A study of light burning in California

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LIBRARY

New York STATE COLLEGES
OF
AGRICULTURE AND HoME ECONOMICS

AT

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The original of this book is in
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A STUDY OF LIGHT BURNING
IN
CALIFORNIA

A Report Prepared in the Minor Field
in 2artial Fulfillment for the
Degree of
Master in Forestry
by
Frank Leo ‘puttona, B. Bs

SD
42.1
aa

322827

A STUDY OF LIGHT BURNING IN CALIFORNIA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BA

Int roduction

Page
Purpose of the Study -------------20+---22----4---20 7
Sources of Data ----2- 42-2222 22 nn nee nn ee eee ene 1
Review of Forest Conditions in Cabifornia +---------
General Statements --------------- Seana ema ae at a
Specific Statements * 71>
Forest Area reer Volume «<«<2-.--2404- 3
Ownership of Timberland -------0.=2.----.=- 4
Forest TypeS8 -----------4-2----5---- saa a cai 4
Undergrowth ------~---------.----.-------- 7
Climatic Conditions in Relation to Fire ----------.- 7
The Forest Fire Problem
Types of Fires <---~-------..-.-+-- i etn cco ak ba 8
Causes of Fire ------ ae ta een ase nee eens nna 9
Need for Adequate Protection --~-------~------- 11
if :
Historical Remarks
The Use of Fire in Clearing Land ---~-.---.-.-- 13

Light Burning in the Southern Pine Region ----4 14

Light Burning in the Northwest <<es««<......... 15

Light Burning in Célifernia ----+----- --
Barly History s-e---22------8- scorn ree
The Light Burning Controversy <---------
The Light Burning Committee ----------- -

Tit
Protection of Forests from Fire ee

The Two Methods Used in California --+--------

Protection through Light Burning ------------
Light Burning Advocates So ec ei a
Methods Pursued.-------------- eprecnren--

Claims of the Light Burning Advocates --

(1) Mature Timber ----------- ee
(2) Reproduction -+----------------
~ (3) Brush Fields -----------------
(4) Watersheds -------------------

Summary of the Claims of the Light Burn-

ing Advocates --------2---2--2------+-
Protection by Fire Prevention and Suppression-
Application of the Method ------------ oe
Advocates of the Method --~--------------
Results of the Method ------------------
Possibilities +----+---------.-~----..-.

Lent IV
Results of Experience in Fire Protection

Failure of Light Burning to Proteqt ------ es
A. Damage to Merchantable Timber ----..

(1) Damage Resulting from the Burn-

ing Down of Previoubly PFire-

Scarred Treen 3 seweess ne nmceeud

Examples <----7+ seer cert —-
(2) Damage by Heat Killing -------
(3) Loss through Cull and Reduction
in Grade of Lumber Due to Fire-
Stet: 04: Oo
(4) Loss Due to Reduction in Rate
of Growth of Injured Trees ----
(5) Insect Damage Following Yire

Injury <-----+---------~---------
(6) Damage from Wood-destroying

Fungi Following Fire Injury --
(7) Reduction in Density of Stand -
(8) Changes in Composition -------
B. Destruction of Reproduction by
Light Burning ------ ee eee
C. Brush Fields
(3) Griein «-cosetecceweteecteunee
(2) Lose of Timber Producing Cap-
acity -------------------------
(3) Increased Cost of Protection -
D. Damage to Grazing ------------------
E. Damage to Watersheds <---~--- no aoc
Cost of Light Burning ---------------+----....
Danger from Light Burning -----------------..-

Failure of Protection under Prevention and

Suppression Method ------ Siti pice ence ens

A.

Losses Occurring ee----8----------..

Page
39
43

44

shal

49

51

33
Bo
54
54
55
at

iy

Page

B, Non-insurance of Private Holdings 59

C. Efficiency -~--------------- ----- 60

Vv
The Light Burning Committee ----- Se ee er 61
Light Committee Report on the Bray Operation -= 61
Investigation of the Walker Tract e----------- 62

VI

CONCLUSION

Damage to the Mature Crop and Reproduction -------- 64
Formation of Brush Fields te i es a eee 65
Costs -------- aoe uae eis eerdadenaeme 66
Damage to Grazing and Wat ersheds aa wate enna anne 67
atmospheric Sendit ions deverilag euniee eoeeee w-e- 68
Danger -- secenee See Chet eee eee ements aoe - 68
Probable Outcome of the Light Susilag question tetaiaated “69
Bibliography ------ ene eeee wets ena nce nee nen aee 70

Appendix --
Pictures s--2 enn ne nnn eee ee nn ee ee eee enn ne eee 74

fia Secassawsseacsewamemaeessoncsnse Sepauasaias 82

A STUDY OF LIGHT BURNING IN CALIFORNIA

INT RODUCT ION

Purpose of the Study

Light Burning is the name applied to the method
of fire protection, which by a periodic burning over
of the entire forest floor with controlled fires, en-
deavors to prevent destructive and uncontrolled fires
within the forest. The question of Light Burning has
been agitated in California since 1910, when the doc-
trine ar first promulgated. But this problem has not
yet béen satisfactorily and definitely settled, It is
the purpose of this study to present in an unbiased man-
ner, all of the available data relating to Light Burn-
ing in California, with conclusions drawn from these
data, The present study treats Light Burning not only
in reference to merchantable timber and reproduction,
but also in its relation to brush fields, grazing, water-

sheds, soil and recreation grounds,

Sources of Data

The materials for this study were obtained from
the files of the office of District V, United States
Forest Service, San Francisco, California, from Mr. Wm.

@. Hodge, Jr., Chairman of the Light Burning Committee,

from conferences with various Forest Service officials
and lumbermen, from personal observations made in the
field, and from a miscellaneous collection of books,

bulletins, pamphlets and papers (See Bibliography).

Review of Forest Conditions in California

General Statements

It is necessary to review the forest conditions
in California before proceeding with the discussion of
the practice of Light Burning within the state, Cal-
ifornia is the second largest stete in the Union, its
total acreage of land surface being 99, 898, 880 acres.
From its northern to its southern boundary line is a
a distance of 750 miles. Two great inland valleys -
namely those of the Sacramento River, flowing south
from Mt Shasta, and of the San Joaquin River, flowing
north from the region of Nt. Whitney until within a
short distance of the city of Sacramento,when they com-
bine and flow west into the Bay of San Francisco, -
roughly separate the two great forested areas of the
state. Thus, the Sierra Nevada Mountains extend north
from the central part of the state along the eastern
boundary, while the Coast Range follows, a short dis-
tance inland, the trend of the coast line. In the Si-

erra region. the eastern slopes fall rather abruptly in-

to the plateau region of Nevada, while the western
slopes are less abrupt and are cut into innumerable
valleys and canyons. The altitude of the Northern Si-
erras averages 6000-8000 feet above sea level, those in
the central part of the state being considerably higher.
The average elevation of the Coast Range is 4000-6000
feet. The greater bulk of the timber in California will
be found in the region of the Sierras on the western
slopes, The southern third of the state is dry and sup-
ports no merchantable forest growth. Various small de
tached mountain ranges break up the uniformity of the

topography.

Specific Statements

Forest Area and Timber Volume

There are approximately 20,604,000 acres of forest
land in the state of which 12,786,000 acres are merch-
antable. The estimated vobume of the total stand of the
five principal species (sugar pine, yellow pine, incense
cedar, douglas fir and red fir) on National Forest land
in 1914 was 99,715,686 M.B.M, The total volume of all
species on the National Forests, including cordwood, was
estimated as being 119,668,933 M.B.M., having a value,
when computed at 1912 prices, of $183, 331,438.00. The

volume of timber outside the National Forests or in pri-

vate hands was estimated at 248,100,000 M.B.M. which

includes 101.9 billion feet of redwood,

\

Ownership of Timberland

Of the timbered area within the atate, 7,786, 306
acres (1910) are under federal control as National For-
ests, and 12,574,531 acres are owned by private inter-
ests. The state has no forests under ite own jurisdic-
tion. Thus, it can be seen that 60% of the timbered
lands within the state, or about 70% of the volume of

timber, is owned by private individuals.

Forest Types

The forests can be grouped into five general classes,
namely, redwood, oak, chaparral, a combination of pine
and fir, and the alpine forest. Requiring the damp air
of the ocean and considerable rainfall, the redwood far-
ests are confined to a narrow belt along the coast fram
Monterey County northward to the Oregon state boundary
line. Fires do little damage to the standing timber
here as the moisture conditions are usually sufficient
to reduce fires to the minimum. After logging has taken
place and the amount of inflammable debris is greatly
increased, fires are more common. Still, they are not
of sufficient moment as to present any diffteult problem

of control.

The oak forests are confined to the valley regions
where the seasonal variations are not rigorous and soil
conditions are reasonably favorable. These forests are
of local importance only, and due to their limited ex-
tent and open character need no special emphasis as re-
gards fire protection,

Chaparral forests or "brush" forests as they are
called, occur chiefly thruout the southern part of the
state. The vegetation consists of different forms of
low growing trees and shrubs, as scrub oak, manzanita,
buckthorn, lilac, and several varieties of sage. The
summers here are warm and dry with very little rain-
fall, making it impossible for normal tree growth to
take place. Here, too, the Light Burning problem will
not receive particular stress, as it is a question
which deals essentially with forests containing mer-
chantable timber, The practice of Light Burning is
not being advocated in the region of "brush" forests,

Next in elevation are the pine and fir forests
which constitute one of the greatest natural resources
of California. These forests are found in the foot-
hill and mountain regions of the eastern and northern
portions of the state. It is here wmong the magnif-
icient virgin stands of sugar and yellow pine, ceder
and fir, that the problem of their protection against
the ravages of fire is of paramount importance.

Finally, clothing the highest peaks are the alpine

forests in which such species as white and red fir,

western white pine, and western hemlock predominate.
The growth at these elevetions is slow, the trees are
small, and due to their inaccessibility, are not con-
sidered as being merchantable.

Because the pine and fir forests are of such ex-
tent and value, and because they are the greatest source
of lumber within the state, most of this study of Light
Burning has to do with the conditions found and the
practice followed therein. The species represented here
are predominantly sugar pine, yellow pine, incense cedar
douglas fir, white fbr and red fir, of which species
the sugar pine and yellow pine are of the most value,
These species do not. all occur in the same uniformity
thruout the stands, however, due to the fact that ther
requirements of site are not similar. Thus, the trees
grow in more or less distinct groupings or types de-
pendent upon the conditions of site as meeting the re-
quirements of the several species. The types commonly
wecognized are yellow pine, sugar pine -. yellow pine,
sugar pine - fir, and fir, the predominant spedies in
every case denoting the type.

