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HOPS
ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS
HOPS
IN THEIR BOTANICAL, AGRICULTURAL AND
TECHNICAL ASPECT
AND AS AN ARTICLE OF COMMERCE
BY
EMANUEL GROSS
PROFESSOR AT THE HIGHER AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, TETSCHEN-LIEBWERD
TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
BY
CHARLES SALTER
WITH SEVENTY-EI GHT ILLUSTRATIONS
LONDON
SCOTT, GREENWOOD AND CO.
& BROADWAY, 7*19 LUDGATE HILL, E.C.
1900
[The sole right of publishing this work in English rests with the above firm]
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY
NEW YORK
PREFACE,
Some time ago the author was asked by Mr. Hugo
H. Hitschmann of the Wiener Landwirthschaftliche
Zeitung to write a book on hops; but before that
request was complied with a search was made through
existing literature in order to ascertain whether it was
desirable, opportune and thankworthy to sift and
collect the availablé material into a uniform whole.
As a matter of fact it was found that, subsequent
to the appearance of the last comprehensive work on
the subject (1888), so many views on the botany,
cultivation and chemistry of the hop had undergone
modification, that numerous remarkable advances had
to be chronicled, especially in connection with the
drying and preservation of hops and with the hop
trade.
These preliminary labours having proved fruitful
the author felt disposed to accede to the above-
mentioned request ; but the labour of wading through
the mass of materials and frequently conflicting views
without losing the guiding thread was by no means
light. However, thanks to the aid afforded by
scientists and practical men, the task, begun more
vi PREFACE.
than two years ago, was brought to a conclusion—
it may be hoped with advantage to the hop-growing
industry. So far as possible, original contributions
have been utilised in the compilation of the work.
Special thanks must be accorded to the lamented
Dr. Baron Proskowetz von Proskow und Marstorff, .
late Austrian Consul at Chicago, and to Messrs.
Adolf Adorno of Kaltenberg-Tettnang, Giitermann
& Sons of Saaz, Dr. Eugen Rodiczky de Sipp, Franz
Wachtel of Horosed] near Saaz, and Emanuel Zelinka,
manager of Count Kleinmichel’s hop plantations at
Potschep, in the Russian province of Tschernigow.
No less thanks are due to Mr. Hugo Hitschmann
for his kind assistance in many ways, and particularly
as the first instigator of the work.
Believing that he has succeeded in leaving no
question untouched that concerns the hop industry—
though some have been dealt with very briefly —and
that the work will fill an actual need, the author now
launches his bark on the sea of publicity.
EMANUEL GROSS.
TETSCHEN-LIEBWERD, April, 1899.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
PAGE
History oF THE Hop. ‘ e : : . : : : 1
PART II.
Tue Hor Purant.
Introductory . : e é . : . ‘ i ‘ ‘ 11
The Roots : : : _ 3 , : . F F A 13
The Stem and Leaves . « A : 3 : F ; : 14
Inflorescence and Flower. i: Gh «th ae 17
Inflorescence and Flower of the Male Hop « “ F é 18
Inflorescence and Flower of the Female Hop. I F 18
The Fruit and its Glandular Structure ‘ 3 a ‘ : 21
The Fruit and Seed . : ‘ ‘ 3 ; x a 21
Propagation and Selection of the Hop. e. ae. Ab 2. cts. War
Varieties of the Hop. : : ‘ , a F rl i 33
1. Red Hops. . ‘ 4 ‘ ‘i ; ‘ ; : 34
2. Green Hops : : : ‘ ‘ : : : % 35
3. Pale Green Hops. ‘ : , , 35
~ Classification according to the Pariod of Hipening , : : 36
1. Early or August Hops ; . A “ A ‘ ‘ 37
2. Medium-early Hops . é . , z 2 F z 39
3. Late Hops . . : . ‘ : 7 é : z 41
Injuries to Growth . F : j : : ; i ; . 41
Malformations . : i F 41
Diseases produced by Conditions of Soil and Climate : 45
1. Leaves Turning Yellow : ‘ : ‘ ‘ : 45
2. Summer or Sun Brand i ‘ ; : ‘ : 46
3. Cones Dropping off . a i 3 ‘ . 47
4. Honey Dew... a sm oo. 240
5. Damage from Wind, Rain and Hail . : P P 48
Vegetable Enemies of the Hop. : 5 F : : 49
Animal Enemies of the Hop . : ; . ‘ 3 ‘ 52
Beneficial Insects on Hops . A z ‘ % i 3 3 62
'
vill TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART ITI.
CULTIVATION.
The Requirements of the Hop in respect of Climate, Soil and
Situation
Climate
Soil
Situation .
Selection of Variety and Guitues
Planting a Hop Garden .
Drainage .
Preparing the Gaeaad
Marking out for Planting
Planting
Cultivation and Gruppe of the Hop Gander in vie First
Year .
Work to be performed deanwainya in the Hop Garden.
Working the Ground i ; :
Cutting
The Non- Janttiog Sipyehan.
The lige Performance of the Operation of Gating .
. Method of Cutting
(a) Close Cutting .
(b) Ordinary Cutting
(c) The Long Cut.
(d) The Topping Cut
2. Proper Season for Cutting .
(a) Autumn Cutting
(6) Spring ee
Manuring . :
Training the Hop Plant.
1. Poled Gardens
2. Frame Training .
The Principal Types of Frames. -
Pruning, Cropping, ee and Leaf- stripping the “Hop
Plant .
Picking
Drying and Dapuiay
Principal and Subsidiary Utilisation of Hope aia Hop Gardens
Life of a Hop Garden: Subsequent Cropping : :
Cost of Production, Yield and Selling Prices
PAGE
64
64
76
81
81
86
86
88
94
106
111
114
114
125
129
186
137
141
142
143
147
153
154
160
165
181
182
193
207
226
228
231
250
254
256
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART IV.
Preservation and Storage ‘
Physical and Chemical Structure of fre Hop Cone
Judging the Value of Hops :
PART V.
Statistics of Production
The Hop Trade
INDEX
1X
PAGE
267
278
288
298
311
333
|
w
a
WH WWM HOON NMMDID NNN
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
“Rootstock .
3. Double-hooked Ghinhing Hai
Single-hooked Climbing Hair
Leaves and Stipules . :
Male Flower of the Hop .
. Female Flower of the Hop
. Spindle (Highly Magnified) :
. Spicule of the Cone (Highly Magnified)
. Bracteole (Five Times Natural Size)
. Cones (Natural Size)
. Clubbed Glands
. Dise Gland
. Lupulin Granule
. Developed Fruit with Pericardium. Thagulte Granule
. Cutting - ‘
. Prolongation of Gone ‘
. Field Parcelled out in Plots for Hand Teenching
. Planting on the Triangular System : i
. Planting in Squares .
. Planting in Rectangles
. Set Frame for Acute Angles
. Planting in Equilateral Triangles .
. Rectangular Straight Edge
. Pointed Mattock .
. Broad Mattock .
. Planted Set
. Planting Two or Three Sata ina Hele
. Saaz Hop Mattock :
. Lower Bavarian Broad Mattock
. Bayreuth Hop Mattock
. _Krumbach Hop Mattock.
. English Hop Mattock
. Swabian Hop Mattock
. Hessian 2-tine Hooked Fork .
. English 3-tine Hooked Fork .
PAGE ©
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
. Digging Fork
. Hop Plough
. Weeding Plough
. Hop Knife made from the Tip of a Bevthe
. Wiirtemburg Hop Knife . : :
. Ordinary Cut
. Hop Bar
. Hop Ladder
. Pole-puller :
. Pyramidal Foundation for Stacking Peles
. Combined Pole and Wire Training
. Wire Cross System of Training
. Frame System: Vertical Training .
. Lever Wire-straining Tongs
. Wirth’s High Vertical-wire Frame
. Gathering Hook : :
. Wirth’s Trestle System
. Scipio and Herth Plan
. Ground-plan of Garden Trained on the deine sud Herth
System .
. Spiral Iron Peg.
. Hermann’s Low-frame Seaton
. Ground-plan of Hermann’s System of Teaiwing
. Haupt’s Medium-wire Frame .
. Stambach’s Medium-wire Frame
. Machine for Tying Hop-training Strings to Head Wires
” ” ” ” ”
64. ,, i
. Wolfi’s Hop Picking and Sorting Mabhing
. The Karl Hop Kiln .
. The Heijak Kiln CUinadnviante Sketch)
. The Heijak Kiln for small Growers
. The Léschner Hop Kiln .
. The Gasch Hop Kiln
. The Zelinka Continuous Kiln
. The Miiller Hop Kiln
. The Tippmann Hop Kiln
. The Andrlik and Hueber Kiln
. Drum with Movable Bottom and Lid
. Drum with Fixed Bottom and Movable Lid, for Ballots
. Drum for Light Pressing, with Movable Bottom and Lid .
. Drum with Movable Bottom and Lid, and Lateral Flanged
Joint for Opening
PAGE,
122
123
124
140
140
143.
186
186
189
190
191
192
205-
206
209
210
210.
212
213.
214
216
217
219:
221
223.
224
225
230-
237
238.
240
240
243.
244
245
246.
248
270:
270:
271
271
HOPS.
PART I.
HISTORY OF THE HOP.
NotHINe is known concerning the date at which the hop
plant was first brought under cultivation, and even in recent
times its historical record is not continuous. Nevertheless,
our thanks are largely due to those writers who have under-
taken the troublesome task of arranging existing data in
chronological order, since it is a matter of undoubted interest.
to possess a knowledge of the historical career of a plant.
which in course of time has attained the position of import--
ance now occupied by the one under consideration.
The hop (Humulus lupulus) was certainly known to the:
ancient Greeks, even if only in its uncultivated state and
under another name; and it was described by Pliny in his
Natural History, lib. xxi., cap. 50, as lupulus, lupus salic-
tarius, an appetiser and salad. It can scarcely be doubted
that, in days before the true economic purpose of the hop—
as an adjunct to beer—was known, there were other causes
which rendered it valuable to man; and from time imme-
morial the plant has been regarded as a source of effective
medicinal remedies. Thus, for example, Mathioli, body
physician to the Emperor Ferdinand L., proclaimed the heal-
ing value of the roots, leaves, flowers and cones of the hop,
and recommended a syrup, extracted by sugar from the buds |
and sap of the plant, as a a against many complaints,
2 HOPS.
fever in particular. The Arabian Mesues mentions this
syrup as a cure for “‘king’s evil,’ and Andreas Gloretz
von Mahren writes as follows about hops in his Chronik
(Chronicle): ‘‘The principal use of hops is for making beer,
in which it acts as a saline or aromatic; if, however, too
much is used, the beer is too bitter and affects the head.
Young hop shoots taken with the food purify the blood, heal
the itch, and relieve the liver and spleen. Distilled hop
extract cleanses the blood from all impurities, tumours and
flatulence, and cures skin diseases and other complaints if
taken in regular morning doses of 4 to 5 lothe”’ (the loth =3 02.).
Even at the present time the hop (or rather its lwpulin)
is used as a medicament, although opinion as to its value
has greatly changed in many respects.
Keeping the real value of the hop in mind, its history
may be said to date from the time when its employment as
a constituent in beer came into prominence.
It has frequently been asserted that Egypt was the
original cradle of the brewing industry; but the correctness
of this assumption is in no wise proved, even though Diodorus
Siculus, lib. i., cap. 20, relates that the Egyptians must be
credited with having invented a beverage prepared from
barley and water, and indistinguishable from wine in point
of strength and flavour. In any case, the modern beer-
drinker would object to have placed before him the sour-
sweet alcoholic drink which the ancient Egyptians partook
of as an intoxicating liquor, since the addition of hops
imparts an agreeable taste and improved keeping qualities to
beer.
Although it would now be difficult to imagine beer with-
out hops, their use for this purpose does not by any means
extend back to the era of the legendary King Gambrinus of
Brabant, who is credited with being the first to introduce
beer as a beverage among the German peoples. Dr. O. Cech
HISTORY OF THE HOP. 3
asserted that the custom of hopping beer was first practised
in Russia; but it is more probably of German origin.
The earliest reports on the hop as a cultivated plant date
from the Carlovingian epoch, King Pépin le Bref having’
donated ‘“‘homularias” (hop gardens) to the monastery of
St. Denis about the year 768. As it would be straining a
point to assume that hops would be extensively grown for
any other purpose at that period, it may be reasonably sup-
posed that they were used as an aromatic for the malt
liquor ‘‘cerevisia’’ then in general repute. Weaker malt
beverages—“‘ biera,” “canum ” and “oel”—-were also manu-
factured.
An ordinance issued in 822 by Abbot Adalbert, of the
monastery of Corvey, released the millers from work in the
hop gardens on account of other service. Hops are also
referred to in the archives of the Freising monastery and
other religious properties about the year 850, and reference
is made to payments of imposts on hops in the Irmino
“ Polyptychon”’ at the commencement of the ninth century.
The Abbess Hildegarde (twelfth century) and Albertus
Magnus were both acquainted with hops, which, however,
do not appear to have been very widely diffused at that time.
The Saxon ‘Spiegel’? and the Magdeburg ‘‘ Weichbilds-
recht” (legal codes) contain decisions on the proprietor-
ship of hops that have grown over the fence.
In the thirteenth century frequent mention is made of
hop gardens (hwmuleta, humileta, humularia) in State enact-
ments, from which it is evident that the area under cultiva-
tion must have gradually increased by that time. According
to Olbricht, Count Giinther of Kevernburg ratified the pos-
session of a hop garden by the monastery of Illmenau in the
year 1328; in 1346 a tax of 6 pfennige (three farthings) a
measure was levied on hops by the Landgrave Otto of Hesse ;
in 1352 Heinrich von Stollberg granted the monastery of
4 HOPS.
Heusdorf permission to sell a hop garden; and reference is
made to hop gardens in letters from the Aldesleben monastery
between the years 1354 and 1368.
Information as to the date at which hopped beer had
become general in Germany is afforded by an enactment
(1864) of the Emperor Charles IV. with reference to a
complaint laid by the Bishop of Liége and Utrecht against
the hopped beer—which by that time had been in general
use for about thirty or forty years—and granting that
ecclesiastic the right of levying an indemnity of one groschen
on every barrel of such beer brought into the limits of his
jurisdiction.
In the Netherlands, and particularly in Flanders, the
cultivation of hops was pursued at a very early period, though
no great development took place until the fourteenth cen-
tury. It was then that John the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,
founded the knightly Orders of the Daisy and the Hop, a
circumstance sufficiently showing the esteem in which the
latter was held. Hops were introduced into England, prob-
ably from Brunswick and Flanders, towards the close of the
fifteenth century (1492), but made very few friends, both
Henry VII. and Henry VIII. prohibiting their use in beer.
Edward VI., however, formed a better opinion of hops, and
granted numerous privileges in connection with their cul-
tivation.
In Sweden the hop was only introduced comparatively
late, its functions having been previously discharged by
indigenous herbs such as plague-wort, Myrica gale and Ledum
palustre. Notwithstanding the promulgation in 1440 of an
ordinance enacting that every farmer should grow forty
poles of hops, it was not until the second half of the
seventeenth century that the cultivation of this plant made
much headway, particular attention being then bestowed on
the matter by Charles X. (the successor of Queen Christina).
HISTORY OF THE HOP. 5
This monarch was the real founder of the Swedish hop-
growing industry, which he admirably assisted by procuring
stocks from celebrated hop districts : Grafenhain, Gardelegen,
Lenz, etc., and by making laws (in 1669) relating to the
management of hop gardens. In spite of all, however,
Sweden never occupied any important position as a hop-
growing country.
With regard to France, there are no reliable data available
to show at what period hop cultivation was commenced.
Still, it may be assumed that the plant was brought in
from neighbouring countries at a very early date, though
it did not attain to importance until a later epoch.
In Russia and Austria hops have been grown for ages.
The condition of the industry in the latter country will be
dealt with on a subsequent page.
Although, generally speaking, the cultivation of hops
has advanced in course of time, it must not be overlooked
that the industry has disappeared in many districts where it
formerly contributed to the well-being of the inhabitants.
Thus, for example, whereas formerly the town of Bukow
was surrounded by thriving hop gardens, their cultivation
has since been discontinued, both there and at Pélitz in
Pomerania.
Frederick the Great established the hop-growing indus-
try around Potsdam, and is said to have brought skilled
growers from Bukow for that purpose. At present, how-
ever, the only traces left are in a few names, some of the
fields being still known as “‘the hop garden”. A large
area was in cultivation under hops round Miinsterberg in
Prussian Silesia towards the end of the eighteenth century,
whereas now the production is merely trifling. In 1840
Councillor F. von Raumer occupied himself with the intro-
duction of improved methods of hop cultivation at Kaltwasser,
near Liegnitz, in the same province, and at that time 11
6 HOPS.
morgen (1 morgen = 24 roods) were under hops. Subse-
quently, however, the whole was entirely abandoned.
