Manual of nature study by grades; to accompany the course of study for the city and town schools of Indiana;

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LE HERSHMAN

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OH OD. ANNA A ScHRYy
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PUBLISHERS’ LIBRARY ie

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HA] CHAUTAUQUA, NEW YORK re 3

New Pork
State College of Agriculture
RUR At Gornell University
C Dthara, N. YB.
Library

No. :

DATE DUE

SUN 42000

GAYLORD PRINTEDINU.S.A.

Cornell University Library
by grad

QH 53.H57
TT
3 1924 001

077 662 ss inam

Cornell University

Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924001077662

MANUAL

OF

NATURE STUDY

BY GRADES

TO ACCOMPANY THE COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE
CITY AND TOWN SCHOOLS OF INDIANA

BY

W. H. HERSHMAN, A.B.

New Albany, Ind.

CHICAGO:
A. FLANAGAN, PUBLISHER.

BY
A. FLANAGAN,

@ 242.99

PREFACE. ;

This book was written to assist teachers in developing
more fully than the limited space of a suggestive course of
study would allow, the nature work laid out in the course of
study for city and town schools of Indiana. ‘T'wo objects in
the nature study are kept constantly in mind; first, to arouse
and cultivate the habit of observation, and second, to im-
press the facts thus acquired upon the mind. Mr. Hershman
recognizes the truth that children have a deep, strong, in-
stinctive love for all things that live and all things that
support life.

From a close, personal acquaintance with the author
for more than twenty years, I know that this book is the
outgrowth of a rich, varied and thoughtful experience with
child nature and the nature through which the child lives.
It may be said that while this book is written from the sci-
entific side, it is pedagogically correct, and more, it has a
freshness of spirit that is in itself one of the most potent
factors in education.

“He gave us eyes to see these,
And lips that we might tell

How great is God Almighty,
Who hath made all things well.”

D. M. GEETING.
Indianapolis, Ind., October, 1898.

CONTENTS.

First YEAR WorxK.—Plant Life, Animal Life, Physi-

ology, Geography, Weather Study.............. 7
SECOND YEAR WorK.—Animal Life, Physiology, Geog-
raphy, Weather Study, Gems to be Learned...... 12
THIRD YEAR Worxk.—Plant Life. Reviews, Animal
Life, Physiology, Lessons..........60 0 ceeeeuee 32
FourtH YEAR WorxkK.—Review Uses of Lessons. Roots,
Animal Life, Physiology...........seceee ee eeee 81
FirtH YEAR WorxK.—Plant Life, Nature Study...... 106

StxtH YEAR Worx.—Plant Life...............0... 120
SEVENTH YEAR WorkK.—Plant Life. Physiology.... 141

HiGHTH GRADE WorkK.—Physiology.............-6. 158

A PLEA FOR THE STUDY OF NATURE.

The purpose in all education is to train the child intoa
habit of correct thinking; to make him strong to battle with
the evils of the world; to lead him to be a good citizen; to
perfect him in love for all God’s creatures; in short, to enable
him to live completely.

Whatever may be my thoughts in regard to the rank of
nature study when compared with the educational values of
other studies, or whatever may be said in reference to its
relation or correlation with them, it cannot be denied that
it has great educational value as a factor in the development
of human character. This fact is thought to be a sufficient
cause for the introduction of such study into the grades.

flow nature study serves tts purpose in the development of
character. ‘

It has been said that every child is born into this world
with a two-fold nature, an inner spirit and an outer manifes-
tation. His value throughout life depends upon his relation
to the outer world of which he is the center. ‘To him every-
thing appears to be within easy reach. Even the moon and
the stars are his playthings; all things are for his use, but
it requires effort to bring them under his control. The
world is full of life and beauty, ready to contribute to his
growth and happiness. The inner spiritual nature of the
child is reaching upward to a higher ideal. The ideal just
out of reach moves onward and persuades the spirit to follow
in pursuit. vii

vill MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

To carry intelligence into the vegetable kingdom, the
full-grown, well-developed stalk of corn in full ear is the
ideal in the life of this plant throughout all stages of its
existence. In the realization of this ideal the vital force of
this plant uses all its surroundings; soil and moisture be-
neath, air and carbon dioxide above, and warmth and sun-
light all around it. When these outer elements are brought
into contact with the inner life of the plant, they are trans-
formed into a thing of beauty and pushed outward as an
embodiment and manifestation of the beautiful life within.
Throughout the period of growth in the attainment of its
ideal, the corn plant is harmonizing the surrounding ele-
ments with its own beautiful life.

Or, to carry intelligence into the animal kingdom, the
ideal towards which the spirit strives is the full-grown, well-
developed animal, and we have only to observe its growth
and habits in life to know its place in nature. Here again
the crude elements of the outer world are changed into a
body of strength, activity and beauty appropriate to the
character of the internal spirit. The earth itself acts in
obedience to the same laws. It balances the other planets
in space and assists in the equilibrium of the whole universe.
It receives the elements from the sun and works them over
into stormy seas and pacific lakes, rugged mountains and
peaceful valleys, majestic forests and grassy prairies, all

“expressive of that inner life that enables it to fit into the
environment—the universe.

As with the examples just given, so with the child. He,
too, reaches upward toward an ideal. He is in the world to
learn his place in nature that he may adapt himself to his
surroundings. He touches nature. He is nature himself
and all his acts are nature. ‘The first few years of his life

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. ix

are spent in exploring nature. He finds systems and
plans in nature and his thoughts go out in search of the
Great Systematizer and Designer. This habit of searching
and experimenting grows on him until he finds God in
nature, and learns to read His thoughts as expressed in the
flowers of the field, the trees of the forest and in all other
living realities. The more he reads divine thoughts as ex-
pressed in the creation, the more self becomes crucified and
the nearer he comes to ‘‘'Him whose thought nature is.”’
Shall we not, then, give the child the freest opportunity to
push upward in the direction of the highest ideal of human
character?

The boy feels that there is life force in plant life and
intelligence in animal life just the same as in human life,
and that the same hand is back of it all; and that the same
spirit that developed infinite divisibility and individuality
has also brought everything into one grand unity as a mani-
festation of the universal spirit. When the child is led to
see that life grows out of contrast, and that beauty is found
in unified variety, that all nature is formed upon one com-
mon plan, and that the same spirit pervades all, he and
nature will be blended into one, in which unity they will
ever walk, each contributing to the support of the other.
Nature flows into the child’s life, elevates his esthetic and
ethical nature, while he in turn, thus strengthened, contrib.
utes to the life of nature and lifts it into grander beauty.
Can such experience fail to prepare the child for complete
living?

Let us see what the love of nature did for the Greeks
and Romans. They loved and recognized her as their
mother. In fact, they saw in her the workings of the
divine spitit. Their ideas of deity took form, the varieties

x MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

of which were as numerous as the ideas to be represented.
Hence wood and stream were early peopled with divine
images born out of this love of nature. ‘‘To those gods,”
it is said by one writer, ‘‘we owe our grandest architectural
forms and most beautiful statuary. For at first temples
were hollowed out of the trunks of trees, and wooden gods
were placed therein for safety.’? As the love of nature
lifted man’s soul, ‘‘temples of wood took the place of trees,
and these in turn gave place to temples of stone, beautifully
adorned with gold and silver, and the wooden gods gave
place to statuary of marble and ivory, so that to-day we can
carve nothing to equal the work of these old Greek sculp-
tors.” :

The Greek’s love of nature developed the Grecian spirit,
and as it grew it poured itself out into the general spirit of
nature, and the spirit of nature, thus reinforced, returned a
flood of light upon the spirit of the Greek. Each stage of
spiritual progress demands a finer piece of statuary to repre-
sent deity and a better temple for his dwelling-place. This
idea of worship—for that is what it was—this reaching out
after satisfaction in nature, increases the magnitude, beauty
and grandeur of the statuary and decreases the number of
deities. When each element of the universe was considered
separate and apart from all others, as distinct organisms in
nature, deities multiplied in great abundance; but when the
elements were found organized into one complex whole, a
universal spirit was plainly visible through these outward
manifestations. This universal spirit, which is God in
nature, demanded a temple infinitely more beautiful than
the finest Grecian architecture—a temple not made of mate-
rial things. The ideal temple moved on and on beyond the
bounds of matter; indeed it passed into the spiritual realm.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. xi

The ideal deity also passed beyond marble or ivory, beyond
the reach of the sculptor’s chisel, and the Athenian’s un-
known God made His eternal home in the temple of the
HUMAN HEART.

Did we say awhile ago that we owe our progress in
sculpturing and statuary to the ancient gods of Greece?
Nay, not so. We owe it all to love of nature and the idea
of worship found in nature.

We now see clearly that this temple of God in the human
heart should be in absolute harmony with all the grandest
products of nature. Within the innermost recesses of this
temple the peace of nature mingles with that higher peace,
and begets joy and love as heavenly blessings to the human
soul. Now tell me if this does not make character, true,
beautiful and good !

We go through this world with eyes, but cannot see;
ears, but do not hear, for these organs have not been fully
opened tothe soul. Men of means go yearly to such places of
resort as Niagara Falls, Vesuvius and the National Park, and
trample under foot daily and hourly many microscopic won-
ders far more appealing to the soul. Shall we continue so
to do; or shall we open up these avenues to the soul, that a
flood of light from the outer world may be thrown upon
our inner world?

Let us, dear Teachers, endeavor to lead our children so
that the primroses and flowers of this earth may pass into
the soul, and take root, grow, bloom and throw off fra-
grance out of the very lives of our children. Such leading
will give us a community that will grow in character and
happiness, and each individual member thereof will be fully

enthroned in all his rights.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY
To ACCOMPANY COURSE OF STUDY FOR THE CITY AND TOowN
SCHOOLS OF INDIANA.

FIRST YEAR.

A.—PLANT LIFE.

1. Autumn Fruits: — Peach, Pear, Apple,
Grape, etc., as types. . .

Compare and contrast as to size, shape, color,
external coverings, hardness, internal structure,
taste, smell.

Arrangement of seeds, arrangement on stalk,
how gathered and marketed, comparison of values,
etc.

.

2. Autumn Leaves.— Make collections, study
forms, colors, etc.

As types, take leaves of fruits named above and
study in connection with the study of those fruits.
Make drawings in each case.

3. Autumn Flowers.— Goldenrod, Aster and
Sunflower.

Encourage the finding of all kinds of Golden-
rod in this locality. Make drawings of plant as a

whole. Make drawings of leaf, flowers, etc.
q@)

8 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

4. Autumn Seeds——Make collections.

Study dissemination by winds, animals and cur-
rents of water.

Asan example of wind dissemination take golden-
rod, milk weed pod, thistle, iron weed.

Dissemination by animals may be illustrated by
the cockle bur, sand bur, Spanish needle, or other
bur-like seeds.

By water, nuts of almost all kinds, linden seed,
etc., may serve as types. Seeif nuts and acorns
will float.

5. Preparation for Winter, as shown in buds
and leaves; make collections of buds:—hickory,
buckeye, maple, or fruit trees. Lilac furnishes an
example of getting ready for winter. Gather also
some buds from house plants, so that children may
see that naked buds do not prepare for winter.

6. Study an Evergreen asa typeform. Com-
pare and contrast with the other trees in regard to
shape, size, and color of leaves.

7. Preparations for Spring.

a. Planting of seeds in school room,—beans,
peas, wheat, oats and corn in earth, sand and water.

6. Observation of germination and growth.
These seeds may be planted in cigar boxes, or com-
mon earthen flower pots, and watched as far as
possible throughout their life history.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 9

8. Determination of parts of Planis—troot, stem,
leaf, bud, flower.

9. Learn to know Common Flowers.

B-—ANIMAL LIFE.

1. Jnsects.— Transformation of, collection of
cocoons.

Through September, the grasshopper, katy-did,
dragon fly, potato beetle, and larvae of butterfly
or moth may be observed as to their habitat, mode
of eating, life history, etc.

2. Lessons on Cat, Dog, Horse, Cow, Squirrel,
Robin, Blackbird, Wood-pbecker and Chicken. Ob-
serve, compare and describe their covering, parts,
food, care of young. Jlustrate their habits by
stories and encourage the children to tell stories
about what they have seen. "

C.—PHYSIOLOGY.

Learn to name and locate the parts of the body
—Head, neck, trunk, arms (right and left), hands,
feet. Study movements, use and care of each part;
show what can be done by each part; how adapted
to use; kindness, how shown by hands, feet, lips;
simple lessons on eating, drinking, breathing,
sleeping, with special reference to hygiene and
right habits; temperance in eating and drinking.

10 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

D.—GEOGRAPHY.

1. General Posttion:—Direction and distance,
observation and placing of objects; description by
use of prepositions and adjectives.

2. Particular Posttzon:—Direction; outdoor ob-
servation of the cardinal and semi-cardinal direc-
tions.

3. Forms of Water-—Cloud, fog, mist, rain,
dew, frost, snow, ice; observation of forms as they
occur and where they occur, to recognize each and
to find the more obvious qualities and uses of each.

4. Winds——Temperature, to recognize by feel-
ing the degrees hot, warm, cold; velocity, to recog-
nize and distinguish by their effects the calm,
breeze and gale.

£.—WEATHER STUDY.

Suggestive questions:—Dew, frost, fog, cloudy,
clear or partly cloudy. Direction of wind. Kind
of night last night. Kind of day.

In connection with this Weather Study, tell the
story of Mercury, of Apollo’s Cows, Zephyr and His
Brothers, The Bag of Winds, Neptune, How
Aeneas was saved, and Aurora and Her Tears.

In connection with the Plant Study, tell the
Story of Clytie, of The Thistle, of Apollo and

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 11

Hyacinthus, The Star and the Lily, and The, Law
of the Wood.

In connection with the Study of Animal Life,
tell the Story of Aurora and Tithonus.

Under preparation for winter, tell the Story of
the Ant and the Grasshopper, and Broken Wing.

In the Spring-time, tell A Bird Story, The Little
Worm that was Glad to be Alive, and Robin Red
Breast.

Gems.—1. “Rain Shower,” to be given at time
ofgentlerain. 2. “Little Purple Aster,” especially
appropriate while studying the Aster. 3. “The
Sunbeams,” particularly appropriate on the return
of a beautiful day after a season of storms.
4. “Leaves at Play,” appropriate for a windy day
in November. 5. “Sleep, Baby, Sleep,” to be
recited after a talk about the Moon and Stars.
6. “The Hemlock Tree,” to be recited in winter
while studying the evergreen. 7. “Catch,” from
Ben Johnson, a Spring gem.

All these Gems and Stories may be found in
Mrs. Wilson’s Nature Reader, published by
McMillan & Co. Also, see Nature Myths and
Stories, by Flora J. Cooke, published by Flanagan.

12 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

SECOND YEAR.

A.—PLANT LIFE.

1. Autumn Frurts—Apple, plum, grape, etc.
a. Collection of. 6. Study typical forms. c. Draw-
ings. ad. Descriptions, both oral and written. It
will require several lessons for the rounding up of
the work on fruits.

Review the work of the first year, giving par-
ticular attention to comparison in size, color, shape,
consistency, external covering, whether hairy or
smooth, number of seeds in each, market value
ofeach, etc. Manner of hanging on the tree or vine:

Also discuss to some extent fuzctzon of the fruit,
and the dangers through which fruit must pass in
order to reach maturity, the adaptability of cover-
ing to guard against dangers. These mere hints
will prepare the way for a more systematic discus-
sion of the colorations, enemies and protectors,
higher up in the grades of school work.

Drawings. —Peach as a whole, apple as a whole,
plum as a whole, a single grape, a cluster of grapes;
a half peach cut to show the seed, a half apple cut
to show the seeds, a half plum cut to show the seed;
a peach with a few leaves on twig, an apple with a
few leaves on twig, a plum with a few leaves on
twig, a bunch of grapes with a few leaves on vine,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 13

2. Autumn Leaves.—a. Collection of. 6. Study
typical forms. c. Drawings. d. Descriptions both
oral and written.

Before beginning the work on leaves, the teacher
should read thoroughly the chapters on leaves in
Gray’s Botany, or some other good text, and also
study the leaves themselves. With Second Year
pupils, the external form and appearance are all
that can be taught to good advantage. Select sev-
eral varieties, after teaching the parts of a single
leaf, and compare them in regard to size, shape,
color, surface, margin and veins. Such exercises
will lead to the following conclusions:

1. There are two kinds of leaves, simple and
compound. a. Simple leaves have but one blade
ona foot stalk. 6. A compound leaf has two or
more bladelets, each usually with a separate petiole,
but all joined to one common petiole.

2. The under surface of leaves is usually lighter
in color than the upper surface.

3. All leaves have veins which proceed from the
petiole, but they are arranged in different ways in
different leaves.

4. The margins or edges of leaves are either

smooth or cut and notched in various ways.
5. Leaves vary in shape, size and color, so that

the leaf of one kind of plant can always be distin-
guished from that of another.

14 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

For mounting and preserving leaves, the teacher
is referred to Howe’s Systematic Science Teaching,
page 122, D. Appleton & Company.

Drawings.—\. An apple leaf with its petiole and
venation. 2. A peach leaf with petiole and vena-
tion. 3. A grape leaf with petiole and venation.
4. Sycamore leaf. 5. Mapleleaf. 6. Oak leaves of
several kinds. 7. A group of buckeye leaves from
onebud. 8. Awalnutleaf. 9. “A Heaven Tree”
leaf, and, 10. Locust leaves.

Note.—The teacher may make drawing upon
the board to illustrate method of representation, but
in no case should the pupils be permitted to draw
from acopy. ‘The drawing by the teacher should
be immediately erased and the attention of the
pupils be directed to the leaf itself.

3. Autumn Flowers.—Gentian, golden rod, aster,
Jamestown or ‘“‘jimson weed,” sunflower, and thistle.

a. Collection of. 6. Study typical forms. «,
Drawings. ad. Descriptions both oral and written.

After a comparative review of work suggested in
the first year, the following facts should be estab-
lished as far as possible in regard to each plant:

1. Where found, whether in cultivated fields
and in heaps of rubbish and rich places as in the
case of jimson weed, or along the country road

side as in the case of the golden rod, in dry pas.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 15

tures as with the thistles, etc. 2. Its nativity. 3.
How it came to this country. 4. Its relations; for
instance, the jimson is a near relative of the
tobacco plant. 5. Visitors, such as bees, ants, but-
terflies, flies, etc., and why they go there.

4. Autumn Seeds—a. Collections of. 36.
Study of typical forms. c¢. Drawings. ad. De-
scriptions both oral and written, but principally
oral.

Make collection of acorns, walnuts, hickory nuts,
hazel nuts, chestnuts, all with the pod or shuck,
if possible, so as to lead to a simple discussion of
protection. A cocoanut within the shuck is very
interesting by way of comparison with other nuts.

Select, also, beans, corn, oats, always calling at-
tention to the covering which may be compared in
each case with the covering of apples, peaches, etc.,
of the preceding month.

Oral lessons on gathering nuts, corn, oats, beans
and cocoanuts will be very valuable to cultivate
power of conversation. Comparative values in
market may be considered.

5. Preparation of Plants for Winter—As ican
by changes in leaves, buds and bark. This topic
may be discussed at the conclusion of several les-
sons on hibernation of animals, which see. Collect
a great many buds after the frost has taken off the

4
16 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

leaves and notice the scaly covering in each case.
Compare with naked buds in green house. Notice
the sticky substance that holds these buds to-
gether. Compare with naked buds. Bring up
this question again in spring time when the buds
begin to open.

Compare the bark of plants that endure the
winter, with that of green house plants. Why the
difference? Notice difference between bark of this
year’s growth and that of last year’s growth. How

does it differ at frosting time from the growing
time?

Notice that some plants, like the violet, spring
beauty and potato, go into winter quarters under
the ground just as some animals do.

Observe that trees burst their bark when they
get too large for it, thus making the outside very
rough, as seen in the walnut or bur-oak. How
about the locust or grasshopper, crayfish and cicada
when they grow too large for their skins? The
snake, frog, boy?

6. Lffects of Frost:—On leaves, buds, stems
and flowers. The suggestions under (5) are ap-
plicable here.

Bring out the thought that some plants die

down to the ground every year when frost comes,
while others only drop their leaves.

*
MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 17

7. Preparation for Spring.—a. Germination of
seeds planted in school room. Keep record of fre-
quent observations of growing plants. 64. Germi-
nation and growth of self-sown seeds, maple, acorns,
etc. c. Flow of sap, growth of stems, leaves and
flowers.

8. Study spring flowers as to form and colors.
Names of common flowers such as violet, spring
beauty, hepatica, mustard, windflower, or anemone,
butter-cup, etc. Compare and contrast the humble
and modest violet of this spring with the haughty
jimson of last fall. See Bryant’s poem on the
violet.

B.—ANIMAL LIFE.

1. Jnsects:—Ant, bee, beetle, grasshopper, etc.
a. Collections. 4. Study typical forms. c. Draw-
ings and descriptions both oral and written. d.
Habits. ¢. Transformation.

2. Covering of animals for the seasons.

3. Habits of hibernation.

4. Prehension of food.
a. Organs of. 6. Method of different animals.
5. Reappearance of birds. Notice the instincts
shown in migration, nesting and care of young.
6. Study of Tadpole and Frog.
Suggestions on the course:

18 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Collect an ant, a bee, a wasp, a butterfly, a grass-
hopper, and notice that they are all alike in that
they are all cut into in two places, hence name in-
sect, cut znto.

1. Let the pupils point out the head, chest, and
abdomen in each case.

2. Point out the apparatus that belong to the
head, viz.: mouth, eyes and feelers.

If you have a hand lens pass it around and let
the children see that each insect is provided with
compound eyes so that it can see in every direct-
ion without turning the head.

How different is the grasshopper’s eye from the
eye of the little boy or cat. Besides the compound
eyes, one on each side with many little faces, the
insect also has three little, simple eyes. See if the
children, by aid of the lens, can find them. Why
do you suppose they have those three simple eyes?

