British grasses and their employment in agriculture

New York
State College of Agriculture

At Goruell University
Dthaca, N.Y.

Library

Cornell University Library

itish grasses and their employment in

Cornell University

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http:/Awww.archive.org/details/cu31924003108705

BRITISH GRASSES

AND THEIR EMPLOYMENT
IN AGRICULTURE

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
C. F. CLAY, Manacer

LONDON
Fetter Lang, E.C. 4

EDINBURGH

too PRINCES STREET

LONDON: H. K. LEWIS AND CO., Lrp., 136 Gower Street, W.C. 1
LONDON: WILLIAM WESLEY AND SON, 28 Essex Street, Strand, W.C. .
NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
BOMBAY, CALCUTTA, MADRAS: MACMILLAN AND CO., Lrp.
TORONTO: J. M. DENT AND SONS, Lrp.
TOKYO: THE MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA

All righis reserved

BRITISH GRASSES

AND THEIR EMPLOYMENT
IN AGRICULTURE

BY

5S. F. ARMSTRONG,
F.L.S., Univ. Dipl. Agric. (Cantab.),
of the School of Agriculture, Cambridge University, and
Director of the United Kingdom Seed Control Station, Cambridge

WITH 175 ILLUSTRATIONS

Cambridge:

at the University Press
IQI7

PREFACE

HE vast importance of the Natural Order Graminacee is

partly due to the large number and world-wide distribution

of its species, but more especially to the great economic value

which many of these plants possess. Apart from numerous

varieties some 3,600 species have been described, of which rather
more than 100 are natives of the British Isles.

The enormous importance of our cereal grasses is apparent to
everyone, but apart altogether from these, our native grasses are
worthy of our highest attention, if only on account of the large
proportion of agricultural land occupied by them. Of the total
area of forty-seven million acres under grass and other crops in
the United Kingdom, some twenty-seven million acres are now
(1917) under permanent grass. Of the remaining area about six
and a half million acres are occupied by Rotation Grasses and
Clovers.

This ig a time when we are all hopeful that the area under
permanent grass will speedily be reduced. However, it is obvious
that in proportion as we extend the area under arable cultivation,
we should specialise upon and‘improve as much as possible our
remaining grass land, in order that it may carry a correspondingly
larger number of live stock.

A great proportion of the existing grass land is far from being
of the best quality possible. Much of it is weed-covered in the
sense that such plants as Buttercups, Daisies, Plantains, Hawk-
weeds, etc.—to say nothing of the inferior grasses—occupy the
ground upon which our better forage plants would thrive. At
a very moderate estimate twenty per cent. of the total area is
weed-covered in the above sense, which means that an area
equal to at least 5,000,000 acres is covered with comparatively
worthless herbage.

vi Preface

Permanent grass suffers from the lack of all the various benefits
which come to other farm crops under the rotation systems. Soil
covered with a permanent turf gets the minimum amount of
exposure to the beneficial actions of the atmosphere, sun, rain,
etc. In many cases the available fertility is brought down to the
lowest point; weeds tend to increase up to a certain maximum and
more or less defy eradication. Whilst certain types of soil are
more adapted for permanent grass production than for any other
form of cropping, it is nevertheless true that much of the land now
under grass might be brought under arable cultivation with greater
profit to the nation. Under a system of alternate husbandry
most of the above mentioned defects would be corrected, and a
much larger yield of food obtained from a given acreage.

Although the question of the formation of permanent grass
has been dealt with in considerable detail in Part II of this volume,
the writer strongly advocates that much less land should be under
permanent grass, and a much larger area should be devoted to
alternate husbandry in which after all our most valuable fodder
grasses can be employed to the best advantage.

Notwithstanding the great economic importance of grasses in
British Agriculture no suitable text-book on the subject of British
Agricultural Agrostology at present exists. Of the works dealing
with British grasses which have been published in the past, most
have been intended for the professional botanist, and certainly
none of them can be said to meet the requirements of the modern
student of agriculture.

The present volume has been written primarily for agricultural
students, but at the same time it is hoped that it will be found
useful to a much larger section of the community, especially to
practical farmers, seed merchants, schoolmasters and students of
nature generally.

All our native species have been described and most of them
illustrated, but more attention and greater space has been given
to those species which are most abundant or of greatest economic
importance in the British Isles. This has been necessary in order
to combine general completeness with a book of moderate size.

In the descriptions particular attention has been given to the
foliage and seed characters, and to those points which, though of

Preface vil

special importance to the student of agriculture, are so inadequately
dealt with in our Floras. :

The student should first become well acquainted with the
structure and functions of the different organs as dealt with in
the first two chapters before proceeding to the use of the keys to
the leaves, flowers, and “seeds.” The study of these chapters
should be supplemented by practical work in the field and
laboratory with the aid of a good pocket lens and microscope.

To facilitate reference, in each of the keys the reader is referred
to the page upon which the fuller description is to be found. Also
in Chapters viz and vir the Genera are arranged in alphabetical
order. Those who desire further information should consult the
Bibliography given at the end.

Objection may possibly be taken to the artificial arrangement
of the plants and “seeds” as given in the keys. The writer
however believes that while such objection would be most valid
in any great Flora or systematic work where only the natural
affinities should be considered, in a book of the present kind con-
venience should take precedence. Neither is it claimed that the
keys are infallible, for the fact of variation constantly reminds us
that we are dealing with organic nature—with its infinite possi-
bilities as regards adaptations—and not with a mere mechanical
structure.

By the kind permission of Messrs A. Constable and Co., of
Westminster, Fig. 21 has been reproduced from The True Grasses
by Eduard Hackel. Figs. 161 to 165 have been taken from the
New Zealand Journal of Agriculture. With these exceptions all
the illustrations have been specially drawn or produced by the
author for this work.

My thanks are due to Professor R. H. Biffen, F.R.S., for much
helpful advice relative to the general scheme and publication of
the book.

8. F. ARMSTRONG.

ScHoot or AGRICULTURE,
CAMBRIDGE.
July 1917.

VII.

VITI.

CONTENTS

PART I
BOTANICAL SECTION

Tue MorpHotocy or GRASSES
GENERAL BIOLOGY oF GRASSES
DIsTRIBUTION OF BRITISH GRASSES

Common BRITISH GRASSES GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR
VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

Common BRITISH GRASSES GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR
INFLORESCENCES AND FLORAL CHARACTERS

Key To Grass “SEEDS’’

BotanicaL DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

PART II
AGRICULTURAL SECTION

THe AGRICULTURAL VALUE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
Grasses SOWN ON THE FarRM

Tue VALUATION AND PurcHASE OF Grass SEEDS

THE SPECIFICATION AND COMPOUNDING oF Grass SEED-
MIXTURES

THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF Grass LAND, AND THE EFFECTS
OF VARIOUS FERTILISERS UPON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES

APPENDIX
BIBLIOGRAPHY

INDEX

28

34
38
5]

133
162

168

180

188

192

194

PARP 1
BOTANICAL SECTION

CHAPTER I

THE MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES

In beginning the study of a particular group of plants such
as the grasses with a view to obtaining a knowledge of their
different species, habits, uses, etc., our first aim must be to
become familiar with the general structure and functions of their
different organs, and special attention should be given to those
points upon which their classification is based.

This introduction can be obtained most readily by examining
a few typical species in detail. We may take for this purpose
the common cultivated Oat (Avena sativa, L.), Couch-grass
(Agropyrum repens, Beauv.), and Sheep’s Fescue (Festuca ovina,
L.). These species are well known, they can be easily obtained,
and they will serve to illustrate the structure of grasses very
well. Fresh specimens of these plants should be obtained and
examined as this chapter is read. The underground parts must
be secured as well as the leaves, stems, flowers and “seeds.””’ The
“seeds” need not be freshly gathered.

(A) THE VEGETATIVE ORGANS.

Root system. In the above-mentioned species the roots arise
adventitiously from the lowermost node or nodes of the stem,
and they are thin and fibrous in nature. In the Oat plant,
which is an annual species, they arise in a dense tuft from
nearly the same level; but in the case of the perennial Couch-
grass they are produced at every node on the underground creeping

A. 1

2 Botanical Section [PT I

stems—or rhizomes as they are termed. Almost all grasses have
fibrous roots which arise in one or both of the ways just described
(see Figs. 1 and 5). In a few species only the roots are tough
and cord-like.

Fig. 1. Showing mass of fibrous roots produced by wheat plants
within seven weeks after sowing in pot.

Stems. The flowering stems—termed * culms ”’—are cylindrical,
and hollow except at the nodes, where they are firm and solid
(Figs. 2,3 and4). Each node—or joint—forms the point of attach-
ment of a leaf. The portions of the stem between the nodes are the
internodes. Every stem arises within the axil of a leaf-sheath.
If each stem grows up within the sheath close tufts of foliage are
formed (e.g. Oat). This is known as the ¢ntra-vaginal mode of

ou. Tj The Morphology of Grasses 3

growth.’ If however the shoots pierce through the sheaths
close to where they arise and grow out horizontally (the eztra-
vaginal mode of growth), the stems and foliage become more or less
scattered and intermingled with other plants. Thus the appearance,
habit, and agricultural use of a particular species depend largely
upon whether the shoots are mainly intra-vaginal, or extra-vaginal
in their mode of growth. In the Oat, as in all annual grasses,

|

x- fon

ig. 2 Fig. 3

Fig. 2, A. Portion of culm of the cultivated Oat Avena sativa. B. A longi-
tudinal section of the same showing the structure of a node. The swollen
appearance of the node is due to the enlargement of the base of the leaf-
sheath (sk). The actual stem-node or joint (nm) is not enlarged. This is
the case in most grasses. x2.

Fig. 3. Diagrammatic transverse section through internode of Wheat culm,
showing the position of the strongly developed ring of sclerenchyma (Scl.)
(thick walled tissue) just beneath the epidermis. It is this band of scleren-
chyma which largely contributes to the firmness and strength of grass culms.
Note also the ring of principal fibro-vascular bundles (V,), with secondary
bundles between (V,). x15. See also Fig. 4.

there is only one kind of stem—the flowering culm—but many of
the perennial species have also the second type of stem (extra-
vaginal) which grows out horizontally either on or below the
surface of the soil. Couch-grass affords an excellent example of the
formation of underground stems or rhizomes, while Rough-stalked
Meadow-grass (Poa trivialis, L.) and Fiorin (Agrostis alba, L. var.
stolonifera) and others possess thin surface-creeping ofishoots—or
oe

es Botanical Section [pr I

stolons—of a similar nature to those of the Strawberry plant.
Such grasses are said to be stoloniferous.

That rhizomes and stolons are really modified stems is proved
by their internal structure, by the fact that they possess nodes
upon which roots and leaves are borne, and that the ordinary
erect stems are but a continuation of their growth (see Fig. 5).

In both cases they serve to propagate the plants, and enable
them to rapidly cover considerable areas.

Fig. 4. Cross-section of one of the principal fibro-vascular bundles (V,) in a
Wheat culm, showing secondary bundles (V.) on either side. Note the thick-
walled tissue (sclerenchyma Scl.) surrounding the bundles and linking them
up to the epidermis. P, the parenchyma. J, the inner side of the culm.
Highly magnified.

Leaves. The leaves are arranged in two rows—or ranks—
upon the stem, and alternate one with another. Each leaf con-
sists of two parts—the lower portion surrounding the young
shoot or culm—called the sheath; and the upper portion called
the lamina or blade. (Figs. 13 and 23.)

Leaf-sheaths. The sheaths are attached to the stem at the
nodes, and the thickening at these points is often chiefly due to

CH. I] The Morphology of Grasses 5

the enlarged bases of the sheaths (Fig. 2). They are usually
smooth, but may be striated, i.e. have prominent longitudinal
ridges.

The sheath may form a cylindrical tube enclosing the stem—
when it is said to be “entire,” or the margins may be more or less
membranous and overlap one another, in which case the sheath
is said to be “‘split.” Generally it is only possible to be certain

Fig. 5. Portion of plant of Poa pratensis showing its extensively creeping
rhizomes producing separate tufts of foliage. The true (fibrous) roots are
seen to arise from the nodes of the rhizomes.

whether a sheath is ‘“‘entire” or “split” in the case of the sheaths of
the flowering stems, and even in these the sheaths may often be
mechanically torn away for an inch or two at the top.

The shape of the young sheaths—and therefore of the young
shoot—is determined by the arrangement of the leaf-blades in the
shoot (Figs. 6 and 7). If the blades are folded (conduplicaie) the
sheaths are more or less flattened or compressed, and usually then
have acute edges or keels. If the blades are rolled (convolute) in

6 Botanical Section [pr I

the shoot, the sheaths are cylindrical and without strongly marked
keels. In the Oat and Couch-grass notice that the sheaths are split,
and the leaves are rolled in the shoot. Soft Brome-grass (Bromus
mollis, L.) is an example of a grass with entire sheaths, and
Cock’s-foot (Daciylis glomerata, L.) shows the folding of the leaves
in the young shoots very well indeed.

Near the surface of the ground the sheaths of many grasses,
either while quite young, or as they age, become characteristically
coloured. The colour is constant for each species, and may
either be present all round the sheath, or confined to the veins only.

Fig. 6 Fig. 7

Fig. 6. Transverse section of young shoot of Poa trivialis x 20, showing the
conduplicate (folded) arrangement of the leaf-blades Bl,, Bl, etc. Sh. the
outer entire sheath (shaded). XX. Keel of sheath.

Fig. 7. Transverse section of young shoot of Phleum pratense x 20, showing
convolute (rolled) arrangement of the leaf-blades Bl,, Bl, etc. Sh. the
split sheath.

Leaf-blades. These are attached to the upper part of the
sheaths and may be either expanded or closed, i.e. the blade
may remain almost flat, or the two sides of its upper surface may
be folded one upon the other; or again the blade may be rolled
up like a roll of paper. This rolling or folding of the blade
may be only temporary and due to drought or exposure, but
in some species, e.g. Sheep’s Fescue, this type of leaf is normal
and permanent. In order to understand more clearly this process
of rolling up and unrolling, etc., and to realise its great signifi-
cance, it is necessary to consider briefly the internal structure
of the blade and its modifications. See also Chap. u, p. 21.

Ga, 1| The Morphology of Grasses 7

The veins, i.e. vascular bundles—surrounded by a sheath of
thick-walled tissue—run along parallel to each other from the
base to the apex of the blade. The thickness of the latter may
be almost uniform from edge to edge, but usually the tissue is
raised over the vascular bundles and forms the well-known longi-

Fig. 8. Transverse section of one-half of a blade of Pca pratensis x50, The
blade is ribless above. Below is seen the prominent mid-rib (keel) which
is flanked on either side above by a row of motor cells. The motor cells
are confined to this area of the blade which therefore tends to fold up
under dry conditions.

tudinal ridges or ibs on the upper surface. These ridges vary

much in outline and prominence in different species as is shown

by Figs. 9—11.

The tops of these ridges often consist of very hard tissue
called sclerenchyma which is composed of thick-walled cells.

Fig. 9. Transverse section of a blade of Alopecurus pratensis x20. Nete the
low flat-topped ridges (ribs) with the well-developed motor cells situated
in the furrows between. The vascular bundles of the first order are
girdered both above and below.

Continuous longitudinal bands of sclerenchyma also run along
the blade close to the lower epidermis. These bands again vary
much in relative size and strength with different species, in some
being very slight, in others joining up and forming a continuous
layer across the lower surface. This sclerenchyma tissue serves

8 Botanical Section [Prk

to give firmness and rigidity to the blade, as well as to reduce
its loss of moisture by transpiration. Further, strengthening
girder-like bands of similar tissue sometimes connect the vascular
bundles with the sclerenchyma bands of the ridges above, or
with the bands near the lower surface, or with both (see
Fig. 9). The space between the upper and lower epidermis
not occupiel by the vascular bundles, strengthening bands,
etc., is filled up with the chlorophyll-containing tissue, but
in some aquatic species, e.g. Glyceria aquatica, Sm., large air
cavities also occur.

Fig. 10 Fig. 11

Fig. 10. Transverse section of w leaf of Aira cespitosa x20. The high ridges
are tipped with thick-walled tissue (sclerenchyma) which also forms an almost
continuous layer near the lower epidermis. Note the thin-walled motor cells
situated at the base of each groove.

Fig. 11. Transverse section of leaf of Festuca rubra var. genuina x30. Note the
well-defined groups of strengthening tissue (sclerenchyma) at the keel and
margins, and also below each vascular bundle.

When the blade is of the expanded, ribless type (Fig. 8), the
stomata are generally distributed almost equally over both sur-
faces, as for example in most of the Poas, Dactylis, etc.

When ridges and their intervening grooves are conspicuous
above, it is found that either all the stomata are situated on the
upper surface, as in Festuca ovina and Aira cespitosa; or that
the larger number are on the upper surface as in Lolium sps.,
and Cynosurus cristatus. In species with marked ribs the stomata
are situated on the lower slopes of these ridges, and in some
cases are even sunk in the chlorophvll tissue.

In most grasses there are specially modified epidermal cells
found on the upper surface of the blade. They are large in size,
thin-walled, and transparent, and are definitely situated, either

CH. I] The Morphology of Grasses 9

flanking the mid-rib, or at the base of the grooves between all
the ribs. They are known as motor cells (see Figs. 8 and 10).

The special function of these cells must be left till the next
chapter, but it may be noted here that the transparent lines

Fig. 12. Typical outlines of leaf-blades. Left to right:—Dactylis glomerata
(broadest near base), Bromus sterilis, Poa trivialis, P. annua, P. pratensis
(edges almost parallel throughout), Brachypodium syivaticwm (tapering
above and below), Holcus lanatus, Agrostis stolonifera, Festuca rubra
(needle-like).

frequently seen running longitudinally between the ribs are
largely due to the presence of these motor cells. The higher the
ridges and the more these motor cells are developed, the greater

will be the contrast in opacity observed between the ribs and the
grooves when a blade is held up to the light.

10 Botanical Section [pT I

In noting the shape of the blade the relation of length to
breadth, the amount of tapering below or upwards, and the nature
of the apex should be considered. Also whether the blade is
broadest at its base or near its middle; and whether the mid-rib
is prominent below, forming a keel from the base to the apex
(Fig. 12).

At the base the blade frequently widens out into a ledge-like
process, or forms ear-like projections on either side which more
or less clasp the stem. These latter are called ears or auricles.

A B

Fig. 13. A. Avena sativa, showing the well-developed ligule (lig.) standing up
between the culm and the base of the blade (b/.). sh. the sheath. x2.
B. Hordeum sativum, showing the well-developed auricles (aur.) clasping the
culm (cl.), The short ligule is not shown. x 2.

At the point where the blade joins the sheath there is usually
an erect delicate membranous outgrowth of the latter which
partly surrounds the stem or sheath above it. This is called
the ligule and may be long or short, pointed or blunt, etc. The
presence or absence of the ligule and auricles, and the various
characters afforded by them being constant for each species,
afford considerable help in the identification of grasses in their
non-flowering condition (see Fig. 13).

In addition to the above points, the student should observe
in regard to the foliage:

(a) The usual position assumed by the blades, i.e. whether
erect, drooping, or at right angles to the sheath.

CH. I] The Morphology of Grasses se

(6) The position of the hairs (when present); whether these
are most abundant on the sheath, or on the upper or lower surface
of the blade, and whether they are uniformly scattered over the
surface or confined to the ribs, margins, etc.

(c) The particular shade of green normally possessed by
the foliage.

Fig. 14. Panicle of Avena nuda. About 4 nat. size.

In the Oat plant note that the blades are expanded, broad,
almost ribless, and without auricles. The ligule is white, mem-
branous, and ragged at its margin. The foliage is entirely
glabrous except for a few hairs usually on the lower margins of
the blade. In Couch-grass note the auricles clasping the stem;
the short, blunt, and rather thick ligule; and the scattered hairs
(occasionally absent) on the blade—chiefly on its upper surface.

12 Botanical Section [Para

(B) Frorat Orcas. These consist of the flowering-culm,
with the more or less branched collection of flowers borne upon
it and forming the inflorescence. The inflorescence varies in
form and structure very much indeed in the different genera,
but it is always composed of a varying number of partial inflores-

Fig. 15. Seven-flowered spikelet of the naked-erained Oat (Avena nuda) slightly
enlarged. Note the alternate arrangement of the glumes and flowers (right to
left, from below upwards).

cences called spikelets, which again are composed of one or more
flowers with their enveloping bracts (Figs. 14 and 15). We will
describe the structure of the flower first.
7 ‘ fj u v2 ft Y ey ;
The Flower. The flower of our grasses is composed typically of
one carpel and three stamens (see Figs. 16 and 17). The stamens

cu. 1] The Morphology of Grasses 13

(when ripe) have long slender filaments which are attached to
the long anthers, as shown in Fig. 16, thus allowing considerable
freedom of movement to the latter. Other numbers of stamens
are present in certain exotic species, but all British species have
three with the exception of Sweet Vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum),

Fig. 16. Flower of Lolium perenne much enlarged, showing the position of the
ovary (o.), with its feathery stigmas (st.), the three stamens (stam.) with their
versatile anthers (hung so as to turn freely), and the two lodicules (/.). The
inner palea is shown at the back with its folded margins (f.). The outer palea
has been removed.

which has only two. The ovary consists of a small ovoid body,

which is either glabrous or hairy, and bears a pair of divergent

feathery stigmas at its apex. At the base of the ovary are two
very small scales which can only be readily observed with a magni-
fying glass at about the time of flowering. They are known as

it Botanical Section [pr I

the lodicules!, and are considered to represent bracteoles (i.e.
secondary bracts) subtending the flower. The ovary and stamens
—the essential parts of the flower—are enclosed between two
boat-shaped scales called the pale. These palee are also
considered to be of the nature of bracts or bracteoles, i.e. enveloping
protective organs. The inner or upper palea is usually thin and
sometimes membranous; the outer or lower palea is larger, stouter,
and more or less overlaps the inner one, and frequently bears a
bristle-like appendage or awn. Morphologically the awn bears
the same relationship to the outer palea as the leaf-blade bears to

Fig. 17. Floral diagram of a typical grass. The outer palea (o.p.), and the
inner palea (7.p.) enclose two bracteoles (the lodicules) (/.), three stamens (S.),
and the ovary (ov.). st. the stigmatic plumes. a. axis =rachilla.

the leaf-sheath. Very useful distinctive characters are afforded
by the nature of the awn and its position on the palea.

The Spikelet. Each spikelet or partial inflorescence consists
of a little spike of flowers with their paleas arranged as shown
diagrammatically in Fig. 18, the whole being enclosed by one?
or more (usually two) bracts called the empty glumes—or briefly
the glumes. The flower and spikelets of the Oat are large and
afford good material for examination.

Forms of Inflorescence. The form of inflorescence is determined

* In a few genera the lodicules are absent, e.g. Alop2curus, Anthoxanthum, ete.
* Except in Nardus, where the glume is obsolete.

CH. | The Morphology of Grasses 15

by the way in which the spikelets are attached to the main
axis. If they are borne directly upon the rachis, as in Fig. 27,
we have a spike of sprkelets or briefly a spike (see Couch-grass).
If they are supported upon primary or simple branches we- have
a raceme. In the majority of species, however, the spikelets are
borne on secondary, tertiary, or even further subdivided branches,
and this compound class of inflorescence is a panicle of spikelets

Fis, 18 Fig. 19

Fig. 18. Diagram of a grass spikelet (Festuca rubra) showing the alternate
arrangement of the flowers (Nos. 1—6), within, or above, the empty glumes.
Lgl. lower glume, u.gl. upper glume, o.p. outer palea, and 7.p. inner palea of
the first flower. The stamens are represented by crosses. Ov. ovary, Lod.
lodicules, R. rachis,

Fig. 19. The same, showing the manner in which the spikelet breaks up when
the “seeds” (1—6) are ripe. R. rachille. Usually one or more of the upper-
most flowers fail to produce mature “seed.”

or briefly a panicle (see Oat, Fig. 14). Itis evident that panicles
may differ very much in appearance according to the relative length
and stoutness of the branches. Thus they may be erect, close,
or even spike-like; or long, loose, spreading, or drooping; or they
may come anywhere between these extremes in structure and
appearance (see Figs. 46, 71, 73 and 87).

16 Botanical Secrrecrr ae

(C) Frurrs (“Seeds”). When the truit (grain) of a grass ripens
the rachis of the spikelet usually breaks up and allows each grain
to fall away tightly entrapped between the two palez (Fig. 19).
When the palew are present there is usually a small portion
of the axis of the spikelet attached to their base upon which the

Fig. 20. Median longitudinal section through the lower part of a wheat grain,
showing the position and structure of the embryo. Hnd. endosperm, Sc.
scutellum in contact with the endosperm by Ep. the epithelial layer. Ap.
the growing apex, and Rad. the primary root of the embryo. Sh. the germ-
sheath, Col. the root-sheath, Cap. the root-cap. xabout 15.

“seed” immediately above was borne. This is called the rachilla
and lies in front of the inner palea at the base of the “seed.”
This is the usual type of what is commonly called a grass “seed.”
In some cases however the “seed” consists of the entire spikelets,
i.e. of the glumes, palez, and grain of one or more flowers, as in

CH. I] The Morphology of Grasses 17

Holcus, Alopecurus, Panicum, etc.1 In the genus Hordeum the
so-called “seeds”? often consist of the three united mature
spikelets. In a few instances the “seed” consists of the grain

Fig. 21. I. Central cross-section of a grain of the cultivated Oat, Avena sativa, L.
II. A small piece of the peripheral portion more highly magnified. 1 and 2,
the pericarp; 3, testa; 4, remains of the nucellus; 5—7, amylacecus tissue;
5, gluten cells; 6 and 7, cells of albumen containing compound starch-grains—
at 7 they are richer in albumen and poor in starch; 8, fibro-vascular bundle
of the seed-coat. Harz.

shed free from its pale, as in the common varieties of Wheat,
and sometimes Timothy-grass. :
1 For other types see Anthoxanthum and Arrhenatherum.

18 Botanical Section [ear

The naked grain of grasses forms a special type of fruit techni-
cally known as a caryopsis. It is a one-seeded, dry, indehiscent'
fruit, with the fruit-wall (pericarp) fused to the seed-coat (testa).
The true seed then, consists of the embryo with its store of
endosperm, enclosed within the seed-coat. The thin fruit-wall
surrounding the seed-coat makes up the complete grain. The
embryo forms but a small portion of the entire grain, the bulk of
the latter being composed of the starchy endosperm, reserved
for the nourishment of the seedling during the early stages of
its growth. If the embryo is examined under the microscope
it is seen to consist of a primary shoot (plumule), a primary
root (radicle)—often with secondary rootlets visible—and of a
flat shield-like structure, one face of which is applied to the mass
of endosperm. This organ is known as the scutellum, and is
generally regarded as the cotyledon.

Figs. 20 and 21 give longitudinal and transverse sectional
views of cereal grains, and show the position and parts of the
embryo, and also the different parts or layers of the rest of the
grain.

CHAPTER II

GENERAL BIOLOGY OF GRASSES

In this chapter it is only intended to deal briefly and in a
general way with the development and functions of the different
organs. For fuller details of the physiology of grasses reference
must be made to special works on that subject (see also Biblio-
graphy, Nos. 10, 34).

Germination. The “seeds” of grasses—like those of other
plants—require as essential for their germination (1) moisture,
(2) a suitable temperature, (3) the presence of air or oxygen.
Other factors may influence the rapidity of the process, or the
percentage of germination, but these three are essential to it.
The most favourable temperature for the germination of most
grass “seeds” lies between 20° and 25°C. Under such conditions

1 A few exceptions occur in exotic species.

CH. 11] General Biology 19

Fig. 23

Fig. 22. Germinating Maize, natural size. A. Early stage, after three day
growth. B. The same after five days growth. C, coleorhiza. R&R, primary

root. In B the first adventitious roots are shown arising from the primary

node.
Fig. 23. Young plant of Zea mais. } nat. size. s. seminal root; ad. adventitious
roots arising from the lowest node; sé. rhizomatous stem; sh. first sheathing

leaf; gr. shrivelled grain.
2—2

20 Botanical Section [PT I

the “seed” soon swells up owing to the absorption of a considerable
quantity of water. At the same time, the epithelium cells of the
scutellum—which lie in contact with the endosperm—secrete an
enzyme known as the diastase of secretion. This enzyme diffuses
into the endosperm, corrodes away the substance of the starch
grains, until the latter become finally changed into a sugar—
maltose—and a smaller proportion into a gum-like substance
called dextrin. These soluble and diffusible substances can
readily be carried through the cells to the growing points of the
embryo. Very soon the embryo puts forth a small number of
“seminal” rootlets, which are only intended to assist in establishing
the seedling for a very brief period, after a few days being replaced
by more permanent ones which arise from the first or lowermost
node of the stem (Figs. 22 and 23).

At the same time the embryo sends up a delicate white tube-
like sheath—the germ-sheath—and out of the apex of this the
first green foliage leaf appears.

Subsequent Development. For a considerable time in most
grasses no distinct stems are noticeable, only the green foliage is
to be seen. In reality, however, the formation of the flowering
stems begins quite early in the case of annual grasses, and even
in the perennial species they are being formed long before we see
them. They arise as lateral buds from the crown of the
rhizomatous stem, at nearly the same point from which the
first adventitious roots arise. For some weeks or months they
remain very minute and in an undeveloped condition, but as
summer approaches the internodes lengthen very rapidly, and the
young inflorescence is finally pushed out of the uppermost sheath.
This process is termed the “shooting” of the corn in the case of
our cultivated cereals. Since one or more shoots may arise in
this manner in the axil of each of the lower leaves a considerable
cluster or tuft of young stems is often formed. This process of
multiplication of the stems is termed tillering and the number of
tillers produced may vary from one or two up to two or three
score or more according to the species, available space, etc.

Roots. The roots of grasses on account of their thin and
fibrous nature are admirably adapted to the task of thoroughly
searching out the layer of soil at their disposal for the water and

CH. It] General Biology 21

plant food materials they need (Fig. 1). Their adventitious
origin at the lower nodes of the stem, together with the pro-
duction of rhizomes or stolons in many species, enable the plants
to spread rapidly and cover large areas.

Leaves. The leaves have two principal functions to perform,
and for both of these they show signs of great adaptation. The
assimilation of carbon from the carbon-dioxide of the air and the
formation of starches and sugars from the elements carbon, hydro-
gen and oxygen (photo-synthesis) is the work of the chlorophyll
corpuscles. The thin, long, blades of grasses probably expose
a larger area of chlorophyll granules to the sunlight than any
other class of plants if the proportional dry weight of the plants
be taken into consideration.

We find even greater adaptation for the control of the rate
of transpiration. Many species are markedly adapted to xero-
phytic conditions, i.e. to grow under circumstances which allow
only the minimum moisture supply.

In such xerophytic species the motor cells (p. 9) are well
developed and serve to regulate the rate of transpiration. Their
thin elastic walls enable them to take up or part with excess of
moisture readily. When moisture is plentiful they become turgid,
and, owing to their situation between the ribs, the blades are
kept fully expanded. When the moisture supply fails these
cells become flaccid, and as they shrink they permit the ribs to
come together. In this way they cause the blade to roll or fold up,
and since the stomata are chiefly or wholly upon the upper surface
and between the ribs, the transpiration is very much reduced.
The lower and exposed surface moreover is protected by hard
tissue, and in extreme cases the blade itself may be reduced in
size, e.g. Aira flecuosa and Sheep’s Fescue. If the motor cells
are confined to the sides of the mid-rib the blade folds under
dry conditions; but if they are developed between all the ribs
the blade rolls up. The presence of the hard tissue at the top of
the ribs and on the lower surface, together with the girders joining
them up to the vascular bundles, all assist in the closing up or
expansion of the blades and in maintaining the required position.
In many species the presence of hairs also assists in the regulation
of the rate of transpiration. In the case of shade species the

22 Botanical Section [PT 1

blades are thin, flat, and have stomata freely exposed on both
surfaces, e.g. Brachypodium sylvaticum.

Very little is known of the functions of the ligule and auricles,
and they appear to be unimportant physiologically. Possibly
they may serve to shoot off the water as it runs to the base of
the blade and so prevent it from getting into the sheath.

Pollination. When the reproductive organs are mature the
lodicules swell and push apart the paleew, thus exposing the
stigmas which are now spread to their fullest extent. About the
same time the filaments of the stamens, which have up till now
remained very short, rapidly elongate and carry out into the air
the dangling anthers, which burst and shed abundance of pollen.
In some cases the stigmas are mature and ready for pollination
before the pollen of the same flower is ripe, e.g. Meadow Foxtail,
but in most cases the pollen is ripe and begins to be shed before
the stigmas of the same flower are mature.

The feathery nature of the stigmatic plumes, their size and
spreading position, together with the large quantities of pollen
produced, indicate that wind is the principal agent in the cross-
pollination of the flowers. In some species however, e.g. wheat,
barley, etc., the flowers are cleistogamous, i.e. pollination
and fertilisation are accomplished before or even without the
opening of the palez. In such cases cross-fertilisation is normally
impossible.

The dissemination of grass “seeds” is probably much facilitated
by the attached glumes (Holcus, Alopecurus, etc.), inflated
palew (Briza, etc.), or by the silky hairs at the base of the “seed”
(“web” in Poa sps.), or on the rachilla (e.g. Arwndo, Wild Oat,
ete.), each of which are aids to their distribution by wind. See
Figs. 45, 52, 58, 62, 114, 126 and 142.

Bristles and barbed awns (e.g. Barren Brome) also serve to
fasten the “seeds” to animals. Again, the hardened base of
many grass “seeds,” the presence of bent or twisted awns (False
Oat), and the position occupied by the hairs all assist in burying

the “seed” in the soil in order that it may germinate. Figs. 55
and 74.

CH. Ir] Distribution 23

CHAPTER III
DISTRIBUTION OF BRITISH GRASSES

A study of the distribution of grasses affords both interest
and profit. While several of our common species are vagabonds,
i.e. generally distributed without any apparent preference for
one habitat more than another, it is nevertheless true that most
grasses do show a decided preference for certain definite conditions
as regards soil, moisture, degree of shade, etc. Indeed as we have
already seen in the previous chapter many species possess obvious
adaptations for growing in dry and exposed situations (Xero-
phytes).

Other species (Hydrophytes) are adapted for aquatic con-
ditions, e.g. Glyceria aquatica, Digraphis, etc. The grasses of
this class have large expanded leaves, generally with stomata on
both surfaces, and large air cavities are often present in the
sheaths, ete.

A few grasses are Halophytes, i.e. adapted for soils rich in
saline constituents, e.g. Psamma, Elymus, etc. In these trans-
piration is checked by the thickening of the cuticle of the leaves,
by the inrolling of the blades, and by the production of a waxy
substance over the entire surface of the plants.

But a knowledge of this subject is of practical value to those
interested in agriculture. To the student at first it may simply
afford assistance in finding or identifying the species, but after
some experience he will be able to reverse the process, and to
form a useful opinion about the physical properties and agri-
cultural value of land from observation of the grasses thriving
upon it. The presence of much sand, clay, chalk, or humus in a
soil, or again the natural tendency of a field to be wet or dry, are
all indicated with a very fair amount of accuracy by the healthy
growth of certain species, or better still by groups of species.
Broadly speaking our grasses may be grouped according to (a) the
relative amount of moisture, and (6) the relative amount of shade
which they prefer. For further information on this subject see
Bibliography, Nos. 3, 20, 22 and 32.

Botanical Section [pr I

GRASSES GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR HaBITAT.

1. Chalk and Limestone Formations (dry, open, hilly areas).
Festuca ovina var. vulgaris.
Aira flexuosa.
Nardus stricta.
Sesleria cerulea (chiefly in N. Britain).
Triodia decumbens.
Avena pratensis.
Keeleria cristata.
Bromus erectus.
Avena flavescens (less typical).

2. Sandy Soils (dry and porous).

Bromus sterilis.

B. arvensis and vars.

Poa pratensis.

Agrostis Spica-venti.

Aira preecox.

A. caryophyllea.

A. canescens.

3. Sandy Sea Shores.
Psamma arenaria.
Elymus arenarius.
Agropyrum junceum.
Phleum arenarium.
Hordeum maritimum.
Poa maritima.
Lepturus incurvatus (rather uncommon).
Cynodon Dactylon.

4. Preferring stiff moist Clays, or wet soils generally.
Festuca elatior and vars.
Phleum pratense.
Alopecurus agrestis (on arable land).
A. pratensis (especially in semi-shade).
Poa trivialis (especially in semi-shade).
Anthoxanthum odoratum (especially in semi-shade).

CH. IIT]

Distribution

Aira cespitosa (especially in semi-shade).
Holcus lanatus.

Agrostis alba var. stolonifera.

Hordeum pratense.

Briza media (especially on poor soils).

5. Aquatic or semi-aquatic species, thriving most on Boggy

soils, in Freshwater Marshes, Fens,
meadows, Ditches, etc.

Arundo Phragmites (Fens).

Digraphis arundinacea.

Glyceria aquatica and G. fluitans.

Agrostis alba var. palustris.

Alopecurus geniculatus (edges of ponds, etc.).

Catabrosa aquatica.
Aira cespitosa.

Molinia czrulea.
Leersia oryzoides (rare) ;

and to a less extent:

Holcus.
Briza.
Festuca elatior.

. 6. Heath and Moor Grasses.

Molinia cerulea (if wet).
Nardus stricta.

Triodia decumbens.

F. ovina.

Agrostis vulgaris.

A. canina.

A. setacea.

Aira flexuosa.

7. Shade-loving species, Woods, etc.

Poa nemoralis (dry or moist).

Milium effusum (moist woods).

Melica uniflora (high-lying, moist woods).
M. nutans (high-lying, moist woods: rare).
Brachypodium sylvaticum.

Water-

26

Botanical Section [PE i

Hordeum sylvaticum.

Bromus asper.

Festuca gigantea, Vill.

F. sylvatica (mountain woods, not common).
Holcus mollis (moist shade).

Agropyrum caninum.

Calamagrostis Epigeios.

C. lanceolata.

8. Preferring Semi-shade, Hedge-sides, Copses, etc.

Molinea ceerulea (especially if moist).
Aira ceespitosa (especially if moist).
Anthoxanthum odoratum.
Arrhenatherum avenaceum.
Alopecurus pratensis ;

and to a less extent:

Poa trivialis.
Dactylis.