At one time hop gardens flourished in the vicinity of
Tréves, but, according to Flatau, Wettendorf of Balduin
was about the only grower there in 1861 who could produce
—even in limited quantity—any really good hops; and since
that time nearly all the gardens in the neighbourhood have
been dug up one by one. There are also many other districts
where hops were once grown, but where the industry has
now entirely or nearly disappeared.
The causes of such fluctuations would lead to too great
a digression from our present subject, the history of the hop,
if discussed at this stage, and the matter is therefore merely
referred to as an actual fact.
In Austria the growing of hops is known to es been
carried on for centuries, Bohemia being always, as at pre-
sent, the best district in the country. One of the most
energetic supporters of the industry in Bohemia, Moravia
and the neighbouring provinces was the Emperor Charles
IV., who is reported by Pelzel and Ad. Voigt to have made
a tour of the district and personally indicated the spots
most suitable for the cultivation of the hop and the vine,
and as having furthermore, in order to confine the benefits
of the produce to his own territory, imposed the death
penalty on all who exported Bohemian hop stocks. These
attempts on the part of the monarch to bring the hop-grow-
ing industry into a flourishing condition remained, however,
without any important results, owing to the fact that the
right of brewing was at that time restricted to monasteries
and municipalities, being regarded as a municipal industry ;
and it was only in 1517 that the treaty of St. Wenzel, by
conferring the same rights upon landed proprietors, led to
the extension of hop cultivation throughout the whole of
Bohemia. Traces of this are still to be found in many
HISTORY OF THE HOP. 7
estates where hop-growing was afterwards abandoned, a
retrogression principally due to the ravages of the Thirty
Years’ War, which conflict and its results shattered this
industry and all others. G. Freytag states that “for more
than a hundred years after the war the farmers simply
vegetated, penned up like their own flocks, watched by the
priests as by a shepherd, kept in order by the terrors of
Cerberus, and annually shorn by the landlords—a long
period of monotonous existence”. During this lamentable
epoch the cultivation of hops was kept up in only four
places in all Bohemia, viz., Auscha, Saaz, Falkenau and
Klattau.
Old records at Auscha inform us that regulations on the
subject of hop-growing already existed in 1568; and also
that the price of a “strike” of hops was 12 Prague
groschen = 3. florins 30 kreuzer (about 6s. 8d.).
No documents are available to show what were the
earlier conditions of the hop industry in the Saaz district,
all the records having been destroyed in the fire of 1768.
A memorial erected at Falkenau in honour of a citizen,
Andreas Hainzel, who died on 24th April, 1673, credits that
worthy with being the first to grow hops there; and that
hop cultivation was practised in Klattau in the sixteenth
century is vouched for by a poem of David Crinitus, wherein
the hop trade is mentioned.
A highly important influence on the development and
firm establishment of the hop industry in Bohemia was
produced by the beneficent agrarian changes proposed and
carried out during the reign of the Emperor Joseph II.
By the abolition of serfdom (1781) this monarch, who was
second to none as a friend of agriculture, completed a work
which remains inscribed in letters of gold in the history of
Austrian agriculture and the hearts of his subjects ; and this
act naturally cut deeply into the conditions of agricultural
8 HOPS.
economy, the farmer being able to breathe more freely from
that time forward.
At a later date, owing to the rapid fall in the price of
hops in the year 1826, the troubles of the Bohemian hop-
grower again increased. However, in consequence of the
freeing of the land in 1849-53, a change in the entire
domain of agriculture made itself apparent ; and, as the
advances in agricultural science directed the industry into
new paths, and knowledge became more and more the
common property of mankind, so a better acquaintance
with the nature of the hop plant, its relation to soil and
climate, its nutrition, treatment and cultivation became the
object of earnest investigation, side by side with attempts
at improvement in the methods of growth and application ;
and finally, as the endeavours to carry out scientific results
into practice were crowned with success, the cultivation of
the hop began to flourish anew, and the area to extend
year by year.
At the present time, as formerly, Bohemia is the true
centre of the Austrian hop industry. Hops are also grown
in Styria, Galicia, Upper Austria, Moravia and Carynthia,
which practically exhausts the list.
The Styrian hops are accounted good, and those of
Galicia are highly esteemed in many quarters; but those
produced in Upper Austria, Moravia and Carynthia are of
inferior quality.
As regards the Kingdom of Hungary, the area under
hops in the districts of Hungary and Siebenbirgen, where
the industry was not founded until 1865-75, is 8638
hectares (897 acres). The Hungarian hop district lies
along the Styrian frontier. In point of quality Sieben-
burgen hops are very fair, and the county of Udvarhely
is noted for its good early hops. The first planter in
Hungary was Count Joseph von Lilien, but the cultivation
HISTORY OF THE HOP. 9
did not assume any particular importance until 1865, when
a large area was planted on the Bellye estate.
The introduction of hop-growing into the United States
marks a turning-point in the history of this industry, the
consequences being adverse to the interests of European
growers on account of the quantity now sent over, though
America has not yet succeeded in producing hops equal in
quality to the good sorts of European growth.
The first shipments of American hops to Europe, being
of inferior quality, found but few buyers, and finally had to
‘be disposed of at low rates. This circumstance was seized
on by certain dealers, and continual harping on ‘‘ American
competition’ brought about a serious fall in the price of
European hops. ‘True, at present the situation has re-
covered to some extent, but we are still haunted by the
bogie of American competition.
Within the past few decades Australia has begun to
come to the front as a producer of hops, but dangerous
competition from this source need hardly be feared ; and
in Africa and Asia hop cultivation has barely issued from
the experimental stage.
Notwithstanding the greater intelligence nowadays be-
stowed on the cultivation of the hop, the position of the
grower is far from being a bed of roses. The causes of
this condition are manifold, and will be dealt with latter
on as occasion arises.
For information on the historical side of the subject the
author is indebted to the following works :—
Andreas Gloretz von Mahren, Chronik. (Quirinus Heyl,
Regensburg, 1701.)
Franz Olbricht, Béhmens Hopfenbau und Handel. (Prague,
1835.)
Jos. J. Flatau, Ueber Hopfenbau. (Berlin, 1861.)
F. Romer, Ueber den Hopfenbau. (Aarau, 1865.)
10 HOPS.
Dr. Ed. Weiss, Der Hopfen. (Vienna, Pesth, and Leipzig,
1878.)
E. V. Strebel, Handbuch des Hopfenbaues. (Stuttgart, 1887.)
Dr. Ad. Blomeyer, Die Cultwr der landwirthschaftlichen
Nutzpflanzen. (Leipzig, 1891.)
Ueber die Geschichte des Hopfens in Deutschland wnd in den
ausserdeutschen Léndern. (Article in Der Bohmische Bierbrauer,
1896, Nos. 1 and 7.)
Dr. Eug. von Rodiczky—publications and private com-
munications on hop cultivation.
PART IL.
THE HOP PLANT.
INTRODUCTORY.
Botanists distinguish between two families of hops :—
(a) The common hop (wall-, nettle-, hedge-hop), Humulus
lupulus L., and
(6) The Japanese hop, Humulus japonicus Sieb. and Cuck.
The latter, which is indigenous in Japan, China and
the adjacent lands, is an annual, destitute of lupulin glands,
and is occasionally grown as an ornamental plant in Euro-
pean gardens. Apart from this purpose it has no economic
value.
The first-named genus, the ‘common hop” (Humulus
lupulus L.), which grows wild everywhere in any damp
shady place, and especially on the banks of streams and
rivers, is universally regarded as the ancestral stock of the
cultivated variety. The French name for it is houblon ; the
German, hopfen ; the Italian, lupulo or lavertice ; the Swedish,
humbla ; the Hungarian, komldé ; and the Danish, homle ;
whilst in Finland it is called humala ; in Spain, lupares ; in
Holland, hopp or hoppencrijdt ; in the Czech dialect, chmel ;
Polish, chmiel ; Turkish, hymel; Roumanian, hemey; Wal-
lachian, haméju ; Lettic, appin; and Lithuanian, apwynys.
The common hop is a dicotyledonous, dicecious plant,
and belongs, in the Linnean classification, to the fifth order
of class XXII. (Diecia pentandria). The male and female
12 . HOPS.
blooms are produced by separate plants. Jussieu ranks the
hop as a member of the nettle family (Urticacee). Both the
male and the female plants are perennials, and possess a
powerful rootstock, with an extensive system of roots
spreading deep into the earth. The female plant alone is
of any direct value in cultivation, the former practice of
planting a few male specimens in each hop garden being
only followed for a special purpose. The male plant is
always less robust in development than the female. In
autumn, as soon as vegetation is arrested, the aerial portions
of the plant die down; and in the ensuing spring new
shoots are thrown out from the buds on the underground
stems that have stood the winter, or else adventitious shoots
appear, the young stems in either event manifesting a tend-
ency to cling to some fixed support as soon as they attain
a length of about 12 inches. If no such support is at hand
a circular movement of the growing tip of the shoot will
be noticeable. This movement takes. place from right to
left, and is characteristic of the hop, since all other twining
plants grow in left-handed spirals round any support pre-
sented to them. The smaller the diameter of the support
provided for the hop the smaller the ‘‘ pitch” of the spiral,
and vice versdé. The bine will not twine on horizontal sup-
ports, and if left to itself on the ground, without any support
at all, presents a destitute appearance. According to Fru-
wirth, when one of two stems, otherwise equally treated in
every respect, was provided with a support and the other
left without one, the difference in length between them at
the end of twenty days amounted to 25 inches, the first one
measuring 91 inches and the other 66 inches. It therefore
follows that facility for growth in an upward direction is
an indispensable condition for normal development in hops.
THE HOP PLANT. 13
THE Roots.
When, as is frequently the case with the plant in its
wild form, the hop springs from seed, the rootlet of the seed-
ling develops into the main root, which subsequently ex-
pands into the rhizome or rootstock. This penetrates deep
into the ground and sends forth branch roots on all sides,
Fig. 1.—Rootstock.
their tendency being, however, to extend downwards rather
than laterally. These branch roots exhibit at intervals
thickened portions of bottle-shaped or more or less cylin-
drical (seldom globular) form (Fig. 1), which may be re-
garded as reserves of material for another year’s growth,
and always contain a large store of starch, especially in the
autumn. At the upper end the rootstock frequently throws
14 HOPS.
\
out underground runners near and parallel to the surface,
which, when separated from the parent plant, are capable
of developing into independent stocks. Not infrequently
the rootstock obtains considerable dimensions, the diameter
varying, in the case of mature plants, between two and
three inches, whilst the roots extend downwards for a
distance of as much as thirteen feet.
In the case of cultivated hops, the propagation of which
is exclusively effected by the vegetative method, artificial
rootstocks are produced by the separation of portions of the
parent plant, which new. stocks throw out from the vicinity
of the cut extremity and the adjacent parts a number of
adventitious rootlets, which behave in the same manner as
the roots of the seedling plant. The hop is particularly
long lived, especially the wild sorts, and is very difficult to
get rid of where it has once gained a footing in the soil ;
since even when the rootstock dies out in the course of
(20 to 30) years there always remains in the ground portions
of roots and stems capable of producing new plants.
The rootstock is insusceptible to the influence of cold,
and will stand even the hardest winter without injury. It
is, however, more sensitive to prolonged wet weather and
mechanical injuries, which are frequent causes of destruc-
tion. Broadly speaking, the anatomical structure of the
hop root is identical with that of other dicotyledonous
plants. According to Fleischmann the total superficial
area of the roots of a mature hop plant measures about
860 square inches.
Tur STEM AND LEAVES.
In spring the plumule of the seedling hop and the buds
of the underground stem (or adventitious buds) of older
plants throw up young shoots which appear above the sur-
THE HOP PLANT. 15
face of the ground, bent over like hooks. They are of a
light green colour frequently shaded with red, which latter
colour in some kinds is persistent during the entire period
of vegetation, whilst in others it disappears, leaving the bine
of a uniform green tint. In section the bine is hexagonal,
and it attains a diameter of } to } inch, with a height of 26
to 40 feet. Externally it carries six spirally arranged sets
an ae et
A
Fig. 2. Fie. 3. Fig. 4.
Double-hooked Double-hooked Single-hooked
climbing hair. climbing hair, climbing hair.
Commencement 1: 100. 1: 100.
of growth.
1: 100.
of climbing hairs or soft thorns, those in the lower part of
the stem taking the form of double hooks (Figs. 2 and 3),
whilst those placed higher up form single hooks pointing
downwards (Fig. 4). This peculiar shape of the hairs pre-
vents the slipping of the stem from its support, and thus
materially assists the ascent of the bine. .
These uncial appendages, which are found on the under
side of the ribs and veins of the leaves as weil as on the
stems, in association with the additional hairy covering
impart a rough feeling to the plant.
16 HOPS.
The stems are hollow, except at the parts where the
leaves take their rise—the joints or nodes—and the inter-
nodes increase in length, from below upwards, until the stem
has attained about half its final length, internodes above this
point being shorter again. In warm weather the free apex
of the stem moves in a circle, two hours and eight minutes
being required for a complete revolution.
The leaves of the hop are opposite, and start from the
nodes, but exhibit no uniformity of shape. They 'are covered
with hairs on both the upper and lower sides, those on the
former being tougher than the others. Under the leaves
are found large numbers of small resinous dots. The funda-
Fig. 5.—Leaves and stipules.
mental shape of the leaf is the cordate (heart-shaped) form ;
the lower leaves are the largest and have five lobes. Higher
up the stem, and particularly on the laterals, three-lobed,
and not infrequently simple, leaves occur. The edge of the
leaf is coarsely serrated. Occasionally, abnormally devel-
oped leaves are encountered of highly diversified form.
Corresponding to its extensive root development the hop.
plant produces abundant foliage, the total superficial leaf area
being, according to Fleischmann, about 120 square feet. In the
axils of the leaves are situated the buds from which spring
the laterals; and on the same level as the main leaves, but
at right angles thereto, are two lanceolate stipules with entire
margins (Fig. 5).
THE HOP PLANT. 17
INFLORESCENCE AND FLOWER.
As already mentioned, the hop is dioecious, the male and
the female plants being separate individuals. The latter
alone are cultivated and yield the blossoms, which, when
ripe, contain the product valuable for brewing purposes.
Up to the present no agricultural value attaches to the
male hop, and indeed its presence in the vicinity of hop
gardens is looked on with disfavour as leading to the fer-
tilisation and fructification of the female flower, whereby
the value of the cones is diminished.
A lower price is rightly paid for hops that contain seeds,
because in such case the brewer receives an inferior quantity
of utilisable material per unit of weight, and, moreover, such
hops impart a disagreeable flavour to the beer. Formerly,
when brewers were not compelled to look so closely into the
purchase of their raw material as they nowadays must, it
was customary in many places to plant a few male hops in
the gardens ; but at the present time this practice is inad-
missible, since, as Professor Lintner says, ‘‘a hop garden
should resemble a nunnery, all males being excluded”’.
It is not impossible that, in time, the male hop will meet
with some consideration for reproductive purposes, and R.
Graas, the director of the Agricultural Winter School at
Grosshof,! reports that Stambach has already successfully
grown hops from seed in Alsace. In the hop garden, how-
ever, it is out of place, and its destruction, if found growing
wild in the vicinity, is perfectly justifiable.
1 Ueber Fortschritte im Hopfenbau (Progress in Hop Cultivation), 3rd July,
1898.
18 HOPS.
INFLORESCENCE AND FLOWER OF THE Mae Hop.
In the months of June and July laterals sprout out from
the axils of the leaves, and from the nodes of these laterals
spring branchlets (peduncles) carrying the flowers. Ac-
cording to Holzner, the inflorescence of these peduncles is
involute. The total inflorescence takes the form of a panicle
(Fig. 6).
The individual flowers consist of a 5-parted perianth and
five sessile, double-anther protruding stamens, the pollen-
grains of which are transported long distances by insects.
This accounts for the occasional fructifications met with in
hop gardens, even when no male plants can be detected
anywhere about.
. D> o a Xe
» iS % \
Wt
Fig. 6.—Male flower of the hop.
INFLORESCENCE AND FLOWER OF THE FEMALE Hop.
The female plant begins to bloom (Fig. 7) concurrently
with the male.
The buds situated in the axils of the leaves either de-
velop into laterals, or—especially those at the upper por-
THE HOP PLANT. — 19
tion of the stem—put forth shoots about 4 to 6 inches in
length, forming the peduncles of the flowers, and terminating
in small brush-like cones. Not infrequently these peduncles
are branched, in which event each pedicel terminates in a
cone, the whole resembling a bunch of grapes in appearance.