2. The chest has three pairs of legs below and
two pairs of wings above. Let the children find
these and count them and see that they all belong
to the chest or thorax. To little children there
may appear exceptions to this rule as every insect
of the group dzptera, of which the common house
fly is an example, has but one pair of wings. In
place of the second pair two knobbed threads, or
“balancers” appear. But this should not be dis-

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 19

cussed in this grade. Also some butterflies have
abortive two front legs, thus leaving but two pairs
of real legs.

3. Point out the organs of the abdomen if any
are to be seen; for example, the sting of the bee,
the boring machine called ovipositors in female
grasshoppers, cicada, etc., for making holes in
which to deposit eggs.

Most insects have nine segments in the abdo-
men, one in head and three in the thorax. Have
the children count to see if that statement is true.
Here, again, it may be necessary to use the hand
lens, with some insects.

When studying the beetle, have the pupils observe
that the outer pair of wings is hard and used as a
covering for the delicate, gauzy wings and thus
protects them from dirt and other rough things.
It will also be observed that some insects have no
wings. Ants cut off their own wings when they
have no more use for them.

Touch upon the uses of insects. Let the child-
ren tell stories about ants and bees as to their way
of working. Compare the wisdom and industry of
these two insects with the idleness and wastefulness
of grasshoppers and crickets.

Observe the transformation of carterpillars.
Make drawings on a large scale of each insect stud-
ied.

20 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Where do the insects spend the winter? What
is the preparation of each for winter?

NotTe:—The queen hornet may be found under
the bark of old stumps or trees, the queen bumble
bee in some protected corner, under. boards, the
beetle under rocks, in old logs and rotten stumps ;
the remainder of the bumble bees, grasshoppers
and butterflies die.

What preparation is made by the Squirrel? The
Blue Jays? The Robin? The English Sparrow ?
For information in regard to our Indiana birds see
Blatchley’s Geological Report of Indiana for 1897.

1.—PHYSIOLOGY.
For December, January and February.
1

Simple Lessons on the senses and what we
learn through them.

a. For example, the eye:—

Location, number, shape of pupil, number of
lids, how the lids move, how they are kept moist.
Compare with same organ in grasshopper, in
chicken, in cat, in cow.

b. Touch.—Try touching an object with back of
hand, with forehead, with cheek, with tongue, with
finger tips.

How does a horse feel? Acow? A cat? A
grasshopper? Which way is the best?

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 21

c. Hearing.—Compare the outer ear of children
with that of horse, rabbit, dog, cat, and determine
which is most sensitive. Is it necessary to keep
the ear clean? Does it ever injure the ear to take
cold? Is the wax of any use tothe ear? Are the
hairs in the ear of any use? Look in the horse’s
ear for hairs. In the dog’s, the cat’s. Where is
the bird’s ear? What do we learn by means of our
ears? By means of our eyes? Our fingers?

ad. Smell—Name of organ, nostrils. Compare
with the same in horse, in dog, in cat, in hen, and
determine which is the most sensitive. What
pleasure do we get fromthe sense of smell? Why
should the organ of smell be placed so close to the
mouth? Will a cold in the head injurethe sense of
smell? How? Should we breathe through the nose
rather than the mouth? Why? Would a severe
cold prevent us from breathing through the nose?
Draw the conclusion that it is best to avoid taking
cold.

e. Taste may be dealt with in same way.
Discuss relative values of these senses, as to which
is most important, which least, etc.

2.—THE SKIN.

Review the skin or rind of the apple, the peach,
the plum, and grapes as to protection. Also the

22 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

bark of the tree as to its purpose, as to its cracking
open as the growth of the tree proceeds. From the
foregoing facts reach the conclusion that our skin
protects inner parts from injury: that our skin is
scaly, and these scales become loosened as our body
grows, and, instead of cracking open like the bark
on the tree, they must be washed off so as to give
room for the new skin to form and do its proper
work. Is the skin of the same degree of thickness
all over the body? Is it just the same on the soles
of the feet and the palms of the hands as it is on
the other parts of the feetand hands? Can you in-
crease the thickness of any part of the skin? How?

Why has the hickory bud such heavy scales in
cold weather, and the geranium bud none? Why
is our skin thicker where most exposed? How is
the skin kept moist? How does the moisture get
through the skin?

Other matter that would be an injury to us, if left
in the system, comes out with the moisture. Bring
out the thought that there are thousands of these
little openings on the skin that must be kept clean,
hence the bath and clean under-clothing may be
discussed here.

The following conclusions in regard to the skin
should be fixed upon the minds of the children:

1. The skin serves for protection of the body.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 23

It helps to warm us when we are cold, and to cool

us when we are warm. It helps to purify the
blood.

2. There are tiny tubes or pores that open on
the surface of the skin. These tubes permit the
sweat and other impurities of the blood to escape.

3. Bathing is necessary in order to keep these
pores open so that impurities may continue to
escape through them.

4. In the morning, just after rising from bed, is
the best time to bathe.

5. After bathing, the skin should be dried well
aud rubbed with the hands until a warm glow sets
in.

6. Cool water is better than warm for bathing
purposes.

7. We should not bathe in a room in which the
air is so cold as to chill the skin.

8. On retiring at night, all clothing worn dur-
ing the day should be removed from the body and
a clean gown put on to sleep in.

9. Our under-clothing absorbs the impurities
as they escape from the pores of the skin, hence it
is very filthy to wear under-garments more than a
week without change.

Cleanliness of nails and scalp should be urged.

24 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

3.—LESSONS ON TEETH.

1. Have the children examine the cat’s teeth at
home. a. Asto number. 6. As to kind, whether
long or short, blunt or sharp. c. As to use, how
the cat eats its food. d.-Are the cat’s teeth filthy
and decayed? Do they ever need to be filled?
Does the cat ever have toothache?

2. For another lesson get reports from the
children in regard to the dog’s teeth, comparing
every point with that of the cat.

3. A third conversation may be based upon the
horse’s teeth. His manner of eating. What he
eats, different kinds of teeth, color, etc. Tell the
children to throw a piece of meat tothe dog, a hand-
ful of oats to the horse and an ear of corn to the
cow and watch them eat. Are the teeth fitted in
each case for the work they have to do? Why do
they not feed oats to the dog, and meat to the
horse? Do horses, cows and dogs often have the
toothache? I wonder why. -

4. Fora fourth conversation the children may
now be interested in their own teeth. a@. As to
number. 6. Asto kind, temporary and permanent.
c. How many are like the dog’s teeth? How many
like the horse’s teeth? Then can a boy bite like a
dog and also grind or chew like a horse? What
food can a boy eat? Will a dog eat every kind of

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 25

food that a boy will eat? Will a horse? Why?
Will a horse leave his oats to drink cold water, or
hot coffee or tea? Willa boy? Willa dogeat hot
potatoes and hot biscuits, and take a drink of cold
water to cool the burning mouth and stomach?
Will a boy do that way? Willa cat or dog leave
between his or her teeth particles of food to rot and
smell bad? Will some boys do that way? Do cats
and dogs have toothache? Do boys? Grown up
boys ?
- Conclusion to be reached :

1. Teeth are used for biting and chewing food.

2. Sudden changes of temperature crack the
enamel and thus cause decay.

3. The use of tobacco is an injury to the teeth.

4. Decaying particles of food generate an acid
that causes the teeth to decay.

5. The teeth must be thoroughly cleansed after
each meal and immediately before retiring at night.

6. In cleaning teeth a good tooth brush, or flan-
nel cloth, with clean water of same temperature
of mouth, should be used.

4.— LESSONS ON THE BoNY FRAMEWORK OF THE
Bopvy.

Introduce this subject by a lesson on the umbrella,
and let the children discuss freely the use of the
stays and ribs., As analagous topics, the children

26 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

will perhaps suggest the tent, with its pieces of
timbers, center-pole, corner-poles, etc., for support.
Almost any of the boys can describe a kite and tell
what the frame work is for, and how it is made.
From these simple illustrations, a chicken or other
animal with which the children are well acquainted,
may be introduced and bones examined. Develop
the thought that the leg bones support the body and
asssist in locomotion; that the wing bones assist in
flying; thatthe vertebrae or neck bones give elastic-
ity to the movements of the head in gathering food
or in drinking; that the ribs and back protect the
heart, lungs and other vital organs as well as to
give shape to the chicken. Strip the flesh from
the drum stick and call attention to the slender
shaft and enlarged extremities and let the children
draw conclusions as to purpose in such arrange-
ment. Notice the smoothness of the joints. Notice
that the bone is hollow and filled with marrow.

Imagine a chicken trying to make its form more
beautiful by wearing a tight fitting band around
its ribs. What would the other chickens think of
such a foolish notion? Could a young chicken
cock crowas loudly if he were so bandaged? Could he
breathe as well? Do you think a young hen so
distorted could be recommended to preside over a
young brood of chickens? Wonld Madam Pussy

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 27

look more handsome if she were bandaged around
the ribs and abdomen? Would her heart have as
much room to pump blood through the arteries and
veins? Could she breathe as well? Would you
like to have sucha foolish kitty in your house?
What sort of acoat does a dog wear? Did you
ever feel how loose it is? I wonder why he does
not wear tight-fitting clothes? The bones of boys
and girls may now be discussed in comparison
with the foregoing thoughts, putting emphasis
upon the fact that the bones are to give shape, sup-
port and protection, and to do these three things to
best advantage, they must not be hindered in any
way by tight lacing or bandaging the head or
feet; also that improper position while sitting or
standing is as pernicious as bandaging, especially in
growing children. Trees grow crooked if they do
not assume the proper position when young.
Then will not children do the same?

5.—How Topsacco anp ALcoHOL AFFECT THE
GROWTH OF THE BONES.

This is difficult to teach in this grade. All that
can be done is to lead the children to see that a
good house must have the very best of material.
It must have a good foundation and good timber fora
frame work. That good timber cannot grow in

28 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

improper soil or improper air or poisoned water.
That plants grown in one soil and atmosphere will
develop into stronger plants than if grown in an-
other. Let the pupils give instances. Since the
plant which grows in the garden or the timber
which makes the frame work of the house must
have just the right kind of food and drink, so
must the bone of the growing boy have pure blood
in order to make strong bone in manhood. Alco-
hol and tobacco poison the blood and therefore
dwarf the growth of bone.

Breathing. —a. Organs. 6. Process of.
Purposes. d@. Position of body in. e. Bad effects of
improper position of body, breathing impure air,
improper breathing.

LESSONS.

1. Begin this subject by a breathing exercise
by the whole school. Require the children to take
a full breath, by standing erect and closing the
mouth. What change is made in form of chest
and abdomen while taking a full inspiration?
During expiration? What muscles are used most
in breathing? Could these muscles act freely if
tightly bandaged? Whydo we breathe? That
which receives the air in inspiration is called the
lungs. These lungs surround the heart, which is
the blood pump.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 29

Now what happens to the air in the lungs when
they are pressed together by the ribs? What hap-
pens to the blood pump? What effect would that
have upon the supply of blood to the system?
Why do we need the blood? Why do we need air?

Teachers must explain that the blood must be
purified and that our breathing helps to do that
thing. That there are blood tubes and air pas-
sages, capillaries and millions of air cells in the
lungs, and that the blood trades off its impurities
for the oxygen of the air. The lungs may be com-
pared to a market house in that it isa place for
trading. Which makes the best trade, the blood
or the air?

When does a gardner find it hard to get rid of
his cabbage or radishes? When the market house
is already full of such vegetables. When does
the blood find it difficult to get rid of its impurities?
When the airin the lungsis already fullof im-
purities.

Why is plenty of pure air then necessary? How
does stooping over while sitting at the desk affect
the amount of pure air in the lungs? How does
smoking cigarettes or tobacco of any kind affect the
purity of air we breathe? How do close, ill-ven-
tilated school rooms affect the purity of air? Thien
how would that affect the purity of the blood?

30 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

How does the condition of blood affect our health ?
Then would it be good for our health to remain in
a privy or water closet toolong? Tosleep ina
very close room? To breathe tobaccosmoke? To
lace the ribs and abdomen? Why?

D.—GEOGRAPHY.

Continue work of first year. Study of forms of
solids, as cube, pyramids, sphere, etc. From the
study of the sphere develop the shape of the earth.
From conversations based upon readings from
“Seven Little Sisters,” and similar books, develop
as far as practicable at this stage, an idea of the
earth as a whole.

E.—WEATHER STUDY.

Observations and morning notes. a. Dew,
frost, or neither. 4. Rain or snow. c. Direction
of wind at 8o’clock,a.m. d. Clear, cloudy, partly
cloudy, raining or snowing at 8:00 a.m. See direc-
tion for work in first grade.

Literature.—See Wilson’s Nature Reader.

1. Storiestobetoldtothechildren. a. “Clytie,”
to be told in connection with the study of the sun-
flower. 6. “Story of the thistle,” to be told in con-
nection with the study of the thistle. c. “Aurora.”
d. “Aurora’s Tears.” ¢, “Aurora and Tithonus,”
to be read in connection with the study of the

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 31

grasshopper. f ‘“‘Apollo’s Mother,” to be read in con-
nection with the study of the frog. g. “Birth of
Apollo.” 4. “The Killing of the Python.” z.
Apollo and Hyacinthus, Story of Phaethon. Iris,
Diana, Diana and Endymion. The Hottentot
Moon Story. Yum Sing. German Story of the
Moon. The Ant and the Grasshopper, to be read
in connection with the study of these insects. The
Kind Old Oak. Callisto and Arcas, or the White
Bear. Story of the Peacock.

Spring Stories:—l. Pluto. 2. Proserpine. 3.
The Finding of Proserpine. 4. Robin Red Breast.
5. How the Bee got the Sting. 6. Legend of the
Spring Beauty. 7. Story of the Poplar.

GEMS To BE LEARNED.

1. Autumn Gems.—Rain Shower, Wind Song,
Little Purple Aster, The Sunbeams, Leaves at
Play.

2. Winter—Chickadee, Snowflakes, The Hem-
leck Tree, The New Year Song, Song of the
Wrens.

3. Spring Gems.—Spring, Celia Thaxter, All
the Birds have Come Again, Swallow, Calling the
Violet, Dandelion Fashions.

32 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.
THIRD YEAR.
A.—PLANT LIFE.

1. Lessons on Leaves——a. Compare as to form,
margin, variation, surface. Take a number of
large leaves, as sycamore, maple, linden, catalpa,
iron weed, thistle, morning glory, pond lilies, ,
beans, grass, etc. First classify on basis of general
outline, viz.:— Linear, lanceolate, wedge-shaped,
spatulate, ovate, obovate, kidney-shaped, orbicular,
elliptical. Keep repeating this exercise in several
lessons‘until the children are fairly well acquainted
with the common forms. Let them find that the
forms lanceolate, kidney form, heart shape and
ovate are widest near the base and taper toward
the apex; and that the forms spatulate, wedge-
shape and obovate are widest near the apex and
taper toward the base, while the forms orbicular,
oblong, elliptical, linear and oval are widest at the
middle and taper equally toward apex and base.
Make drawings of leaves, showing the several
forms. As to margin compare the leaves of cherry,
peach, grape, apple, elm, beach, hickory, clover,
bean, violet, goldenrod, aster, oak, maple, etc.
Which of these leaves have entire edges? Which
serrate? Dentate? Crenate? Sinuate, etc? For
meaning of these terms, the teacher may consult
any good botany.

MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY. 33

As to division of blade, compare oak, maple, pas-
sion vine, water melon, tongue grass, and learn
the meaning of lobed, cleft, parted and divided.
As to variation, a number of leaves should be
used, representing those with petioles, without
petioles ; with stipules, without stipules; with bud
in axil, as common, simple leaf of almost any sort;
without bud in axil, as observed in any leaflet of
compound leaf; colors, red, yellow, green, varie-
gated, etc.; venation, parallel veined, netted veined.
Draw several kinds of simple leaves, showing
venation, petiole, etc. Draw several compound
leaves, such as horse chestnut, walnut, locust,
acacia, strawberry.

Lead the children to see that the bud of a com-
pound leaf is foundin the axil of the entire leaf-
stalk and notin the axils of the leaflets. Most
simple leaves have buds in theaxil. The syca-
more and a few others may seem like exceptions
to the rule, as the bud in such trees is always
under the cup of the leaf-stalk.

Under variation, may also be discussed bud
scales, as in hickory or lilac, modified for protec-
tion of the green leaves within; the tendrils as in
pea vines; spines as in barbery; bulb scales as in
onion. ‘This might be carried much further, but
the foregoing is thought to be sufficient for third

34 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

grade work. Leaf movements can be studied with
considerable interest. Have the children observe
the leaves of the locust in day time, and again at
night when the leaves are asleep, and report
change. Observe also oxalis, clover and acacia in
same way. Observe that the leaves of these plants
wake up at sunrise ready for their day’s labor.
For a discussion of plant movements see Chapter
VI of Caroline A. Greevey’s Recreations in Bot-

any, published by Harper & Brothers. Also her
- chapter on leaves is well worth reading.

McBride’s Lessons in Botany, by Allyn, Bacon
& Co., and Elements of Botany, by Bergen, Ginn
& Co., will be found very helpful to the teacher.

2. Lessons on Flowers.—a. Study calyx, sepals,
corolla, petals, stamens, pistils. 4. Draw and de-
scribe each. It will be better to postpone this part
of the work until the Spring flowers are in bloom,
asso many of the Autumn flowers belong to the
Composite, and, on that account, the teaching of
the parts of a flower would be very difficult and
confusing. Take, for example, a number of Spring
Beauties, equal to the number of children in the
room. ‘Tell the pupils that the first, or outer cov-
ering, is called the calyx. Ask the children its
color, so as to be sure they have the right coat in
mind. ‘Then inquire about the number of parts in

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 35

that coat, and tell them that each part is called a
sepal. Now, how many sepals in the calyx?
What are sepals? What is the calyx? What is
its color? The next coat or covering is called the
corolla. What is the color of the corolla? Each
part of the corolla is called a petal. How many
petals in the corolla of the Spring Beauty? What
are petals? What isa corolla? Isa petal like a
sepal? What is the difference between a corolla
and a calyx as to order of covering? As to color?
As to number of parts? Asto name of parts? Is
the calyx smooth or rough? How is the inside of
calyx as compared with outside in regard to smooth-
ness? How about the corolla? Doesa sepal look
anything like a leaf? Doesa petal? Which looks
the more like a leaf? In what way? Do you
find anything like veining in either of these parts
as you do in leaves? Look closely with hand
lens.

Look for a whorl of several stalks with little,
yellow pods on the end. These stalks are called
stamens. How many stamens are there in the
Spring Beauty? Are they all of the same size?
How are they arranged with reference to the petals?
(Opposite.) How does their number correspond
with the number of petals? With the number of
sepals? You will observe a little, oblong case at

36 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

the top of each stamen, that is called the anther.
How many anthers are there? The anther is filled
with a yellow powder, or very small grains, called
pollen. Which way does the anther in the Spring
Beauty open?

The little thread-like stalks that support the
anthers are called filaments. How many filaments
are there? How many anthers? What are an-
thers and filaments together called? What are the
petals together called? Which whorl is called the
calyx? Which the corolla? Which the stamens?
How many parts in each whorl? What are the
parts in each whorl called ?

There is now one thing more for us to learn, and
that is, the little stalk, whichis largea the bottom,
slender in the middle and divided into three parts
at the top. This stalk is called the pistil. It
looks like the pestle that the druggist uses to mix
medicine with. Perhaps that is the reason it is
called pistil. (From Latin Pistillum, which means
a pestle. The word first came into use for such
flowers as those of Fritillaria Imperialis, or crown
imperial, wherethe pistil resembles a pestle and
the perianth around it a mortar of an apothecary.)
The large part at bottom of flower cup is called
ovary, or little seed case, the slender part above is
called the style, the three parts at top are called

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 37

the stigma. The little grains in the ovary are
called ovules. The teacher should now review all
the whorls, and parts of each whorl.

Next ask certain pupils of the class to bring
to the school-room on another day some member
of the Mustard family, or some other simple
flower, so that the children can compare the parts
of the new flower with those of the Spring Beauty
in every particular. At another time, a different
flower, and so on, until a half-dozen flowers have
been analyzed and names learned.

Up to this time, nothing has been said about the
Junction of the parts of the flower. We may now
begin this subject by introducing factories in gen-
eral. A factory is a building in which goods are
manufactured, as a mill, where flour and meal are
made. Let the children give other examples, nam-
ing in each case the raw material out of which
must come the manufactured product. ‘The flower
of the Spring Beautyis a factory. It manufactures
Spring Beauty seeds. The raw material is pollen
and ovules. These two kinds of stuff must be
mixed together at just the right time or the goods
will be spoiled. The ovary is the hopper, the style
is the tube through which the pollen must grow
downward to the hopper, where the ovules are.
The stigma must be moist when the pollen is let

38 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

fall, otherwise it will not grow down the tube. How
careful those little men (the stamens) that hold the
pollen are! They certainly do not sleep much,
for, just as soon as they know the stigma is moist,
they must open their little baskets and let the pol-
len fall on it. They must be quick in their work,
for the stigma will not stay moist long. Like most
other factories, the Spring Beauty closes up at
night, by drawing its petals and sepals tightly over
the inner parts of the factory, so as to shut out the
night air, rain, and night insects that come to do
harm. ‘This factory, in course of a month or two,
will turn out some fine seed, which will fall to the
ground when the pod splits open, and be ready to
start a new plant for another year. Watch these
Spring Beauties and Mustards to see what they
willdo. The old plant will die down when frost
comes, but it, too, will spring up again at the re-
turn of the song birds from the South.

Deal with the mustard factory in same way.’
Also a few of the others studied. Watch for the
seeds as the pods ripen. See (4) of this course.

Make drawings of spring beauty, mustard, but-
tercup, bloodroot, or other plants studied.

A Few Familiar Flowers by Margaret Warner
Morley, published by Ginn & Co., is excellent for
teacher’s use in teaching any kind of flower.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 389

3. Lessons on Trees.—a. Distinguished by leaf,
shape, bark, habit. 4. Observe development of
leaf-buds. c. Study arrangement of leaves.