In general, it may be said that the yellow pine
and the sugar pine - yellow pine types are on plateaus
and southern exposures at moderate elevations (5000')
while the sugar pine - fir type prevails on northern
exposures between 5000'-6000'. Fir types are on the
higher elevations above the point where the sugar pine.

fir type ceasés to exist, they in turn being bounded

above by an alpine growth.

Undergrowth

The amount of undergrowth varies greatly and is
influenced by exposure and previous history of the area,
It usually holds true that the ground cover is more
dense on northern exposures where moisture conditions
favor a more luxuriant growth. This is also the case
along streams and on areas where there are a number of
springs. The undergrowth on these slopes may consist
entirely of a dense and almost impenetrable thicket of
fir reproduction. Again it may be of one or a number
of shrubs such as wild lilac, service berry, manzanita,
white thorn, snow-brush or scrub oak. The southern
exposures being drier are usually more open and with
little or no undergrowth. Areas which have been sev-
erely burned over within recent times will in most cases

be covered with a dense growth of brush,

Climatic Conditions in Relation to Fire

The average rainfall of California varies greatly
in different localities, being 70 inches per annum at
the northwest corner and less than 3 inches per annum
on the Colorado Desert. In the timber region, how-
ever, the average precipitation is from 30-40 inches

annually dppending largely upon the elevation,

Rainfall during the summer months is practically nil.
It has been found that the period when fires be-
gin to occur, due to increasing dryness of the forest
floor, is generally: about the middle of May. From this
date and extending over a period of five months, or un-
til the middle of October is the fire season, during
which time the protective measures relating to forest
fire prevention and suppression are in force. The
spring rains are usually over by May fifteenth, and
during the succeeding five months the dryness is re-
lieved only by infrequent showers. Consequently, the
debris on the forest floow becomes highly inflammable
and unless extreme care is taken fires will occur.
About the second week in October the fall rains begin
after which the forest fboor is rendered sufficiently

damp to preclude any need of protection from fire.

The Forest Fire Problem

Types of Fires

Of the three types of fires which may occur with-
in the forest - ground, surface and crown fires - the
first named one does not occur in California forests.
This is due to the fact that the duff is too shallow

to furnish fuel for a ground fire. The shallownees of

se

the duff is doubtless due to the open and small-needled

character of the stands and the dryness of the climate

Surface fires creep along the surface of the ground
burning in the debris which lies there, eating down in-
to the duff somewhat, and attacking shruba and small
seedlings which are at hand. It is with this type of
fire that the question of Light Burning has entirely to
do. Whether or not surface fires should be permitted
in the forest is in brief the sum and substance of the
point at issue in the Light Burning controversy.

The last type of forest fire is the crown fire,
which envelopes entire trees, This type of fire is
usually the result of a surface fire which has been
fanned into huge proportions by a strong wind. Once
a crown fire gets started, and with a breeze blowing,
it progresses with great rapidity by jumping from tree
to tree, Although extremely dangerous, crown fires are
rare in the forests of California because the stands
are open in character. Local crown fires, however, -

those occurring in dense clumps - are quite common,

Causes of Fire

The fire season and the kinds of fires having
been discussed, the next step is to learn the causes
of the fires, and the possibility of their elimination,

The agencies causing fire within the forest may
be divided into two groups - atmospheric agencies and
human agencies, Fires due to atmospheric conditions

are those caused by lightning, and a great many are

LO

caused in thia manner. Statistics compiled by the For-
est Service in California show that the number of fires
caused by lightning between 1908-1918 is 35% of the to-
tal number occurring on the National Forests. It must
be borne in mind that fires caused by lightning are in
a great many cases among the higher bold,rocky peaks
where the timber is often practically inaccessible and
of poor quality. It has been found that lightning
storms are extremely common in certain of the higher
Sierra regions or in what are termed "lightning zones",
In many cases electric storms occur without any accom-
panying precipitation. These "dry" lightning storms
may in some cases cause enormous damage by setting
fires scattered about over large areas. Thus, on June
12, 1918, a severe "dry" lightning storm started 150
fires within the state. Hence, due to frequent elec-
tric storms during the dry season, we may conclude

that fires can never be entirely eliminated from the
California forests.

Fires occurring as the result of human activities
are the greatest source of forest destruction, Man in
his daily pursuits, many of which require the use of
fire, is a continual source of danger. Consequently,
fires result from the use of fire by railroads and in
brushburning, by lumbering, thru the carelessness of
campers and hunters, by incendiarism, and due to mis-
cellaneous and unknown causes, making in all, approx-

imately 65% of the total number of fires occurring.

=i

The fire danger caused by the above can be greatly re-
duced, however, by educational, restrictive and pro-

hibitive measures.

Need for Adequate Protection

The standing merchantable timber in the State of
California today (1921), at current prices, has a val-
ue of approximately $500,000,000. No estimate can be
made as to the value of its forests thru indirect be-
nefits, namely, regulation of stream flow, lesséning
of erosion on mountain slopes,and as recreation grounds.
Suffice it to say that were it not for the regulative
effect of the forests upon the water supply, fruit
growing - the paramount industry of Southern Califor-
nia - would be utterly impossible.

Because of the great value of the forest resour-
ces of the state, both direct and indirect, they should
be utilized with a thought for future production and
should be carefully and thoroughly protected from their
enemies, Fire, being the greatest enemy of the forest,
provided it is not held in leash, should receive the
greatest consideration. Therefore, because all of the
causes of fire in the forests cannot be removed, some
means must be provided for protecting the forests when
fires do occur. Shall the endeavor be to keep the for-
est floor so free from inflammable material by permit-

ting fires to burn over the area periodically that only

12

inconsequential fires can occur, or shall the forests
be guarded and an attempt made to extinguish all fires
in their incipiency? These two ways of meeting the
problems form the oe of the subject matter that fol-

Lows.

i3

ight ti
ii

Historical Remarks

fhe Use of Fire in Clearing Land

How did Light Burning originate? Is it practiced
by any nation in any country? Or in any parts of the
United States other than in California?

With the advent of man into a new country comes
the rapid destruction of the forests. Man in his en-
deavors to gain a livelihood at first finds the un-
broken forest an obstacle which he must remove so that
he may cultivate the ground and produce crops. And by
the means of fire, he clears a place where his germin-
ating seeds may see the light - a primitive method, yet
one that suffices. Thus, in India "kumari” in engaged
in toclear the land, After an ares is cleared by fire
crops are grown thereon for a few years, in which time
the fertility of the soil having devtreased somewhat,
other areas are cleared and the former openings are
permitted to revert ot forest again. (Kumari = jhun,
khil, taungya).

Similarly, in some South African districts, fire
is used in clearing.

The practice of clearing land for cultivation by
means of fire, known as “sartage",iwas:formerly employ-

ed in France. Here, after cutting had taken place in

14

coppice stands, light fires were allowed to run over
the area as a preparation for cultivation, This method
was employed most particularly in the Ardennes, in the
districts of Liege and Lumembourg in Belgium, and in
certain localities of Southern Germany.

Likewise in Finland forest. land is bften cleared
by means of fire. Here the practice is called "sved-
jJande". The trees are felled and the debris burned,

In Finland where burning was indulged in extensively,
the soil became in many cases so impoverished that the
forests could not reestablish themselves on such areas.
The forest resources became so depleted that the gov-
ernment has endeavored to limit the destruction of for-
ests in this manner.

Bringing the subject home, every one knows that
the American pioneer employed fire to aid him in cléar-
ing the forests away that he might have space to erect
his cabin and cultivate the soil. As the new country
is opened up, however, and all of the agricultural land
is cleared, the practtice of firing the forests is usual-

ly dispensed with.

Light Burning in the Southern Pine Region

In the Southern Pine Region of the United States
there exists today the practice of burning over the
forest: lands at varying intervals. It is a well estab-

lished fact that surface fires aid germination of long-

leaf pine in the south, The seed of this important
species cannot germinate and take root an a two or
three years accumulation of pine needles, Fire pre-
pares the seed bed by removing the debris and expos-
ing the mineral soil. After germination has taken
place, however, all fires should be carefully regul-
ated until the seedling has firmly established itself.
Then, is advocated a burning over at intervals of three
years. The practice of Light Burning in the south ap-
pears to be a matter of fire regulation with silvif-
cultural advantages rather than fire exclusion.

Light Burning in the Northwest

Also, in the northwest - Oregon and Washington -
fire is employed in burning over braadcast douglas fir
cuttings, as a means of preparing the seed bed and in-
suring reproduction, Here, fire is used as a silvi-
cultural agent primayily and not as one of protection

from fire.

Light Burning in California

Early History

Dairies of Spanish expeditions imanating from
Santa Barbara and San Francisco about 1806, which pen-
etrated the interior to the mouths of the canyons in

the foothinrstof the Sierras, indicate that frequent

16

burning of the open grass-lands by the Indians was a
well recognized custom, and was done to improve the
forage.

Dr A. S. Kroeber states that the Indians did not
burn the timberland in northwestern California, in the
Coast. Region of the Klamath and Western Trinity. They
did, However, burn the central Sierra region. The ob-
jects of burning by the Indians were (a) to make seed
gathering easier and to increase forage (b) to drive
game and to make hunting and travelling easier (c) and
to increase visibility, thus preventing ambuscades.

The Igdians had no reason for protecting large timber
because they used only small stuff for dwellings, and
so forth. They could not fell large trees easily with
primitive axes. Canoes were used only in restricted
regions like the Klamath and were made from fallen tres.
On the other hand, claims are made that the Pi Ute
Indians intentionally set the forest floor safire to
destroy the accumulated debris and thus protect the
standing timber from future fires,

Be the causes of early fires what they may - either
according to Nature's plan or to that of man = the fact
remains that many fires have occurred, The thousands
upon thousands of huge fire-scarred trees in the Sierra
region are living witnesses of the fires that have
swept thru the forests in the past, Thus, by felling
a number of these fire-scarred veterans and counting

the rings, it has been determined that particularly

17

severe fires occurred in 1702, 1708, 1720, 1726, 1735,
1746, 1750, 1757, 1767, 1776, 1795, 1804, 1814, 1822,
1829, 1837, 1842, 1851, 1856, 1865, 1871, 1879, 1886,
1889, 1899, or averaging one fire every eight years.