The buds of the upper laterals produce flower-bearing pe-
Fic. 7.—Female flower of the hop. Fie. 8.—Spindle, highly
magnified.
duncles almost exclusively; and grape-like clusters of cones
develop at the apex of the stem, as well as on those of the
laterals.
The inflorescence of the female plant is a strobile or cone
(an ear with more or less rigid scales), which consists of a
larger or smaller number of four-flowered spicules mounted
20 HOPS.
on a zigzag spindle or “strig” (Fig. 8). According to
Holzner and Lermer, each spicule is composed of two
antidromous branches, each of which is a small spiral,
containing .generally two, but never more than three,
flowers, and occasionally only one. Each cone contains
about fifty flowers.
(2)
Fic. 9.—Spicule of the cone, highly magnified.
(a) Pistil, (0) Perigonium. (c) Stigma. (d) Bract. —_(e) Bracteole.
At flowering time the spicule (Fig. 9) consists of the
following elements :—
1. The two bracts.
2. The very small flowers (generally four) each with its
bracteole.
? From Holzner and Lermer’s paper.
THE HOP PLANT. 21
The parts of the actual flower are !:—
(a) A delicate perigoniwm enclosing the ovaries half way
round.
(0). A pistil. with two thickly papillated stigmata and a
single ovule.
According to Holzner and Lermer, the position of the
spicules on the’ spindle i is usually alternate, and occasionally
decussate. The upper members. are stunted and their flowers
imperfect, the latter having no clearly developed stem, and
their pistils, even when present, having no stigmata or
ovules. In these stunted portions. the caulome is no longer
divided into axis and: bracteole. The apex of the spindle i is
formed of a small cone, somewhat deeply embedded within
a leaf whor! composed of bracts of the stunted and upper-
most develaped spicules.
THE FRUIT AND ITS GLANDULAR STRUCTURE.
THE FRUIT AND SEED.
The stage of fructification develops as vegetation pro-
gresses, whether fertilisation has occurred or ‘not. The
stigmata shrivel up, and the bracts and bracteoles i increase
in size; the former being smaller at the upper’ ‘and lower
parts of the cone than at the centre. They are convex in
shape and pointed, the length being about $ inch when ripe.
The bracteoles project a little beyond thie bracts, and are
rounded at the tips, the base being incurved at the sides so
as to almost entirely enclose the fruit when the latter is
present (Fig. 10). The cone (Fig. 11) which, in an agri-
cultural sense, constitutes the fruit, is known in Germany
by various names: Hopfendolde, Hopferling, Trolle, Dolle,
1Holzner and Lermer. Zeitschrift fiir das g te Br , 1892,
Vol. XV., No. 36. .
22, HOPS.
Haupt, Haupel, Hauptlein, Kopf, Koppe, Kropf, Bolle, and
less frequently Glocke, Traube, Quaste, and Bommel.! The
ripe cone measures 1 to 2} inches in length, and 3 to 1 inch
through. The different varieties of hops ripen at different
Fig. 11.—Cones, natural size.
times, the:earlier sorts in August, the later kinds in Sep-
tember. At the stage of ripeness the cones assume a yellow-
ish tinge, and, when fructification has occurred, the fruit,
1Holzner. Zeitschrift filr das g te Br , 1891, No, 12,
THE HOP PLANT. 23
which is mounted on a short peduncle, begins to darken in
colour. The fruit is a small nut, and, even when ripe, is
closely surrounded by the perigonium, the outer pericardium
of which carries at the base a few tufts of hair, and is pro-
vided with cup-shaped glandular scales, the lwpulin granules,
to which further reference will be made later on.
In the case of the cultivated hop, fructification being as
far as possible suppressed, germinating seeds are seldom met
with, though present in large quantity on wild hops. On
the other hand, certain small grains formed by the enlarge-
Fic, 13.— Dise gland.
(a) Incipient. (6) Developed. 1: 200.
ment of the ovaries on barren flowers are not uncommon in
cultivated hops.
The normal fruit is about } inch long by 75 inch broad,
and is brown or dark in colour. Each fruit contains a single
seed consisting of a spiral germ enclosed in an endosperm,
a cuticular layer, and an epidermis.
The most important components of the flower are the
lupulin glands. These, as well as the other glands of the
hairs and epidermis, have been thoroughly investigated by
Rauter, Lermer, and Holzner.1
1 Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brauwesen, 1893, Vol. XVI., No. 12.
24 HOPS.
The two last-named workers distinguish three typical
forms of glands :—
1. Clubbed glands.
2. Disc-shaped glandular scales, and
3. Cup-shaped glandular scales (lupulin granules, hop
flour).
The club and disc forms occur on young stems, on the
foliage leaves (especially on the under side), on the bracts
and bracteoles (outside more than inside) of the flower and
fruit cones, but never on the perigonium. The lupulin
(a) Magnified 499, (b) Magnified 290, *(e) Magnified +92.
Fie. 14.—Lupulin granule.
(2) Development of the granule.
(6) Granule not quite fully developed.
(c) Granule viewed from above.
granules, however, are met with in large numbers on the
female perigonium, less extensively on the bracts, and are
probably altogether absent from the stems and foliage. The
glandular hairs are of multicellular structure, and are formed
by the repeated subdivision of the mother cells, each of
which is separated, at an early stage, into a crown cell and
base cell by a partition wall.
In the club-shaped glands (Fig. 12) the crown cell sub-
divides in a direction parallel or tangential to the axis of
the head, thus developing a small tissue, but never a cellular
THE HOP PLANT. 25
surface. The basal cell formed by the primary subdivision
of the mother cell is, in many clubbed glands, converted by
repeated longitudinal and transversed subdivisions into a
longer or shorter multicellular stem.
The stems of the disc glands. (Fig. 13) are short, and
mostly consist of the -original basal cell divided into two
daughter cells. The crown cell undergoés repeated sub-
division, and develops in the.shape of a disc; and a secretion
is deposited between the outer walls of the gland cells and
the cuticle, thus raising the latter to some extent.
Fig. 15.—(a). Developed fruit with pericardium, magnified 12.
(0) Lupulin granule, magnified 22°.
The cup-shaped gland (Fig. 14) is a disc, the edges of
which turn up so as to form a kind of cup. The deposition
of the glandular secretion occurs under the cuticle before the
subdivision of the cells is completed, and in this manner
the cuticle is continually lifted higher and higher until finally
it has the appearance of being stretched like a cover over
the contents of the gland (Fig. 15 6). In addition to the
glands already described, certain tufts of unicellular hairs
appear on the members of the hop cone.
According to Holzner and Lermer, the typical forms of
26 HOPS.
the trichomatic cuticular structures principally occurring on
the hop plant are as follows :—
A. Pointed Hairs.
I. With a single termina! point.
1: Hairs filled with air.
Unicellular, undivided hairs,
« Long, soft hairs.
B Stiff, brush-like, and thorny hairs.
2. Hairs containing a cystolith.
II, Hairs with two lateral points (climbing hairs),
B. The outer ends (border cells of the hairs) are rounded.
I. Unicellular trichomes.
1. Stigma papille,
2. Root hairs.
II, Multicellular glandular hairs.
1, The glandular cells form a head.
2. The glandular cells form a plane surface, which is either—
_ (a) Disc-shaped, or
(6) Cupped (Lupulin granules),
Between the bristles and cystolithic hairs on the one hand,
the bristles and climbing hairs on the other, and again
between the typical forms of glandular hairs, are many inter-
mediate modifications.
When the stage of ripeness is attained, many of the
lupulin granules become detached from their support, and
adhere to the spindle or spike of the cone so as to produce
the impression that this is their original site of development.
Hop-growers and brewers term the lupulin granules “hop
flour’ or ‘‘hop meal”; and the quality and value of hops
are principally dependent on the amount of this lupulin and
on the aroma it imparts. The quantity present varies with
the kind of hop, the soil, the climate, conditions of nutrition,
and the year.
Fresh-gathered, good, sound hops possess an agreeable,
though strongly narcotic, aroma, whilst inferior sorts exhibit
a characteristic odour of garlic.
THE HOP PLANT. oF
At one time the formation of the lupulin granules was
believed to stand in causative relation to the fructification of
the hop; and it was in consequence of the belief that fructi-
fied hops were richer in lupulin that the custom arose of
planting about five male hops to every 1,500 female plants.
Nowadays it is known that the formation of lupulin is
independent of fructification, and that hops containing seed
bring lower prices, so that this old practice has been abol-
ished.
Shortly after the cones are ripe the leaves and stem begin
to die down. The transportable contents of these members
are conveyed to the underground portions of the plant, to be
there stored up as formative material for the young shoots
put forth in the ensuing spring.
Two exceptional and peculiar instances of growth may
be mentioned here. In the one Fruwirth? reports the
occurrence of male and female flowers on the same plant,
and in the other Reider found a hop plant which, after
bearing female blossoms for four years in succession, brought
forth male flowers exclusively in the fifth year.
PROPAGATION AND SELECTION OF THE Hop,
The hop may be either grown from seeds or cuttings, the
former method, however, being unsuitable for general appli-
cation, because by this means worthless male plants as well
as females are produced, and it is not known beforehand
whether the female plants will yield a merchantable pro-
1Though J. Behrens and Wehmer are of opinion that a reflux of certain
matters to the roots does not occur, there is still no convincing proof of the
accuracy of this view. Two prominent physiologists, Dr. Detmer of Ziirich
and Dr. Frank of Berlin, to whom the author has applied for elucidation on
this point, consider that an autumnal return of material from the leaves to
the roots does take place; and in view of his personal observations the author
inclines to the same opinion.
2Fruwirth. Hopfenbau und Hopfenbehandlung, P. Parey, Berlin, 1888.
28 HOPS. |
duct; moreover, seedlings take longer to come into bearing
than the plants obtained from cuttings. On the other
hand, in hop nurseries the plan of growing from seed has a
certain practical utility, the object being, not the production
of marketable hops, but the examination of female plants
with a view to determining whether some individuals are
characterised by unusual productivity, early. ripening, super-
ior cones, etc. This is, in fact, the only way to obtain new,
useful, and perhaps qualitatively superior varieties of the hop
plant, since, in consequence of spontaneous variation or of
the seed being a product of cross fertilisation, the possibility
is afforded for the development of individual plants which,
within certain natural limits, unite in themselves a series
of good qualities. In any case it is not to be expected that
great productivity, high quality, and other valuable properties
will be found in a superlative degree concurrently in the
same plant. This isa well-known law of nature, and. was
pointed out by Darwin; nevertheless, the union of quantity
and quality of produce, together with other useful charac-
teristics, in the same individual is possible within certain
limits, and it is the task of the cultivator to discover such
individuals as appear to possess harmoniously blended, valu-
able properties. A glimpse into vegetable, fruit and flower
gardening will show what success can be attained by selection
—one has only to think of the numerous varieties of carrots,
salad plants, and fruits, and of the almost infinite number of
different kinds of roses, cloves, etc., to recognise the wonderful
results that have been obtained. Moreover, in agriculture
selection has furnished results of everi more widespread im-
portance to the world than those in the gardening industry.
The sugar beet affords an excellent example in this connec-
tion, and it may be not uninteresting to recall that, whereas
about thirty years ago growers were content to produce beet
yielding about 12 per cent. of sugar, at present 15 per cent.
THE HOP PLANT. 29)
is looked upon as only a medium yield. No less excellent
are the results obtained from potatoes by selection; and the
author would ask why the collective experience gained should
not also be utilised in the case of hops, and why should not
the selection of hops be crowned with the same success that
has attended the other instances cited ?
Of course, the natural law must be followed, that new
varieties can only be obtained by sexual reproduction, i.e.,
by raising plants from seed. All experience tends to show
that no new properties ever become fixed in plants repro-
duced by vegetative means, but that the characteristics of
the parent plant are simply transmitted to the offspring,
and make their appearance in varying proportion, according
‘ to the prevailing conditions of existence, such as soil, climate,
manuring and cultivation. The production of new varieties
' by this means is just as impossible as to get a cutting from
a green grape vine to grow blue grapes. The bushes obtained
from cuttings of red currant trees invariably bear red fruit,
and strawberry plants propagated from stolons always yield
fruit similar in shape and flavour to that of the parent
plant.
If some among the individual plants obtained by the
vegetative method exhibit a remarkably satisfactory appear-
ance, this is merely the result of favourable conditions, and
if such plants or portions thereof are exposed to conditions
affording them inferior opportunities their good qualities
disappear sooner or later, a proof that locality was the influ-
ential factor—this, as is well known, having no perpetuating
power. If, however, plants that have been raised from seed
in a nursery manifest certain good qualities as a result of
spontaneous variation, the foundation of new kinds can be
laid by means of cuttings from the parent plant, which
cuttings, again reproduced by a sexual means, will retain the
properties of the selected parent. The existing varieties of
30 HOPS.
hops are mostly local modifications, ‘which explains their
lack of permanency ; whereas it is probable that, by sexual
reproduction arid careful selection, new varieties, possibly
superior to those already known, could be obtained.
With regard to the method of instituting and effecting
the method of selection, it should not be difficult to obtain
hop seeds capable of germination. These can be sown, and
when the female plants have reached the stage of bearing
the produce of each should be gathered separately and care-
fully examined for quantity and quality, the result deciding
which of them shall be selected for further cultivation.
Carelessness at this stage will, however, render abortive all
the trouble and labour that has been taken.
Particular attention must be given to ascertaining whether
the valuable properties displayed are really individual, and
therefore transmittable, or merely a chance “‘ sport,” the
result of accidentally favourable local conditions. This
_ knowledge may be acquired in the following manner :—
Cuttings should be taken of all the plants which, from
the results of the examination, appear worthy of selection,
and these planted so that all the cuttings from each plant
come in the same row. If, for example, ten seedlings are
found possessing valuable qualities, and five cuttings are
taken from each, then there will be ten rows of five cuttings.
Each row is then looked after separately, and the produce
kept apart. It may happen that the plants in one or more
of the rows have lost the properties characteristic of the
parent plants, whilst in the other rows these qualities are
retained and even improved upon. From this observation
it follows that the plants of the first group, being the de-
scendants of mere local modifications, must be discarded,
whilst those of the second group, being derived from plants
capable of transmitting their own characteristics, are of value
for further reproduction.
THE HOP PLANT. 31
It is thus clear that by means of this method the founda-
tion of new varieties can be laid, the subsequent reproduction
of which by cuttings will be free from difficulty.
Noteworthy results have been obtained by E. Zelinka,
manager of Count Kleinmichel’s hop gardens, who, by
selection and without sexual reproduction, obtained from
root cuttings of special hop plants two new varieties, one
Fie. 16.—Cutting.
characterised by early ripening and the other by particular
fruitfulness.'
In practice the hop is propagated solely by cuttings from
the roots, or rather from portions of the stem remaining in
the ground after vegetation has ceased for the year (Fig.
16).
1 Wiener Landwirthschaftliche Zeitung, Vol. XLVI., No. 73.
82 ’ HOPS.
These cuttings are generally taken in the spring, and
only very exceptionally in autumn. To obtain them the
rootstock is laid bare and the stem cut off down to about
half an inch from the stock. A sharp knife is used, because,
as is well known, a smooth wound or cut heals much more
rapidly than a jagged one. The cutting should carry 2 to 4
pairs of eyes, and be cut off short below the lowest pair and
about half an inch above the top pair—this treatment being
found best to favour root development. To obtain strong
plants it is in the highest degree essential to start with
strong and healthy cuttings, such as are covered with black
specks or much wounded being necessarily discarded. Good
cuttings should be about half an inch thick and 3 to 4 inches
in length. ©
Plants in their fourth to sixth year of growth yield the
best cuttings, the hop being then in its prime of vigour.
Cuttings from young plants are generally weak, whilst
those from old stocks are usually delicate and of low power
of resistance to adverse influences. Experience also teaches
that cuttings from old stocks yield short-lived plants. If the
cuttings are already provided with roots, their presence
will favour early striking; thick roots, however, should be
trimmed before planting, but cutting them off altogether is
inadvisable. Cuttings that are taken in the autumn must be
carefully stored through the winter, preferably by laying them
in dry sand in an airy cellar; under these conditions they
will keep well, though they should be looked over now and
again to pick out any that may show Signs of rotting, and
so prevent infection of the others. They may also be stored
in the same manner as potatoes, the bédding material being
occasionally sprinkled with water early in the year. Cut-
tings taken in the spring should, wherever possible, be
replanted immediately ; and if this is impracticable, or they
are to be sent to a distance, they should be kept- moist by
THE HOP PLANT. 33
repeated sprinkling or dipping in water. In any case, if
the cuttings cannot be set at once, it is advisable to im-
merse them in water for twelve hours previous to planting
them.