Theautumn months any time before frost will be
the proper time to introduce the study of trees. A
trip to the woods by the whole school is the best
way to secure the right kind ofinterest. This may
be done immediately after a study of the leaves in
the school room, as given in the first part of this
outline. The leaves of the sycamore, linden, catal-
pa, cherry, beech, hickory, oak, elm, horse chestnut,
walnut and locust have already been studied as to
form, variation, color, etc. So it will be an easy
matter now to select the treesthat bear them. Be-
fore starting on this visit to the woods it will be
well for the teacher to supply each of the children
with a number of cards on each of which may be
written near the upper margin the name of a tree
whose leaf has already been studied by the pupil.
On entering the woods the children holding these
cards will separately search for the tree or trees
named on these cards. On finding the object
of their search they will write on their respective
cards a brief description of bark, and shape of
tree, write signature, pin the card upon the tree
described and return to the teacher. These cards
thus pinned to the tree will stand as evidence of

40 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

ownership by discovery, providing no mistake has
been made. ‘The teacher will now go with the pu-
pils, visit all the trees and note the good hits as
well as the errors.

Again, each pupil may be supplied with a few
pieces of bark, with direction to place walnut bark
with a walnut tree, hickory bark with a hickory tree,
and so on, each kind of bark with its respective kind
oftree. As before, the pupil should leave her name
on a piece of paper pinned to the bark so that the
teacher may know who discovered the tree. Test
again with nuts, acorns and other fruits to any ex-
tent the teacher may desire, or until the interest
begins to lag. To vary the program let the child-
ren gather a miscellaneous pile of leaves, then re-
quire the children to sit down and sort them, put-
ting leaves of one kind into one pile, of another
kind into another pile, thus making as many piles
as there are kinds of leaves. Try same plan with
bark.

After an afternoon’s outing of this kind there
will be no difficulty in fixing the association of bark
and leaf by reviews in the school room, which may
be done by holding a single leaf, or a single piece
of bark before the school for the judgment of the
pupils.

To fix the habit and habitat of trees, questions

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 41

like the following may be asked: Where did you
find your walnut tree, Mary? On high ground or
low ground? On black soil or red clay? What
kinds of trees grow in the same neighborhood with
the walnut? Where did you find yours, John?
And yours, Susie? Do you find any walnut trees
along swamps or marshes? “What kinds of trees
do we find in such places? Where did you find
your water beech, Willie? Your cottonwood?
Quaking aspen (Quakin’ Asp)? Birch? Willow?
Are these all neighbors to one another? Which
are neighbors of the walnut? I wonder if these
neighbors are an advantage or an injury to the
walnut. (Here the struggle for existence may be
discussed to some extent, taking care to bring out
the benefits as well as injuries.) Call attention to
the large elm that stands out in some vacant lot,
as in a door yard, or open field, and compare with
one that grows in the dense woods. What differ-
ence in shape of head or top? In the amount of
ground covered by itsshade? In the density of its
foliage? In the general thriftiness of the tree?
Why these differences ?

Take the walnut also as an example and notice
its beautiful top when in the open field. Notice its
condition when in the dense forest. ‘Account for
the difference. Invite the personal experience of

42 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

each pupil in this respect, letting him name other
trees that may have come under his immediate
notice.

Wallace says, that in every contest between the
birch and the beech, the latter has been most suc-
cessful. The former loses its branches at the
touch of the beech and throws all its strength in
the top trying to grow higher, but in this it fails
to get as much light and moisture as the beech, two
very essential things in the life of a plant; hence
the one is driven to the lakes and swamps, while
the other holds possession of the field. The beech
can flourish in the shade but the birch cannot, hence
the advantage of the one over the other. The
beech will also kill out the fir for the same reason
as that given for the victory over the birch. But
the old sturdy oak plants his roots deep in the earth
and challenges the beech to mortal combat. The
stubborn beech, so long the victor over all other
competitors, refuses to yield and withdraw from the
field, but hurls defiance at the mighty oak. The
contest is on, the battle is long and hotly contested
at every point, and at this date, the beech is still
undaunted and is maintaining his ground with
remarkable tenacity, while the oak shows signs of
fatigue and is beginning to weaken. The present
indications are that the oak, too, will have to seek
grounds where the shade of the beech is still

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 43

unknown. “The aspen, birch, fir, oak and beech
appear to be the steps in the struggle for the sur-
vival of the fittest among the forest trees of Den-
mark.” See Wallace’s Darwinism, page 22.

When the spring time comes and _ the
buds begin to swell, the teacher should make a
collection of sprays from the various kinds of trees
studied in the preceding autumn. Attention hav-
ing already been called in the second year work to
the preparation of .buds for the winter, a short
review of that work will be a suitable introduction
to the study of buds at bursting time. To begin,
pass several buds of different kinds to each pupil
and require the children to carefully remove the
outer brown scale in each case. This may be done
with a needle or common brass pin.

Notice that all the buds are more or less sticky,
but the horse chestnut is especially so; that others
are fuzzy, hairy and scaly, and that all these dif-
ferent characteristics are especially adapted for the
protection of the delicate green parts of the bud
within.

Put fresh twigs of the different trees studied
ina jar of water and watch the unfolding of the
buds. See which unfolds first, the terminal bud or
lateral buds. Which is the larger, the lateral or
terminal bud of each of the several trees studied ?

44 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Which has the greater store of nourishment?
Why should that be so? What becomes of the
scaly covering as the bud unfolds? Watch closely
the hickory bud so as to know what is done with
the scales. Do the outer coverings of all buds
do as the hickory scales do? What change in
color of the outer covering in the cherry
or apple buds? Where is the flower bud
found in cherry? Examine both lateral and
terminal buds and note that the latter as a rule do
not bear flowers, but leaves. Put twigs in a jar of
water aud watch the flowers come out from the
lateral, but not often from the terminal buds.

Have the children observe the scale scars of last
year, and notice that when the scales of this year
fall off they will leave the same kind of scar, a
sort of scar ring, around the twig or branch.
How often then do these scars or rings appear?
Answer:—As often as the bud scales fall off, which
is usually once a year. ‘Then if a branch has four
of these rings, how old is it? Then can we tell
the age of a branch? How? There are excep-
tions to this rule but it will not be necessary to
mention them here.

C.—Stupy ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.

After the foregoing study of buds has been quite
well completed, attention may be called to the

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 45

arrangement of buds or leaves on the branch. For
this purpose collect very carefully young shoots of
normal growth of the several trees studied. Dis-
tribute them to the pupils, giving to each as many
specimens as kinds of trees. Begin with linden
and require each pupil to hold in an erect position,
a branch of that kind of tree. Place one hand
upon the lowest bud or leaf. Where is the first
leaf above that one as related to the lowest?
Where the second? Thethird? ‘The fourth, and
soon? Which leaves or buds are vertically above
the lowest? Start with any other leaf and see if
the same resultis true. Try the elm and com-
pare it with the linden asto arrangement. Take
the birch, beech, walnut, apple, pear, peach, and
note in each case the number of times it will be
necessary to follow the spiral of buds or leaves
around the stem before reaching the leaf vertically
above the first. Now take the maple and box elder
and have the pupils state the difference in leaf ar-
rangement between them and the other trees.
This will lead to the terms opposite and alternate
as applied to the position of leaves upon the stalk.
The buds of all maples and box elders are oppo-
site, while those of most other trees are alternate.

At another time collect some gasses or garden
plants of any kind and study their leaf arrange-
ment in same way.

46 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

ReviEws:— Characteristics of Plants.

1. Oak.— Leaves alternate, simple, nett-
veined, with stipules deciduous. Flowers general-
ly in catkins. Fruit an acorn. Bark of red oak
with smooth stripes. Of whzte oak, scaly. Burr
oak, furrowed. Black oak, black bark.

2. The Birch—F lowers in bright, yellow cat-
kins. Leaves of dlack birch heart shaped and
doubly serrate. Of gray dzrch, triangular with a
long taper point, twice serrate. Of ved birch,
ovate, acute at both ends and doubly serrate.
Arrangment alternate. The bark of Jdlack, or
cherry bcrch, with an agreeable smell. Of gray,
or white birch, scaling off in white strips and
layers. Of ved birch, loose, shaggy and reddish
brown.

3. Horse chesinut—lLeaves palmately com-
pound, and composed of seven leaflets all diverging
from the same point on the leaf-stalk, opposite.
Flowers are in panicles or racemes, and yellow and
reddish in color. Each panicle isas large asa lilac
raceme. The fruit isa mahogany colored seed about
the size of a hickory nut, enclosed in a prickly burr.

The buckeye is the American horse-chestnut and

has five leaflets instead of seven, and the fruit burr
is smooth instead of prickly.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 47

4. The elms have alternate, simple leaves;
straight veined and serrateedged. Flowers in clus-
ters in axils of last year’s leaves, purplish or yel-
lowish green. Fruit, dry, winged, or nut-like.

Bark fairly smooth in young growth, and very
rough and much cracked open, forming ridges of an
inch or more in height. Zhe slippery elm has red-
dish colored wood and an inner bark sweetish,
mucilaginous and pleasant tothe taste. The leaves
of the elms vary greatly. Those of the slippery
elm are rough on the upper surface and downy
on the lower; while those of the English elm, the
American or white elm, the corky white elm and
winged elm all have leaves smooth, especially above.
The whzte elm has abruptly pointed leaves with
petioles, while the wzuged elm has small, thick
leaves with scarcely any petiole.

The walnut includes in its family two genera,
viz.: the walnut and hickory. The former has two
well-known species in Indiana, viz.: the black wal-
nut and butternut, or white walnut. The whole
family is known by its alternate pinnate leaves, no
stipules, and sterile flowers in catkins, fertile ones
single or two or more in a cluster, bearing single
fruits called nuts, enclosed in a shuck, which re-
mains green in color until the fruit begins to ripen,
after which time it begins to turn brown, and

48 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

finally black. The dlack walnut is known by its
minutely downy stalks and shoots, and smoothish
serrate leaflets. Also by its large, round fruit,
from which the dried shuck does not fall away.
Bark is very rough and deeply furrowed, even
more so than the elm.

The dutternut is known by its oblong, sticky
fruit and sticky leaves. The fruit is about twice
as long as thick, and is held within a persistent
shuck similar to the black walnut in that respect.
The fruit of both black and white walnut is deeply
furrowed. Why?

The hzckory is represented by several species.
The shell-barked hickory is well known by its
shaggy, hard bark, which almost invariably shells
from below upward. Its compound leaf has five
leaflets, the three upper much larger, and lance-
ovate in shape. The nut is white and grows within
a shuck, which easily falls away upon ripening.
The large shell-bark has seven to nine leaflets,
which are more downy beneath than those of the
common shell-bark. The nuts are yellowish in
color and much larger and thicker shelled than
the common shell-bark. The fruit of both these
shell-barks is edible.

The fzg nut is known by its rough, not scaly,
bark, smooth leaves, leaflets five to seven, obovate,
lanceolate, fruit bitterish,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 49

The sycamore, or button wood, is known by its
large leaf, heart-shaped at base, which contains
an inverted cup in bottom of leaf-stalk, which covers
the newly-forming bud. Its whitish, green bark
separates into thin plates, which soon fall away.
This tree bears balls which contain seeds.

For further discussion of trees, see Apgar’s
Trees, Gray’s Botany, or Howe’s Science Teaching.

4. Study Growth of Vegetables—a. Radish.
6. Onion. ¢ Lettuce.

Suggestions: Plant a few seeds of each of these
plants to be observed during growth. They may
be planted in a common soap-box, or, if it be de-
sired to have each kind separate, cigar boxes may
be used, though a deeper box would be better for
the radish. These should be planted in February,
if the school-room is safe against frost, so that the
children will be able to get as much of the life his-
tory as possible before school closes in June.

During the first year of this course, the children
studied the forms and colors of leaves, observed
their preparation for winter, their budding forth
again in the spring. They also learned to dis-
tinguish the parts of a plant, as root, stem, leaf,
flower.

In the second year, they studied the forms of
leaves, and learned to associate them with the
plants or trees on which they grew.

50 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Germination of seeds planted in school-room and
preparation of leaves and buds for the winter, effect
of frost, etc., were observed, the greater attention
being given to the facts easily seen. Now, in the
third year, the pupils should be led to see the func
tion of things; perhaps not all things, but some
things.

They are already learning, under the study of
the parts of the flower, that the function of the
flower is to make seed. It seems very appropriate
to introduce this subject of Seed Factory, as given
in (2) of this course, after the seeds of radishes,
onions, and lettuce have been planted, since the
logical inquiry would be, where did these seeds
come from, and how were they made?

. The seed factory now having been established,
as in (2), the inquiry must continue until the func-
tion of leaf, stem and root is fairly well known.

How does the root assist in the making of seed?
First, it holds the plant in place in the ground.
Second, it sucks up moisture for the stem to carry
up to the seed factory. In dry times, it is neces-
sary for the roots to dig deeply in order to secure
the proper amount of water. The roots of elms
have been known to travel a distance of two hun-
dred feet to reach a pond that distance away. Wil-
low roots have penetrated to the depth of fifteen feet,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. §1

and pushed through board curbing and brick walls
to reach the water in open wells.

In 1898, at Harry Pierce’s residence on Silver
Heights, overlooking New Albany, the four-inch
waste-pipe of fire-brick tiling, solidly cemented at
joints, became completely obstructed by a solid
mass of willow roots, so that the water could no
longer find aipassage. On examination, it was
found that these roots penetrated the cement and
entered the pipe through these joints. The tree it-
self stood several feet away from the tiling and as
much as five feet above. From this, and from
many other instances already on record, it is evi-
dent that the roots are faithful to their trust as
water carriers. They bare their backs, so to speak,
and even heave up brick pavements, in their frantic
efforts to obey the will of the superintendent of the
seed factory.

Let the children narrate instances in their own
experience, and bring reports from the parents in
regard to the energy of the roots. Call attention
to the fact that the large roots provide themselves
with tiny root-hairs to suck the moisture out of
the very fine particles of dirt; in this way the
dirt itself is screened back, thus providing the
factory with pure, clean water,—a wonderful filter!

Use the hand lens to see the root-hairs on wheat

52 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

planted on blotting paper, or on cotton in a tumb-
ler of water. These may be seen, however, very
well without a hand lens.

Our next attention is to the leaf. Do roots and
flowers have todo all the work there is to be done
in the seed factory? What are leaves for? Ifa
leaf, the under side of it, should be covered with
dirt, what change in color would that part of the
plant undergo? Did you ever see the corn-blades
and maple leaves covered with dust from the road
during dry time in August or September? What
effect did the dust have upon the thriftiness of the
plants? Did you ever wash the leaves of your
house plants? Why did you do so? Could you
breathe as well with your nostrils filled with dust?
The nostrils, or stomata of plants, are most
numerous on the under side of the leaf. Do
you now see why the leaves should be kept
clean? Does breathing air have anything to do
with the growth of our bodies? How? Does
breathing air and moisture have anything to do
with the growth of the plant? ‘Then does the leaf
have anything to do in helping the flower to make
seeds?

Call attention to the many thousand mouths
(stomata) of the leaf, and the fact that each little
mouth is opened and shut at exactly the right time;

~

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 53

also, that the leaves act as stomach and lungs to
the plant. What takes place in our lungs? In
our stomachs? In the lungs and stomach of the
plant ?

As there must be a boarding house to feed the
men who do the work in basket factory, or iron
foundry, so must there be a boarding house to feed
the helpers in the seed factory. Now the leaves
constitute that boarding house. The sap is brought
up by the stem, air and moisture through the mouths
of the leaves, and all these elements are worked
over by the sun into the choicest food. But these
workers cannot leave their respective places to come
to the boarding house for their meals, so the food
must besent to them in some way. Did you ever
carry dinner to factory men? Well, that is what
veins are for, to carry food, and this they do quite
cheerfully. Food is in that way sent to the roots,
for they have to eatin order to grow and do their
work; to the stem, for it, too, has to work in car-
rying water to the factory and sap to the leaves,
hence it must eat; to the seed factory itself, be-
cause it also must eat to develop seeds, and the
leaves eat whatis left after supplying all the others.
Refreshments are sent in form ofsugar to the seed
factory and the seed factory works it over into starch
and deposits it in the food part of the seed. Then,

54 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

when the seed is planted, the sun helps the little
plantlet in the seed to change the starch back again
to sugar, in which form it readily becomes soluble
in water and hence food for the baby plant. What
are our baby plants, radish, onion and lettuce that
we planted a week or two ago now doing?

To show the influence of the sun in this boarding
house, or in the formation of “leaf green,” place
a plant in a dark place fora fewdays. What effect
upon the color? Upon growth? Do all the help-
ers in the seed factory get fed as well as when the
plant was inthelight? How can youtell? What
change takes place in the growth of tree or plant
after the leaves have fallen in autumn, or in ex-
tremely dry .weather? When caterpillars have
eaten all the lungs and stomach of a plant, what
change do you observe in the growth of the plant?
What change in growth of seeds? Why? Why
should the onion beds, radish beds, and lettuce
beds be kept clean from weeds and insects? Why
do gardners “thin out” their vegetables? When
are they too thick? Point out the leaf, stem and
root of the radish, onion and lettuce as you did the
other plants. Compare market values of these

plants.
B—ANIMAL LIFE.

1. Lessons on Snake, Fish, Frog, etc—Collect a
garter snake, a frog and a fish, keep them alive in

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 55

separate glass jars, pass them around the room for
the children to examine. What sort of covering
has the snake? The fish? The frog? Will the
fish and frog shed their skins as will the snake?
The teacher should be able to secure some cast off
snake skins for examination. Do the scales of the
fish assist that animal in its movements through the
water? Dothe scales of the snake help in motion ?
Which way do the scales slope? Why not forward
instead of backward? Where does a fisherman
begin to scrape the scales from a fish? Why?
Could we scrape the scales from a snake in that
way? Is the skin of the frog scaly? Why would
not scales be an advantage to the frog as well as to
most fishes? Where do fishes live? Frogs?
Snakes? Touch the frog’s eye with anything soft.
Has it any lids? Of what kind? Touch the
snake’s eye in the same way. The fish’s eye.
Why should not these animals as well as frogs and
turtles have lids to draw over their eyes? Try
turtles. Why should not the frog and turtle have
upper lids as wellas under lids? Notice the ronnd,
smooth spot just back of the eye in the frog. Do
you find any such spot on the snake or fish? See
if you can find such a spot on the grasshopper.
Look just above where the long leg joins the thorax.
Frogs and grasshoppers can hear, but that matter
is still in doubt in regard to snakes and fishes.

56 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.
ip

What sort of tongue has the snake? Why does
he almost constantly keep darting it out of his
mouth? Examine the frog’s tongue. Why is it
long and sticky? How does it catch its food?
Would a fleshy, sticky tongue be of any use to a
snake? Explain that the snake does not seek for
gnats and flies as a frog does, but for much larger
animals, such as grasshoppers, frogs, birds and
mice, and that to hold such animals, a sticky tongue
would be of no particular use. A frog sits nearly
still upon its feet, slightly throwing its body and
head forward as it thrusts out its long, sticky tongue
to capture a fly or gnat that happens to draw too
near. ‘The snake, with mouth wide open, throws
the front part of its body forward, and between its
wide open jaws, siezes its prey. The lower jaw is
composed of two parts, separated longitudinally,
each part moving forward and backward freely upon
the other. The upper jaw is provided with teeth
that point backward toward the throat; also each
half of the lower jawis so provided. Then in
swallowing food, the prey, while still alive, is held
firmly between the upper jaw and one half of the
lower jaw. The other half of the lower jaw is
thrust forward for a new hold. The process of
swallowing has been compared to a boy in a fixed
position pulling a load towards him by means of a

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 57

rope, hand over hand. In the.case of swallowing,
it is jaw over jaw instead of hand over hand.

In the case of the frog there are no teeth in the
lower jaw, neither is the lower jaw divided as in
the snake. But the upper jaw is provided with a
patch of very minute, short teeth in the roof of the
mouth. How does that arrangement assist the
sticky tongue in disposing of gnats and flies?

How do the mouth and tongue of the fish dif-
fer from those of the snake and frog? Why should
this be so? How does the snake breathe? The
frog? The fish? Why should the fish have gills?
Was there ever a time when the frog had gills?
Why should not the snake have gills? How
many legs has the frog? The snake? The fish?
What stands for legs in the fish? The pectoral
fins take the place of the fore legs, the ventril fins
the hind legs. Describe the movements of each of
these animals. Ask the children to watch the
toads catch flies, gnats and other small insects
under the electric lights, summer evenings.
Where is the toad in the daytime? Look for it in
flower-beds, gardens, or close along the fence or
house, lying flattened out with its nose tucked
downward, looking for all the world as if it were
dead. Howdo these animals spend the winter?
Hibernation. Are these animals of use to man?

58 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

How? Then should they be killed just because
they are toads, frogs, turtles and snakes?

Call attention to the fact that there are but
two kinds of poisonous snakes in Indiana, viz.:—
the rattle snake and copperhead. Should the
garter snake be destroyed simply because its
brother rattle snake and copperhead do harm?
The teacher should try to induce the children to
lay aside their prejudices against harmless snakes,
frogs, toads and turtles.

2. The native wild animals common to locality —
Help the children to make a list of the birds of the
neighborhood, distinguishing between those that
migrate and those that remain over winter. The
following plan may serve to show what can be
done in the study of birds:—

ENGLISH SPARROWS.

Color of male; of female.
Size of male; of female.
Where do they live?
What do they eat?
Where do they spend the winter?
6. Where do they nest?
This study may be made in autumn and verified
in spring.
7. Where do they roost at night?
8. Why do they not roost on the ground?

ar ak ol a

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 59

9. Do they hop or run? Why do they not run?

10. Are they of any advantage to man, or do
they do more harm than good? How? ‘Teacher,
please see Blatchley’s Geological Report for 1897,
page 935. ;

Deal with other birds in the same way, until you
have collected reports from all the birds in the
neighborhood. Compare each bird named with
the English sparrow in regard to bill, claws, habits
of eating, migrating and nesting, use to man, etc.