The Light Burning Controversy

It was in 1910 that the subject of Light Burning
as a means of forest fire protection, was brought to
the attention of the public of California. Mr. T. B.
Walker of the Red River Lumber Company - one of the
largest individual forest land holders within the
state - advocated the use of light, controlled sur-
face fires thru the timber lands at a season of the
year when there would be little danger of them becom-
ing uncontrolmble. This practice, according to Mr.
Walker, would suffice to remove all inflammable debris
from the ground, and hence, would eliminate all pos-
sibility of a severe fire occurring for a number of
years. And, by burning over the timber lands period-
ically in this manner, the forest crop would be insur-
ed until the time came when it could be harvested.

A number of other private holders of large tracts
of timber immediately took up this side of the issue,
Consequently, there was soon a sharp division of opin-
ion as to how the f6rests could best be protected from
fire. Many believed like the lumbermen, that the only

method that would protect our forests from devastating

and uncontrolled fires, was toburn them over under
control, and thus by removing all inflammable mater-
jal, prevent fires in the future,

Those opposing the Light Burners, believed that
the method as practiced by the United States Forest
Service - that of prementing and suppressing all fires
within the forest - was the only efficient. and prac-
ticable means of preserving our stand of timber. This
side of the question was upheld by the Forest Service
and other technically trained foresters. The Calif-
ornia press too up the issue, the San Francisco Chron-
icle being one of the most influential papers that a-
greed with the Light Burning theory. From that time
to this, the question as to whether or not Light Burn-
ing should be practiced has not been determined to the
satisfaction of all concerned. Through all of these
years there has been a great deal of discussion con-
cerning Light Burning, much propaganda being issued by
each side. Yet but little action as regards its prac-
tice has been undertaken,

Continued Lage Burning for a number of yeare on
typical areas and under observation is practically the
only manner in which can be brought together conclus-
ive data relating to the question under dispute. There
are a few, a very few areas of this description where
the results of Light Burning have been observed. On
the contrary there are extensive areas from which fires

have been excluded which will serve as a means of com-

19

parison. But these points will be discussed later.
The Forest Service, in 1919, carried out a Light
Burning experiment in California on the Plumas Nat-
ional Forest. Forest Service officials in interpret-
ing the results of this test concluded that Light Bur-
ning as a method of fire protection was a failure.
Following this, in 1920, the Southern Pacific Company
advocated the cooperative experimental burning of a
tract of 80,00 acres, this area consisting of contig-
uous holdings of the government (39%), the Southern
Pacific Company (26%), and other individuals and cor-
porations (35%). The Forest Service, believing that
it had conclusively proved that Light Burning was not
a worth-while means of protection of forests from fire,
did not care to engage in this eoopnerative experiment-

al burning. Vonsequently, it was never carried out.

The Light Burning Vommittee

Finally, in 1920, there was appointed a committee
known as the Light Burning Committee, composed of one
representative each from the Southern Pacific Company,
the State Forester's Office, the University of Calif-
ornia Forest School and the United States Forest Ser-
vice. Mr. Willa4am C, Hodge, Jr., a trained forester
formerly with the Forest Service, was chosen chairman
of the committee. The object of this committee is to

formulate a system of fire protection that, within re-

asonable cost, will not only prevent material loss to

mature timber, but will as well result in a minimum of

damage being done to the productive capacity of the

forest soil. In order to accomplish its objective, tk

committee proposes to analyze and weigh all existing

data under the following heads -

i
2.

Effect of fire on mature timber.

Effect of fire on young timber and on its
rate of growth,

The value of advance growth,

The damage to timber by insects and the effect
of fire thereon.

The cost of protection measures.

21

Protection of Forests from Fire

The Two Methods Used in California

There are two policies of fire protection as ap-
plied to the forests of California. On one hand ia
the protection as afforded by Light Burning. This is
the name given to the practice of setting fires within
the forest at a season of the year when there is little
or no danger of their getting out of control, the ob-
ject being to consume the inflammable debris upon the
surface of the ground, and in this manner do away with
danger from fires for some time to come. The other
method of fire protection and the one most commonly em-
ployed within the state, is that of preventing and sup-
pressing fires within the forest. Under this system,
no fires are permitted to run through the forests, pro-
vided of course, that they are detected and extinguished

in their incipiency.

Protection through Light Burning

Of these two mehtods of fire protection, the first
to be discussed will be the protection afforded by
Light Burning as seen from the Light Burners side of
the question, The Light Burning advocates maintain
that the entire forest floor should be burned over at

frequent intervals by light controlled surface fires,

iy)
ine)

Such a procedure will effectually remove snags, logs,
brush, litter,and in fact, all inflammable material
so that it will be impossible for serious fires to oc-

cur in the future,

Light Burning Advocates

The men who advocate protection through Light
Burning are mostly timberland owners. Among those
whose views concerning the practice of Light Burning
and the advantages thereof, have appeared in print, aze
Joseph A, Kitts of the Souther Pacific Vompany, Stew-
art Edward White and Willis J. Walker of the Red River
Lumber Company. Many other lumberman are of the same
opinion, Besides this group, which is interested pri-
marily in the present merchantable stand of timber, it
will be found that stockmen, miners, many forest res-
idents and a great many land owners throughout the state
are staurich upholders of Light Burning. #0 them, Light
surface fires running through the forest lands are not

a source of damage, but a benefit.

Methods Pursued

In the actual prmctiice of Light Burning, mehtods
differ greatly due to the nature of the forest flooyw,
Thus, some timber owners allow fires to run at will

through their holdings, It is claimed that the Red

23

River Lumber Company not only permits fires to run
through the timber butactually sets them at favorable t
times throughout the season, and allows them to run
without going to the trouble of patrolling them. Very
little damage is done to the timbér, is the report, as
the land is level and extremely opén. To illustrate
the Light Burning methods, however, where Light Burn-
ing is actually carried out - that is, where fires are
set, patrolled and controlled by a crew of men - the
following practices are noted.

The method commonly prusued is to set fire to the
litter within the forest, either in the spring before
the ground becomes so dry as to cause an intense fire,
or in the fall siter the fall rains have started. If
on a level area, fires are started in various parts of
the forest and are watehed from the boundary of the area
which is to be burned. In most cases, a fire line is
constructed about the portion of timberland included
within the burning project and fires are started from
this line. A crew of men remains on guard, their duty
being to patrol the fire line to prevent the chance es-
cape of the fire outside the inclosed area, and to aee
that, as far as possible, the ground is burned over
uniformty. A number of fire lines may be constructed
thru the area, thus dividing the original area into
smaller sections, which are burned successively from
the lines so constructed,

In some cases where Light Burning has been done,

24

trees which were fire-scarred were protected by piling
earth and sbones about them, thus eliminating all dan-
ger of igniting. This was the method employed by Clin-
ton Walker of the Red River Lumber Company in 1910,
when 200,000 acres were Light Burned, All necessary
precautions to prevent destruction of merchantable tim-
ber were taken; fire scara were filled with soil, wind-
falls close to mature trees were removed, and deep ac-
cumulations of litter at the base of the brees were
scattered. With these steps taken, fire was started

in e@ number of places and allowed to run at will.

Captain Joseph A. Kitts, of the Southern Pacific
Company, claims to have practiced Light Burning Suc-
cessfully for over a quarter of a century in both sec-
ond growth and mature stands. The method was tearned
from the Sierra Nevada Indians. Mr. Kitts burns dur-
ing and at the end of the wet season, periodically,
dependent upon the local rate of accumulation of the
litter.

Heretofore, practically no Light Burning has been
carried out during the summer or dry season. During
the summer of 1920, however, the Weed Jhumber Company
of Weed; California, conducted controlled burning on
some of their timber lands in the vicinity of Bray.
This operation was watched with considerable interest
by everyong in favor or against Light Burning. Pre-
vious to this, it had been generally understood by

voth sides that controlled burning should not be en-

25

gaged-in during the dry season, due to the danger of
such a fire escaping. This work was performed by a
crew of about twenty men under the direction of Mr.
Charles W. King, a former forest ranger. The crew

was @ivided into two squads - a trail squad and a

fire squad. The task of the former was to cut fire
trails dividing the area into 160 acre blocks and
following as far as possible the land subdivisions.

The tools employed were principally ax and shovel.

If on open ground, the trail was merely made to wiéth
of the shovel. If through brush or reproduction, it
was extended two or three feet or wider, depending
upon the height and density of the cover. Snags with-
in thirty to fifty yards of the green edge of the block
were felled, The work was done in orderly and system-
atic fashion, the trail crew keeping two or three blods
ahead to the fire crew so as to provide lines upon
which they could fall back, should the fire by any
chance escape from one block into the next. [In start-
ing the fires, the men were scattered along the fire
Line of one of these 160 acre blocks. Firing did not
begin until the middle of the aftermoon, for fire burns
with less intensity at nightfall than it does during
the heat of the day. At a given time fires were set
simultaneowely along the fire lines. As soon, however,
as the edges of the bloek were burned from fifth to
one hundred feet, the crew built numerous fires in-

side. In this way 160 acres could usuallybe burned

over in 4-6 hours. One unit having been burned, the

26

crew returned to camp, leaving the burned area to smoul-
der unwatched until early morning, when patrolmen were
dent out to the lines to see that the fire had not cyussed
over into unburned areas. Following the method, 15,000

acres were burned over during July and August of 1920.