When they have to be sent to a considerable distance
the cuttings should be packed in boxes lined with damp
moss. Thus treated, they will stand journeys of several
weeks’ duration without injury. There is little need, how-
ever, for special worry about them, for Schoffl reports having
sent cuttings, in the dry state and without any sort of pack-
ing, from Saaz to Egypt, which were found in good condition
on arrival. In any case care must be taken to preserve them
from mechanical injury during transit, and it is also import-
ant to take cuttings that are destined for shipment at a time
when the eyes are still unawakened from their winter’s sleep,
because when growth has commenced they are the portions.
most lable to damage in transit. Occasionally, though not:
often, cuttings for shipment are taken in autumn, planted at.
once in well-manured ground to root, and only sent away:
in the ensuing spring; this practice, however, has nothing:
special to recommend it.
Reproduction of hops from underground runners is a
method rarely employed in practice, and, like the possibility
of producing new plants from aerial portions of the bine, or
even from buds, is of merely theoretical interest.
VARIETIES OF THE Hop.
There has been no lack of attempts to thoroughly classify
the existing varieties of hops, Braungart, in particular, having
bestowed special attention on this question!; nevertheless
1 Die Varietéten des Hopfens (with 26 photo. plates, natural size). J. G.
Wolfe, Freising, 1881.
3
34 HOPS:
the success attained is, so to speak, negative from the nature
of the case, most of the so-called varieties being nothing
more than local modifications.
Strictly speaking, only three types exhibiting morpho-
logical differences are known, viz. :—
1. Red hops ;
2. Green hops; and the intermediate
3. Pale green hops.
(1) Red Hops.
The members of this variety, which constitute the early
and most of the middle-early ripening sorts, begin to grow
early in the spring, the first shoots appearing at the
beginning of April. They are of a reddish violet colour, and
the bine remains a red brown during the whole of its life.
The leaves are dark green, and have shorter stalks than
those of the green hops. The blossom appears about the
third week in July, and the individual flowers show long,
protruding, white stigmata, the growth of the cones being
strongest at the end of the month. The bracts and
bracteoles, and thus the entire flowers, increase in size very
rapidly, the colour changing at the same time to a yellowish
green shade. Ripening commences in the second half of
August. The cones are closed, about 14 to 1% inch long
and 4 inch in diameter, and are pale yellow with a reddish
tinge; the golden yellow lupulin granules are present in
large numbers and the cones are greasy to the touch.
Most red hops exhibit a fine and aromatic odour, the most
celebrated being those grown in the districts of Spalt and
Saaz, English and American red varieties being inferior to
these in point of aroma. Though a high yield is not to be
expected from hops of such excellent quality, they are
nevertheless more profitable than the more productive green
hops, because of the higher prices they command. In good
THE HOP PLANT. 35
years the produce of red hops amounts to 4 to 6 quintals per
hectare (3 to 5 cwt. per acre). The period of growth up to the
stage of ripeness is about 105 to 120 days. .
2. Green Hops.
These are more luxuriant in growth than the preceding
sorts, though the first shoots are several days later in
making their appearance. The colour of the bine and leaves
is uniformly green, the latter being longer in the stalk
‘and rather smoother than the leaves of red hops. The
blossoms, which appear about the end of July, are crowded
close to the spike, with short stigmata tipped with brown.
The cones are full grown by the end of August, and are
' green, open, and usually long. They ripen in September
and are then of a pale green colour, the lupulin being reddish
yellow when grown on exposed ground, but tough and
brownish where the soil is moist. The aroma is somewhat
less agreeable than that of red hops, and occasionally has
a strong smell of garlic, which reduces their value. Some
years, especially in wet ones, this evil smell is so powerful
and repulsive as to render the hops unsaleable.
Green hops are less difficult to grow than the red kinds
and yield a heavier crop, as much as 20 quintals per hectare
(16 cwt. per acre) being sometimes obtained; the average
yield is about 12 quintals per hectare (10 cwt. per acre).
They are grown in the Dauba district of Bohemia, Neuto-
mischl and Rottenburg, but principally in Belgium, England
and America. The period of growth to the stage of ripeness
takes 145 to 165 days.
3. Pale Green Hops.
In many particulars this variety stands between the green
and the red kinds, the colour of the bine, for instance, being
reddish and that of the leaves pale green. The blooms are
36 HOPS,
crowded close to the spike, and the stigmata are brown at the
tips; the cones small, long, and whitish green when ripe ;
the lupulin granules coarse, and pale yellow in colour.
Given equality of situation, the pale green hops are superior
in quality to the green varieties. They are grown in North
Germany, and to a smaller extent in Bohemia. In point of
productiveness they are midway between the red and green
varieties.
For the sake of completeness mention must be made of
an inferior quality of red hops, strengthened by cultivation
in strong soil and known as ‘‘ Hengst’’ hops. These
produce about 8 to 10 quintals per hectare (6 to 8 cwt. per
acre) and ripen in 1380 days.
The corresponding green ‘‘ Hengst ’’ hops are luxuriant
in foliage and bloom, forming large green cones and yielding
very largely, but being difficult to sell on account of their low
percentage of lupulin and their coarse aroma. They are the
giants of the hop tribe and grow even in dry situations, but
require a rich, fertile soil. In the absence of the latter
condition development is weaker and a retrogression to the
ordinary type of green hops occurs. The cones of these hops
not infrequently contain numerous corns. Ripening occurs
in about 170 days. Red hops are more susceptible to disease
and other causes of injury to growth.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE PERIOD OF RIPENING.
From the point of view of the agriculturist, particular
importance attaches to the classification whereby hops are
divided into the following three groups according to the
period of ripening —
1. Early or August hops; ready for picking between the
15th and 20th of August.
2. Middle-early or late August hops, such as the Auscha
red hop; ready for picking about 20th to 30th August.
THE HOP PLANT. 37
3. Late or September hops (comprising most of the green
varieties) ; ready in the month of September.
Each of these main groups includes a large number of
modifications, more or less constant in their characteristics.
For more closely defining these subdivisions it is customary
to prefix the terms “early,” “‘medium-early”’ and “late” to
the name of the district where the hops are grown. From
this point of view the classification is undoubtedly a practical
one, affording instruction to the agriculturist in several par-
ticulars :—
1. It gives an idea of the requirements of the variety in
respect of soil and climate ;
2. It is a certificate of quality ;
3. It gives information as to the best district from which
a grower can obtain new cuttings when necessary ; and
4. It indicates the time of ripening of the several varieties.
Attempts have also been made to classify hops according
to the colour and shape of the cones, and also according to
their aroma. Nevertheless, it is clear that such methods,
leaving so much to personal judgment, are too vague to be
of any great value ; and classification according to the lupulin
content is unreliable, and has not met with much success.
The three chief groups of early, middle-early and late
hops are sub-divided as follows :— ,
1. Harly or August Hops.
(a) The red or golden Saaz hop: cones oval or elongated,
rich in lupulin, and of fine aroma.
The Saaz hop ripens early in August, is undoubtedly the
best, and is only met with in the acme of perfection in its
native district, the quality suffering when the plant is trans-
ferred to other regions where the conditions of vegetation
are different. It is very delicate and yields only moderate
crops, but is highly priced.
38 HOPS.
The cones consist of—
According to Haberlandt. According to Hanamann.
Lupulin granules 15-70 per cent. | Lupulin granules 15-00 per cent.
Bracts- - - 75°70 ss Bracts - 65°38 or
Spike and stem - 8-70 ‘ij Spike - 710 ”
Seed corns 0:10 43 Husks - 1:85 7
Seed corns 0-20 a
Water - 881,
100°20 per cent. 98°34 per cent.
Derived from, or akin to, the Saaz hop are the following :— _
The Rohatin golden hop, cultivated around Lemberg, and,
when grown in light soil, little inferior to the Saaz hop.
The Styrian red hop. grown at Kirchbach, Feldbach,
etc. Though reckoned among the good sorts this hop has
a less fine aroma and is poorer in lupulin, owing to the
special conditions of the Styrian soil, which is clayey. The
yield is satisfactory.
The Siebenburgen red hop, grown in the county of Ud-
varhely, resembles the preceding variety.
Nearly all the red hops grown in Bohemia have been
derived from Saaz.
(b) The Spalt early hop is more productive than the Saaz
variety and with somewhat paler cones, but is of very good
quality and agreeable aroma.
(c) The early red Schwetzing hop is one of the best of the
continental varieties, and is not so delicate as those already
named. It is grown in the Auscha district.
(d) The red Posen hop is descended from and similar to
the Spalt variety.
Early English and American hops are fairly rich in
lupulin, but are inferior to the continental sorts in point
of quality.
1The author is informed by a landowner in Schatzburg that the culti-
vation of early hops has latterly diminished in Siebenbiirgen, being replaced
by green hops.
THE HOP PLANT. 39
(e) The English Golding.—The Goldings are the best class
of English red hops, and occupy in their own country the
same position as that filled by Saaz hops on the continent.
They are divided into the Early Golding, Brambling’s Early
Golding, and the White Early Golding, the last-named being
the earliest to ripen but a comparatively poor cropper. As
a rule, the Goldings do not grow to such a height as the
Saaz hop. ‘
(f) The Jones hop is a small, early red hop for poor soils,
and yields a moderate crop of good quality.
(g) The Meophams and Prolifics are weak growers, attaining
a height of about 15 feet, and yield a good crop of medium
quality.
In addition to the red varieties an early pale green hop
is grown in England, the so-called
(h) Cooper, a prolific sort, with large cones; quality,
medium.
Of the early kinds cultivated in America the following
may be mentioned :—
(i) The Pacific hop, derived from English reds, but inferior
in quality to English Goldings.
(j) Palmer’s and Humphrey’s Seedlings, small-coned green
hops -of medium quality.
2. Mediwm-early Hops.
(a) The red Auscha or -Semsch hop—This is ready for
picking about ten days later than Saaz hops, and is poorer
in lupulin, though a better cropper than the latter, and less
susceptible to injury from vegetable and animal parasites
(“vermin”). It is largely grown in Bohemia. According
to Haberlandt, Auscha red hops consist of—
Lupulin granules - - 9°135 per cent.
Bracts 77530 mn
Spike and stem 13-060 Po
Seed corns 0-275
40 HOPS.
Similar to the foregoing are the Wegstadtl, Welleschitz,
Liebeschitz, and other varieties.
(b) Mediwm-early Goldings are allied to Karly Goldings, but
the product of a harsher climate. The Colegates, which
are good bearers but of poor quality, also belong to this
class.
(c) The Canadian hop is descended from German stocks,
and is classed with the good American sorts. It resembles
the Medium-early Golding.
(d) The green Hungarian hop (Eisenburg district) is a good
cropper, but exhibits a faint odour of garlic.
(e) The green Styrian hop resembles the Hungarian variety.
(f) The green Dauba hop is luxuriant, a good cropper and
rich in lupulin, but inferior in aroma. Closely allied to this
kind is
(g) The green Auscha hop, a large-coned variety.
(h) The green Galician hop is descended from Bohemian
cuttings.
(t) The Holledau, Kinding and Aischgrund (Bavarian) hops
are also medium-early kinds.
(j) The English Grape is a large-coned variety requiring
rich soil, but the quality is (according to German ideas) very
moderate. Similar varieties are the Greenbines, Whitebines,
Cluster, and Farnham or Canterbury hop.
(k) Mathons have a whitish green bine, are of medium
quality, and will stand heavy soil.
(I) The green American or American Grape is a medium
cropper of good quality.
(m) The Tasmanian, New Zealand and Victorian hops are
Australian varieties of medium quality, the first named being
the best.
(n) Green Belgian hops.
(0) Russian medium-early hops are, according to advices
from HK. Zelinka, mostly from Saaz and Auscha cuttings.
THE HOP PLANT. 41
3. Late Hops.
(a) The late green Dauba and the so-called “Hengst ”
Bohemian hops are good and reliable croppers on rich, heavy
soils. The cones are large and open, but the quality is poor,
the smell resembling that of the leek. The plant is hardy.
(b) Rottenburg and Stuttgart late green hops are among the
best of the green continental varieties. |
(¢) The green Neutomischl (Posen) is of medium quality. '
(d) The Allenstein (Kast Prussia) is a similar variety.
(e) The Belgian late Whitebine (Carnau) is a prolific cropper
of very moderate quality.
(f) The late Alsatian hop has a green bine, and yields a
good crop of medium quality.
(g) Two late varieties of English hops which are prolific
bearers but of inferior quality are the Buffs and Juggles
Goldings.
The terms “hill” and “valley” hops are employed to
indicate the altitude at which the kinds referred to by these
titles are grown.
INJURIES TO GROWTH.
Malformations.
Deviations in the growth of the hop are the result of
irritations partly of known character and partly of an
undetermined nature.
Mention has already been made of hop plants bearing
male and female flowers on the same stem; and the case of
a plant developing male flowers after having put forth female
blossoms for several years has also been cited as an
abnormality. The presence in some seasons of a large
number of small “corns” (barren seeds) must likewise be
42 HOPS.
placed in the same category. All these instances are the
result of unknown causes, and the same applies equally to a
whole series of other deviations from the normal investigated
by Holzner and Lermer,! whose remarks are now reproduced
in extenso. :
Malformations may result from deformed growth of
parts of the spicula, deviations in the relative juxtaposition
of the spicule#, or in consequence of the development of
normally undeveloped portions of the spicule and spike.
I. Deviations resulting from deformed growths are least
remarkable. To this class belong :—
1. Deformation of the bracts.
2. Deformation of the stems of the two central flowers.
8. Deformation of the bracteoles of two flowers with
intergrown deformed stems.
II. The second class of deviations, resulting from irregu-
larities in the positions of the spicule, observed by Holzner
and Lermer includes :—
1. Abnormal elongation of the cones, caused by an
unusual development of the spike.
2. The crossing of a larger or smaller number of spicule.
3. Spicule with branchlets placed at angles of 90° only,
instead of being opposite; so that each appears to form a
single spicula with 8, 7, or 6 blossoms.
4, Spicule with blossoms arranged in an ascending line,
so that when the angle of divergence between successive
spicule is one of 90° a spiral effect is produced.
III. The more or less extensive development of the primal
branchlet of a spicula may result in the formation of—
1. A small bud at the apex of the otherwise unelongated
branchlet ;
2. A small leaflet at the apex ;
1 Zeitschrift, fiir das g te Br , 1892, No. 36.
THE HOP PLANT. 438
3. Compound cones—
(a) Through the development of the primal branchlet of a
spicula of the first order into a lateral spike bearing one or
more spicule of the second order ;
(6) Through the development of the primal branchlet of
such a spicula of the second order into a lateral spike bearing
a spicula of the third order, and so on;
(c) Through the development of terminal vegetative buds
on the axis of such spicule of the secondary and tertiary
orders.
IV. The central floral axis of a spicula twig may be only
imperfectly developed into blossom, but form instead a very
fine and extremely tender leaflet, which must be regarded as
the sheath of an abortive blossom. To this class belong also
the apparently petiolate leaflets occasionally put forth
laterally in perfect flowers.
V. Other deviations, which in some part have been
already described, are produced by the development of other
parts of the cone which are normally undeveloped or even
absent entirely :—
1. Elongations wherein the apex of the spike is subse-
quently prolonged and undergoes further growth (Fig. 17).
2. Development of the otherwise rudimentary floral
leaves of a spicula into more or less perfect foliage leaves—
(a) Foliations due to the development of perfect
(generally simple) leaves out of the leaflets on the spicule.
There are various intermediate forms between the two. The
production of foliage leaves on the cone is indicative of
barrenness, such cones being, as a rule, destitute of lupulin
glands ;
(b) A kind of bract may also develop on the base of the
floral leaf, so that such a spicula exhibits three bracts ;
(c) Or, instead of the third bract being free, it may be
intergrown or fused with one of the true bracts.
44 HOPS.
VI. In case the growth of a bract or bracteole is
retarded, it may become more or less deeply divided.
Very little is known as to the causes of the deviations
classed under I. to V. According to the observations of
Kraus, the formation of barren cones, which appear here and
there every year, is most frequently met with in wet seasons,
and after copious dressings with nitrogenous manures.
Fic. 17.—Prolongation of cone.
Should deviations of this kind be frequent in any hop
garden, the ground must be drained ; or, if necessary, some
restrictions placed on the application of nitrogenous manure.
The phenomenon noticeable in some years of certain plants
putting forth blossoms but no cones, as also the occurrence
of deformed leaves, are deviations the causes of which have
not yet been investigated.
THE HOP PLANT. 45
Diseases Produced by Conditions of Soil and Climate.
The following diseases of the hop plant are brought about
by bad weather, bad soil or mechanical injury :—
1. Leaves turning yellow.
Summer or sun brand.
Cones dropping off.
