in achieving a
standard.

IV. If preferred, one lesson niay be devoted to a model
demonstration given by the instructor with a
discussipn of the above points rather than to the
subject-matter of the demonstration.

INDEX

Adequate amounts of protein, discus-
sion of, 57. 63.

Adequate diet, 221, 358.

"Adequate proteins," the, 58.

Adulteration of milk, 192,

Agricultural cooperation in the United
States, 259 •

Alcoholic liquors, grains used in the man-
ufacture of, 160.

Amino acids, 55.

Amount of food, in the average American
dietaries, 288; in the Belgian ration,
287 ; taken by breast-fed children, 230.
See Quantities.

Animal fats, situation in, 117.

Appetite as a guide to fuel requirements,
41

Artificial feeding of young infants,, 231.

Ash constituents, of cereals, 143 ; of
egjgs, 93; of foods, 21; of meats, 82;of
milk, 177 ; of vegetables and fruits 197.

Availability of substitutes for wheat
flour, 145.

Average American dietary, 224, 288.

Bacon, cooking of, 319; fat in cooked,
106.

Baking, control of commercial, 147 ; reg-
ulations abroad, 149.

Barley, IS4-

Basal metabolism, 36, 240.

Basic residue, of vegetables and fruits,
201.

Beef, etc., cuts of, 316.

Beet sugar, 166.

Biscuits, general proportions for, 346.

Bomb calorimeter, 27.

Bouillon cubes, composition and value
of, 84.

Bread.regulation of the maldng of abroad,
149; in the United States, 147-

Bread-making, demonstration of, 352;
methods, 350.

Breakfast foods, iS9.

Breast feeding of infants, 228.

Buckwheat, 159-

Butter, 104; butter and margarine sit-
uation in England, substitutes, 104.

Buying clubs, 256.

Cakes, general proportions for, 341*

Calcium, in the diet, 177, 180.

Calculating the fuel value of a diet, 360;
of a food, 27; the lOO-calorie portion,
31.

Calorie, the large, 26.

Calorie portion, the one-hundred, 29,
291.

Calorie value of foods, 27, 32.

Calories and proteins in the Belgian
ration, 52; in a liberal diet, 361.

Calorimeter, 27, 35.

Cane sugar, 166, 329.

Canning, commercial, 209; home, 211,
364; kitchens, community, 276.

Carbohydrates, effect of heat on, 301;
kinds of, 16; in cereals, 123, 141; in
com bread and in wheat bread, 143;
in milk, 176; in nuts, loi; in vege-
tables and fruits, 196; in the wheat
grain, 138.

Care of m^k in the home, 191.

Cellulose, 17; function of, 18; in the
wheat grain, 138.

Cereals, composition of, 141; digesti-
bility of, 143; flours, sauces made from
332; doughs and batters, 333; in
average diet, 123, 360; used as wheat
substitutes, 151.

Cheese, cost of, 100; fat in, 106; hah-
ounce protein portions of, 61; meth-
ods of making, 97 ; nutritive value of,
99; recipes, 314; production and use
in the United States, 99; use of in Eu-
rope, 98; ways of using, 213.

Children, feeding of, 234.

Child's diet, general directions for, 240.

Chocolate, fat in, 107.

Coefficient of digestibility of food, 24.

Cold pack method of canning, 367.

College commons, 251.

Colleges and schools, food conservation
courses in, 265.

Commercial establishments, restaurants
or canteens in, 250.

"Commercial" graham floui;, 140.

Community Council, 266.

Community canning, 212; drying, 219;
gardens, 206; kitchens, 244, 276.

Comparison between cow's milk and
human milk, 231; between the food
value of different proteins, 58;of calo-

376

INDEX

rie value of different foods, 32; of fuel
value of typical foods, 293; of size of
loo-calorie portions of different foods,
30.

Composition of cheese, 99; of eggs, 93;
of fish, 88; of food, 16; percentage,
291; proximate, 288; of meat, 81; of
milk, 175; of vegetables and fruits,
195.

Compulsory rationing in the United
States difficulties of, 8.

Condensed milk, 184.

Conservation of fat, the individual's
part in, 118; of meat, 320.

Consumption of protein, 62.

Control of bread-making in American
homes, 150; of commercial baking
in the United States, 147; of sugar
situation in the United States, 169.

CoSperation between related activities, 6.

Cooperative stores, 256.

Com, importance of, in the diet, 152;
used as food, different forms of, 153.

Com bread, 143, 14S, 147. 340.

Com crop in the United States, 152.

Com meal, 142.

Com sirup, 172, 329-

Cost, of ciieese, 100; of lOO-calorie por-
tions, 31; of protein foods, 68; of sub-
stitutes for wheat flour, 145.