THE RABBIT.

1. Color. 2. Size. 3. Where does the rab-
bit live? When does he come out of his den? Did
you ever see him by moonlight? Why is he some-
times called Cotton Tail? What does he live on?
When is he fat? Why fat at that time? Why is
he very poor in hot weather? Why do we not like
to have Cotton Tail in our orchards, among the
young trees and shrubbery ?

What harm will he do in a garden?

Did you ever see a white rabbit ?

How does the white rabbit differ from Cotton
Tail?

Let the children tell as much experience as they
have about these rabbits. The Kansas Jack-Rab-
bit may be mentioned in this connection, speaking
specially of its long ears, long legs, and enormous
§1ze, :

60 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

In connection with every animal studied, be sure
to talk about its manner of gathering food, and use
or damage to man.

3. Study common domestic antmals.—Let the
pupil make a list of the domestic animals found in
the neighborhood, and compare them with the
wild ones already mentioned. Study each animal
from the standpoint of use, habit, how cared for,
commercial value of animal, value of product, and
determine, if you can, where each came from.

C. PuysioLocy. (Winter Work.)

1, Review of previous work:—(az) Senses. (6)
Skin. (c) Teeth. (d) Nails and hair. (e) Bones.
(f) Effects of clothing, shoes, ete. (g) Tobacco
and alcohol. (4%) Breathing.

2. Study of foods:—(a) Strength givers. (6)
Heat producers. (c) Bone builders.

Why does a man need to eat food? Why do
children need to eat food? Is this true of all ani-
mal life?

Lead the children to see that every movement
that is made is attended by loss to the system.

Let the children apply the fingers to their wrists
and count silently their own ‘pulsations in a min-
ute, the time to be given by the teacher. Let each
child make his own record on a piece of paper.
Also take record of breathing in the same way.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 61

Then require the school to take vigorous exercise
of some sort, and take records again.

Why does the circulation increase in rapidity ?
Why the increase in breathing ?

To supply this waste requires food. Foods are
of four kinds, viz.: The albuminoids, starch and
sugar foods, fats, and mineral foods.

Bread, milk,beans, peas, fish, lean meat and eggs
are regarded as strength-producing foods. These
are called albuminoids, because they contain
albumen, a substance closely resembling the white
of an egg.

The starches are found in bread, oatmeal, pota-
toes, beans, corn and wheat in any form, fruits,
rice.

The heat-producing foods are fats from animals,
and oils obtained from nuts. By eating nuts, but-
ter on our bread, fat pork or beef, we keep up the
heat of the body. In cold countries, like Klon-
dike, it is necessary to eat a great deal of fat. The
natives eat the fat of walruses and seals.

What would the natives of Cuba or the Philip-
pines eat? Would they have any use for walruses
or whale blubber? Why?

All meats are valuable as food. ork is hardest
to digest. It also contains a large amount of fat.
Then would it be good food for a hot or cold

62 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

climate? Why? Would it be good food for a
student? A minister? A teacher? A day lab-
orer? Why? Winter or summer food? Why?

Call attention to the fact that some hogs are
afflicted with ¢rzchzva, and on that account it is ex-
tremely necessary to cook pork thoroughly done.

Salted meats are not so digestible and nutritious
as fresh meats. Milk is the best food of all. It
contains casezm, the stuff that cheese is made of,
fats, the stuff that butter is made of, and a sugar,
known as “sugarof milk.” But milk, to be health-
ful, must come from good healthy cows that are fed
upon good food and water. A disease in water or
food, when drunk or eaten by the cow, may be
transferred to the milk and hence to the boy or
girl who drinks it. Typhoid fever has been con-
veyed in that way to persons using the milk. But
pure milk, cream and all, will support life longer
than any other food.

Eggs are highly nutritious, but when fried in
grease, they are regarded as less digestible.

Wheat flour owes its value to g/uten contained in
it.

In baking bread, yeast is used to cause the bread
to rise. ‘Teacher should explain how this is done.
Why can we not make as light bread from corn
meal as wheat flour? (Small quantity of gluten,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 63

the tenacious property of wheat.) Corn contains
more fat than wheat, also more starch. Which
would be the better food for Klondike, corn or
wheat? Why?

Beans and peas are good food because they con-
tain so much proteids and starch.

Potatoes contain too much water and not enough
proteids to be regarded as the best food.

Radishes, cabbages, turnips and carrots contain
too much water and too little starch to be valuable
as food.

Has alcohol any properties whereby it may be
called a food? Has tea or coffee? What are the
claims for these drinks? See Martin’s Human
Body or any other good physiology for full discus-
sion of these subjects.

What are mineral foods? Why do we need salts
of iron and lime and common salt? What kind
of food helps to make bone?

3. Water, why we use 7t—Where may water be
found? In lakes, rivers, ocean, wells, dew on
grass, rain, fog, etc.

Take a chunk of dirt the size of a base ball and
squeeze it between two boards, putting on several
pounds pressure, and the boards will become moist-
ened from the water pressed out of the dirt, if the
dirt is not too dry.

64 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Take any growing plant, submit it to pressure
and the juice will ooze out. How is cider made?
Cider, when fresh from the apple, is water holding
sugar and other substances in solution.

The juice from the sugar cane, from which we
make molasses, sugar and candy, is simply water
holding in its hands sugar and candy. What is |
the juice of the water melon? Cantelope? Peach?
Grape? Anything? What is the liquid part of
our blood? Where does the liquid come from that
we find in a fresh blister from a burn, or from fric-
tion caused by hard labor, or a rough place in the
shoe rubbing upon the foot? Then can water be
pressed out of muscle, skin, fat, or even bone, if
the pressure be great enough?

Man is about two-thirds water, “enough,” one
author says, “if rightly arranged, to drown him.”

Food for the plant must be dissolved in water
before it can serve as food for the plant.

In our lesson on root hairs we said that these
hairs were little mouths* minutely small that reach
out to the fine dirt and suck the water out. They
serve as a filter, keeping chunks of sand, or lime,
or clay, or any solid matter from entering in a
solid state into the structure of the plant. But
all substances soluble in water can be drawn up

*This is based upon the principle of osmosis, and though mouths do not exist
in eae it is thought to be a simple way of presenting the principle to the
children. Cy

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 65

by these root-hairs and thus get into the structure
of the plant. Dissolve a small quantity of table
salt in a tumbler of water. Can root hairs now
take up salt? Dissolve sugar. Can root-hairs now
take up sugar when they drink the water contain-
ing it? Could they have done so before it was
dissolved? Can root-hairs take up grains of sand?
See if sand will dissolve in water. Can root-hairs
take up lime? See if lime is soluble in water.
Then how do lime and sand or silicon get into the
growth of the plant? We know these substances
are there, for they form the«strength to the stalk of
wheat, grass, or corn, etc. It has been proved by
experiment that when these substances are found
in proper proportions they unite chemically, thus
forming a substance that will dissolve in water.
Thus united and thus dissolved in water the root-
hairs have an easy task to perform in carrying
these substances up tothe factory. What, now,
is the great use of water in plant life? I wonder if
it serves the same purpose in animal life?

Here the teacher should explain that the wz//z of
the intestines are something like root-hairs dipping
into the food which has passed from the stomach,
and drinking the liquid which contains sugar, salt
and other substances in solution. Can anything
not'dissolved be sucked up by these very minute

66 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

absorbents and carried into the structure of the
muscle or bone?

After the food is sucked up where is it conveyed ?
To the blood vessels. What is the liquid part of
the blood? Could new food be carried by these
blood vessels to the lungs and all parts of the sys-
tem, if there were no water in the vessels? Could
new food be carried into the muscles, be made over
into muscle, to the bones and be made over into
bone, without water? No more than a plasterer
can plaster a house without water. Then what
must be the use of water to our bodies? Lead the
pupils to see that as the great bulk of everything
we eat is water, it will not be necessary to drink so
very much nor so very often. Frequent drinking
is often a mere habit, and ought to be avoided.
Care should be taken not to drink from the shallow
wells in townas they may be more or less contamina-
ted with the privies and other dangerous wastes of
the city. Surface wells and foul cisterns should be
avoided as carefully as you would shun smallpox
or any other deadly poison. Thoroughly filtered
water is the only safe kind, and then it is not safe
if the filter is allowed to become foul. Water
should also be used for bathing purposes. Soft
water is recommended for that purpose. Here,
again, purity should be sought for, because the

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 67

skin is porous and therefore an absorbent. If the
water contains poisonous gas, or poison in solution,
the skin will take it up and carry it into the gen-
eral circulation of the blood and thus seriously en-
danger the health of the individual. For further
remarks on bathing, see Second Year work and
Jenkins’ Physiology.

4. Unwholesome drinks.—Under this heading
all drinks containing Alcohol as an active principle
may be considered.

1. Cider. How made? Where does the alcohol
of cider come from? What would be the effect of
habitual drinking of hard cider? Real hard cider
is about one-tenth alcohol.

2. Howis alcohol made? Make several experi-
ments with alcohol to show its evil effects. First:
put a small quantity in a cupor saucer and set fire
to it. Will it burn? Second: treat the white of
an egg in a cup or small vessel, with a quantity of
alcohol. Stir for a few moments. What is the
effect upon the egg? What then would be the
effect upon all proteids, or albumenoids in the
stomach if treated to a drink of alcohol? What
effect upon the brain? Nerves? Muscles? Would
a small quantity of alcohol as found in hard cider,
if repeated several times a day for a few years, affect
our system? How is beer made? What is the

68 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

proportion of alcohol found in it? Would it be
regarded as an unwholesomedrink? Why? How
is whiskey made? What is the per cent of alcohol
found in it? Is it a wholesome drink? How is
wine made? Does it contain alcohol? How can
you prove it? Place a small quantity of wine in
an evolution flask, to which should be attached a
delivery tube, leading through a cold bath, for
carrying off alcoholic vapor after it has been driven
from the flask by heat very little less than the
temperature of boiling water. The alcoholic vapors
will be condensed as it passes through the cold bath,
and may be received by a beaker or other vessel
placed under the end of the tube. Touch a lighted
match to the liquid gathered in that way and notice
the alcoholic flame; a positive proof that alcohol
exists in the wine. Beer may be tested in the same
way. Likewise cider. What is fermentation?
Give examples of fermentation, such as the changing
of apple juice into hard cider, of grape juice into
wine, of corn juice and its distillation into whiskey,
etc.

. All primary fermentations produce alcohol; then,
why does not light bread produce alcohol? By the

action of heat it escapes with the carbon dioxide.
Put a tablespoonful of sorghum and a cake of

baker’s yeast into a tumbler of water and set it in

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 69

a warm place, temperature of a summer day, twen-
ty-four hours, and watch it “work,” fermentation.

The effervescence which you see is caused by
the escape of carbon dioxide gas formed therein.
The alcohol is formed at same time, but does not
escape so readily as the gas unless warmed to a
much higher temperature, as in baking light bread.

In secondary fermentation the alcohol escapes,
thus leaving acetous acid or vinegar. In the first,
or primary fermentation, the sugar in the juice is

changed to alcohol; in the second fermentation the
~ alcohol is changed to vinegar.

Alcohol does not exist in the fruit, or sugar,
neither does vinegar exist in the alcohol. A fossil
made of limestone preserves the form of
a once living animal or plant, but the limestone
did not exist in the living tissues of the animal or
plant; no more does alcohol exist in living corn,
or grape, or apple.

Fresh oysters are wholesome food, but fossil
oysters would lie rather heavy on the stomach.

Fresh corn is an excellent food, but, when
changed by fermentation into whiskey, it is poison-
ous to the system.

To make this illustration vivid, the teacher
should show some fossil plants or animals, oysters,
if possible, so that children may see that nature
makes a complete change in quality and properties.

70 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

The following rules are quoted from Johonnot
and Bauton’s Lessons in Hygiene, page 49 :—

“TJ. We should not drink cider, because it is
the nature of the alcohol in cider to create an appe-
tite for more alcohol.

“JT. Cider deadens the senses and tends to
make its drinkers ill-tempered and careless about
doing right.

“TTI. We should get our grape juice by eating
the healthful and delicious grape.

“TV. When the grape juice has been squeezed
out and its sugar turned into alcohol, it is a pois-
onous drink, and we should not take it.

“V. Home-made wines, if produced by ferment-

ation, are unsafe drinks, because they contain al-
cohol.

“VI. It is the nature of alcohol, in even the
weakest wines, to create an appetite for more alco-
hol. Thus wine tends to increase intemperance,
rather than to decrease it, as some have supposed.

“VII. Fermentation is a part of the process of
making bread, but the alcohol is all evaporated
out of the unbaked bread. We should not eat
bread that is not well baked. It is not digestible.

“VIII. Beers produced by fermentation con-

tain alcohol. Weshould not drink beer of any
kind.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 71

“TX. There is no alcohol in vinegar. We may
safely flavor our food with it. Lemons and limes
furnish more healthful acids than vinegar.

“XI. Fermentation entirely changes the char-
acter of anything it works upon. The germs that

cause stewed fruits and preserves to ferment are

not the alcoholic ferments, but they spoil the
stewed fruit or preserves, and make them unfit for
us to eat.

“XII. The habit of chewing tobacco is not only
disgusting, but very injurious, as the poison of the
tobacco, the nicotine, is dissolved by the saliva and
absorbed by the system.

“XIII. The use of cigarettes by young boys
weakens the muscles and hinders growth, besides
causing other serious injuries. The healthy body
does not require tobacco in any form and it should
never be used.” :

5. Bad effects of tobacco.—To introduce this
subject call for the different forms in which tobac-
co is manufactured, viz.:—cigars, plug, fine-cut,
smoking-tobacco, cigarettes, long twist, etc. Make
a lesson or two of each form, showing pupils as far
as possible the manner of manufacture. Takea
cigar in hand, cut it with a sharp knife down one
entire side, thus laying open the filler which in
most cases, especially in cheap cigars, is made of
scraps, and in many cases, of the filthy sweepings

72 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

from the floor of the tobacco house. Collect a few
“snipes,” old discarded stubs, and let the chil-
dren smell the sickening odor from the poison that
gathers in the mouth end of the cigar during pro-
cess of smoking. If you can finda very strong
pipe, borrow it, take it to the school room and
show it to the children; disconnect the stem from
the bowl and dig out some of the strong nicotine
and let the children smell it. How nauseating it
is! How are cigars made, by hand or by machine-
ry? I wonder if the hands of the cigar makers are
always clean and free from disease. Plug tobacco
may be discussed in somewhat the same way.
What is saliva good for? What does the tobacco
chewer or smoker do with his saliva? Did you
ever hear of “smoker’s sore throat?” A great man
once died with such a disease. When, do
you think, did Gen. Grant learn to use tobacco?
Do you think he would advise other boys to do as
he did? If he had waited to begin until he was a
man, do youthink he would have learned to use
it? Why? Did you ever know a full grown man
to begin the use of tobacco in any form? Besides
the evil effects of tobacco upon bone, lungs, stom-
ach, teeth, saliva, brain, and the thinking power,
it is well to give some thought to the pocket-book
side.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 73

Compare cost of a loaf of bread with cost of a
cigar. Compare values to the system. How long
would it take a cigar smoker to smoke up a horse
and carriage? A houseand lot? A suit of clothes?
Which would you rather have, a good watch or its
value in cigars? The teacher should continue such
questions as long as they seem to have the desired
effect upon the pupils’ minds.

Some discussion of tobacco farming may be of in-
terest. Also, the collecting, drying and shipping.

6. Alints for health. a. Goodeyesight. b. Care
of ears. c. Care of throat. d. Necessity for breath-
ang. e. Care of feet.

LESSONS.

1. The eye. a. Make drawing on board showing
coats, iris, humors, pupil, lens, retina, and optic
nerve. 6. Let the pupils make drawing, this time
copying from the board. c. Study eyelids, lashes,
and eyebrows as seen about the eyes of other pupils,
and determine use in each case. Effect if the eye-
lashes were cut away; if the eyebrows were shaved
off.

Use of the tears. Effect if the tear glands were
destroyed and the tears dried up. Effect of dust
under the eyelids. Give some directions concern-
ing the removal of dust, cinders, etc., when once
lodged under the eyelids. Effect of exposure to

74 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

light. Long-continued looking at one object.
Looking at bright objects like the reflection of light
from a mirror, or from white wall or paper. Effect
of trying to read or write with insufficient light,
e. g.—in dusk of the evening.

Near sightedness and cross-eyes should receive
proper attention.

2. The care of ears. Next to the eyes, the ears
are most important, and should receive our atten-
tion. The ear should be taught in its three parts,
external, middle and znternat. ‘The outer ear gath-
ers the sound waves and therefore should be clean.
The wax is of use in keeping out insects and pro-
tecting the internal ear from exposure to cold air.
While it should not be removed entirely, yet it
should not be allowed to harden at the opening and
thus clog up the passage way, or to create too much
pressure upon the tympanum.

Children should be cautioned against the practise
of screaming or whistling in another’s ear. Such
practise is dangerous to the ear. Catarrh causes
deafness, hence care should be taken to prevent
taking cold. Do not pick the ear with a pin or
other hard substance. Avoid the use of tobacco, as
that will produce inflammation in the ear, and dry
the tympanum and thereby cause confusion of
sounds.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 75

3. Care of the throat. Show that the apparatus
for the voice is in the throat.

Illustrate by chalk box or other device with fine
strings stretched antl fastened across thetop. Pick
the strings between the fingers as you woulda banjo.
Notice the change in sound when the strings are
tightened or loosened. A violin, banjo or guitar will
be a still better illustration. In either case the
makingof a new sound requires change of fingering,
tightening or loosening of the string.

What produces the change of sound in our
voices? While singing the musical scale let the
children place their hands upon their own throats
and observe the muscular changes that take place.
With a severe cold could these muscular changes
be made as easily? If the strings of a violin were
covered with a sticky substance would they give us
as clear a sound? When the vocal cords are
covered with phlegm, as they must be during a
severe cold, can you speak as clearly? What tubes
belong in the region of the throat? (The tube
which leads to the lungs and the one to the stomach,
—two very important ones). If the trachea be in-
flamed, what effect upon our breathing? It pro-
duces a cough which only adds tothe inflammation,
and is otherwise very disagreeable, not only to our-
selves but to others. A heavy cold will often cause

76 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

sore throat and swelling of the tonsils. Such a
condition injures the voice, hinders easy breathing,
makes swallowing difficult and helps to stop up the
nasal passages. If allowed to continue, chronic
catarrh is unavoidable. The use of tobacco or
stimulants only irritates the inflammation.

Avoid wearing comforters or other warm bandages
around the neck, as such over-care may result in
conjested condition of blood in the throat.

4. Necessity for bathing. See remarks on Sec-
ond Year work in regard to bathing.

5. Careoffeet. ‘Tell stories of Chinese mothers
who bandage the children’s feet in order to make
them fashionable. Make a drawing of the arched
form of the foot, and show that the bones of the
foot must be free to act ina natural way. What is
the benefit to be derived from the arched form of
the foot? What effect would a very tight shoe
have uponthearch? What effect upon the freedom
of thetoes? Then what effect upon easy walking?
Have you ever seen a shoe made so that the little
heel would rest under the hollow of the foot? Did
you ever wear such a shoe? Where should the
heel tap be? Why? Is the “toothpick” shoe a
good one for the toes? Why? Which is more
sensible, a low heel or a high heel? How high
should the heel be? How high is your natural
heel as compared with the ball of your foot ?

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 77

Tight shoes will cause corns, which, when once
formed, are very troublesome. Any rough place in
the shoe, pressing upon the foot, if long continued,
will cause an increase of thickness in the cuticle;
such increase, when it presses so hard upon the
ends of the nerves beneath as to cause pain, is a
corn. A corn may be destroyed by cutting it thin
with a knife and removing the pressure.

Tight shoes will also cause in-growing toe nails,
bunions, etc., all of which are very painful and
interfere very much with the elasticity of step,
and gracefulness of movement.

Hosiery with holes in the toes or heels should
be avoided, as they are liable to become wrinkled
or folded in such a way as to bring on corns.
Cleanliness of feet and foot-wear is essential to the
health of the entire body as well as the feet.

Rubbers should not be worn in the house, as
they prevent the excretions of the feet from escap-
ing. If these poisons do not escape they will be
reabsorbed by the skin and thus injure the
system.

7. Ventelation —(See breathing in Second Year
work.) Itis just as necessary for the lungs to be
fed as itis for the stomach; and asthe stomach
requires pure and wholesome food, even so must
the lungs have pure air. Air breathed over again

78 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

is unfit for healthful respiration. If we live in
rooms so tight that the air cannot be changed, we
cannot avoid breathing again and again what we
have thrown from our lungs as waste matter, and
also the poisonous matter that is constantly pass-
ing through the openings of our skin. How may
we getrid of these poisonous gases and at the
same time receive plenty of pure air instead?
Experiment:—Make two apertures in the same
window by raising the lower sash and pulling
down the upper. Holda burning taper first at
one opening and then at the other, and note the
result in each case. Close the window and try the
experiment at the upper and lower part of the
open door and note result. Again, close the door
and raise the lower sash of a window high up so as
to give one large opening, try the burning taper
at the upper and lower part of the aperture and
note the result. In each of these experiments let
the pupils describe what the air is doing, and let
them draw the conclusion that the foul air will
leave the room through any opening large enough
to let pure air in. The thing to be avoided is di- |
rect draft, or wind, hence care should be taken to
open a door or window on a side opposite from the
wind. To avoid a direct draft in a sleeping apart-
ment, place a board about three or four inches

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 79

wide under the entire lower sash; such an arrange-
ment will prevent rain or snow from blowing into
the room and will at the same time permit fresh air
to enter between the sashes. For sitting rooms,
the old fashioned fire place, or open grate, is the
best means of ventilation. What makes the fire
roar in open fire places? And the flames to wal-
low up the chimney? (Ascending current of air
from the room.) Which is better ventilation, a soft-
coal burner with an open hearth or a hard-coal base-
burner? Why? Why does the base-burner cause
head-ache so often conplained of in warm rooms?
(Because the draft through the fire is not strong
enough to carry off the bad air of the room and
also because carbon monoxide leaks out of the
stove and diffuses itself throughout the room,
thus rendering the air extremly poisonous and
dangerous.)