Honey dew.
Damage by wind, rain and hail.
A a
1. Leaves Turning Yellow.
This complaint may appear at various stages of the plant’s
development, and is due to a multiplicity of causes. The
outward manifestation is the gradual yellowing of the leaves,
commencing with the lowest, so that finally the whole plant
looks sickly. It most frequently appears in gardens where
the subsoil is impermeable, and if swampy places are formed
in drained gardens by the stopping of the drains, such places
will soon be indicated by the fact of the hop plants turning ,
yellow.
When the soil is excessively damp, disturbances in the
nutrition of the plant will take place in the same manner
as in other cultivated plants; and the low temperature of
the wet soil has an unfavourable influence on the well-being
of the bine, which will inevitably become diseased if exposed
to such unfair conditions for any length of time.
The water in the soil may also attack the stocks at any
place where the latter have been injured either by animals
or by carelessness in working the ground. In such event the
roots begin to rot and canker—another cause of the leaves
turning yellow; and it is worthy of note that plants which
are rotting at the roots produce very. few cones, if any:
Should the rotting occur after the cones are formed, it will
46 HOPS.
result in their dropping off, a state of things that has often
been observed. Yellowing of the leaves may also ensue
from defective nutrition of the plant, and not infrequently
indicates incipient sun brand.
2. Summer or Sun Brand.
The hop suffers from prolonged drought and excessive
heat just as much as from extreme wet. The result of the
former influences is to produce sun brand, a complaint which
is naturally of more frequent occurrence in warmer climates,
in dry years, in gardens exposed to the sun, and on sandy soil,
than under other conditions less favourable to its inception.
Sun brand generally appears in July and August, the lower
leaves turning yellow, commencing at the stalks and grad-
ually extending over the whole surface until finally the leaves
become brown, dry up, and fall off. The disease rapidly
extends upwards, and also attacks the cones if these are
already formed ; if occurring only just before picking time
the cones are to some extent ripened prematurely, but do
not suffer any notable injury, nothing more than a faint dis-
coloration of the bracts being observable. On the other
hand, if the disease appears at an earlier stage a loss of crop
will certainly have to be faced.
The cause of this disease is, for'the most part, the in-
ability of the roots to supply the plant with the necessary
quantity of water, on account of the increased transpiration
set up in the leaves by the great heat and dryness of the
weather. Consequently the normal functions of the plant
are thrown out of equilibrium, it suffers thirst, and therefore
becomes sickly. Moreover, it may happen that the equili-
brium between water supply and evaporation, so necessary
to the health of the plant, is destroyed owing to a portion
of the roots having become rotten and therefore ceased to
act, the remaining portions being no longer of sufficient
THE HOP PLANT. 47
capacity to furnish the necessary supply of water to the plant
above ground. When the disease is the result of drought
the evil may be counteracted by watering the plants; this
treatment is, however, of no avail if the cause is due to
decreased activity of the roots through rotting. Besides,
in many cases, artificial watering is too expensive an opera-
tion to be practicable.
3. Cones Dropping Off.
This is due to the same causes as sun brand; and is, in
fact, nothing more or less than sun brand itself, occurring
at a time when the hop has already begun to put forth
cones.
4. Honey Dew.
Two kinds of honey dew are spoken of—vegetable and
animal’—the former being nothing more than sap excreted
by the leaves and stems, on the surface of which it collects
in the form of a layer of sweet, sticky matter. These ex-
cretions of sap are of most frequent occurrence under rapid
and extensive fluctuations of temperature, as often happen
in summer time, when very cold nights are followed by hot
days. The formation of this honey dew may be regarded as
taking place in the following manner: In the daytime the
tissues of the leaf are surcharged with sap in consequence
of the energetic flow of this material ; so that when the tissue
contracts in consequence of a considerable fall in the tem-
perature at evening and in the night, the sap, which con-
tracts less readily than the cell walls on cooling, is exposed
to pressure on the part of the latter, and is thus forced out
on to the surface of the organs in question.
Similar to vegetable honey dew is the excretory pro-.
duct of the aphis, to which Fruwirth has applied the
distinguishing term of “animal” honey dew.
1C, Fruwirth, Hopfenbau und Hopfenbehandlung. Berlin, 1888.
48 HOPS.
Of itself, honey dew has no particular import; neverthe-
less, being sweet, it acts as a lure for certain insects, and its
sugar content makes it a good nutrient medium for lower
fungoid organisms.
5. Damage from Wind, Rain and Hail.
The degree of injury suffered by the hop plant from the
action of wind, rain, or hail depends on the violence of the
attack, and the time of year at which it occurs. Moderate
winds have very little effect, but when the force of the wind
increases the plants generally suffer injury from breakage
of the tops of the bine and laterals and the tearing of the
leaves, neither of which occurrences is likely to favour the
well-being of the plant. If strong winds prevail at the time
the hop cones are already formed, then the fruit will get
stained by the repeated beatings against the poles or training
wires, and its appearance will be more or less spoiled
(weather-beaten). Strong winds are a frequent cause of
broken (buckled) laterals, the cones on which will shrivel
up before they are properly ripe, and consequently the crop
is diminished.
Hail is a great foe to the hop plant. When gardens are
damaged by hail in the spring the best remedy is to cut
away the injured young bine. This will be replaced by new
shoots, which, when nursed by feeding with liquid manure
or nitrate of soda, grow quickly and soon overtake the others.
When, however, it hails after the hops have attained a height
of 18 to 16 feet, the results are very unpleasant. Generally,
the tops of the bine suffer most and are broken, in which
event the only thing to be done is to train a new leader by
removing one of the topmost pair of buds, and bring up the
lateral, developed from the other, as the new main stem.
A hailstorm at or just before picking time may totally
annihilate the grower’s hopes of a crop.
THE HOP PLANT. 49
The only ways to obtain protection against damage by
the elements are by setting the plants in the outer rows
close together, choosing a sheltered position for the hop
garden, and finally by insuring against hailstorms.
It should also be mentioned that young hop shoots are not
infrequently injured by late frosts. An approved method of
prevention in this case is the old established practice of
building a smoky fire every evening close to the hop garden,
the resulting clouds of smoke forming an insulating layer
which helps to retain the heat stored up in the ground during
the day, and which commences to radiate directly the sun
goes down. That this object is effected is evident from the
fact that the stratum of air below the smoke cloud is always
warmer than that above.
The best materials for these smoky fires are such as give
off a good deal of smoke when burning, e.g., leaves, fir or
pine faggots, moss, potato haulm, etc.
The frequent recurrence of fogs is injurious to the hop,
mould fungi being not only more prevalent but also more
actively destructive in seasons and localities where fogs are
plentiful. It has also been noticed that the shape of the
cones is affected by fog, their structure being of a looser
character, and their beauty and value diminished.
Vegetable Enemies of the Hop.
Of all the cryptogamous parasites infesting the hop plant
two only are the cause of any serious anxiety :—
1. The black brand or smut, Fumago salicina Tul. (Clado-
sporium Fumago Link., Torula Fumago Chev., Fumago vagans
Pers., Capnodium salicinwm Mont.).
9. The white mould, Podosphera or Spherotheca Cas-
tagnet Lév. (Erysiphe Dipsacearum Tul., EH. Humult Dk., £.
macularis Schlechtend., Mucus pone .).
50 HOPS.
Smut is most frequently encountered in years when honey
dew is prevalent, and makes its appearance in June and July
as a blackish brown to black coating on the upper side of the
leaf, which then gradually dies, shrivels up and falls off, thus
enfeebling the plant. The fungus increases with extraordi-
nary rapidity in dry weather; but, on the other hand, is
almost totally annihilated by a copious fall of rain, which
also retards the development of the pest by washing away
the honey dew serving as nutrient medium for the spores
of the fungus. Since both kinds of honey dew favour the
occurrence of smut, it is advisable (as the vegetable honey
dew cannot very well be avoided) to at least keep down the
production of the animal excretion by effective action against
the aphis.. For this purpose washing the plants with a 13
per cent. solution of soft soap, mixed with a little tobacco
water, has proved efficacious, and though apparently expen-
sive to use has been proved by experience to richly repay the
outlay incurred.
Smut also occurs on apple-trees, pear-trees, the quince,
cherry, damson, apricot, strawberry, gooseberry, currant,
raspberry, peach, and vine, a circumstance increasing the
difficulty of combating the evil.
Mould is a dreaded foe of the hop plant, so many crops
having fallen victims to its ravages, since not only the leaves
and stems but also the cones are attacked and rendered
almost valueless when the infection is severe. Such cones
are poor in lupulin, and have a repulsive smell. Owing to
its occurrence on many other plants mould is a very difficult
adversary to overcome. According to Sorauer, it also causes
damage to Rosacee, Onagracee, Balsaminee, Cucurbitacee, Com-
posite, Scrofularinee, and Plantaginee. The disease appears in
the form of greyish white patches consisting of the mycelium
of the fungus, which increases at a very rapid rate during
damp weather.
THE HOP PLANT. 51
Various palliative measures have been proposed, but the
only one that has proved efficacious is that of dusting the
plant over with about 60 lb. of flowers of sulphur per acre,
either with a kind of bellows or by means of a special
apparatus (sulphuriser). Good results are also said to be
obtained by sprinkling the plants over thoroughly with a 4
per cent. solution of bicarbonate of soda. To annihilate
the hibernating germs it is advisable to burn the bine and
leaves of all infected plants as soon as the crop is gathered ;
the hop poles should also be disinfected with sulphur, for
which purpose Strebel advises their being placed in a wooden
chest some 33 feet in length, and exposed for six hours
to the fumes of burning sulphur.
A hop-grower of some fifty-three years’ standing in the
Auscha district informs the author that in 1855, when mould
was excessively prevalent, he had the bine entirely stripped
of leaves, though it had already attained a good height.
The roots were then dressed with a mixture of liquid man-
ure, pigeon and fowls’ dung, the effect of which was to
induce rapid growth, and finally produced a crop of 4 cwt.,
the area of the garden being about 1 hectare (2°4 acres).
In other gardens where this plan was not adopted the crop
was a total failure.
Other fungi of less importance attacking the hop plant
are, according to Sorauer, Frank, and Fruwirth : Leptospheria
dumetorum Niessl., on withered stocks ; Phyllosticta Humuli Sacc.,
on faded leaves; Phragmidum Humuli Barth,’ or red rust,
appearing as ragged red patches particularly on young
leaves; Septoria Humuli West. and Spherella erysiphina Cooke,
the latter observed only ‘in England, and forming small
light brown patches with blackish edges ; Synchytriwm aurewm
Schroet., occurring as small pearly warts, containing a golden
1 Mittheilungen des deutschen Hopfenbauvereines, 1895, No. 7.
52 HOPS.
yellow spot, on the stems and leaves of the hop ; Hendersoma
Lupuli Moug., forming small black patches on the bine and
laterals. Among the phanerogams, Cuscuta europea L. occa-
sionally appears as a parasite in hop gardens, but does very
little damage.
Animal Enemies of the Hop.
The animal foes (vermin) attacking the hop plant belong
to various families. Some of them confine their ravages to
the roots, whilst others gnaw the leaves and stem, and others
again devote their attention to the cones. Although the
injury done by some of them is of little practical import-
ance there are others whose presence may place the crop
in jeopardy.
1. The field mouse (Arvicola amphibius) fortunately is not.
often met with in hop gardens. Nevertheless a single animal
will do a deal of injury by damaging, or even biting through,
the roots in burrowing. The damaged plants are easily
recognisable by their leaves withering and drooping. Put-
ting down phosphorus pills, or oats treated with strychnine,
will dispose of the enemy, but the object in view will be
accomplished with more certainty by laying in wait and
shooting them.
2. The larvee of the cockchafer or May bug (Melolontha vul-
garis) gnaw the roots and underground runners; the damage,
however, only becomes serious when the grubs are present in
large numbers. The best means of prevention is by catching
and killing the grubs when the ground is being hoed and the
first shoots cut, and by catching the fully developed beetles.
8. The small larvee of Serica holosericea Scop. also feed
on the roots.
4. More serious damage is done by the ‘‘ wireworm ”’ (the
larva of the click beetle, Agriotes lineatus L.), which feeds on
THE HOP PLANT. 53.
the tips of the young shoots before the latter appear above
ground ; later on the worm attacks the roots. The injury
is specially pronounced when the spring is cold and the
shoots take a long time to come up. One remedy is to put
down round the stocks pieces of potato or carrot, which
vegetables are liked by the wireworm. On going round after
a day or two and picking up the pieces of bait they will be
found covered with the larve. The insects should also be
be collected and destroyed when the hops are being cut or
hoed.
5. Julus guttulatus Fp., a millipede infesting the young
shoots, is voracious, but does comparatively little damage.
6. Hepialus humuli L., the otter or ghost moth, lays its
eggs on the stem during the months of May and June. The
grubs make their way down the stem into the ground, where
they dwell until the following April, causing an amount of
damage which may attain serious dimensions. The sole
means of prevention is by collecting the grubs and pup
when the stocks are uncovered for cutting. . These grubs
also feed on the roots of the carrot, lettuce, plants of the
nettle tribe, etc.
7. Omaloplia variabilis is a ground beetle, observed by
Nordlinger, but first described by Stambach. Both beetle
and larva inhabit the soil and feed on roots, the eggs
being deposited on the rootstocks in May. This pest is
difficult to get rid of.
8. Plinthus porcatus Panz. (Pl. arenarius Ziegl., Pl. porculus
F. Oliv. Gyll., Pl. Schallert Germ. Boh.) is a weevil beetle
which effected great destruction in southern Styria in 1893.
It was investigated by Kraus and Hiendlmayer, the former
of whom reports as follows :—
“This parasite causes a deal of damage, particularly in
the larval state, the growth of the plant being retarded,
the bine weak, yellow, and unhealthy in appearance, and
54 HOPS.
the rootstock dying of decay. Four to eight larve have
been found on one cutting in the early part of the year, and
a larger number are often met with on the rootstock itself,
and they are hard to get rid of.
“They are most plentiful in light soils, less so in heavy
land, and appear to live on the roots for several years, having
been found contemporaneously in various stages of develop-
ment, as well as pupe and perfect insects. The latter
appear to make their way up into the bine at about the end
of July.”
Of late years the beetle has been so abundant in Styria
that the authorities prohibited the export of cuttings from
the southern district in order to restrict the spread of the
pest.
According to Hiendlmayer! the beetle is pitch-black or
brown in colour, dotted about here and there with a few
greyish yellow scales. The proboscis is deeply pitted, with
three fine, raised longitudinal lines; the thorax greater in
length than breadth, very rough and wrinkled, with a raised,
wedge-shaped central line; elytra pitted, with granular
stripes, the suture and the alternating interstices of the
stripes being more prominent than the rest, whilst the ex-
terior ones are fused together towards the rear into a light,
scaly callosity. The limbs are all dentated near the ex-
tremities. The beetle is 2? to 4 inch long. The larve,
which are ? inch long, have pitch-brown heads and black
maxillaries, the body being ivory-yellow. Two brown tufts,
forming four rows, are placed on each ring, on both sides of
the dorsal line, and, in addition, each of the pro-legs carries
a similar tuft.
To ascertain with certainty whether a hop garden is
really infected, it is necessary to sacrifice a few plants by
1 Zeitschrift fiir das g te Br , 1893, No. 37.
THE HOP PLANT. 55
taking them up bodily out of the ground and cutting them
in pieces, which treatment will lead to the detection of the
larvee when the beetles are present. Particular attention
should be devoted to old-established gardens, and those on
warm light soil, because the weevil prefers this class of land
to more cohesive ground.
According to Wachtel, the habit of the weevil of boring
holes for the deposition of its eggs in the bine a few inches
above the ground enables one to combat the pest, and in
some years to entirely annihilate it, by deep earthing and
autumn cutting. The former operation constrains the weevil
to deposit its eggs higher up the stem than usual, and con-
sequently the larve, having to eat their way through a longer
length of bine in order to reach the root, are still in the stem
when the hops are picked. Hence, if the bine is immediately
afterwards cut off close to the ground, the larve remain in
and perish with the cut bine.
Such a result, however, is obtained only when the cutting
is effected in the autumn as soon as the hop harvest is over;
since if left to early spring the operation is useless, the larvee
having meantime reached the rootstock, injury to which will
lead to the death of the whole plant.
As it may be assumed that the original habitat of this
weevil was the wild hop, from which it has made its way
into the gardens where the cultivated varieties are grown,
it is advisable to exercise particular diligence in destroying
wild hops in the vicinity of the gardens. Care should be
taken not to confound the hop weevil with Otiorhynchus
Ligustici, which attacks the hop stem but does only slight
damage. ,
9. Earthworms, if present in large numbers, may also
damage the young shoots of the hop.