9. Preferring Open Situations.

Festuca ovina and vars. (especially on limestone
formations).

Bromus erectus (especially on limestone formations).

Brachypodium pinnatum.

Avena pratensis.

A. flavescens.

Aira flexuosa.

Nardus stricta.

Triodia decumbens.

Sesleria czrulea.

Keeleria cristata.

Cynosurus cristatus.

Vagabond Species, i.e. generally distributed without

much apparent preference for habitat.
Poa annua.
Bromus arvensis and vars.
B. sterilis.
Agropyrum repens.
Lolium perenne; but thrives best on clay soils.

CH. 1] Distribution 27

Some species are confined to dry, stony situations, waysides,
and rocky places, e.g. Festucu Myurus, Hordeum imurinum,
Poa rigida, Poa compressa, etc., and will not fit well into any of
the preceding groups. Others, like Crested Dog’s-tail and
Yellow Oat-grass, though usually abundant on dry chalky soils,
will thrive equally well on moister clay soils. Other species,
e.g. Agrostis canina and A. setacea, will thrive on most dry soils
whether either sand or chalk predominates.

The above lists contain several species which are either
uncommon or rare. They are only mentioned here on account
of their value as “Indicator plants.”

In our old pastures and meadows it is obvious that the grass
flora must vary considerably with the nature of the soil, manuring,
kind of grazing, etc. It is nevertheless true that some species
tend to predominate on land which is always grazed, while others
are more typical of land on which hay crops are usually grown.
The following lists may be taken as indicating in a general way
those species which are most abundant on each of these two kinds
of grass land.

Grasses generally most abundant on old pastures.

Lolium perenne
Agrostis alba var. stolonifera. Especially on low-
Holcus lanatus lying rich grazing

Poa. trivialis | land.
Festuca rubra
F. duriuscula
Avena flavescens
Cynosurus cristatus
Festuca ovina
Agrostis vulgaris
Poa pratensis

and to a less extent on medium or good soils:
Dactylis glomerata.
Phleum pratense.
Alopecurus pratensis.
Poa annua.

Typical grasses of Meadow Land.

Dactylis glomerata.

Especially on higher or drier
grazing land.

Ce ee ae
ee

28 Botanical Section [PT I

Poa trivialis.
Agrostis alba var. stolonifera.
Alopecurus pratensis
Bromus mollis
Holcus lanatus
Phleum pratense.
Arrhenatherum avenaceum.
Anthoxanthum odoratum.

The following annuals are almost wholly confined to cultivated

land :

Avena fatua (in corn crops).
Lolium temulentum (in corn crops and waste places).
Alopecurus agrestis (wet clays).

Generally tend to increase on
land annually mown.

CHAPTER IV

COMMON BRITISH GRASSES GROUPED ACCORDING TO
THEIR VEGETATIVE CHARACTERS

It is often necessary for those engaged in botanical or agricul-
tural work, nature study, etc., to be able to distinguish with
certainty our common grasses when they are not in flower.
A considerable amount of experience in this direction has enabled
the author to form a simple and yet very reliable key, which is
given below. It includes all the species which are likely to be
met with on farms in Britain. In its construction there are four
steps which lead up to the identification of the species. The
student should always examine his specimens in the following
order:

1. Are the leaf-blades expanded or permanently closed?
Are the young leaves rolled or folded up in the shoot?

Is the species entirely glabrous, or more or less hairy ?
Are auricles present or absent ?

With regard to the first point, it should be noticed whether
the leaves are permanently closed or only temporarily rolled or
folded on account of drought, etc.

The second point can also be best determined—if there is any

ee

CH. Iv] Key to Vegetative Characters 29

doubt—by cutting the shoot across transversely with a sharp
knife. The arrangement of the young leaves can then be easily seen
with a lens (see Figs.6 and 7). If the leaves are rolled in the shoot
the latter has a cylindrical shape; if the leaves are folded the shoot
is more or less flattened. If hairs are present, it should be noticed
whether they are most abundant on the sheath or blade. Also,
whether they are most abundant on the upper or lower surface of
the blade. Again the student should observe whether the hairs
are short and densely crowded together, giving a velvety surface ;
or whether they are long, or scattered, or confined to the ribs,
leaf-margins, etc.

In all the species included in the key the sheaths are split,
except where the contrary is stated. It is frequently difficult
to decide whether the sheaths of some grasses are entire or
split—especially when the plants are young. This character has
for this reason been given a secondary place in the key. In
describing the ligule of any species as long, short, acute, etc.,
reference is always made to the ligule of the uppermost leaf.
This is necessary, because in some grasses the ligules of the upper
and lower leaves differ considerably from each other in the relation
of length to breadth, etc.

It should be observed that the key is based wholly upon
the grasses while in their young and undeveloped condition, i.e.
before flowering. As the plants mature they frequently alter
somewhat as regards hairiness, smoothness, shoot section, etc.
For example the sheaths of the young shoots of Cock’s-foot and
Rough-stalked Meadow-grass are quite smooth—it is only the
sheaths of their flowering culms which are rough. Hence in
dealing with the plants in flower, reference must be made to
Chapters v and VIL.

It is very desirable that not only the leaves, but also the roots
—and stolons or rhizomes if present—should be examined, as
these often afford conspicuous distinguishing characters. Occa-
sional reference has been made in the key to the habitats of species,
but only as a confirmatory point.

One or two exotic species have been included because of their
occasional introduction into British agriculture and this remark
applies also to the other keys.

30 Botanical Section [PT 1

KEY TO THE MORE COMMON GRASSES, BASED MAINLY
UPON THEIR FoLIAGE CHARACTERS.

Group I. All the leaf-blades expanded.
A. Shoot flattened (leaves folded in young shoot), plants entirely
glabrous.
(a) With small auricles.
Lolium perenne (p. 113), basal sheaths red or pink;
blade dull above, glossy below.
(b) Waethout auricles.

Dactylis glomerata (p. 93), sheaths very sharply
keeled; long acute ligule; no stolons, generally
distinct tufts.

Poa trivialis (p. 129), ligule prominent and acute;
blade glossy below; thin surface stolons if old.

Sheaths | Poa pratensis (p. 127), strong rhizomes if old; ligule

entire short and blunt, sometimes almost wanting;

whilst blade dull.

young! |Glyceria fluitans (p. 105), aquatic; sheath striated;
blade ribbed; sheaths with air cavities.

Glyceria aquatica (p. 104), aquatic; blade often
an inch wide, not ribbed; sheaths with air
cavities.

Poa compressa (p. 123), sheaths very firm and acutely
keeled.

Poa annua (p 122), ligule comparatively large and
white; blades dull, often wrinkled.

[?Cynosurus cristatus (p. 90), dull dark-green blades;
short blunt ligule; old basal sheaths yellowish.
Avena pratensis (p. 70) may come here.]
B. Shoot cylindrical (leaves rolled in young shoot), plants
glabrous.
(2) With auricles (or at least ledge-like projections at
base of blade).
Lolium italicum (p. 115), ligule distinct; basal
sheaths red; leaves broad, dull above and
glossy below.

1 Later on the sheaths may be partially torn or split from above downwards.
° The shoot section varies as the young leaves may be folded or rolled,

CH. IV] Key to Vegetative Characters 31

Festuca elatior (p. 99), very similar to L. dtalecum,
but stouter and coarser foliage, and small
creamy-white auricles.

Festuca pratensis (p. 100), as F. elatior, but smaller
plant and extremely short ligule.

Hordeum sativum (cultivated Barleys), auricles very
large, overlapping, glabrous, and white, pink
or purple.

(b) Without auricles.

Cynosurus cristatus may come here (see above, also
p. 90).

Phleum pratense (p. 121), numerous, short, pale-
green leaves; ligule white, and short on lower
leaves; base of stem often swollen.

Alopecurus pratensis (p. 59), blades long, dark-
green, with distinct flat ribs; ligule short and
blunt; old basal sheaths chocolate.

A. agrestis (p. 61), ribs relatively high and acute;
annual; on cultivated ground.

A. geniculatus (p. 61), culms “kneed’’; ribs acute;
aquatic.

Agrostis alba (pp. 54-56), var. vulgaris—tligule short;
blades thin; var. stolonifera—ligule long and
delicate; stolons present; blades thin; var.
repens has stout rhizomes.

A. canina (p. 56), blades narrow; ligule long, acute.
Aira cespitosa (p. 56), coarse tufts; leaves firm,
rigid, with high sharp ribs; ligule long.

Poa nemoralis (p. 125), ligule very short or wanting;
blade thin and narrow; shade grass.

1Avena fatua (p. 73), ligule short and blunt; annual;
on cultivated ground.

14. sativa (cultivated Oat), similar to A. fatua; ligule
membranous and toothed.

Bromus inermis (p. 87), well developed rhizomes;
very short ligule; entire sheaths.

1 Some varieties are slightly hairy on the lower margins of the leaves.

32 Botanical Section [PT I

Arundo Phragmites (p. 66), ligule represented by a
fringe of hair; aquatic.

Digraphis arundinacea (p. 95), ligule membranous
and well developed; aquatic.

B. (continued). Shoot cylindrical (circular or oval in transverse
section), plants more or less hairy or pubescent.
(a) With auricles (very small in H. pratense).

Bromus asper (p. 85), sheath entire and bearing
long reflexed hairs; shade species.

Hordeum pratense (p. 111), blades firm, hairy above,
glabrous and glossy below.

H. murinum (p. 109), blades thin and softly hairy
on both surfaces; annual.
1Agropyrum repens (p. 51), well developed rhizomes;
hairs chiefly on upper surface of blade.
Triticum sativum (common Wheats), hairs on edges of
auricles; sheath pubescent (different varieties

vary much in these respects).

Secale cereale (Rye), short and long hairs on sheath;
base of sheath reddish in colour. Auricles slight.

(0) Without auricles.

Holcus lanatus (p. 106), blades velvety to touch;
pink veins on basal sheaths.

1Arrhenatherum avenaceum (p. 63), sparsely hairy on
sheath or blade; ligule blunt; roots yellow;
tufted.

Avena flavescens (p. 68), pale green blades which
are thin, dull, and hairy on both sides; reflexed
hairs on sheath.

Anthoxanthum odoratum (p. 61), long hairs at juncture
of sheath and blade; sweet-scented.

Briza media (p. 77), blades with rough hairy margins
and low flat ribs.

Bromus arvensis and vars. (pp. 79-82), entire sheaths
with slight keel or none; softly downy.

B. sterilis (p. 82), as B. arvensis but keel more
prominent on sheath; ligule deeply ragged.

1 Hairiness varies considerably in these species.

CH. IV] Key to Vegetative Characters 33

B. erectus (p. 84), long hairs on margins of blade;
entire sheath. Shoot section oval. Blades tend.
to fold. ;

Brachypodium sylvaticum (p. 74), blades of pale
sap-green colour, thin, long, and tapering at
both ends; usually in shade.

B. pinnatum (p. 76), blades only slightly hairy,
narrow, rigid and tending to roll up; ligule
fringed with hairs.

Molinia cerulea (p. 118), roots tough and stringy ;
blades thin, narrowing below and tapering to a
long point above; ligule absent or represented
by hairs.

[H. pratense (p. 111), owing to the very slight de-
velopment of its auricles may come here. |

Group II. Lower leaves setaceous (i.e. bristle-like).
A. Leaves permanently folded (at least the lower ones).
(a) Roots fibrous.

Festuca ovina (p. 101), ligule much reduced or absent.

1. Var. vulgaris, compact tufts; leaves firm;
auricles short, erect, and rounded off.

2. Var. tenuifolia (p. 102), smaller tufts and
finer leaves than var. vulgaris.

3. Var. duriuscula (p. 102), a more vigorous
variety than vulgaris, with stouter dark-
green leaves.

Festuca rubra, L., ligule much reduced or absent.

1. Var. genuina (p. 102), pink basal sheaths and
creeping underground rhizomes.

2. Var. fallax (p. 103), like genuina but tufted; no
rhizomes.

3. Var. heterophylla (p. 103), similar to var.
fallax, but upper leaves tend to be more
open.

Festuca Myurus (p. 100), hairs on ribs of infolded
leaves; ligule obsolete; annual.

Awa flecuosa (p. 57), ligule prominent; leaves
practically solid; no auricles.

34 Botanical Section [PT 1

(b) Roots tough and stringy.
Nardus stricta (p. 119), wpper leaves erect, lower
ones reflexed.
B. Bristle-like appearance due to inrolling or folding of edges
of leaves.
Avena pratensis (p. 70).
Aira canescens (p. 58).
A. precox (p. 59).
A. caryophyllea (p. 59).
Poa maritima (p. 125);
and sometimes others.

CHAPTER V

COMMON BRITISH GRASSES GROUPED ACCORDING TO THEIR
INFLORESCENCES AND FLORAL CHARACTERS

The following key may be used to determine the different
genera, and in some cases the common species; further details
must be looked for in the full description given in Chapter v1.

In using this key the student should first decide whether the
inflorescence of the specimen is a spike or a panicle. If a spike,
whether the spikelets are borne singly or in pairs, threes, or clusters.
If a panicle, to which of the four types (A, B, C, D in the key) it
belongs. In addition he should observe (1) the number of flowers in
the spikelet, (2) whether all the flowers in the spikelet are perfect
or not, and (3) whether the outer palea bears an awn.

If an awn is present, note whether it is terminal, sub-terminal,
dorsal or basal. In cases where the awn or awn-like projection
is generally less than half the length of the palea bearing it, I
have called it an awn-point. In the key O.P. indicates the outer
palea.

I. Inriorescence A SPIKE oF SPIKELETS.
(Spikelets sessile or sub-sessile on the rachis.)
A. Spztkelets solitary, i.e. borne singly.
1. Spikelets without empty glumes! and one-flowered.
Nardus (p. 119), only one row of spikelets apparent.

1 Or one rudimentary glume only.

CH. V| Key to Floral Characters 35

2. Spikelets with one empty glume only.
Lolium (p. 113) has two opposite rows of spikelets.
L. italicum, outer palea bears terminal awn.
L. perenne, outer palea awnless.
3. Spikelets with two empty glumes. .
(The genera Triticum and Secale come here.)
Agropyrum (p. 51), rachis strongly notched.
A. repens (p. 51), awn wanting or not exceeding
length of palea.
A. caninum (p. 54), terminal awn exceeds length
of palea.
Brachypodium (p. 74), rachis scarcely notched.
B. sylvaticum (p. 74), terminal awn about as long
as palea.
B. pinnatum (p.76), terminal awn shorter than palea.
B. Spvkelets not solitary.
1. Spikelets on pairs, with 3-4 flowers each.
Elymus (p. 97).
2. Spikelets in threes, each having a single flower.
Hordeum (p. 109).
H. pratense, terminal awn not twice length of palea.
H. murinum, terminal awn twice length of palea.
3. Spikelets in clusters.
Cynosurus (p. 90), spike elongated; spikelets 3-5
flowered. .
Sesleria (p. 131), spike short and ovoid; spikelets 2-3
flowered.

II. INFLORESCENCE A PANICLE.
(Spikelets not sessile on the rachis.)
Type A. Panicle cylindrical and spikelike; spikelets one-
flowered.
1. Both palew present.
Phleum (p. 121), glumes keeled and bear awn-point.
Anthoxanthum (p. 61), each flower has two pairs of
empty glumes, and only two stamens.

1 The terminal spikelet has two empty glumes.
2 Under certain conditions some of the seeds may shed their awns.

3—2

36 Botanical Section [Pt T

Psamma (p. 129), sea-shore grass with long rhizomes,
panicle 4-6 inches long.
2. Inner palea wanting.
Alopecurus (p. 59).
A. agrestis (p. 61), panicle long and tapering.
A. pratensis (p. 59), panicle blunter at apex.
A. geniculatus (p. 61), an aquatic species with
“‘kneed’’ culms.
Tyree B. Panicle contracted and tufted.
Dactylis (p. 93), spikelets rough and dull; 3-5 flowered.
Keeleria (p. 112), spikelets silvery; 2-3 flowered.
Digraphis arundinacea (p. 95) may come here;
spikelets one-flowered.
Type C. Panicle close; though the inflorescence is elongated
the spikelets keep near the main axis.
1. Branches simple and few.
Triodia (p. 132), outer palea 3-toothed at apex.
2. Branches dwided.
(a) No awns or awn-points to pale.
Molinia (p. 118), spikelets 2-3 flowered.
Glyceria fluctans (p. 105), spikelets 8-16 flowered.
(b) With awns or awn-points to palee.
Festuca ovina (p. 101), terminal awn-points (may
sometimes come here).
F. Myurus (p. 100), long terminal awns.
Aira precox (p. 59), awns dorsal, or almost basal.
Type D. Panicle lax, open and spreading, at least during the
flowering period.
1. One perfect flower only in each sprkelet.

(a) Awns or awn-point to outer palea.
Arrhenatherum (p. 63), lower flower staminate.
Holeus (p. 106), upper flower staminate.

Agrostis canina (p. 56), very small one-flowered
spikelets with protruding dorsal awn.

(6) No awn or awn-point.

Digraphis arundinacea (p. 95), two hair-tufts at base
of palea.
Melica uniflora (p. 118).

CH. VV] Key to Floral Characters 37

Milium (p. 118).
Agrostis vulgaris (p. 56).
A. alba (p. 54) (sometimes has basal awn).
2. At least two perfect flowers in each sprkelet.
(a) With awns or awn-points to outer pale, which are:
Terminal in Festuca (p. 99).
F. ovina and vars. (p. 101), leaves permanently
closed.
F, elatior (p. 99). Leaves expanded. Spikelets
5-10 flowered.
F. sylvatica (p. 104). Leaves expanded. Spikelets
3-5 flowered.
Arundo Phragmites (p. 66), panicle large and
silky; spikelets 3-flowered.
Sub-terminal in Bromus (p. 79).
B. arvensis and vars. (pp. 79-82), O.P. broad.
B. sterilis (p. 82), panicle drooping; O.P.
narrow and long; awn longer than O.P.
B. asper (p. 85), panicle drooping; awn shorter
than the O.P. Shade species.
Dorsal or Basal in:
Avena (p. 68), awns bent, long, and conspicuous.
Aira (p. 56), awns fine, not conspicuous.
(b) Outer palee without awns or awn-points.
Poa (p. 122), spikelets with 2-7 flowers; O.P. less
than 4mm. long.
P. annua (p. 122), “web” wanting; spikelets
4-7 flowered.
P. pratensis (p. 127), O.P. 5-nerved, the
marginal nerves hairy below; spike-

lets 3-5 flowered. “Web”
P. compressa (p. 123), O.P. 3-nerved, of
spikelets 4-7 flowered. hairs

P. trivialis (p. 129), O.P. 5-nerved, the at
marginal nerves free from hairs;| base
spikelets 2-5 flowered. of

P. nemoralis (p. 125), O.P. 5-nerved,| palez
both dorsal and marginal nerves
hairy below; spikelets 3-5 flowered

x

38 Botanical Section [Pr 1

Festuca pratensis (p. 100), spikelets 5-6 flowered ;
O.P. 5-8 mm. long.

Glyceria aquatica (p. 104), aquatic; spikelets 5-10
flowered.

Catabrosa aquatica (p. 90), aquatic; spikelets
2-flowered.

Briza (p. 77), large inflated spikelets 6-8 flowered.

Melica nutans (p. 116), two perfect flowers in
each spikelet.

CHAPTER VI

KEY TO GRASS “SEEDS”

It has been found most convenient to classify the “seeds”
of grasses in the main by the presence or absence of an awn on
the outer palea. In Group I are placed all “seeds” which are
distinctly awned, i.e. having on an average awns exceeding half
the length of the palee bearing them. In Group III the paler
bear no trace of an awn; the apex of the outer palea is either
rounded off, or is acutely pointed, but does not taper off into
a long point.

Group IT is intermediate in these respects between Groups I
and III, and includes “seeds” in which the apex of the outer
palea either

(a) tapers to an awn-point;

(6) bears a sub-terminal point or spur;

(c) is two to five-toothed.
The terms “awn” and “awn-point” are of course only relative.
If on an average the awn-like projections exceed half the length
of the palez bearing them they are considered as awns; if they
do not exceed this they are termed awn-points. In the case of a
few species, where the length of the awn-point is subject to wide
variation, the seeds have been included in more than one Group.
The awn—when present—affords several other useful distinctive
characters. It may arise from either the base (basal) or apex of
the outer palea (terminal awn), Or it may arise from a point

CH. VI] Key to Grass “ Seeds” 39

just below the apex (sub-terminal), or near the middle of the
palea (dorsal awn). It may be either straight, bent, twisted,
smooth or barbed.

A careful examination of these points, together with the
size of the “seed,” the shape and relative size of the rachilla,
the position of hairs, etc. will soon enable the student to dis-
tinguish most grass “seeds.” In the key O.P. indicates the
outer palea and I.P. the inner palea. The pages given refer to
the fuller description.

Figs. 24 and 25. Types of Starch Grains.

Fig. 24. Simple grains from endosperm of Agropyrum repens. x about 350.
Fig. 25. Compound grains from endosperm of Festuca pratensis. x about 350.

It may here be noted that the starch grains of the endosperm
also afford characters which are useful aids to the identification
of species. The size, form, and structure of these are often very
different in the different genera (see Figs. 24 and 25). In Maize,
Wheat, Barley and Rye, and also in the genera Panicum, Agropyrum
and Elymus they are simple and either rounded or polyhedral in
form. In all other British genera compound grains occur. Further
details cannot be given here. See Bibliography, Nos. 10 and 35.

Key to British Grass “SEEDS.”

Group I. “Seeds’’ distinctly awned.
A. Awn terminal, i.e. the O.P. tapers off into an awn.
1. “Seed” consisting of the spikelets usually.united in
threes: Hordeum.
(a) Awn exceeding twice the length of the O.P.
H. murinum (Fig. 118), empty glumes of central
spikelet dilated and fringed (common) (p. 109).
H, sylvaticum, glumes only slightly dilated ; those

40 Botanical Section [Pr 1

of the central spikelet not fringed, the palez of
the central spikelet not enclosing a grain (rare).
(6) Awn not exceeding twice the length of the O.P.
H. pratense, glumes all bristle-like,—not dilated
(p. 111).
H. maritimum, inner glume of lateral spikelets
dilated on one side.
2. “Seed” consisting of only the I.P. and O.P. enclosing
the “grain.”
(a) “Seed” somewhat flattened or compressed; barge
or boat-shaped.

(z) Awn from 4 to 2 the length of O.P., which
is 5-7 mm. long.

Lolium ttalicum (p.115), rachilla rather
flattened and smooth (Fig. 124).

L. woldicum, rachilla rather flattened
and smooth (p. 158).

Bromus giganteus, rachilla cylindrical,
usually rough with short bristly hairs
(Fig. 80) (p. 85).

(y) Awn from 4 to 1 the length of O.P., which
is 9-12 mm. long; rachilla cylindrical
and usually hairy.

1Agropyrum caninum, back of O.P. smooth
and without a distinct keel. (Fig. 30).

Bromus erectus (Fig. 75), back of O.P.
scabrid or hairy and with a distinct
keel (p. 84).

Brachypodium sylvaticum, back of O.P.
hairy but without a distinct keel (Fig.
63) (p. 74).

(z) Awn-point half the length of the O.P. or
less; O.P. 7-12 mm. long; rachilla
round, smooth or pubescent.

Brachypodium pinnatum (Fig. 64), O.P.
nerved above but without a distinct
keel (p. 76).

1 In Agropyrum the awn is sometimes slightly sub-terminal.

CH. VI] Key to Grass “ Seeds” ea

1 Agropyrum repens var. aristata, O.P. with
a distinct and one-sided keel (p. 51).
(6) “Seed” not flattened, rather cylindrical or tri-
angular in transverse section, narrowing
below and tapering off above.

Festuca Myurus (Fig. 99), O.P. 5-6 mm. long
bearing an awn two or three times that
length (p. 100).

F. ovina var. duriuscula (Fig. 106) (p. 102),
O.P. about 4-5 mm. long, with an awn
—or awn-point—usually half as long
as itself.

F. ovina var. vulgaris (Fig. 102), O.P. 3-4 mm.
long with awn-point usually less than
half as long (p. 101).

[Arundo Phragmites (may come here), O.P. 10—
12mm. long, including its very long
awn-like point; rachilla covered with
long silky hairs (p. 66).

Dactylis glomerata (Fig. 88) (awned specimens
would come here), see p. 93.

Nardus stricta (Fig. 131) (may come here), see
p. 119.

Cynosurus echinatus (may come here), rare,
see p. 93.]

B. Awn sub-terminal, i.e. arising immediately but distinctly
below the apex of the O.P.
1. Awn exceeding twice the length of the O.P.
Agrostis Spica-venti (Fig. 37), O.P. 2-2-5 mm. long
(p. 56).
2. Awn from about + to ? the length of the O.P.
Bromus sterilis (Fig. 74), O.P. from 14 to 20mm.
long. “Seed” very slender (p. 82).
Lolium temulentum (Fig. 125), O.P. about 6 or
7mm. long. “Seed” very stout.
3. Awn usually not exceeding the length of the O.P.
Bromus mollis (Fig. 72), O.P. 7-12 mm. long, broad,

1 See footnote on previous page.

42 Botanical Section [PT I

much inflated, bifid at apex, and
usually hairy; awn about as long as
_O.P. (p. 81).
B. arvensis (Fig. 68), like B. mollis, but the whole
“seed” usually more glabrous (p. 79).
B. asper (Fig. 78), O.P. 10-14 mm. long, with short
bristly hairs on its lower part. Awn
rough, straight and about half as long
as the O.P. (p. 85).
Holcus mollis (Fig. 116) (may come here, but see p. 43).
4. Awn (or sub-terminal awn-point) not more than half
as long as the O.P.
Sesleria coerulea (may come here, see p. 131).
Holcus lanatus (Fig. 114), see pp. 43, 106.
C. Awn dorsal, arising a considerable distance below the apex,
but distinctly above the base of the O.P.
1. “Seed” consisting of the one-“ seeded” spikelets with the
glumes attached.
(a) “Seed” with two awns, one straight, the other
twisted and bent.

Anthoxanthum odoratum (Fig. 52) (p. 61), the
awn-bearing glumes (3-4mm. long)
have silvery-white summits, and are
covered with hairs of a deep rich brown
hue.

A. Puelit, the hair on the awn-bearing glumes
is of a paler brown colour, and the
palez are also of a lighter colour than
in A. odoratum. (See p. 139.)

N.B. “Seeds” of Arrhenatherum often have
two awns, but the palez of two flowers
are present, and the empty glumes
have fallen.

(b) “Seed” with O.P. bearing one awn, which is more
or less bent.

(x) Inner palea wanting, awn attached to
lower part of back of O.P. = Alope-
curus.

CH. V. VI] Key to Grass “Seeds” 43

A. pratensis (p. 59), glumes about 5 mm.
long, covered with long silky hairs
especially at their edges. (Fig. 45.)

A. agrestis (p. 61), glumes about 6mm. long,
bearing much shorter and fewer hairs
than A. pratensis. (Fig. 48.)

A. genculatus, glumes about 2-5mm. long.
(Fig. 50.)

(y) Both pale present = Holeus.

H. mollis (p. 108), glumes 5-6 mm. long,
both acutely pointed and hairy on the
nerves. O.P. of lower flower (con-
taining grain) awnless; O.P. of upper
(staminate) flower bears an awn which
arises from a point about three-fourths
the distance up the O.P.; the awn is
finely serrated throughout its entire
length. (Fig. 116.)

H. lanatus (p. 106), very like H. mollis, but glumes
4-5 mm. long, more hairy, the upper
one broader than the other and tipped
with a short awn-point. The awn is
almost sub-terminal, is rough (serrated)
only towards its point, and is distinctly
curved or hook-like. (Fig. 114.)

2. “Seed” consisting of the palee enveloping the grain, and
without the glumes attached.
(a) Awn twisted and bent.

Avena fatua, O.P. about 13-15 mm. long by
3mm. broad; rachilla bearing fine
long bristly hairs. Basal hair-tuft
below palee. (Fig. 62.)

A. strigosa, O.P. 12mm. or more in length.
Only the O.P. of lower “seed” of
spikelet is awned. Rachilla almost or
quite glabrous.

A, pratensis (p. 70), O.P. about 9 mm. long, of
light straw colour, with basal hair-tuft.

44 Botanical Section [Pr 1

Rachilla bears fine white silky hairs.
(Fig. 61.)

A. flavescens (p. 68), O.P. 5-6 mm. long,
yellowish-brown, bifid at apex, with
basal hair-tuft. Awn attached to upper
part of the back of the O.P. Rachilla
long, outstanding, and bearing longsilky
hairs. “Seeds” very light. (Fig. 58.)

Arrhenatherum avenaceum (p. 63), “seeds”
6-10 mm. long, consisting of two pairs
of palez, only the upper pair enclosing
a grain. (Fig. 55.)

Aira caryophyllea(p.59), O.P. about 1-7 mm. long,
dark-brown, bifid at apex, with basal
hair-tuft. Awnarisingfrom lower part of
O.P. and abouttwiceitslength. (Fig. 43.)

A. precox. “Seed” very much like A. caryo-
phyllea, but the basal hair-tuft is
much less developed, and the awn
arises nearer the base of the O.P.

(6) Awn straight, and not twisted.

Agrostis canina, no basal hair-tuft to “seed.”
(Fig. 36.)

Calamagrostis Epigeios, basal hair-tuft present
exceeding the length of the O.P. (p. 89).

D. Awn basal or nearly so.
1. Awn almost straight.
Aira cespitosa (p. 56), “seed” about 2-5 mm. long;
awn hairless ; rachilla with long white
spreading hairs. (Fig. 40.)
Aira canescens, awn with tuft of hairs in its
middle (p. 58).
2. Awn bent or distinctly wavy.
Aira flecuosa (p. 57), O.P. about 5mm. long, with a
conspicuous basal tuft of white silky
hairs. (Fig. 41.)
Agrostis setacea, O.P. about 2 mm. long, with a few
basal hairs only (p. 56).

CH. VI] Key to Grass ‘‘ Seeds” 45

Group II. ‘Seeds’? with the O.P. either taper-pointed, or
bearing an awn-point or spur, but not
distinctly awned. (See p. 38.)

A. O.P. without a distinct keel; “seed” round-backed, narrowing
below and tapering above.

Cynosurus cristatus (p. 90), O.P. 3-4 mm. long, with a
coarsely scabrid curved point. Colour
varies from light yellow to brown.
(Fig. 86.)

C. echinatus, O.P. 5-6 mm. long without including
the awn-point, of a pale straw colour;
usually has a distinct awn.

Festuca ovina var. vulgaris, O.P. 3-4 mm. long, or up
to 4-5 mm. with the terminal awn-point.
Rachilla round and _ outstanding.
(Fig. 102. See p. 101.)

F. ovina tenuifolia, O.P. 24mm. long, acutely
pointed, but without an awn-point.
(Fig. 103.)

F. rubra var. genuina, O.P. 4-5 mm. long, usually with
a very short awn-point; often with a
pinkish tinge. (Fig. 107. See p. 102.)

F. elatior sub-sp. arundinacea (p. 99), O.P. 6-9 mm. long,
tapering to an acute point, or even
with an awn-point. (Fig. 95.)

Agropyrum repens, O.P. 7-12 mm. long including the
taper-point, or terminal awn-point.
(Fig. 29.)

Elymus arenarius, may have the keel of its O.P.
very slight and come here (see
p. 46).

B. O.P. with a distinct keel; “seed” either compressed, or at
least triangular in central transverse
section.

1. Keel of O.P. very marked.
Bromus Schraderi, O. P. 14-22 mm. long, taper-
pointed; grain about 7 mm. long.
(Fig. 83, p. 88.)

46 Botanical Section [Pr I

Dactylis glomerata (p. 93), O. P. usually 5-6 mm. long,
with curved taper-point; keel serrated
or with bristly hairsabove. (Figs. 88, 89.)

Keleria cristata, O. P. about 4 mm. long, taper-
pointed, Inner palea thin and silvery.
“Seed” much compressed. (Fig. 120.)

2. Keel of O.P. slight.

Nardus stricta, O.P. 8-12mm. long including the
tapering awn-point which is rough.
No rachilla. (Fig. 131.)

Molinia cerulea, O.P. 3-4mm. long, acutely pointed,
often purplish; the pale usually gape
open above; rachilla frequently kinked,
and “knobbed” at top. (Fig. 130.)

Psamma arenaria, O.P. about 10 mm. long, 5-nerved,
the slight keel (central nerve) ending
in a short sub-terminal spur. A basal
tuft of silky hairs present. (Fig. 147.)

Elymus arenarius, O.P. 12-17mm. long, very hairy and
with a terminal spur-point. (Fig. 93.)

Arundo Phragmites, O.P. about 11 mm. long, taper-
pointed; rachilla covered with long
silky hairs (generally goes into Group I).

Sesleria cerulea, O.P. about 4mm. long, 5-nerved,
the central nerve ending in a short
awn-point, the other nerves forming
teeth at the top (p. 131).

Group III. “Seeds ’’ without awns or awn-like points. The apex
of the O.P. is either rounded off or
simply acute.

A. “Seeds” less than 4mm. in average length.

1. “Seed” three-sided or triangular in transverse section
(owing to prominent keel and marginal
tibs of O.P.). Rachilla cylindrical.

Poa nemoralis (p. 125), O.P. average 2-5 mm. long,
with rather acute apex; keel and
marginal nerves hairy below. Rachilla
microscopically rough. (Fig. 139.)

CH. V. VI]

N.B.

Key to Grass “ Seeds” 47

Poa trivialis (p. 129), O.P. average 2:3 mm. long,
5-nerved, with acute apex; the “seed”
is acutely triangular in transverse
section, and without hairs on the
marginal ribs; rachilla smooth and
slender. (Fig. 143.)

Poa pratensis (p. 127), O.P. average 2-2 mm. long,
with blunt apex; “seed” stouter, and
less acutely triangular in transverse
section than P. trivialis; a few hairs
are frequently present on the marginal
ribs below; rachillasmooth. (Fig. 142.)

Poa compressa, very similar in size, etc., to P. pratensis
but there are no intermediate nerves
between the keel and marginal ribs of
the O.P., and the IP. is fringed with
finer and more numerous microscopic
hairs. (Fig. 138, p. 124.)

“Seeds” of the above four species in their natural
state have a “web” at the base;
“seeds” of the two following species
have no “web.”

Poa annua, O.P. from 2-3 mm. long, 5-nerved, with
membranous edges above; keel and
lateral ribs fringed with hairs. Ra-
chilla relatively large. The degree of
hairiness is very variable. (Fig. 136.)

Poa alpina, O.P. 3-4mm. long, 3-nerved, acutely
pointed and keeled; keel and lateral
nerves are covered with long white
hairs. (Fig. 135.)

“Seed” with O.P. round-backed, i.e. without a promi-
nent keel.
(a) O.P. not inflated, closely investing the grain.

Phleum pratense (p. 121), “seed” about 1-8 mm.
long, spherical-ovoid in form. Palex
silvery-white; grain yellow with ir-
regularly pitted surface. (Fig. 134.)

48 Botanical Section [PT I

Festuca ovina tenuifolia, O.P. 2-4 mm. long, with
acute apex, brown in colour. Rachilla
outstanding. (Fig. 103.)

Agrostis alba var. stolonifera (p. 54), in bulk of a pale
silvery-fawn colour. O.P. 1-3-2-0 mm.
long; pale very thin and silvery-
white, lower empty glume with its
keel serrated throughout its entire
length (some empty glumes are always
present). (Fig. 34.)

A. alba var. vulgaris, as above but slightly smaller
“seed,” and lower empty glume ser-
rated only on the upper half of its keel.
Seen in bulk the “seed” is of a darker
colour. (Fig. 35.)

Glyceria aquatica, O.P. 3-4 mm. long, 7-nerved;
rachilla less enlarged at the top than
in G. flutans. (Fig. 111.)

Milium effusum, O.P. about 3 mm. long; inner palea
hard and shining. (Fig. 129.)

Digraphis arundinacea, O.P. about 3mm. long,
glossy, with a pair of linear hair-tufts
at its base. (Fig. 92.)

Holcus lanatus, “seed” (when free from the glumes)
2-2-5 mm. long; palew greyish-white,
shining. (Fig. 114.)

H. mollis, when free from the glumes, also comes
here. Itcan then only be distinguished
from H. lanatus by the awn of the
upper flower if the latter is attached,
see p. 108. (Fig. 116.)

“‘Seeds”’ of the following three species may sometimes come here.

Cynosurus cristatus
d | O.P. 3-4 mm. long and taper-

aoe
olinia coerulea pointed (see Group II).

Keeleria cristata
(6) O.P. inflated, with membranous winged margins.

Briza media, O.P. 2-5-3 mm. long. (Fig. 69.)

B. minor has a similar but smaller “seed.”

CH. VI] Key to Grass “ Seeds” 49

B. “Seeds” 4mm. or more in average length.

1. Grain tightly held between the palee.

Lolium perenne (p. 113), O.P. 5-8 mm. long, usually
with rounded apex. Rachilla com-
pressed. (Fig. 123.)

Festuca pratensis (p. 100), O.P. 5-6 mm. long, rachilla
cylindrical. (Fig. 97.)

Bromus inermis, O.P. 9-12 mm. long, rachilla cylin-
drical and hairy. (Fig. 82, p. 87.)

Glyceria fluitans, O.P. 4-5 mm. long, 7-nerved, the
nerves rough; rachilla much enlarged
at top. (Fig. 112.)

[In the following species the O.P. is usually either taper-
pointed or bears an awn-like point,
but occasionally their seeds may appear
to come here (see Group IJ).

Festuca rubra (Fig. 107), the O.P. is 4-5 mm. long,
including the awn-point.

F, elatior sub-sp. arundinacea (Fig. 95), O.P. 6-9 mm.
long, usually tapering to an acute point.

Bromus Schraderi, O.P. 14-22 mm. long, taper-
pointed. (Fig. 83.)

Arundo Phragmites, O.P. 10-12 mm. long, taper-
pointed (p. 66).