Claims of the Light Burning Advocates

Their general claims are to the effect that Light
Burning is practicabhe in all coniferous forests, but
particularly,to the pine forests of California, due to
the even age and fire resistance of the species; that
the Indians practiced Light Burning as a means of fire
protection, saying that if fires were kept out, inflamm-
able debris would accumulate to the extent tmt were a
fire to occur - and one would occur regardless of methods
employed to prevent it - it would be so intense as to
destroy the entire stand; that there are no records of
conflagrations before the advent of man who py his prac-
tice of keeping fires out of the forests has so increased
the amount of logs, snags, brush and litter that travel
in the forests has been rendered ixtremely difficult;
fires will occur ultimately, due to lightning and ac-
cidénts, so we will gain more in the end if we delib-
erately fire our forests before there is a sufficient
accumulation of debris within them to render it danger-
ous; the fire exclusion policy as now practiced by the

Forest Service has been introduced from Europe where

27

it works successfully because inflammable material is
removed from the forests by hand; private timber owners
do not practice forest management due primarily to in-
adequate fire protection; the lumber industry will. ul-
timately become extinct if the present policy of fire

exclusion is continued,

(1) Meture Timber

More specifically, what relation exists between
Light Burning and the mature timber? The Light Bur-
ners state that the damage done to large trees by
frequent surface fires, is negligible-and does not fire-
scar the trees. More than this, that it is practicelly
impossible to cause a fire-scar on a large yellow pine,
Not only, they say, will Light Burning injure mature
trees, but it is of decided atanatee in clearing the
lower trunk of branches as is evidenced by the clear
trunks of old trees which successfully withstood the
fires of the Indians. Furthermore, the fires serve to
kill bark-beetles and fungus growth, to destroy insect
breeding places, as windfalls and debris accumulations,
and by smoking and charrimg the outer bark of the trees,
prevent the entrance of bark-beetles. Light Burning
will be an effectual check upon the ravages of these
beetles which will otherwise remain uncontrolled and in

time destroy all of the pine timber in California,

28

(2) Reproduction

iy

It is further maintained that light fires favor
reproduction by destroying litter and otherwise pre-
paring the seedbed by driving away rodents, removing
brush and litter and exposing the mineral soil. Pol-
lowing the removal of the mature stand, burning will
insure and immediate and uniform young stand. Repro-
duction is not desirable in a mature or nearly mature
etand because it hinders the growth of the larger trees.
When a yound stand occupies the ground, fire has a
beneficial selective thinning effect on the dense
stands as the defective and hence more inflammable
trees will be removed, while the remaining trees will
be relieved of their lower limbs thus insuring clear
lumber in the future, “mall trees which come in un-
der mature timber never become sufficiently large as
to have much value, hence, they might just as well be

prevented from growing the first place.

(3)Brush Fields

As regards the formation of brush fields, Light
Burning advocates affirm that there is no evidence
that brugh areas and openings in the timber belt were
ever occupied by trees. Brush fields are a permanent
natural cover, not due to fires, and under no condit-

ions would an establishment of timber on such areas

29

be possible.

Burning is of advantage in grazing because it
stimulates sprout growth of shrubs and the quantity of
grass and herbs. Forage in dense brush fields is ren-
dered accessible and the gathering of stock is facil-

iteted,
(4) Watersheds

And in the case of watersheds, the claim is that
fires improve the soil by Removing the cover so that
sunlight can react directly upon it. <A greater abun-
dance of plant is furnished. A dense forest cover re-
moves imuense quantities of water from the soil and
hence that amount of water is rendered unavailable to
the people belww who need more water for comestic and

irrigation purposes.

Summary of theClaims of the Light Lurning Advocates

Hence, according to the beliefs of the Light Burn-
ing advocates, Light Burning affords protection to mature
timber, exerts a beneficial influence upon reproduction,
grazing grounds and watersheds and is not responsible
for the present brush fields of California. Were this
method practiced, therefore, throughout the forested
area of the state, and burning engaged in upon indiv-

idual areasat intervals of 3-7 years, the quantity of

debris upon the ground would be of such limited extent
that the standing timber would be thoroughly protected
from damage by any fire - so say those who believe that
California forests should be protected from fire by

Light Burning.

Protection by Fire Prevention and Suppression

Protection of forests from fire by prevention and
suppression is distinctly in contrast to Light Burning.
While the latter method advocates the use of light fires
running through the forests, the former believes a total
exclusion of fires is necessary during the dry or fire
season, and that when fire is used within the forest,
as a part of logging or silvicultural operations, the
burning should be limited to spot or kocal fires only.
This means that fires must not be allowed to burn over
the entire ground cover, but must be confined to small
spots within the forest when it is desired to burn
brush after logging or to consume snags or windfalls.
The contrast lies in the fact that Light Burners would
turn over the forest floor completely while the opposite
faction would permit only small local fires of limited
extent, and always under observation, for the removal
of slash, tops, etc., and with no desire to consume al
of the debris over the entire srea,.

Application of the Method

In theory, the method of protection by prevention

Ew!

and suppression is as follows:- All measures possible
are taken to prevent the starting of forest fires.

This is done through a combination of measures. In
the first place, as far as possible, the public is in-
formed of the danger from fires in the forests, and the
damage resulting therefrom, so that greater care will
be exercised in the use of fire in and about the for-
ests. Camp sites are planned in special relation to
freedom from fire rrsk, information is promulgated
concerning the proper location and method of making
fires, in connection with information of interest to
those who frequent the forests. Then, too, specific
laws are enacted regulating the use of fire in for-
ested regions, as those requiring spark arresters and
asfi pans on railroads, prohibiting the burning of brush
during the fire season, leaving camp fires unexting-
uished, and laws providing for the punishment of those
who wilfully or carelessly cause fires, requiring the
burning of slash after logging operations have been
carried out, and many other regulations tending to pre-
vent the starting. of forest fires.

Knowing, howerer, that although a great number of
fires may be prevented, many are still bound to occur
due to the universal use of fire by man, measures are
taken to extinguish those which do occur. This is
done by maintaining a detection and suppression force
on the forest. Detection of fires is undertaken by

establishing lookout stations on mountain peaks from

40

which can be obtained a clear and unobstructed view

of the surrounding country; by maintaining ground pa-
trols through various portions of the forest, and par-
ticularly where the fire hazard is extreme, as along
railroads and trails; and only recently, by patrolling
from the air by means of aircraft. By the detection
precautions, the majority of the fires can be seen
while yet they are small, word is sent in to the sup-
pression headquarters by telephone, telegraph or wire-
less, and a force of men is dispatched at once to ex-
tinguish the blaze. In this manner, the loss through
fires is materially reduced. With increased efficiency
and better organization, it is hoped sill further to

reduce the damage done by fires.

Advocates of the Method

Of the organizations in California relying upon
this method of protection, the United States Forest
Service with approximatedy 10 millions of National For-
ests which are timbered, is the leading fire protective
organization within the state. In 1920, 734 cooper-
ative agreements were entered into with the Forest Ser-
vice which secured over 3 million acres of private hol-
dings protected. There are also some private protect-
ive organizations among which might be enumerated the
Redwood Fire Protective Association, with a territory

of 100,000 acres, the Tamalpais Fire Association with

a3

holdings of 40,000 acrea, and the Stockments Protect-
ive Association with 25,000 acres protected under this

system.

Results of this Method

Systematic fire protection by the Forest Service
on the National Forests in California began in 1905
and 1906. Since that time the number and extent of
forest fires on National #“orest land have gradually
decreased - barring the two extremely bad fire years
of 1910 and 1917. It is estimated that on the Nat-
ional Forests an average area of 162,395 acres, or
.61% of the total, is burned over annually. “Of this
figure, 54,533 acres are timbered government lands.
The totwl estimated ammual loss due to fires is
$369,999.00 which includes the value of the timber,
reproduction and forage destroyed plus the costs-of
prevention and suppression. Of this sum, an average
of $164,932.00 has been expended for fire prevention
and $71,636.00 for suppression each year. In other
words, $2.016 is expended annually in protecting
.$1,000,000worth of timber. It is estimated that the
ance protection is $0.0062 per acre.

To quote from a report compiled by the District
Office, United States Forest Service, San Francisco,

Gelifornia, and relating to Light Burning in which is

made a statement concerning the results sedured by the

34

Forest Service in preventing and suppressing fires -
"The number of fires have apparently increased because
fewer fires escape discovery in recent years, and more
are fought when discovered. This is shown by the num-
bers of lightning fires revorted, for example.

"Man fires have increased because population and
humand activity have increased. Except in four bad
years there has been a devrease in the total are burned
over, There has been a great general decrease in the
average size of fires. Costs have naturally increased
due to increased wages and cost of equipment and sup-
plies,

"Total annual loss eieccoan averaged $369,900.00,
If this sum be charged as insurance against the value
protected of merely the timber alone (not considering
forage, etc.) appraised at 183, 331,438.00 in 1912, the
rate of insurance is only 2/10 of 1§.

"From 1908-1918, an average of 70,088 acres of
timber burned over annually, or .9 of 1% of the total
timbered are inside bounds. For the past 8 years,
since improved methods of fire fighting were inaugur-
ated, the average has been 49,312 acres, or 0.63 of
1%. This would permit a totation of 110-160 years be-
tween destructive fires. Fire history shows that prior
to any active protective measures, the average period
between fires was only & years,

“We have not succeeded in preventing fires or

fire damage. Increasing efficiency of the system is

35

indicated by what might have happened with increased
human activity causing more fires. Costs have been
commensurate with results attained and value protected,
if regarded merely as insurance, and a timber rotation

has been made possible.

Possibilities

"Forty two and three tenths percent of fires are
caused by lightning and unknown causes. Of the 17.3%
from unknown causes, few were due to lightning. Light-
ning fires are seldom classes as unknown, because the
storm history and scarred trees nearly always furnish
sufficient evidence. If we limit inpreventable fires
to those caused by lightning and other natural agencies,
(latter amounts to practically nothing) then 35-40%
of the fires will be absolutely unpreventable. In ad-
dition, there will always be a numter of fires due to
human carelessness and incendiarism and accidents.

"Lightning fires seldom result in great damage.
They ocfur in bunches, are less accessible and fre-
quently occur at high elevations in poorer timber and
under weather conditions which result in average light-
ning fires being smaller ee eas from all other
causes - 88.5 acres as compared with 144.4 acres, With
improved detection and means of travel, damage from

lightning fires can we reduced to a relatively small

value,

36

"Fire line construction, snag disposal, burning
of rotten logs and piled debris - real controllable
burning - will reduce difficulties of control. Serious
fires will always be a possibility, but they can be
reduced to few in number, and their occurrence no more
argument for the abandonment of fire protection than
the San Francisco fire of 1906 would be for abandonment
of the city fire department."

As is usually the case of all governmental de-
partments, the greatest difficulty is that sufficient
appropriations are not made available tocarry out to
the best advantage the policies of the department.
This holds true of the United States Forest Service,
which receives but one-tenth the appropriation which
Forest Service officials deem necessary for the proper
administration and protection of the National Forests.
With increased funds, the Forest Service officials
maintain that the efficiency of the present fire pro-
tective organization could be greatly increased. This
could be brought about by an increase in number of
fire lines, lookouts, patrolmen, trails, @c. Further-
more, by the employment of air patrols and new and
cheaper methods of snag disposal, the fire hazard can

be greatly reduced.

ae

Results of Experience in Fire Protection

Failure of Light Burning to Protect

While considerable has been said regarding the
alleged merits of Light Burning as applied to forests,
very little actual data showing the results of its
application are obtainable. Of the data extant, per-
haps those of the Forest Service are most comprehen~
sive and authoritative, due to the fact that men train-
ed in investigative work have mede studies of the ef-
fects produced by Light Burning. For this reason,
most of the following data showing the inability of
Light Eurning to protect, were obtained from the files
of the Forest Service, San Francisco, Californis.
Supplementing this material are the observations made
by the writer during a period of four and one-half
months spent in the Sierra region,

It is claimed that Light Burning should not be
practiced because:-

1. It results in severe damage to the merchant-

able stand and to reproduction,

2. %It reduces the amount of available forage.