10. Hop nematode worms. Barth has shown that “nettle
sickness’ in hops is caused by nematodes, identified by him
56 HOPS.
as Heterodera Schachtii. When infested with these pests the
young hop loses its climbing powers, and the tendrils grad-
ually languish, remain small, and put forth peculiarly shaped
leaves resembling those of the stinging nettle. No nema-
todes were found at all in the parts of the plant above ground,
but the young tender rootlets exhibited knotty swellings,
forming the habitation of the lemon-shaped females of the
Heteroderu. Isolated cases of nettle sickness have been
observed in Oberhofen, near Bisweiler (Hagenau district).
The foliage of the hop plant is infested by a larger num-
ber of pests, different from those attacking the roots :—
1. Tetranychus telarius L., the red hop spider or mite (7.
dacius Koch, T. humuli Fleischm., T. lintearicus Dufour, Trom-
bidium telarium Herm., Gamasus telarius Lotz.), is the dreaded
foe that causes ‘‘copper brand’. This minute pale red or
orange yellow animal, which is barely ;‘5 inch in length, in-
habits the under side of the leaves, and. also infests the cones,
covering the lower surface of the leaf with a fine grey web
in which the eggs are laid. The infected leaves are covered
with brown patches, which, starting from the angles of the
veins, spread over about one-half of the entire surface ; the
leaves then wither up and fall off, as is also the case with
infected cones. Owing to the circumstance that this spider
occurs on many other plants, such as the lime, the oak, the
bean, hemp, poppy, flax, rose, acacia, strawberry, etc., it is
very difficult to eradicate. When present in force it always
means a considerable loss of crop.
The insecticide used is a 1} per. cent. solution of green
soap mixed with 14 per cent. of quassia extract; and the
washing of the plants with a 1} per cent. solution of alum
has‘recently been recommended. Both are highly efficacious,
but, as the spider attaches itself firmly to the under side of
1Frank and Sorauer, Jahresbericht des Sonderausschusses fiir Pflanzen-
Schutz, 1895.
THE HOP PLANT. 57
the leaves, the washing must be performed in a very careful
manner if good results are to be obtained. Picking off the
leaves in good time and burning them has also done good
service in many cases.
The spiders hibernate in their webs in sheltered places, a
few of them remaining in cracks of the stems, and also in
the ground itself. ;
It is of importance in the eradication of the pest that all
remains of hop plants should be destroyed after the harvest,
the soil and stocks strewn with lime, and the poles treated
in a suitable manner. - Strebel recommends brushing the
latter over with alum solution, and considers that immersion
in water for about a fortnight will also do good. Wagner
looks upon the poles as a refuge for spiders, and recommends
the use of wire frames as a preventive.
2. Cosmopteryx eximia Hw. (C. Drurella St., C. Zieglerella
Hb.), the hop miner moth. The small larva of this butterfly
bores into the leaves and excavates the tissues, filling up the
devoured spaces with a fine web. The insect appears in July
and August, and the larve change into the pupal condition
on the under side of the leaves. Collecting and burning the
leaves and tendrils affords the sole effective remedy.
3. The larva of Gracilaria fidella Reutti. injures the hop
in a similar manner to the foregoing. It appears in June
and July, and changes into the pupa on the under side of
the leaves, or occasionally rolls up the tips of the leaves
like a screw of paper.
4. A less frequent pest is the larva of Agromyza frontalis
Mg., which mines the leaf from the tip.
5. Limaz agrestis L., the common field snail, eats holes
in the leaves, and betrays its presence by the slime it leaves
on the plant. Putting down cabbage leaves for bait and
surrounding the garden with a protective belt of powdered
lime or copper sulphate (blue vitriol) about 40 inches in width
58 HOPS.
are good preventive methods. Similar injury is caused by
Helia nemoralis L.
6. The grub of the hop vine snout moth, Hypena rostrals
L., dwells underneath the leaves, which it devours, leaving
only the skeleton network of veins. This pest appears early
in the spring, and continues eating until August, so the
damage done may sometimes be enormous. The _ best
palliative treatment is to shake the larve off and collect
them.
7. The caterpillars of Vanessa Jo L., the peacock butterfly,
and Vanessa C. album L., the white C. butterfly, are of less
frequent occurrence, and on this account do little damage,
though they devour the leaves. They are very conspicuous,
and therefore easy to collect.
8. The larve of Dasychira pudibunda L., the beech moth
(crimson tail), are comparatively rare, and do little damage.
9. The grass-green caterpillar of the fleabane owl (Mames-
tra persicarie), which also occurs on hemp, peas, tobacco, etc.,
is a nocturnal and leaf-devouring pest, but the harm done
is inconsiderable.
10. Brotolomia meticulosa L. and Plusia gamma L., the
gamma moth, both of which in their larval stage are leaf-
devourers, are seldom met with in hop gardens.
11. Aphis humult Schr. (Phorodon humuli), the hop louse,
already referred to as the generator of animal honey dew,
sucks the under side of the leaves and the young shoots. It
appears in May, and increases at a very rapid rate, about
five milliards of aphides—according to Réaumur ‘—heing de-
scended from a single female in the course of a summer.
Both winged and wingless forms are known. The first brood,
_ hatching out in the spring—on many sides it is alleged that
the perfect insect lives through the winter—begins the work
1Strebel, Handbuch des Hopfenbaues, 1887.
THE HOP PLANT. 59
of destruction as early as May, and the infested leaves, ex-
hausted by suction, are ruined.
According to the investigations of Riley and Pergande,}
the aphis lays its eggs, for wintering, on the plum-tree and
sloe.
An advantageous method of treatment is to wash the
plants with a 13 per cent. solution of soft soap, containing
an addition of tobacco water. Strebel also recommends a
1% per cent. solution of sapocarbol ; but care is necessary
in using this substance, as concentrated solutions stain the
leaves and render them sickly. In England (according to
Dr. Pott) dilute petroleum, lime water, potash solution,
tobacco water, and chlorine water are used, soap solution
being, however, the most efficacious. It having been noticed
that a copious shower of rain disperses aphides, a thorough
drenching of the hops with water alone has been recom-
mended. Harz advises the rooting up of sloe bushes as a
preventive measure.
The hop louse has a number of natural enemies, which
will be mentioned later on.
12. Haltica concinna, the hop flea, is a small beetle which
feeds on the leaves, as does also its larva. The beetle hiber-
nates, and in spring time lays eggs from which hatch out
small white larve, which bore into the leaves. The greater
damage, however, is done by the beetles eating the leaves
into large holes. Occasionally, also, they attack the cones,
which then fall into a sad condition and drop off. The best
means of destruction is to shake the insects off into sheets
covéred with tar or brumata glue.
13. Calocoris vandalicus (Capsus vandalicus Rossi), the hop
bug, punctures the tips of the young shoots with its proboscis
and kills them off. The adjacent eyes then develop shoots,
1C, Fruwirth, Hopfenbaw, 1888.
60 : HOPS.-
which are attacked in turn, and the process is repeated again
and again, the result being the formation of so-called ‘‘ witch
brooms’”’. This pest carries on its work of destruction from
spring until autumn. To get rid of the insects, Kirchner
recommends beating them off on to tarred sheets; the work
must, however, be performed early in the morning while they
are still numb. Similar damage is done by Phytocoris. As
the bugs occasionally dwell in cracks on the poles, the latter
must be carefully rid of them before use, preferably by being
passed slowly through the flame of a fire, or brushed over
with petroleum.
14. Of rare occurrence, and therefore causing but little
damage, are the dwarf cicade, Jassus sexnotatus and Tettigonia
hwmuli, which feed on the sap.
15. Sciaphila Wahlbomiana v. virgaureana. This pest has
been noticed of late years at Memmingen (Swabia). The
greyish green or black larvee, which are about } inch long,
spin a sort of sheath around the leaves on the young shoot
just emerging from the ground, and, ensconced therein, feed
on and retard the growth of the juicy shoot. Stocks affected
in this manner have been found to have a yellowish and
sickly look, and did not exceed 4 to 6 inches in height on
the 17th May, whilst healthy stocks were already 40 to 60
inches above ground. Both poled and wired gardens were
attacked. Despite the favourable influence of the weather
during the latter part of the month, the crop on the affected
plants amounted to only about one quarter of the quantity
yielded by the others, many of the shoots having finally died.
Greater damage was prevented by stripping and crushing
the caterpillars in their webs.. The pupal stage is generally
reached by the end of May, and the butterflies make their
escape in the early part of June.!
1Frank and Sorauer, Jahresbericht des Sonderausschusses fiir Pflanzen-
schutz, 1895.
THE HOP PLANT. 61
16. Forficula auricularia, the earwig, has occasionally ap-
peared in large numbers in the hop gardens of the Unter-
franken district, and devoured large holes in the leaves. For
catching them the use of suspended glasses filled with water
and syrup, or baskets or paper bags filled with fresh moss,
has been recommended.
17. In 1887 great damage was committed in Alsace by
caterpillars of the cherry moth, Geometra hirtaria (Dr. Blo-
meyer, Die Cultur der landwirthschaftlichen Nutzpflanzen).
The stem of the hop plant is endangered by the caterpillar
of the hop worm (Botys silacealis Hub., B. lapulina Cl., B.
nubtalis Hbn.) and of Otiorhynchus Ligustict L.
1. Botys silacealis. The brown nocturnal butterfly lays
its eggs on the young juicy tendrils of the hop in the month
of June. The caterpillars soon hatch out and bore into the
stem, which they mine in a downward as well as an upward
direction, several being often found in a single stem. The
affected plants become sickly, a condition manifested ex-
ternally by retarded growth and a decreased putting forth of
laterals, the latter, together with the cones they bear, not
infrequently falling off.
In September the grub leaves the stem and bores a hole
in the hop pole, where it passes the winter. In wired gar-
dens, however, it either remains in the stem of the hop or
else seeks out a sheltered spot for hibernating. To eradicate
this dangerous insect the building of fires in hop gardens at
the time the butterfly takes wing has been recommended, the
insects, attracted by light, perishing in the flame. The bine
should also be cut off close to the ground and burnt as
soon as the harvest is over, in order to destroy any remaining
larve. Particular attention must be devoted to the poles,
since it is in these that many of the insects winter; passing
1Frank and Sorauer, Jahresbericht des Sonderausschusses fiir Pflanzen-
schutz, 1895
62 HOPS.
them slowly through the fire or immersing in water for a few
days will infallibly kill the inhabitants; and brushing the
poles over with tar is highly efficacious, if somewhat labori-
ous.
2. Otiorhynchus Ligustici, the heart wort or lovage weevil
or “glutton,” is of less frequent occurrence. It bores holes in
the stems and also gnaws the young. shoots, but no great
damage from this source has yet been recorded. If the
weevil is noticed about in large numbers it can be easily
got rid of by spreading sheets and shaking the bine.’
BENEFICIAL InsEcTs oN Hops.
The natural enemies of the pests attacking the hop con-
stitute so many natural protectors of the plant. Special
mention of these beneficial insects is necessary, because the
hop-grower is apt to regard as injurious, and destroy, any
member of the insect tribe present in the hop garden, without
thinking of the existence of any evincing a friendly disposi-
tion and affording assistance in the destruction of the real
foes of the plant. Therefore, to remove misapprehension of
this kind, some of the useful insects will now be described.
1. Aphides are destroyed in large numbers by the larva
of the golden-eye, Chrysopa vulgaris, on which the name of
“ Blattlauslowe ’’ (aphis lion) has been appropriately be-
stowed.
This fly hibernates in sheltered spots, and in the spring
lays its eggs like a string of pearls on the surface of the leaves.
The green larve have three pairs of legs, and strong man-
dibles by means of which they catch the aphides, the latter
1 Transtator’s Note.—Miss Hi. A. Ormerod, in her fifteenth report on In-
jurious Insects, 1892, p. 53, and also in the sixteenth report, 1893, p. 74,
mentions damage done by the ‘‘strig maggot,’’ believed to be a species of
Cecidomyia, which bores in the strig or spike of the hop cone.
THE HOP PLANT. 63
being killed by suction, not eaten bodily. When the larva
is full grown it passes into the pupal state, and very soon
the perfect insect makes its appearance, and lays eggs in its
turn, several generations being produced in the course of a
year. The number of aphides which a single larva is capable
of destroying is very great.
The larvee of the genus Hemerobius, the pearl fly, are also
useful in a similar way.
2. A more dangerous enemy to the aphis is the larva of
the moon-spot hovering fly, Syrphus seleniticus, a greenish grey
legless maggot which also kills by suction.
3. The Coccinella, or lady-bird tribe, are very beneficial,
especially the larve,, the chief aphis-hunter among them being
the larva of Coccinella septempunctata, the common lady-bird.
This larva is provided with six legs, and is greyish black in
colour, the head and belly being yellowish ; it inhabits the
under side of the hop leaf, and devours the hop lice by thou-
sands. The chrysalis is hairless, smooth, and dotted with
black spots on a yellow ground. Several generations are
produced during the year, and, on account of its great use-
fulness, this insect deserves to be carefully protected in all
hop gardens.
4, Acarus coccineus, a kind of mite, also pursues the aphis
and kills it by suction.
5. Ichnewmon flies lay their eggs in the living bodies of the
larve of moths, etc., injurious to hops, and should, therefore,
be protected.
Fruwirth says that the insects inimical to hop pests should
be purposely introduced into hop gardens. The lady-bird, for
instance, is found in large numbers on the sallow (Salix
caprea), and is easily caught in an inverted umbrella, etc.
PART III.
CULTIVATION.
THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE HOP IN RESPECT OF CLIMATE,
SoIL AND SITUATION.
Climate.
THE hop is a plant of the central temperate zone, and is
cultivated in Europe, America and Australia. Strebel! says
that ‘if the centres of the countries and districts where hop- ©
growing is carried on with the greatest success be connected
by a line, there results a curve which, to commence with
America, leads from the states of Michigan and New York
to the county of Hereford in the south-west of England.
From Hereford the line, with some interruption, passes to
the south-eastern corner of the island through Kent, thence
directly eastward to Belgium, and curves round to the
south-east through Lorraine and Alsace, to re-curve through
Hagenau, Rottenburg, and Spalt; ascending towards Bohemia
over Saaz; passing with several breaks through Silesia into
the Neutomischl district, and terminating near Allenstein in
East Prussia. Certain districts are left untouched by this
curve, but if it be considered as a belt, about 14 degree of
latitude in breadth, then the whole of the principal centres
of production will be included, with the exception of Altmark,
Styria, and a few small isolated districts.”
1H. B. Strebel, Handbuch des Hopfenbawes, Stuttgart, 1887.
CULTIVATION. 65
The climatic conditions of this belt will therefore afford
a criterion of the requirements of the hop plant in this par-
ticular.
According to Fruwirth the limits of hop cultivation in
Europe are bounded by the forty-sixth and sixtieth parallels.
In the eastern states of America the hop is grown between
the thirty-sixth and forty-fifth, and in the western part of
that continent between the thirty-sixth and fifty-fifth parallels.
In Asia, and particularly in the Nilgherry ! Mountains—
Blue or Nilgiri Mountains—of India, which are celebrated
for their fertility and moderate climate, attempts are said
to have been formerly made in the direction of hop cultiva-
tion ; and this district lies south of the twelfth parallel of
north latitude.
It is also worthy of note that endeavours are being made
to grow hops on an experimental scale in Egypt, at the
Experimental Farm of the State Agricultural College near
Cairo (30° N. latitude).?
In the southern hemisphere (Australia) the hop district’
lies in the zone enclosed by the thirtieth and forty-sixth
parallels of south latitude.
In Europe the hop flourishes up to a height of 1,640 to
1,970 feet above sea level, and in Eastern America up to 1,480
feet, whilst on the western coast the extreme limit is about
2,460 feet. Although the wild hop is also found almost every-
where on the banks of streams and in plantations in the
above-named districts, it would nevertheless be rash to con-
clude that the occurrence of wild hops is a guarantee of the
existence of conditions favourable to the growth of the cul-
tivated variety. The value of the hop plant resides in the
quality of its cones; and though wild hop cones cannot be
held utterly valueless, and they were formerly gathered for
1 Oesterreichisches landwirthschaftliches Wochenblatt, 1886.
2 Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brauwesen, 1897.
66 HOPS.
use (as they are in Russia to this day), still the quality is so
inferior that it can no longer comply with the present-day
requirements of the brewer. The latter insists’ upon an
excellent aromatic article, to produce which it is not
sufficient to merely cultivate the hop as such, but a suitable
climate and soil must be selected, these being very im-
portant factors influencing the success attained. Just as
the champagne vine will only develop its true qualities under
definite conditions of soil and climate, and loses them in
part or altogether when transferred to other localities, so it
is with the hop; and it may be asserted that scarcely any
other cultivated plant reacts so rapidly and decidedly on an
altered environment as this one does.