Psamma arenaria, O.P. 9-1lmm. long, bearing a
very short sub-terminal spur.

Elymus arenarius, O.P. 12-17 mm. long, hairy, and
with a terminal spur. (Fig. 93.)]

2. O.P. very broad and loose, allowing the grain to separate
easily.

Melica nutans, O.P. 4-6mm. long; grain about
25mm. long, shining, of a dark-
brown colour. (Fig. 126.)

M. uniflora, “seed” very similar to M. nutans.

(N.B. “Seeds” of the last two species are not often met
with.)

DO

Botanical Section esa

Fig. 26.

POUR toe

Le

Lolium italicum.

LD. perenne.

L. temulentum.

Festucy elatior.

. pratensis.

. duriuscula,

. rubra var. fallax,

. ovind var. vulgaris.

. ovina var, tenuifolia,
. Mynrus.

Dactylis glomerata
Cynosurus cristalus.
Anthoxanthum odoratum.
Briza media,

Bromus sterilis,

B. mollis.

B, asper.

B. ereclus.

B. giganteus,

B. inermis.

B. Schraderi.
Brachypodium pinnation,
B. sylvaticum.

Avena pratensis,

A. flavescens.
Arrhenatierum avenaceum.
Avena futua,

Al. pubescens.

ay Pay Pay Ry Ray By

Showing outline anc

1 comparative size of common gras

Dp
D
QD
oD
Q
n

Natural size.

ba
30,
ad,

32.

33

34.

Aira fleanosa,

A. caryophyllea,

A. cespitosa.
Alonecurus pratensis,
A. agrestis,

A. geniculalus,

Holeus mollis,

HZ. lanatus (in glumes).
A. lanatus (without glumes)
Phleum pratense.

Poa pratensis.

P. triviatis.

P. nemoralis.

Po annwe.

Agropyrum repens.
Nardus stricta.
Glyceria aquatica.

G. fluitans.

Agrostis alba,

Melica nutans.

Keleria cristata,
Molinia cerulea
Hord:um pratense.

HH. murinum,

Elymus arenarius.
Psammea arenaria.
Digraphis arundinace,
Wheat grain (for comparison of size).

cH. vil] Botanical Description of Species 51

CHAPTER VII

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES
(N.B. The Genera are arranged in alphabetical order)
Agropyrum repens, Beauv. (Couch-grass.) (Fig. 27.)
A perennial, creeping very extensively by means of numerous,
long, stout, and sharply-pointed rhizomes which bear rudimentary
leaves and adventitious roots at the nodes. Leaf-sheaths split,

Fig. 27. Spikate inflorescence of Agro- Fig. 28. Ayropyrum cani-
pyrum repens, about } nat. size. Left num, about 4 nat. size.
hand, ordinary awnless type. Right
hand, var. aristatwm.

52 Botanical Section [Pr 1

and without distinct keels; the lower ones usually pubescent or
hairy—the upper ones often glabrous. Blade rolled in the shoot,
dull, long, and rather thin; broadest in middle, tapering to an
acute apex, and narrowing below. Upper surface sparsely hairy,
almost ribless, and rough, especially downwards. Lower surface
slightly keeled near base, occasionally hairy. (The hairiness of

aa

Fig. 29. “Seed” of Agro- Fig. 30. “Seed” of Agro-
pyrum repens. x5. Front pyrum caninum. x5.
view. Back and front views.

this species varies very much.) Auricles prominent, narrow and
pointed; springing from greenish-white triangular areas at base
of blade. Ligule very short, blunt and finely fringed. Abundant
in Britain, and a most troublesome weed on cultivated ground.
Flowers about July; flowering culms 14 to 3 feet high;
inflorescence spikate. Spikelets in two rows, with the edges of

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species Be

the palee turned towards the main axis, which is tough and
notched. Spikelets of 4-5 flowers. The empty glumes are nearly
equal, and 4-5 nerved.

“Seeds” boat-shaped, 7-12 mm. long; outer palea with a
prominent dorsal nerve; rachilla stout, cylindrical, smooth (or
sometimes hairy), widening above, with a concave apex. (Fig. 29.)

a b
Fig. 31. Panicle of Agrostis palustris, Fig. 32. Panicles of Agrostis stolonifera
(a) just after emerging from its (to the left), and Agrostis vulgaris
sheath and (6) near the period of (to the right). About } nat. size.

flowering. About } nat. size.

A common variety of this species—var. aristatum—has the
dorsal nerve prolonged into an awn or awn-point, which is
sub-terminal, and does not exceed the length of the outer
palea.

54 Botanical Section [PTI

A. junceum, Beauv., is a sea-shore variety of A. repens. Its
leaf-blades are rigid and glaucous, and the lower ones are rolled
and pointed.

Agropyrum carinii, Beauv. (Bearded Wheat-grass.) (Fig. 28.)

Though frequent in Britain this species is very much less
common that A. repens from which it differs mainly in the following
respects: it is a tufted perennial, without rhizomes ; the empty
glumes are usually only 3-nerved; the outer palea has a terminal

ae

Fig. 33. Agrostis alba, L. var. repens showing erceping rhizomes.

awn longer than atself, and the rachilla of the “seed” is hairy.
Fig. 30. It is a shade species.

Agrostis. British members of this genus may be identified
by the delicate spreading panicle; the very small one-flawered
spikelets, and the emply glumes exceeding the length of the palee.

Agrostis alba, L., var. slolonifera. (Fiorin or Creeping Bent-
erass.) Hig. 32. Abundant in Britain. See also p. 154.

An entirely glabrous perennial, with numerous creeping surface
stolons, rooting at the lower nodes. Sheaths split; blades rolled in

¥

cH.vi] Botanical Description of Species 55

the shoot, varying much in relative length and breadth, but
always thin, and acute at the apex; usually downwards rough;
almost ribless. No keel to sheath or blade. Ligule long, erect,
and rounded at apex; no auricles.

Flowers from July to September; culms from 1 to 2 feet
high; panicle erect, delicate, and spreading when in flower.
Spikelets numerous, small, and one-flowered. Both paleew are
present. Empty glumes acute and nearly equal.

“Seeds” 1-3-2-Omm. long; outer palea delicate, awnless,
and slightly notched at its apex. There is no rachilla, but a
basal tuft of fine erect hairs may be present. Grain of butter-
scotch colour visible between the pales. The empty glumes

i Ud

Fig. 34 Fig. 35 Fig. 36

Fig. 34. Agrostis alba, L. var. stolonifera. x10. A. Empty glumes. B. “Seed.”
C. Naked grain.

Fig. 35. Agrostis vulgaris, With. x10. A. Back view, and B front view of
“seed.” The dotted line indicates the position and form of the grain.
C. The empty glumes.

Fig. 36. Agrostis canina, L. x10. A. Empty glumes. B. “Seed” showing
outer palea and dorsal awn.

A B

may remain attached; the lower one has its keel minutely toothed
along almost its entire length. (Fig. 34.)

Another form of this species known as A. palustris (Marsh
Bent-grass) is a luxuriant variety found growing by the side of
ditches and ponds. It has a larger and more spreading panicle.
(Fig. 31.)

Agrostis alba, L. var. repens. (Black Bent-grass) = A. nigra,
Withering. Very similar in foliage etc. to A. stolonifera but its
panicle is more loose and spreading. It also creeps extensively by
means of stout underground rhizomes—like those of Couch-grass.
It ig a troublesome weed on arable soils. (Fig. 33.) .

56 Botanical Section [Pr iT

Agrostis vulgaris, With. (Fine Bent-grass.) (Fig. 32.)

Perhaps only a smaller variety of A. alba. The main points
of difference are: leaves usually narrower; ligule short and blunt.
Panicle very fine and graceful—even more
delicate than A. alba—and generally purple
in colour. The lower empty glume is
toothed only on the upper half of its keel.
(Fig. 35.)

Agrostis canina, L. (Brown Bent-grass.)
Perennial.

Very near A. alba and A. vulgaris, but
distinguishable from them by the following
combination of characters: tbe ligule is
long and acute and the lower leaves almost
needle-like. The outer palea bears a fine
dorsal awn as long as itself. The inner
palea is wanting. (Fig. 36.)

Agrostis setacea, Curt. A perennial
with needle-like leaves, and slender con-
tracted panicle. The outer palea bears a
bent basal or almost basal awn_ longer
than itself. In Great Britain is only
usually found in the §.W. counties of
England.

Agrostis Spica-venti, L. An annual
with narrow but expanded leaves. The
panicle with its long, slender, spreading
branches, and shining spikelets, has a
graceful appearance. Not common.

The outer palea 2-3 mm. long—bears
Fig. 37. Agrostis Spica- ag fine, straight, sub-terminal awn from
vents, 1. x10. 4, Empty tice to four times its own length. Rachilla
glumes. B. ‘“‘Seed.” C. :
“Seed” with awn fully small and slender. (Fig. 37.)
shown. Aira cespitosa, L. (Tufted Hair-grass.)
(Figs. 38 and 39.)

A perennial, abundant in Britain, growing in large dense tufts
in moist or shady situations. Sheaths split, shoot rolled; leaf-blades
expanded or slightly rolled, acutely pointed. Upper surface with

ou. vit} = Botanical Description of Species 57

very high, rough, and acute ridges which are equal, and contrast
greatly with the thin transparent tissue between. This trans-
parent tissue consists of longitudinal rows of thin-walled motor
cells. There is no mid-rib, and in dry weather the blade rolls up
as the motor cells lose water and allow the ridges to come together.
There are no auricles; the ligule is long and acute.

Flowers usually in July; culms 1} to 4 feet high. Panicle
large and graceful—at first slightly drooping—later erect and
spreading; spikelets numerous, 2-3 flowered, silvery-grey or

purplish.

Fig. 38. A large dense tuft of Aira cespitosa,

“Seeds” about 2-5 mm. long; outer palea membranous, white,
and ragged at its apex, and bearing a fine, almost straight basal
(or almost basal) awn seldom exceeding its own length. Rachilla
relatively long, and bearing long white spreading hairs. There is
also a basal tuft of white silky hairs. Colour variable. (Fig. 40.)

Aira flexuosa, L. (Wavy Hair-grass.) (Fig. 42.)

A perennial, with narrow leaves having their edges tightly
rolled inwards, making them almost solid. Ligule prominent,
broader than the base of the leaf. Flowers in July; culms from

58 Botanical Section [pr I

12 to 18 inches high; panicle erect and spreading; spikelets erect,
shining, containing two flowers. Generally distributed over Britain
on heaths and upland pastures.

“Seeds” 4-Hmm. long, of pale to mid-brown colour when
ripe; outer palea ragged or bifid at its apex, and bearing a twisted

Fig. 39. Panicle of Aira ceespitosa, about } nat. size.

and “kneed” basal (or almost basal) awn castinetly longer than
itself. A conspicuous tuft of white silky hairs surrounds the
base of the “seed.” Rachilla relatively short, also bearing
white hairs. (Fig. 41.)
Aira canescens, L. (Grey Hair-grass.)
Needle-like leaves; awn basal, thickened at end, and bearing

cH. vil] Botanical Description of Species 59

a tuft of hairs in the middle. In Britain, only known to occur
on the sandy shores of East Anglia.

Aira caryophyllea, L. (Silvery Hair-grass.) (Fig. 42.)

An annual, with rather rough needle-like leaves, growing
about six inches high, and found mostly on poor uplands.

Panicle erect and spreading; spikelets containing two flowers,
the empty glumes equal.

“Seed” dark-brown or almost black; about 1-5 mm. long,
with a basal hair-tuft. Outer palea bifid at its apex, and bearing
a dorsal (or almost basal) twisted and “kneed” awn about twice
its own length. (Fig. 43.)

Fig. 40. “Seed” of Aira Fig. 41. “Seed” of Airu flecuosa. x10. A. Back

cespitosa. x10. A. view, showing position of the awn. B. Front
Front view. B. Side view.
view.

Aira precoz, L. (Early Hair-grass.)

An annual, almost identical in structure and habitat with
A. caryophyllea. It is however usually a smaller plant, and the
branches of the panicle remain close to the main axis.

Alopecurus pratensis, L. (Meadow Foxtail.) (Figs. 44, 150.)
Abundant in Britain in moist meadows and pastures (see p. 135).

A slightly stoloniferous, and entirely glabrous perennial.
forming loose tufts of abundant dark-green foliage. Sheaths
smooth, split; the lower ones often of a purplish colour near the
ground, and becoming a dark chocolate colour as they age; the
uppermost ones become inflated just before flowering, and remain

60 Botanical Section Boe

so afterwards. Blade rolled in the shoot, rather thin, broadest
just above its base; acuminate above, and forming rounded
collar-like ledges below where it joins the sheath; both surfaces
dull. Ribs on upper surface low, flat and broad. Ligule variable
in length, but always blunt. There is no keel to the sheath but
a slight one is present on the lower half of the blade. No auricles.

Fig. 42. Plants of Aira flexuova (left) and Aira caryophyllea (right). About

} nat. size. N.B. The photograph is of specimens which had been dried, and

the bent condition of A. flewvosa is unnatural.

Flowers in April and May: culms smooth, 1 to 3 feet high:
panicle cylindrical, spike-like, 1-3 inches long. Spikelets on very
short branches, one-flowered, ovate. Flowers proterogynous.

The “seeds” consist of the entire ripened spikelets. © Empty

cH. vil] Botanical Description of Species 61

glumes about 5 mm. long, equal, acute, united below, their keels
fringed with long silky hairs. Outer palea acute, bearing a sub-
dorsal (or almost basal) awn, projecting more
than half tts length beyond the palea. Inner palea
wanting. The grain (caryopsis) is yellowish,
ovate, somewhat flattened, and often bears
remains of the stigma. (Fig. 45.)

Alopecurus agrestis, L. (Slender Foxtail.)
(= A. myosuroides, Huds.) (Figs. 46 and 47.)

A tufted annual, most common on stiff
cultivated soils, where it becomes a trouble-
some weed. Flowers throughout the summer. Fs 43. “Seed” of

: a ‘ Aira caryophyllea,
It differs also from A. pratensis in the following L. x10. A. Side
respects: the leaf-blades have acute ribs on view, showing
the upper surface; sheaths and flowering position of awn.
culms rough, the latter 1 to 2 feet high; % Front view.
the cylindrical panicles taper at each end, and are more slender
than those of A. pratensis.

“Seeds” asin A. pratensis, but the empty glumes larger, about
6mm. long, with the keels only slightly hairy; caryopsis also
two or three times as large. (Fig. 48.)

Alopecurus geniculatus, L. (Floating Foxtail.) (Figs. 49 and
50.)

A semi-aquatic perennial, flowering about June. Culms
12-18 inches long, “kneed” at almost every node, and rooting
at the lower ones. Blades relatively short and broad. Ligule
long. Spikelets about half as long as those of A. pratensis. Empty
glumes blunt, their keels fringed with hairs (Fig. 50). (A variety of
this species with the stems swollen near the ground known as var.
bulbosus is rare. A. fulvus Sm. and A. alpinus Sm. are also rare.)

Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. (Sweet-scented Vernal-grass.)
(Fig. 51 Band C.) See also p. 138.

A small perennial, forming compact tufts, and producing
culms from 12 to 18 inches high. Roots rather shallow. Sheaths
split, with very slight keel, somewhat striated, sparsely hairy
or glabrous. Blades thin, rolled in the shoot, of light or mid-
green colour; varying much in shape, usually broadest in the
middle and narrowing below; sub-acute apex. Ribs—though

A B

62 Botanical Section [Pr Tz

distinct on upper surface—low, and flat. The hairiness of the
blade varies much; hairs may be confined to the margins, and
to the throat of the sheath, or both blade surfaces may be bairy.
Ligule well developed, but blunt and very thin. No auricles are
present, but the base of the blade forms ledges with hairy margins.
Sweet scented. Abundant in Britain.

Fiz. 44. Spike-like panicles of Alopecurus pratensis, L. showing four stages of
development. Left to rizht, (a) emerging from the inflated sheath, (b) with
stigmas just in the receptive condition, (c) with stamens fully protruded, and
(d) the post-flowering condition. About 2 nat. size.

Flowers in April and May; panicle close, and spike-like, 1 to

2 inches long. Spikelets one-flowered, 8-9 mm. long. Two

pairs of empty glumes are present; the lower or outer pair unequal

cH. vit} Botanical Description of Species 63

and acute, slightly hairy, yellowing as they age; the inner pair
nearly equal, hairy, of a rich brown colour when the “seed”
is ripe. Two stamens only are present in each flower. Flowers
protogynous.

The “seed” (3-4 mm. long) consists of the inner pair of
glumes (covered with dark-brown hairs), and enclosing the pales
and the caryopsis. The lower glume bears a straight dorsal
awn, and the other glume bears a longet, “ kneed,” sub-dorsal or

Fig. 45. “Seed” of Alopecurus pratensis, L. x10. It consists of the empty
glumes (gl. 1) and (gl. 2), and the outer palea (O.P.) enclosing the grain.
St. remains of the stigmatic plumes.

almost basal awn. The upper margins of both glumes are silvery-
white and membranous. The outer and inner palew are of a
brownish colour, thin, smooth, and shining. (Fig. 52.)

A. Puelii, a closely allied annual species, only occurs as a weed
of cultivation in Britain.

Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. (False or Tall Oat-grass.)
(Fig. 53.) Common in Britain. See also p. 140.

A tall perennial, with loose, erect tufts of bitter folage. Roots
numerous and of chrome-yellow colour. Basal nodes of culms

64 Botanical Section [PTI

often thickened, or bulbous, and sometimes coloured like the
roots. Sheath split, with only a slight keel, usually glabrous
but sometimes hairy, especially near the nodes. Blade rolled
in the shoot, long, rather thin, and narrow in proportion to
length; broadest in middle, acuminate above, tapering below;

a b

Fig. 46. Spike-like panicles of (a) Meadow Foxtail, and (b) Slender Foxtail.
About nat. size.
upper surface almost ribless, usually hairy, and downwards rough
near apex: lower surface shghtly keeled at base of blade. There
are no auricles and the ligule is blunt. A variety of this species
with the lower internodes very much thickened is a troublesome
weed on some cultivated soils. It is known as ‘t Onion Couch.”
See Fig. 54.

cH. vil} Botanical Description of Species 65

Flowers usually in June; culms 2-4 feet high. Panicle large,
6-10 inches long, leaning slightly towards one side; the branches
keep close to the main axis at first but spread at time of flowering.
Spikelets 8-10 mm. long, containing two flowers, the upper one
hermaphrodite, the lower one staminate. Empty glumes very

Fig. 47. Alopecurus agrestis. About } nat. size.

unequal, membranous, and acute; the upper and larger glume is
three-nerved, and often of a purple colour; the lower glume
has a dorsal nerve only. The “seeds” of this species are often
“sooted”’ or “smutted” owing to the attacks of Ustilago perennans,
one of the “smut” fungi.

The “seeds” consist of the spikelets minus the empty glumes;

Ay 5

66 Botanical Section [Pry

-their length without the awn varies from 6-10 mm. The outer
palea of the lower flower bears a long (10 mm. or more) twisted
and “kneed” dorsal awn. The outer palea of the upper flower
usually bears only a short sub-terminal awn-point, but it may
have a dorsal, twisted and “kneed” awn; its apex is ragged.
Both of the outer palee are distinctly nerved, and the margins of
both inner palew are delicately fringed. Each flower has a con-
spicuous basal tuft of white hairs. (Fig. 55.)

(N.B. The twisting of the awns is only apparent when the
seed is ripe.) :

Fig. 48. “Seed” of Alopecurus agrestis, L. x10. Two views.

Arundo Phragmites, L. (Common Reed.) (Fig. 56.) Common
in Britain.

A perennial aquatic species with creeping rhizomes. Sheaths
smooth, split, bearded at the throat, i.e. where sheath and blade
‘meet. Leaves rolled in the shoot; blades about one foot long or

cH. vit} Botanical Description of Species 67

more, and often more than an inch broad, linear-lanceolate and
acuminate; smooth on both surfaces, but with numerous, low,
flat ribs on the upper side. Ligule represented by a fringe of hairs.
No auricles. The loose sheaths allow the blades to turn away
from the direction of the strongest prevailing winds.

Flowers about August; culms stout, erect, smooth, from 5 to
8 feet high. Panicle large, compound, with branches turned in the

Fig. 50. ‘‘Seed”
of Alopecurus
geniculatus, L.
x10.

|

Fig. 49. Two semi-aquatic grasses. Alopecu-

rus geniculalus, L. (left), Aira cespitosa, L.

(right). About } nat. size.
same direction as the leaves; at first silvery-violet or chocolate
in colour, but later on turning light-brown. Spikelets numerous,
three-flowered, ovate-lanceolate at first, and spreading later.
Empty glumes unequal, narrow, and acute, each bearing a nerve
on either side of the centcal keel.

68 Botanical Section (Prry ra

“Seed.” Outer palea 10-12 mm. long, including the long awn-n-o-n-n-r
hke taper-point. Inner palea half as long as the outer palea,a,a,a,a,é
membranous and minutely fringed towards its apex. The rachillalalalala!|
is covered with long silky hairs.

Avena. British species of this genus are recognised by their ‘~*~ *~*~-
open spreading panicles, 2-5 flowered spikelets (if only two flowers

A B

Big. 51. Two of the earliest of British Grasses. 4. Meadow Foxtail.
Bb. Sweet Vernal-Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). C. Plant of the latter.

both are bisexual), and the long dorsal and “kneed” awn on the
ouler palec.

Avena jlavescens, L. (Yellow or Golden Oat-grass.) (Fig. 57.)
See also p. 139. Common in England, but much less so in Scotland
and Treland.

cH. v1] Botanical Description of Species 69

A tufted perennial, with numerous fibrous roots which are
often of a yellowish colour. Shoot cylindrical. Sheaths split,
covered with numerous silky and usually reflexed hairs. Leaf-
blades rather thin, narrow, and acuminate; with silky hairs on
both suxfaces, but more especially on the upper surface which is
also distinctly ribbed. No auricles. Ligule blunt, but distinct.
The foliage is generally of a pale or mid-green colour.

Fig. 52. “Seed” of Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. x10. A. “Seed” consisting of
the inner pair of hairy empty glumes enclosing the palee and grain. B. The
outer palea (0.P.) and inner palea (J.P.) enveloping the grain.

Flowers about midsummer; culms erect about 15-20 inches
high. Panicle symmetrical, open, and erect; of a golden-yellow
hue, very delicate and graceful in appearance. Spikelets small,
numerous, 2-3 flowered. Empty glumes very unequal, the upper
one often nearly twice as long, and 3-4 times as broad as the
other; both are very thin, acute and keeled, but the lateral nerves
are indistinct.

70 Botanical Section [pr I

“Seeds.” Outer palea 5-6 mm. long, yellow or straw coloured,

or sometimes of a brownish hue, with a pointed bifid apex. The
outer palea bears a sub-terminal or dorsal twisted and“ kneed” awn,
generally rather longer than itself. Inner palea 4-5 mm. long,
membranous, very thin, without a marginal hair-fringe. Rachilla

{

Fig. 53. Three panicles of Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. About } nat. size.

rather long, outstanding, cylindrical and thickening towards
the top, bearing long silky hairs. A tuft of silky hairs is also
present at the base of the seed. (Fig. 58.)

Avena pralensis, L. (Perennial Oat-grass.) (Fig. 59.) Widely
distributed though not abundant in Britain.

An entirely glabrous, tufted perennial. Blades folded in the

OH. VII] = Botanical Description of Species 71

young shoot. Sheath split. Leaf-blades rather narrow, dry and
scabrous on the upper surface; generally tending to fold or
roll up, ribless, but keeled below. In outline they are very
similar to those of Pow pratensis. Upper ligule long; ligule to
basal leaves short; auricles wanting. Two or three varieties
occur varying chiefly in the length or breadth of the leaf-blades.

Fig. 54. Tuft of Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv. var. bulbosum.
“Onion Couch.”

Flowers about June; culms erect, smooth, finely striated,
from 18-24 inches high. Panicle erect, rather close and almost
simple. Spikelets large, oval, 3-6 flowered; empty glumes
unequal, acute, and keeled, with a prominent nerve on either
side of the keel. The upper and larger glume is of a purple
colour below, and silvery-white and membranous above and along
its margins.

72 Botanical Section [PTI

“Seed.” Outer palea about 9 mm. long, white and membran-
ous at its apex which is 2-4 toothed; bearing a slightly twisted
and “kneed” dorsal awn. Inner palea very thin, flat and fringed.
Rachilla long, slender, cylindrical, and bearing numerous long
silky hairs. The base of the ‘“‘seed”’ is surrounded by a large
“brush” of hairs. (Fig. 61.)

A. pubescens, Huds. A marked variety of the above. The
lower leaves and sheaths are distinctly hairy, and less harsh to the
touch. The outer palea is rather shorter, and the rachilla longer
and more feathered with hairs. The panicle also is more silvery
in appearance.

Fig. 55. “Seed” of Arrhenatherum avenac-um, Beauv. x10.
The grain is enclosed within the upper pair of palex.

cH.va) = =Botanical Description of Species 73

Avena fatua, L. (Wild Oat.) (Fig. 60.) Abundant in Britain.

A tall annual, occurring especially among cereal crops, forming
close tufts. Shoot cylindrical, sheaths split, glabrous or occasion-
ally with a few hairs. Leaf-blades linear, broad, acuminate,
glabrous or slightly hairy. Ligule membranous, relatively short,
and blunt. Auricles wanting. /

Fig 56. Inflorescence of Fig. 57. Panicles of Avena flavescens, L
Arunds Phragmites. a. Pre-flowering stage. 6. In full
About } nat. size. flower. About 2 nat. size.

Flowers in June or July; culms erect, 3-5 feet high. Panicle
large, open, and spreading equally on all sides. Spikelets large,
ovate-lanceolate, hanging, each of two to three flowers. Empty

74 Botanical Section (Pn 1

glumes, smooth, papery, acute, and nearly equal. The lower
glume has about seven conspicuous nerves, the upper one has
from nine to eleven.

“Seeds” about 15mm. long by 3mm. broad, cylindrical,
tapering at apex. The outer palea may be almost white, or
yellowish, or some shade of brown, or even of.a dark-slate colour;
its kasal part is covered with brown or yellow hairs, and it bears
a twisted and bent dorsal awn of a rich brown colour (when ripe)
and about 30mm. long. Rachilla long, cylindrical, outstanding,
and covered with fine long bristles. The grain closely resembles

Fig. 58. “Seeds” of Avena flavescens, L. x10. Two views

that of the cultivated oat. It is some 7mm. long, distinctly
grooved on its inner surface, and covered with fine hairs at its
apex. (Fig. 62.) .

A, strigosa, L. (Bristle-pointed Oat.) Very closely resembles
the wild oat and is perhaps only a variety. Its panicle is less
spreading, and more turned towards one side; the outer palea
is terminated by two long straight bristles.

Brachypodium § sylvaticum, Beauv. (Wood False Brome-
grass.) (Fig. 66.) Common in Britain.

A tufted perennial growing in shade or semi-shade. Foliage

OH. VII Botanical Description of Species 75

of a pale sap-green colour, making the plant very conspicuous.
Shoot round, sheaths split and hairy. Blade thin, long, narrowing
towards the base, and tapering above into a long point (Fig. 12):
ribless, with scattered hairs. Ligule prominent, blunt, and ragged.

Flowers about midsummer; culms erect, 1-2 feet high. In-
florescence spikate, the spikelets beg almost but not quite sessile

Fig. 59. Panicle Fig. 60. Panicle of Wild Oat,
of Avena pra- Avena fatut. About 4 nat.
tensis. About size.

3 nat. size.

on the main axis. Spikelets long, cylindrical, somewhat drooping,
with from 3 to 10 flowers. Empty glumes rather unequal, seven-
nerved, and more or less hairy.

“Seeds.” Outer palea distinctly nerved above and hairy, 10

76 Botanical Section [pr 1

to 12mm. long, boat-shaped, tapering into a long (9-13 mm.)
rough terminal awn. Inner palea fringed on the upper half of
the marginal ribs. Rachilla smooth or hairy, cylindrical, widened
and concave at the top. (Fig. 63.)

Fig. 61. “Seed” Fig. 62. “Seed”
of Avena pra- of Avena fatua,
tensis, L. x5, L. x5.

Brachypodium pinnatum, Beauv. j (Heath False Brome-grass.)
In Britain, found only in the eastern and central counties of
England.

CH. Vir] Botanical Description of Species rid

This perennial plant is closely allied to the preceding species
but may be distinguished by the following points: it prefers
open situations, and has a slightly creeping habit; its leaves
are firm, rough, rigid, and erect, and tend to roll up.

The “seed” is about 9 mm. long, or 11 mm. including the awn.
The terminal awn or awn-point of the outer palea is not more
than half the length of the latter. The outer palea and awn are
usually smooth or only slightly pubescent. (Fig. 64.)

\

Fig. 63. “Seed” of Fig. 64. “Seed”
Brachypedium syl- of Brachypo-
vaticum. x 5. Back dium pinna-
and front views. tum. x5.

Briza media, L. (Quaking-grass.) (Fig. 65.)

A tufted or slightly creeping perennial commonly found on
moors and poor soils. Shoots round; sheaths almost entire and
smooth. Blades with very low flat ribs, and downwards rough on
the upper surface. Ligules very short and blunt; no auricles.

78 Botanical Section [PT I

Flowers about midsummer; culms from 12 to 18 inches high;
panicle erect, spreading, triangular in outline. Spikelets con-
taining 5-8 flowers, pendulous on the slender branches, broadly
ovate, flattened, and variegated with green and brownish-purple.
Empty glumes almost equal, broad, obtuse, and three-nerved.

“Seed” 2-5-3 mm. long, with outer palea inflated, blunt and
round-backed. Grain dark-brown. (Fig. 69.)

eZ,
[| (Ay
f } y | van
| iff | \
| Pty
wt : / \
| by Hl | =
é \ 7
OAPs ); 9 {
uA bd
ta ye i { \
oN fh
i ee |
- Lf a |
om. \/ |
o |
| |
|
|
| |
| }
}
Fie. 65. Briza media, Fig. 66. Brachypodium — Fig. 67. Bromus arvensis.
L. About } nat. sylvalicum, Beauv. About } nat. size.
size. About + nat. size.

Briza iinor, L. (Lesser Quaking-grass.)
A small annual, with erect culms from 3 to 10 inches hich.

Leaves thin, short, and broad. Ligule long, pointed, and arising

CH. Vir] Botanical Description of Species 79

from the central portion of the sheath only. Spikelets usually
pale green. Rare.

Bromus. British members of this genus may be recognised
by the rather large several-flowered spikelets on a distinctly branched
panicle, and by the presence of an awn arising just below! the divided
apex of the outer palea. The
leaf-sheaths are entire? and
usually hairy. All our native
species are inferior grasses and
should be considered as weeds
by the agriculturist.

Bromus arvensis, L. (Field
Brome-srass.) (Fig. 67.)

An annual or biennial, with
entire sheaths which are finely
striated and hairy. Shoot sec-
tion round; keel slight; blades
thin, dry, acutely poimted, and
hairy on both surfaces. There
are no auricles, and the ligule
is short, thin, and slightly
ragged.

Flowers in May or June;
culms from 1} to 3 feet high,
with considerably enlarged
nodes. Panicle rather open
and drooping. Spikelets linear-
lanceolate, containing about Fig. 68. “Seed”

ee Fig. 69. “Seed”
nine flowers. Empty glumes of Bromus ar- of Briza me-
rather ‘unequal, practically vensis, L. x5. dia, L. x10.

smooth; the upper and larger

one is seven-nerved, and its tip is midway between its base and
the top of the outer palea of the fourth flower of the spikelet.
The lower glume is three-nerved. (These last features will serve
to distinguish it from B. mollis.) Both glumes have membranous

1 Except B. erectus and B. giganteus in which the awn may be considered as
terminal.
2 Except in B. giganteus, see p. 85,

80 Botanical Section [pT I

margins, and their keels are slightly serrated on the upper
half.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 7 to 12 mm. long, smooth or pubescent,
broad and expanded above, seven-nerved, with membranous
margins. Its apex is bifid, and it bears a fine, somewhat wavy
and finely serrated sub-terminal awn, which is almost as long as

Fig 70. Bromus arvensis var. sccalinus. About } nat size.

Fig. 70a. “Seed” of same. Dd,

the palea. Inner palea very thin, membranous, bearing a few
white hairs at its margins. Rachilla cylindrical, pubescent or
smooth, often bent or “bowed,” and thickened upwards. (Fig.
68.)

Bromus secalinus, L. (Fig. 70.)

A cornfield variety of B. arvensis, from which it differs chiefly
in the form of its spikelets which are more broadly ovate in

OH. VIT] Botanical Description of Species 81

outline, and fewer flowered (about seven). The outer palea is also
blunter and broader. Towards maturity the “seeds” tend to
stand apart in the spikelet giving the latter a heavy appearance.
(Fig. 70 a.)

Bromus mollis, L. (Soft Brome-grass.) (Fig. 71.)

This plant very closely resembles B. arvensis, and is generally
considered as a variety of it. It is however a far more common

Fig. 72. “Seed” of Bromus arvensis var.
mollis. 65. Back and front views.
Fig. 71. Bromus arvensis var. The fine hairs on the outer palea
mollis. About 2 nat. size. cannot readily be shown on this scale.

form in Britain, being abundant as a weed in meadows, on waysides,
and in open places generally. Its sheaths, blades, glumes, etc., are
covered with longer and softer hairs than those of B. arvensis.
It is distinguished mainly by the hairiness of its empty glumes,
and also by the apex of the larger glume being midway between
its base and the top of the outer palea of the sixth flower of the
spikelet. There are other minor differences, e.g. the keels of the

A. 6

82 Botanical Section [pT I

empty glumes are not serrated above, and the lower glume is
from 5 to 7 nerved. The outer palea is also usually more hairy,

and broader. (Fig. 72.)
In all other respects the description given above of B. arvensis

applies to this form also.

.

Fig. 73. Panicle of Bromus sterilis. About 4 nat. size.

Bromus racemosus, L. (= B. commutatus, Schrad.) This is a
more glabrous form of B. mollis. Its “seeds” are entirely glabrous
except for the marginal hairs on the imner palea.

Bromus s/erilis, L. (Barren Brome-grass.) (Fig. 73.)

An annual or biennial, growing about two feet high. Most
common in waste places and near hedges. Sheaths entire, keeled,
and striated. Blade rolled in the shoot, thin, dry, ribless, keeled

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 8&3
on lower half, and acutely pointed. Both sheaths and blades are
softly downy or pubescent. Ligule white, conspicuous, deeply
toothed or ragged. Auricles absent. Abundant in Britain.

Flowers about May and June. Panicles loose, open and
drooping, from 6 inches to nearly a foot long. Spikelets large,
linear-lanceolate, 5-12 flowered. Empty glumes unequal, acute;
the upper one three-nerved.

LLELLTOAL Lilt Gin E Bs

SSS

MMe >>>

SSE
Fete

pki:
ZS

Fig. 74 Fig. 75
Fig. 74. “Seed” of Bromus sterilis, L. x5. The barbed .awn if fully shown
would much exceed the length of the outer palea.

Fig. 75. “Seed” of Bromus erectus, L. x5. Side and back views.

“Seed.” Narrow linear-lanceolate in form, tapering at both
ends and often slightly “bowed.” Outer palea from 14 to nearly
20 mm. in length, free from hairs but scabrid (rough); bifid at
apex, seven-nerved, the dorsal nerve prolonged into a fine, rough,

sub-terminal awn, usually longer than the palea. Inner palea
6—2

84 Botanical Section [pT I

membranous, its margins fringed with hairs. The outer
palea is of a red-brown colour when the seed is ripe. Rachilla
long, cylindrical, rough, and thickening towards the top.
(Fig. 74.)

“Seed” of
Fig. 76. Bromus erectus. Fig. 77. Bromus asper, Murr. Bromus asper.
About 4 nat. size. About 4 nat. size. x 5.

Bromus erectus, Huds. (Upright Brome-grass.) (Fig. 76.)
Chiefly found in the southern and eastern counties of England.

A tufted perennial, usually growing on poor soils in open
situations. Shoot section oval, sheaths entire, with long scattered
hairs. Blades thin, dry, almost ribless, with hairy margins,
often partially rolled or folded up. The hairs on all parts of

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 85

the plant are rather long and tend to point upwards. On the
Continent it is considered worth sowing on poor chalk soils.

Flowers about midsummer; culms from 2 to 3 feet high;
panicle erect and rather close. Spikelets erect, 4-8 flowered,
lanceolate in outline, of a brownish-purple hue. Empty glumes
narrow-lanceolate, with serrated keels.

“Seeds.” Outer palea from 9-12 mm. long, scabrid or hairy,
with membranous margins above; the central nerve (keel) is con-
spicuous from the base to the top, and prolonged into a straight,
stiff, terminal awn, shorter than the palea. From 4-6 lateral
nerves usually appear at the top of the outer palea. Inner
palea acutely pointed. Rachilla long, cylindrical and pubescent.
(Fig. 75.)

Bromus asper, Murr. (Wood Brome-grass.) (Fig. 77.)

A tufted annual, or biennial, growing in shade. Shoot round;
sheaths entire and covered with long, scattered, reflexed hairs.
Blade long and drooping, tapering at both apex and base; hairy,
keeled below, almost ribless above. Small auricles present; ligule
short and toothed. Frequent in Britain.

Flowers in June or July; flowering culms from 3-5 feet high;
panicle large, open, and drooping. Spikelets about an inch long,
linear-lanceolate, usually with from six to ten flowers. Glumes
very unequal, acute, the upper and larger one three-nerved,
and its keel finely serrated.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 10-14mm. long, rough with short,
white bristly hairs; three nerves conspicuous especially above,
the central one prolonged into a straight rough sub-terminal
awn about half the length of the palea. Inner palea with distinct
marginal nerves fringed with fine hairs. Rachilla long, cylindrical
or somewhat flattened, outstanding, hairy, or sometimes nearly
smooth. (Fig. 78.)

Bromus giganteus, L. (Tall Brome-grass.) = Festuca gigantea, .
Vill. (Giant Fescue-grass.) (Fig. 79.)