2. It causes deterioration of the soil and de-

nudes watersheds,

4. It is practically impossible to burn over

considerable areas uniformly, due to @iffer-
ence in moisture conditions of various ex-

posures,

38

A. Damage to Merchantable Timber

Studies made by the Forest Service on represen-
tative areas which have been Light Burned show that
considerable damage to the merchantable stand almost
always results. Records kept by the Forest Service
between 1908-1918, prove that fires have caused an
average annual loss of almost 39 million board feet
on both federal and private lands within the National

Forests in California.

(1) Damage Resulting from Burning Down of Pre-

viously Fire-scarred TLrees

A considerable portion ofthis loss occurs through
the burning down of fire-scarred trees. Fire-scarred
trees occur throughout the Sierra region and comprise
a large percentage of the merchantable stand. On some
areas these trees mayform 75% of the merchantable stand,
although the average for the entire region is much les
than this (perhaps 20%). The species most commonly
deeply scarred are yellow pine, sugar pine, incense
cedar and douglas fir, in the order named. Scars caused
by fires are always on the up-hill side if on a slope,
This is no doubt due to the accumulation of inflammable
debris against the side of the tree, which when ignited
forms a fire of sufficient intensity to scar the tree,
In Light Burning an are upon which are fire-scarred

trees, it has been found impossible to prevent consid-

a7

erable damage to the trees so scarred unless either a
fire line is constructed around each one, or it is
protected by piling earth and rocks about the base -

a procedure prohibited on account of excessive cost.

A fire, no matter how light, upon coming in contact
with the pitchy butts of the fire-scarred trees, ig»
nites them immediately, after which they will burn un-
til all of the resinous wood surrounding the entire
scar has been consumed. Only after the sear has been
completely charred over will the fire die out, ABs

soon as the scar cools, the tree secretes quantities

of resin to heal the wound, and within a week the base
of the tree will again be highly inflammable, The
amount of damage resulting to fire-scarred merchantable
timber is directly proportional to the number of fire-
scarred trees, and to the depth of the scares. This
form of damage is usually inconspicuous, yet is it con-
stant and inevitable, and considerable, because the
largest and most valuable trees are lost. It is only
rarely that non-fire-scarred trees are burnéd by a

Single fire.

Examples of Loss Occurring thru_the Burning Down

of Previously Fire-scarred Trees

I. Forest Examiner S. B. Show in 1918, made a study of
five typical large fires in northern California, cov-

ering an area of 11,836 acres, He found that fire~

40

scarred trees were burned down on all slopes and ex-
posures. The extent of damage from this source was
estimated as follows:-

Loss by the Burning Down of Previously Fire-scarred

Trees. Show, 1918. El Dorado National Forest.

Species:Yellow:S5ugar :Douglas:White:Incense: Total
$ Pine :Pine : Wir : Fir ¢ Cedar ;
Aver. 5d3 :

Ft. per; 370
Acre i

e e «
° ° e

35 3: 552 85 75 1009

Stump- : ‘ ; ; ?
age Val;$0.925:0.122 : 0.552 :0.043: 0.038 : $1.68

Stumpage rates - YB - $2.50, SB - 3.50, D¥
WF & IC - £0. 50 per M.

1.00,

II. The Howard Fire of Sept. 1917.

This fire occurred on 560 acres, the average stand
being 17,700 bd.ft. per acre in 1917. The composition
by volume was:- yellow pine - 32%; sugar pine - 11%;
white fir - 48%; incense cedar - 9%. The area was
examined one year later by S. B. Show, and the follow-
ing averages obtained: -

Loss from Burning Down of Previously Fire-scarred Trees

Species: Extent of Damage :Board Feet :Value
: No. of trees & size : per Acre ;

Yellow :1-36"-6 log tree for:

Pine : each 5 acres : 460 : $1.15
Sugar :1-42"-7 log tree for : :
Pine : each 20 acres : 160 : 0.56
White :1-34"-6 log tree for ; :
Fir 3 each 2.5 acres : 90 : 0,04
Incense:1-38"-5 log gree for : .
Cedar: each 2.5 acres : 800 : 0.46
fOtal. pet. ASTE s+se-eseses55— 1,510¢¢e-- $2.15

Thus, 8% of the total volume was destroyed merely

41

by the burning down of previously fire-scarred trees,

III. Thornton T. Munger made an examination on 130
acres of typical yellow pine in the Blue Mountains of
Oregon, which had grown under conditions similar to
those found in the Sierras of California and which had
previously undergone periodic burning by light surface
fires. He found that one large tree was burned down

for every 1.12 acres burned over.

IV. Table Showing Percentage of each Form of Injury
that Trees of various Species receive from Sur-
face Fires. JT. T. Munger - average of 329 1/2 Acres,

Species:Burned to : Felled by : Scarred by : Apparently

:; Death : Fire : Fire . : Uninjured
Yellow ; 3.13 ; 1.88 : 42.54 : 49.75
Pine ; 5 E :
Douglas: 4.38 : 1.39 * 2736 : 76.35
Fir : : : :
Grand : 13.06 : --- e 25.35 : 58.59
Fir : : : :
Western: tP- : 2.49 : 33.38 : 64.13
Larch : : :
White : 23.82 : --- > 42,86 ‘ 33.33
Pine : : : :
Englenn: 26.65 : --- : 46,40 : 26.95
Spruce: : : 4
Noble : 44.12 : --- an oe) > «648,53
Fir : : : 3
Western: 9.21 : .38 : 27.60 : 62.81
Hemlock: : : :
West.R.: 16.95 : 7.28 > 52.34 > 23.43
Cedar : 5 - :

Thus, in the above stand, and average of 33% for
all species was scarred by fire, Each recurring sur-
face fire will not only deepen the scars alreads for-

med, but will increase the number of fire-scarred trees,

42

V. That the scarring of trees is not confined to those
of the small diameter classes is shown by the following
table prepared by T. T. Munger.

Table Showing the Percentage of esch Form of In-
jury that Trees of each Diameter Class receive from Sur-
face Fires, by T. T. Munger.

D.B.H.:Burned to:Felled by:Scarred by:Apperently
Inches; Death : Fire : Fite : All Right

WESTERN YELLOW PINE

12-18 : 7.68 O63 % 32.22 +: 59.27
19-24 : 4.96 5,22 39.69 : 50.13
25-30 : 2.98 3.26 50.96 : 42.86
31-36 : 5.83 2,92 53.35 +: 37.90
over36: 6.31 3.16 60.00 : 30,53
DOUGLAS FIR
12-18 : 4.40 2.26 19.91 : 74.43
19-24 : 7.38 : 2.89 20.90 : 68.85
25-30 310.75 ; #23 17.92 : 68.10
31=30 2 7.34 : 13° * 35.60: = 75565
37-42 : 7.66 B.Oe eh Dee 2 O76 94
43-48 : 3.64 2.84 ; 18.62 294 200
49-54 : 1.56 : 2.49 : 17.49 > 92.50
65-60 : o--~ fo oscoce- : 2.00 : 98,00
over60: <.4- poseece- : 4.08 ; 95.92

_ This would prove that the more valuable species,
Se pine, is much less fire resistant than douglas
fir. [The percentage of fire-scarred yellow pine trees
increases progressively as the trees become larger. In
other words, the number of fire-scarred trees is in di-

rect provortion to the number of surface fires the #el-

Low pine has to withstand. ,

ye acey
hinge

a3

(2) Lamage to Merchantable Timber thru Heat Killing

Heat killing is the form of damage resulting from
crewn fires. Although crown fires are uncommon'in the
coniferous forests of the Sierra region, they have been
known to occur, causing considerable damage over exten-
sive areas. Thus, in September 1917, 560 acres were
burned on the Shasta National Forest (Howard Fire) on
250 acres of which the timber was entirely destroyed.
Also, in the Palm Creed Fire in 1897, on the Crater Nat-
ional Forest in Oregon,.a crown fire killed all but a
few scattered trees on an area of over 800 acres. This
occurred in a pine-fir forest similar to those of Nor-
thern California, S. B. Show in making a study of five
typical fires ¢tmentioned above) found that 3% of the
total area observed had been heavily burned by local
or general crown fires. The loss by heat killing on
the areas thus heavily burned, averaged 8,530 board feet
per acre, and had a stumpage value of $13.51 per acre.

While genuine crown fires seldom occur, intense
local burning:is common. ‘Southern and western slopes
dry. more quickly than other exposures, as do also the
heads of draws. It is here that light surface fires
often flare up suddenly and destroy large trees, West-
ern yellow pine and sugar pine suffer less from heat
killing than do the firs, cedars and western white pine,
This is due to the fact that the bark is relatively

thicker, the base of the crown is higher, the foliage

44

is coasser, and the buds are covered with heavy scales
and sheltered by long coarse leaves. White fir is par-
ticularly inflammable due to the resinous character of
the leaves and small flat buds. The cedar buds are naked
and hence are easily heat killed. While the loss by heat
killing or burning of the crowns is very noticeable, it
is probable that in the aggregate that less than one haf
of the damage is from this source as compared with that

lost by the burning down of fire-scarred trees.

(3) Loss thru Cull and Reduction in Grade of _Lumber

Due to Fire-scars

The loss through cull and reduction in the grade
of lumber manifests itself in the following two ways,
First, is the direct loss in timber value from cull due
to the presence of the scars, Secondly, is the greater
and secondary loss due to rot. The typed of defects
caused by fire are fire-scar proper, cat-face, fire-
scar and pitch, fire-scar and center-rot, and fire-scsar
and stuwnn rot. Mill studies made by Swift Berry prove
that fire alone is often directly responsible for one-
half of the cull in logs. The lumber so kost is of ex-

cellent quality as it is from the larger butt logs.