Crackers, iS9-

Cream, fat in, 106.

Crisis, food, in Europe, S.

Crude fiber, in cereal products, 144; in
vegetables and fruits, 197.

Crustaceans. 90.

Cuts of beef, etc., relative economy of,
316.

Dairy products, American import and
export of, 185.

Dehydration, commercial, 217.

Diet an adequate 221; expensive and
cheap compared, 3591 of children, 109.

Dietary studies, showing fuel needs, ^i;
protein content of, 640; consumption
of fat, no; iron content, 19S; quanti-
ties of food, 224.

Digestibility of different cereals, 143;
of food, 23; of meat, 83; of nuts, loi.

Digestion of protein, 56; of starch and
sugar, 17.

Distribution of food, an equitable, 6, 13.

Doughs and batters made from cerKil
flours, 333-

Dried fruits, a substitute for sugar, 174.

Dry pack method of canning, 208.

Drying, a method of preserving vege-
tables and fruits, 215, 218.

Eating too little food, effect of, 47.

Eating too much food, effect of, 46.

Economical use of milk, the, z83<

Economy of milk, 180.

Effect of the war on the egg and poultry
industry, 95; on the fish supply, 91;
on nutrition of children, 236; on the
price of wheat, 130; on the supply of
fats, 1 13 ; on the supply of meat, 72 ; on
the wheat supply, 125.

Effects of cooking, demonstration of, 326,

Egg substitutes, 97.

Egg and poultry industry, 94.

Eggs, cooking of, 306; fat in, 107; house-
hold preservation of, 30s; market
grades of, 304; nutritive value, 93;
preservation of, 96.

Energy production, average figures, 39;
methods of measuring, 35; variations
in, 36.

Equivalent weights and measures of
cereal flours, 335-

Errors in the diet of children, 239.

Essential food facts, ways of teaching,
222.

Essentials in the diet of a child, 238.

Estimation of food used per week, 288,
289.

Exhibit of half-ounce-of-protein por-
tions, 63.

Exorbitant prices, prevention of, 6.

Expenditure for different foods, 227, 228.

Extractives, in meat, 83.

Factors, old and new, used in calculating
the fuel value of food, 28.

Fat, amount needed in diet, in, 360;
conservation of , 118; consumption of,
1 10; effectof heaton,30, 318; foods rich,
in, los; in cereals, 123, 142; in cheese,
99; in chocolate, 107; in the diet,
function of, 108; in the diet, sources
of, 104; in the diet, psychological
value of, 109; in eggs. 107; in fish, 88,
107; in foods, amount of, los; in fried
foods, 107; in meat, 82, 107; in milk,
176; in nuts, loi, 107; in vegetables,
and fruits, 107.

Fat situation in Europe, the, 112; in
the United States, 116.

Fate of fats in the body, 19; of proteins,
in the body, 20; of starch and sugar
in the body, 17-

Fats, composition, 19; fate of, in the
body, X9; source of. in the diet, 19.
105; waste of, 112.

Fats and oils, their value and use, 104.

Fat-soluble, A, 22, 83, 109, 112, 179.
201. See Vitamines.

INDEX

377

Fever, may increase energy production,
39.

Fish, availability, 87; consumption of,
86; fat in, 107; nutritive value and di-
gestibility compared with meat, 88;
preservation of, 92; principles and
methods of cooking, 322; supply, 88.

Five groups of foods, 23, 222.

Flour-making, 138.

Food Administration Grain Corpora-
tion, 132; regulation of the milling
procKS, 140.

Food conservation, methods to promote,
267; taught in schools and colleges,
26s, 273-

Food control, need and methods of, 6;
abroad, 9; in the United States, 11.

Food, five groups of, 23, 222; for one
day, for a man at moderate muscular
work, 363 ; imports into Europe, chief
sources of, 2 ; resources before the wax,
I ; changes brought about during the
war, 20; shows, 272; situation in Ger-
many at outbreak of war, 45; supply,
study of by statistical methods, 44.

"Food Scouts," 255.

Fried foods, fat in, 107.

Fruit butters, 174.

Fruits. See Vegetables and fruits.

Fruits, almost completely free from fat,
107; principles of cooking, 329; used
to save sugar, 202.

Fu^, food as, 26; fats as, 108.

Fuel value of food, comparisons of, 29,
32; measurement of, 26; present ne-
cessity for learning, 33; of milk, 176,
180; of vegetables and fruits, 197.

Function of cdlulose, 18; of cere^, 23;
of fats, 23, 108; of meat, 23; of milk,
23; of mineral constituents, 21; of
proteins, 20; of sugar, 163; of vege-
tables and fruits, 23, 19S; of water,
23.