Enumerate instances of persons poisoned by escap-
ing gas from a base-burner. ‘Tell the story of the
Black Hole of Calcutta, where one hundred and forty-
six persons were shut up for the night and only twen-
ty-three were found alive at dawn of day. Also, one
stormy night, one hundred and fifty persons were
crowded into the cabin of a ship and only eighty
came outalive. What makes children listless and
drowsy in a warm, close school room? Why do

80 “ MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

you go to sleep at church sometimes? Why do
you getup with a headache some mornings? Will
it pay to use every effort to get good air in all our
rooms ?

ad. Weather study. Continue work as outlined
for second year. See outlines for both first and
second years.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 81

FOURTH YEAR.

1. Rapid review of third year’s work.
2. Uses of leaves, roots, and sap.

Leaves. See lessons for third grade, reviewing
form, margin, variation, surface, etc., and proceed
to the structure of the leaf. Very carefully strip off
the thin outer covering of any fresh, plump leaf and
notice its transparency. Have the pupils do the
same with their leaves. Compare with outer skin
on fresh, ripe grape; with outer skin of a very ripe
apple; with the epidermis of our own skin, and
draw the conclusion that the epidermis of the
leaf is used for the protection of the inner part.
Then the inner portion must be very important to
the life of the plant, otherwise it would not need
protection.

The epidermis of our own skin, we said in the
work for the third grade, has thousands of pores
through which perspiration may pass to the
surface and escape. Examine the epidermis of the
leaf and see whether it is constructed in the same
way. It will be necessary to use a good hand lens
for this examination. The larger openings: called
stomata are found on both: sides of the leaf,
but most numerous below in higher land plants.
This discovery leads us to believe more strongly
than before that the inner portion of the leaf must

82 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

have some important work to do, or else it must
contain in store something of infinite value to the
plant; otherwise it would not go to the trouble of
constructing these stomata through the epider-
mis, thus making thoroughfares, or gateways, con-
necting the inner green mass with the outside world.
Why does the detached leaf wither when exposed
_to dry air or sunlight? Try the experiment to see
that such a result is true. Why do corn leaves
curl up during the heat of the day in dry weather,
and open out again at night? Invert a tumbler or
glass fruit jar over a bunch of fresh leaves, and in
a few minutes observe the moisture collected on
the inside of the vessel. Where did the moisture
come from? Can you now see any use for the
pores of the epidermis? Why do plants look so
bright and green after a warm spring rain? Do
the stomata have anything to do with it? How?

We have already learned that root hairs draw
moisture out of the soil, and with the moisture all
dissolved substances, the water serving chiefly as a
carrier, or vehicle, for conveying material to the aid
of the seed factory.

We also learned that the vzd/z of our elementary
canal opened their mouths just wide enough to
drink the dissolved portion of our food, the water
or liquid serving as a carrier for the food that could

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 83

not be taken into the system any other way. So
it is with the stomata oftheleaves. They breathe in
order to get carbon from the air. The plant needs
carbon to make sugar and starch. In fact.carbon
enters into the structure of woody fiber, bark and
everything about the plant. It is carbon that
makes wood such a useful article for heating pur-
poses in our stoves and furnaces. It is carbon
that makes beans, corn, wheat, potatoes, etc., use-
ful foods. Thus it is clear that carbon must get
into the plant some way, but how? ‘Carbon is a
solid and can no more than sand be dissolved in
water. But old Mother Nature provides a remedy.
She knows that oxygen has easy access to the leaf
factory, coming and going continually. She also
knows that oxygen is in love with carbon and if per-
mitted to do so, the two will join hands.

In this union carbon is no longer a solid, but a
gas, and in this condition effects an easy entrance
through the portals of stomata to the plant—sub-
stance factory. Old Mother Nature here turns
sunshine loose. Sunshine, like a jealous lover,
separates the newly wedded pair, and, leading oxy-
gen out through the upper portals in the free open
air, leaves carbon a prisoner in the plant~substance
factory to work, and form new associates in the fiber,
tissues, and seeds of the plant. Oxygen and carbon,

84 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

united in the way mentioned above, are together
called carbon dioxide and when dissolved in water it
is called carbonic acid. It is carbonic acid that es-
capes from our lungs. We have no more use for this
acid gas, and hence throwit out with our breath. The
plants are glad to take it up. This they do as just
stated, by breathing it through the stomata of their
leaves. The plant-substance factory is not in
operation at night, so carbonic acid gas is allowed
to escape to the atmosphere until morning.
Throughout the day, if the factory is running at
full speed, carbon dioxide is separated as rapidly as
it arrives, the oxygen returning to the air for more
carbon, securing which, it makes another visit to
the factory ; and thus the process goes on through-
out the entire plant growth.

The vapor that we collected on the inner surface
of the tumbler in our experiment with the
green leaves a while ago was given off by the
leaves through the stomata. This process of
giving off vapor is called transpfzration. Again
experiment with the plant a few days by putting
some in a dark place, others in a room of medium
light, and others in a strong light for the same
length of time. Note the difference in color and
in growth. Account for the difference. Take
another body of plants and separate it into groups

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 85

of equal size, age and strength; from the one group
cut off all the blades from the petioles, repeating the
operation as often as new blades appear. In every
.other respect the same favorable conditions should
surround both groups of plants. At theend of one
week note the difference in growth of main stalk
both in thickness and in length. Why do potato
beetles injure the growth of the potato? What
effect do caterpillars have upon the growth of plums,
apples, peaches, gooseberries? Why? The leaf,
then, must be a sort of factory auxiliary to the seed
factory. It is in the leaf that all the material
brought up by the roots or absorbed through the
stomata is made over into plant substance. But
our experiments prove that this factory cannot work
in the absence of sunlight and proper temperature
and moisture. Sunlight, then, is one of the factorsin
this factory. But these leaves do more than take in
water. They breathethesameas we dowithourlungs.

Leaves also serve as shade for the protection of
the delicate young shoots or branches against the
‘scorching rays of the sun. Also to give slope to
carry the rainfall and dew to proper places, where
the plant can be served to best advantage. In fact
the whole upper surface is more or less concave,
somewhat like the palm of our hand, and therefore
capable of holding water.

86 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Frequently the petiole is grooved upon the upper
surface so that the surplus water may be carried to
the stalk, or trunk, and hence down the plant, moist-
ening its entire surface. Ifthe rain continues un-
til the leaves are loaded with water, the petioles
bend with the weight, the margin and apex of the
leaf gradually straighten and turn downward, allow-
ing the water to flow as from a roof, dropping from
leaf to leaf, branch to branch, making its way to
the very outer edge of the longest limb, from which
it pours upon that part of the ground immediately
over the finest roots of the tree; thus the leaves, after
they themselves are supplied with drink, turn the
surplus over to the roots, a very clever act
indeed.

SUMMARY:—

Leaves are used (1) for the assimilation of food,
making plant-substance; (2) for transpiration of
moisture; (3) for respiration, breathing in carbon
dioxide and throwing out oxygen; (4) for shade,
protecting delicate shoots and fruit from heat of sun;
(5) for sloping off the rain so that it may fall with-
in easy reach of the finer roots of the plant; and
we may add for shading animals and man from the
hot sunshine. At least the shade is so utilized for
such purposes. Also for medicine, and tea to
drink.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 87

Roots.

As an introduction to the subjeet of root function,
the teacher should collect, or have collected, an as-
sortment of roots, such as radish, to represent the
fleshy root, onion to represent fibrous root, the
dodder, or mistletoe for parasitic roots. Under-
ground stems such as the potato tuber should be
studied to know that they are not roots. Real roots
do not bear buds, neither do they have leaves or
leaf scars. The eye of the potato is a bud in the
axil of a leaf scar, hence the potato is a stem.
Other examples, such as Artichoke, the root stalks
of garden Iris, Solomon’s Seal, Indian Turnip and
Trillium should also be examined to show the var-
ious modifications of under-ground stems. Bring
in a whole “potato hill” if possible, so that the
children may see that the roots of the potato plant
are very different in structure from the tuber, which
is simply a store house for the starch of the plant.
Into this store house or potato, the entire life of the
plant goes to sleep through the winter, and is
called into existence as new plants at the return
of spring. The first and most important use of
roots is the absorption of water, not for the sake of
the good to be derived from water especially, but
for the food-salts dissolved in the water. See re-
marks for third grade.

88 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

The second use of the roots is to fix and hold the
plant in the ground, or natural sub-stratum. In
most cases the same roots perform both offices, as
bean roots, corn, ragweed, hogweed, any kind of
tree. Corn roots may be an exception, in that after
jointing, this plant sends from a lower node a
whorl of braces called aerial roots, whose chief office
is that of guy rope to the top-heavy corn stalk.

Some plants, such as creeping vines that grow
to cover a whole side of a stone or brick church,
have two kinds of roots: one kind in the ground to
draw nourishment from the soil, the other the
clinging roots which attach themselves to the stone
wall for support. To prove that these clinging
roots do not absorb food supply, cut off the upper
part of the vine from its source of supplies in the
earth, and that part will soon wither and die.

To prove that the roots in the earth do not
give mechanical support to the stalk, remove the
vine from its fastenings in the wall, and that plant
will immediately fall to the earth.

In fleshy roots, such as radish, turnip, parsnip,
etc., aside from mechanical and vital suppport to
the plant, a third use is required, viz.: that of stor-
ing up starch, fat, sugar and other reserve mate-
rials to be drawn upon by the plant at another
period in life.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 89

Where is the store of nourishment in cabbage?
When does the plant draw upon it to support
the seed factory? (The next year.) How about
the turnips? The radish? Parsnip? In what
respect are these roots like the potato tuber ? How
different ?

See third year work for illustrations of the per-
sistence and energy of subterranean Toots, for ex-
ample, the willow.

Nearly all the fleshy roots are biennial plants, while
the annuals are fibrous. This provision is good
economy in nature, as the biennial plant must
have a rich supply of food on hand to develop the
second year stalk that bears the seed, while the
annual exhausts all its energy in the development
of seed the first year. Where is the store-house
of the annual? (In the seed.)

The storehouse of the biennial during the first
year is underground. Where is it at the close of
the second year? Plant a few grains of corn in a
box of dirt. In a few days examine the growth.
Which part of the young plant appeared first, the
root or the stalk? Why should the root appear
first? The first root is called the tap root. When
does it cease to be of service to the plant?

Let the children examine the several stalks that
still hold the tap root and shell of the grain from

90 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

which the stalk grew. What has become of the
food part of the grain? What is now the condi-
tion of the tap root?

Can you tell when the tap root ceases to be of
use to the plant? What about its growth after its
use has ceased? A few lessons on survival of the
fittest would be of interest in connection with this
subject of roots.

In a box of radish seed sow also some crow-foot
grass seed, and note the result as to which is mas-
ter of the garden.

On your way to school some autumn morning
pull up by the roots some crow-foot grass, timothy,
Jimson weed, and some other weeds and grasses,
and let the children discuss the merits of each
plant as to its ability in the struggle for existence,
taking into account the adaptability of the roots to
the maintenance of the plant.

THE Sap.

As an introduction to this subject, review stems,
and show clearly what the stem is, as distinguished
from the other parts of the plant? How does the
stem assist the leaves and roots in their work of
nourishing the plant?

Review the purpose, or function of the leaf.
Also of the roots.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 91

Show that the material-absorbed in solution
by the roots must be conveyed to the leaves for
making into plant substance, and that this solu-
tion is sap. The leaves receive the sap from the
stem, as raw material. By the action of sunlight
this raw material and carbon-dioxide are changed
into plant-substance and distributed to the growing
parts of the plant.

Further than this, sap cannot be discussed in
this grade.

3. Study of useful roots and tubers, as beets,
potatoes, ett—a. Form. 6. Structure. c. Uses.

This topic has been sufficiently covered in (2) of
this course.

4. Study of grains and grasses, as wheat, corn,
oats, temothy, clover, etc.—a. Harvesting. 6. Mar-
keting. c¢c. Commercial value.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain material of
growing wheat, oats and timothy during school year.

If possible to bring these to maturity by plant-
ing in boxes, do so, and consider them all at the
same time.

Points to be observed:

1. Kind of stem, whether hollow or pithy.

2. Examine the nodes to see if the hollow, or
pith, continues throughout the entire length of the

stalk,

92 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

How do the nodes compare in size to the inter-
nodes?

3. Arrangement of leaves, whether opposite or
alternate, and of what rank. Also, the peculiarity
of the bases of the leaves. Notice that in these
particulars these grains are nearly alike, and dif-
fering only in size of stalk and manner of produc-
ing fruit.

Clover, of course, forms a conspicuous exception
to the foregoing, as it belongs to an entirely differ-
ent family, viz., pulse, and will have to be consid-
ered separately. The others all belong to the
grass-family. How does the termination of the
stem of corn differ from that of wheat or oats?
Where is the pistil of corn? Where is the pollen?

Compare each with the others as to root. Which
is the best fitted for battle in life? Why?

Next take up the seeds themselves and notice
that all are covered with a transparent shell for
protection. Note the color of each grain.

Where is the starch located? Why so much of
it? What part of the grain does the squirrel like
best? Why? Find the little plantlet of corn.
The plantlet of wheat. Soak the oats and timothy
in warm water a few days, and point out the germ
in each. How many ears of corn on a stalk?
How many heads of wheat? Ofoats? Oftimothy?

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 93

How many rows of corn to the ear? How many
grains? How many grains of wheat to the head?
Of oats? Of timothy?

Describe manner of harvesting wheat in the first
settling of this country. Describe the evolu-
tion of the present method of taking care of wheat
and oats, including the gathering and threshing.

Method of hay harvesting, stacking, baling.
Method of gathering corn in “‘ye olden times,” and at
present. Comparative values in the market at
home and abroad. What home industries are in
existence because of the production of these grains?
(Milling, distilling, cattle and hog raising, etc.)

B.—ANIMAL LIFE.

1. Lnterdependence of plants and animals.

Enumerate the animals that depend upon plants
for a living, viz.:—Elephant, giraffe, cows, horses,
quails, grouse, pheasant, barn yard fowl, etc.
What does the elephant eat? cows? horses? quails,
grouse or prairie chicken? barn yard fowl? English
sparrow? squirrels? rats? mice? rabbits? Such ani-
mals are herbivorous, but many of them also seek
insects and the flesh of dead animals, but such
habit of diet does not excuse their dependence upon
plants. :

What constitutes the food of cats? dogs? tigers?
panthers? wolves? lion? eagle? hawk? bear? leop-

94 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

ard? hyena? Are these animals in any way de-
pendent upon plants? How?

How does the hedge-hog live? How the mole?
the shrew? ground hog? whippoorwill? bats?
These live upon insects. Are they then depend-
ent upon plant life? How? Suppose all vegeta-
tion to be destroyed. Describe the scene that
would follow in the animal kingdom.

We have already learned that the animal life
must have oxygen to breathe, in order to relieve
the waste and purify the blood. We also learned
that plant life, under the influence of the sun, is
continually supplying that oxygen. Plant life
demands for its food carbon dioxode; the animal
life furnishes this food to the plant. ‘Thus there is
a constant interchange of food between the two
kingdoms of nature. All the elements necessary
for animals’ food is in the soil; then why could not
animals and man live without plants?

Let us illustrate. All the material of our cloth-
ing is on the sheep’s back or cotton field; then why
do we not go to the sheep’s back or cotton field
when we need a suit of clothes?

All the material of our chairs and school furni-
ture, except castings, is found in a sugar, beech, or
walnut tree; then why not go to these trees and
load our wagons with some choice furniture to

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 95

take to our homes? What is necessary to be done
before the sheep’s back will furnish our clothing, or
the tree our furniture? Then what must be done
before the elements of the ground will nourish our
bodies? As the manufacturer and tailor change
the wool into clothing, and the cabinet maker the
trees into furniture, so do plants imbibe the elem-
ents of soil and other foods for animals to eat.
How do plants accomplish such a wonderful task ?

1. By keeping the original rocks moist, and by
decay of leaves, mosses, etc., producing carbonic
acid which dissolves the rocks, and thus gives more
soil for a more luxurious growth of vegetation.

2. By breaking rocks in pieces by the penetrat-
ing power of roots.

3. By holding moisture back along the sides of
hills to prevent its running away in floods, until
the plant life can have time to utilize the food dis-
solved in it.

As to manner of food storage, plant substance
and seed factories, see topics already written
in previous pages of this book. What have
animals done to repay the plant kingdom for
all this labor? Take the fish-worm for example.
The fish-worm, or earth-worm, has so burrowed or
channelled the ground that it is difficult to finda

_place where they have not been.

96 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

1. Where ground is tilled, these earth-worms
help to carry water from the surface to the tile ditch,
and thus help in the drainage.

2. Intime of rain after a long dry spell, they
help the water to soak into the ground rather than
have it run off into ditches, and thereby become
wasted so far as the plants are concerned. l

3. They reclaim waste land by bringing dirt to
the surface and covering up stony places, ete.
Henson estimated the amount of dirt brought to
the surface to be about 36 tons to the acre per year.
Darwin's estimate was about halfthatamount. On
an average, according to Henson, there are 53767
worms to the acre, or 36.5 tons.

The ants, also, do an immense amount Of exca-
vating and opening up the soil so as to make it
more conducive to the health of the plant. Bees
help in the fertilization of flowers and thus pay
for all the honey obtained. The same may be said
of the hornets, yellowjackets, bumble bees, etc.
The butterfly and moth also aid in this, but their
larvae are destructive to the life of the plant. But
then, again, insect-eating birds destroy the larvae
and thereby repay by way of defence to the plant.
Birds help in the distribution of plant seed. Ani-
mals of various kinds help in the dissemination of
seed. How? Theexcrement of animals and birds

MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY. 97

make the soil rich and thus nourish the plant.
Even their bodies when they die decompose and
become food for plants.

SUMMARY.

What plants do for the animals.

1. Plants furnish ready-made oxygen for ani-
mals to breathe.

2. Plants gather the elements out of the ground
and make them over into food for the animals’ sub-
sistence.

3. Plants hold back the moisture on sloping
lands and thus prevent arid wastes. By this means
gushing springs, to slake the thirst of animals,
burst out at the foot of the hills and bluffs.

4. Plants furnish protection from storm and
scorching sun.

How the animals repay the plants.

1. Animals yield up carbon dioxide as food for
the plant.

2. Animals drain the ground and thus make
the soil in proper condition for the plants.

3. Animals (earth-worms) lead the water of
heavy rain in dry time through the soil to an
underground outlet, rather than permit it to rush
away in one general flood and thus do the soil no
good.

4. Animals assist in fertilization.

om

98 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

5. Animals assist in seed dissemination. .
6. Animals give their excrement and dead bodies
to the nourishment of soil for the benefit of the

plant.
Domestic ANIMALS.

a. Productions of. 64. Treatment. c. Uses. d.
Products. ¢. Commercial value.

Let the horse be the type for general discussion,
as children are interested in this animal more than
in any other. Under this head may come the differ-
ent kinds of horses on basis of use, viz.: Draft
horse, coach horse, race horse, driving horse, sad-
dle horse; on basis of stock, Norman, Clydesdale,
heavy draft, Indian pony, Canadian or Montana
pony; Texas pony, etc., with the general charac-
teristics of each. In connection with the study of
the horse, read portions of Black Beauty, by
Sewell.

This book gives an exhaustive treatise on treat-
ment. Cows, dogs and other domestic animals
may be introduced at many points in the discussion
of the horse by way of comparison and contrast.
Kind treatment should be the emphatic topic in
every case.

The comparative commercial value of cows, fat
stock, horses, and so forth, may be discussed, to-
gether with cost and care to be deducted in each
case.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 99

PHYSIOLOGY.

1. Review foods. See work for third year.

2. Digestion—a. Organs of. 6. Functions of
each organ. c. Processes. ad. Favorable and un-
favorable conditions.

After a discussion of the foods, as suggested in
the Third Grade, put them through a process of
cooking, and then introduce the children to the
process of mastzcatzon, the first process in digestion.

Teeth—Nuwmber, kind, action.

Salizva.—Show where it comes from, and what
excites it to action. Prove that one of its uses is
to enable the jaws, tongue and cheeks to work
smoothly with each other.

Todo this, have each child bring a clean napkin,
and, at the order of the teacher, mop out their own
_mouths perfectly dry and immediately thereafter
try to chew or open the mouth, and work the
tongue. What result?

Again mop the mouth dry and immediately
thereafter put sugar on the tongue, and see if it
can be tasted. Try sand, and see if the child,
while the tongue and mouth are absolutely dry,
can detect the difference in taste. It must be then
that the saliva is used to dissolve solubles in the
mouth so as to give the tongue a chance to select
the good and reject the bad food.

100 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Again, let the pupil try to swallow when the
mouth and throat are perfectly dry. What result?
Saliva, then, is necessary to swallowing.

Let the pupils chew grains of wheat for a few
minutes. Note the appearance of a sweetish, sug-
ary taste due to the action of the saliva on the
starch of the wheat. Note further that starch is
insoluble in saliva, and, therefore, has no taste,
while sugar is both soluble and sweet.

The saliva, then, is used to change starch into
sugar, and hence in solution to make them more
pleasant to the taste and to facilitate digestion.

Let the pupils now enumerate the four uses of
saliva, and state what effect the use of tobacco
would have upon each use.

The food has quite a series of processes to go
through before it can be of any service to us.
After leaving the mouth, it passes over a little
draw-bridge that always falls across the opening to
the wind-pipe whenever it sees any solid or liquid
coming. You know the windpipe is so constructed
that nothing but air, or other substance in the
form of gas, can pass along its track without caus-
ing violent strangling and coughing. Poisonous
gases, at least some kinds, will also cause strang-
ling, and even death, if introduced into the system
in any way, but especially through the windpipe.

MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY. 101

The windpipe is a tube that leads downward to our
lungs, and it is through it that the lungs are filled
with air, and through it the bad air escapes from
the lungs. So, you see, it is very important that
this tube be kept for the passage of air only.

Put your hand on your throat and feel that
gristly tube just in front of the gullet. That
tube is the windpipe. Now, the gullet you
cannot feel with your hand, for it is just be
hind the windpipe, and extends behind it all the
way downward to the stomach. The gullet carries
the food, receiving the same as it rolls off the other’
end of the bridge mentioned awhile ago. Then
the bridge flies up again, so that our breathing
can continue as before.

The gullet is composed of thousauds of muscular
rings around a lining member that is smoother and
finer than the lining of your cheek. This inner
lining is so smooth and moist that the food, pushed
from behind by muscular rings, easily glides along
down into the stomach, which is a large room con-
taining capacity for three pints.

How is the lining of the gullet kept moist?

But the greater part of our food is solid, such as
potatoes, beans, meat, fruits, etc., and can no more
enter into the blood, the general circulation, than
sand can be taken into the sap of the plant by the

102 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

root hairs. So something must be doue. Nature
here again provides a remedy. This solid matter
must be dissolved before it can soak through the
walls of the stomach or be taken up by the zz//z.
See third grade work in regard to wzllz. Soa set
of organs are made to manufacture solvent juices,
which are poured upon these solids in the stomach.
These juices keep pouring into the stomach until
the food is sufficiently softened and liquified to pass
out at the back door (phyloric orifice) of the stom-
ach into a long coiled tube called the small intes-
tines. Here again other solvent juices are poured
in until all the food that is fit for use in the body
is dissolved just like sugar in milk; then the wi,
like the root hairs in the ground, suck the juice up
and the lacteals (milk drinkers), a system of hair-
like tubes, carry it onward to a larger tube called
the thoracic duct, through which the food fluid is
passed into the veins, and thence through the heart
to general circulation throughout the body, visit-
ing muscles, nerves and bones, repairing the waste

places on the way.
EXPERIMENT.

1. Dissolve a small lump of limestone with
hydrochloric acid. Note the rapid action as the
limestone passes into solution.

2. Poura half glass full of water into the acid
over the limestone. Note the decrease in action.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 103

Questton: When the solvent juices of the stom-
ach are acting upon the solid food just swallowed,
what would be the effect of a large drink of water,
or any otherdrink? These solvent juices act best
when the temperature of the stomach is about as
warm as blood. Then what effect would a glass of
ice water or a dish of ice cream have upon digestion
if taken just after or during a meal?

Review the organs of digestion together with the
function of each, and develop some hygienic laws
relative to best digestion and consequent good
health. A lesson or two on the effect of alcohol
upon the stomach and its juices, would be alto-
gether proper with this subject of digestion.

A general discussion of “stomach troubles” such
as dyspepsia, may be deferred to the eighth grade.

3. Circulation. a. Organsof. 6. Functions of
each organ. c. Favorable and unfavorable condi-
tions. ,

We stated a while ago that the dissolved food
passed through the thoracic duct to veins, thence
to the heart, and from that organ to the general
circulation. Just at this point a good beef heart
from a slaughter house should be provided and
the teacher should proceed to dissect the same in
the presence of the pupils, showing the right and
left auricles, right and left ventricles, valves,

104 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

entrance of veins and departure of arteries, dis-
tinguishing between those of the pulmonary sys-
tem and those of the systemic. The heart may
be represented as a pump, forever receiving blood
from the lungs and body, and continually pumping
it again to various parts of the system. (See third
year work.)

Color of blood? When a finger is cut, what is
the great natural process that stops the flow of the
blood? (Clotting.) What is the use of blood to
the system? How does it create heat? How does
it promote growth and repair waste?

“Blood, then, is a very wonderful fluid’ * * *
But you will not wonder at it when you come
to see that the blood is the great circulating market
of the body, in which allthe things that are wan-
ted by all parts, by the muscles, by the brain, by
the skin, by the lungs, liver and kidneys, are
bought and sold. What the muscle wants it buys
from the blood; and so with every other organ and
part, as long as life lasts, this buying and selling
is forever going on, and this is why the blood is
forever on the move, sweeping restlessly from
place to place, bringing to each part the things it
wants, and carrying away those with which it has
done. When the blood ceases to move, the market
is blocked, the buying and selling cease, and all

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 105

the organs die, starved for the lack of things which
they want, choked by the abundance of things for
which they no longer have any need.”—Foster.

d. Weather Study—See outline.

106 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

FIFTH YEAR WORK.

A.—PLANT LIFE.

1. Study stems as to arrangement and growth.—
Collect a number of stems from trees of different
kinds, selecting the younger shoots as far as possi-
ble. Each pupil should be provided with several
specimens. Point out the bark, wood and pith.
Where is the pith? The bark? ‘The wood fiber?
These parts will be better fixed in mind by drawing
cross-sections of the stem. Require the pupils to
draw cross-sections of walnut, hickory, oak, elder,
heavenwood and some of the herbs for comparison.
See if the children can separate the bark into three
parts, viz., outer layer, middle, and inner or bast
layer. Compare several sprouts, one of which
shall be the linden or basswood. It will be inter-
esting now to give a general classification of stems,
so that the pupil may know them in all their forms,
bearing in mind that the stem is the axis of a plant,
which, when developed, always bears geometrically
arranged leaves, and that a branch is a secondary
stem. For the purpose of such classification, col-
lect some plants, as sage, lilac, elder, hazelnut,
haws, crabs, or thorns, raspberry, rose, pea vines,
beans, grapes, pumpkin vine, strawberry, little
dew-berry, passion flower, Virginia creeper, ivy
(avoiding the poison ivy, which is known by its

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 107

three leaflets), morning glory, hop, rushes and the
tall grasses, tendrils, spines or thorns.

Also underground stems, such as tuber, or potato,
scaly roots of various kinds, and many others if the
teacher can continue the interest along this sort of
work.

Another classification, perhaps more simple, may
be mentioned, viz.: Hypocotyls,* scale leaf stems,
foliage stems and floralstems. Hypocotyls include
all stems whose bud of the main shoot is developed
from the apex, for example, the maple, or almost
any forest tree, bean, etc. Scale leaf stems are
those which are beset with scale leaves and are
almost always under ground with axis vertical, as
lilies, tulips, hyacinths, onions, stars of Bethlehem.
The tuber, a modified scale leaf stem, as also are
rootstocks and creeping stems. The foliage stem
is above ground and bears leaves with green blades.
The peculiar style of the plant is dependent upon
the foliage stem. Foliage.stems are herbaceous,
woody, nodose, scapers, or flower stalks. Erect
foliage stems, as caudex, culm, stalk and trunk.
The floral stem is that on which the flowers are
borne, and may be the main or lateral axis. All
stems have nodes, commonly called joints, and in-

*Hypocotyl is the same as caulicle. Caulticle is the first internode, or portion of

the stem below the cotyledons and above the radicie or beginning of the true root.
It is seldom applied to the part after the plant has developed.

108 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

ternodes, the part between the nodes. In all kinds
of stems presented, the nodes and internodes should
be pointed out.

Arrangement of leaves and branches.—The ar-
rangement and mode of branching and form of the
tree must depend, to a great extent, upon the ar-
rangement of leaves upon thebranch. As the leaves
are arranged, soare the branches, because the branch
always appears from the axil of the leaf. Opposite
leaves produce opposite twigs and branches. The
maple is an excellent example of such an arrange-
ment. In alternate arrangement, the branch has
but one leaf to each node. Not more than one
branch or twig will appear as a rule in the alternate
arrangement. Compare the linden with the maple,
as to arrangement of leaves and branches. Com-
pare with corn, wheat and other grasses. How
many vertical ranks in each specimen compared?
Try to find stem with three ranked arrangement.
Try cherry, poplar, apple, peach, plum, and count
the ranks (five ranks.) Try the yard plantain for
eight ranks. How about the potato? Howdo you
know that it isastem and not aroot? Have roots
nodes and internodes? Have they ranks in bud-
ding lateral roots? What is astem? Whatisa
secondary stem? Observe that it is the business
of stems to produce roots, leaves and fruits.

2. Study buds as to position, arrangement,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 109

growth and purpose. Collect, as in the other
grades, a great variety of twigs, especially of hick-
ory, lilac, Balm of Gilead, cottonwood and syca-
more. To avoid an over abundance of brush and
litter, request the pupils to cut the twigs only three
or four inches long and bind them into bundles of
a dozen twigs each before bringing them into the
school room. As to position, buds are either ter-
minal or lateral. The lateral buds are borne upon
the sides of the branch and are usually found in the
axil of the leaf. There are superposed buds and
adventitious buds on some plants, but it will be as
well to avoid the necessity of studying either in
this grade.

The arrangement of buds is dependent upon the
arrangement of leaves. Compare terminal buds
with axillary buds, and account for the greater
growth from the terminal bud.

Cut cross-sections of terminal buds and require
the children to draw cross-sections greatly enlarged,
so as to show the arrangement of the leaves and
scales.

Cut cross-sections of lateral buds and draw.
Draw stems containing leaves with buds in axils,
and also terminal buds showing relative sizes.
Draw sycamore bud with the protecting leaf just
pulled off at one side, with cup in base of petiole
in full view.

110 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

In the spring time notice that the lateral buds
of the cherry contain the flowers, while the termi-
nals do not, as a rule.

Notice in the dissection of these several kinds of
buds that some are sticky and gummy as in the
Balm of Gilead or cottonwood, and that those of
the hickory and horse-chesnut are woolly or vel-
vety.

Why should this be so? Compare with other
buds of out-door life. With buds of green-house
life.

In this way, the teacher can easily bring out dis-
tinction between scaly buds and naked buds, and
that the purpose of scaly buds must be for protec-
tion against cold, wet and insects.

Do all axils bear buds? Why? Examine sev-
eral before deciding.

Buds sometimes lie dotmant for a year or more.
What will bring them out? In case of accessory
buds, which is developed? (The central and larger
one.) In the event that one dies, what will be
done by the others? What appearance will that
give the tree? Do the buds (eyes) of the potato
come from the axils? Examine the potato very
closely for rudimentary leaf scars.

What are the little black heads found in the
axils of the tiger-lily? What are onion sets?
When do buds prepare for winter? What signs

(aanee

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 111

do trees give us of approach of winter? (Full de.
velopment and coloration of buds, the coloration of
leaves whether frost comes or not.) What have
the leaves been doing all summer? (Making food
for the plant.) What color is maintained during
the factory season? Green from chlorophyll.
This now becomes disorganized, and the food is
carried away by the sap to be stored up in buds for
next year’s growth. This disarrangement, or
breaking up of the chlorophyll, is the cause of the
variety of color in the leaves.

When winter is drawing nigh, the buds hurry
into winter quarters. To get ready for this change,
the buds make demand upon the plant for all the
supplies it can possibly furnish. It demands what
is already in the leaf and all the young bark can
spare.

The sap begins immediately to make the trans-
fer. In fact, it has been doing a little of that work
all summer, for we know that the buds started to
build as soon as growing weather set in. But
now, along in September and October, the demand
from the buds has increased to such an extent that
the sap cannot furnish the leaf laboratory any
more material, so that the factory must “shut
down” and permit the food already made to be car-
ried away to build up the bud.

Coloration of leaves now begins, and as soon as

112 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

the sap is done visiting the leaf or when it brings
away the last load, the gate to the foot-stalk is
forever closed and the leaf is ready to fall. If frost
should come and find the gate open a raw place
would be left where the leaf joined the branch, out
of which sap would flow, and thus lose part of the
winter’s food; but the plant seems to understand
the situation, hence the closing of the gate or seal-
ing over the place for protection. Why do leaves
fall after a heavy frost? Are leaves of any benefit
after they have fallen? How? What isthe form
of the food as stored in the bud for the winter?
Starch. What change is brought about in the
starch when the bud begins to swell in spring
time? Sugar. Why is it necessary to change
form? So that the sap can dissolve and use it.
See lesson on saliva in fourth grade.

The purpose of the bud is to furnish winter
quarters for plant or flowers or both. The buds on
the tree are a community of stem germs (baby
plants).

Compare cocoons of caterpillars with the hiber-
nation of Johnny Jump Up or Spring Beauty.
Where is the store of food in each case? Where
in the tuber? Compare with hibernation of ani-
mals, such as frogs, snakes, earth worms, etc.,
with the migration of birds.

All nature acts upon one common plan, varying

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 113

only in accordance with the peculiarity of the life
dealt with.

3. Study tn proper season, exogens, endogens,
ovary, anthers, pollen, germination, and the use
of the pod. Make collections of exogen cut-
tings not more than three or four inches long,
‘tied in bunches as suggested for the collec-
tion of buds. In fact the same collection will
answer. What is the arrangement of woody
matter in each case? Exogens have a bark made
of an outer protective layer, a middle layer, and a
green bast, or inner layer. Let pupils find these
layers from a cross section. In the spring of the
year when the sap is beginning to work, the cells
out of which bark and fibre are both made, are so
tender and soft, being filled with sap, that a very
little pressure on the bark will cause the same to
slip from the woody fibre. Boys sometimes make
willow-bark whistles in the spring time, because
of that fact. The growth of the stems comes
from that layer of cells, one side building new
green bark, the inner side building a new woody
fibre. Plants that increase in size in that way are
called exogens.

Still examining cross sections, let the pupils
observe that within the bark just described is woody
fibre composed of bundles arranged in rings around
acentral pith. See if all this is true of the apple

114 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

branch, of cherry, peach, sycamore, bean. Have
pupils count the rings of growth in stumps of trees
and cross sawed timber. Do these rings represent
periods of growth? Can we then form some notion
of the age of the tree? By way of contrast, make
a collection andstudy of endogens. As in exogens
collect bundles of cuttings three or four inches long.
Examine cross sections to see if the bark is the same
as that which covered the exogens. Can you in
any way pound or rub the bark of a cornstalk loose
as you did the willow bark? Can you the grass
bark? The wheat bark? Sugar cane? The
palm? Pond weed? Cat tail? Indian turnip?
Banana? Lily? Pineapple? Any of the rushes?
Fish pole? Do you find in any of these cuttings
the fibre bundles arranged in rings around a cen-
tral pith? Compare with oak, box-elder or bean in
this respect. Make drawings of cross sections of
endogens, alternated with exogens so as to get the
distinction fully fixed on the mind. Plant a few
acorns, beans, peas, beech nuts in same dirt
with corn, sugar cane, wheat, and notice difference
in number of seed leaves as they begin to come
through the dirt. Those having two seed leaves
are called dicotyledonous plants, and those having
but one seed leaf monocotyledonous. To which of
these does corn belong? Apple? Is the walnut
exogenous or endogenous? How can you tell?

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 115

Oats? Why? Then are all exogens dicotyledon-
ous and all endogens monocotyledonous plants?
Make a list of each kind. Which do you think is
the more useful to man? Why?

Ovary—See lessons on parts of the flower as
given in third grade. Collect a supply of flowers
for the pupils, being particular to select those con-
taining large ovaries or seed pods, so that the child-
ren may see with as little difficulty as possible.
Flowers of indeterminate inflorescence will be best
for the reason that some of the lower ovaries are
ripening into quite large pods, while the upper por-
tions are just bursting into flowers. This will show
the progress made by the seed factories. Review
the parts of the flower as in third grade. This may
be done with any simple flower for two or three
exercises before dealing minutely with the organs
of reproduction.

Now as to the ovary. What part of the flower
does the pistil occupy when single? What is their
position when there are two pistils? When there
- are several? What part of the pistil does the ovary
occupy? What are the other parts of the pistil?
Purpose of each? Open the ovary of a fresh flower.
What does it contain? (Ovules.) Open the ovary
of a well matured seed pod. What does it contain ?
(Seeds.) How do seeds differ from ovules? What
caused the ovules to grow into seeds? The life, or

“116 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

principle of the seed was introduced by the pollen,
afterward the sap carried food from the roots and
leaves and fed this new life. This new life is the
superintendent of the seed factory. What part of
the flower bears the pollen? How does it get out
of the anthers? Whén must it get out in order to
give this life to the ovules? (When the stigma is
moist and sticky, ready to receive the pollen.)
Suppose the pollen waits until the stigma dries off,
then what will happen to the ovules? (They will
shrivel up and the flower will die.) Suppose the
pollen to fall out before the stigma is ready to re-
ceive it, what then will the ovules do? The pollen
then must neither be tardy nor too hasty if it
expects to give the ovules life.

Sometimes insects carry pollen from some other
flowers to give life to ovules of a flower, whose pol-
len has been too late or too soon. In that case
ovules do not shrivel, but grow into mature seed.
Teacher should here explain the process of fertiliz-
ation by bees, butterflies, humming birds, etc.,
allowing the children to assist in the discussion as
far as possible. Kindle the interest of pupils into
daily observation of insect-life among the flowers.

Collect pods from shepherd’s purse, mustard of
any form, bean, Judas tree, locust, pea, monkshood,
maple, Jamestown weed, or any others, and devel-
op the use of the pod, Collect some real green

~

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 117

ones, to show the condition of the seed when it be-
gins to grow. What are the dangers to which the
seed is subject? What is the use of the hull on
the hickory nut? The pod on the chestnut?
What is the condition of the seeds when they are
ready to burst from the pod? See hickory nut,
chestnut, hazel nut, beech nut, pea, bean, locust
seed, and the seeds from any other pods. What
then can be the use of the pod ?

4. Purpose of Plant. a. Reproductive, to pro-
duce seed. 6. Commercial; use to man.

Let the pupils make a list of vegetables and
plants that have commercial value-——The commer-
cial value is always based upon use to man. The
turnip, cabbage, potato, radish, and other fleshy
vegetables and roots, will be mentioned. Why did
these plants produce such fleshy vegetables? The
turnip next year will produce seed. In the pro-
duction of seed, the great mass of starchy material
is absorbed, thus leaving in place of the turnip,
a tough leathery shell. How was the turnip
produced this year? What will the turnip produce
next year? What then is the real fruit of the
turnip plant? What must be the purpose of the
plant? ‘To reproduce itself by means of its seed.
What we know as turnip is a great store house
from which to draw supplies for the seed factory
next year. What we know as cabbage is simply a

118 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

store house from which the plant next year may
draw supplies for the devolopment of cabbage
seeds, which when sown will produce new cabbage
plants. The potato, in its native country, is used
in the same way, but man and animals have taken
advantage of these plants, broken open their
store houses, robbed them of their supplies, and
made merchandise of them. But man is not a rob-
ber after all, for he repays the plant for all that he
has taken.

How does he do this? How do other animals
repay the plant? Indissemination,etc. See inter-
dependence of plants and animals, fourth grade
work. Fine fruits, as apples, cherries, strawberries,
peach, plum, are used by the plant for the same
purpose of reproduction. ‘Their flesh is edible and
colorations attractive, both of which lead to dissem-
ination of seed for the plant as well as commerce
for man and food for animals. Draw the conclus-
ion that self-preservation is the first great law of
nature, and that in obedience to this law, the plant
produces seed and fruit in order that it may live
again; also, that when it yields up its fruit and
store of nourishment to man for his food, the pur-
pose of the plant is not defeated as it may at first
appear, but strengthened, in that man now becomes
the friend of the plant in its struggle for existence.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 119
B.—PHYSIOLOGY. ,
* (For winter study, at least when not seasonable
for plant study.)

1. Bones—a. Names and groups. 4. Forms
and economy of structure. ¢c. Uses. a. Obser-
vation of real bones.

2. /otnts.—a. Kinds and movements. 40. Liga-
ments and attachments. c. Uses. ad. Observation
of action of joints.

3. Muscles—a. Forms and structure. 5. Ten-
dons and attachments. c. Uses. ad. Observation
of action of muscles. ¢. Exercise and its relation
to muscular development.

4. Respiration.—a. Organs; name, form, struc-
ture and purpose of each. 46. Processes; inhala-
tion and exhalation. c. Purpose of respiration.
d. Observation of action of respiratory organs. e.
Ventilation and breathing.

See any School Physiology on these subjects.
The outline is deemed sufficiently elaborate for any
teacher.

C.—WEATHER STUDY.

Weather, record of preceding grade continued,
noting thermometer, barometer, winds, clouds,
rainfall, snow, hail, dew, and frost. (See outline
for fourth year.)

120 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

SIXTH GRADE.

A,—PLANT LIFE.

1. Provision of nature for matured seeds.

(a.) Nature provides a store of nourishment for
each seed so as to give the new plant a start in
life.

The seed-leaves, or cotyledons, as in bean, pear,
pumpkin, etc., are packed with food, which occu-
pies the entire space inside the coats of the seeds.
Examine these seeds after they have been soaked
in luke-warm water over night.

The cotyledons will easily separate, revealing
the plumule and radicle. ‘The cotyledons, plumule
and radicle are together called the embryo. All
the food there is in such seeds as those just men-
tioned is crowded into the embryo. Let the pupils
mention as many seeds as they can think of that
have the food stored in the embryo. ° Next, let the
children observe other seeds—corn, for example,
after they have been soaked sufficiently long to be-
gin to germinate. The children will notice that
the food is around the embryo, like the albumen
of the egg around the yolk. Hence the name a/-
buminous™ seeds, that is, seeds whose embryo is sur-
rounded by food supply. The bean, pea, corn,

*The word endosperm would be a more scientific term.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 121

etc., are called exa/bumznous, because they have no
food supply outside of the embryo.

To which class of seed does wheat belong?
Why? Maple? Hazlenut? Buckwheat? Peach?
Apple? Beechnut? It will be a good exercise to
let the children germinate a great many seeds and
classify them.

(4.) Nature provides protection for the matured
seeds. As soaking over night in water will facili-
tate the study of protective coverings,—prepare
beans, corn, peas and other seeds in that way, and
begin the observation. Pull off the coverings and
try to find an outer, hard covering and an inner
mucilaginous membrane. Compare the soaked
coverings with those that have not been soaked.
Is the covering a good protection against insects?
Against changes of temperature? Against moist-
ure? Scrape off the covering of five dry beans.
Place these five naked beans, with as many covered
ones, in a pan of water. In a few hours examine
them, and note difference in the result of the ex-
periment.