(4) Loss due to Reduction in Rate of Growth of

Injured Trees

As the rate of growth depends upon the rate of

Missing Page

AG
probably cause more damage to the forests of California
during certain seasons than the average annual losses
occurring from fires. It nas been determined by the For-
est Service that fires result in a concentration of bark-
beetles on areas that have been burned. Healthy trees
often resist attacks by the beetles by causing an ex-
cess of sap flow. Those which have been slightly én-
jured, however, seem to be preferred by the beetles, as
entrance is effected without trouble. Thus, in 1916, a
fire occurred on the Plugias National Forest in a pole
stand of yellow pine, scorching the crowns, yet not kill-
ing the trees, In September 1917, S. B.. Show tallied
sample plots on the burned and similar adjacent unburned
areas. On the burned area he found that of 37 trees
untouched by fire, three had been attacked but had re-
sisted entrance by excessive sap flow; of 31 scorched
trees within 50 feet of the others, 13 were attacked
and the beetles had gained an entrance. On plots in
the unburned timber 200 yards away, 184 poles examined
had no pitch-tubes showing the entrance of bark-beetles,

Studies made by J. E. Patterson on three mmaburned
areas in Rogue River County, Oregon, in pine timber,
also prove that bark-beetles attack en masse injured
trees. On these areas only .7% of the volume of the
stand was killed, 6.5% severely injured, 27.84 slightly
injured, while 65% was unharmed. A comparison of the
losses due to beetles before and after the fire indic-

ated that the increase in destruction on the burned

area was 1.177 @, while that immediately outside of the

Aq

burn remained constant. That the injured trees were
most often attacked is evidenced by the fact that 75%
of the pines attacked on the burn, had been slightly
or moderahely injured by fire, 8% of the attacks were
on uninjured trees, and no trees killed by the fire

were touched,

(6) Damage from Wood-destroying Fungi Following

Fire Injury

Fungi, in the majority of cases, gain entrance
through open fire-scars, and the damage resulting there-
from may often be much greater than that from the fire
itself. Fire causes the largest and deepest wounds,
frequently burning deeply into the heartwood, Such
wounds expose the unprotected wood surface for long
periods of time before the tree can secrete sufficient
quantities of resins to resist the attacks of fungi.
Hence, practically all fire-scarred timbér is injured
more or less by wood-destroying fungi. Fungi damage
seems to most extensive in white fir and incense cedar.

Dr. J. S. Boyce of the Office of Investigation in
Forest Pathology, having made a study on the Plumas Nat-
ional Forest and the Stanislaus National Forest, in Cal
ifornia, found that of 1,075 typical trees felled and
dissected to determine the method of infection with dry-
rot fungus, 646 bore fire-scars, 67% of which had be-

come infected. As the entrance afforded by fire-scars

A8

is practically always at the base of the tree, the most
valuable timber is destroyed. Hence, it can be seen

that the damage resulting from the scarring of trees by
light surface fires is tremendous after wood-destroying

fungi gain an entrance,

(7) Reduction in Density of Stand

Logging is not practicable in the Sierra region if
the merchantable timber is much less than 8,000 board
feet per acre. Stands which are almost on the border
line of the required merchantable volume, may be re-
duced below it by one or more surface fires. If a few
large mature trees are killed from time to time by Burn-
ing down or heat killing, and reproduction is prevented,
a reduction in the density of the stand must necessarily
take place. #xamples of this are found in the extensie
brushy areas within the timber belt of California which

today bear only scattered large trees.

(8) Changes in Composition

Due to variance in fire resistance of mature trees
and reproduction, and in the requirements necessary for
the establishment of seedlings, fires may in some cases
be the controlling factor in determining which species
may ultimately occupy a given site. J. V. Hoffman has

indicated an area near the Oregon-California state line
where, due to light surface fires repeated at intervals

of 10-15 years, the original stand of yellow pine,
sugar pine, white fir and douglas fir has been convert-
ed into pure stands of knobcone pine. Show has found
the same condition occurring on large areas in the Mc
Gloud Flat Region .in California.

B. Destruction of Reproduction by Light Burning

The average annual loss of reproduction by fire
in California on National Forests, between the years
of 1908 and 1918 has been valued at $52,173.00. In
general, the lumbermen consider reproduction as having
no value, claiming that it detrimental to logging and
increases the fire hazard. To the forester, however,
reproduction is of vital importance as the source of
our future timber supply. There is a particular need
of favoring reproduction in the timber regions of Cal-
ifornia for the forests are all-aged. It would be a
poor economy that did not protect the advance growth
growth in these forests so that a supply of timber will
be available as soon as popsible after the now mature
crop has been harveated,

Qn an area Light Burned by the Sierra Iron Com-
pany near Mohawk, Plumas County, Cslifornia, in the
spring of 1912, and examined by Show three years later,
it was found that practically all the reproduction less
than 6 feet high had been killed, An examination made

on 5 sample plots showed that 82% of the saplings and

small poles between 2-8" were also killed.

Another area was examined by Show to ascertain the
damage resulting to the reproduction froni Light Burning,
This was at Castle Rock, California, on an area of 8 acis.
The fire was the lightest which could have spread. Af-
ter examinations 4 times at varying intervals after the
fire, it was learned that practically all of the seed-
lings, saplings and poles of all species (yellow pine,
incense cedar and douglas fir) below 2" D.B.H. and 15
years of sge, were killed, and 60% of the young trees
between 15-25 years were also killed,

Upon an area ideal for Light Burning, namely that
of T. B. Walker, near Westwood, California, which was
burned in October 1910, S. B. Show made an examination
in 1915, to determine the damage resulting. Reproduct-
ion mostly yellow pine and white fir, was everywhere
abundant. On three areas of 2500 square feet, selected
where the damage was greatest, 83% of the white fir,
and 75% of the yellow pine seedlings, saplings and poles
were killed. There still remained alive 436 seedlings
per acre of which 75% were yellow pine. Even where the
damage was heaviest, the remaining seedlingswere still
equal to the number used in extensive planting. It
must be borne in mind, however, that this was the-first
time the area had been Light Burned. Succeeding light
fires would surely reduce the remaining young growth
far below that required to sufficiently restock the area,

Studies of damage to reproduction in this region
show that natural regeneration cannot take place if re-

neated light surface fires occur. Deterioration of site

vel

is bound to follow if this practice is carried out.

(c) Brush Fields

From a memorandum obtained from the files of the
United States Forest Service, District 5, San Francisco,
California, was obtained the following: -

“Within the timbered National Forests of Califor-
nae excluding the Angeles, Cleveland, Mono, Inyo and
Santa Barbara, there are 2,847,134 acres classified as
brush-fields. On this area, 1,861,870 acres or 13.6%
of the timbered forests, consist of brush-fields with-
in the timber belt, aii the soil occupied once bore a
stand of timber, and is capable in most cases of bear-
ing timber again. They are surrounded by timber, is-
lands of timber and scattered large trees, snags, stum-
ps and roots appear eee trees planted there
grow, acattered young trees slowly come in from natural
seeding, and the sites are the same as adjacent timber-
ed lands except that the soil is poorer due to deter-

ioration.®

(1) Origin of Brush-fields

There can be little doubt that repeated fires
cause the formation of brush fields, Brushy areas in
timber belts and on soils similar and adjacent to those

bearing tree growth, They are irregular in outline,

often stopping at the foot of slopes, and in timber,

or along ridge tops which bear scattering lines of trees,
Sometimes they form fongue-like extensions up exposed
ridges. Charred stumps, snags, roots and lone trees

are to be found in most brush-fields.

As compared with tree growth, most shrubby species
are more fire resistant and prolific. J. V. Hoffman
observed the sprouting capacity of manzanita after fire
to be as follows:-

Manzanita - (A. pungens platyphylla) Sprouting after fie.
Kinney Creek Fire ~- 1915.

Bush No. :Main Branches :Burned Sub- :New Shoots

: of Old Stump ; Branches:
1 2 8 rs) > 48
2 : 2 : 10 : 32
3 : 5 : 15. ge 95

Sample plots measured by J. V. Hoffman after amother
fire showed that common manzanita (A. manzanita) estab-
lished 91 seedlings per square yard where there were but
3 bushed per square yard.

Show gives the formation of a typical brush-field
as follows: -

"An area of 159200 acres on the Lower McCloud River
and adjacent Squaw Creek watersheds supported, 50 years
ago, a mixed stand of yellow pine, sugar pine, douglas
fir and incense cedar, averaging 15 M board feet per
acre. In 1875 a fire burned over the area from June to
October and killed 50-75% of the timber, Following this,
the brush spread rapidly. In 1898, another fire occurred

on the same area, killing most of the remaining timber,

AN
le

At the present time there are only scattered trees left,
and the brush is so dense that travel is extremely dif-
ficult. The average stand here, is now less than 1M
board feet per acre. Although reproduction is slowly
coming in, it is estimated that 100 years will be nec-

essary to replace the former stand,

(2) Loss of Timber Producing Capacity

It is estimated by the Forest Service that the
brush-fields in the timbered belt ao ea eouie Nat-
ional Forests should bear stands averaging at least
20 M board feet per acre. This would make the total
capacity of these fields 37 pillion board feet, or

enough to run all bf the pine mills in California for

25 years.

(3) Increased Cost of Protection

Besides being non-productive, brush areas increase
the fire hazard of adjacent timber. Brush+fields make
trail and telephone construction much more expensive.
In 1916 and 1917, the Forest Service found that trail |
and telephone construction in timber averaged $24.00

per fire, while for brush-fields it was $98.40 per fire.

Lor
oS

D. Damage to Grazing

Burning isa often indulged in to improve grazing
and facilitate stock’ gathering. This no doubt will
improve most browse range by increasing the number of
tender shoots and rendering penetrable to stock, such
brush-fields as are extremely dense. On the other hand
burning the grazing area will usually result in the los
of part of the grazing season. If burning is continued
at short intervals, site deterioration is bound to oc-
cur. Furthermore, some of the more valuable browse
species as blue-brush, deer brush, California black
oad, Garry oak, service berry and bitter cherry are more
exacting in their soil requirements than are manzanita,
chinquapin and snow brush which are much poorer browse.
Hence, as soil deterioration takes place, the poorer
species will replace the better ones. Thus, repeated
light fires damage grazing areas condiderably. It is
estimated that the annual range loss due to fire on the

National Forests from 1908-1918, averaged $5,276.00.