An erect glabrous perennial growing in shade. Shoots round,
sheaths split. Leaves broad, acute, flat and almost ribless above,
keeled below. lLigule short, reddish-violet; auricles greenish-
white. Generally distributed over Britain.

Flowers about July; culms from 3-4 feet high, with striated

86 Botanical Section [PT I

sheaths. Panicle large, loose, inclined to droop. Spikelets ovate-
lanceolate, 4-6 flowered. Glumes unequal, acute, three-nerved.
In most of its characters this plant more closely approaches the
Fescues than the Bromes.

“Seeds.” Outer palea about 7 mm. long, with five in-
distinct nerves, scabrid (slightly rough), its upper margins

Fig. 80. “Seed”
of Bromus gi-

x5.

ganteus,
In the natural
state the awn
is not curved
back asshown
Fig. 79. Bromus giganteus, L. About } nat. size. in the figure.

membranous. The fine terminal (or only slightly sub-terminal)
awn is serrulate (barbed), and longer than the palea itself
(12-20 mm.). The rachilla is rather long, cylindrical, and rough.
(Fig. 80.) 7
B. madritensis, and B. maximus are rare species (p. 188).

CH. Vit] Botanical Description of Species 87

Bromus inermis, Leyss. (Awnless Brome-grass.) (Fig. 81.)
See p. 141.

This is not a native of Britain but is sometimes grown as a
forage crop on poor soils in this country under the name of
Hungarian Forage-grass. It is a perennial with long stout
rhizomes which enable it to endure drought and to spread rapidly

Fig. 82. “Seed”
of Bromus in-
ermis. x65.

Fig. 81. Panicle of Bromus inermis.
About 4 nat. size.

in loose soils. The whole plant is entirely smooth and glabrous
and its foliage is of a rather dark-green hue. Sheaths entire,
with a slight keel or none. Blades rolled in the shoot, numerous,
broad, acuminate, almost ribless above, and but slightly keeled
below. There are no auricles, but greenish-yellow triangular
areas are conspicuous at the base of the blades. Ligule mem-
branous, very short and blunt.

00
CO

Botanical Section [pr I

Flowers about the latter part of May or early in June. Culms
erect, 2 to 3 feet high. Panicle about 6 to 8 inches long, becoming
moderately open at time of flowering, and of a silvery-grey hue
when seed is ripening. Spikelets large, linear-lanceolate, con-
taining from four to six flowers. Empty glumes unequal, lanceo-
late and acute, the upper and larger one two-nerved; both have
prominent keels.

“Seeds” “barge-shaped,”’ 9-12 mm. long, and about 2-5 mm.
broad. Outer palea with rounded-oft keel, and 2~3
rather indistinct nerves on either side; glabrous,
or with a few short silky hairs. The dorsal nerve
(keel) may project beyond the apex as a short
awn-point. Inner palea very thin and mem-
branous, except at the marginal folds where ridges
(nerves) occur with a hairy frmge. Rachilla cylin-
drical, thickening upwards and evenly covered with
silky hairs. Caryopsis 7-9mm. long and about
1:8 mm. broad, pointed below, and rounded at the
top end which is densely covered with hairs. The
grain 1s very much flattened, and has a shallow
longitudinal cavity on its ventral surface with a
fine ridge running along its middle. (Fig. 82.)

Bromus Schraderi, Kunth. (Schrader’s Brome-
grass.) See also p. 142.

Like the last species this is not a British plant,
but is sometimes grown as a forage crop. A rather
coarse perennial grass growing in irregular tufts.

Fig. 83. “Seed” : :
of Bromus Sch. Sheaths entice, keeled, the lower ones densely

radert. «4, covered with fine silky hairs, the upper ones more

or less glabrous. Young shoots flattened; blades
folded, long, very acuminate, and rough. The lower surface of
the blade has a prominent keel, and is slightly hairy; the upper
surface is more densely hairy. Ligule membranous, white, pro-
minent but blunt. Auricles wanting.

Flowers in June. Culms two feet or more in length, standing
out obliquely from the ground. Panicle 6-12 inches long,
moderately close in structure. Spikelets large, long, narrow-
ovate containing four or five flowers. Empty glumes rather

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 89

unequal in length, the upper one longer and nearly twice as broad
as the other. Both glumes have prominent keels and nerves.

“Seeds” farge and usually well filled; 14-22 mm. long and
about 2-6 mm. across broadest part. Outer palea straw-coloured,
acutely keeled and ending in a short terminal and barbed awn-
hike point. The lateral nerves
number five or six on either side
of the keel, and are sometimes
scabrid. The keel is markedly
scabrid near the awn-point. The
margins of the outer palea are
shghtly rolled back. The inner
palea is about 10 mm. long,
folded at the margins to entrap
the grain, and fringed with hairs
at the folds. The rachilla is
cylindrical, stout, thickening up-
wards, and usually cough. The
grain is about 7mm. long, and
1:7 mm. broad. It is hard and
glutinous, and has a_ shallow
longitudinal groove in front, and
a few hairs at the upper end.
(Fig. 83.)

Calamagrostis Lpigeivs, Roth.
(Wood Small-reed.) (Fig. 84.)

A perennial growing in moist
shade. Sheaths striated, split.
Young shoots round, blades nar-

7 1 ute. Ligule : :
row, acuminate and acut aa) Fig. 84. Panicles of Calamagros-

long with bifid apex. No auricles. "tis lanceolata (left) and C. Epi-
Most common in the south of geios (right). About 4 nat. size.
England.

Flowers in July; culms 3 to 5 feet high. Panicle erect, and
rather close except during flowering. Empty glumes equal,
narrow, and acute, with dorsal nerve only, enclosing one flower.

“Seeds.” Outer palea about 3mm. long, deeply bifid at
apex. Awn dorsal, slender, about as long as the palea. At

90 Botanical Section [PT I

the base of the “seed” is a tuft of fine silky hairs longer than the
outer palea.

Calamagrostis lanceolata, Roth. (Purple Small-reed.) (Fig. 84.)

Very similar to the last species. It is chiefly distinguished by
its looser and more spreading panicle, and its sub-terminal awn-
points which are Jess than half the length of the outer palea.
Not common.

C. stricta is very rare. In bogs and moors.

Catabrosa aquatica, Beauv. (Whorl-grass.)

A small aquatic perennial occasionally found in shallow water.
Stems procumbent, often creeping and forming adventitious roots
at the nodes. In deeper water the stems float. Blades short,
broad, blunt, flaccid, and ribless, of a light-green colour. Not
common in Britain.

Flowers about June. Panicle erect and spreading, from four
to six inches long. Spikelets small, numerous, and two-flowered.
Empty glumes much smaller thaa the palea, very unequal, mem-
branous and blunt. Outer palea with a distinct lateral nerve
on either side of the keel, and with a notched apex. Inner palea
divided at the top, with marginal nerves. Rachilla long, cylin-
drical and outstanding.

Cynodon Dactylon, Pers. (Creeping Finger-grass.)

A prostrate and creeping perennial growing on sandy sea-shores.
It occurs on the southern coast of England. Flowering culms 3 to
6 inches high; inflorescence digitate, purplish, of from 3-5 slender
spikes each from 1 to 1} inches long. Spikelets compressed, one-
flowered. Empty glumes about equal, acute. Outer palea awn-
less, hairy on its dorsal nerve and at the margins. Flowers in
July and August.

Cynosurus cristatus, L. (Crested Dog’s-tail.) (Figs. 85, 157.)
See also p. 142.

A small perennial grass growing in close tufts. The young
shoots may be either partially flattened or nearly cylindrical.
Sheaths split (though this is not always obvious when young),
and almost keelless, becoming of a canary-yellow or yellow-brown
colour at the base as they age. Blades normally short, dark green
in colour, the margins upturned and forming a semi-cylindrical
trough towards the base; apex acuminate; the lower surface

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 91

smooth, glossy, with a fairly prominent keel; the upper surface
distinctly ribbed and dull. There are no auricles, and the ligule
is extremely short and blunt. The entire plant is glabrous.
Abundant in Britain.

Fig. 86. “Seed”
of Cynosurus
cristatus. « 10.
Front view.

Fig. 85. Spike-like inflorescences of Cynosurus
cristatus shown in full flower. About twice
natural size.

Flowers late in June or early in July.. The culm is thin, smooth
and wiry, from nine to fifteen inches high. Panicle spike-hke,
1 to 2 inches long, simple, bearing the spikelets in clusters on its
wavy axis. About one-fourth of this axis (rachis) is left exposed
owing to the clusters of spikelets being all turned towards one
side. Spikelets, 3-5 flowered, each subtended by a group of

92 Botanical Section [pr I

several imperfect or modified flowers. Empty glumes narrow,
acute, and equal, with rough keels, but without lateral nerves.

“Seeds.” These vary in colour from a bright canary-yellow
to a deep brown. Many are often also of a light fawn colour.
Length about 3-4mm.; breadth -6 to ‘8mm. The margins of

Fig. 87. Dactylis glomerata. Form of panicle shown in the pre-flowering
and flowering stages. About } nat. size.

the outer palea overlap at its apex and form a pomt which may
sometimes be prolonged into an awn-point. The upper part of the
outer palea is very scabrid as are also its margins in front. The inner
paleais heldin very tightly by the outer palea, and both are covered
with fine but conspicuous dots. The rachilla varies much in length
but is usually short. It is cylindrical, rather outstanding, and

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 93

thickened at the top, almost “knobbed” (except in the case of the
uppermost “seed” of each spikelet). It has a small circular
cavity at its top. (Fig. 86.)

Cynosurus echinatus. L. (Rough Dog’s-tail.)

A tufted annual, rare, and perhaps only introduced into
Britain. Flowering culms 1 to 2 feet high. Ligule of upper
leaf is very long. Panicle oval in outline, about 2 inch long. The
outer palea bears a slender terminal awn about as long as itself.

Flowers about June.

Fig. 88 Fig. 89

Fig. 88. “Seed” of Dactylis glomerata. x10. Front view.

Fig. 89. Three attached ‘‘ seeds” of Dactylis glomerata. 10. The proportion
of such attached “seeds” is especially high in immature samples. Usually
only the lowest pair of pale contain a grain.

Dactylis glomerata, L. (Cock’s-foot.) (Fig. 87.) See p. 145.

A coarsely-tufted perennial growing on almost every type of
soil. The plant is entirely glabrous though it may often be rough
to the touch. Its foliage is dull and varies much in colour—from a
light green to a deep bluish-green hue. Sheaths entire, very sharply
keeled both at back and front. Leaves folded in the flattened
shoots; blade partly conduplicate, long, and tapering into an acute

94 Botanical Section [pr I

apex; its edges finely serrated, ribless above, and strongly keeled
throughout its length below. Ligule long, white, and membranous.
Auricles absent. Abundant throughout Britain.

a b
Fig. 90. Two aquatic grasses. Glyceria aquatica, Sm. Fig. 91. Two sea-coast
(left). Digraphis arundinacea, Trin. (right). grasses. a. Spike of Bly-
About } nat. size. mus arenarius. b. Spike-

like inflorescence — of
Psamma arenaria. About

} nat. size.

Flowers late in May or early im June. Culms from two to
three feet high, the upper sheaths and blades of the culm very
harsh to the touch. The panicle consists of clusters of spikelets
arranged on contracted or shortened branches, thus giving it a
close, dense, heavy appearance. Spikelets three to five flowered.

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 95

Glumes nearly equal, strongly keeled and pointed, with scarious
margins; the lower one distinctly hairy on the keel, and
to a lesser extent on the margins; the upper glume less
bairy.

“Seed.” Outer palea of a light straw colour, varying from
4 to 9mm. in length (usual length 5-6 mm.), terminating in a
curved point sometimes one-third the length of the palea. The
upper part of the keel of the outer palea is either distinctly hairy

Fig. 92. “Seed” of
Digraphis arundi-
nacea. x10.

Fig. 93. “Seed” of
Elymus arenarius. x 5.

or serrated. Inner palea 4-6 mm. long, thin and membranous.
Rachilla cylindrical, enlarged above. The “seeds” frequently
remain attached in twos or threes as in the spikelet. (Figs. 88
and 89).

Digraphis arundinacea, Trin. (Reed-grass.) (Fig. 90.)

A semi-aquatic, and entirely glabrous perennial. The creeping
rhizomes frequently bear pink or deep red scales (rudimentary
leaves). Shoots cylindrical ; sheaths split, with the thin membranous
margins much overlapping. Leaf-blades long and often an inch

96 Botanical Section [Pr I

wide at the broadest part which is about the middle of
the lower half of the blade; firm, flat, almost ribless above.
The mid-rib is prominent and forms a keel below. Ligule
long and either rounded off or torn. There are no auricles, but
the base of the blade forms ledge-like projections. Common In
Britain.

Fig. 95. “Seed”
of Festuca ela-
lior sub-sp. arun-
dinacea. x10.

Fig. 94. Panicle of Festuca elatior sub-sp.
arundinacea. About

4 nat. size.

Inflorescence a plume-like panicle, rather close at first but
spreading at the time of flowering which is usually in July.
Flowering culms 3-5 feet high; spikelets numerous, one-flowered,
and green, white, or purplish. Empty glumes almost equal, and
acute,

CH. Vir] Botanical Description of Species 97

“Seeds” about 3mm. long. Outer palea very glossy, and
either white, or yellow, or sometimes dark coloured. At the base
of the pales are a pair of linear hair-tufts. These are shorter
than the outer palea which is awnless and hairy at its margins.
The upper margins of the inner palea are also fringed with haus.
(Fig. 92.)

Fig. 97. “Seed”
of Festuca ela-
tior sub-sp. pra-
tensis. x10.

(a) (b)

Fig. 96. Panicles of (a) Festuca rubra genu-
ina and (b) Festuca pratensis. About
+ nat. size.

Elymus arenarius, L. (Sand Lyme-grass.) (Fig. 91.)

A perennial, with long and numerous rhizomes, chiefly found
on sandy sea-shores. It has been extensively sown for binding
loose or blowing-sand on parts of the English and Dutch coasts.

A. 7

98 Botanical Section [er ?

Shoots round; sheaths split; leaf-blades long, firm, folded or rolled
inwards, with spinous points. The inner or upper surface of the
blade has deep grooves and flat-topped prominent ribs; the lower
surface is ribless and smooth. Ligule very short and blunt.
Auricles distinct.

Fig. 99. “Seed” of
Fig. 98. Festuca Myurus. Festuca Myurus.
About } nat. size. x 10.

Flowers about July; culms from 2 to 5 feet high. Inflores-
cence spikate, from 4 to 10 inches long. Spikelets of 3 or 4 flowers,
arranged in pairs at each notch of the rachis. Empty glumes
usually three-nerved, narrow, acute, nearly equal, and more or
less woolly.

“Seeds” about 14mm. long (varying from 10-18 mm.). Outer

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species oo

palea five-ribbed, hairy or velvety, taper-pointed, the central
nerve ending in a spur-like point. Inner palea with delicately
fringed marginal ribs, and a bifid apex. Rachilla cylindrical,
stout and hairy. (Fig. 93.)

Fig. 100. Tuft of Festuca ovina, L. var. Fig. 101. Tuft of Festuca

vulgaris Koch. About + nat. size. ovina, L. var. tenuifolia
To the right are shown two panicles in Sibthorp. About } nat.
the viviparous condition. size.

Festuca. All the British species of this genus have splvt
sheaths, more or less spreading panicles, 3 to 12 flowered spikelets,
and the outer palea terminates in an awn or awn-point (except in
F. ovina tenwifolia).

Festuca elatior, L., sub-sp. arundinacea, Hackel. (Tall Fescue.)
(Fig. 94.) See also p. 147. Frequent throughout Britain.

A deeply-rooted glabrous perennial, forming rather coarse

7-2

100 Botanical Section [PTI

tufts—especially in moist situations. Shoots cylindrical; sheaths
split, red or pink at the base. Leaf-blades rolled in the shoot,
dark-green, firm, long, acuminate; the upper surface dull, harsh,
with prominent ribs; the lower surface smooth and glossy,
distinctly keeled at the base. White lines are seen between
each rib when the leaf is held up to the light. Auricles
often mere ledge-like projections. Ligule much reduced and
blunt.

Flowers early in July; culms from 3 to 5 feet high. Inflores-
cence a compound panicle, large, spreading, and the upper portion
somewhat drooping towards one side. Spikelets 5-10 flowered.
Glumes unequal, the upper and larger one three-nerved.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 5-9mm. long, boat-shaped, round-
backed, and indistinctly five-nerved, the dorsal nerve terminating
in an acute point, or even an awn-point. The nerves are often
finely serrated. Inner palea acutely pointed. Rachilla cylin-
drical and outstanding, smooth or rough. The ripe “seed” has
a dull grey-brown appearance. (Fig. 95.)

Festuca elatior, L., sub-sp. pratensis, Hackel. (Meadow Fescue.)
(Fig. 96.) Frequent throughout Britain. See p. 148.

Both in habit and foliage this plant resembles the last variety,
but it is of smaller size. The flowering culms are from 18 inches
to 2 feet high, and the panicles are less branched than in the pre-
ceding form. The spikelets and “seeds” are also very similar,
but the latter are shorter (about 5-6 mm. long), slightly broader,
and usually without the acuminate apex of the “seeds” of Tall
Fescue. When well ripened the “seeds” are also of a paler
appearance than those of the tall variety. (Fig. 97.)

Festuca loliacea, Curt., is probably only a form of Meadow
Fescue, in which the inflorescence is reduced to a spike of spike-
lets. It is otherwise indistinguishable from the normal form of
F. pratensis. The two empty glumes at the base of each spikelet ~
readily distinguish it from the Rye-grasses.

Festuca gigantea, Vill. See Bromus giganteus.

Festuca Myurus, L. (Rat’s-tail Fescue) = F. bromoides, Sm.
(Fig. 98.)

An annual, occurring chiefly in waste places and as a roadside
weed. Leaf-blades permanently folded, bristle-like, dark-green,

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 101

Auricles distinct. The inner surface of the blade is ribbed and
hairy. Frequent in Britain.

Flowers about the middle of June. Panicle rather close and
one-sided. Spikelets 5-6 flowered. Glumes acute, very unequal,
the upper and larger one three-nerved.

“Seeds.”’ Very slender, about 6 mm. long without the awn.
(15-20 mm. or more including the awn.) Outer palea gradually
tapering into a fine roughish awn nearly twice its own length.
Rachilla small and cylindrical. (Fig. 99.)

Festuca ovina, L. (Sheep’s Fescue.) Abundant in Britain.

A fibrous rooted and tufted perennial, with permanently folded
leaves; very abundant on poor dry soils, limestone hills, etc.
Flowers early in June. At high elevations and under moist con-
ditions Sheep’s Fescue frequently passes into the viviparous state.
Instead of the normal development of sexual organs, the flowers
grow out into leafy buds having rudimentary roots at their base.
These are capable of directly propagating the plants when they
fall to the ground. See Fig. 100. This phenomenon is also met
with in some of the Poas, especially Poa alpina.

Many varieties have been described, but most of them are
separated by only slight and variable features. Possibly the
forms of Red Fescue are also to be considered as only distinct
varieties of F. ovina. The following distinct varieties are of
economic importance?.

Festuca ovina, L., var. vulgaris, Koch. (Common Sheep’s
Fescue.) (Fig. 100.) See p. 150.

All the leaves are permanently folded and grow in dense tufts.
Short stiff erect auricles at juncture of sheath and blade. Ligule
obsolete or wanting. Flowering culms about 6-9 inches high,
erect, and rather rough and angular just below the panicle.
The panicle is short, close, and secund (one-sided). Spikelets
nearly erect, about six-flowered. Empty glumes unequal, the
upper and larger one three-nerved.

“Seeds.” Outer palea either smooth, rough, or hairy, 3-4 mm.
long, ending in an awn-point which is usually less than half the

* It is very probable that the numerous intermediate forms which cannot be

satisfactorily grouped in the main types here described are the result of the
repeated cross-fertilisation of these types.

102 Botanical Section [Pr 1

length of the palea. Rachilla cylindrical, rough or smooth, out-
standing. (Fig. 102.)

Festuca ovina, L., var. tenuifolia, Sibthorp. (Fine-leaved
Sheep’s Fescue.) (Fig. 101.)

In this variety the leaves are still finer and more needle-like
than in the normal form, and the flowering culms are only from
4 to 6 inches high. The “seeds” are from 2 to 4 mm. long, and of
a light golden-brown colour. The outer palea is simply acute—
usually having no awn-point. In other respects the “seeds”
are similar to those of the var. vulgaris. (Fig. 103.)

Festuca ovina L., var.duriuscuia, Koch.
(Hard Fescue.) (Fig. 105.) See p. 150.

This may be considered as a robust
variety of Sheep’s Fescue. It is more
commonly met with on richer and moister
soils, and is either tufted or slightly
creeping. Its basal leaves are perma-
nently folded, dark-green in colour and
rather fleshy. The leaves of the flowering
stems tend to remain open and flat.

Flowers early in June. The culms
reach a height of 1 or 2 feet, and the
panicle is more spreading than in F.
ovina vulgaris. The stem is also smooth
just beneath the panicle. The spikelets
are from five- to seven-flowered. Empty

Fig. 108

Fig. 102. “Seed” of Fes-
tuca ovina var. vulgaris.

ati. glumes unequal, the upper and larger
Fig. 103. “Seed” of Festuca One three-nerved.
ovina var. tenuifolia. x10. “Seed.” The outer palea is round-

backed (without a keel), about 4-5 mm.
long (in some forms 6 mm. long), and terminates in an awn-point
generally about half as long as itself. Rachilla cylindrical and
outstanding. The outer palea and rachilla may be either smooth
or rough, or even hairy. (Fig. 106.)

Festuca rubra, L. (Red Fescue.) (Figs. 96 and 104.) Common
in Britain. See p. 151.

Sub-species eu-rubra, Hackel. Ovary glabrous.

Var. 1, genuina—with rhizomes.

CH. VI] Botanical Description of Species 103

Var. 2, fallav—without rhizomes, growing in fairly compact
tufts.

Sub-species helerophylla, Hackel. Top of ovary pubescent.

In this vaniety the intravaginal shoots are much more numerous
than the extravaginal and the upper leaves of the culm are
distinctly expanded.

Fig. 104. Festuca rubra, L. var. — Fig. 105. Festuca ovina, L.
genuina, Hack. About } nat. size. var. duriuscula, Koch.
About } nat. size.

The following remarks apply to the genuine creeping variety,
var. 1, genwina. This plant is closely allied to Hard Fescue. .
It differs chiefly in its habit of extensively creeping by means of
well-developed rhizomes. Its basal sheaths are also red or pink
in colour.

104 Botanical Section [PT I

“Seed.” The outer palea is 4-5 mm. long, of a pale straw
colour, tinged with red, and usually smooth. Rachilla cylindrical,
smooth, and enlarged above. In some forms the palea may be
6 mm. long, and the outer palea and rachilla rough or hairy. The
awn-point varies considerably in length in different forms but it
never exceeds half the length of the outer palea. (Figs. 107 and
108.)

Fig. 106. “Seed” of Festuca Fig. 107. ‘‘Seed”’ of Fig. 108. “Seed”
ovina var. duriuscula, x 10, Festuca rubra var. of Festuca rubra
Front and back views. genuina, x 10. var. fallax. x 10

Festuca sylvatica, Vill. (Reed Fescue.)

Festuca sylvatica is thinly scattered over the British Isles—
chiefly in moist mountain woods. The leaf-blades are broad,
acute and rough. Flowermg culm from 2 to 3 feet high. Panicle
lax, of long shghtly drooping branches. Spikelets 3-5 flowered.
Glumes very narrow. Outer palea three-nerved, acute, but not
awned, (Hig. 109.)

Glyceria aquatica, Sm. (Reed Sweet-grass.) (Figs. 90 and 110.)

A large aquatic perennial, entirely glabrous, though very harsh
to the touch, chiefly found by the side of streams, ditches, etc.

CH. VIT] Botanical Description of Species 105

Stems somewhat creeping and rooting at the nodes. Young shoots
compressed and with prominent keels. Sheaths entire, glabrous
but rough, of a spongy texture owing to air-cavities within. Blades
often an inch or more in width, folded in shoot, broadest near
base, tapering very gradually to an acute apex; smooth or rough,
ribless above, and keeled on the lower surface. Yellowish triangles
at base. Ligule membranous, and usually short. No auricles.
Frequent in Britain.

Flowers about July; culms varying from 3 to
6 feet high. Panicle erect, spreading, large and
graceful. Spikelets numerous, ovate, 4-10 flowered.
Glumes unequal, blunt, and without lateral nerves.
Flower without a “web” at its base.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 3-4 mm. long, rounded
off at apex, awnless, and seven-nerved, the dorsal
nerve minutely toothed. Rachilla cylindrical and
outstanding. The “seed” is entirely free from hairs
and is of a golden-brown colour. (Fig. 111.)

Glyceria fluitans, Sm. (Floating Sweet-grass.)
(Fig. 110.)

A perennial and somewhat creeping semi-aquatic
species closely allied to the last, but capable of fs

ted Bi A 5 : “Seed” of
growing in drier situations. Young shoots flattened; pystca sylva-
sheaths entire, keeled, striated, with large air-cavities. tica. x 10. Note
Blade soft, thin, broad and blunt, with numerous the very pro-
low flat ribs above, and a very fine keel below ey fa,
extending to the apex. At the base of the blade erin ae
are two conspicuous yellow areas of a triangular palea.
shape. Ligule prominent, membranous, acute or
rounded off. Auricles absent. Frequent in Britain.

Flowers late in June; culms 18 to 24 inches high. Inflores-
cence a simple panicle or even nearly spikate; lax, slender, and
frequently a foot or more in length. The branches are very
widely spread apart during flowering, but are close to the main
axis before and afterwards. Spikelets few, long, narrow, con-
taining from six to nearly twenty flowers. Glumes very unequal,
the upper one the larger; both membranous and without lateral
nerves. Palee without a “web” at their base.

106 Botanical Section [Pr 1

“Seeds” about 4 to 5mm. long, broader and stouter than
G. aquatica, Outer palea awnless, seven-nerved, with scarious
margins above. Rachilla cylindrical, with a large “knob” at its
top. The whole “seed” is free from hairs, but the outer palea
and nerves are scabrid (rough). (Fig. 112.)

Fig. 110. Glyceria aquatica (left) and Glyceria fluitans (right).
About } nat. size.

Holcus lanatus, L. (Yorkshire Fog.) (Fig. 113.)

A tufted or sometimes slightly stoloniferous perennial found on
all types of soil but growing most luxunantly where moisture
is plentiful. Abundant in Britain, as a weed in pastures, meadows,
etc.

The sheaths and leaves are densely covered with short soft

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 107

hairs, giving the plant a velvety touch, and the foliage is of a
pale greyish-green colour. Sheath split, with a slight keel; the
veins of the basal sheaths of a pink colour. Blades rolled in the
shoot, thin, dry, and almost ribless. Ligule distinct, but blunt
and hairy. Auricles absent.

Flowers in June or July; culms from 1 to 2 feet high. Panicle
at first green and close; at flowering time open, spreading, and
usually having a pinkish tinge. Spikelets two-flowered, the lower
flower bi-sexual, the upper one staminate. Glumes hairy, of nearly
equal length; the upper and broader one tipped with an awn-like
point. Both glumes are sharply keeled; the upper one has a
lateral nerve on either side of its keel, situated nearer to the

_margin than to the keel.

Fig. 111 “Seed” of Glyceria Fig. 112. “Seed” of Glyceria
aquatica. x10. Front and fluitans. x10. Front and
side views. side views.

“Seed.” The outer palea of the lower flower is oval in form,
smooth and awnless. At its base are frequently a few straight
silky hairs, and its rachilla is long, slender and cylindrical. The
outer palea of the upper flower bears a sub-terminal awn which is
about half as long as the palea and becomes curved and hook-like
when mature.

The “seed” may consist of the whole spikelets, about 4 mm.
long by 2mm. broad; or the product of the two flowers may
separate from the empty glumes (in which case the “seed” con-
sists of the pale of the lower flowet enclosing a grain, and carrying
the upper barren flower on their rachilla); or the ripened “seed”

108 Botanical Section [Pre

of the lower flower may separate both from the glumes and the
upper flower. The outer palea of the ripe “seed” is almost trans-
parent, shining, and about 2mm. long. (Fig. 114.)

Holeus mollis, L. (Creeping Soft-grass.) (Fig. 115.)

A perennial, very closely allied to H. lanatus, and flowering
about the same time. It is however less common, and occurs

‘ae!

Fig. 113. Panicles of Holcus lanatus showing the position of the branches and
spikelets at the pre-flowering and full-flowering stages. About } nat. size.
chiefly in moist shady situations. It is distinctly stoloniferous,
with slender and decumbent creeping stems rooting at the nodes.
Its foliage is less softly hairy than H. lanutus, and the flowering
culms are more slender and have reflexed hairs at the nodes. The
upper flower of the spikelet is occasionally perfect and fertile. In
addition to the above differences it may be distinguished from

cH. v1] Botanical Description of Species 109

H. lanatus by (1) both its empty glumes being acute at the top,
and rather larger, (2) the lateral nerves of the upper glume being
closer to the keel than to the margin, and (3) the awn of the
upper flower being more dorsally situated and rough (a microscopic
character) throughout its entire length, and bent—but not curved
back—when mature. These differences will of course serve to
distinguish the “seeds.” (Fig. 116.)

Hordeum. In this genus the inflorescence is spikate. The
sptkelets are one-flowered, and are arranged in alternating groups
of threes on opposite sides of the rachis.

Fig. 114. A. “Seed” of Holcus lanatus consisting of the entire spikelet. B. Con-
tents of the spikelet A. The imperfectly developed upper flower readily
separates (as shown) from the rachilla of the lower pair of palew. The grain is
enclosed by the latter and is a very common impurity in many kinds of
commercial seeds. It may either remain attached within the glumes or
become free from them. x 10.

Hordeum murinum, L. (Wall Barley.) (Fig. 117.)

A closely tufted annual with abundant light-green foliage.
Sheaths split, slightly keeled, hairy (at least the lower ones). Blade
rolled in the shoot, broadest about its middle, acuminate, rather
thin; both surfaces dull and hairy, ribless above, slightly keeled
below. Ligule short and blunt. Auricles large, white, pointed
and overlapping. Common in Britain as a weed in waste places.

Inflorescence and “ Seeds.”

Flowers in June; culms 1 to 2 feet high. Inflorescence a
spike of spikelets. Spikelets one-flowered, arranged in alternating
triplets on the flattened sides of the notched rachis. The three

110 Botanical Section [prt

spikelets usually adhere when ripe. The central spikelets have
linear-lanceolate glumes, which are fringed and end in a straight
rough awn. The outer palea bears a terminal awn which is longer
than the glumes. The inner palea has a long slender rachilla.
Central flowers bi-sexual. (Fig. 118.)

Fig. 115. Holceus lanatus (left) and Holcus mollis, a dried specimen (right).

About } nat. size.

The lateral spikelets ave borne on distinct pedicels, and the
elumes are fine and bristle-like. The outer palea bears a terminal
awn. longer than the glumes. Rachilla fine, shorter than that of
the central flower. Lateral flowers staminate. As in H. pralense
the ‘‘seed” consists of the three united spikelets—the central one

only enclosing a grain,

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 111

H. maritimum, With., is a sea-coast form of AH. muri-
num.

Hordeum pratense, Huds. (Meadow Barley-grass.) (Fig.
117.)

A small tufted annual or perennial, preferring stiff clays and
moist soils generally. Frequent in England ; rare in Scotland.
Of little agricultural value. Sheaths split, the lower ones hairy,
but the upper ones often glabrous. Blades rolled in the shoot,
firm, dry, hairy above, almost glabrous and glossy below. Ligule
short; auricles small, narrow and pointed or even reduced to
mere ledges.

Fig. 116. A. “Seed” of Holcus mollis consisting of the entire spikelet. x 10.
B. Contents of the spikelet A. The lower pair of palex (lp.) contain a
grain; wp. upper pair of paleew showing the remains of stigma on the un-
developed ovary. x10.

Flowers early in July; culms usually about 18 inches high.
The spike of spikelets is from 1 to 2 inches long. The flower of
each central spikelet is bi-sexual, the lateral flowers staminate
only. The glumes of all the spikelets are bristle-like.

The “seed” consists of the three united mature spikelets.
The outer palea of the central flower is three-nerved, and the
middle nerve terminates in a serrated awn rather longer than the
outer palea. The rachilla of the central flower is very fine, cylin-
drical, and about half as long as the inner palea.

112 Botanical Section [Pr I

H. sylvaticum, Huds. (Wood Barley-grass.) A not very
common perennial.

Flowers about midsummer; culms about 2 feet high; spike
about 3 inches long, lax, i.e. the spikelets are distinctly separated
on the rachis. In this species the flowers of the central spikelets
are staminate or rudimentary, while each lateral spikelet contains
one bi-sexual flower.

Fig. 118. A “triplet” of spikelets of
Hordeum murinum. Nat. size. Only
the central spikelet, which lies
between the two dilated and fringed
glumes, contains a erain.

Fig. 117. Hordeum murinum (left) and
Hordeum pratense (right). About
3 nat. size.

Keeleria cris/ata, Pers. (Crested Hair-grass.) (Fig. 119.)

A small perennial forming dense tufts of rather stiff foliage,
principally found on dry soils near the sea. Sheaths split and hairy.
Blades rolled in the shoot, narrow, and pubescent or downy on

OH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 113
both surfaces. Panicle close, erect, oval in outline, and from 1 to
2 inches long. Spikelets silvery, flattened, two-flowered. Glumes
unequal, acute, completely enclosing the two flowers.

“Seeds.” Outer palea about 4mm. long, acute, three-nerved,
the central nerve minutely toothed
above. Inner palea with fringed
margins, divided at the top. Ra-
chilla relatively long, cylindrical and
often covered with short hairs. (Fig.
120.)

Lolium perenne, L. (Perennial
Rye-grass.) (Figs. 121 and 122.) See
also p. 152.

A fibrous rooted, tufted peren-
nial, abundant on most types of soil
throughout the British Isles. The
whole plantis glabrous. Youngshoots
usually rather flattened—sometimes
almost cylindrical. Sheaths split
(not obvious while plants are young),
the lower ones pink or red near the
ground. Blades usually of a dark-
green colour, smooth and glossy
below; dull and with distinct ribs
above. The sheath is without a
keel, and the blade though some- Fie. 119. Tutt
what conduplicate is only slightly of Keleria
keeled below. Auricles small; ligule sR a
short and blunt. mone aoa

Flowers early in June; culms
from 1 to 2 feet high. Inflorescence spikate, compressed, almost
erect. Spikelets sessile, borne singly, and alternating in two
opposite rows with their edges next the rachis. From six to
ten, flowers are usually present in each spikelet. Only the outer
empty glume is present+, and the inner edge of the spikelet is
partially pressed into a groove in the rachis. Empty glume

Fig. 120. “Seed”
of same. Side
view. x10.

1 Two empty glumes are present however in the terminal spikelet of Lolium.
A. 8

114 Botanical Section [Pri

five-nerved, and shorter than the spikelet. Outer palea smooth,
five-nerved, awnless. Inner palea with the marginal nerves finely
fringed.

“Seed.” The “seed” is barge-shaped, flattened, and from

ES
ee a

eet

>»

Pig. 121. Left to right—Lolium temu- Fig. 122. Lolium perenne (left) and

lentum, L. italicum, L. perenne and L. ttalicum (right) with enlarged
Agropyrum repens for comparison. spikelet of the latter. About }
About } nat. size. nat. size.

5 to 8mm. long. Outer palea smooth, with a rounded or simply
pointed apex where the central nerve is just noticeable. The
rachilla is flattened and usually pressed close to the inner palea;
its upper transverse section is either elliptical or rhomboidal in

CH. Vir] Botanical Description of Species 115

outline. The naked grain is oblong-elliptical, with a shallow
groove. (Fig. 123.)

Lolium italicum, Braun. (Italian Rye-grass.) (Figs. 121 and
122.) See also p. 155.

This variety is distinguished from the above chiefly by:
(1) its more rounded shoot section, the leaves being rolled in
the shoot; (2) its more distinctly tufted habit, and broader
leaf-blades; (3) and its awned outer palea. It also usually

Fig. 123. “Seed” of Fig. 124. “Seed” of Loliwm italicum.
Lolium perenne. x10. Front and back views. x 10.

behaves as a biennial, and is more luxuriant in growth. In most
other respects it is similar to L. perenne.

“Seed.” Very similar in size, etc., to those of Perennial
Rye-grass but not so much flattened. The rachilla may be
flattened or almost cylindrical. The terminal awn is usually
longer than the outer palea. It is not at all uncommon for the
“seeds” to shed their awns at the ripening period. (Fig. 124.)

L. woldicum is a rapid growing annual variety of Italian
Rye-grass.

g—2

116 Botanical Section [pT 1

Lolium temulentum, L. (Darnel or Bearded Rye-grass.)
(Fig. 121.)
An annual, sometimes found as a weed in cornfields. It is
practically indistinguishable from Italian Rye-grass by the foliage.
Flowers about July; culms about 2 feet high. Inflorescence
similar to that of L. italicum, but the spikelets contain only four
or five flowers, and the empty glume is longer than the spikelet
and has only three distinct nerves. A very small inner glume

y ae: |

Y By 7 | MA
ae Vd iy) |
Vay My

4
Pag ohhh

| bff i

for

Fig. 125. “Seed” of Lolium Fig. 126. “Seed” of Melica
temulentum. x10. nutans. Front view. x10.

may sometimes be present. Outer palea seven-nerved, bifid at its
apex, and bearing (in the ordinary form) a sub-terminal rough awn
from once to twice the length of the outer palea. Another form
without, awns is sometimes described as L. arvense.

The “seeds” are from 6 to 7mm. long (excluding the awn),
smooth, and very stout (about 25mm. thick). Rachilla stout,
round, and smooth. (Fig. 125.)

Melica iivfans, L. (Mountain Melick.) (Fig. 127.)

A rather rare perennial, occurring only in shady places at fairly

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 117

high altitudes. Shoots quadrangular in cross-section. Sheaths
entire. Blades rolled in the shoot, long, narrow, thin, dry, flaccid,
and of a light-green colour; sparsely hairy, showing ribs on lower
surface only. Ligule distinct.