Gardens, war, 204.

Glucose, 172.

Gluten, in wheat flour, 146; test, 349-

Graham flour, I39, 142, I44-

Grain supply abroad and in Canada,

control of, 134-
Groups of foods, five, 23t 222.

Heat, effect on food constituents, 299;
food materia, 295-

Hi^ prices as a method of limiting con-
sumption, 9'

Honey, 172.

Hot pack method of canning, 366.

Hundred-calorie portion, the, 29, 291.

Ice cream, fat in, ro6.
Industries, control of food, 6.
Infants, feeding of, 228.
Inorganic elements in food, 21.
Interval of feeding of infants, 229.
Iron content, in typical American diets,

198; of milk, 178.
Iron, foods supplying, 199; in vegetables

and fruits, 198.

Lard and lard substitutes, 105.
Legumes, i95r 202; cooking of dried,

,328. ^

Libraries, education through, 272.
Low-cost diets 224, 226.

Macaroni, 160.

Malnutrition, 47; in children, in war
time, 236; in school children, 254.

Maple sugar, 172.

Margarine, manufacture of, 104, 105;
use of, 113.

Meat, composition of, 81; conservation
of, 320; consumption of, before the
war, 71; digestibility of, 83; effect of
the war on the supply of, 72; extracts,
composition and VEilue of, 84; fat in,
107; methods of cooking. 319; nutri-
tive value of , 8 1 ; principles of cooking,
317; production in the United States
and exports to the Allies, 74; situation
in Europe, 73, 75; substitutes, use of,
86.

Meats, differences in kinds eaten, 71.

Mental work, 38.

Menus, 362.

Metabolism, basal, 36, 240.

Methods of canning, 366.

Milk, amount in diet, 182; composition
and nutritive value of, 175; econ-
omy of, 180; fat in, 106, 109, 176;
food value and cost, 308; production
and use in the United States, 182;
production, importance and methods
of maintaining, 184; sauces, 309;
soups, 310; sanitation, 188; situation
abroad, 186; unique value.f or children,
222.

Milling com, 154; flour, 138.

Mineral constituents of foods, 21; in
cereals, 142; in vegetables and fruits,
197; in wheat grain, 138.

Minimum price of wheat, 131.

Molasses, and other possible sugar sub-
stitutes, 172.

Money, a wise distribution of expendi-
ture for food, 226.

Morale, affected by lack of bread, 124.

Muscular activity, 37.

378

INDEX

Necessity for learning the fuel value of
foods, 33-

Non-edible fats, utilization of, iig.

Noodles, i6o.

Nutritive value of cheese, 99; of meat,
81; of milk, 17s; of substitutes for
wheat flour, 142,

Nuts, digestibility of, loi; an economi-
cal source of protein and energy, 102;
fat in, 107; in the diet, place of, 100;
supply of, 100.

Oatmeal muffins, 337-
Oats, 155-

Oleomargarine, 104, 113.
One-half ounce protein portion, 61;
quantities of food which yield, 294.

Pasteurization of milk, 190.

Pastry, general proportions for making,
348.

Percentage composition of foods, 291.

Portion, the loo-calorie, 29, 177, 291;
one-half ounce protein, 61.

Portions of food, exhibits of, 223, 225.

Poultry industry, 94.

Poultry, principles and methods of cook-
ing, 324.

Preservation of eggs, 96, 305; of fish,
92; of vegetables and fruits, 207,
364.

Price of milk, variation m, 181; of
sugar, 171.

Prices, maintenance of low, 13-

Principles of cooking, combinations of
food materials, 303-

Processing, in home canning, impor-
tant points of, 213.

Proletariat sickness, so

Proper feeding mbcture for infant,
method of calculating, 232.

Proportions of food materials in com-
bination, 303.

Protective foods, 202.

Protein, 19; average consumption of, 63;
studies of, 66; effect of heat on, 299,
318; examples of nearly pure, 19; in
cer^s, 123. 141; in cheese, 99; in corn
bread and in wheat bread, 143; in
eggs, 93; in fish, 88; in legumes, 202;
in meats, Sr; in milk, 176, 181; in
nuts, loi; in vegetables and fruits,
195 ; in wheat grain, 138; quantity
in different foods, 60; sources of, 62;
study of quantity in foods, 61; uses in
the body, 54; vaJue of foods, 294*

Protein foods, preparation and use of,
304; psychological factor in the choice
of, 67; cost of » 68.

Protein-rich foods, 19, 360; used in place
of meat, 86.

Proteins, the adequate, s8; amino
acids in, S5t 57; coefficient of digest-
ibility, 59; comparison between food
value of different, 58; composition of,
55; elements in, 20; fate of, in the
body, 56; and calories in a liberal
diet, 361.