E. Damage to Watersheds

Repeated surface fires on watersheds, finally re-
duce the stand materially and expose the soil to eros-
ive agencies. As a consequence, damage by floods. fre-
quently results. This may include destruction of pro-

perty and life, the comering of valuable agricultural

a?

land with sand and debris,the loss of irrigation water
at a season when it is most needed, and the decrease of
timber and forage producing capacity due to loss of soil
from the upper slopes. When slopes are denuded the loss
of water for power and irrigation is wery evident, For
est cover on steep slopes controls the surface run-off
and tends to delay the melting of, snow. The main factor
in regulating the run-off is the litter and humus layer.
which acts as a sponge in retaining the precipitation,
Frequent fires will destroy this layer and erosion will
take place. At high elevations where the soil is diredt-
ly exposed, wind may be an important factor along with .

water in transvorting the soil,

Cost. of Light Burning

Even though Light Burning afforded the protection
that the Light Burning advocates Cleim, the excessive
costs necessary to practice it, would prevent its ap-
plication over extensive areas. To burn the area but
once does not eliminate the fire hazard on most areas,
This is due to the fact that lower branches and needles
of reproduction, and shrubs are killed. By the next. .
season, this dead material has to a large extent, fallen
to the ground, new shoots spring up profusely from the
shrubs, and the debris upon the ground is of sufficient
quantity to form a damaging fire if ignited, Therefore

on an area to be protected by Light Burning, it is prob

56

able that burning will be necessary for three consecutive
years before the inflammable debris will be removed to
the extent that genuine protection is afforded, Fel-
lowing this period it will be necessary to burn only at
intervals of three to five or seven years, depending

upon the rate of litter accumulation. It is the repeat-
ed cost of burning that makes the practice of Light Burn-
ing pronibitive, if for no other reason. The Light Burn-
ing operation carried out by the Red River Lumber Compay
in 1910, cost from 8-75¢ per acre burned, the average
costs being approximated at 47¢ per acre. An examin-
ation of the area 5 years later by members of the United
States Forest Service and State Forester's office, in-
dicated that the fire hazard was just as great, if not
worse, than before the area had been Light Burned, The
Light Burning work done by the Weed Lumber Company dur-
ing the summer of 1920, cost in the neighborhood of $1.00
per acre. It is the intention of the Company to burn tre
same area again in 1921, at an estimated cost of 50¢ per
acre. If this is carried out as;planned, an area of
17,000 acres of timberland will be protected from fire

to a certain extent for not more than 6 years, at a cost
of about$25,500.00. In order to fully protect this burned
area, the adjacent timberlands must be similarly burned,
It is obvious that, costs being similar, it would be fin-
ancially impossible to Light Burn areas of any great ex-
tent, as the forest lands administered by the Forest Ser-

vice in California,

af

Danger f Light Burning

—v wa

In practicing Light Burning, there is practically
always e vossibility of the fire becoming uncontrollable.
An area on a uniformly gentle slope and of but one ex-
posure might be burned with a minimum of danger, be-
cause the moisture content of the debris on the forest
floor would no doubt be uniform, But in relatively few
cases do conditions occur where the area to be burned
is consistent in slope and exposure. With a diversified
topography it is impossible to determine exactly when
Light Burning can be practiced without danger. Nor-
thern slopes will not burn if the southern exposures
alone are taken as the criterion, Therefore, anly a
certain percentage of the surface will be burned over
dependent upon the area of the different exposures. On
the other hand, if Light Burning is postponed until nor-
thern exposures will burn, the southern slopes will be
highly inflammable, and an intense and dangerous fire
will result on the latter slopes. Hence, Light Burn-
ing is dangerous, in as much that moisture conditions
vary with degree of slope and exposure of the forest
floor,

Again, relative humidity may be the determining
factor in the danger resulting from surface fires. It
is generally understood that forest fires burn with
greater intensity between the hours of 10 am and 4 pm

than they do at other times. This is due to the fact

58

that the relative humidity decreases during the warmer
part of the day. With a decrease of the relative hum-
idity, the ignition point is lowered, and the fire burns
more easily. Knowing this, Mr. Chas. W. King, who was
in charge of the Light Burning operation of the Weed
Lumber Company in the summer of 1920, waited until late
afternoon before lighting the fires. The fires were
allowed to burn only unti] the next morning when they
were extinguished, In this way the danger from intense
fires was mitigated, and the precedent of controlled
burning during the dry season was established, The
trouble in this connection is that the relative hum-
idity of the atmosphere may be favorable at thetime
the fires are started, but that it is subject to fre-
cuent and sudden changes due to warm winds, &t the
present time no scientific observations have been made
concerning the relation of atmospheric humidity of the
time of Light Burning.

Another very important factor which may add to the
danger of Light Burning is wind. Regulated surface fires
may be fanned into fires of such intensity that they

may be very destructive, if not altogether uncontrollable.
These winds ere more particularly prevalent in canyons
and ravines where they blow up the slope during the day
time and down during thenight.

No one of the above factors may necessarily be the
source of danger in Light Burning, but a combination of
two or more which increases the intensity of the fire

and the amount of damage done.

oo

Failure of Protection under Prevention and Suppression Method

Losses Occurring

While the majority of fires occurring each year
upon the National Forests of California are detected
soon after they ere started, still there is always a
certain amount of damage done between the time the fire
is started and the time it is detected and suppressed, |
Consequently, while it may seem that this loss is in-
significant, it.sreadily amounts to a sum that should not
be overlooked, According to Forest Service statistics,
(1908-1918), there is an annual average loss of $133,431.
on the lands within the National Forest boundaries. of
California, of which $75,982.00 is in timber, $52,173.00
in reproduction, and $5,276.00 in forage. To this sum
should be added the costs of suppression - $71,636.00,
and of prevention - $164,932.00, making a total of
$369,999.00, the average annual loss due to fires.

This sum when apportioned over the extensive holdings
of the Forest Service in California amounts to only a

Little over 4$¢ per acre per year.

Non-insurance of Private Holdings

The private owner of timberland while afforded pro-
tection to a certain extent has no definite assurance

that his tree crop will remain intact during the fire

60

season, Whereas the government apnportions considerable
fire losses over an extensive acreage and proves that
the annual loss amounts to but a few cents per acre, the
individual owner can not do this. The fact remains, al-
weys, that the damage is concentrated upon the burn it-
self. If the property of a private person is partially
or entirely bttrned over, it will gain him hothing to
proportion the incurred loss over the remaining acreage,
His holdings are usually localized and of limited ex-
tent. Hence, if his lands are burned the loss is dir-

ect and absolute.

Efficiency

It must be admitted that owingto the inability to
secure adequate appropriations, the National Forests of
California are not in general efféciently protected.by
means of preventive and suppressive measures. More fire
trails, lookouts, air patrols, railroad patrols, and
better means of communication and transportation are
necessary. The fire risk of topographic units should
be standardized. The corps of men in the detection and

suppression organization should be materially increased.

61

The Light Burning Committee

It is the function of the Light Burning Committee
to determine whether or not Light Burning is a practicable
method of fire protection to be émployed in the forests
of California. The solution will be arrived at by ob-
serving comprehensively and impartially the results of
Light Burning on typical areas. Representatives of the
Committee examine the areas go burned and carefully de-
termine the damage done to mature timber and reproduction
and the probable decrease of increase of the fire haz-
ard resulting from the burning. In this way, it is hoped
that an unprejudiced and scientific decision regarding
the practice of Light Burning will be reached, and that

in the near future.

Light Burning vommittee Report on the Bray Operation

In a report entitled "Controlled Burning at Bray,
California", by Wm. C. Hddge, Jr., Chairman of the
Light Burning Committee, stated that on this typical
area, Light Burning as a protective measure, was a
failure, the positive results being but temporary and
the cost considerable. He said that fully as good pro-
tection might have been gained by patrol and suppressia,
and this for a very few cents per acre as compared with
the one dollar (approximately) which it did cost. Fur-

thermore, he wrote, that only ¢ of the reproduction had

62

been killed, while the object of the burning was to re-
move all of the reproduction, and hence eliminate con-
siderable fire danger to the mature timber. A fire of
sufficient ieeasiiy to remove all of the reproduction
would necessarily have been a severe summer fire - an
uncontrolled rather than a controlled burning. Mr.
Hodge judged that it was extremely doubtful if even a
third or fourth burning would serve to clean up the

ground sufficiently to afford genuine protection,

Investigation of the Walker Tract - January 1921.

Mr. Hodge and a number of Forest Service officials
made a survey of the damage done by a light surface
fire which burned over a considerable area on both Nat-
ional Forest land and a portion of the holdings of the
Red River Lumber Company,*in northern California. It
was ascertained that the loss due to the burning down
of previously fire-ecarred trees was 600 board feet per
acre, The loss by heat killing amounted to 1600 board
feet per acre. The total loss from thin surface fire
on 20,000 acres burned was 40,000,000 board feet, hav-
ing a value of over $100,000.00. That the several
small separate fires which finally resulted into the
one big one, could have been controlled by an efficient
protective organization, is the opinion of the men who

examined the area,

As a result of this examination, the Red River

63

Lumber Company has decided to cooperate with the Forest
Service in preventing fires on its holdings. A news
letter published by the United States Forest Service of
California, on April 29, 1921, quoted an article which
appeared in the “Westwood Sugar Pine", a paper printed
by the Red River Lumber Company, which is the largest
private timberland holder within the state. The ar-
ticle quoted reads:-

"A very important step forward was taken a few

days ago, when aniagreement was signed by Vice-Pres-
ident Willis Walker of the Red River Lumber Co. and
the United States Forest Service.
; “Under this agreement the entire fire protection
of approximately 800,000 acres of timberland owned by
the Company will be undertaken by the government. The
cost will be about $12,000.00 per year.

"This will mean that every. precaution known to
the Forest Service both for preventing and fighting
forest fires will be employed. Airplanes will patrol
the timberlands; every ranger will be a fire warden,
endowed with the powers the rangers now possess, and
woe be to the careless camper whb leaves a camp fire
burning, or who does not use every precaution to dafe-
guard the forests he is permitted to use,

"This agreement will do much to help preserve the
forests, as lumbermen aftermmany months of discussion
have decided to abandon the habit of Light Burning in

the woods as the fires so started are hard to control."

64

CONCLUSION

In viewing the results obtained from the practice
of Light Burning, and by making a comparison with the
costs entailed in protection through prevention and
suppression, it is obvious that Light Burning in Cal-
ifornia is not a practicable method of forest protect-
ion. The impracticability of Light Burning is basea@
upon the following points:-

1. Damage resulting to the mature stand, repro-
duction and soil.

2. Excessive cost.

3. Conditions governing

a. Uncertainty of atmospheric conditions
b. Impossibility of securing uniform moisture
content of the forest floow.