The peculiar property of the hop plant in yielding a valu-
able product only under certain well-defined conditions is
the cause of the somewhat isolated position of the various
hop districts, without however implying that no other places
would be suitable for the same purpose.
If we examine the requirements of the hop plant in
respect of climate we find that moisture and warmth in-
fluence the welfare and quality of the hop in the highest —
degree, though it is not so much the amount of warmth and
moisture as their distribution over the individual monthly
stages of growth that is of the most importance. Where
favourable conditions for the plant to flourish are not
present from the outset it is only a waste of trouble to
endeavour to produce hops that shall be fit for use, the
artificial aids at man’s disposal being too slight to render
their use of any avail in attempting to defy Nature, and
produce fruits whose development depends on factors which
man is only competent to influence and control within very
narrow limits indeed.
Speaking generally, it may be said that the hop does not
require so much warmth as the vine. Given a mean summer
CULTIVATION. 67
temperature of 16° C.—or a total amount of heat equivalent
to 2928° C. during the summer months—a deep, mild soil
and sufficient moisture, the successful cultivation of the hop
becomes a certainty.
Schéffl asserts that hops may be grown wherever lucerne
will thrive, and that districts where the temperature of the
ground in June and July does not vary beyond the limits
of 10° C. on the one hand and 15° C. on the other are the most
suitable for hop cultivation. It must, however, be borne in.
mind that only the coarser varieties of hops will do well in
cooler climates, it being impossible to grow fine red hops in
cold districts. The hop cannot stand sharp and oft-repeated
fluctuations of temperature, their occurrence invariably re-
sulting in evil consequences; and any district subject to
marked contrasts of heat and cold must be considered as
fundamentally unadapted for hop-growing.
The hop plant develops most satisfactorily when the tem-
perature rises slowly and constantly from the first awaken-
ing of vegetation up to the month of August, and then
gradually and uniformly recedes. Low temperatures are of
no infrequent occurrence during the early stages of growth,
frosts in April and May being far from uncommon. These,
however, even when they produce torpidity in the young
shoots recently emerged from the ground, do not cause so
much damage as sharp depressions of temperature—even
though not as low as freezing point—in June and July.
If the frozen young shoots thaw out again slowly they
resume their faculties uninjured. On the other hand, if they
are killed, which happens when thawing is effected suddenly,
the damage, when recurring in April while the shoots are
still small, is not very great so far as the loss of material is
concerned, because new shoots soon spring up and develop
normally. May frosts are more injurious than those of April,
since, if the now strong bine is killed by cold, the new shoots
68 HOPS.
that spring up later will yield bine that is found by experi-
ence to produce a smaller crop of cones.
Extreme contrasts of temperature during the summer
months favour the production of honey dew, and are the
cause of many of the diseases attacking hops.
Owing to its extensive foliage and the consequent large
surface exposed to evaporation, the hop requires a deal of
moisture ; nevertheless, rain is unnecessary during the early
stages of growth (cold rain, in fact, is harmful), the moisture
retained in the soil from the winter being sufficient for
the supply of water to the young plant. This is, however,
almost exhausted by the time the plant reaches its most
active stage of leaf development, and consequently rain is
desirable during the months of May and June, and in the
early part of July.
August and September should be dry in order to enable
picking to proceed without hindrance. When the bine is not
cut directly after harvest, subsequent warm, moist weather
is favourable to the plant; the leaves continue the process
of assimilation, and as soon as the above-ground parts of
the plant begin to die down the resulting products travel
downwards to the roots, where they are stored up as form-
ative material for the young shoots in the following
spring.
The underground organs of the hop plant being fairly
insusceptible to the action of frost, the state of the weather
during the winter months does not, as a rule, matter very
much. Nevertheless, experience teaches that snowless win-
ters are less favourable, in proportion as the plants are
younger and the soil lighter ; and a very frosty winter with-
out snow may cause a deal of damage to newly planted
gardens on light land.
A hastily formed opinion would lead to the erroneous
conclusion that hops require but little light ; but though the
CULTIVATION. 69
wild hop prefers situations where the ground is covered with
bushes, this is less on account of the shade they afford than
the greater facilities they offer for climbing. Moreover, in
such places the wild hop usually finds sufficient moisture to
enable it to accomplish its endeavours in the direction of
luxuriant growth. It climbs rapidly upwards, and a close
examination will show that the flower-bearing branches
exhibit an unmistakable tendency to grow out of the over-
shadowing bushes and develop their flowers and cones in
the open, free and unshaded. The cones, deprived of the
beneficent influence of light, ripen later and contain but little
lupulin, evils which are still more decidedly manifested in
the case of cultivated hops.
In planting a hop garden it is therefore necessary to bear
in mind the conditions obtaining with regard to light, dis-
tricts that are usually pretty free from clouds during and
after the flowering time of the hop being better than those
where clouds and recurrent thick fogs are frequent.
In this respect the red varieties of hops are more sus-
ceptible; and, indeed, on the whole their requirements are
greater than those of the green sorts.
The following details (see Table A), though somewhat
scanty, afford a certain amount of information of the climatic
conditions prevailing in the hop-growing districts of Saaz
(red-hop land) and Dauba (green-hop land), in Bohemia ;
Schwetzingen (red-hop land), in Baden; Rottenburg (green-
hop land), in.Wurtemburg ; and New York and Oregon, in
North America, and thus approximately outline the optimum
climate for hop cultivation.
Saaz is situated in latitude 50:195° N., longitude 13°125°
E., at an altitude of 765 feet above sea level. The mean
summer temperature (Ist April to 1st October) is 15°2° C.
(59°4° F.), and corresponds to a total heat of 2781°C. The
temperature during April and May is fairly high, and then
70 HOPS,
TaBLE A,
Geographical Amount and distribution
situation.
2 4 3 Mean temperature, °C.
Hop District. sa a $ 3 ca a
‘i coe i) 3 182 H a
2/elstlalalelal els
3 aal° zlg])2] 2
A) El Ele e) 4] 2/4
<E|-
Leitmeritz ~ 11894]50-32 14-9 | 561915-1 /17°6 |19°7 |20°0 |18°9 /13°9.
Bohemian Low- 11 tobositz -|,, [5031 J14-2 | 503f12'8 [15-2 l14-1 lara J1s-5 [12-6
Schlan -] ,, [60-13 |14°5 | 820]10°1 (13:3 |16-1 [20-8 /19-1 |13°3
Southern Slope / Bohemian Leipa] ,, [50°41 |14:30) 863]10-0 [12-7 |14°6 |18°6 |16°5 |10°4
ofSudetes \ Weisswasser -| ,, [50°30 /14-47|1007}10-0 |12-4 |14-4 18-3 /15°8 /10°3
Aussig -|,, [60-39 14-4 | 476f4-1 [13-1 [15-5 [18-9 17-0 11-7
Kaaden -| ,, (50-22 |13-°3 | 981] 9°7 /12°5 (15-0 |18°6 /16°6 /11°3
Lower Egerland <j Laun -| ,, [60-215]13-48) 659]10°3 [13-5 16-1 |20-2 |16-8 |11-0
Postelberg -] ,, [50°22 113-7 | 623]11°9 /14°4 /17-3 /20°8 \20-4 /12°6
‘| Saaz - -] ,, [50-195/13-33) 764]14°7 [13-5 |15-7 |19°3 |17-0 [11-2
Upper Egerland | Luditz -],, [50°55 |13-2 (1615)
Hill country of Neustraschitz -] ,, [50°95 |13°8 |1558)
the Beraun foe a8 F .
district and 1| Purslitz -},, 60°25 |18-8 |1115)
Brdywald Rakonitz -| ,, [50-60 |13-7 |1089
Tuschkau - -],, [49°46 118-15) eo aes
Pilsen district - { §
Klattau -],, [49°24 |138-21|1851]12°5 |13°9 |15°7 |19°1 |16°4 13-7
Mannheim for) i : ‘ 2 aalvas 3 .
Baden { Schwetzingen f 1880}49 29 | 8-27| 368]10°3 |13-43/18-76)19°27/19°6 |15-0
se Tibingen for ; i : ; ' F A ‘ :
Wiirtemburg { Eating <f 1881]48 31 9-2 |1066] 7 -32)11 66/15 -93}19-25/17°14/12-41
Albany (N.Y.)-] ,, [42°39 |73-45)' 69] 8°3 [18:2 |20°5 |23'2 |22°9 |21-6
North America
Portland . i . * Thre . “
| (Oregon) f} 45°32 |122-4) 62) 9-1 /13°5 17-1 |17°6 ]17-0 |15-1
CULTIVATION. 71
TaBLE A.
of warmth. Amount and distribution of rainfall.
ae lao Rainfall in mm. Bs Bs =e
B | Eg —|fe|s5| Ze
e (esl s8l i) .) 5] .) 4) 2/88] es |
ela /ge)2/2| 2/2] 8| 2 Se/32 | 23
S$) 35 < =2/|5/5 FI ahs O°
17°5 |8202 {10-5 | 49-6] 64-9) 44-7/158-3| 57-6] 38°1/413-2} 200-1] 613-3]
15:7 |2878 | 9:4 | 48:5) 95-5, 35°3/137-3) 59-4) 50-5/426°5| 189-5] 566-0
15°5 |2836 84°6] 95:5) 46°7/114°5) 53:0) 29-9)424-2
13°8 |2525 | 7-9 | 67°7/112°8) 85:5/117-9| 92:0] 62-0/537-9} 300-4) 838-
'13°5 [2460 | 7-7 | 63°5| 71°8| 78°5| 72°5|103°7| 56°4/446-4| 263-0} 709-
14°6 |2651 | 8:9 | 45°2/102-5) 44-6/163-2| 56-9] 52-1/464°5| 144-8) 609-
13°9 |2543 | 8-0 | 72:5] 36-8} 44-7/115°5| 32:7) 48-7/850-9) 149-2) 500-1
14:6 12671 | 8-3 | 92-7] 52°7| 38°2/188-7| 73-3] 44-3/489-9} 221-2] 611:1]| Results of ombro-
| metric _observa-
16-2 12964 | 9°6 ]103-2] 49-1) 36°6/156-5| 54:0) 57-5/456-9/ 114-6] 571°5 tions in Bohemia.
15°2 (2781 | 9-0 | 75:6] 49-6) 27-0/148-2 346] 47°11877°1] 122-2} 499°3
97:4] 45-3] 56-9/109°9) 46-3] 53-1/408-9] 199-7) 608°6
105°3] 41-9) 54-4/218-8] 35-3) 56-1/512-0} 245-2) 757-2
90-9] 41:5] 38-0/157-9} 89-1) 55-8|423-2) 202-9) 626-1)
84:5] 84:0} 80°9/131°1] 76-0] 89-9/546°4| 314-5) 860-9
15-2 (2781 | 8-8 | 75-1] 82-7) 58-1/118-8| 61-8/104-5/501-0) 299°1) 800-1
1606/2938 -9/10-18] 94:8] 55°1/147-9|104:4) 86-4/110-6|599-0} 384°8 983-8)
14:0 |2562 | 8-7 | 624} 49-1| 95-5) 81-8/111-7] 97-9|498-4] 2856) 684°O1) Strebel, Handbuch
: ( des Hopfenbaues.
18-28/3348 | 8-72) 32-2/105-4'101-0) 56-3) 52°5] 60-4/407-8) 568-0) 975°8
14:9 |2727 eal fas 46°7| 48°5| 29°4| 53-5] 67-0/361-9)1001°5 ey
72 HOPS.
continues to rise uniformly month by month to a maximum
in July (mean for the month, 19°3° C.), from which date it
begins to recede, at first slowly (mid-August, 17° C.), after-
wards rapidly, so that the mean for September is only 11°2° C.
The mean temperature for the whole year is 9'0° C. The
rainfall in April is heavy, being 75°6 mm. (1 mm. = q's of
an inch), but diminishes rapidly from thence onwards,
and is at a minimum in June, to again increase to a maxi-
mum in the following month. August and September are
moderately damp. The total rainfall for the six summer
months is 377°1 mm., and for the whole year 499°3 mm.
The hop gardens are protected on the north and on the south-
west by hills.
Dauba (observing station, Weisswasser) is in latitude
50°30° N. and longitude 13°28° E., the height above sea
level being 998 feet. Total heat of six summer months =
2460° C. Average temperature during April 10° C., rising
to 124° C. in May, 144° C. in June, and 183° C. (mean)
in July, this being the maximum. August shows a mean
temperature of 15°8° C., but September is cool, the average
being 10°3° C. Mean summer temperature, 13°5° C. ; mean
annual temperature, 77° C. ‘The Dauba district has a
greater rainfall than Saaz. April, May and June are uni-
formly medium moist, and July is the wettest month, August
and September being drier than the first three months of
summer. The total rainfall for the six months of summer is
446°4 mm., and for the whole year 7094 mm. The cold
northerly and north-east winds are kept back by the Lau-
sitz Mountains.
Mannheim (for the Schwetzingen district) is in latitude
49°29° N., longitude 8:27° E.; height above sea level, 368
feet. Total warmth during the six summer months =
2938'9° C. The mean summer temperature is 16:06° C.,
and that of the entire year 10°18° C. The temperature rises
CULTIVATION. 73
from a mean of 10°3° C. in April at a uniform rate, but more
quickly than in the Saaz district. In July the average is
19.27° C., increasing in August to 19°60° C. September is
warm, average 15° C. With regard to the rainfall, this
is most plentiful during June; July is damp, but August
is drier, whilst September is about equal to July. Between
April and October the rainfall measures 599 mm., and the
year totals 9838 mm. Schwetzingen is protected on the
north-east by the Odenwald.
Tubingen (for Rottenburg) is in latitude 48'31° N., longi-
tude 9.02° E.; height above sea level, 1066 feet. Total
warmth during the six summer months = 2562° C. The
mean summer temperature (six months) is 14° C. April is
cool (mean 7'52° C.), but a sharp rise occurs between that
month and July (mean temperature, 19°25° C.). August is
warm, but September cool (12°41° C.), and the mean for the
entire year is 8'7° C. As regards rainfall, April and May
are moderately damp, the other summer months, especially
August, being more so. The summer rainfall measures
498°4 mm., and that of the whole year 684 mm. To the
south-east of this district are the Rauhe Alps (Swabian Jura),
and on the north the Stuttgart Mountains.
Turning now to the American continent and examining
the climatic conditions of the eastern and western districts,
we find that—
Albany (New York) is in latitude 42°39° N., longitude
73°45° W., and at an altitude of 67 feet above sea level. The
mean summer temperature is 1828° C., equivalent to a total
heat of 3343° C., and the mean yearly temperature 8°72’ C.,
the mean temperature during the months of June, July,
August and September being high, namely, over 20° C.
April is cool, and May must also be considered a cold month
in comparison with June. The highest monthly mean,
23:2° C., isin July. May and June are the wettest months,
74 HOPS.
the remainder of the summer being relatively dry. The
summer rainfall measures 407°8 mm., that for the whole
year being 975°86 mm. On the east are the Albany
Mountains (Green Mountains).
Portland (Oregon), on the west coast, is in latitude
45°32° N., longitude 122°4° W., and at a height of 62 feet
above sea level. The mean summer temperature is 14'9° C. ;
yearly mean, 11:44°; total heat during summer months =
2727° C. The climate of this hop district is, in general, cool.
In June, July, and August the average temperature is over
17° C. April and May are in about the same state as in
Albany. September is moderately warm (mean, 15°1° C.).
Of the summer half-year April is the wettest month, whilst
the others, with the exception of July, which is dry, are
moderately damp. The rainfall from April to lst October
measures 361°9 mm.; the winter months being very wet
bring the yearly total up to 1863'4 mm. The Cascade range
lies in the western part of the State.
The best hops are produced in the Saaz district. Next
in order of the districts cited above are Schwetzingen, Dauba
and Rottenburg hops, followed by the American, those from
New York State being more highly esteemed than Oregon
hops.
If the climate of Saaz be taken as the one best suited
for the requirements of the hop, 1.e., that hops of the best
quality are produced under these climatic conditions, it fol-
lows that, by comparison, the climate of Schwetzingen,
though warmer, is too moist. The difference between the
mean summer temperatures works out at 0°86° C. in favour
of Schwetzingen ; but, on the other hand, the latter has the
greater rainfall by 221°9 mm,, to which circumstance—
coupled with the greater rainfall in June—the relative in-
feriority of the Schwetzingen hops is probably attributable.
The difference in quality would undoubtedly be greater were
CULTIVATION. 75
it not that the greater warmth to some extent counter-
balances the higher rainfall.
In Saaz and Schwetzingen red hops are grown, whereas
Dauba and Rottenburg for the most part produce green
hops.