Y uid
4
¥
Se 4 |
v W t,
St, ;
9 i \ Jy M
\ \ vt %
a Foe ;
r) Wi] th
j ‘ | ‘ wy 4
tS a } 4
‘ I bi 4 ¢ i}
\ | hares
4 4 | i , /
, | ee
% /
», %,/% |
Y 6 §
, I,
v Vy
re
yr
yo |
t |
\ | |
Fig. 127. Melica uniflora (left) and Fig. 128. Molinia
Melica nutans (right). About + cerulea. About
nat. size. % nat. size.

Flowers in May or June; culms from 1 to 2 feet high. In-
florescence racemed, of about ten spikelets on short branches.
Spikelets ovate, pendulous, containing two perfect flowers and
one imperfect flower. Empty glumes reddish-brown, five-nerved.

“Seed” 4-6mm. long. Outer palea broad, rounded at the
apex, awnless, distinctly 5-7 nerved. Rachilla somewhat flattened

118 Botanical Section [pT I

and smooth. Grain elliptical in outline, flattened; about 2°5 mm.
long, shining, and of a dark-brown colour. (Fig. 126.)

Melica uniflora, L. (Wood Melick.) (Fig. 127.)

A perennial species occurring in similar situations to the last
species, but at lower elevations, and is more frequent in the
British Isles.

Sheaths and blades as in M. nutans, but the ligule is practically
wanting, and a slender bristle projects from the sheath near
the point of insertion of the blade.

Flowers about June; culms from 1 to 2 feet high. Inflorescence
a simple panicle or raceme, with only a few spikelets on long,
slender, and somewhat nodding branches. Spikelets ovate, con-
taining one perfect and one rudimentary flower. The empty
glumes and palee are similar to those of M. nutans. Outer palea
4-5 mm. long.

Milium effusum, L. (Spreading Millet-grass.)

Occurs in damp shady woods in many parts of the British Isles.
A somewhat creeping glabrous perennial. Sheaths split; leaf-blades
broad, flat, of a glossy light-green colour. Ligule long and mem-
branous. Auricles absent.

Flowers about June; culms from 3 to 4 feet high. Panicle
large, erect, open and spreading. Spikelets on long slender
branches, numerous, small, ovate, and one-flowered. Glumes
equal, broad, membranous and three-nerved.

“Seeds.” Outer palea membranous, smooth, glossy, awnless
and nerveless; about 3mm. long, light-coloured. Inner palea
glossy, without marginal hairs. No rachilla. (Fig. 129.)

Molinia cerulea, Moench. (Purple Melick-grass.) (Fig. 128.)

This plant is common on damp moors, peaty soils, woods, etc.
in Britain. It is a perennial, with tough cord-like roots, and forms
conspicuous tufts. Sheaths smooth and split. Leaf-blades rolled
in the shoot, long, narrowing below, and tapering above to a long
fine point; thin, dry, almost ribless, and more or less hairy on
the upper surface. There are no auricles and the ligule is either
very short or represented by only a tuft of hairs.

Flowers about July; culms usually 2-3 teet high but varying
much with the situation. Panicle erect, long, and close. The
slender branches arise in alternate tufts on the wavy rachis.

CH. VIt] Botanical Description of Species 119

Spikelets numerous, small, erect, two- or three-flowered, of a green,
or more frequently a purplish colour. Glumes unequal, and
smooth.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 3-4mm. long, acute, three-nerved
and smooth, often of a purple colour. Inner palea with marginal
nerves not fringed. The two pales stand rather widely apart
at the top. Rachilla long, cylindrical, slender, and bent or
“knobbed” at the top. (Fig. 130.)

Fig. 129. “Seed” of Milium Fig. 130. “Seed’’ Fig. 131. “Seed”
effusum. x10. Left. Back of Molinia ce- of Nardus stricta.
view, showing fine nerves of rulea. x 10. Side x 5.
the outer palea. Right. Front view.

view, showing the inner palea.

Nardus stricta, L. (Moor Mat-grass.) (Fig. 132.)

A tufted perennial, common on dry moors and sandy heaths.
Its roots are tough and stringy. Sheaths smooth. Leaves bristle-
like, hard, rigid, and almost solid. Ligule small and blunt. No
auricles.

Flowers about July, the culms being 6 inches or rather more
in height. Spikelets sessile on the erect spike, one-flowered,
lanceolate-pointed, all turned towards one side. Empty glumes
wanting, or one rudimentary glume only.

120 Botanical Section [pT I

“Seeds.” (Fig. 131.) Outer palea very narrow, slightly twisted,
and tapering off into an awn-point. Total length of “seed”
from 8-12mm. The naked grain tapers off to a point at each
end.

Fig. 134. “Seed” of
Phleum pratense, L.
x10. The right-
hand figure shows
the caryopsis free
from the pale.

Fig. 132. Tuft of Fig. 133. Two spike-

Nardus stricta, L. like inflorescences
of Phleum pratense,
L. showing varia-
tion in length.

Phalaris arundinacea. See Digraphis arwrdinaceu.

Phalaris canariensis, L. (Canary-grass.)

A native of 8S. Europe: occurs as a weed of cultivation in Britain.
It is also sometimes cultivated for its seed which is used for caged
birds. It is from 2-3 feet high, with an ovoid spike-like panicle

CH. VIT] Botanical Description of Species 121

1-1} inches long. The spikelets are one-flowered, on very short
branches, and densely imbricated in the panicle. There are usually
two pairs of empty glumes; the outer pair very much compressed,
the keels white and almost winged, bordered by a broad green
line. The inner pair are smaller and lanceolate. The palee are
acute, awnless, shining and more or less pubescent in the green
state.

Phleum pratense, L. (Timothy or Cat’s-tail.) (Fig. 133.)
Abundant in Britain. See p. 157.

A tufted perennial, most common on soils of a peaty or
tenacious character. The plant is entirely glabrous, and its stems
are generally more or less enlarged at the base, especially when
the soil is dry or hard. Sheaths split, the older ones of a pale
chocolate colour when decaying near the ground. Blades rolled
in the shoot, normally short, and acute; those on the culms
usually erect. Both sheath and blade are of a light-green colour;
there is a slight keel to the blade, but none on the sheath. Auricles
absent. Ligule white, membranous, blunt, usually longer than
broad.

Flowers in July or later; the culms vary much in height, but
are usually from 14 to 24 feet high. The nodes of the culm are
short and often of a deep violet hue. The cylindrical spike-like
panicle varies in length from 1 to 6 inches, but is generally about
2 inches long. Spikelets numerous, one-flowered, and borne upon
very short branches. Glumes equal, broad and obtuse, each
with a prominent keel which terminates in a rough awn-like point
not half as long as the glumes. The glumes are covered with
very fine short hairs, and their keels are fringed with short, stiff,
white hairs.

“Seeds” about 15mm. long and 0-8 mm. broad. The pales
are silvery-white, thin, membranous, and finely nerved. The
caryopsis (naked grain) easily separates from the palee, and is
spherical-ovoid in shape, of a pale yellow-brown colour, and its
surface is finely reticulated. (Fig. 134.)

Phleum alpinum, LL. (Alpine Cat’s-tail.) A perennial found
in the Highlands of Scotland. It is distinguished from other
British species of this genus by the glume awn-points which are
more than half the length of the glumes.

122 Botanical Section [PT I

Phleum arenarium, L. (Sea Cat’s-tail.) Frequent in many
places on sandy shores of the British Isles. An annual, seldom
exceeding 15 inches in height. It may be readily distinguished
from P. pratense by the following points: its spike-like panicle
tapers distinctly below; the glumes are lanceolate in form, acutely
pointed but without awn-points, and their inner margins are
fringed with fine hairs.

The “seeds” may be distinguished by their smaller size, and
by the absence of a central point or spur at the top of the outer
palea. Flowers about July.

Poa. The common British species
of this genus have numerous 2-8 flowered
spikelets in spreading panicles. The
outer paleew have no awns or awn-points.

Poa alpina, L. (Alpine Poa.)

A perennial, occurring on the High-
lands of North Britain. Shoots much
compressed, blades short, broad, and
bluntly pointed. Ligule of upper leaf
Fig. 136 long and pointed, sheaths entire.
Fig.135. “Seed” of Poaalpina, Flowers in May or June; culms about

x10. Note the absence of 6-12 inches high; panicle rather close

a “web” ; the numerous and erect; spikelets 3-5 flowered, the

long hairs on the ribs, and :
g 8 2" flowers without “webs.”
the membranous margins

of the cuter alex “Seeds.” Outer palea 3-4 mm.
Fig. 136. “Seed” of Poa an- long, its upper margins membranous,
nua. x10. Note the ree and its apex acute; very distinctly
nin ed eu keeled, and hairy—especially on the
eeerer asta lower part of the keel and marginal
ribs. No intermediate nerves between
keel and marginal ribs. Rachilla cylindrical, smooth or hairy.
(Fig. 135.)

Poa annua, L. (Annual Meadow-grass.) (Fig. 144.) See
p. 158.

A little tufted annual abundant on gravel paths and waste
places generally. Its foliage is entirely glabrous and of a dull
pale-green colour. Young shoots flattened. Sheaths split and
keeled. Blades conduplicate, keeled below, ribless above, broadest

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 123

near base and tapering to a rather blunt point. The blades
are rather limp and often waved or puckered. Ligule relatively
long, white and conspicuous. No auricles.

Flowers throughout most of the year. Culms ascending, from
2 inches to a foot high. Panicle 1 to 2 inches long, erect, spreading,
triangular in outline, one-sided, the rachis and branches smooth.
Spikelets small, ovate-lanceolate, 3-6 flowered. Glumes rather
unequal, three-nerved.

“Seeds.” Outer palea 2-3 mm. long, five-nerved, with mem-
branous margins above, smooth, except for a fringe of fine silky
hairs on the lower half of the keel and lateral nerves. Rachilla
cylindrical, outstanding. The “web” is absent. (Fig. 136.)

Poa bulbosa, L. (Bulbous Poa.)

A small tufted and glabrous perennial about 6 inches or less in
height. Blades short. Shoots round. Ligule long, acute. The
base of the stems and iower sheaths are much swollen. Food
materials are stored in these bulbous stems and they also assist
in the propagation of the plant.

Flowers in May; culms smooth. The panicle consists of
rather few, ovate, 3-4 flowered spikelets. Glumes equal, three-
nerved. Outer palea ovate-acute, five-nerved. A “web” is present
at the base of the paleew. Occurs chiefly near the coasts in the
eastern and southern counties of England.

Poa compressa, L. (Flat-stemmed Meadow-grass.) (Fig. 137.)

A rather frequent perennial on dry soils and rocky situations
throughout Great Britain. Sheaths split? most of the way down,
sharply keeled, firm, and much compressed. Blades folded in the
shoot, usually short and narrow. Ligule short and blunt. No
auricles. The whole plant is generally glabrous and spreads by
underground rhizomes. It is cultivated in N. America under the
name of Canadian Blue-grass, but it is of little agricultural value
in this country.

Flowers about July; culms about 12 inches long, ascending,
very hard, much compressed, with very short purple nodes.
Panicle small, 1-2 inches long, erect, unilateral, with short branches.
Spikelets small, ovate, 4-7 flowered. Glumes almost equal,
three-nerved, sometimes of a purplish hue.

1 Entire while young.

124 Botanical Section [Pr I

(73

Seeds” 1:5 to 25mm. long. Outer palea three-nerved,
each nerve hairy on its lower half. The inner palea is fringed
with finer and more numerous hairs than in Poa pratensis, and the
outer palea also spreads more widely open. Rachilla smooth,
cvlindrical, outstanding. A delicate ““web” of white hairs is pre-
sent at the base of the pale in “uncleaned” samples. (Fig. 138.)

i/

Fig. 138. “Seed” of same-
x10. To the right is
shown the appearance

| of the hair fringe on
the margins of the inner
palea when highly mag-
nified. JW. the *t web.”
Fig. 137. Panicle of Poa
compressa. About
4 nat. size.

Poa disians, L. (Reflexed Meadow-grass.) A somewhat rare
perennial with culms from 12-18 inches high. Flowers about
July. The rachis of the panicle is rough, and its lower branches
become obliquely bent downwards after flowering. Spikelets
linear-lanceolate, 4-7 flowered. The outer palea five-nerved,

and without a “web” at its base.

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 125

Poa maritima, Huds. (Sea Poa.) A somewhat creeping
perennial, frequent on the shores of the British Isles. Blades
short and narrow, frequently rolled up. Flowers about July;
culms usually less than a foot high. Panicle erect, rather close,
its rachis and branches smooth. Outer palea five-nerved, without

¢

a “web” at its base.

Fig. 139. “Seed” ae
Bee.
of Poa nemo- lt
Po
ralis. x10.

Fig. 140. Panicle of the same,
About } nat. size.

Poa nemoralis, L. (Wood Meadow-grass.) (Fig. 140.) See
p. 159.

A tufted or slightly creeping glabrous perennial, frequent but
not abundant in the British Isles, and confined to shady places.
Sheaths split, smooth, and without a prominent keel. Blades

126 Botanical Section [Pra

rolled in the shoots, smooth, thin, long, narrow, limp and
ribless. Ligule very short or wanting. No auricles.

Flowers about midsummer; the culms erect, from 18 inches
to 2 feet high. Panicle rather open, spreading, or slightly nodding.
Spikelets ovate, 2-5 flowered. Glumes almost equal, three-

nerved.

Fig. 141. Panicles of Poa pratensis (left), and Poa trivialis (right).

“Seeds” 2-3 mm. long. (Fig. 139.) Outer palea five-nerved (the
intermediate nerves indistinct), with membranous margins above,
and rather acutely pointed. The lower half of the central and
marginal nerves hairy, the other nerves without hairs. Rachilla

OH. VIT| Botanical Description of Species 127

cylindrical, rough or pubescent (a microscopic feature). A well-
developed “web” is present in “uncleaned” samples. Seen in
bulk the “seed” has a paler appearance than that of P. pratensis
or P. trivialis.

Poa pratensis, L. (Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass.) (Figs. 5 and
141.) See p. 159.

A common species throughout the British Isles in pastures,
meadows, and on road-sides. It is a perennial, and creeps exten-
sively by extravaginal rhizomes. Young shoots flattened, with

=e, 2

Fig. 142. “Seed” of Poa pratensis. x10. Fig. 143. “Seed”
To the right is shown the appearance of of Poa trivialis.
the hair fringe on the margins of the x 10,

inner palea when highly magnified. (Com-
pare with Poa compressa, Fig. 138.)

rounded-off keels. Sheaths entire. Blade dark-green, condupli-
cate, short or long, with almost parallel margins suddenly
narrowing and curving upwards to an abrupt blunt point; ribless
above, distinctly keeled below. The flanking lines of motor cells
can usually be readily seen, one on each side of the mid-rib.
Ligule short and blunt, sometimes almost obsolete. No auricles.
The whole plant glabrous.

There are several distinct forms of this species differmg much
in regard to the width and stiffness of the blades. The above
description applies to the form most frequently met with (var.

128 Botanical Section [PEt

vulgaris, Doll.), having rather broad, expanded, and moderately
stiff leaves. Two other quite distinct forms are: (a) var. latifolia,
Koch, with short broad leaf-blades of a bluish-green colour, and
(b) var. angustifolia, Smith, with long narrow leaf-blades which
are permanently folded, stiff and erect.

Flowers late in May or early in June, the culms smooth, from
1 to 2 feet high. Panicle erect, and spreading at time of flowering.

i
Sy |
NY \ }
N F
) | Fig. M45. “Seed”
| of Poa rigida.
} / x10. Back and
‘4 front views.

Fic. 144. Poa rigida (left) and
Poa annua (right). About
1 nat. size.

Spikelets from three- to five-flowered, ovate. Glumes rather
unequal, the upper one three-nerved.

“Seeds” 1-5-2-5mm. long. (Fig. 142.) Outer palea blunt and
often ragged at the apex, five-nerved, the lower half of the central and
marginal nerves hairy, the intermediate nerves glabrous. Rachilla
cylindrical and smooth. A well-developed “web” is present at
the base of the paleee. In cleaned commercial samples of the
“seed” both this “web” and the hairs of the nerves are almost

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 129

completely removed. In bulk the “seed” almost always has a
darker brown appearance than that of P. trials.

Poa rigida, L. An annual, frequently found in rocky situa-
tions, on old walls, etc. Flowers in July, the culms seldom more
than 6 inches high. Panicle secund. Spikelets about seven-
flowered. Glumes without lateral nerves. Pale not “webbed”
at the base. (Figs. 144 and 145.)

Poa trivalis, L. (Rough-stalked Meadow-grass.) (Fig. 141.)
See p. 161.

A perennial, abundant in moist pastures etc. throughout the
British Isles. Whilst young it forms tufts (and remains tufted if
grown under dry conditions), but later, and especially in the
presence of moisture, it covers large patches of ground by forming
roots and tufts of foliage at the nodes of its numerous thin stolons.
Young shoots compressed. Sheaths entire, sharply keeled, those
of the young foliage smooth, but those of the flowering culms
rough (upwards). Blade conduplicate, broadest near base, and
tapering gradually to a sub-acute point. Upper surface dull,
ribless. Lower surface keeled and glossy. Ligule of the upper-
most leaf long and glossy. No auricles.

Flowers about midsummer; the culms erect, from 1 to 2 feet
or more in height. Panicle erect, with rough spreading branches.
Spikelets ovate, 2-5 flowered, but usually with two or three
flowers. Upper empty glume slightly larger than the other glume
and three-nerved. Both glumes have scarious margins and are
sharply keeled; the keels are distinctly toothed.

“Seeds” 1:8 to 25mm. long, and narrower than those of
P. pratensis. Outer palea acute at the apex, five-nerved; only
the dorsal and marginal nerves are prominent, which gives a
sharply triangular cross-section to the “seed.” Hairs may be
present on the lower half of the dorsal nerve (keel), but none are
present on the remaining nerves. The “web” at the base of
the palez is less copious than that of P. pratensis. Commercially
cleaned “seeds” are usually quite free from hairs except for a
trace of the “web.” (Fig. 143.)

Psamma arenaria, Beauv. (Sea Mat-grass.) (Fig. 146.)

A perennial, frequent on our sea coasts. It has extensively
creeping rhizomes and is therefore useful as a sand-binder. Leaf-

A. 9

130 Botanical Section [Pr 1

blades erect, long, narrow and rolled; rough on the upper surface,
glabrous below. Ligule long and divided. No auricles.

Flowers in July, the culms about 2 feet high. Panicle erect,
spike-lke, tapering above and below. Spikelets 10 mm. or more
in length, narrow, one-flowered. Glumes rather unequal, narrow
and acute.

Fig. 147. “Seed”
of Psamma are-
naria, side view.
x 5.

Fig. 146. Psamma arenaria, showing inflorescence and
a yorticn of the rhizcme. About 4 nat. size

“Seed.” Outer palea five-nerved, the central nerve minutely
toothed, and shghtly projecting beyond the apex of the outer
palea. A basal tuft of long silky hairs is present. Rachilla
slender, round, with fine silky hairs. (Fig. 147.)

CH. VII] Botanical Description of Species 13

Sesleria cerulea, Ard. (Blue Moor-grass.) (Fig. 148.)

A small perennial, uncommon in this country except on the
upland limestone regions of North Britain. Its leaves are flat,
hard, rigid, and of a glaucous blue. Flowers in April or May, the
culms being from 6 inches to a foot high; entire sheaths. Panicle
ovoid and spike-like, three-fourths of an inch or less in length.

Fig. 149. “Seed”
of Triodia decum-
bens, front view.
«10.

Fig. 148. Sesleria cerulea.
About + nat. size.

Spikelets 2-3 flowered. Glumes nearly equal, broad; the upper
half of their keels rough.

“Seeds.” Outer palea about 4mm. long, five-nerved, the
central nerve ending in a short awn-point; the remaining nerves
forming four teeth at the apex of the outer palea. Inner palea
bifid at the top, and its marginal ribs fringed.

9—2

132 Botanical Section [PT I, CH. VIL

Triodia decumbens, Beauv. (Heath-grass.)

Rather common on heaths and barren land in the British Isles.
A small perennial with stringy roots. Sheaths hairy, flattened.
Blades rather long, narrow and acute, hairy. Ligule represented
by a tuft of hairs. Flowers about July, the culms from 6-12
inches high. Panicle close, of a few simple branches. Spikelets
few (seldom more than six), rather large, three or four-flowered.
Empty glumes equal, three-nerved, acutely pointed, smooth.

“Seed” about 6mm. long. Outer palea round-backed,
indistinctly nerved, with a tuft of short white hairs at its base,
and three-toothed at its apex. Rachilla cylindrical. (Fig. 149.)

133

PART II

AGRICULTURAL SECTION

CHAPTER VIII

THE AGRICULTURAL VALUE AND CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE GRASSES SCWN ON THE FARM

The agricultural value of any fodder plant is not an easy
matter to decide since it is affected by so many different cir-
cumstances. Other things being equal it will of course depend
upon (1) the Yielding Capacity of the plant, and (2) the Nutritive
Value of its produce. But both these factors are extremely
variable.

The yield is obviously partly correlated with the relative size
of the plant, and also partly with its capacity to re-start growth
immediately after being grazed or cut. But the yield of the
same species varies so greatly with the soil and other circum-
stances that it is impossible here to do more than indicate what
the relative productiveness is when the plants are grown under
the most suitable conditions. This is approximately given in
Table II, on p. 175.

With regard to the important question of the nutritive value
of our grasses we must admit that at present our knowledge is
most inadequate. Although a considerable number of chemical
analyses of the separate species have been made, they have,
unfortunately, not been carried out with sufficient uniformity to
render the results strictly comparable.

The composition of plants varies so considerably with the
different stages of their development, and also probably with the

134 Agricultural Section [PT II

nature of the soil, that it is necessary to grow, and also harvest
them under uniform conditions, if we wish to compare the com-
position of one with another.

Even then it must be borne in mind that the composition and
nutritive value of the plant are by no means the same thing, since
it is not the amount of food substances present, but the actual
amount of digestible food present which matters to the animal. The
proportion of total food present which is digestible (coefficient of
digestibility) varies not only with each species, but also with each
stage of development attained by the plant (see p. 182).

It is to be hoped that in the near future this matter may be
fully investigated by some botanist working in connection with
a chemist and making use of direct feeding experiments. Mean-
while we must remember that although the nutritive value of
a plant is a very important point in determining its agricultural
value, it is far from being the only one. Whatever nutritive
value a forage plant may possess it is useless to the farmer unless
its produce is eaten and relished by live stock. A plant may
possess considerable agricultural merit even though either its
yield or nutritive value are only moderate. It may be capable
of growing under circumstances where better plants would entirely
fail, and therefore under such conditions it becomes the more
valuable plant.

It must in fact be acknowledged that each of our cultivated
grasses has a special value of its own for particular circumstances
of soil, climate, and agricultural requirements. Our aim therefore
should always be to place each species under the conditions for
which it is best adapted, for by so doing its greatest agricultural
value will be realised. In the present chapter these special con-
ditions and requirements are as far as possible indicated for each
species.

Agrostis alba, L. var. stolonifera.
For Botanical description see p. 54.

Fiorin or Creeping Bent-grass is widely distributed throughout
the temperate regions of the world and thrives more especially
where the rainfall is heavy or the soil is inclined to be wet.
On dry soils its produce is very scanty. As its propagation

CH. VIIT] Meadow Foxtail 135

depends upon the spread of its surface-creeping stolons it
naturally succeeds best on moist soils. On such land—especially
when its fertility is low—it can be recommended for either
pasture or meadow, but on the more fertile well-drained soils it
is probably best to replace it entirely by such superior grasses
as Meadow Foxtail and Timothy. It attains full development
by the second year after sowing, but it is entirely unsuitable as
a rotation grass because of its creeping habit. It is one of the
hardiest of our grasses and its value lies mainly in its power to
thrive at high elevations and on water-logged soils where few
other plants of agricultural worth will do well. A further useful
feature is that it continues to vegetate in the late autumn and
winter months and thus affords pasturage when this is most
needed.

Commercial samples of seed are seldom satisfactory. It is
imported from Central Europe and frequently consists of a mixture
of varieties or types, e.g. A. vulgaris, A. canina, etc. (see Figs. 35
and 36). These varieties are much inferior for the purpose of
cultivation, In addition to the frequent admixture of these
varieties the seed often contains large proportions of fine sand
and worthless chaff. Other natural impurities often present are
seeds of Yarrow, Timothy, and Poa sps., Agrostis Spica-venti, and
Aira cespitosa. The two last are harmful weeds (see Figs. 37
and 40).

Well-dressed seed will contain less than six per cent. of sand
and chaff and not more than one per cent. of weed seeds. The
Purity should reach 85 to 90 per cent. and the Germination 70 to
80 per cent. in 28 days. Samples with a Germination Capacity
of over 90 per cent. are now frequently met with.

Alopecurus pratensis, L.
For Botanical description see p. 59.

Meadow Foxtail is indigenous to most North Temperate regions
and thrives even at high altitudes, enduring cold better than most
other valuable forage plants. It is especially suitable for soils
rich in humus and for moist rich clays, and on such soils it is
certainly one of the most valuable grasses either for grazing or
meadow land. On poorer soils, especially if they are subject to

136 Agricultural Section [pT 1

drought, it is of little use. It is one of the first species to
commence growth in the spring (flowering usually in April in
England), thus affording early grazing which is always especially
welcome. Both “top” and “bottom” growth are produced and
owing to its slightly creeping habit the plants mix well with
other species. Complete development is generally attained by

Fig. 150. Meadow Foxtail, showing its habit of growth.

the third season after sowing and it may therefore be used for
leys of four or more years’ duration as well as for permanent
grass on the types of soil indicated above.

In productiveness—even under favourable conditions—it is
probably behind Cock’s-foot, Tall Oat-grass and the Rye-grasses,
but in quality it is unsurpassed. Its hay is free from coarseness
and the proportion of leaves to flowering stems is very high.

CH. VIIT] Meadow Foxtail 137

Meadow Foxtail thrives under irrigation, in water meadows,
and on sewage farms. Under liberal treatment a large growth of
aftermath is quickly produced. Its ability to thrive in shade
makes it especially useful for parks and other semi-shaded grounds.

Fig. 151 Fig. 152 Fig. 153 Fig. 154
Fig. 151, “Seed” of Rumea crispus, L. Curled Dock.

Fig. 152. 3 R. acetosa, L. Sorrel Dock.

Fig. 153. eS R. acetosella, L. Sheep’s Sorrel.

Fig. 154. The same, freed from the perianth. Each x 10.

Seed is imported into Britain from Finland, Sweden, Holland,
etc. That obtained from the North of Europe is usually of the
best quality. As imported it generally contains a high proportion
of chaff and weed seeds. The proportion of chaff is sometimes

Fig. 156. Bhi-
nanthus Crista-
galli, L. Yel-
low Rattle. x 4.

Sometimes pre-
Fig. 155. Ranunculus sent inMeadow
; oe iy
repens, L. Creeping Foxtail Seed.

Buttercup. x10.

abnormally high owing to the presence of the larve of a species of
Midge (Cecidomyia sp. closely related to the Wheat Midge C. tritics
or possibly the same) which attacks the young and developing
ovary of the flower, thus preventing the formation of the grain.

138 Agricultural Section [PT IL

The seeds of Hard Fescue and various Poas are generally present.
One worthless grass seed (Aira cespitosa) is an almost constant
impurity owing to the fact that these two plants thrive under
similar conditions of soil, etc. and the seeds are harvested together.
Other impurities are Rumez acetosa, R. acetosella, Holcus lanatus,
H. mollis, Ranunculus repens, Alopecurus agrestis, etc. (see Figs.
40, 48, 114, and 152-155, and Chap. vi).

Modern cleaning machinery, however, can by successive opera-
tions remove all or nearly all these impurities. Properly cleaned
samples should not contain more than five to ten per cent. of
chaff, and less than one per cent. of Tufted Hair-grass, etc.

The Germination should reach 60 per cent. in seven days and
75 to 85 per cent. in eighteen days. Samples giving a germination ~
of over 90 per cent. are now sometimes met with.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, L.
For Botanical description see p. 61.

Sweet-scented Vernal-grass is indigenous to the temperate
parts of Europe and Asia, and has been introduced into North
America. It thrives on a great variety of soils and within wide
limits of altitude and appears to be little affected by extremes of
temperature, moisture or drought. Although it thrives best in
deep rich soils it nevertheless succeeds in growing on the poorer
and drier types of land where the better kinds of agricultural
grasses would fail.

This plant was formerly much over-rated in value as a forage
grass. The presence in it of a substance known as coumarin gives
the plant a characteristic fragrant smell especially when made
into hay. Chiefly for this reason it was supposed to be a valuable
constituent of the meadow. When masticated it is found to
possess a rather disagreeable bitter taste both in the fresh and
dried condition, and cattle are certainly not at all fond of it. Its
relative yield is also very small. Owing to these facts and the
high price of its seed it cannot be recommended for ordinary
farming purposes. Its most valuable characters are its extreme
hardiness, its earliness (flowering in April) and its undoubted
permanence. It is essentially a “bottom” grass and grows well
in shade. These points indicate that its main use lies, not as

CH. VII] Yellow Oat-grass 139

purely a pasture or meadow grass, but as a principal constituent
of the turf of shaded park land and pleasure grounds, especially
where the elevation is high or the soil poor or variable. Its rich
green foliage also adds to its value for this purpose. It is less
suitable however for playing grounds as its rather broad, soft,
hairy leaves hold dew and moisture too readily and the plant does
not produce a turf that will “wear” well.

Commercial Seed.

Practically all our seed has hitherto come from Central Europe
and as it is mostly hand-collected its cost is high. Sheep’s Sorrel
(Rumex acetosella) and Woodrushes (Luzula campestris, mostly)
are the usual weed impurities (see Figs. 153, 154 and 175). The
seed of a closely allied species known as Puel’s Vernal-grass
(A. Puelit, Lam.) is occasionally used as an adulterant or even
entirely substituted for the real article. This plant is an annual
and quite useless for cultivation. The seeds of A. Puelit are
covered with hair which is paler in colour and less silky than
in A. odoratum while the awns are slightly longer and finer.

Well cleaned samples of Sweet Vernal-grass seed will not con-
tain more than five per cent. of chaff and less than one per cent.
of weed impurities. The Purity of good samples should exceed
90 per cent. and the Germination should reach 70 to 80 per cent.
in 20 days.

Avena flavescens, L.

For Botanical description see p. 68.

Yellow Oat-grass is indigenous to the temperate parts of Europe
and Asia and to northern Africa. It is much less frequent in
Scotland and Ireland than in England where it is common in the
drier pastures and meadows. It thrives at high altitudes and is
a good drought-resisting plant. Its most luxuriant growth is
attained on moderately moist calcareous or marly soils, but even
under the best conditions its yield is only moderate. Full develop-
ment is reached by the second or third year after sowing. It is
essentially a “bottom growth” grass and the bulk of its yield is
produced in the middle of summer in Britain. Its produce is entirely
free from coarseness and both cattle and sheep are fond of it.
Owing to the high price of its seed its use is necessarily restricted,

140 Agricultural Section [Pr 1

but for the formation of pasture or meadow on soils for which it
is adapted a smal] quantity should certainly be sown.

Commercial Seed.

The seed is difficult to harvest and to clean, and most samples
contain much chaffy material. Even well-dressed lots often contain
20 or 30 per cent. Seeds of the Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum
leucanthemum) and Aira flexuosa occur as impurities. (See Figs.
41 and 158.) Seed of the latter plant is sometimes entirely sub-
stituted for that of Yellow Oat-grass. Aira flexuosa has no agri-
cultural value though it may be useful for golf-links, etc. at high
elevations. Its seed is plentiful and cheap in comparison with
that of Avena flavescens.

Good samples of Yellow Oat-grass seed will possess a Purity
of 75 to 80 per cent. and the pure seed will give a Germination
of from 60 to 80 per cent. in 18 days. The weed seeds present
should not exceed one or two per cent. by weight, the remaining
impurities consisting of chaff principally.

Avena elatior, L. = Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Beauv.
For Botanical description see p. 63.

Tall or False Oat-grass is indigenous to the whole of Europe
and Western Asia except the extreme north. It is common
throughout Britain especially as a hedge-plant on the lighter
types of soils. It is less frequently met with in open situations
or on old pastures and meadows. Though it thrives best on good
loams or marls it will give good results on all soils which are not
liable to excessive wetness. It is one of our best drought resist-
ing grasses and succeeds even on dry soils though on such its
yield is naturally reduced. Its development after sowing is very
rapid; a good yield is obtained in the first season, and its maxi-
mum growth is reached by the second year. Its duration is
however correspondingly short as it tends to die out after four
or five years on most soils. These qualities make it especially
suitable for leys of from two to four years’ duration or for tem-
porary pasture or meadow. It is one of the most valuable of
rotation grasses on light soils; at the same time it may be used
with advantage in mixtures for permanent grass as its rapid
development quickly leads to the formation of a productive turf;

CH. VIIT] Tall Oat-grass 141

other more permanent species must however form the bulk of a
mixture for such a purpose. In a meadow its abundant ‘top
growth” contributes very largely to the yield, while its aftermath
is so considerable as to frequently afford a second cutting. It is
perhaps less suitable for permanent pasture. Owing to its slightly
bitter taste and rather coarse tufts it should never be grown alone
but always mixed with a suitable proportion of clovers and
“bottom” grasses. The merits of this plant have for many years
been recognised on the Continent and it is largely grown there,
especially in France, where it is called “Fromental” or French
Rye-grass.

The variety bulbosum (Onion Couch) has the lower internodes
of the stem greatly thickened. These bulb-like stems form root-
lets and separate at the nodes, thus forming an efficient mode of
propagation. On some arable soils it is a troublesome weed and
very difficult to eradicate. (Fig. 54.)

Commercial Seed.

The seed of Tall Oat-grass is seen to be comparatively expensive
when the number of seeds per pound is taken into consideration.
Most of it is obtained from France. The Purity of good samples
should be about 90 per cent. Of usual impurities, the Brome-
grasses (B. erectus, B. arvensis) and Avena pratensis are the worst
and should not exceed one per cent. of the bulk (see Figs. 61, 68
and 75). Other impurities are seeds of Cock’s-foot, Rye-grass and
Yellow Oat-grass which are of course useful. Even well-cleaned
samples will generally contain from five to eight per cent. of chaff.

The pure seed should give a Germination of 60 per cent. in
seven days, and from 85 to 90 per cent. in eighteen days.

Bromus inermis, Leyss. Awnless Brome-grass;
Hungarian Forage-grass.

For Botanical description see p. 87.

This plant though not a native of Britain is indigenous to a
large part of Europe and Northern Asia. It is a tall growing
perennial, extensively creeping by means of its numerous, long,
underground rhizomes. If sown in the spring it produces a fair
crop in the first year, and attains its full development during the
second or third season.

142 Agricultural Section [PT I

It is especially able to propagate itself rapidly on the lighter
and looser types of soil, and in Hungary it has been extensively
grown on dry soils either alone or in mixtures for hay. On heavy
land it does not grow freely, and on all fertile soils more valuable
grasses should be used.

On poor soils which are loose in texture and subject to drought
it is a useful plant and if sown in conjunction with such plants as
Cock’s-foot, Tall Oat-grass, Kidney Vetch, Sainfoin, etc. good crops
may be obtained for such conditions. It is not suitable for alter-
nate husbandry because it is difficult to eradicate.

““Seed.”” The usual impurities in the seed consist of chaffy
material, though other Bromes are sometimes present. The
‘Purity should reach 90 per cent., and the Germination 80 to
90 per cent. in eighteen days.

Bromus Schraderi, Kunth. Schrader’s Brome-grass
(= B. unioloides).
For Botanical description see p. 88.

This plant is grown to some extent upon dry soils on the
Continent, and in dry climates such as Australia and elsewhere.
It is a short-lived perennial and grows in distinct massive tufts.
On soils which are rather poor and thin it is capable of giving
good yields, but it should always be mixed with other drought
resisting species as it does not cover the ground evenly by itself.
If allowed to flower it becomes coarse but when regularly mown
or grazed this objection disappears.

Good seed should have a Purity of from 95 to 100 per cent.,
and the Germination should reach about 90 per cent. in 20 days.

Cynosurus cristatus, L.
For Botanical description see p. 90.

Crested Dog’s-tail is found throughout the whole of Europe and
Asia except the extreme north. It thrives at high altitudes, and
on a great variety of soils. It is abundant in Britain not only on
dry hilly pastures and downs, but also on heavy clays. It with-
stands both cold and drought well, remaining green even in dry
summers and throughout the winter months. Its development is
rather slow but its permanence is quite reliable on the majority

CH. VII] Crested Dog’s-tail 143

of soils. Very little growth takes place during the first year after
sowing, and full development is not attained until the third
season. Its tufts are small and compact and most of the leaves
are formed near the ground. Itis therefore essentially a “ bottom”
grass capable of forming a com-
pact turf and is especially suitable
for permanent grazing land. It
is also suitable for temporary
pasture of four or more years’
duration, as well as for garden
lawns, cricket grounds, etc. Its
nutritive value is said to be high,
and it certainly forms a large per-
centage of the herbage in several
of our most famous grazing
districts and on many celebrated
natural sheep pastures. Some-
times—owing to its ready produc-
tion of seed—it tends to spread
and occupy too large a proportion
of the ground. In such cases it is
advisable to graze heavily until
the end of June so as to keep
down the flowering culms while
they are in a succulent condition.
Its most rapid growth takes place
about midsummer. As very little
“top growth” is produced its
contribution to a hay crop is
small and it should be omitted yi, 157, A tuft of Crested
from mixtures for meadow land. Dog’s-tail. Note the short basal

Commercial Seed. leaves and the numerous wiry
culms.

Most of the seed formerly came
from the Continent—especially
Holland. Jn recent years, however, the North of Ireland has
become one of the main sources of our supply. It frequently
contains numerous kinds of weed seeds, e.g. Crepis virens, Holcus
sps., Lapsana communis, Poa annua, Festuca Myurus, Sonchus

144 Agricultural Section [pr Ir

arvensis and S. oleraceus, Prunella vulgaris, Chrysanthemum leu-
canthenum, Aira caryophyllea, etc. (see Figs. 43, 99, 114, 158
to 164, and 170). Most of these can be removed by modern
machinery and samples containing more than one per cent. should
be rejected.