How do you account for the difference? While
the outer coat of the seed is almost impervious to
water, still, if no water could enter the embryo, no
growth could take place. So nature provides one
very small entrance to the inner portion of the
seed, See if the children can find it,

122 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

It is through this orifice that the ovule was
fertilized by the pollen, and through this ori-
fice that moisture penetrates the seed to dissolve
the sugar which the sun has made from the starch
already in store. If it were not for this opening
the bean, or grain of corn, would lie in water
many days before showing signs of germination. .
The outer seed coat has a great variety of colors
and forms, ranging from black down through the
shades of gray, brown and sometimes yellow, white
or red.

The wing-like and hairy appendages, curved,
pointed and barbed processes are but modifications
of the outer seed coat. What is the purpose of the
parachute of the dandelion? Of milk-weed? These
are but modifications of the outer seed coat, or
testa.

Do these parachutes serve any purpose other than
distribution by the wind? They serve the purpose of
guiding the seed point end downward so that it can
work itself into the soil. Let the children observe
this fact. Also iron weed, goldenrod, etc., may be
observed and discussed in the same way. Notice
the long, delicate silky hairs on the seeds of wil-
lows. How do they serve the seeds in dissemina-
tion? Do they serve any other purpose? Notice
the muddy places which are adapted for the growth

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 123

not adapted for willow growth, are swept bare of
these seeds by the wind. The silky hairs are
peculiarly adapted for clinging to the mud, spread-
ing out and thus bringing the seeds into close con-
tact with the mud for germination. Notice the
maple seed with its butterfly wings, the linden with
its skiff, the roundness of walnuts for rolling down
hill, the roughness and wartiness of some seeds to
hold the dirt well, the mucilaginous coating of the
sun flower seeds and gourd seeds, when fresh, to
enable them to adhere well to the soil.

2. Show how seeds separate from plants.

a. Fruits that do not open at maturity, fall by
the force of gravitation, when the sap ceases to
bring food from the leaves, but they fall mos
rapidly during windy weather. Why is that true
and of what advantage to the seed? Name as
many fruits as are known to separate in this way.
In this collection, apples, peaches, plums, pears,
cherries, berries of every description, of course will
be mentioned, together with some discussion as to
the wisdom of nature in providing the juicy pulp
and colored skin; but the fruits equipped with hairs,
curved bristles or hooked spines, together with the
winged fruits and plumes should have a prominent
place in the discussion.

6. Fruits that open and discharge their seeds
when ripe.

124 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

They do this in a variety of ways. The spring
beauty bursts open at the top, splitting downward
on three sides, so that the seeds can be blown out
by the first gust of wind, leaving the dry capsule
clinging to the stalk. The blood-root pod is also
erect and splitting from the top in two places, ready
to throw its seeds as the stem nods in the wind.
The poppy, a twin brother to the blood-root, opens
a dozen or more slits with a suddeuness that causes
its ten-thousand very fine seeds to jump out of the
capsule into the wide, wide world, each seed to begin
a new life. The shepherd’s purse also splits down-
ward from thetop. Why doso many fruit capsules
open from the top?

What kind of weather is best suited for such
openings? Did you ever know capsules to burst
open in wet weather? Why do they not? How
do the seeds get out ofthe capsules? Other fruits
and seeds may be studied as far as time and interest
will permit.

3. Show how seeds are disseminated.

Many suggestions have already been made under
(1) and (2) but perhaps there are teachers who
would like the work given in more careful detail.
With this thought in view the task is attempted.

DISSEMINATION.
Call attention to the great amount of wild lettuce

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 125

found now-a-days along public highways and waste
places. How did it get there? Collect some wild
lettuce and examine the implements for travel
through the air. After breaking prairie sod, espec-
ially in the low ground, cottonwood shoots spring
up quite plentifully, even when there are no trees
of that kind within a radius of several miles. How
do you account for it? Examine the provision that
nature has made for floating the seeds and find
your answer in that.

The first jimson weeds in America sprang up
with the tobacco around Jamestown, early in the
17th century. Wheredidtheycomefrom? How?
To-day they are found in many rubbish piles and
hog lots all over America. How do you account
for such a widespread distribution? Here, again,
an examination of the burr should be given. What
other seeds are distributed in like manner? The
pupils will name cockle-burr, Spanish needle, beg-
gar lice, many achenia such as buttercup, hepatica,
anemone, etc.

Prof. D. S. Kelly, of Jeffersonville, Indiana, fur-
nishes the following interesting account of weed
distribution in the west:

“Not until a few years ago was the Solanum ro-
stratum found east of Colorado; but when travel
began eastward along the old trails through Kansas,

126 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

this weed began to work its way along these trails
toward the Mississippi.

“The fruit, a berry, is covered by a very prickly
calyx, and easily adheres to the tails of horses and
cattle very much like cockle-burrs. Now the weed
is found abundantly along the main roads as far
east as central Missouri.

“In general the migration of our weeds has been
westward, but the Solanum rostratum is a notable
exception to the rule.

"Ds Lan Ke”

What seeds are distributed by the wind? Pupils
will name dandelion, iron-weed, goldenrod, milk-
weed, thistle and others. What seeds are distribu-
ted by water? Nuts ofvarious kinds. Cocoanuts,
for example, have been carried from island to island
in that way; also algae and off shoots from weeds of
lake and ocean. Many seeds are carried down
rivers and creeks at time of great freshets and dis-
tributed along the low submerged lands. Another
way of distribution consists in the manner of sep-
aration from plants, as described in (2) of this year’s
course.

4, Show how seeds escape from the ovary. See
(2) of this year’s work.

5. Show how seeds are protected through the
winter. 2

Berries, nuts, grapes and all indehiscent fruits

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 127

are usually left alone by nature, covered with
leaves. Ask the children their experience in win-
ter, if they have traveled through the woods. If
they have no experience to relate, it will be well to
send them through the woods in dead of winter, or
better towards spring to find beech nuts, acorns,
hickory nuts, walnuts, hazel nuts, crabapples, wild
plums, wild grapes, etc. It is more than likely that
fully half of the number gathered in this way will
have already lost their vitality for germinating, but
of those which are alive, nearly all have been nicely
covered with leaves as a protection from frost and
water. Then, again, the seeds are more or less
oily and thus offer resistence to cold and wet. In
the majority of cases the outside hull or shuck
keeps off the water and sudden frost.

But there is another kind of fruit that does not fall
with the coming of frost. See (2) of this report.

Many of this kind of fruit open by means of
valves, teeth or pores, and frequently the seeds are
persistent long after the splitting of the pods. And
as these pods generally open at the apex, provision
must be made to protect the seeds against rain or
snow.

This is done by a peculiar quality of the pod,
which attracts the water in such a way as to forma
film of oily moisture over the seeds, and this film, if
left undisturbed, will prevent the water from

128 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

flowing in and destroying them. It alsoservesas a
protective covering against frost. When thorough-
ly dried off again, the first gust of wind sends the
seeds whirling into space, some falling into good
ground, where they are covered by drift, leaves,
etc., there to remain until the sun reaches high in
the heavens in springtime. Then what happens?!
But most of the seeds are picked up by the birds,
or otherwise destroyed. Observe an ear of corn
with husks remaining, Corn has been known to
stand out all winter and endure extremely cold
weather, and yet at planting time in spring, be
chosen for the farmer’s seed. How is the ear pro-
tected? How does the ear usually hang? Would
a farmer choose an ear that stands erect upon the
stalk? Why? Why is corn that has stood all
winter in the shock not good seed?

Notice the covering of seeds. See (1) of this
course. Notice the oily nature of most seeds; take
flax for an example. Unless seeds become soaked
with water, frost will have but little effect upon the
germ. Notice that cockle-burrs, thornapple, rag-
weed, and almost all other weeds keep a supply
of seed upon the stalk all winter, dropping
them in early spring when dry, windy weather
sets in.

Of what advantage is that tothe plant? How’
many have noticed sycamore balls persistent

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 129

through the winter? Can the seed of the syca-
more be better protected on the tree? How?

Protection against animals should here be dis-
cussed. Illustrations of these may be found in all
fruits covered with thorns, prickles, and spines.

Examples:—Thornapple, or Jimpson burr, cockle
burr, chestnut, sand burr, beggar lice.

2. North American pine bears cones, the scales —
of which are pointed with sharp spines, which de-
fend the seeds against the attacks of animals, until
the seed ripens and falls.

3. Wild roses retain their fruit upon the bushes
long after maturity, when they are distributed by
black birds and other birds that prey upon the
pulp. Mice love the fruit very much and, if per-
mitted to do so, would eat the heart out of every
seed. But the rose bush has thorns or prickles all
along the bark so as to prevent any of the rodents |
from climbing after the seed. If the rose bush
should drop its seeds early, what dangers would be-
fall them?

4, The sun-flower seeds are protected from in-
truders by prickly bristles covering the stalk from
bottom to top. How about black berries? In all
these cases which way do the prickles point? If
upward they seem to protect against browsing
animals; if downward, against climbing animals
and caterpillars. How are pods, as bean or pea,

130 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

protected from mice? (Long pendant stalks).

After cherries have fallen upon the ground the
earwigs and caterpillars devour them. How are
they protected against the attacks of these animals
when growing upon the tree? (Suspended upon
stalks.) Fruits without spines or protective bris-
tles, as apples, cherries, peaches, etc., when unripe,
are bitter and therefore not sought by animals.
When ripe these fruits are much sought by
birds and other animals which carry them away,
thus helping in the dispersal of the seeds.

6. Study how embryo gets out of coat. Plant
seeds of different kinds such as corn, beans, peas,
acorns, flax, etc., in moist sand or saw-dust, in flower
pots, cigar-box or glass tumblers, being careful to
cover each vessel with a glass slide or piece of oil paper
to prevent evaporation. Thick blotting paper, moist-
ened and placed on a pane of glass, furnishes an
excellent ground work for the planting of seeds.
Sheet cotton would also answer the purpose to a
very great advantage. After the seeds have been
planted the same should be covered with another
sheet of moist blotting paper and then set away in
a warm place of the temperature required for grow.
ing seeds. ‘The growth of these seeds may be
observed at every stage. Let the children see where
the coat in each case bursts. In the case of the corn,
which end of the plantlet bursts out of the coat first ?

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 131

Why should that be true? Which end bursts out
first in the bean? In the pea? In the acorn?
Beechnut ?

7. What provisions the plant has for developing.
Review the store of nourishment in each of the
seeds planted, distinguishing between exalbuminous
and albuminous seeds. See discussion of this in a
previous chapter. What are the two halves of the
bean used for? Of the pea? The acorn? Why
do not the acorn and pea 1ise above the surface of
the ground and form the seed leaves as the bean
does? How about pumpkin seed, squash, water-
melon and corn? Wheat? Where is the food
supply in each case? What does the young plant
do for food after the store of nourishment is all
used up?

' Have pupils point out the parts of the young
plantlet even in the dry seed before it is planted,
and then notice day by day the development of seed
leaves, plumule, caulicle and roots, and finally the
wasting away of the store house of nourishment.

8. Study roots, stems, in relation to flowers as
organs for takingin,etc. See lessons already given
in preceding grades.

9. Study forms of roots, leaves and stems. See
third and fourth grade work.

10. Examine and compare leaves, seeds,
prickles, etc. See work for preceding grades.

132 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

ll. Study measurements of leaves, tendrils, etc.
Have a sensitive plant, M/zmosa fue, if possible,
brought in the school-room, and let the children
touch the leaflets and observe them to immediately
close together, and after a time regain their original
position. Why does the plant behave in that way?
This explanation of leaf movement, either from
touch or influence of light or darkness, rain or sun-
shine, is too difficult for a work of this kind. For
full explanation of plant movement, the teacher is
referred to pages 532-539, vol. I, of Kerner and
Oliver’s Natural History of Plants; also vol. II,
Goodale’s Physiological Botany, pages 397-424.
See another chapter of this book for sleep move-
ment of plants. Darwin says that all growing parts
of a plant are in constant movement around one
common center from right to left, or the opposite
direction, from left to right. The tendril and
twiner are only exaggerations of this common
movement. Encourage the children to observe
direction of grape tendril, pea climber, bean, wista-
ria, hop vine, morning glory or any other vine in
the vicinity, and report.

Can a plant bore its roots into the ground any
easier by this worming process than by straight
pushing? Try to push a tender sprout or tender
twig straight into the ground. Now try to work it
back and forth. Which isthe most successful way?

MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY. 133

Then which would be best for the root? The move-
ment of the root is so very slow that we cannot see
itmove. Wecannot see a plant grow; but we know
that it does grow, for we can measure it at different
times and prove it to be true. So, too, we may
measure the movement of a plant around a common
axis. Erect a stationary wire or wooden framearound
a growing plant, say a corn-stalk, being careful not
to let the frame touch the plant in any way. Let
the frame rest upon the ground and support a ring
two or three inches in diameter, encircling the apex
of the plant. Measure from time to time the dis-
tance of plant from the ring and it will be found to
vary. At one time nearer the north, then east,
south and west, until it comes around to the north
again. ‘These measurements and records, if correct,
will. prove the circumnutation of growth. Try
other plants in same way.

THE FERN.

Upon what sort of soil do ferns grow? Do you
always plant them in the shade? Why?

Examine the blades, or fronds, and learn to de-
scribethem. Draw several fronds, being particular
to represent all their parts. Where is the stem
out of which these blades grow? ‘The stem is an
underground rootstock or rhizome, somewhat like
iris, Solomon’s seal, calamous or rhubarb. Notice

134 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

a young frond just coming out of the ground, watch
it until it is fully matured and describe its peculiar
action.

These ferns do not produce flowers as all the
other plants you have studied, consequently they
have no seed factory; but they have another way
of reproducing themselves, which is very interest-
ing aswell as mysterious. Look on the under side
of your fern frond. All ferns are not alike in this
respect, but in all probability if you look closely you
will find generally along the mid-rib and larger side-
veins what at first appears to be a kind of papillae.
These papillae, or usually conspicuous bodies on
the under side of the pinnae, are called the sorz
(singular, sorus) or fruit-dots. Observing their posi-
tion, notice the thin scale-like covering, zzduszum.
But if you remove the indusium you will find attached
generally by very delicate stalks, an oval or spherical
body. These free ends are spore cases which con-
tain a powdery mass known as spores. This mass
of spores is very similar in appearance to the
powdery cloud that escapes from a ripened “puff
ball.” To the naked eye, these spores have no
form, but by the aid of the microscope, it is clear
that they are just as definite in form as this round
earth upon which we live. Strange to say, too,
each little spore contains the possibilities of a new
plant, just as seeds do in the flowering plant, but

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 135

not exactly in the same way. There are many
of these spores in one single spore-sac and the spore-
sacs are so numerous and small that you ean scarce-
ly count the number upon a single frond. When
__the sac bursts the air is always dry and considera-
ble breeze stirring. Under such conditions, what is
done with the spores? ‘hese spores, of course,
take the direction of the wind and are sometimes
carried great distances, falling upon the ground,
here and there, all along the way.

If all ground were good for the growth of ferns,
the spores from a single plant would soon populate
the entire globe with ferns; but all ground is not
good for ferns. These plants are a little particular
about the sort of ground they growin. The soil
must be damp and shady—not too wet, but damp
or moist. Around old, rotten logs or stumps these
plants will grow very luxuriantly, if the soil is
damp and shady. These spores, then, when they
find lodgment in these damp places, gradually de-
velop into very small discs or flattened leaves which
spread out upon the damp ground. Each little flat
leaf, or prothallium, as the botanist calls it, sends into
the ground many very fine and delicate root-hairs.
Assoon as the prothallium becomes thoroughly fixed
by its root-hairs, so as to obtain nourishment for
itself and the young plantlet which it is about to
give rise to, it develops on the under-surface,

136 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

i.e., in monoecious prothallia, two organs called
the antheridium and archegontum,; the former
answering to the stamens oranthers in the flower-
ing plant, and the latter to the pistil or ovary.
In other words, the axztherzdium is the male re-
productive organ of the plant, and the archego-
nium the female reproductive organ. As the
pollen-tube of the flowering plant must reach
the ovule for fertilization before the latter is ca-
pable of development, even so must the energiz-
ing influence of the spermatozoid fertilize the egg
cell of the archegonium. Soon after this union, if
the weather is favorable, a young fern plant starts
out from the archegonium, and as soon as the fern
is firmly established the prothallium withers away.

The bean plantlet, you remember, draws its first
nourishment from the cotyledons or seed leaves,
and does not depend upon the soil until the
best part of the food in these leaves is used up.
The same may be said of beechnut or any flower-
ing plant. In the young corn plant the “albu-
men gives it the first start. Now the prothallium
of the fern answers that purpose precisely. Two
growing points start out from the archegonium at
the same time; one is the leaf point and the other
the root point; but the leaf point grows the faster,
obtaining its food from the prothallium. As soonas

*The word endosperm is preferable.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 137

the root point has developed roots and leaves suffi-
cient for an independent existence of the fern
plant, the prothallium withers away just as the
seed leaves of a bean do under similar conditions.

It will be seen, then, from the foregoing descrip-
tion that the fern plant does not reproduce a fern
plant immediately, as do beans, peas and other
flowering plants; but that it first produces spores,
the spores produce prothallia, and the prothallium
in monoecious specimens gives rise to male and
female organs, and finally these organs reproduce
the fern plant, which again produces spores. Such
a process is called alternation of generations.

MOSSES.

Where do they grow? On which side of tree do
you find them most abundant? On which side of
rock? On which side of hill? If found on the
south side of rock, tree or hill, what must necessar-
ily be the other conditions?

While examining the rocks and trees you will
doubtless find a scaly-like plant that spreads out
over the rock and sticks very closely to it. This
plant is known as one species of “chen. Some
people call it moss, but it is not true moss. You
will find it quite plentifully distributed over the
surface of old marble slabs in grave yards. After
many, many years, perhaps centuries, the lichen

138 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

causes the rock to decay and crumble into dust or soil,
sufficient to give the moss-spores lodgment. So moss
takes the place of lichens just as soon as the latter has
prepared the soil for the support of the moss forest.
But moss will grow upon damp soil, wherever shaded
and supplied with proper amount of heat. In fact,
it does not require a great deal of heat or moisture
to support some kinds of moss, as it is well known
that great quantities of moss grow in the cold re-
gions of the north where few other plants can exist.
It willalso do well upon dry knolls. Let the child-
ren state where they have seen moss, and name
some things peculiar to its nature. The Pigeon-
Wheat moss is perhaps the commonest kind and
can be found in great abundance by the children
upon almost any side hill and often between the
bricks of walks where the place is damp and shaded.
The Pigeon-Wheat moss is known by its long
pedicel bearing on its apex a capsule containing
spores which, when ripe, are threwn out to be
scattered by the wind the same as fern spores.
These spores are no more the nature of sedds
than fern spores are seeds, or puff-ball dust is seed.
All seeds contain an embryo and food supply, the
latter being either within or without the embryo;
but the spores contain no embryo. They give
rise to green web-like threads, called protonema,
which have no roots, but cling very closely

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 139

to the ground, or brick, or whatever their home
may be, until finally, after branching profusely,
they give rise to very tiny lateral buds, which,
in time, grow into moss-plants that bear the re-
productive organs called anthertdia and archegonia.
The fern plant is asexual, while the moss plant is
sexual.

Though the fern plant has neither male nor fe-
male reproductive organs, it is at the same time able
to produce spores which fall to the ground and devel-
op sexual plants called prothalza, from which sexless
or asexual fern plants once more arise.

Now the history of the moss plant, though pro-
duced by “alternation of generations,” is somewhat
different from that of the fern. In the moss, the
more conspicious moss plant is sexual. It bears
male and female organs, and an egg-cell is fertilized
by amale element. ‘The fertilized egg-cell remains
attached to the mother plant and develops into a
tiny sexual stalk which bears on its apex the spec-
ial reproductive cells or spores. These spores fall
to the ground as did the fern spores, and there grow
into a usually thread-like structure, the protenema,
from which the sexual moss-plants arise from buds.

In the fern asexual generation was the more
conspicuous; in the mosses, the sexual genera-
tions are more conspicuous.

140 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Let the pupils examine mosses and ferns so as to
compare and contrast the parts of the one with the
other, taking first, the stem; second, the root;
third, the leaf and fruit.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 141

SEVENTH YEAR.
A.—PLAnt LIFE.

1. Review and continue the study as outlined
for the sixth year.

2. Study flowers whose floral envelopes are
more or less grown together, etc. (a.) Review
parts of the flower as in third grade work, and call
attention to the essential organs and their relation

, tothe perianth. It must be borne in mind that the
essential organs are stamens and pistils, the former
bearing the male elements, the latter the female
elements ; that the business of the flowering plant
is to produce seed, and that fertilization is necessary
to the production of seed.

tf
WHAT IS FERTILIZATION ?

Let the pupils be supplied with an ample supply
of flowers containing conspicuous stamens and
pistils. As far as practicable, the flowers should
be of the same kind, so that, when you give direc-
tions, there may be nothing to hinder any of the
pupils from careful observation. Lead the pupils
to see that the stamen is made up of a filament
and anther, and that the anther is the pollen pod
just as a pea pod is a seed pod.

With needles open the pollen case and observe
that it is filled with a powdery mass called pollen,

142 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

each grain of which is just as definite in form as a
grain of corn is definite, or a mustard seed is defin-
ite in form. As the form of seeds varies in differ-
ent plants, just so does the form of pollen vary in
different plants. So certainly is this true that
the plants may sometimes be determined by the
shape of the pollen alone.

For examples of these different forms, see the
lily with its smooth, oval pollen grains; the sun-
flower with its spherical pollen grains, beset with
prickly projections ; the musk plant pollen with its
spiral grooves, the evening primrose with its three
lobes as large as the central body, and so on, the
pollen grains of each kind of plant differing in
form from those of all others. But these forms
cannot be seen without the aid of a good micro-
scope. The other parts of the flower can be seen
very well with a good hand lens. Every pupil
ought to have such a lens in order to get best re-
sults from an examination of these delicate parts
of the plant.