Proximate composition of foods, 288.

Psychological factor in choice of pro-
tein foods, 67.

Psychological importance of sweets, 222.

Psychological value of meat, 83.

Public kitchens, 244; markets, 260.

Purins, 83.

Quantities of food satisfactory for an
average family, 226; for a man at
moderate muscular work, 224,358,363;
for a woman, 226, 358. See Amount.

Quick breads, 335-

Ration in Belgium, 288.

Rationing, 7. 8.

Rations, Weighing of, 287.

Reduced diet, American experiment
on, 40; in Belgium, 52; in Geimany,
so; in Northern France, 51.

Refuse in meats, 81.

Regulation of individual's food con-
sumption, 9; of milling abroad, 141;
of the meat supply, 75; of the use of
fat, in England, 114; in Germany,
IIS.

Restaurants or canteens in commercial
establishments, 250.

Rice, a substitute for wheat flour, 142;
food value and use, 157.

Roughage, 144.

Rye, is6.

Saccharin, 174.

Safe milk supply, a, 188,

Sale of food by dealers, restriction of,

7-
School lunches, 251.
Shellfish, 90.
Shipping conditions, 33-
Shipping of food abroad, the, 14.
Skim milk, uses of, 183.
Sorghum sirup, 172.
Sorghums, 159*
Spoilage of vegetables and fruits,

methods of preventing, 208.
Starch, 16, ig6; effect of heat on, 302 ; in

the wheat kernel, 138.
Stores, educational work by, 275-
Submarine campaign, 3.

INDEX

379

Subnutrition in school children, 254; in
the United States, 49; in the waning
countries, 50.

Substitutes for sugar, 171.

Substitutes for wheat flour, 141; avail-
ability of, 14s; bread-making powers
of, 146; cost of, 14s; keeping qualities
of, 146; nutritive value of, 142.

Sugar as food, i63» 222, 301, 360; beets,
164; cane, 164; chief pre-war sources
of, 163; distribution of, 170; consump-
tion of, 167; rations, 167; situation in
Europe, 166; in the United States,
169; substitutes, 171.

Sugars. 17.

Temperature of the body, 26.

Undernutrition, 47 ; its results in some of
the European warring countries, 50.

United States Department of Agri-
culture, 263.

United States Food Administration,
II, 262.

United States and the world fat situa-
tion, 116.

Uses of grains other than for bread, iS9.

Vegetable oils, 104; situation in, 118.

Vegetables as a source of fuel, 202; in
the diet, amount of, 203 ; increasing the
production of, 204.

Vegetables and fruits, composition of,
195 ; helpful in correcting deficiencies
in diet, 221 ; preservation of, 207 ; prin-
ciples of cooking, 325 ; used to save fat,
203; used to save meat, 202; used to
save sugar. 202; used to save wheat,
202; value of in the diet, 195,201,360.

"Victory" bread, 146, 354-

"Victory" products, 149, 160.

"Victory" rolls, 3S8.

Vitamines, the, 21, 83, 163. 239; in eggs,
93; in meat, 83; in milk, 179; in the

substitutes for wheat flour, 143; in
vegetables, 201 . See Fat-soluble A, and
Water-soluble B.

War cakes, 342; changes brought dur-
ing the, 2; gardens, 204; substitutes
in the child's diet, 240.

Waste in average American families, 44.

Wastefulness, American, 112.

Water, in cheese, 99; in fish, 88; in meat,
82; in vegetables and fruits, 19S; the
largest part in the composition of most
foods, 22.

Water-soluble B, vitamine, 22, 83,
143,179.201. 5ee Vitamines.

Ways to save sugar, summary of, 174.

Wet pack, 209.

Wheat, the Allies' supply of, 126; the
American supply of, 127; flour, 138;
why superior to other cereals, 146;
nutritive value of substitutes for,
142; kernel structure of, 138; limita-
tions on the purchase and use of,
148; offals, 140, 144; price of, 130,
131; shortage may be disastrous, 123;
shortage, causes and extent of, 124;
how the United States has met sit-
uation, 131; substitutes, the, 138;
substitutes in muffins, etc., 336;
substitutes not injurious, 222 ; sup-
ply of the Allies, 124; of the Central
Powers, 12s; of the United States,
127; supply in Europe before the
war, 124; trade in, before the war, 129.

Wheatless days, 151; wheatless meals*
151.

Whole wheat flour, 139. i44-

Wise expenditure for food, 226.

Women on farms, war work of, 206.

Women's Committee of the Council of
National Defense, 263.

World's meat resources, the, 70.

Yeast, methods of making, 349-