Fig. 158 Fig. 159 Fig. 160
Common impurities in Crested Dog’s-tail Seed.
Fig. 158. Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, L. Ox-eye Daisy.
Fig. 159. Crepis virens, L. Smooth Crepis.
Fig. 160. Poa annua, L. Each x 10.

Small seeds of Rye-grass and Cock’s-foot, and seeds of Timothy,
and Hard Fescue commonly occur as impurities.

Fig. 161. “Seeds” of the Common Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus, L.). «6.

The chaff should not exceed one per cent. by weight, and the
Purity should easily reach 97 to 99 per cent. The Germination
of good seed will reach 50 to 60 per cent. in seven days, and 85 to
90 per cent. in 21 days. Sometimes 28 days are required to ascer-
tain its full germination capacity.

CH. VIII] Cock’ s-foot 145

Fig. 162. “Seeds” of the Prickly Sowthistle (Sonchus asper, Hoff.) x 6.

Fig. 163. “Seeds” of the Field Sowthistle (Sonchus arvensis, L.). x6.

Dactylis glomerata, L.
For Botanical description see p. 93.

Cock’s-foot is indigenous to the temperate parts of Europe and
Asia and is abundant throughout Britain. It has been intro-
duced into North America where it is known as “ Orchard-grass.”’
It will grow well on a great variety of soils and at high elevations.

A. 10

146 Agricultural Section [pr 1

Although it gives its greatest yields on good loams and clays it is
one of the best plants for moderately poor and dry soils. Pro-
viding the soil is sufficiently deep to allow its roots to descend it
can withstand long spells of drought.

When sown in the spring Cock’s-foot developes fairly rapidly,
usually giving a small or moderate yield in the first season, and
attaining its full development by the second or third year.

Fig. 164. “Seeds” of Nipplewort Fig. 165. “Seeds” of the Creeping
(Lapsana communis, L.). x 6. Thistle (Cnicus arvensis). x 6.

When growing alone (unless sown very thickly) it forms large
coarse tufts which do not cover the surface evenly, and for this
reason it should always be grown with other species which mix
well with it. It grows fairly early in the season and produces a
large amount of both “top” and “bottom” growth.

Its rapid development, early and late growth, and large produce,
combined with its drought resisting power, make it one of the
most valuable of grasses for either permanent pasture or meadow.
Tt is also very suitable for leys of two or more years’ duration, and
for alternate husbandry generally. All superficial objections to its

CH. VIII] Tall Fescue 147

coarseness disappear when the plant is sown with others in suitable
proportions, and when proper attention is given to grazing and
mowing. When abundant in a meadow the crop should be cut
by the time this plant is in flower. No other permanent grass
after cutting yields a larger or more valuable aftermath.

Commercial Seed is imported into Britain from New Zealand,
America, Denmark, Sweden, France, etc. where crops are specially
grown for seed production. New Zealand and Danish seed is
usually of the best quality, and the supply from these sources
is Increasing.

The most common weed impurities are Bromus mollis, Holcus
lanatus, Lapsana communis and Docks (Rumex crispus, etc.).
Other weed seeds to look for are Plantago lanceolata, Anthemis
arvensis, Ranunculus sps. (see Figs. 72, 114, 151, 155, 164, and
166). Sometimes seeds of Rye-grasses, Tall Fescue, Meadow
Fescue, etc. are present either as natural impurities, or possibly
as adulterants.

Good samples contain not more than three to eight per cent.
of chaff, and at least 90 per cent. of pure seed. Good seed will
give a Germination of from 60 to 70 per cent. in seven days and
90 to 95 per cent. in from 15 to 21 days.

Festuca elatior, sub-sp. arwndinacea, Hackel.
For Botanical description see p. 99.

Tall Fescue is indigenous to the temperate parts of Hurope
and Asia. It is commonly met with on tenacious clay soils and
in wet marshy places. It forms much larger and more distinct
tufts than Meadow Fescue; its leaves and stems are much longer
and coarser, and it produces more “‘top growth.” Its full develop-
ment is reached by the fourth year after sowing. Although its
produce is too coarse for it to be largely used under ordinary
conditions its value becomes at once apparent on soils of the
extreme types. It will thrive on poorly drained clays, fen lands,
and other soils which are too wet for our superior grasses. At
the same time its deeply penetrating roots enable it to withstand
long spells of drought. Providing the soil is sufficiently deep to
allow its roots to descend into it this plant will grow well even on
light loose soils and remain fresh and green through the driest

10—2

148 Agricultural Section [PT II

summers. Under all such extreme conditions of soil and climate
it may well be used as a constituent for permanent grass.

Commercial Seed.

The best agricultural type of Tall Fescue is grown from seed
hitherto obtained from the Rhenish provinces of the Continent.
The supply from this source is limited, and sometimes seed of
the New Zealand Reed Fescue (F. littoralis Br.) is imported
under the name of Tall Fescue. This plant is altogether unsuit-
able for cultivation owing to its extremely coarse reedy nature,
and probably some of the objection which has been raised against
Tall Fescue has been due to the use of this variety. The seeds of
New Zealand Reed Fescue are larger and paler in colour than those
of genuine Tall Fescue; the outer palea is distinctly 5-nerved,
and is covered all over with microscopic hairs, while the rachilla
and base of the ‘‘seed”’ are clothed with longer hairs.

The usual impurities found in seed of Tall Fescue are seeds
of Cock’s-foot (of equal value), chaffy material, and the sclerotia
of Ergot (Claviceps purpurea). The last is the most serious im-
purity. Bromus arvensis and Holcus sps. also occur. The pro-
portion of chaff is frequently high, sometimes reaching 10 or
20 per cent. or even more. Good samples will have a Purity of
about 90 per cent. and contain not more than five to seven per
cent. of chaff. The Germination of good seed should reach 60 to 70
per cent. in seven days, and 85 to 90 per cent. in twenty-one days.

Festuca elatior, L. sub-sp. pratensis, Hackel.
For Botanical description see p. 100.

Meadow Fescue is indigenous to the same geographical areas
as Tall Fescue. It is common—though not abundant—in Britain,
and has been introduced into North America. It is most usually
found in moist pastures and meadows situated on good soils.
Though it thrives best on clays and marls it will also succeed on
calcareous and even sandy soils providing they are sufficiently
moist. A good and regular supply of moisture is one of the chief
conditions for its successful growth. It is much more resistant to
cold than to drought.

The development of Meadow Fescue is rather slow, and a full
yield is not obtained before the second or third vear after sowing.

CH. VIIT] Meadow Fescue 149

It forms fairly compact tufts and produces rather more “‘ bottom”
than “top” growth. On good soils a large yield of nutritious
produce is obtained. For permanent grass on all moist fertile
soils it should be included in the mixture, as well as for leys of
three or more years’ duration. It is suitable for irrigation and
water-meadows. As the stems harden and lose much of their
nutritive value soon after flowering it should be cut previous to
this stage. Under favourable conditions a considerable after-
math is rapidly produced.

Commercial Seed.

Meadow Fescue seed is imported principally from North
America and Denmark.

Fig. 166. Seed of Fig. 167. Seeds of P. Fig. 168. Seeds of

Plantago lanceo- aristata, Mx. Brac- P. Rugelii, Dene.
lata, L. Rib-grass. teate Plantain. Pale Plantain.
Each x 10.

Commercial samples were formerly often adulterated with
seeds of Perennial Rye-grass, but this seldom happens now. The
most common weed seed impurities are Bromus arvensis, B. seca-
linus, Plantago aristata, Mx., and Polygonum Persicaria, L. These
seeds are harvested with those of Meadow Fescue and it is difficult
to completely remove them. In well cleaned bulks only small
amounts of these weeds will be found and the total impurities
including broken seeds and stems should not exceed two per cent.
Good seed gives a Germination of about 80 per cent. in four days
and 90 to 95 per cent. in twelve days. New seed with a germina-
tion capacity of nearly 100 per cent. is frequently met with.

150 Agricultural Section (Pr I

Festuca ovina, L.

For Botanical description see p. 101.

Sheep’s Fescue and its varieties are indigenous to most of the
temperate regions of the world. All the varieties are perennial.
The common form, var. vulgaris, forms compact tufts and seldom
grows more than a few inches high. It grows well at very high
altitudes and in dry climates, and is one of the hardiest of our
grasses. It is abundant in Britain, especially upon natural up-
land sheep pastures where it often forms the principal constituent
of the herbage. Although its produce is small it is nutritious and
sheep thrive where it abounds. Wherever the conditions are
favourable the plant propagates itself by shedding its seeds and
there is seldom any need for sowing it. The true seed is difficult
to obtain commercially, and what little is procured is mainly used
in the formation of lawns—a purpose for which this plant is very
suitable. The variety tenwifolia has leaves which are extremely
short and fine (bristle-like), and it is especially valuable for the
production of lawns of the finest nature.

Commercial Seed.

Good samples of the above varieties should have a Purity of
80 to 90 per cent., and the pure seed should give a Germination
of 70 to 80 per cent. in twenty-one days. The impurities usually
consist in the main of chaffy material especially in the case of the
fine-leaved variety.

The variety duriuscula—known as Hard Fescue—is the most
useful form of F. ovina for permanent pasture. It is larger and
more vigorous in growth than the ordinary type, and is a useful
“bottom” grass on almost all kinds of soils. It withstands both
cold and drought extremely well and thrives in exposed situations
and at high altitudes. Under such conditions, and on poor dry
soils, it should be freely used when forming grazing land. Its
value for meadow land is comparatively small, and it should only
be sown sparingly on fertile soils which will support more heavily
yielding grasses. Its maximum development is attained by the
second or third year after sowing.

Commercial Seed.

Hard Fescue seed is obtained chiefly from the Continent.

CH. VIIt| Red Fescue 151

The weed impurities to be looked for are Aira flexuosa, Festuca.
Myurus, Bromus mollis, and Rumezx acetoselia (see Figs. 41, 72,.
99 and 153). From three to eight per cent. of chaff usually
remains even in well-dressed samples. The Purity should reach.
90 to 95 per cent., and the pure seed give a Germination of
60 per cent. in seven days, and 80 to 90 per cent. in twenty-one days.

Very frequently the seed of Chewing’s variety of Red Fescue
is sold as Hard Fescue. The former is more easily produced and
is considerably cheaper, but it is doubtful whether the plant is so
hardy or permanent in Britain as genuine Hard Fescue.

Festuca rubra, L.
For Botanical description see p. 102.

Red Fescue and its varieties have a similar geographical
range to Sheep’s Fescue, and are also of perennial growth. The
creeping variety (genuina, Hackel) forms loose tufts of herbage
with its creeping rhizomes. It withstands cold, drought, and
shade well, and thrives at high altitudes. It forms a good
“bottom” grass on soils of the poorer description, especially on
loose sands whether wet or dry. But it should never be sown for
any agricultural purpose on good fertile soils. It becomes fully
developed by the second year after sowing. Its creeping habit
gives it some value as a sand-binder on railway slopes, etc. For
lawns, golf-links, etc. on dry open soils it is an excellent con-
stituent of the turf, wearing well, and adding a rich green colour.

Commercial Seed.

Genuine seed of Creeping Red Fescue is very difficult to obtain
commercially. The kind almost always sold at the present day
under the name of Red Fescue is the variety known as Chewing’s
New Zealand Fescue (see Fig. 108). This is the variety fallaz,
Hack., which is without creeping rhizomes. Although Chewing’s
variety is perennial, and has rich green foliage, it does not possess
the special value of the creeping variety for the purposes indi-
cated above. It is to be hoped that more attention will be given
in the future to the production of seed of the creeping variety.
The variety heterophylla is very similar in habit of growth, ete.
to Chewing’s Fescue and neither of them is of much agricul-
tural value in Britain.

152 Agricultural Section [PT II

The Purity and Germination of good samples of Creeping Red
Fescue should be similar to the figures given for Hard Fescue.

Seed of Chewing’s Fescue should have a purity of 90 to 95 per
cent. Chaff, and seeds of Perennial Rye-grass usually form the
chief impurities. The weed seeds to be looked for are
Holcus sps., Hypocheris radicata (Cat’s-ear), and Festuca
Myurus (see Figs. 99, 114 and 169). Its germination
is extremely variable even with seed of good weight
and appearance. The germination capacity often falls
off to a serious extent in the course of a few months,
even under good storage conditions. Good new seed
should germinate 50 per cent. in seven days and about
90 per cent. in twenty-one days, but frequently the
Fig. 169. germination capacity is as low as 40 per cent. All
Hypoche- samples should be tested before sowing.

ris radi-
cata, L. Glyceria aquatica, Sm.
oe This large perennial grass is frequently found by

the side of streams, on wet ground, etc. and is readily
eaten by cattle. On land liable to floods, water-meadows and wet
places generaily it might be worth sowing. The seed could be easily
produced by seedsmen, if there was a reasonable demand for it.

Lolium perenne, L.
For Botanical description see p. 118.

Perennial Rye-grass is indigenous to the temperate parts of
Europe and Asia, and it has become naturalized in many other
parts of the world. It is abundant all over Britain in pastures,
meadows, and waste places. Although this plant will grow on
almost any kind of soil it only really thrives on moist fertile land.
Rich loams and clays are most suitable for it, and on these it
forms a thick even turf, withstands drought well, and is quite
permanent. On looser and drier soils it generally fails to form
a compact turf and soon dies out. Its permanence thus varies
very much with the nature of the soil and climate. Perennial
Rye-grass developes very rapidly after sowing. When sown in
the spring a good crop is obtained the first season, and its full
yielding capacity is reached by the second year. The ground is

CH. viIr] Perennial Rye-grass 153

thus quickly covered with a thick growth of “bottom” grass.
During the early part of the nineteenth century, and before the
merits of other grasses were well understood, this plant was prob-
ably over-estimated in value. Moreover as it was the only grass
of which seed could be readily obtained it was frequently the only
one sown in conjunction with clovers for permanent pasture.
This excessive use, and the fact that it rapidly died out on some
soils, led to its being wholly condemned by some authorities as soon
as the seed of other perennial grasses became available. It was
said that it crowded out better plants, that it rapidly exhausted
the soil, and that it was only a biennial, or short-lived perennial,
and therefore wholly unsuitable for permanent pasture.

Subsequent experiments and observation have shown that this
wholesale condemnation was without justification. That it makes
very great demands upon the soil and requires liberal manurial
treatment is perfectly true; but this is also true of most plants
which develop rapidly and produce heavy and nutritious crops.
This quick and reliable growth of perennial Rye-grass is in fact one
of its most valuable characters. On stiff clays where the surface is
wet in winter, and dry and hard in the summer, it is often difficult
to get most useful grasses to establish themselves. Seedlings
which are slow in growth get in a state of stagnation in winter on
such land, whilst in hot weather they become scorched off especi-
ally when the surface cracks as is commonly the case. But when
some perennial rye-grass is sown it grows so quickly that the sur-
face becomes effectively covered and protected against the danger
of cracking during the first season—one of the most critical periods.
Used in moderation it does not crowd out other plants but actu-
ally protects them and favours their later development. In this
way it makes the formation of grass land comparatively easy and
certain even under rather unfavourable conditions. While the
wholesale use of perennial Rye-grass is undoubtedly a wrong prac-
tice, and at the present time unnecessary, it is equally an error
to omit it from mixtures for permanent grass altogether. For
upon the soils most adapted for grass it is quite permanent, and
taking all points into consideration it is perhaps unsurpassed as a
pasture grass in Britain. In several of our best grazing districts
it forms a large proportion of the herbage.

154 Agricultural Section [PT IL

Even on soils upon which it will not persist it is worth while
including a fair proportion of seed. Its rapid covering of the
ground prevents the invasion of weeds, and gives profitable returns
during the first year or two, after which its gradual] disappearance
makes way for the spread of the more slowly maturing plants.
For temporary pastures, and leys of two or more years’ duration
it is most suitable. It is on the whole more adapted for grazing
than meadow land, and withstands the treading of animals better
than most other plants. For ordinary lawns where extreme fine-
ness is not essential it answers well, especially if sown very thickly ;
but for this purpose it is always advisable to mix other finer
growing grasses with it.

Commercial Seed.

Perennial Rye-grass was the first grass seed gathered separately
for agricultural purposes, and it appears to have been sown in
England nearly 300 years ago. Rich moist soils, e.g. fen soils,
and fertile loams, are the most suitable for seed production. The
first cutting is usually made into hay, and the second crop re-
served for seed. The bulk of our seed is grown in the north-west
of Ireland; smaller amounts are produced in the south of Scotland,
and in the Fen districts of England. After being cleaned by the
merchant it is generally graded according to its bushel weight.
The common grades are 20, 22, 24, 26, and 28 pounds weight
per bushel of seed. The heaviest grades are often sold under the
name of Pacey’s Rye-grass. Sometimes the smaller heavy seeds are
taken out and sold as ‘Small Seeded Perennial,’ or as ‘‘dwarf”
perennial Rye-grass. These are however merely distinctive
trade terms and do not represent any essential difference of
variety.

The proportion of chaff present varies of course with the bushel
weight. Seed weighing 28 pounds per bushel is practically free,
while 20-pound seed usually contains about 10 to 15 per cent. of
chaff, the other grades having intermediate amounts.

The common weed impurities are Holcus sps., Bromus mollis,
Festuca Myurus, Ranunculus sps., and Plantago lanceolata.
Yorkshire Fog is often especially abundant when the bushel
weight is low. Seeds of Hard Fescue and Trifolinm minus are
also common impurities (see Figs. 72, 99, 114, 155 and 166).

CH. VIII] Italian Rye-grass 155

Good seed should weigh at least 24 pounds per bushel, and
have a Purity of 96 to 99 per cent. The pure seed should ger-
minate 70 to 80 per cent. in four days, and from 90 to 96 per
cent. in 14 days.

Lolium italiceum, Alex. Br.
For Botanical description see p. 115.

Italian Rye-grass is not found growing in the wild state, but
appears to have originated in Lombardy as a cultivated variety
of perennial Rye-grass. Since 1830 its cultivation has spread
throughout the whole of Europe. Although of South European
origin it withstands cold well, and no other grass developes so
rapidly in our northern climate. When sown in the spring it
attains its maximum growth in the same year, but generally dies
off after the second season. When however the conditions are
favourable it only dies out gradually, and it may continue to
occupy the same ground for several years if it is allowed to shed
some seed. Its rapid and heavy production make very great de-
mands upon the soil, and its full capabilities can only be realised
on soils which are rich, deep, and moist. It thrives well on black
fen lands, and on clays which are not too stiff. On poor dry soils
its yield falls off to insignificant proportions. Italian Rye-grass
grows in compact erect tufts and does not spread well over the
surface of the ground. It grows up with great rapidity after
cutting and is on the whole less suitable for grazing than for
mowing. It is probably the best of all grasses for irrigation on
good warm soils, and on sewage farms enormous yields are obtained.
Under such liberal treatment several cuttings may be taken during
one season. It is however in alternate husbandry that this plant
is of the greatest service. For leys of one or two years’ duration
it can either be sown alone, or along with Red Clover or other
quickly-maturing plants. For this purpose it is superior to peren-
nial Rye-grass not only on account of its higher yield, but also
because of its greater nutritive value. For leys of more than
two years’ duration it must be sown less freely, and other more
permanent plants should be given a due place. But even for
permanent grass this plant may with advantage be sown sparingly
(3 to 4 pounds per acre) in order to ensure a rapid soil covering. If

156 Agricultural Section [PT 11

thus used in moderation it in no way prevents the proper develop-
ment of the more permanent plants, but rather indirectly favours
their growth.

A variety known as Westernwolths Grass (L. woldicum)
originating from Holland is now being grown in this country. It
differs from ordinary Italian Rye-grass in its strictly annual growth.
When sown in the spring on good land and liberally dressed with
soluble artificial manures heavy crops may be cut the same year.
It is also useful for renovating patchy clover leys. Its seed is
indistinguishable from that of Italian Rye-grass, though it. fre-
quently contains distinctive impurities.

Fig. 170. Prunella vulgaris, L. Fig. 171. Myosctis Fig. 172. Sherar-
(Self-heal.) Two views. arvensis, Hoff. dia arvensis, L.
(Common For- (Field Madder.)

get-me-not.)

Each x 10.

Commercial Seed.

Italian Rye-grass seed is obtained mainly from France and the
north of Ireland. French seed as imported almost always con-
tains many weed seeds, and unless thoroughly re-cleaned is there-
fore unfit for sowing. It usually possesses a higher germination
energy than Insh seed, and has also been supposed to produce
plants which mature earlier. There is probably however little to
choose between the resulting plants as regards earliness or pro-
ductiveness. Like perennial rye-grass the seed is graded accord-
ing to its bushel weight, and the usual grades offered on the
market weigh 16, 18, 20, and 22 or 23 pounds per bushel.

Seed of the last-mentioned weight is quite free from chaff,
while 16-pound seed will contain from 15 to 20 per cent.

The impurities to be looked for are the same as those mentioned
under perennial Rye-grass. In French seed the following also

CH. VII] Timothy-grass 157

are frequent: Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, L.),
Forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis, Hofi., etc.), Nipplewort (Lap-
sana communis, L.), Black Medick (Medicago lupulina, L.), and
Field Madder (Sherardia arvensis) (see Figs. 158, 164, 171 and 172).
Good seed should have a bushel weight of at least 20 pounds and
the Purity and Germination should be equal to the figures given
for perennial Rye-grass.

Phleum pratense, L.

For Botanical description see p. 121.

Timothy or Cat’s-tail grass is indigenous to most of Europe and
temperate Asia; also to parts of Northern Africa and to North
America. It is common all over Britain especially on moist soils.
It is a hardy species, resists cold well, and succeeds at high eleva-
tions; but it thrives best at low levels and on moist loams and
clays. On wet, marshy or peaty land it often grows with extra-
ordinary luxuriance but is then rather coarse. When properly
established Timothy withstands drought moderately well, but it is
quite unsuitable for sandy soils and dry land generally. In the
United States of America it is very largely grown by itself for
hay, and it is said to have been introduced from that country
into England as an agricultural crop by an agriculturist named
Timothy Hansen, about the middle of the eighteenth century.

Its development from seed is rapid and under suitable con-
ditions the maximum yield is reached by the second year. It is
not however a long-lived perennial and frequently tends to die
out after the third or fourth season. Rather loose tufts are
formed which do not cover the ground well by themselves, and
it produces quite as much “top” as “bottom” growth.

It is perhaps more adapted for hay than for grazing, but for
the former purpose it should always be cut before the flowering
stage is reached. If not cut until after flowering its produce
becomes very hard and fibrous (especially the stems) and un-
suitable as food for cattle. Timothy is a late-growing grass, the
bulk of the crop being formed after midsummer, but it produces
a large yield of heavy hay of high nutritive quality. The amount
of aftermath is relatively small, especially if the first crop is cut late.

For the formation of permanent grass, or for leys of two or

158 Agricultural Section [pr II

more years’ duration Timothy may always be sown with advantage
on clays and other good moist soils.

Commercial Seed.

Timothy-grass readily produces large quantities of seed and it is
(per million seeds) the cheapest of all grass seeds. Most of our
seed is imported from North America, but some of it is produced
on the Continent and also in Scotland. It may easily be obtained
quite free from impurities, but some samples contain such weeds

Fig. 173. ‘Seed’ of Fig. 174. Potentilla Fig, 175. Luzula cam-

Hieracium Pilosella, L. monspeliensis, L. pestris, Br. Field Wood-
Mouse-ear Hawkweed Upright cinque- rush.
(with the pappus short- foil.
ened).
Each x 10.

as Plantago Rugelit, Dene., P. major, L., Prunella vulgaris, L.,
Rumezx sps. (Docks), Potentilla monspeliensis, and Lepidium apeta-
lum, ete. Alsike and White Clovers, Crested Dog’s-tail, Agrostis
sps. and Poa sps. also are commonly present (see Figs. 151 to 154,
168, 170 and 174).

The Purity should reach at least 97 to 99 per cent., and the
Germination 70 to 80 per cent. in four days and 90 to 96 per cent.
in ten days.

Poa annua, L.

For Botanical description see p. 122.

Annual Meadow-grass is most abundant in the temperate
parts of the northern hemisphere but is also indigenous to many
other parts of the world. It is very common in Britain. It is of
little value to the farmer on account of its small produce and
short length of life. Occasionally it is found as a constituent of
pastures and when constantly grazed and prevented from flowering
it tends to become more permanent. It is possible to form lawns

CH. VIIT] Meadow-grasses 159

of a very fine character and of a pleasing green colour from a pure
seeding of this plant though the turf will not stand hard wear.
For this purpose the soil must be in a fine condition and the seed
thickly sown. The seed is not usually to be bought on the market,
but sufficient for this purpose may be gathered by hand. When
used for a lawn the plants must be prevented from seeding by
the constant use of the mower.

Poa nemoralis, L.
For Botanical description see p. 125.

Wood Meadow-grass is indigenous to most of Europe and the
temperate parts of Asia. It is frequent in Britain in woods and
moist shady places on all kinds of soil. It is a perennial, and pro-
duces a considerable amount of “‘bottom” growth on good soils.
On this account it might be more frequently included in mixtures
for permanent grass if the seed could be more easily obtained.
The seed is however expensive, and it is therefore only commonly
used with other grasses for lawns and ornamental grounds. As
the leaf-blades are narrow and of a rich green colour it is admirably
adapted for this purpose, especially where there is much shade.

Commercial Seed. Owing to its high cost the seed is liable to
adulteration. Sometimes the cheaper seeds of Poa pratensis or
other species of Poas are mixed with it, and occasionally Poa
flava, L. (Foul Meadow-grass) from North America has been
entirely substituted for it. The usual weed impurities present
are Atra cespitosa, A. flecuosa, Hreracium Pilosella and Luzula sps.
(see Figs. 40, 41, 173 and 175). Of cultivated plants the seeds of
Hard Fescue, Fine-leaved Fescue and Cock’s-foot occur.

In properly cleaned samples there should not be more than
five to ten per cent. of chaff, or more than one per cent. of weed
seeds. The Germination should reach 40 to 50 per cent. in seven
days, and 70 to 85 per cent. in 28 days.

Poa pratensis, L.
For Botanical description see p. 127.

Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass is indigenous to the whole of
Europe and Northern Asia. It forms a large proportion of the
herbage on the prairies of North America, and is also largely

160 Agricultural Section [PT 1

cultivated there under the name of Kentucky Blue-grass. It is
also found in Australia and other parts of the southern hemi-
sphere. It isabundant in Britain in meadows, pastures, on road-
sides, etc. Its numerous and widely-creeping rhizomes enable it
to withstand extremes of heat and cold better than most other
useful grasses, and this fact no doubt partly accounts for its wide
distribution.

Poa pratensis thrives better upon soils which possess a loose
texture than upon those which are heavy and compact. Its de-
velopment from seed is slow, and in the first year only small tufts
of herbage are formed. During the second season the under-
ground rhizomes spread considerably and its maximum growth
is attained by the third year. When this stage is reached it is
capable of covering the ground fairly evenly with a fine growth
of “bottom” grass.

This plant can be most usefully used as a constituent of per-
manent pasture on soils which are loose or light, and of only
medium quality. Its growth commences early in the spring
especially upon warm dry soils. As a meadow plant it is less
valuable and its aftermath is small. On more fertile and moister
soils Poa trwialis is much to be preferred for either pasture or
meadow. Its nutritive value appears to be below that of most
pasture grasses. For alternate husbandry it is unsuitable owing
to its slow development and creeping habit.

Poa pratensis can be usefully employed as a constituent of
the turf for lawns, especially for those on dry soils, or which are
required to “wear” well under hard usage.

Commercial Seed.

The seed is obtained mostly from North America, and owing
to its relative cheapness it is seldom adulterated. In some years
when it is scarce the seeds of the closely allied Poa compressa, L.
(Flat-stemmed Poa or Canadian Blue- -grass) are either mixed with
it or wholly substituted. Compare Figs. 138 and 142.

The proportion of chaff sometimes reaches 20 per cent. or more,
but in well-cleaned samples it should not exceed five to seven per
cent. The usual weed impurities are various Sedges (Care. sps.),
Mouse-eared Chickweed (Cerastium vulgatum, L.), Shepherd’s
Purse (Capsella Bursa-pastoris, L.) and Sheep’s Sorrel.

CH. VIIr] Meadow-grasses 161

The Purity should not be less than 90 per cent.

Both the germination and the germination energy are very
variable and usually fall off very rapidly after one or two seasons,
A Germination of 30 per cent. in seven days, of 50 per cent. in
fourteen, and of 70 to 80 per cent. in twenty-eight days is very
good. The seed germinates much better in light than in darkness,
and it should therefore be simply rolled in on a fine firm surface
rather than covered with soil.

Poa trivialis, L.
For Botanical description see p. 129.

Rough-stalked Meadow-grass is indigenous to most of Europe
and Northern Asia, and has been introduced into America. It is
abundant in Britain in pastures and meadows on all good soils.
It withstands cold moderately well and can grow at high eleva-
tions. It grows most luxuriantly where the climate and soil are
moist, e.g. in the west of Britain, upon wet clays, deep fen soils,
etc. In dry situations or in seasons of drought the plants become
much dwarfed, and the foliage turns red. This happens because
the thin creeping stolons are very shallow rooted, and the plant
is dependent upon surface moisture for its growth. As soon as
rain falls however it is capable of rapid recovery from the effects
of drought.

The development of this species is more rapid than that of
Poa pratensis. Under favourable conditions it gives its maximum
yield by the second season. Owing to its extensively branching
stolons it is capable of producing a dense mat-like covering of
bottom herbage which effectively fills in the spaces between other
plants. This habit of growth aids in the conservation of surface
moisture, and also prevents the establishment of weeds. For
these reasons it is worth while including some seed in all mixtures
for permanent grass upon all but very dry soils. But it should be
most largely used for permanent pasture or meadow in wet
districts and upon moist soils. In favourable situations it pro-
duces a considerable bulk of “top” grass which makes hay of
the finest quality, though the aftermath is not usually large.

Poa trivialis may also be sown for temporary pastures and leys
of three or more years’ duration. It succeeds well in shady places,

A. 11

162 Agricultural Section [Pri

and grows to perfection in water meadows, and under irrigation.
Its nutritive value is high and no kind of grass is more readily
eaten by cattle. It forms a most valuable constituent for the
turf of ordinary lawns, but it will not withstand hard wear.

Commercial Seed.

Rough-stalked Meadow-grass seed is imported chiefly from
Denmark.

Adulteration is now rarely attempted though other Poas may
occasionally be mixed with it. Well-cleaned seed should not con-
tain more than five to seven per cent. of chaff, or one per cent. of
foreign seeds. The usual weed impurities are: Holcus sps. and
Alopecurus geniculatus, L. (Floating Foxtail-grass). (Figs. 50 and
114.) The Purity should reach at least 90 per cent., and the
Germination 60 to 70 per cent. in seven days, and 85 to 95 per
cent. in twenty-one days.

CHAPTER IX
THE VALUATION AND PURCHASE OF GRASS SEEDS

In the purchase and use of grass seeds special care is necessary,
not only because they are generally expensive, but more especi-
ally because different samples of the same species are extremely
variable in composition and vitality. Yet in many cases low-
grade samples cannot be readily distinguished from high-class
seed by a mere casual examination. A brief account of the method
of determining the value of samples will therefore be useful to
all purchasers.

The value of any sample of seed may be ascertained by an
examination of the following points:

1. Its Genuineness, i.e. trueness as to the variety required.

2. Its Purity, i.e. the percentage of pure seed in the sample,
and the nature of the impurities present.

3. The Germination Capacity of the pure seed.

4. The Germination Energy, or rate of germination, and to a
less extent by—

5. The Absolute Weight of a given number of seeds, and

6. The Volume Weight, e.g. Weight per bushel.

cH. 1X] Valuation and Purchase of Grass Seeds 163

1. Genuineness. Cases of entire substitution of an inferior
or lower-priced species do not as a rule occur at the present time.
Nevertheless whenever the supply of seed of a particular species
falls short of the demand, as is frequently the case, there is always
the liability of an inferior allied species being substituted for the
required article.

Thus Poa compressa may be sold as Poa pratensis, or Poa flava
as Poa nemoralis, etc. In all cases of doubt some of the seed
should be sent to a reputable seed-testing station.

2. Purity. All foreign matter present may be grouped under
two heads: (a) adulterants, and (b) impurities.

By the term adulterant is meant any ingredient which has been
intentionally mixed with the pure seed. Seed which is scarce or
high-priced is more liable to adulteration than cheap seed, e.g. Aira
flexuosa may be introduced into bulks of Avena flavescens, or
Poa pratensis into Poa nemoralis, etc. Again, a cheaper and
heavier seed may be introduced to increase the bushel weight of
another species. On the whole however it must be said in fairness
to the seed trade that wilful adulteration is a thing of the past,
and the above points are only mentioned here that purchasers
may be prepared for any isolated case of ignorance or fraud with
which they may be troubled.

Impurities are ingredients which either occur naturally, or get
into the pure seed more or less by accident, and in many cases
cannot be entirely separated from it. They consist of:

(a) Chaffy material, sand, earth, etc.

(b) Seed of other cultivated plants.

(c) Weed seed. —

It is of importance to note that the value of a sample is often
more affected by the nature of the impurities than by their actual
proportion in the sample’. A mere statement that a sample
- contains say 90 per cent. of pure seed is of little value apart from

a knowledge of what the impurities consist. A certain pro-
portion of chaff is almost always present, and as a matter of fact
this must be the case with certain species in which some of the
chaff is adherent to the well-filled seeds, e.g. in Cock’s-foot. Such
- non-living impurities only reduce the value of a sample by replacing
1 See Bibliography, No. 2. :

11—2

164 Agricultural Section [PT 1

so much of the pure seed. The presence of seeds of other culti-
vated plants may or may not reduce the value of a sample, but
the presence of weed seeds, especially of noxious kinds, 1s always
objectionable. The presence of even small proportions by weight
of weed seed should not be ignored, because the actual number
represented may be enormous. The following list taken at
random will make this clear.

The presence of one per cent. Represents approx.
by weight of: per lb.
Yorkshire Fog (Holcus lanatus, L.) (in glumes) ... 9,000 seeds
Fs 5% 36 5 » (without glumes) ... 13,000 , *
Ox-eye Daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, L.) —... 11,000,
Chickweed (Stellaria media, Cyrill.) de wee ... 12,000 ,,
Mouse-ear Chickweed (Cerastium vulgatum, L.) ... 35,000 ,,
Docks (Rumez sp.)... baie ee bs ae ... 3,000 ,,
Sheep’s Sorrel (Rumex acetosella, L.) ... see ..- 10,000 ,,
Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens, L.) ... .. 3,000 ,,
Slender Foxtail (Alopecurus agrestis, L.) aie .- 2,500 ,,
Wavy Hair-grass (Aira flecuosa, L.) ..- aes «3 8,000. 5;
Tussock Grass (Aira cespitosa, L.) ime sis ... 25,000 ,,

This short list will serve to show that only one per cent. of
weed seed in a sample may produce serious results for the pur-
chaser. For example, if we assume that a mixture of grass seeds
contains the above weeds in equal proportions, but not exceeding one
per cent. by weight of the entire bulk, then each pound of the mixture
will contain about 12,000 weed seeds. Since something like
30 pounds of grass seed per acre is usually sown for permanent
pasture it follows that such a mixture would introduce some
360,000 weed seeds to the same area, i.e. nearly 80 to each square
yard.

A reference to Chap. vit will show what are the usual im-
purities to look for in any kind of seed, and also what percentage
of pure seed may be reasonably expected in each case. By means
of the illustrations of weed impurities given on pages 137, 144-146,
149, 156 and 158, and by reference to the descriptions of grass seeds
given in Chaps. vi and vit, most of the harmful impurities may be
identified.

3. Germination. Even when a sample is reasonably pure
the vitality of the seed may for various reasons be low. For
instance, the seed may be imperfectly or irregularly matured, it

eH. 1x] Valuation and Purchase of Grass Seeds 165

may have suffered from exposure during harvesting or through
faulty storage. Or again it may have been kept over for one or
more seasons and so have lost some of its original germinating
power. At the same time the difference in colour and general
appearance between such seed and that which is practically per-
fect may be so slight, that only those accustomed to constantly
handling seeds might have any suspicion about it. It is therefore
of the highest importance to have the germination tested.

At properly equipped seed-testing stations the germination of
the pure seed is usually determined on four lots of 100 seeds
each in suitable germinating dishes, placed either in a greenhouse
or specially ventilated incubator, and under suitable conditions
as regards temperature and moisture supply. A temperature of
about 20°C. is most suitable for the Rye-grasses, Oat-grasses,
Meadow Foxtail, and Timothy. For the Fescues, Cock’s-foot,
Crested Dog’s-tail and most other common species a temperature
of from 20°-23°C. gives the best results. Such tests should
extend over a period of 14 days for Rye-grasses and Timothy;
for 28 days in the case of Poa pratensis, Poa nemoralis, and
Agrostis sps.; and for 21 days for most other kinds. It should
be understood, however, that the tests in the case of good samples
may often be concluded in somewhat less than the times here
given. The germination to be expected of good samples under
the above conditions is stated in Chap. vu1I.

4. Germination Speed or Energy is the rate at which the
pure seed germinates. Rapid, vigorous germination indicates
new, well-matured, healthy seed, while a slow germination is
typical of the reverse conditions. To indicate the relative vigour
or energy of a sample it is customary to give the percentage of
growth made in about one-fourth the time allowed for a full test.
For Timothy three days should be allowed; for Rye-grasses,
Meadow Fescue, and Tall Oat-grass four or five days; and for
most other grasses seven days.

5. Absolute Weight and Bushel Weight. When grass seeds are
very thoroughly cleaned not only are most of the weed impurities
and chaffy materials removed, but also a large proportion of the
half-filled and immature seeds are taken out. A thousand pure
seeds of such a sample will weigh more-than a thousand taken

166 Agricultural Section [PT IL

from a less thoroughly cleaned sample. This test of absolute
weight is therefore an indication of quality. In the same way
the bushel weight indicates roughly the extent to which the chaff
and light seeds have been removed. The bushel weights of good
samples are given for each species in Table II, p. 175.