Note the opening of the anther. Does it open on
the inside next the pistil, or on the outside away |
from the pistil?

Now examine the pistil. Review the parts of
pistil as in third grade work and note the relation
of stigma and pollen to each other and to the
ovules within the ovary.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 143

Of what advantage is the sticky substance on the
stigma? When is such substance most conspicu-
ous ?

It will be a good experiment, if you have a mi-
croscope, to place some pollen grains in warm,
sweetened water under a cover glass and watch the
growth of the pollen tube. The pollen grain, when
it lodges in the sticky substance upon the stigma,
begins just such a growth, sending its tube down
through the style of the pistil to an ovule in the
ovary. Through an orifice in the ovule this growth
continues until its energizing influence is felt in the
embryo-sac, where seed growth begins by cell divi-
sion.

Bergen says, ‘‘The process of fertilization is the
union of the essential contents of two cells to form
a new one, from which the future plant is to
spring.” The one cell is formed by the elongation
of the pollen tube, the other is the odsphere in the
embryo-sac of the ovule. No growth of seed can
take place without fertilization.

During the growth of the pollen tube, how did
it obtain its food supply? From what source?
Where did the food come from in the experiment
under the cover glass? Could growth of pollen
cell have been produced down the tube of a dry
style? Could growth have taken place under a
dry cover glass? Now explain fully, as far as

144 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

studied, all the conditions favorable for the perfect
union of male element with female element, or fer-
tilization.

In Indian corn what is the style called? Where
are the stamens and what are they called? Why
do not full ears of corn grow upon isolated stalks?
Examine a few ears from solitary stalks and see if
the required number of grains is developed. From
your observation what conclusion can be formed as
to the provision of the corn plant for self-fertiliza-
tion? How are the styles, “or silks,” of the corn
protected from the reception of its own pollen?
Examine a stalk of corn so as to be sure that one
or more of the blades pass between the tassel and
the silk, thus acting as a roof to ward off the pollen.
These blades may also serve to keep off too much
water from the stigma, or too much hot sunshine,
either of which would destroy the function of the
stigma, but it keeps off the pollen as well. How
are the chances of fertilization improved by com-
munity plant life? How is the ragweed benefited
by community life? Let the pupils examine the
ragweed and locate the seed pod and also the pollen.
Be sure to observe that the pollen is dry and light,
and therefore easily carried by the winds.

What other plants bear pollen that is light and
dry and easily carried by the witid? We may call
such plants wend-fertelzed plants,

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 145

In the spring time collect spring beauty, mus-
tard of any species, hepatica, buttercup, marsh
marigold, wind flower and dandelion, or almost any
spring flower, and examine the stamens as to
whether the anthers are borne upon long, slender
filaments, or are they without filaments, i. e., anth-
ers sessile? Does the anther rest upon the tip of
the filament, or does the filament adhere to the
anther along its entire length? Notice particu-
larly the position of anther in relation to stigma.
What sort of opening has the anther in each case?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each
opening and each position in relation to fertili-
zation.

Now notice the stickiness and heaviness of the
pollen as compared with the light and dry pollen
of corn and ragweed in autumn. What conclus-
ions do you reach as to method of fertilization
amongst these spring flowers? It must be remem-
bered that some flowers do not open until fertiliza-
tion has taken place. For example, many species
of violet bear closed inconspicuous flowers, and
these produce the greater part of the seed. Self-
fertilization in such cases is the only method. See
Darwin’s Cross and Self-Fertilization in the Vege-
table Kingdom, also Geddes & Thomson’s Lvolu-
tion of Sex.

Besides the flowers just mentioned, most of

146 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

which are polypetalous and regular in form, there
are myriads of others that are gamopetalous and
irregular; also many that are irregular and
polypetalous. For instance the irregular conspic-
uous blossoms of the violet may serve as an irreg-
ular polypetalous flower. Have the pupils
supplied with a sufficient quantity for class exami-
nation. Notice first of all the arrangement of the
reproductive organs. See that the five short
stamens connive around the style. Is the position
of the stigma one that would be conducive to self-
fertilization? Does the protruding stigma turn in
the right direction to receive the pollen to best
advantage? Examine the pollen to see whether
itis sufficiently light and dry to be blown from
flower to adjacent flowers by the wind? Then
is it liable to be fertilized by the wind? Is it a
flower that is often visited by bees, or other insects?
What inducement does it offer for the visitation of
bees? Look in the base of the petals for nectar
cups. Look intothe spur. Does the beard in the
corolla assist the bee in any way while it is reach-
ing after the nectar? Watch the bees at their
work among the flowers and report what you ob-
serve. As the bee passes from violet to violet
could:it carry the pollen from the one to the stig-
ma of another? How? Here it will be well for
the teacher to turn aside from the study of flowers

MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY. 147

and give a few lessons on the bee and its apparatus
peculiarly adapted for carrying pollen. Have the
children examine with a good hand lens the third
leg of the bee. The first tarsal joint bears regular
rows of stiff straight hairs, on which the pollen
grains are collected. The stickier and heavier the
pollen the better will it adhere to the bee. Com-
stock says of the bee: ‘The worker is our common
acquaintance, the dull-black and gold-colored com-
panion of our walks, that we watch with interest
as she ransacks the flowers of a garden or a way-
side for her booty of nectar or pollen, now bending
low a violet or clover blossom, now plunging
headforemost into a hollyhock or lily, from which
she emerges dusty with the gold of pollen doors
which barred her way to nectar chambers.”—
Comstock’s Manual for the Study of Insects, page
674.

Returning to the flowers, is there anything
about the “shape and arrangement of the violet
flower that injures its chances for self-fertilization ?
Is the pollen suitable for wind-fertilization ?
Why? Do these hindrances to self-fertilization
and wind-fertilization become helpful to insect-ferti-
lization? How? Study bleeding heart, columbine,
larkspur, lily of the valley, snap dragon, horse-
chestnut, lilac, white clover, red clover, milk weed,
_pea, bean, locust and wistaria in same way. The

148 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

pupils will notice that all these flowers are more or
less irregular both as to arrangement of stamens
and pistils and as to floral envelopes. They can
also be led to see that whenever an irregularity in-
jures the chances to self-fertilization it at the same
time facilitates insect-fertilization.

The author is not quite sure that the statement just
mentioned is always true, but it surely is true in
many cases. For instance, the showy strap-shaped
corolla of the sunflower advertises the nectar in the
slender tubes of the flowers within, and thus the in-
sects are attracted in great numbers. The lower
lip ofa gamopetalans corolla serves as a resting place
for the bee, while it gathers the nectar within. The
stamens of the horse-chestnut protrude in such a
way as to form a perch for the bumble-bee while
he sinks his suction pump down into the nectar,
and while doing so, does not pollen cling to his legs,
to be deposited upon the stigma of another flower
which he is soon to visit? It will be observed that
in such flowers the stigma and anthers of the same
flower are seldom ready for fertilization at the same
time. The stigma of one flower visited by the bee
is withered, and therefore in a non-receptive condi-
tion, while the pollen, ready to perform its part in
the process of fertilization, clings to the legs of the
bee, and is thereby transferred to a receptive stigma

- in another flower, the stamens of which are not yet

¢

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 149

ready for action. The stigma and pollen must rip-
en at the same time, else self-fertilization can not
occur. See Gray’s Structural Botany, pages 216-
242.

In regard to the coalescence of the parts of the
floral envelope, it will be well to require seventh
grade pupils to learn the botanical names. When
the whorl of petals is more or less united, the cor-
ollais called gamopfetalous, a name signifying grown
together. When not united, or when the petals are
separate to the very base, the corolla is called
polypetalous, a name signifying many separate
petals.

When the outer whorl of the floral envelope is
united throughout any part of the sepals, above the
point of insertion, the flower is called gamosepalous.
When the sepals are separate to the very point of
insertion the flower is called Jolysepalous.

The expanded portion of a petal, or that which
answers to the blade of a leaf, is called Zamzua or
blade; that which answers to the petiole of a leaf,
or filament of a stamen, is called claw or unguis.
When this claw is absent, we may say that the pet-
al is sessile.

The lower part of a gamopetalous corolla is called
a tube, if the sides are nearly parallel or at least
not too spreading. For example, the lower part of
the morning glory blossom is a tude.

150 MANUAL, OF NATURE STUDY.

The upper part of a gamopetalous corolla, wheth-
er divided or united, is called the border, or limb;
for example, the flaring part of the morning glory
corolla, or the divided upper part of phlox, is a dor
der or limb.

A gamopetalous corolla is said to be salver-form,
when the limb or border is abruptly spreading up-
on a long, slender tube; as in phlox. It is said to
be ¢ubular, when the border does not spread, as in
the corolla of the trumpet honey-suckle.

The corolla is said to be wheel-shaped when the
border upon a very short tube spreads out like a
wheel, as in bitter sweet and potato.

The funnel form corolla, as the name implies, is
shaped like a funnel, as in morning glory or bind-
weed, where the tube gradually enlarges upward
from a narrow base and expands outward into a
wide border.

The teacher should collect a series of flowers,
ranging all the way from a slight coalescence of
parts to a full united corolla, and proceed to dis-
tinguish the different botanical names by the study
of the different forms under observation. Deal with
each flower something after the following method:

Description of calyx, whether polysepalous or
gamosepalous. If gamosepalous, is it tubular,
notched or cleft. How many cleft? Color.
Description of corolla.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 151

Polypetalous or gamopetalous? If gamopeta-
lous, what is the form of the corollo? Is its form
favorable to self-fertilization? Explain fully.
Notice its color as to whether it would be attrac-
tive to insects. Notice its odor and nectar, guides
and cups, and state whether you think these would
assist in insect fertilization? Does the corolla serve

-as a protection to the reproductive organs? How?

Describe the stamens, especially in their relation
to the stigma, which must also be described. No-
tice whether the stamens and pistils are equally
fresh and vigorous at same moment of time. If so,
what couclusion as to their adaptability for self-
fertilization? Do the stamens look fresh and vital
and the stigma limp and withered? If so, what
inference as to the ability for self-fertilization?
Are the stamens withered while the stigma yet re-
mains fresh and erect? Give inference.

Is the pollen of a kind that will admit of wind-
fertilization? Now review all the parts about the
flower that offer any inducements to insects, and
state all the points favorable to insect-fertilization.

3. Study clustered flowers leading to the com-
posite. This study includes the whole topic of
Inflorescence, or mode of flower arrangement.

Flowers are said to be zdeterminate when they
are situated in the axils of leaves, as in shepherd’s
purse; and de/erminate when they are from termi-

152 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

nal buds. Either of these forms may be single, or
solitary, or grouped in clusters. When in clusters,
the indeterminate take the form of raceme, as in
the lily of the valley, where the flowers, each
upon a separate foot-stalk, are loosely scattered
along the floral axis; corymb, as in hawthorn or
trumpet creeper, which is but a slight modification
of the raceme, the separate flower stalks being
lengthened in such a way as to allow the flowers
to rest in the same horizontal plane.

What change would have to be made in the lily
of the valley in order to assume the form of a
corymb? Imagine a currant flower-cluster to be
changed into the form of a corymb. Explain the
process.- ‘

An Uméel is a flower cluster whose floral axis is
wanting. The flower-stalks or pedicels of each of
the several fowers arising from the same point on
the recepticle carry the flowers to the same height
as in the corymb. The parsnip and cherry are
good examples of an umbel. Imagine a cherry
flower-cluster in the form of a corymb; what change
took place ?* Imagine a raceme of shepherd’s purse
in the form of an umbel; what change occurred ?

\The plantain flower cluster consists of a length-
ened axis along which sessile flowers are closely
set. Such a flower-cluster is called a Stzke. How
must the plantain be changed in order that it may

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 153

take the form ofa raceme? Ofacorymb? Ofan
umbel ?

Shorten the axis of the plantain until the sessile
flowers arise from about the same point and the
flower cluster would be called a Head. The button-
wood or sycamore ball is a head. How is a head
different from an umbel? A spike different from
a raceme? ‘The spadrx,as in Indian turnip, the
catkin, as in birch, willow or alder are simply dif
ferent modifications of the spzke.

Broaden the receptacle of the head and surround
it with a set of bracts called involucre and you have
a composite flower. Examine the dandelion, iron
weed, ox-eyed daisy, dog fennel and sun flower.
In what respect are these flowers different from a
clover blossom, or button-wood ball?

‘The teacher may be able to trace the determinate
inflorescence to the compositae in the same way as
with the indeterminate.

The cyme of the determinate corresponds with
the raceme of the indeterminate. In the determin-
ate inflorescence the flowering is centrifugal, that
is, the oldest floweris in the center and the order
of flowering is outward. In the indeterminate
inflorescence the mode of flowering is centripetal,
that is, beginning on the outside and flowering
toward the center.

154 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

The Fascicle is a cyme with flowers much crowded,
as sweet williams.

A Glomerule corresponds to the head. The
flowers in a glomerule expand from the center out-
ward, z. ¢. centrifugal, while the flowers of a head ex-
pand from the outside toward the center, or cen-
tripetally.

Does the sunflower expand centripetally or cent-
rifugally? How about the clover? The iron
weed? The lily of the valley? What steps would
you imagine a sunflower to take in order to become
aspike? Which form of flower cluster is most
conducive to self-fertilization? For wind-fertiliz-.
ation? For insect-fertilization? Why?

Give an opportunity for extended discussion
upon the values of. each form relative to fertiliz-
ation. Let the discussion be based upon field
observation of insects at work as well as upon
adaptation of form.

4. Become familiar with several of our common
families of flowering plants. All plants that bear
flowers are called flowering plants. We have
families of people, families of animals, and strange
to say, families of plants. We group together all
plants that resemble one another in flower, seed
and fruit, and say that they belong toa certain
family. For instance, we say that the bean, the
red bud or judas tree, the honey locust and the

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 155

wild indigo all belong to the same family, the
Pulse Family. Can you tell why? Collect these
flowers and see if they are alike. See if you can
find any other flowers that belong to this family.
What are the points of likeness? When these
fruits ripen collect the pods and notice the similar-
ity in pods and seeds. Of course these pods can
not be collected until later in the year. Would
you place the clover in the same family as the
bean? ‘Try the pea, wistaria, sweet pea.

Study the common mustard and note that it has
four petals, four sepals and six stamens—four long
and two short. ‘Taste its stem and leaves. Geta
collection of radish flowers, and notice points of
likeness between them and the mustard. If possi-
ble get turnip and cabbage flowers. Let pupils
bring in any other flowers having the same points.

These flowers all belong to the Mustard family,
sometimes called the Cress family. ‘There are over
six thousand species or members of this family
known to botanists. We cannot expect to make
the acquaintance of the entire family, yet it is pos-
sible to learn a few characteristics or marks that
will enable us to know one of them when we have
the opportunity. If the children will go out on the
hillside they may be able to find the toothwort,
which may be known as mustard by the common
marks, and as toothwort by its root and leaves,

156 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

Examine kale and report on the marks and taste.

Send two or three pupils down into the bottoms
and swampy places after varieties of cress.

Make drawings of each variety found.

Review points common to all members of the
Cress family; to all the members of the Pulse
family.

Name the points in each species that distinguish
the plant under examination from all others of the
same family.

If you have the time study the Rose family.
This is a large family and is divided into several
tribes or divisions. The child will be astonished
to learn that the apple and strawberry are members
of the same family, but they are.

The plum belongs to the same family with the
hot-house rose. Can the children tell why? So
do the cherry and blackberry. Help the children
to find the pointsin common. Let them search for
other members of this family.

Let a pupil describe a plant that has been stud-
ied. From the description let the other children
identify the plant and name the family to which it
belongs.

Again, name a flower and let the pupils describe
and name the family to which it belongs. Vary
the exercises as the interest and attention seem to
require.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 157

Learn the points or marks by which any mem-
ber of the Lzly famzly is known. Examine the
tulip, the trillium and dog-toothed violet. What
are the points in common? Let pupils collect
others of the same family. Is the calla a lily?
The Indian turnip? Examine them in comparison
with each other and in contrast with the lily.

If these families are well worked out the pupils
will be fairly well equipped for the future study
of flowers.

B.— PHYSIOLOGY.

1. Study somewhat in detail, foods, hunger,
thirst, cooking, fatigue, etc.

2. Study the special senses, seeing, hearing,
etc. See third grade work for discussion of these
two topics.

Notre.—Use charts to give correct ideas of the
organs of the special senses. Make strong the
hygienic teaching in connection with the vari-
ous senses and topics considered.

158 MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

EIGHTH GRADE.

PHYSIOLOGY.

If the work outlined in Physiology in the lower
grades has been properly done the pupil will have,
when he enters the eighth grade, a fairly good
knowledge of the structure of the body, of the
various processes of digestion, circulation, etc.,
and will understand the more common demands
and laws of health. In the eighth grade the
authorized text is to be in the hands of the pupils,
and the work is to receive attention and energy
equal with that given to other substantial branches
of the course.

The work will, of course, treat in the main of
subject matter gone over in the earlier grades, but
the treatment will be more comprehensive and
technical than has been possible up to this point.
The consideration of individual structure and
function will now give way to the consideration of
relation and interdependence. At every place pos-
sible the pupil will be led to see the adaptation of
structure to function and of both to hygienic de-
mands and laws. As far as possible the laboratory
method should be used. Actual material should
be brought before the class whenever it can be
used to advantage in explaining the structure or

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 159

function of different organs or tissues. Micro-
scopic study should be pursued whenever it can be
done to advantage and will aid to clearer compre-
hension of physiological facts. Physics and
chemistry, in so far as a knowledge of them is
“necessary to make clear the processes of Physi-
ology, should be studied in connection with this
subject.
The following outline is suggestive for the work:
I. Study the Framework of the Body—The Skeleton.

(2) Composed of bones and ligaments. Ar-
ticulation of bones, the synovial fluid
and its use.

(4) Structure, chemical composition and use
of bones as levers.

(c) Relation of their structure and proper-
ties to their uses. Growth and repair
of bones, effects of food, exercises,
habits, etc. Care of the bones.

Il. Zhe Muscles.

(2) Structure and properties of muscular
tissue, the voluntary and involuntary
muscles and their arrangement. Ner-
vous control of muscular action.

(4) Changes that the muscle cells undergo
during contraction, carbon dioxide,
uric acid and other waste material, the
oxidation of food substances, heat.

160

III.

IV.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

(c) Special adaptation of structure and pro-
perties of muscles to the ends they

serve; use many illustrations.

(q) The care ofthe muscles. Exercise and
health. Effects of alcohol and nar-
cotics.

The Digestive System.

(2) Foods, kinds of, and the composition
and value of each. Necessity for food.
Alochol and narcotics not foods. The
value of water in digestion.

(4) Structure and function of the teeth, stom-
ach, intestines and other organs of di-
‘gestion.

(c) Chemical changes in insalivation, chym-
ification and chylification.

(zd) The lacteals, structure and function.
The portal circulation, special features
and importance ; assimilation of food.
Adaptation of structure and function.

(e) Hygiene of the digestive organs. Se-
lection of food, etc. Effects of alcohol
and narcotics.

The Circulatory System.

(a) The blood, its composition and use, prop-
erties of, structure and use of corpus-
cles. Coagulation and its use.

V.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 161

(6) The lymph, its composition and use,
circulation of lymph. Arrangement
and structure of lymphatic vessels.

() The circulation of the blood, how carried
on, the heart as a force pump. Action
of the valves of the heart.

(Z) Structure and function of the heart
arteries, veins and capillaries. Rela-
tion to each other, capillary attraction,
etc. Changes the blood undergoes
during circulation.

(e) Hygiene of the circulatory system.
Effects of alcohol and narcotics.

Respiratory System.

(2) Composition of air, diffusion of gases,
evaporation, heat, animal heat, radia-
tion, etc.

(6) The skin asa respiratory organ. Struc-
ture and function.

(2) Inhalation and exhalation, how carried
on. Organs of. Structure and func-
tion of respiratory organs. Adapta-
tion of structure to function.

(dq) Relation of respiration to circulation
and digestion.

(e) Hygiene of the circulatory organs. Ven-
tilation and heating, exposure, dress,
etc.

VIL.

VIII.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY.

The Skin and Kidneys.

(2) Structure and use of each. The skin as
an excretory organ. Modifications of
the skin. The kidney as an organ of
excretion. General view and neces-
sity of the kidney.

The Nervous System.

(2) General character of nervous stimuli,
need of a coordinating process in the
body.

(6) Structure and function of brain, spinal
cord, nerves, ganglia, etc. Action of
each part. Divisions of the brain with
special reference to structure and func-
tion.

(c) Reflex action, its general character. Re-
lation of nervous system to other pro-
cess of the body.

(d) Hygiene of the nervous system, with
special reference to sleep, exercise,
morality, alcohol and narcotics.

(e) Relation of nervous system to the mind.

The Votce. How Produced.

(2) Structure and function of the larynx;
its parts, nervous control of the voice,
cultivation and care.

IX.

X.

MANUAL OF NATURE STUDY. 163

The Spectal Senses.

(az) The Sense of Sight. Light, refraction,
the microscope. The eye as a special
organ for receiving impression of light.
Structure and function of the eye as
to its parts. Defective sight and its
remedy. Care of the eyes.

(4) Sense of Hearing. Sound, properties of.
The ear as a special organ for receiving
impressions of sound. Structure and
function of the ear as to itsparts. De-
fects of hearing. Care of the ear.

(c) The Sense of Touch. Ideas received by
touch. ‘The skin papillae organs of
touch, where most numerous. Struct-
ure and function of papillae. Cultiva-
tion of touch.

(d) The Sense of Taste. Its nature, value
and abuse. Organs of taste. Struct-
ure of. Cultivation of taste.

(e) The Sense of Smell. Nature of process,
value of. Organs of, structure of.

Health and Disease; Potsons and Thetr Antz-
dotes. Emergenctes.