4. Danger

The damage resulting from the practice of Light
Burning and the excessive costs which it necessitates,

are the two main reasons for its impracticability.

Damage to Mature Crop and to Reproduction

First, of all, Light Eurning eventually does the
very thing which the method desires to prevent - that
is, it surely destroys the forests of California, hy

destroying the mature stand and the potential forest.

65

Instead of having no fire protective system at all, and
merely leaving the forests to withstand as best they may,
any and all fires, the Light Burner deliberately sets
fire to the forest floor and thus reduces still more,
the chance of the forest cyop to continue its life and
perpetuate itself. Damage ie inevitable to the mature
stands within the state es they have already had to with-
stand innumerable light surface fires, and a great many
of them bear fire-scars,. In firing the forest floor,
absolutely the only way to prevent these fire-scarred
trees from igniting and finally falling, is to protect
the individual trees - a procedure which is naturally
impossible due to exhorbitant costs.

In the practice of forestry, the development of
the future crop takes an important place. Light Burn-
ing prevents this development, for it eventually leads
to a mature etand with no reproduction. Consequentiy,
some day, Light Burning will have to be discontinued to

allow reproduction to come in and establish itself.

Formation of Brush Fields

Light Purning causes brush fielda to replace tim-
ber gpowth in California. Through long and untold cen-
turies, by the process of plant succession, the trees
were finally able to dominate the other vegetative grow-
th in the Sierra region. This was not as a result of

fires, but in spite of them. Now, if man steps in and

66

disturbs the balance, the plant vegetation of Calif-
ornia will tend to revert to the brushy types. The
extensive brushy areas within the state at the present
time show what continued surface fires will do, It

must be borne in mind that this region is not a nat-

ural tree region, but one in which brush competes strong-
ly with the trees. Fire disturbs the balance in favor

of the brush,
Costs

The excessive costs alone, incurred in Light Burn-
ing are sufficient to render it impracticable. To con-
etruct fire lines at close intervals, to scatter debris
which is at the bases of the trees, and maintain a crew
of men sufficient to adequately patrol the fires, will
acount to a consideratle cost item for the very first
burning. Then, as burning must be engaged in for at
least three successive years in most cases, and there-
after at intervais of 3-5 years, in order to keep the
inflammable debris of such limited extent that a dam-
aging fire cannot occur, the cost per acre will be ex-
cessive. There follows, herewith, a table showing com-

parative costs of fire protection methods in California.

67

Fire Protection Costs per Acre per Year.
(Based on estimated average costs)

Light Burning : Prevention and Suppression
: “Government i “Private Hire Prot. Assoc,

lat YPeseeee $. 75: $.006 per acre $.05 per acre
2d ieioce Owe per year per year
a Le @eeeane«eeses ° 0:
een " eo eeeees Zhi
Sth " eecees -=)

6 nsec =e
TE Oe wa ewig OOS
Sth ™ , --
Cth ® see te Geet

16th” ...... .50:
10 years ~ 85-95: l year - $.006:
l year - $0,275: ‘

.
.
.
e
a
e
.
.
°
e
.
eeceone ° e
o
°

1 year - $.05

As hese is a gradual accumulation of litter within
the forest after each burning, the owner can never be
certain that the inflammable material is of such limited
extant that a damaging fire cannot occur, unless he
burns each season. It is obvious that Light Burning
costs as compared with those of prevention and suppress-

ion of fires, renders the former method impractitable.

Damage to Grazing and Watersheds

The damage occurring to grazing, to watersheds
and the soil, are also of vital importance. This is
particularly true in California, where grazing is pre-

valent and irrigation is employed extensively.

68

Conditions Governing Burning

Another undesirable feature of Light Burning is
that its practice is rendered ¢xtremely uncertain by
atmospheric conditions, In many instances after the
men are assembled to proceed with the burning operation,
storms arise which preclude all possibility of a sur-
face fire burning. Thus, a needless expense is incur-
red which gains nothing. Then, too, there is practic-
ally always the impossibility of securing a complete
burn due to the variance in topography, and hence, in

moisture conditions,

Danger

When fire is deliberately introduced into valuable
forest growths,the owner who permits such a procedure
is taking unnecessary risks with his invested capital.
Because atmespheric and topographic conditions are so
ehangeable, the Light Burner can never by certain that
he can keep the fire under control. This is particular-
ly true when the fire burns up-slope, where its in-
tensity and rapidity of movement are increased. Fire
in the forests, burning over the éntire fhoor, are a

grave menace to the life of the ¢rees therein.

For which reasons the writer concludes that Light

Burning is ineffective as a method of fire protection

in California, and in order to properly safeguard the
forests of that state, the method of fire protection
as practiced by the United States Forest Service -

that of prevention and suppression of forest fires? -

should be the only method employed.

Probable Outcome of the Light Burning Question

While the Light Burning question is not as yet
conclusively settled in favor of the method of fire
prevention and suppression, the statement made above
by the Red River Lumber Company - the Company which
was particularly instrumental in maintaining the Light
Burning theory - will do much to disped the belief
that surface fires at frequent intervals will adequat-
ely protect the forests from further ravages from fire.
Thus, after eleven years of tpros' and 'cons', it is
evident that the method of fire protection advocated
by the United States Forest Service, and successfully
practiced for thirteen years, will most certainly con-
tinue to be used, not only by the Forest Service it-
self, but increasingly by private timber holders as
well. The practice of Light Burning will be quickly
discontinued in favor of the former, better established,
more widely used and more efficient method,- that of
protection by prevention and suppression of all fires
within the forest, with the exception of spot fires
for the disposal of brush and snags.

XXXMKXXKKXKXKXKXKKAAKA

70

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Andrews, BE. F. Agency of eine in Peopgeess68 of Long-
leaf Pine, Botanical Gazette Vol. LXIV: 497- -508. 1917.

Boerker, RF. H. Light Burning Versus Forest Management in
Northern California. Forest Quarterly Vol. X: 184-189.

Bowman, Isaiah. Forest Phy siography.

Brown, J. C. Modern forest Fconomy. Pp. 131-137.

Gifford, - . Practical Forestry. Pp. 157.

Graves, H. S. Prindiples of Hanilling Woodlands. Pp. 265- ents

Hammatt, R. F. Forest ry and Agriculture. Unnumbered Cir-
cular. U.S.F.S., San Francisco, Calif.

Three Centuries of Forest Fires. Unnumbeed

Circular. U.S.F.S8., San Francisco, Calif.

Headley, Roy. The dhoontrol lable Fire. Unnumbered Cir-
cular. U.S.F.S., San Francisco, Calif.

Hoffman, J. V. How Fires Destroy Our Forests. American
Forestry Vol. XXVI. No. 348. 1920.

Jepson, W. L. Silva of California.

Kitts, J. A. Forest Destruction Prevented by Control of
Surface Fires.” American Forestry, Sane 1926,

Prevention of Destructive Forest Fires, Re-
print by Southern Pacific Company of Paper Presented
before the American Society of Civil Engineers.

Mulford, W. Light Burning. Sierra Club Bulletin, Pg. 89, 192
Munger, T. T. Damage by hight Surface Fires in Western Yel-

low Pine Forests, Proc, Soc, Am, For, Vol. IX. pp. 235-
230.

a

Munger, T. T. Western Yellow Pine in Oregon. U.5S.D.A.
Bul. 416. _ . .
Pearson, G. A. Brush Disposal in Western Yellow Pine.
Journal of Forestry. Vol. XIX, No. I. 1920.
Effect of Ground Cover and Litter. Jour
nal of Forestry. Vol. XVIII, No. 3% 919s
Redington, P. G. What is the Truth? Sunset iacanine,
Vol. XIV, No, 6. 1920, .
aces: P. Se) Light Burning is a ‘ivatake, American For~
estry, Vol; XXVI, No. 314. 1920, ;
Roth, Filibert, Another Word on Light Burning. hea
Forestry. Vol. XXVI. No. 321. 1920.
Schenk, C. A. Forest Protection.
Show, S. B. Climate and Forest Fires in Northern Cal-
ifornia. Journal of Forestry. Vol. XVII, No. 8;
pp. 965-979. 1919.
Light Burning At Castle Rock. Proc. Soc.
Amer, For, Vol. XY, pp:.426-433,
Show and Hammatt. Will Fire Prevent Fire? Unnumbered
Forest Service Circular. U.S.F.S, San¥ranciaco, Calif.
White, S. E. Woodsman, Spare those Trees. Sunset Mag-
azine. Vol. XLIV, No. J. 1920,
Getting at the Truth, Sunset Magazine.

Vol. XLIV, No, Ce 1920.
California, Fifth National Conservation Congress, pp. 23-29,

Third Biennial Report of the State Forester. 191
oe a i Re

Fifth Biennial Peuort of the State Forester. 19:
Sixth Biennial Report of the State Forester.191'

72

California. Unpublished Memoranda in the Files of the
District Forester's Office, District V. United States
Forest Service, San Francisco, California.

Capper Report, Senate Resolution #311. Pg. 62.

Cut-over Land Conference of the South. 1917.

Fire Prevention Day. State Board of Forestry of Calif. 1914

Piute Forestry. ei een Lumberman,. Aug. 23, 1919.

Proceedings of the Southern Forestry Cohgress. 1916.

Rainfall of the U. S. U.S.D.A, Weather Bureau Bul. D.

Sunset Magazine. The Torch in the Timber, by H. S. Grave,
Vol. XLIV, No. 4. 1920.

XXXXXXXXXKKAKKX

The most valuable lumber is lost when
the tree is scarred by fire, Fire-scarred

incense cedar,

74

When once scarred, each
succeeding fire burn deeper
into the tree, finally causing
it to.fall. Fireescarred in-
cense cedar,

75

76

ie A aN
Nae: ;

Pe

De. See

small ame

Light surface fires scarred these
Sugar pine type with

trees.
ount of incense cedar and yellow pine.

The effect of repeated surface fires

tf

It is obviously dangerous to permit fires

to run broadcast in dense stands.

Sugar Pine.

78

The Forest Service burns by spot

fires only.
logging.

Disposal of brush after

79

80

Reproduction can establish itself itself if
fires are kept out. Fir reproduction,

81

The Forest Service protects the standing tim-
ber by preventing or suppressing all fires within
the forest. Yellow pine and cedar timber.