Real Value. Provided a sample is free from noxious weed seeds
its “real value” or “cultural value” for practical purposes may be
said to depend upon the proportion of pure and germinating seed
it contains. Thus the “real value”

_ Purity x Germination
a 100 ;
which gives the percentage of pure and germinating seed present.
For example, a sample of Cock’s-foot seed having a purity of
90 per cent., and a germination capacity of 85 per cent. will—if
90 x 85
io = 76-5 R.V.
By employing such a method as this, samples which possess
different values for purity and germination may be compared
upon a common basis with one another. The “real value”’ figure
reveals the amount of useful seed present in a given bulk, which
is a very important point when making up seed mixtures. Thus
in the above example of Cock’s-foot seed, each 100 pounds of the
bulk contains only 76-5 pounds of useful seed.

the growth is normal—have a ‘‘real value” of

Comparison of Seed Prices.

The “real value” also shows what the relative cost of any sample
should be. If we know that Cock‘s-foot seed with a ‘‘real value” of
90 per cent. can be purchased at 1s. 2d. per pound the cost of the
14 x 76-5

76-5 seed should not be more than 90

= 11-9d., say 1s.

per pound.

It should always be borne in mind that the actual price of
seed is determined, not by the value of the plant to the farmer,
but by (a) the cost of its production, and (6) cost of cleaning;
and also by (c) the relation of supply and demand, i.e. the condition
of the market. Since the prices fluctuate considerably no useful
purpose would be served by quoting prices here. The latest price
lists of merchants should be consulted.

cH. Ix] Valuation and Purchase of Grass Seeds 167

It may be pointed out however that the only sound basis for
comparing the cost of the seed of different species is to calculate
the cost of a given number—say one million—of pure and ger-
minating seeds of each kind. This is so because of the widely
different numbers of seeds weighing one pound in the case of
different species, and also because of the varying quality of
samples. For high-class samples of good bushel weight the price
per million germinating seeds may be found as follows:

1Total No. of seeds per pound x Real Value
100
= Number of pure and germinating seeds per pound

Price per pound (in pence)
Millions of pure and germinating seeds per pound

and

gives the cost per million germinating seeds.

For example, a sample of Meadow Foxtail seed having a “real
value’? of 80 per cent. costs say 1s. 6d. per pound. The number of
pure and germinating seeds per pound will be

1500,000 x 80
100
and the cost per million germinating seeds will be

= 400,000

18 (pence)
0-4 million
The following are useful rules for seed purchasers :
1. Buy each species required in a separate parcel.
2. Purchase by weight—not by measure—even if the bushel
weight is given.
3. Insist upon a guarantee as to genuineness, purity, and
germination from the seedsman.
4. Submit carefully drawn samples to a recognised botanist,
or better still to a properly equipped seed-testing station, for a
report upon the “ real value.”
5. Take special notice of the nature of the impurities present.
If they consist of such land-fouling weeds as Wild Carrot, Docks,
Thistles, Yorkshire Fog, Slender Foxtail, etc. even to the extent
of one per cent. it is unwise to sow the seed.

= 45 pence or 3s. 9d.

1 The approximate total number of seeds per pound in samples of good quality
is given in Table I, page 174.

168 Agricultural Section [PT II

6. Avoid generally all seeds of low quality, since they are
almost invariably higher priced per their “real value” than the best
samples.

Pedigree of Seeds.

The foregoing remarks are concerned with the quality of the
seeds themselves and do not take their pedigree into consideration.

The question of pedigree in forage plants has not yet received
the attention it deserves, but it is undoubtedly as important as
in the case of most other farm crops. It would probably be pos-
sible to obtain “‘pure lines” of each species which would excel
present mixed stocks in such important points as yield, nutritive
quality, earliness, durability, etc. The seed of such stocks would
of course have a correspondingly higher value.

It is also highly desirable that pure stocks of our native British
grasses should be raised, and it may here be noted that a beginning
in this direction has already been made by the Plant Breeding
Institute at Cambridge. At present the great bulk of our grass
seeds are produced elsewhere than in the United Kingdom, and
it is very questionable whether seed from these exotic sources
produces plants which are as hardy, permanent, and otherwise
valuable in our climate as the truly indigenous plants would be.

CHAPTER X

THE SPECIFICATION AND COMPOUNDING OF
GRASS SEED-MIXTURES

Although a few grasses which mature rapidly, such as Italian
Rye-grass, may be profitably grown by themselves, it is generally
found more serviceable to sow several species together in a mix-
ture with clovers and other plants. This is especially so when
land is being laid down for a long ley or to permanent grass.
The advantages of growing such a combination of species are many,
the most important of which are as follows.

CH] Seed- Mixtures 169

(1) Rapidly maturing species can be sown with those perma-
nent kinds which are naturally slow of development. In this way
the ground can be quickly covered, weeds largely excluded, and
crops secured from the first; whilst the permanent sorts gradually
come forward and occupy the place of the short-lived kinds as
the latter die out. (See Diagram on p. 170.)

(2) Generally speaking, the larger the variety of plants
associated, the greater the number of individuals that can grow
on a given area. Tall and low-growing plants, tufted and creep-
ing forms, can be associated with advantage as regards yield, etc.,
and the surface can be more evenly and densely covered by a
mixed vegetation.

(3) Species which vegetate early can be associated with those
which are more prominent at later periods of the season.

(4) Leguminous plants—on account of the nitrogen fixing
bacteria contained in their root-nodules—can be associated with
grasses to the great advantage of the latter.

(5) <A mixed vegetation gives more regular and certain crops
than a simpler type. In abnormal seasons, though some of the
species may suffer others will probably be favoured.

The making up of such mixtures is a matter which requires a
considerable amount of experience and care. Probably on no other
subject directly connected with practical farming has such widely
differing views been held. This has been so—partly because of
the lack of carefully conducted experiments, and partly because
of the almost infinite variety of soils and climatic conditions, to
say nothing of other variable factors. By some it has been held
that the selection of species for the formation of grass land is
almost a matter of indifference since the soil and after treatment
will ultimately determine the character of the turf produced;
whilst others have advocated a rigid selection of species for each
geological formation, and in strictly definite proportions, as if the
ultimate results could be secured by careful calculations beforehand.

Whilst such slavish adherence to a particular mixture for a
given type of soil is quite unnecessary, it is equally foolish to be
indifferent in the choice of species to meet a given set of circum-
stances. Our object is to obtain a much larger yield of more
valuable produce than would be obtained if nature were left to

Agricultural Section [Pr 1

170

“Soaposusy, poysyqeyso ATny oaey squvid quouruisod oyg osojoq ‘st yey, ‘reek YyZINOZ ayy Jo pus
oUF OF Puooas oy} JO pue ey} Wosz st ported [worIo Ayfetoods oy, “wosvas puooses oy} Jo pus oy} oL0Joq ATNJSSo00Ns
Sse] Jo e10m vere oY} opeaur of pue syuvjd uMos 04} YT oyoduI00 09 ulfoq Ayensn sotoeds (eatyeu) ofmepue oy,

‘oul YORT Ory? 049 Aq poyworpur sr
"040 ‘sseIS-MOpwop, poYeys-qSnoy freqyxog Mopvop ox, soroods yuouewsed oxour ey} jo yuomdopesop yenpesz oy,
taeeeee sny} ‘oye “O¥lsTy ‘sseId-quQ [Te], ‘Ayjouty, -“3'e ‘seruuesed poary-yz0ys 043 Jo pue :—-—-— sny} WMOYS SI ‘070
“TOACTD poy ‘sseas-oAy uvipeyy se yons soroods perauerq 044 jo oouvseoddesip Jo pue yuoudojeaop jo oye1 oyeutxoidde oy],
; ‘oIN}XIUI-Spoos B WOE pu] sseIs jo

ToHeUILOF oY} Jo soSvys ATrvo oy} ZurMp syuefd yo sodfy quosoyrp £q petdnooo suoysod oanefer oy SuLmoys wosbng

seek yg wiv pis pud ask
[ T = T T 0
bees See. id
wee, \, eof
ek N er
vey \ . e
Ses ee /
Peg ‘N Poe .
tea ‘ ae /
- Wits 5 Ps / 40¢
eh \ o 7
oy ae ge Z
a boas /
i Pa v
. P °
"Rela dee ~“ at
os ee +001
| i

quawdojaaag $o %

CH. X] Seed-Mixtures 171

itself, but experience shows that this is most readily accomplished
when we work in harmony with the natural conditions by which
we are faced.

The most critical period in the life of a pasture is generally
from the second to the fifth year after sowing. One reason for
this is that the initial fertility of the soil has become more or less
depleted by that time. Another cause is the gradual dying out
or even total disappearance of some of the short-lived species
sown. Moreover the truly perennial species which remain have
to meet with keen competition from the in-coming indigenous
species of the neighbourhood!.

It should be remembered that different localities and varying
elevations possess distinct climatic conditions, and associated with
these conditions are specialised forms of indigenous plants. These
plants, e.g. grasses, are those varieties or biologic forms which are
most adapted to their special habitat, and have therefore proved
most successful in the struggle for existence. Native grasses like
Fiorin, Crested Dog’s-tail, Sweet Vernal-grass, and the various
forms of Sheep’s Fescue, etc. commonly compete very successfully
with their commercial counterparts (generally the product of foreign-
grown seeds) and so gradually take possession of the ground from
the second year onwards until a certain semi-natural stable con-
dition has been reached. It is therefore probably true that when
land is sown downto permanent grass the proportions of the
species in the original mixture sown and in the resulting turf ten
years later are very seldom anything like the same.

This modification of the turf generally occurs most rapidly on
soils of the extreme types (very dry or wet) and at high elevations.

On all fertile soils at low elevations in this country the in-
coming indigenous species will—under good farming conditions—
be of the better and more useful kinds.

Whilst the foregoing facts do not constitute a sufficient reason
against the sowing of suitably selected mixtures of seeds, it is
obvious that they form the strongest possible argument in favour of
the production and propagation of races of our own native grasses.
Until this is done it cannot be maintained that we are dealing
with the problem of grass production on really scientific lines.

1 See Bibliography, No. 28.

172 Agricultural Section [PT I

Specification of Seed-Mixtures.

In the description of each plant given in Chap. vu we have
seen that each species possesses certain characters of its own
which give it some special use or value to the agriculturist. It
is by utilising these characters under circumstances which most
favour their development, and where they are most needed, that
the greatest return is obtained from each kind. If these points
are carefully considered, the farmer will be able himself to decide
what kind of mixture will be most likely to meet his requirements,
instead of leaving so important a matter to be settled by the
seedsman or some other person who is less able to understand the
special local conditions to be met.

To answer the question Which species shall be sown ? we should
consider :

(1) The character of the Soil and Climate.

While no special attention need be paid to geological formations,
it is of the greatest importance to observe the physical nature of
the soil; whether it is “light”? and porous in texture, or stiff,
compact, moist or wet. Also whether it is calcareous or peaty.
For practical purposes these are the only distinctions of soils which
need be made. The general character of the climate also should
be noted, whether wet, humid, or dry. It may here be said that
“light” dry soils and dry climates are not naturally adapted for
the production of good crops of grass and therefore present the
greatest difficulties.

(2) The purpose for which the mixture is required.

For leys of only one year’s duration it is obvious that only
annual or biennial plants can be profitably sown.

For leys of from two to four years’ duration the following
grasses (with clovers) may be employed: Rye-grasses, Timothy,
Tall Oat-grass, Cock’s-foot, and to.a less extent Meadow Fescue.

For leys or temporary pastures of more than four years’ dura-
tion the proportion of short-lived plants should be gradually
reduced, until in the case of permanent grass fully 60 per cent. of
the area should be allotted to permanent plants.

If grass land is being formed for mowing only, it is desirable
that tall-growing plants should predominate, but both “bottom”

CH. x] Seed-Miaxtures 173

and “top” grasses should always be represented. In practice
very little difference can be made between mixtures for meadow
and pasture land, as it is of far more importance to consider soil
conditions first. Under constant grazing the low-growing species
such as Perennial Rye-grass, Crested Dog’s-tail, White Clover, etc.
are most encouraged; whilst constant mowing favours the
taller plants such as Tall Oat-grass, Cock’s-foot, Meadow Foxtail,
ete.

In all permanent grass mixtures each of the following class of
plants should be represented :

(a) Nitrogen accumulators, i.e. Leguminous plants.

(6) Rapid soil coverers, e.g. Italian and Perennial Rye-grass.

(c) Short-lived perennials, e.g. Timothy, Tall Oat, ete.

(d) Permanent species, e.g. Meadow Foxtail, Cock’s-foot, ete.

(e) Bottom growing plants, e.g. Poas, Dog’s-tail, etc.

(f) Early and late maturing species. ,

Having selected the species, the next question that arises is
How much seed is it necessary to sow to secure good results at
reasonable outlay ?

The determination of the number of seeds required to sow an
acre is complicated in many ways as it varies so largely with the
soil, climate, etc. On some of the finest old English pastures it
has been calculated that there are at least twenty million plant
rootings per acre, and on new pastures where the turf is com-
paratively thin there are frequently ten or twelve million plants
per acre. Looking at the matter theoretically it may be presumed
that one plant per square inch (6,272,640 per acre, a large pro-
portion of which would form several distinct rootings) would be
sufficient to form a thick turf. Owing to adverse conditions,
however, the death-rate of seedlings is generally so high that in
practice it is often necessary to sow at least three times this
number of germinating seeds for permanent grass.

Compounding of Mixtures.

In Table I will be found the minimum, maximum, and average
number of seeds per pound of the different species, and in Table IT
the weight and number of seeds necessary to sow one acre of land
under favourable conditions. ,

174

Species

Perennial Rye-grass
Italian Rye-grass
Timothy

Tall Oat-grass ...
Golden Oat-grass
Cock’s-foot

Tal] Fescue
Meadow Fescue
Hard Fescue
Chewing’s Fescue
Fine-leaved Fescue
Crested Dog’s-tail
Meadow Foxtail
Fiorin

Sweet Vernal- ‘penae

Agricultural Section
Taste I. Grass Seed Statistics.

Number of seeds per lb.

=
Highest? awed a Average

265,000 200,000 + ~—«-287,000
250,000 200,000 + ~—«:228,000
1,200,000 910,000 ~—_1,070,000
157,000 110,000 —:130,000
1,520,000 1,140,000 —_ 1,300,000
562,000 330,000 —-460,000
261,000 176,000 220,000
298,000 220,000 —- 263,000
535,000 467,000 ~—«500,000
ae = 450,000

= = 1,170,000
810,000 717,000 761,000
530,000 300,000 + ~—- 460,000
= = 5,000,000

= = 800,000

Rough-stalked Meadows

grass ...

—_— —_— 2,300,000

Smooth-stalked Mecdow

grass ...
Wood ‘Nendo -grass

Awnless Brome-grass

(Bromus inermis)

— _— 2,130,000
_- — 2,300,000

_ —_ 115,000

Schrader’s Brome-grass

(Bromus Schraderi)

According to Table IT it will be
millions of germinating seeds are

— = 34,000

Average
number
of seeds
per
gramme
522
502
2,357
286
2,863
1,013
485
579
1,101
990
2,577
1,677
1,013
11,000
1,762

5,066

4,692
5,066

255

75

[Pr Ir

Average
weight
of 1000

seeds,
grammes
1-916
1-992
0-424
3-491
0-346
0-986
2-062
1-727
0-908
1-010
0-388
0-596
0-986
0-090
0-567

0-197

0-213
0-197

3-960

13-333

seen that from six to eighteen
necessary to sow one statute

acre—the number varying with the relative size and vigour of
the plants, and with their surface covering capacity. The figures
given are based on the results of careful observation made on
plots which have been sown down on various kinds of soil, both
with mixtures and with the pure seed of each species.

While these figures may be taken as sufficient for leys and
temporary pastures, it is advisable to increase these quantities by
from 30 to 50 per cent. when sowing down permanent grass. In
the latter case we must remember that a large proportion of the

1 Based upon a count of a minimum of 50 samples.

175

Seed-Mixtures

CH. X|

‘otqeisea AroA | “quo red QOL 88 400}-8.4909 Jo conposd oy} SUyeL

OL 89 09 G sI-9I 06-8 06 ooI-s6 *" ssviS-oWloIg, 8 Joepelyag
OL L& 0g ¥€ 6I-LT 18 06 c6-06 *" ad sswid-oWlorg SsoTUM VW
0€ a 8 81 PO-13 9L-69 G8-OL o6-s8 "* ssvid-mopeoy] POOM
OF OL L ST 83-&3 08-€9 S8-OL G6-06 *** S8BIT- MOPBOT PoY[e}S-YOOUTS
‘09 8 9 Sl BS-GSCOB-OL «= 8E-GB9E-0G “7 SSUAT-mopvoyY poxTers-qsnoy
0€ &@ ST ak 91-FI L9-€9 OL 96-06“ on SSBIB-[BUIO A JOOMG
OL & 6 or LE-98 GL-€9 08-0L 06 _ ay 7a s UMORT
OL VG LT 8 61-01 GL 08 06 ii a) TreqxoT MOpvoyl
0€ 61 9T ral 9E-GE 88-18 06-S8 86-G6 Tred-s,80q] peysezp
oT Ié ST 81 96-ES GL-89 08 o6-s8 ra enosef Porve[-ouly
OF 9& LG al 96-ES gs-e9 106-10L 96-06 °" ek nose 8 SuIMeYy)
OF 0€ zd 61 66-06 - 18 06 06 on 7 “7 enosegT prey
OL && 0€ 8 0&-LZ 6-98 96-06 86-96 7" a “* enoseyT MOPBOTAL
06 gE / LG 9 FE-06 T8-9L 06-88 06 al a fe onosaT TRL
oor 0G LT 8 Té-61 06-18 6-06 s6-06 ~" i _ JOOFS, YOO)
0s 9T 6 ral FI-81 9¢ OL Og sse15-7@Q) UOpP]OK)
06 Lg 9F 9 9I-FT 98-9L 06-28 S6-06 on “+ ssvr8-9eQ TRL
08 él IT ras OS-8P G6-L8 96-06 66-L6 nes a "* AYJOUITY,
08 6& gé 8 36-81 6-98 96-06 66-96 *" is sseis-oAy Wel]eq]
OL 68 g€ 8 83-6 6-98 96-06 66-96“ “+ sserd-oAyy [etuueIeg
"sq ‘sq] «= SUOT [TUL “81

4SUOT}IPMOD g ‘Joo psoas spoos qystem «= quoo od «= quoo dod | *qt00 red saadg

ayqeinoavy Ut vests se SuyeurE Suna = poysNg ,,onpea [voy,, YIMOoIy) Aqumg

Jepun UsATS ,,ONTeA [BOI,, -193 jo. -TuIeKy = J

sonpoid oSeroae yo | yqSIOM poos poos Sulyvorpur

jo Ayguenb —paes Jo sosheuy Jo pavpuvyg

aATYBIOL qusI0OM
‘xoiddy =‘ ——
ar0@ 044248 9UO MOS 07
Sxessaoou poeg jo sorpiquendy

a)

‘TI Fav

176 Agricultural Section [PT II

short-lived plants included in the mixture will have disappeared
by the fourth season, and ultimately the whole of the area should
be occupied by permanent kinds.

In making up mixtures, after deciding upon the species to be
included, it is usual to allot to each an aliquot part of the area
according to the amount we wish to have present. If, for example,
we wish to allow Meadow Fescue ten per cent. of the area, on
looking at Table II we find that 30 pounds of seed are required for

Taste III. Types of Mixtures suitable for short Leys,
or for Temporary Pasture.
For two years’ duration

- —* . For temporary pasture
For mowing or grazing of 3 to 5 years’duration
3

are
Heavy soils Light soils Heavy soils Light Soils

per cent. percent. percent. per cent.

Species of area of area of area of area
Italian Rye-grass... ae 10 10 5 5
Perennial Rye-grass ais 15 15 15-10 10
Timothy Pe tise et 10 5 15 0-5
Tall Oat-grass... sie aa 5 10 5 10
Cock’s-foot ... ac ae 10 25 15 25
Meadow Foxtail gee obs — —_ 0-5 ==
Meadow Fescue ani Be 10 _— 10 10
Rough-stalked Meadow-grass — —_— 10 0-5
Crested Dog’s-tail ... aes — — — 5-0
Hard Fescue ... Hen se — —_— —_ 5-0
Broad Red Clover... see 10 10 5 5
Late Flowering Red Clover ... 10 5 5 5
Alsike ne ws sinl 10 5 5 5
White Clover ... sie sui 10 10 10 10
Kidney Vetch sas Pre _— 5 —_— 5

an acre, therefore 3 pounds will be necessary for one-tenth of this
area. These quantities in Table II are for absolutely pure and
germinating seed, that is, for seed having a ‘“‘real value” of 100 per
cent. It is necessary to correct these weights according to the
“real value” of the seed being used. This is done by multiplying
the weight given in the table by 100 and dividing by the figure
giving the “‘real value”’ of the seed to be sown. If jin the above
example the Meadow Fescue seed has a “real value” of 90 per cent.,

ca. Xx] Seed-Mixtures 177

then the amount to sow will not be 3 pounds, but 3 x 100 divided
by 90 = about 3 pounds 5 ounces.

In Table II, column 7, will be found the weight of commercial
seed of average “real value” which is sufficient to sow one acre.

Taste IV. Types of Mixtures suitable for Permanent
Pasture or Meadow.
Good Light dry For sheep

heavy well- soils grazing on

Heavy drained ~—— ‘A——._ dry high-

Species wet soils soils Ist 2nd__ lying land

Percentage of area allotted
Italian Rye-grass... Te = 5 5 = oe
Perennial Rye-grass ... ie 10 10 — 10 —
Timothy wit wie ae 15 10 — —_— —_
Tall Oat-grass oe nee — 3 5 8 —
Golden Oat-grass_... ss — — 5 5 5
Cock’s-foot ... ee as 10 12 25 20 10
Meadow Foxtail — s — 10-5 10 —_— — —
Tall Fescue ... abe eis 10 _— 10 —_— —
Meadow Fescue ee a 10 7 _— 5 _
Rough-stalked Meadow-grass 10 10 — — —
Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass _ — 10 5 5
Crested Dog’s-tail ... dies — 5 5 — 10
Hard Fescue sais tee —_— 3 5 5 10
Fiorin ou wes oe 10 — —_ —_ _
Broad Red Clover... sa — — — — —
Perennial Red Clover as —_ 5 5 5 —_—
Alsike ae — sie 10 5 _— 3 —_
Wild White Clover ... .. 5-10 10 5 5 10-5
Kidney Vetch a 2 —_ — 10 5 10
Lucerne aie ae se — _ 5 5 —
Yarrow sist Hei ie —_ 5 5 4 5-10

Chicory aoe 2g sat — = a 5 =
Burnet Siete wah os — = — 10 10
Black Medick ... bs sik —_ —_ — — 10
Sainfoin ide sie ss — —_— _— — 10

In Tables III, IV, and V are given a few examples of mixtures
suitable for different purposes. The percentage of the total area
allotted to each species is given, and from this the actual weight
of seed to be sown can be readily calculated from Table II. It
must be clearly understood that these are given only as examples

A. 12

[PT I

Agricultural Section

178

‘sofoads yous 09 payqorye vere [e403 944 Jo oFequaored 94} OPBOIpPUL saINSY ou, “q°N

ee es = fe = — OL (Aqorva pli) suadas wnyofrsy,
= — as — OL — Ol a see “* paafruojojs sysop
as = =e oad = Or mae a7 ae wnyofoyru vapyoy
— —_ — — 0Z — —_ va “" WNyDLOpO UuNnYyjUDxoYyUp
rm, om — = ca OL —— sas nee wae nsonxayf Diy
—_ — — Ol — — GI ake ats oe auuasad wnyoT
= = OT 0% = 0% ST “ " snamgstto snunsoukig
= _ ey ms 0% am aA wisi sia Aer “* sumsowau “gf
ae or or OL OL OL Or i ‘ Vl susuaqoad “gq
06 06 06 Or 0G sae ST sii a a "suprise DOg
—_ Or Or ST Or OI Or a ip i DINIENUND “WT
06 06 06 ST Or 06 ST ees oc Dumuab “es psqns WT
Or Or Or Or = OL — one ak s1upbyna “rea Dunno “Wy
0g 0€ 06 OL a Or aad v pyofinua rea ume vonysay
‘queo sod = queo god «= “quoo god =~ -queo aad “quoo red ‘queo sad = “‘quaa aed sovodgy
4qsouly oul s[Mog. sTuUdy, 10 qusseid = sUOT}eN4Is sUOTyTPUOCD
WY Jo stuuey, yoxoug apeys pesod Azeurpio
suseis SulpMog yonw wey -x9 pue IOq
Jo sunyng Arp 10g
Kees ~—— J eae —-—— J
Jofx aqqeqymg SUMB Uepreyy

‘SUaaly pun sunvT sof saunjorpy-peag fo sadhy, “A WIV],

CH. Xx | Seed-Mixtures 179

of the kind of mixture most generally suitable for the purpose
mentioned. To prescribe the most useful mixture for any par-
ticular place or purpose it is necessary that all the special con-
ditions and requirements should be understood.

Table V gives mixtures which will generally be found service-
able for various types of lawns, etc. For ordinary garden lawns
some wild white clover may also be included if desired, but for
tennis, and other playing lawns the presence of clover is not
desirable. When forming lawns the soil should be thoroughly
cleaned, and the finest possible tilth secured. The seed-bed
should be perfectly level and very firm. The seed-rate should
be from twice to four times as heavy as that indicated for agri-
cultural purposes in Table II. The object is not to grow fully
developed plants, but to secure a dense pile of short hard-wearing
foliage, and this is obtained by thick sowing followed by constant
close cutting and rolling. Due attention must also be given to the
nourishment of the turf.

A suitable mixture for one year’s duration, for mowing or

grazing, is as follows: .
Millions of

Area germinating
Per cent. allowed lbs. seeds per acre
Italian Rye-grass... 20 (10-30) 6 14
Broad Red Clover ... 80 (90-70) 16 4
Total 100 (100) 22 5}

Such a mixture is generally suitable for soils of good or medium
quality. Both species are practically biennial and therefore give
their full yield the first season, i.e. if sown in the spring cereal
crop they give a full yield in the summer of the following year.
The proportions can be varied considerably as indicated by the
figures in brackets. On land which is liable to clover sickness the
Red Clover can be partly or wholly replaced by Alsike, or more
Italian Rye-grass can be sown. On poor, dry soils, Black Medick
can replace some of the Red Clover, and Perennial Rye-grass and
possibly Tall Oat-grass take the place of the Italian Rye-grass.

12—2

180 Agricultural Section [PT II

CHAPTER XI

THE GENERAL TREATMENT OF GRASS LAND, AND THE EFFECTS
OF VARIOUS FERTILISERS UPON THE DIFFERENT SPECIES

It seems desirable, in such a work as this, to make a few brief
observations on the general treatment of grass land.

Drainage. Before laying down land to permanent grass
drainage must be attended to if necessary. So long as the ground
is effectively drained, either by natural or artificial means, it is
rather an advantage for grass production that the soil should be
inclined to be moist. But for good grass there must be no possi-
bility of stagnant water remaining on or near the surface.

Seed-bed and Sowing of Seed. Land is best prepared for sow-
ing down with grass seeds either by (1) a bare fallow, or (2) a root
crop or potatoes. A clean seed-bed with fine tilth and a firm surface
are the important conditions to secure.

The equal distribution of the seed is another important matter.
This is best secured by using a low delivery seed barrow, or other
low delivery broadcast sowing-machine. Messrs James Hunter, Ltd.,
seed merchants, of Chester, recommend Turnbull’s Broadcast Sow-
ing Machine as being very suitable. With this machine one sowing
operation is said to be sufficient. Two sowing operations are
however preferable to one, and when this is practised the light
seeds can be sown in one direction and the heavy seeds (Timothy,
Clovers, etc.) at right angles to the first direction. Very light
harrows should be used to cover the seed, and the operations
should then be completed by rolling—twice by preference—with
a roller of moderate weight.

In dry districts, when the larger and stronger growing seeds
such as Clovers and Rye-grasses are sown they may be drilled at a
shallow depth with the coulters set very close.

Time of Sowing. Sufficient soil moisture and a suitable tem-
perature are required to give the seedlings a good start. These
conditions are obtained in England most frequently in April and

CH. XI} Sowing of Seeds 181

August, but sowing may be done at any time between March and
September when weather conditions are favourable. Sowings
made in May or June are very risky as a dry summer is almost
sure to be fatal to the seedlings either on a light or heavy soil.
Late summer or early autumn is generally the best time upon
heavy soil because such land can be got into a good condition
as regards tilth, etc. by previous summer cultivation. On lighter
soils a good tilth can be secured early enough in the spring.

Although young grass plants grow more rapidly when sown
alone, it is usually safer to sow a thin seeding of some annual
crop, generally a cereal, to protect the young grass and the soil
from the effects of drought. This “cover” or “nurse” crop
must be a thin one and the land should receive liberal manurial
treatment. A sowing of two bushels of oats per acre, the crop
to be cut green just after flowering, affords all the advantages of
a cover crop and also provides a return of useful fodder the same
year. Vetches or rape also serve as good “‘nurse”’ crops.

Immediate after-management. After harvesting the cover crop
the young grass may be thoroughly rolled with advantage. If a
cover crop has not been sown and the grass is well forward a little
light grazing may be done by cattle towards the end of the first
season. It is however better practice generally to cut the first
year’s crop. None of the plants should be allowed to form seed,
and at this stage every effort should be made to enrich the soil
and to cause the plants to spread. The importance of liberal
manurial treatment during the early years in the life of a pasture
cannot be over-emphasized. This early attention will be amply
repaid by the more rapid formation of a thick turf.

General after-management.

In this connection it is advisable to distinguish more clearly
between pasture and meadow land. By meadow land should be
understood land from which hay crops are taken each year, and
grazing only practised on the aftermath. The term is however
very loosely used for grass land whether reserved for hay every
season or only occasionally. By the best practical farmers it is
generally considered best to reserve some fields for mowing
annually, while others are continuously grazed. The practice of
grazing and mowing in alternate seasons is not a sound one and

182 Agricultural Section [PT 1

is usually carried out only on land of moderate quality. The
richest grazings soon fall in value under this treatment.

Meadows. The exhaustive effect on the soil caused by the
annual removal of hay crops is very great. An average hay crop
of 30 cwt. per acre removes as much nitrogen, almost as much
phosphoric acid, and nearly twice as much potash as an average
crop of wheat or barley. Moreover, in the case of a permanent
meadow the soil does not get the advantages of exposure to the
weather as does ploughed land. Further, constant mowing
generally greatly diminishes the proportion of white clover pre-
sent, and thus the main source of the natural nitrogen supply to
grass land is cut off. The annual loss to the soil by the removal
of hay must therefore as far as possible be made good by the direct
application of manures, and the use of feeding-stuffs to animals
grazing the aftermath.

The common practice of allowing the hay crop to become
quite ripe, or even over-ripe, before cutting is a very harmful
one. A large proportion of the plants produce seed with the
result that they are greatly weakened, and the growth of the
valuable aftermath very materially reduced. It is erroneously
supposed that the crop continues to increase in weight until the
plants are quite mature, and that cutting in the second or third
week in July will give a more valuable return than is attained by
taking the crop in June. Even if the crop is slightly heavier, it
is at the expense of the aftermath, and the produce is certainly
less digestible than the less mature crop would be. As Wolff
points out in his work on Farm Foods, page 149: ‘‘Hay rich in
nitrogen and lacking in fibre is clearly the best and most digestible,
while that poor in nitrogen and rich in fibre has the least feeding
value.” From the time of flowering onwards a marked increase
in the proportion of crude fibre takes place, while at the same time
the percentage of protein and amides (nitrogenous substances)
decreases very considerably. It follows therefore that the right
time for cutting is just when the bulk of the plants are flowering
or immediately afterwards!.

The practice of chain-harrowing to pull out moss and spread
loose soil, ete., and also that of thoroughly rolling in the spring

1 See Bibliography, No. 5.

CH. XI] Meadows and Pastures 183

are to be recommended. The operations of cultivation are so
much limited in the case of permanent grass land that the fore-
going should never be neglected.

Pastures. The art of the grazier is one which is only mastered
by much experience. It is generally found that mixed grazing, °
i.e. putting two or more kinds of stock on the same ground to-
gether serves to keep the turf more evenly eaten off than when
bullocks or sheep are used alone. This remark however only
applies to good grazing land; upon poorer land the grass may only
be able to carry sheep. If strong and coarse growing plants tend
to predominate, e.g. Cock’s-foot, it is advisable to stock rather
heavily during the early part of the season. It is a point with
good graziers to keep the grasses well eaten down until the end of
June, after which little fear of seeding need be entertained. It
is also a good plan, based upon long practical experience, to keep
store cattle on the inferior or only moderately good pastures, and
as the animals become ready to fatten off to move them on to
better grazing land. When animals become heavy and less active
an abundance of food ready at hand is necessary to finish them
off rapidly and economically. Oilcake and other feeding stuffs
are generally more freely given at this stage than at any other.
Although the above is undoubtedly sound practice tt 1s much more
exhaustive to the poorer grazings than to the better ones. It should
always be remembered that young growing animals and breeding
stock make far larger demands upon the soil for nitrogen, phos-
phoric acid, lime, etc. than do more mature and fattening animals.
The latter make comparatively small demands upon the soil since
their increase in weight consists largely of fat. Good grazing land
on which animals are fattened with the assistance of cake, etc.
will easily maintain its quality under judicious grazing alone.

It is the poorer land and that which carries young stock con-
tinuously which stands most in need of the direct application of
manures. Generally the use of phosphatic manures proves the
most effective and economical since clovers are favoured and the
spread of these leads to a large addition of nitrogen to the soil.
Soils which are heavy and damp generally respond well to basic
slag only. Lighter and drier land, if containing sufficient free
lime, is better dressed with superphosphate and potash, and

184 Agricultural Section [Pr II

afterwards the improvement effected can be most economically
maintained by the moderate use of feeding cakes, etc.

No further general rules for manuring can be usefully given
here. The local and special conditions to be met must be duly
considered in each case.

The Effects of Manures! upon the different grasses. While a
considerable amount of information has been obtained with
regard to the general effects of the various common fertilisers
upon the composition of the turf of pastures and meadows, our
knowledge of the precise action of each upon the different species
is very small. Only in a few experiments—notably those at
Rothamsted—has any serious attempt been made to discover
which grasses tend to increase or decrease under any definite kind
of manurial treatment. Although these few experiments are of
great value, we must be careful not to generalise from them too
much since the composition of the original turf will greatly modify
the ultimate effect of manures. For in speaking of the effect of
any special fertiliser we must bear in mind that this is to a large
extent dependent upon the particular association of plants composing
the turf.

With different associations of plants (and on different soils)
rather different results or.effects will be produced by the same
kind of manuring. It is the finely adjusted “balance of equi-
librium” in the natural struggle for existence which is upset by
any particular manurial treatment.

Bearing these precautions in mind we may briefly consider
what is known about the effects of fertilisers on (1) the vegetation
as a whole, and on (2) the more common grasses individually.

Numerous experiments have shown that one of the general
effects of manuring (or otherwise improving the soil) is to reduce
the number of species present, or at least to cause a few kinds to
become predominant. This is especially noticeable on the more
inferior kinds of soil where a relatively large number of species
make an almost equal contribution to the annual crop. At
Rothamsted on the permanently unmanured hay plots the number
of species present was about fifty, while on some of the manured
plots this number fell to twenty or even less. The same fact

1 See also Bibliography, Nos. 6, 11, 12, 16 and 27.

CH. XT] Effects of Manures 185

is almost constantly borne out by a comparison of the turf of
inferior pastures with that from better class pastures in a given
district.

While this reduction of species is chiefly due to the disappear-
ance of weeds belonging to a number of widely separated Natural
Orders, it is also found that the number of grasses frequently
becomes reduced. Crested Dog’s-tail, Golden Oat-grass, Sweet
Vernal-grass, and perhaps to a less extent Hard Fescue and
Fiorin are often materially reduced as regards number of indivi-
duals, or even die out altogether when land is highly manured.
This is not because manures are of no benefit to these plants,
for if grown separately they respond readily to them. It is usually
because more vigorous species present respond to such an extent
that the above named plants are largely elbowed out of existence.
It is however necessary to speak more precisely as to the effects
of the various kinds of fertilisers.

The general effect of Nitrogenous manures upon grasses is to
favour luxuriant and continuous growth. If applied in excess the
vegetative organs are especially developed and the ordinary pro-
cesses of maturation are delayed until late in the season. The
very dark green colour of the foliage is characteristic of plants
receiving excess of nitrogen in proportion to other plant food
materials. Leguminous plants are much less favoured than
grasses and thus tend to die out.

The use of Sulphate of Ammonia or of Ammonium Chloride
alone usually tends to reduce the number of species composing
a turf very considerably, and this reduction appears to be shared
by plants belonging to all the Natural Orders commonly repre-
sented. Usually two or three kinds of grasses are greatly stimu-
lated and caused to predominate. The following grasses appear
to be specially favoured by salts of ammonia: Cock’s-foot, Timothy,
Meadow Foxtail, Tall Oat-grass, Sweet Vernal-grass, Sheep’s
Fescue and its varieties, Fiorin and Yorkshire Fog.

Nitrogen in the form of nitrate (Nitrate of Soda, etc.) generally
favours a larger number of species than salts of ammonia, and the
herbage therefore remains more mixed in character, even when
the nitrate is continuously applied. This appears to be at least
partly due to its being more readily available to plants whether

186 Agricultural Section [pr

deep or shallow rooted. In other respects its action is similar to
that of ammonium salts.

The grasses especially favoured by nitrate of soda are: Rough-
stalked Meadow-grass, Meadow Foxtail, Fiorin, Cock’s-foot,
Timothy, Tall Fescue, Meadow Fescue, Rye-grasses and Tall
Oat-grass.

Phosphates alone. As is well known, the application of phos-
phates alone usually leads to a great stimulation of the leguminous
plants present, and brings about a corresponding reduction in
the proportion of the gramineous herbage at least for a time.

This is the usual result of using superphosphate alone, and even
to a greater degree when basic slag—which contains free lime—
is employed. As the result however of the increased nitrogen
supply to the soil, the better grasses are gradually enabled to
take the place of inferior sorts, and thus a general improvement
of the herbage follows.

The general effect upon grasses of the use of phosphates alone
is to produce a more dwarf and stemmy growth, favouring early
maturation and promoting seed production.

The general action of Potash manures alone is also similar,
ie. early maturation is favoured.

The effect of lime is generally most marked upon the legu-
minous herbage, which it stimulates. It possibly also tends to
reduce such plants as Fiorin, Tussock-grass, etc.

The general effect of mixed mineral manures alone (phosphates
and potash) is to greatly favour stem and seed production, and to
lead to premature ripening. Leguminous plants are much more
favoured than are the grasses.

The use of ammonium salts in addition to phosphates and
potash if well proportioned leads to a greatly increased yield with
normal maturation. The following appear to be favoured by
such manuring: Timothy, Cock’s-foot, Foxtail, Tall Oat-grass,
Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass, Fiorin, and Sheep’s Fescue.

If the ammonium salts are in excess the stronger grasses are
particularly favoured and become very coarse.

The following are especially promoted by the use of Nitrate of
Soda with phosphates and potash ; Rough-stalked Meadow-grass,

CH. XI] Effects of Manures 187

Foxtail, Cock’s-foot, Rye-grasses, Meadow Fescue, and Timothy.
At Rothamsted Soft Brome and Yorkshire Fog were also greatly
encouraged, but this was on land mown every year.

Farmyard manure generally encourages the growth of the more
vigorous grasses such as Cock’s-foot, Rough-stalked Meadow-
grass, Foxtail, Tall Oat-grass, Meadow Fescue and Rye-grasses.
Leguminous plants are usually reduced.

It is unfortunately impossible to give any fuller reliable infor-
mation regarding the precise effects of fertilisers upon the different
species, and our knowledge must remain incomplete on these points
until definite researches have been carried out.

188

APPENDIX

CONTAINING A LIST OF LOCAL, RARE, OR INTRODUCED FOREIGN
GRASSES NOT OTHERWISE DESCRIBED IN THIS VOLUME

Aira alpina, L. An alpine dwarf variety of A. cespitosa common
on the higher mountains of Scotland. The panicles usually pass more
or less into the viviparous state.

Alopecurus alpinus, 8m. Occurs in the Highlands of Scotland.
Perennial. The spike-like panicle is seldom more than an inch long, ovoid
in form, and silky. The awn is shorter than that of Alopecurus pratensis.

A. bulbosus, Sm. A variety of A. geniculatus in which the lowermost
nodes of the culms are enlarged and bulb-like. It is mostly found on
wet salt marshes around the coasts.

A. fuluus,Sm. Another slight variety of A. geniculatus with a shorter
awn which does not project beyond the tips of the empty glumes. Rare.

Bromus madritensis, L. A rare annual; 6—12 inches high; waste
places. Panicle erect. Upper empty glume three-ribbed. Awn equal
in length to the palee.

B. maximus, Desf. Occurs in Jersey. An annual, closely allied
to B. sterilts but with a more erect and compact panicle. Rachis
pubescent. Spikelets about 8-flowered, and from 24 to 3% inches in
length including the awns. Awns longer than the palee.

Echinochloa Crus-galii, Beauv. Cockspur Panic-grass.

A course annual, growing from one to two feet high, with broad
leaves. Ligule wanting. Panicle about five inches long, irregular, and
one-sided. Spikelets clustered, two-flowered. Empty glumes very un-
equal. Lower flower rudimentary or barren.

Occasionally a weed of cultivation in England.

Festuca uniglumis, Soland. A tufted annual with inrolled leaves,
growing from six to twelve inches high. Inflorescence racemed, about
two inches long. Spikelets on short simple branches, 5—6-flowered.
Lower empty glume obsolete, the upper glume long, narrow, and pointed.
The outer palea terminates in an awn which is longer than the palea
itself. Scattered around the coasts of England and Ireland.

Gastridium lendigerum, Beauv. Nit-grass. An annual, 6—12
inches high. Panicle close, spike-like, pale green. Spikelets crowded,
one-flowered. Awn sub-terminal (sometimes absent) and longer than

Appendix 189

the pale. Abundant in the Mediterranean region. Occasionally
found in moist waste places in the south of Britain.

Mierochloé borealis, Sm. Holy-grass.

A creeping perennial grass with flat leaves. In Britain has only
been met with in Caithness and Forfarshire, and is a very doubtful
native species.

Lagurus ovatus, L. Hare’s-tail. An erect annual, 6 inches to a
foot high. Sheaths inflated. Sheaths and blades softly downy.
Panicle dense, ovoid, about an inch long. Spikelets crowded, one-
flowered. Empty glumes equal, taper-pointed, hairy. Outer palea
terminating in two long bristle-like points and bearing a very long,
fine, dorsal awn. Occasionally found on our coasts (Suffolk).

Leersia oryzoides, Sw.

Flowering culms about two feet high; panicle loose; spikelets one-
flowered and compressed. Occurs in. wet places in Hampshire, Sussex,
and Surrey.

Lepturus incurvatus, Trin.

A decumbent annual, about six inches high and bent at the nodes.
Inflorescence a curved spike, from two to four inches long. Spikelets
one-flowered, in two alternate rows, and very closely inserted in a kind
of notch against the rachis. When ripe the latter breaks up at each
joint. Generally scattered around the sea-coasts of Britain.

Mibora verna, Adans.

A tufted annual, seldom more than three inches high. Inflorescence
a raceme, unilateral, and about half an inch long. Spikelets sub-
sessile, one-flowered. Outer palea very hairy and shorter than the
empty glumes. Found in Anglesea and the Channel Islands.

Panicum, L. General characters of the genus:

Spikelets in either loose or spike-like panicles, one to two-flowered.
Three empty glumes present, the first (or lowermost) usually smaller
than the others. The third or uppermost glume often encloses a male
flower. The palez are indurated, awnless or very shortly awned.

Panicum Crus-galli, L., see Echinochloa, p. 188.

Panicum glabrum, Gaud. Glabrous Finger-grass.

An annual, from six inches to a foot high. Sheaths glabrous.
Spike-like branches of the panicle from two to four in number. The
two uppermost empty glumes equal in size. An introduced weed in
the south of England.

Panicum sanguinale, L. Hairy Finger-grass. An annual, from one
to two feet high, with more or less hairy sheaths. The inflorescence

190 Appendix

consists of from two to six (or more) simple, one-sided, digitate branches.
Glumes very unequal.

Very common in all tropical and warm countries. It occurs as an
introduced weed of cultivation in the southern counties of England.

Phleum asperum, Sm. Rough Cat’s-tail Grass.

An annual growing from 6—18 inches high. Rare in Britain.
It is distinguished from the other British species by its wedge-shaped
empty glumes which are rough along the keels—but not hairy.

Phleum Behmeri, Schrad.

A perennial, very similar to P. pratense, but smaller. The glumesare not
awned but simply pointed, and the hairs are confined to the upper
half of the keels. The inner margins of the glumes are not fringed with
hairs.

Sometimes met with in the eastern counties of England. Rare.

Poa laxa, Henke. Wavy Poa.

A slightly creeping perennial, 6—12 inches high, closely allied to
Poaalpina. Panicleloose. Spikelets few, on spreading branches, oblong-
ovate, 3—4-flowered. A native of high elevations in northern latitudes.

In Britain it is only known to occur on Ben Nevis, where it is
generally in a viviparous state.

Poa loliacea, Huds. A small annual about four to six inches high.
Panicle reduced almost to a simple spike of spikelets. Spikelets 6—10-
flowered, the flowers without a “web.”

Empty glumes acute and without lateral ribs. The outer palea
five-ribbed, the marginal ribs broad. Scattered around the coasts of
Britain on rocks and sands.

Pou procumbens, Curt.

A tufted annual, with decumbent stems six to twelve inches long.
Panicle secund. Spikelets 3—5-flowered. Empty glumes each with
three prominent nerves. The outer palea five-nerved. Flowers with-
out a “web.” The whole plant glaucous.

Waste places on our sea-coasts. Rare.

Polypogon, Desf. Beard-grass. General characters of the genus:

Spikelets one-flowered, crowded in a contracted and often interrupted
panicle. Empty glumes each ending in a fine straight awn. Outer
palea awned.

Polypogon littoralis, Sm, Perennial Beard-grass.

A procumbent perennial growing from six to twelve inches high.
Panicle moderately close. Empty glumes equal, hairy, strongly
toothed on their keels, and each bearing an awn about as long as the

Appendix 191

glume itself. Awn of the outer palea sub-terminal and variable in
length.

It occurs in salt marshes on the south and east coasts of England.

Polypogon monspeliensis, Desf. Annual Beard-grass.

An annual growing from twelve to eighteen inches high. Panicle
erect, dense, interrupted and silky; about two inches long. Empty
glumes hairy, strongly toothed on the lower half of their keels, and
each bearing an awn more than twice as long as the glumes. Outer
palea bearing a short awn.

Common in the Mediterranean region. Rare in Britain. Occa-
sionally found as an introduced plant in the south of England.

Setaria, Beauv. Bristle-grass.

General characters of the genus:

Spikelets 1—2-flowered, ovate, in a close, cylindrical or bushy panicle.
Empty glumes awnless, the lowermost one short. Pale blunt, becoming
hard and shining or transversely wrinkled when the grain ripens. Invo-
lucral bristles rough, and generally projecting beyond the spikelets.

Setaria glauca, Beauv. Glaucous Bristle-grass.

Anerect annual, with a panicle from 1 to 14 inches long, and numerous
bristles under each spikelet. Bristles rough with minute erect teeth. The
outer palea marked with numerous strong transverse wrinkles when ripe.

Abundant as a weed of cultivation in most warm countries, and
occasionally introduced into Britain.

Setaria verticillata, Beauv. Reflex Bristle-grass.

An erect annual, one to two feet high. It is readily distinguished
from S. glauca and S. viridis by the reflexed teeth on the bristles. Some-
times met with as a weed of cultivation in England.

Setaria viridis, Beauv. Green Bristle-grass.

Very similar to S. glauca but with only 2—3 bristles under each spikelet.
The transverse wrinkles on the outer palea are also wuch less distinct.
Introduced into Britain and appears to be established in some parts.

Spartina stricta, Sm. Cord-grass.

A stiff erect perennial with creeping rhizomes. Leaves erect,
mostly inrolled. Culms from one to two feet high. The inflorescence
consists of from two to four spike-like branches each three or four
inches long. Spikelets one-flowered, compressed, erect, awnless, and
sessile ; situated on one side of the spike-like branches. Empty glumes
very unequal, hairy. The inner palea is longer than the outer one.

Found on some of the salt marshes on the south and east coasts of
England.

192

17.

18.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armstronc, 8. F. The Botanical and Chemical Composition of the
Herbage of Pastures and Meadows. Journal of Agric. Science, Vol. 1,
1907, p. 283.

Seed Analyses: Their Interpretation and Use. Journal Board of
Agric., Vol. xrx, 1913, p. 827.

BentoamM and Hooxer. British Flora. London, 1896.

CaRRUTHERS, Wu. The Composition of some of the Famous Pastures of
England. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng. Ser. 3. Vol. 1, 1890.

CrowTHER, C. and Ruston, A.G. The Influence of Time of Cutting upon
the Yield and Composition of Hay. Journal of Agric. Science. Vol. Iv,
1911-12, p. 305.

The Influence on Crop and Soil of Manures applied to Permanent
Meadow. Journal of Agric. Science. Vol. vi, 1915-16, p. 197.

De Launsz, C. pe L. F. On Laying down Land to Permanent Grass.
Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng. Ser. 2. Vol. xv, 1882, pp. 229, 604.
ExtioT, R. H. The Clifton Park System of Farming. London, 1908.
Fream, W. The Herbage of Old Grass Lands. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc.

Eng. Ser. 2. Vol. xxiv, 1888.

Hackxet, Epuarp. The True Grasses. English Translation by
F. Lamson-Scribner and Effie A. Southworth. A. Constable and Co.,
Westminster, 1896.

Hatt, A.D. The Book of the Rothamsted Experiments. London, 1905.

—— The Manuring of Grass Lands. Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. Eng.
Vol. Lxtv, 1903, p. 76.

Har, A. D. and Russuiy, E. J. On the Causes of the High Nutritive
Value and Fertility of the Fatting Pastures of Romney Marsh and other
Marshes in the S.E. of England. Journal of Agric. Science. Vol. Iv,
1911-12, p. 339.

Lamson-ScriBNER. American Grasses. 3 vols. (illustrated). Washing-
ton, 1901.

Lowsz. A Natural History of British Grasses. London, 1891.

Mipputeton, T. H. The Improvement of Poor Pastures. Journal of
Agric. Science, Vol. 1, 1905, p. 122.

The Formation of Permanent Pastures. Journal Board of Agric.,
Vol. xu, 1905, pp. 385 and 449.

PamMe.., L. H. The Grasses of Iowa. 2 vols. 1901 and 1904. Iowa.

19.
20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.
26.

27.

28.

29.

30.
31.
32.
33.
34,
35.

Bibliography 193

Parkinson and Smite. Impurities of Agricultural Seed. Headley
Brothers, Bishopsgate, E.C.

PaRneLL. British Grasses. London, 1845.

Sinctarr. Hortus gramineus Woburnensis. London, 1824.

Smitru, Wm. G. and’ Crampton, C. B. Grassland in Britain. Journal
of Agric. Science. Vol. tv, 1911-12, p. 1.

SomERVILLE, W. Influence on the Production of Mutton of Manures
applied to Pasture. Journal Board of Agric. Vol. xvu, 1911. Sup-
plement.

Accumulated Fertility in Grass Land in consequence of Phosphatic
Manuring. Journal Board of Agric. Vol. xx1, 1914, p. 481.

Sowrrsy’s English Botany, 1872. Vol. xt.

SrapLepon, R. G. Pasture Problems: Drought Resistance. Journal of
Agric. Science. Vol. v, 1912-13, p. 129.

Pasture Problems: The Response of Individual Species under
Manures. Journal of Agric. Science. Vol. v1, 1914, p. 499.

SrapLtepon, R. G. and Jenkin, T. J. Pasture Problems: Indigenous
Plants in relation to Habitat and Sown Species. Journal of Agric.
Science. Vol. vu, 1916, p. 26.

StapLepon, R. G. Grass Land and Ploughed Land. Journal Board of
Agric. Vol. xxtv, 1917. Supplement.

SreBLer and Scuréter. The Best Forage Plants. London, 1889.

Surron. Permanent and Temporary Pastures. London, 1902.

TansLey, A. G. Types of British Vegetation. Camb. Univ. Press, 1911.

Turner, F. Australian Grasses. Sydney, 1895.

Warp, H. M. Grasses. Camb. Univ. Press, 1901.

Winton. The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods. New York, 1906.

13

194

INDEX
LIST OF SYNONYMS AND GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Absolute weight of seeds, 165, 174
Acuminate—taper-pointed
Acute—sharply pointed
Adaptations, 14, 21, 22
Adulterants, 163
Adventitious roots, 1 (Figs. 22, 23)
Agricultural Uses, 133—162
Agropyrum—Wheat-grass
caninum, 54 (Figs. 28, 30)
junceum, 54
repens, 51 (Figs. 27, 29)
Agrostis—Bent-grass, 54
alba, 54, 56
canina, 56 (Fig. 36)
palustris (Fig. 31)
repens, 54 (Fig. 33)
setacea, 56
Spica-venti, 56 (Fig. 37)
stolonifera, 54, 134, (Figs. 32, 34)
vulgaris, 56 (Figs. 32, 35)
Aira—Hair-grass
alpina, 188
cespitosa, 56 (Figs. 10, 38, 39, 40)
canescens, 58
caryophyllea, 59 (Figs. 42, 43)
flexuosa, 57, 140 (Figs. 41, 42)
preecox, 59
Air-spaces, 8
Alopecurus—Foxtail-grass
agrestis, 61 (Figs. 46, 47, 48)
alpinus, 188
bulbosus, 188
fulvus, 188
geniculatus, 61 (Figs. 49, 50)
pratensis, 59, 135 (Figs. 9, 44, 45,
46, 150)
Alpine Meadow-grass—Poa alpina, 122
Ammophila arundinacea =Psamma are-
naria
Animal distribution of seeds, 22
Annual Meadow-grass—Poa annua, 122
Anthoxanthum—Vernal-grass
odoratum, 61, 138 (Figs. 51, 52)
Puelii, 63, 139
Apera digo = Agrostis Spica-venti
Aquatic gragses, 25 (Figs. 90, 110)
Arrhenatherum—False Oat-grass
avenaceum, 63, 140 (Figs. 53, 55)
var. bulbosum, 14] (Fig. 54)
Arundo Phragmites, 66 (Fig. 56)

Auricles—ear-like projections at the
base of the leaf-blade, 10 (Fig. 13)
Avena—Oat-grass, 68
elatior = Arrhenatherum avenaceum
fatua, 73 (Figs. 60, 62)
flavescens, 68, 139 (Figs. 57, 58)
nuda (Figs. 14, 15)
pratensis, 70 (Figs. 59, 61)
pubescens, 72
strigosa, 74
Awn, a bristle-like appendage or exten-
sion of the palex, etc.; in cereals
known as the “beard,” 14, 38
Awned seeds, 39
Awnless Brome—Bromus i inermis, 141
Awnless seeds, 46
Awn-point, 38 (Figs. 88, 107)
Axil—the upper angle formed at the
insertion of a leaf, branch, etc., 2
Axis—the central line of any body ;
the central part supporting a
series of branches, etc., 14, 15,
16 (Fig. 17)

Barley—see Hordeum
Barren-Brome—Bromus sterilis, 82
Barren flowers, 65, 107 (Figs. 114, 116)
Basal-awn, 38, 44 (Figs. 40, 41)
Bearded Darnel—Lolium temulentum
Bearded Wheat-grass—Agropyrum cani-
num
Bent-grass—Agrostis sps. 54~56
Biology, 18-22
Blade of leaf, 6-11
Blue Moor-grass—Sesleria cwrulea
Bowling greens, 178
Brachypodium—False Brome
pinnatum, 76 (Fig. 64)
sylvaticum, 74 (Figs. 63, 66)
Bracteoles, 14
Bracts, 14
Branching, ee
Bristle-like leaves, 33, 34
Bristle Oat—Avena strigosa
Briza—Quaking-grass
media, 77 (Figs. 65, 69)
minor, 78
Bromus—Brome-grass, 79-89
arvensis, 79 (Figs. 67, 68)
asper, 85 (Figs. 77, 78)

Index

Bromus (contd.)
erectus, 84 (Figs. 75, 76)
giganteus, 85 (Figs. 79, 80)
tnermis, 87, 141 (Figs. 81, 82)
madritensis, 188
maximus, 188
mollis, 81 (Figs. 71, 72)
racemosus, 82
Schraderi, 88, 142 (Fig. 83)
secalinus, 80 (Figs. 70, 70a)
sterilis, 82 (Figs. 73, 74)
unioloides = B. Sthraderi
Brown Bent—Agrostis canina, 56
Bushel weight of seeds, 165, 175

Calamagrostis—Small-reed
Epigeios, 89 (Fig. 84)
lanceolata, 90 (Fig. 84)
stricta, 99
Canadian Blue-grass, 123, 160
Canary-grass—Phalaris canariensis
Caryopsis—the seed-like fruit of a grass
(grain) in which the thin pericarp
is fused to the sced, 18 (Figs.
20, 21)
Catabrosa aquatica, 90
Cat’s-ear, 152 (Fig. 169)
Cat’s-tail grass—Phleum
Cecidomyia tritici, 137
Chalk species, 24
Chewing’s Fescne, 151
Chlorophyll, 21
Ciliate—with a fringe of hairs
Circular shoot sections, 5, 30-32 (Fig. 7)
Classification according to floral cha-
racters, 34-38
Classification based on
characters, 28-34
Classification of grass “seeds,” 38-50
Cleistogamous—term applied when pol-
lination and fertilisation occur
before the flowers open, 22
Cnicus arvensis (Fig. 165)
Cock’s-foot—Dactylis glomerata, 145
Coleorhiza—sheath surrounding _ the
radicle of the embryo (Figs.
20, 22)
Coloured sheaths, 6
Comparative cost of seeds, 166
Compressed shoots, 5, 6, 30 (Fig. 6)
Conduplicate—folded, 5, 6 (Fig. 6)
Convolute—rolled up, 5, 6 (Fig. 7)
Cotyledon, 18
Couch-grass—A gropyrum repens, 51
Creeping Buttercup (Fig. 155)
Creeping Fescue—Festuca rubra genwina
Creeping grasses, 2-4, 134 ;
Creeping Soft-grass—Holcus mollis, 108
Creeping Thistle (Fig. 165)
Crepis virens (Fig. 159)

vegetative

195

Crested Dog’s-tail—Cynosurus cristatus
Cross-fertilisation, 22
Cross-pollination, 22
Culng, 2-4 (Figs. 2-4)
Curled Dock (Fig. 151)
Cylindrical inflorescence, 35 (Fig. 46)
Cylindrical shoot, 6 (Fig. 7)
Cynodon Dactylon, 90
Cynosurus—Dog’s-tail
cristatus, 90, 142 (Figs. 85, 86, 157)
echinatus, 93

Dactylis glomerata, 93, 145 (Figs. 87-89)

Darnel—Lolium temulentum, 116

Deschampsia cespitosa= Aira cespitosa

Deschampsia flecuosa = Aira flexuosa

Development of the turf, 170, 171, 181

Digitaria humifusa =Panicum glabrum

Digitaria pee ragiene sangui-
nale

Digraphis arundinacea, 95 (Figs. 90, 92)

Disarticulation of “seeds,” 16 (Fig. 19)

Dissemination, 22

Distichous—in two opposite ranks on
the axis

Distribution of grasses, 23-28

Distribution of seeds, 22

Dorsal awn, 39, 42-44 (Figs. 55, 58)

Downy Oat-grass—A vena pubescens, 72

Dry soils, 24, 172, 177

Early Hair-grass—Aira precox, 59
Echinochloa Crus-galli=Panicum Crus-
galli, L., 188
Effect of manures on herbage, 184-187
Elymus arenarius, 97 (Figs. 91, 93)
Embryo, 18 (Fig. 20)
Empty glumes, 14 (Fig. 18
Endosperm, 18 (Figs. 20,
Entire sheath, 5 (Fig. 6)
Epithelial layer, 20 (Fig. 20)
Ergot, 148
Extra-vaginal shoots, 3 (Fig. 5)

1, 24, 25)

False Oat—Arrhenatherum avenaceum
Fertilisation—the union of the nucleus
of the pollen-tube with that of
the egg-cell, 22
Festuca—Fescue Grasses, 99-104
arundinacea, 99, 147
duriuscula, 102, 150 (Figs. 105, 106)
elatior, 99, 147 (Figs. 94, 95)
gigantea, 100
heterophylla, 103, 151
littoralis, 148
loliacea, 100
Myurus, 100 (Figs. 98, 99)
ovina, 101, 150 (Figs. 100, 102)
pratensis, 100, 148 (Figs. 96, 97).
rigida = Poa rigida

196

Festuca (contd.)
rubra, 102
var. fallax, 103, 151 (Fig. 108)
var. genuina, 102, 108, 151 (Figs.
96, 104, 107)
sylvatica, 104 (Fig. 109)
tenuifolia, 102, 150 (Figs. 101, 103)
uniglumis, 188
Fibrous roots, 1, 2 (Fig. 1)
Field Brome—Bromus arvensis, 79
Fine Bent—Agrostis vulgaris, 56
Fiorin—Agrostis alba, 54
Flat-stemmed Meadow-grass—Poa com-
pressa, 123
Floating Foxtail—Alopecurus genicu-
latus, 61
Floating Sweet-grass, Glyceria fluitans
Floral characters, 12-15, 34-38
Floral diagram (Fig. 17)
Floral organs, 12-14 (Fig. 16)
Flower, 12, 13 (Fig. 16)
Flowering glume—the outer palea
Flowering stem, 2~4 (Figs. 2-4, 157)
Flying Bent—Molinia cerulea, 118
Forget-me-not (Fig. 171)
Forms of inflorescence, 14, 34
Forms of leaf-blades (Fig. 12)
Foxtail grass—Alopecurus
Fromental, 141
Fruits of grasses, 16-18 (Figs. 20, 21)
Functions of awns, 22
Functions of leayes, 21

Garden lawns, 178, 179
Gastridium lendigerum, 188
Genuineness of grass seeds, 163
Germination, 18, 164, 175
Germination energy, 165
Germination of maize (Figs. 22, 23)
Germ-sheath, 20 (Fig. 20)
Giant Fescue—Festuca gigantea, 100
Girders, 7, 8 (Figs. 8, 9)
Glabrous—free from hairs
Glaucous—of a grey-green hue, usually
due to a waxy bloom
Glumes, 14 (Fig. 18)

Glyceria—Sweet-grass
aquatica, 104, 152 (Figs. 90, 110,
111)

fluitans, 105 (Figs. 110, 112)
Grain, 16-18 (Figs. 20, 21)
Grazing, 183
Grey Hair-grass—Aira canescens, 58

Habitats, 23-28

Hair-grass—Aira, 56-59

Halophytes, 23

Hard Fescue—Vlestuca duriuscula, 150
Hare’s-tail—Lagurus ovatus, 189

Hay, 182

Index

Heath False-Brome—Brachypodium
pinnatum, 76
Heath-grass—Triodia decumbens, 132
Heath-grasses, 25
Hieracium Pilosella (Fig. 173)
Hierochloé borealis, 189
Hispid—covered with long stiff. hairs
Helecus—Soft-grass
lanatus, 106 (Figs. 113, 114)
mollis, 108 (Figs. 115, 116)
Holy-grass—Hierochloé, 189
Hordeum—Barley, 109
maritimum, 111
murinum, 109 (Figs. 117, 118)
pratense, 111 (Fig. 117)
sylvaticum, 112
Hungarian Forage Grass, 87, 141
Hydrophytes, 23, 25

Impurities of Grass-seeds, 163 (see also
under each species in Chapter
VITI)

Inflorescence, 12-15, 34-38

Internode, 2

Intra-vaginal shoots, 2

Involute—rolled inwards

Italian Rye-grass—Lolium italicum,
155

Keeled—having a ridge on the back
like the keel of a boat

Keel of sheath, 5 (Fig. 6)

Kentucky Blue-grass, 160

Key to Seeds, 38-49

Kneed awns (Figs. 52, 55 and 58)

Kneed stems (Fig. 49)

Keleria cristata, 112 (Figs. 119, 120)

Lagurus ovatus—Hare’s-tail, 189

Lamina—the leaf-blade

Lanceolate—narrow and tapering at
both ends

Lapsana communis (Fig. 163)

Lawn-mixtures, 178

Lawns, 179

Lax—loose, the spikelets distinctly
separated

Leaf-blade—Lamina, 6-11

Leaf characters, 6-11, 28-34

Leaf-sections (Figs. 8-11)

Leaf-sheath, 4-6

Leaves, 4, 21 (Fig. 12)

Leersia oryzoides, 189

Leguminose, 169, 185, 186

Lepturus incurvatus, 189

Leys, 176, 179

Ligule, 10 (Fig. 13)

Limestone grasses, 24

Linear—many times longer than broad,
with parallel sides

Index

Linear-acuminate—linear, but tapering
to a long point at the apex
Linear-acute—linear, but pointed at
the apex
Linear-lanceolate—linear, but tapering
at both ends
Lodicules, 13, 14, 22 (Fig. 16)
Lolium—Rye-grass
italicum, 115, 155 (Figs. 121, 122, 124)
perenne, 113, 152 (Fig. 121-123)
temulentum, 116 (Figs. 121, 125)
woldicum, 115, 156
Luzula campestris (Fig. 175)
Lyme-grass—Elymus, 97

Maize (Figs. 22 and 23)

Manuring of grass, 184-187

Maritime grasses, 24 (Figs. 91, 146)

Marram-grass—Psamma, 129

Marsh-Bent—A grostis palustris, 55

Marsh-grasses, 25

Mat-grass—Psamma arenaria, 129

Meadow Barley—Hordeum pratense, 111

Meadow Fescue—Festuca pratensis, 148

Meadow Foxtail—Alopecurus pratensis

Meadows, 27, 182

Mechanical tissues—tissues composed of
thick-walled cells and supporting
weaker tissues

Melica—Melick

nutans, 116 (Figs. 126, 127)
uniflora, 118 (Fig. 127)

Mesophytes—plants adapted to ordinary
conditions as regards moisture

Mibora verna, 189

Midge-Fly, 137

Milium effusum—Millet-grass, 118 (Fig.
129)

Mixtures of seeds, 168-179

Moist soils, 24, 25, 172, 177

Molinia cerulea, 118 (Figs. 128, 130)

Moor-grasses, 25

Moor Mat-grass—Nardus stricta, 119

Morphology of flower, 12-14

Morphology of spikelet, 14

Motor-cells, 8, 9, 21 (Figs. 8-10)

Mountain Melick—Melica nutans, 116

Myosotis arvensis (Fig. 171)

Naked fruits, 17, 18

Nardus stricta, 119 (Figs. 131, 132)

Nerves—minute veins on the ghimes
and palez

New Zealand Reed Fescue, 148

Nipplewort (Fig. 163)

Nitrogenous manures, 185

Nodes, 2 (Fig. 2)

Northern Holy-grass—Hierochloé borea-
lis, 189

Number of seeds per gramme, 174

197

Number of seeds per pound, 174
Nutritive value, 133, 134, 182

Oat-grasses—A vena, 68

Obsolete—so much reduced as to be
practically absent

Obtuse—blunt at the apex

Open panicle—one in which the groups
of spikelets are widely separated
by the spreading arrangement
of the branches

Orchard-grass, 145

Ovary, 13 (Fig. 16)

Ox-eye Daisy (Fig. 158)

Palea—(plu. Pale), 14 (Figs. 17-19)
Panicle, 15 (Figs. 14, 46, 77, 87)
Panicum (see Setaria). 189
Crus-galli = Echinochloa Crus-galli
glabrum, 189
sanguinale, 189
Parenchyma—the soft cellular tissue
of herbaceous parts
Pastures, 27, 177, 183
Pedigree of seeds, 168
Perennial Oat—Avena pratensis, 70
Pericarp, 18 (Fig. 21)
Phalaris—Canary grass
arundinacea, 120
canariensis, 120
Phieum
alpinum, 121
arenarium, 122
asperum, 190
Behmeri, 190
pratense, 121, 157 (Figs. 133, 134)
Phosphatic manuring, 186
Photo-synthesis, 21
Phragmites communis = Arundo
mites, 66
Plantago
aristata (Fig. 167)
lanceolata (Fig. 166)
Rugelii (Fig. 168)
Playing grounds, 178
Plumule, 18 (Fig. 20)
Poa, 122-129
alpina, 122 (Fig. 135)
annua, 122, 158 (Figs. 136, 144)
aquatica =Glyceria aquatica, 104
bulbosa, 123
compressa, 123, 160 (Figs. 137, 138)
distans, 124
fluitans =Glyceria fluitans, 105
loliacea, 190
maritima, 125
nemoralis, 125, 159 (Figs. 139, 140)
pratensis, 127, 159 (Figs. 5, 8, 141,
142) ‘
procumbens, 190

Phrag-

198

Poa (contd.)
rigida, 129 (Figs. 144, 145)
trivialis, 129, 161 (Figs. 141, 143)
Pollen, 22
Pollination, 22
Polygonum Persicaria, 149
Polypogon—Beard-grass, 190
hittoralis, 190
monspeliensis, 191
Potentilla monspeliensis (Fig. 171)
Productivity (relative), 175
Protandrous—when the pollen is ma-
ture before the stigma of the
same flower is ready for pollina-
tion, 22 a
Proterogynous—term applied to a flower
in which the stigma is receptive
before the pollen of the same
flower is mature, 22
Prunella vulgaris (Fig. 170)
Psamma arenaria, 129 (Figs. 91, 146,
147)
Pubescent—hairy
Purchase of grass seeds, 162-168
Purity of seeds, 163, 175 (see also under
each species in Chapter VIII)
Putting greens, 178

Quaking-grass—Briza, 77, 78
Quantities of seed to sow, 173, 174, 175

Raceme, 15

Rachilla, 16 (Fig. 19)

Rachis of spikelet, 16 (Figs. 18, 19)

Radicle, 18 (Fig. 20)

Ranunculus repens (Fig. 155)

Rat’s-tail Fescue—Festuca Myurus, 100

“Real Value” of Seed, 166, 175

Reed Canary-grass—Digraphis arun-
dinacea, 95

Rhizomes, 3, 4, 51 (Figs. 5, 33, 146)

Rib-grass—Plantago lanceolata (Fig. 166)

Ribs, 7, 8 (Figs. 9-11)

Ridges, 7, 8

Root-cap (Fig. 20)

Root-sheath (Fig. 20)

Roots, 1, 2, 20 (Figs. 1, 22, 23)

Rough-stalked Meadow-grass—Poa tri-
vialis, 129, 161

Rudimentary flowers (Figs. 114, 116)

Rumex acetosa (Fig. 152)

acetosella (Figs. 153, 154)
crispus (Fig. 151)
Rye-grass—Lolium, 113-116

Sand-binders, 129 (Fig. 146)

Sand species, 24

Scabrid—rough to the touch

Sclerenchyma—thick-walled tissue, 4
7, 8 (Figs. 4, 10, 11)

2

Index

Seutellum, 18
Sea-side grasses, 24 (Figs. 91, 146)
Secund—turned to one side, one-sided
Seed-bed, 180
Seed-mixtures, 168-179
Seed-prices, 166
Seed production, 168. See also Chapter
VIII
Seeds of prasses, 16-18 (natural size,
Fig. 26)
Seed statistics, 174
Self-heal (Fig. 170)
Semi-aquatic grasses, 25
Seminal roots, 20
Serrulate—bearing minute tooth-like
asperities
Sesleria coerulea, 131 (Fig. 148)
Sessile—without a stalk, situated di-
rectly on the axis
Setaceous—bristle-like
Setaria, 191
glauca, 191
verticillata, 191
viridis, 191
Sexual organs, 12—14 (Fig. 16)
Shade-grasses, 25, 26
Shapes of leaves, 10 (Fig. 12)
Shapes of shoots, 5, 6
Sheath, 4-6
Sheep’s Fescue—Festuca ovina, 101, 150
Sheep’s Sorrel (Figs. 153, 154)
Sherardia arvensis (Fig. 172)
Silky Bent-grass—Agrostis Spica-venti
Silvery Hair-grass—A tra caryophyllea
Slender Foxtail—Alopecurus agrestis
Small Reed—Calamagrostis, 89, 90
Soft Brome—Bromus mollis, 81
Soft-grass—Holcus, 106, 108
Sowing grass seeds, 180, 181
Sowthistle (Figs. 161, 162, 163)
Spartina stricta—Cord-grass, 191
Specification of seed-mixtures, 172
Spikate inflorescence, 15, 34, 35 (Fig.
121):
Spike, 15 (Figs. 27, 28, 117, 121, 122)
Spikelet, 12, 14 (Figs. 15, 18, 19)
Spike-like panicle, 35 (Fig. 46)
Split sheath, 5 (Fig. 7)
Squirrel-tail grass— Hordeum mariti-
mum, 111
Stamens, 13, 22 (Fig. 16)
Staminate—a flower having stamens
but no ovary, see Holcus
Starch grains, 39 (Figs. 24, 25)
Stems, 2-4 (Figs. 2, 3)
Stigmas, 13, 22 (Fig. 16)
Stolons, 3, 4
Stomata, 8, 21
Struggle for existence, 171, 184
Sub-sessile—almost sessile

Index

Sub-terminal awn, 39, 41 (Figs. 68,
70a, 72)

Sweet Vernal-grass—Anthoranthum odo-
ratum, 61, 138

Tall Fescue—Festuca elatior sub-sp.
arundinacea, 99, 147

Taper-pointed palea, 45 (Fig. 83)

Temporary pastures, 172, 176

Terminal awn, 38, 39-41

Testa, 18 (Fig. 21)

Tillering, 20

Timothy—Phleum pratense, 121, 157

Transpiration, 21

Transverse sections of leaves (Figs.
8-11)

Triodia decumbens—Heath-grass, 132
(Fig. 149)

Trisetum flavescens = Avena flavescens

Tufted Hair-grass—Aira cespitosa, 56

Twisted awns (Figs. 52, 55)

Twitch—a common term applied to
several troublesome creeping
weed-grasses belonging to the
genera Agropyrum, Agrostis, etc.

Types of inflorescence, 14, 15, 34

Types of seed-mixtures, 176-179

Upright Brome—Bromus erectus, 84
Vagabond species, 23, 26

Vascular bundles, 4, 7-8 (Figs. 3, 4, 8-11)
Vegetative organs, 1-11, 28-34

199

Veins, 7, 8
Versatile—suspended so as to turn

freely
Vitality of seeds, 164, 165
Viviparous grasses, 10] (Fig. 100)
Vulpia, see Festuca

Wall Barley—Hordeum murinum, 109
Wavy Hair-grass—Aira fleruosa, 57
Web—a tuft of minute woolly hairs
attached to the base of the
palee (Figs. 138, 142, 143)
Weed seeds, 163, 164 (see also under
each species in Chapter VIII)
Weight of 1000 seeds, 174
Westernwolths Grass, 156
Wheat-grass—Agropyrum
Whorl-grass—Catabrosa
Wild Oat—Avena fatua, 73
Wood Barley—Hordeum sylvaticum, 112
Wood False-Brome—Brachypodium syl-
vaticum, 74
Wood Meadow-grass—Poa nemoralis, 159
Wood Melick—Melica uniflora, 118
Woodrush (Fig. 175)

Xerophytes—plants adapted to dry
situations, 21

Yellow Oat-grass—A vena flavescens, 139
Yellow Rattle (Fig. 156)

Yielding capacity, 133, 175

Yorkshire Fog—AHoicus lanatus, 106

CAMBRIDGE :

PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS,

pea Ey
Ha

u i -

4 ae

ue