A glance at Table A will show that here the climate is
harsher than in the habitat of the red hop. The mean
summer temperature is 13°5° C. at Dauba, and 14° at
Rottenburg ; both places are at a higher altitude, and the
months of April and May are appreciably colder than in the red
hop districts, At Rottenburg the summer rainfall is greater
' by 52°6 mm. than at Dauba, but is apparently compensated
by greater warmth than in the latter district. In any case the
climatic conditions at both places are less suitable for red hops
than those prevailing at Saaz and Schwetzingen ; otherwise
it would not be clear why green hops should be grown at
Dauba and Rottenburg, seeing that the red varieties are
more sought after.
In New York State, notwithstanding the warmer climate,
the hops are of lower quality owing to the unusually
heavy rainfall in May and June, i.e., the spring is generally
very wet, in consequence of which the quality of the cones,
as is well known, is unfavourably influenced. A wet
spring in European districts commonly results in plenty of
foliage, but the production of barren cones and poverty in
lupulin.
In Oregon the climatic conditions are highly favourable
to hop-growing, the mean summer temperature, 14:9° C.,
closely approximating to that of European red hop districts.
Nevertheless, the high rainfall renders the production of fine
hops an impossibility. |
Of course, in view of the paucity of available data, the
foregoing considerations on the climatic conditions of the
hop plant possess only a limited value, the more so because
76 HOPS.
the influence of soil and methods of cultivation have been
left out of the question, both of which factors are undoubtedly
able, to a certain extent, to compensate for somewhat un-
favourable climatic conditions.
However, since hops, when properly cultivated, will thrive
on almost any soil, provided the climate is suitable—i.e., the
requirements of the plant are less exacting in respect of
soil than of climate—it is evident that when the cultivation of
hops in a given district is in contemplation attention must
be principally devoted to the state of the climate there. In
the absence of knowledge upon this point, direct experiment
is the only course open in order to find out whether the
district is suitable or not.
Soil,
Given a parity of climatic conditions, the situation of the
hop garden and the chemical and physical nature of the soil
exercise an important influence on the well-being and quality
of the produce. As in the case of all other agricultural
plants, the alluvial soils are the first to be considered; and
the natural occurrence of wild hops on the banks of brooks
and rivers indicates the greater suitability of alluvial land for
the hop.
Being a deep-rooted plant the hop requires deep soil,
the bulk of the roots being developed, under normal con-
ditions, at a depth of 20 to 30 inches below the surface.
Hence, fields possessing the above-named depth of soil are
primarily adapted for the growth of the hop.
Shallow ground has to be subjected to a costly process
of improvement before it is fit for the purpose. As the hop
derives its nourishment from the deeper strata of the soil, the
nature of the upper layers of mould is of less importance than
for the growth of most other crops. A good hop soil must
be rich and open for a considerable depth; otherwise the
CULTIVATION, 77
plant cannot be expected to thrive. In addition, the per-
meability of the subsoil to moisture is also an important
consideration, since the hop plant, though very thirsty,
cannot stand stagnant water. Consequently a careful ex-
amination of the subsoil must be made in selecting the site
of a hop garden, a moist but pervious subsoil being essential.
In the absence of this latter quality the plant will never
grow satisfactorily, since, apart from the fact that the
natural coldness of wet subsoils retards growth in the spring,
the presence of superfluous water is a frequent cause of sick-
ness in the plant, whereby its vitality and productiveness
are impaired. It is true that subsoil water can be got rid
of by drainage, but there is always great risk in hop gardens
of the roots growing into the drain pipes and stopping them
up in a very short time. On this account Blomeyer recom-
mends for hop gardens the substitution of the fontanel
system in place of ordinary pipe drains, though the former
is admittedly more expensive.
With regard to chemical requirements it must be remem-
bered that, though the hop makes heavy demands on the soil,
it is only the fruit (cones) and not the plant as a whole that
is removed from the land, the stems and leaves, which con-
tain the greater proportion of mineral matter and nitrogen,
remaining on the farm, and being sooner or later again
incorporated with the soil.
A plentiful supply of nutritive material being an indis-
pensable antecedent to the production of a heavy crop, the
soil chosen for hop cultivation must be rich in available
plant food, such, for example, as deep, fertile, open, calcareous
loams, rich in humus, and the sandy loams; and, although
the hop can be grown on other soils as well, preference should.
be accorded to those most nearly complying.in their physical
and chemical characteristics with the natural requirements
of the plant.
78 HOPS.
Two analyses of soils, one from the Postelberg hop dis-
trict, the other from Lobositz, are given in the appended
table :—
ComPosITION oF FERTILE SOILS FROM THE
100 parts 100 parts
by weight | by weight 100 parts of fine
of coarse of fine soil contain, 100 kilos. of fine
soil contain, soil contain, per cent.
per cent. per cent.
E Potash
s
; Be Fe
Sial4 S| 2 )8/8|t8
eo 3 .|atlea, a3 Qe ;
€@ieal[a|élela|s| 8 j<|4/a|é
Postelberg— ; i
Surface soil 21°77|78-23) ... ... [6°33/2-25/8-58/0-158}165|344| 8386/1345)
Lobositz—
Surface soil 6°2 |93-8 [81-87|18-33]2-72/5°68|8°40/0:170]194)106)1740/2040,
Subsoil - 4°6 |95-4 [82°5 |17-5 [1-78/3:10/4°88/0-100} 98/342) ...
Where the climate is moist the lighter and more porous
soils, and in dry countries the more compact and retentive
soils, should be selected for hops. Sterile sand is just as
unsuitable as heavy clay.
Though it is sometimes stated that in the Saaz, Auscha
and Dauba districts hops are occasionally grown on heavy
clay soils, this must not be taken literally, since these soils,
though naturally clayey, have been so carefully treated for
a number of years as to have lost their unfavourable physical
characteristics, their structure being now more approximate
to that of porous loam.
CULTIVATION. 79
Finally, there are the peaty soils, on which hops are grown
in some parts of Posen. Here the crops obtained are heavy,
but the quality naturally leaves much to be desired, the plants
Districts oF PostELBERG AND Lososttz.!
Percentage composition of the fine soil freed
soil contain, grams. s
gn rom humus and moisture.
. | Phosphoric 3
“a ?
5 acid. 2 ES ¢
| 8 aa ies 7
£ Fa | 2 |% Z
2 cr 2(/3|8 E
2iele S =e es g 3 g
Z/3\% 247 .|2%|2/¢ E Zk &
ca cae: eo Pe) es | 24/4 g BE &
m/e 4 s z = | = Ch 2 2 2 og : &
Ce | 3 QD 3 5 B a a Ss é a g 6
e112) 2\s 2 Blaise sles i2e|e/s*| 212
BS ;
ald|/ol/a = o/S |] 2/2 a lala] ala a |<
4
loo}
. |158] 10/168) 1 [11-123] 0-01 | 2-48|trace|0°17/1-34/0-68]1°45/1-07/21-82/70-62
230] 74] 91/165] .. {18-81 ]0-04 | 1-78] 0-16 |0°16|2-04/0°82)1-15|1-32/16-37)76:16] 78
——’
40} 30/120]150} .. 10-94 [trace|15-15| 1°68 [0°15] 2°48 [0-53/0-98/14-94/64-14) ...
grown on land over-rich in nitrogen yielding, for the most
part, cones loose, inflated, and poor in lupulin. Some idea of
the class of soils on which hops are grown in various centres
of production is afforded by the following table :—
1Dr. Hanamann, Ueber die chemische Zusammensetzung verschiedener
Ackererden und Gesteine Bohmens und iber ihren agric. Werth, Prague,
1890. The same author has also published (Zeitschrift fir das landwirthschaftl,
Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, 1898, No. 6) seventeen analyses of soils from
Bohemian hop gardens.
80
HOPS.
District.
Class of soil.
Deep alluvial, humous, yellow, ferruginous soil, be-
Saaz (red-hop land) longing to the sandy loam and clay groups. Fairly
i calcareous. Basalt subsoil in places.
Auscha (red - hop | Alluvial soil of more compact character. Rich in
land) - lime at some depth. Basalt subsoil in places.
Dauba (green-hop | More compact alluvium—so-called “cool” loams and
land) - clays.
Sivria Allavium, chiefly loamy. In the north-east the soil
y is more clayey, often with impervious subsoil.
Moravia Rich loamy sands with porous subsoil.
Galicia Hops are mostly grown on sandy sei and occa-
sionally on light sandy soils.
Upper Austria
Alluvium, compact and cold.
L
Siebenbiirgen and
Hungary
In Siebenbiirgen hops are grown on porous calcareous
loamy soils; in Hungary more often on compact
soil.
Alsace (according to
Strebel) - -
Marly and sandy loams.
Baden - ~~
Loamy sand, and in some parts on sandy soil.
Wirtemburg
Cool sandy loam-marl, with yellow clay subsoil.
Spalt (Bavaria) -
Mild marly soils, mingled with new red sandstone.
Neutomischl (Posen)
Marly sand, sandy soil, peaty sand and peat.
Belgium
Sandy loams and clays.
England (according
to Wirth) = -
Various classes of soil, preferably mild marly loam,
but also sands and clays.
Russia - -
Deep sandy loam, occasionally somewhat rich.
France -
Sandy loam.
North America (ac-
cording to Dr. E.
Ramm)- - - -
Very rich soils, overlying Silurian and Devonian
rocks.
CULTIVATION. 81
_It is thus evident that hops can be cultivated on a large
variety of soils, loose, humous, deep, rich, calcareous land
being, however, the most suitable for the successful growth
of the finer sorts.
Situation.
It has already been remarked that the hop plant requires
air and warmth. For this reason foggy, dank situations are
unsuitable for hop gardens, excessive moisture predisposing
to disease. Neither should gardens be planted alongside
dusty roads—although dust, like flowers of sulphur, may
be useful against attacks of mildew—since the dust is liable
to clog the pores of the leaves.
The hop thrives best on a gentle slope with a southern
aspect, sheltered from rough north winds’ by hills, woods, or
villages ; if planted in exposed situations it suffers greatly
from the effects of wind.
Exceptionally, as at Saaz, where the district is sheltered
by high mountains on the north, hop gardens may be planted
on the northern slopes of hilly ground without danger. When
the choice is offered between eastern and western slopes, the
latter should be selected, on account of the rougher nature
of easterly winds.
SELECTION OF VARIETY AND CUTTINGS.
As already mentioned the propagation of the cultivated
varieties of hops is nowadays universally effected asexually
by cuttings, which are taken in the early part of the year
—less frequently in the autumn—and planted out in April
or early in May. These cuttings are portions of the per-
manent underground stem, measuring.3 to 4 inches long
and about 4 inch in diameter, and bearing several vigorous
pairs of eyes. F
82: HOPS.
Opinions, both of practical men and theorists, are divided
ds to the selection of the varieties most suitable for a given
district. One thing, however, is definitely fixed: the pro-
perties of a variety are the product of the concurrent action
of the factors of growth (environment), and the cuttings are
the transmitters of these characteristics.
Before deciding on any particular sort it is therefore
necessary to closely investigate the soil, climate, and all
other particulars influencing vegetation in the new habitat,
and to select only such varieties as are grown under identical
or similar conditions, this being the sole means of ensuring
the retention of pre-existing characteristics. .
If there is any difference in the conditions of the old and
new homes of the plants, the new conditions will be either
more favourable or the reverse. In the former event the
variety will retain its characteristics, and possibly increase
their potency ; in the other case degeneration will ensue,
the more rapidly and decisively in proportion as the altera-
tion for the worse in the environment is the more marked.
Since the conditions of soil, climate, etc., in two separate
districts are never perfectly equal, the question then naturally
arises which is the best course to pursue ; to transfer a variety
from a superior district to an inferior one, or vice versd.
Most authors and prominent hop-growers are of opinion
that the selection of cuttings from a good district is always
successful, and that even when the conditions of the new
habitat are less favourable one may expect crops of good
quality for a few years at least. Should the quality then
degenerate there is no alternative but to obtain a fresh
supply of cuttings.
This procedure will invariably be more satisfactory than
obtaining cuttings from an inferior district and waiting for
the plants to. improve under the influence of the new and
more favourable environment, since, in this event, they will
CULTIVATION. 83
have grown old by the time this influence has become mani-
fest by an improvement in quality, and meanwhile their
productiveness will have greatly declined.
Experience shows that improvement in quality is a work
of time, a single generation being sometimes insufficient for
any appreciable results, these only becoming apparent in the
succeeding one. For this reason the view expressed’ by
Stamm that cuttings should always be selected from a poorer
district is only correct in so far that it is advisable, where
rich and poor soils occur in the same locality, to always take
cuttings from the poorer gardens, since they always develop
well when planted in better soil, though not under the con-
verse conditions.
In addition it is noteworthy that modifications of the
quality of the cones and habits of the plant are more rapidly
effected than alterations in the time of ripening, late and
medium-early varieties retaining for years their character-
istics in this respect when planted in very early situations ;
and early sorts also behave in a similar manner when trans-
ferred to more inclement localities.
Apart from environment, economic and market conditions
also play an important part in the selection of varieties.
The fine red sorts are invariably in good demand, their
excellent quality commanding the highest prices. Of course,
it cannot be denied that they are poor croppers in compari-
son with the green varieties. Nevertheless, this should not
prevent their selection in preference when planting new
gardens, since prolonged observation of the market shows
that the lower yield of the fine kinds is richly compensated
by their greater value, On the other hand, the coarser kinds
are difficult to dispose of in good years, and must, as a rule,
- be sold at absurd prices in order to get rid of them, so that
there is little profit attaching to a heavy crop. Ina bad hop
year the coarser varieties increase in value and prices go up;
84 HOPS.
but it must not be forgotten that under these circumstances
the price of red hops also rises, and for these the increase
is much more considerable than for the inferior sorts. The
endeavour of the brewer to employ the best raw materials
in the production of his beer is undoubtedly a weighty cir-
cumstance which should induce the grower to prefer the finer
varieties, and to only cultivate the coarser though more pro-
ductive sorts so far as economic conditions render this course
imperative.
Thus, where hop cultivation is carried ‘on extensively
on any one property, it may be occasionally advisable to
deviate from the general rule of growing none but early red
hops, for the following reasons. Hop cultivation entails much
trouble and labour, and in particular at picking time there
must be no lack of hands. Now, early hops are ready to
gather in August, z.e., at a time when the farmer has other
crops to harvest ; and when early hops alone are grown and
there is a scarcity of labour, it may easily happen that they
cannot all be picked at the proper time. On this account it
is advisable to grow late sorts as well as early ones where
there is a shortness of hands, though no definite rule can
be laid down for the relative area of the two, this depending
on local circumstances entirely. In any case the earlier
sorts should receive the chief consideration, and should be
grown as extensively as those circumstances permit, the
later kinds being regarded as subsidiary.
A good plan would be to plant a third of the total area
with the earliest Saaz (red) variety, a third with red Auscha
or Schwetzingen hops, and the balance with Dauba or Rot-
tenburg (green) hops. With such an arrangement one could
manage with about one-third the number of hands required
when only one sort is grown, because the labour of harvest-
ing is thereby naturally distributed over a longer period, and
uniformly, from the middle of August to the end of September.
CULTIVATION. 85
It is, of course, understood that the different varieties are to
be planted separate and not mixed together.
With regard to cuttings, the actual transmitters of the
characteristics of the parent stock, Tausche! observes that
these should be taken solely from stocks that crop plentifully
and satisfactorily, and he recommends the adoption of the same
procedure that is followed in the breeding of other agricul-
tural plants, rightly emphasing that strict and careful
selection of the stocks from which cuttings are taken is
of the highest importance to the hop-growing industry as
a whole.
If a hop garden be inspected shortly before picking time
it will be noticed that all the stocks do not behave alike, but
that there are always a few which are free from or short of
cones, others with only a medium quantity, whilst finally
certain of them will be found to bear much more abundantly
than their neighbours. As, however, these plants have been
grown under the same conditions as the rest, it may well
be assumed that their productiveness is an individual and
therefore transmittable characteristic.
If these prolific plants are marked for identification and
found to exhibit the same property year after year, the
previously expressed opinion of their qualities may be re-
garded as confirmed. Cuttings from such plants will be
extremely valuable, and Tausche’s designation of “noble”
will be very applicable to such cuttings. When these are
planted out a high grade garden will be obtained, and the
cuttings procured from the latter will be of equal value to
those from the original carefully selected parent stocks.
The best time for selecting the parent plants is in the
month of August, because at this time the productive capa-
city of the individual plants can be most accurately judged.
1 Oesterreichisches landwirthschaftliches Wochenblatt, 1894-95.
86 HOPS.
The expense of selection is practically nil, whilst the
results are of great value. Tausche rightly esteems the
individual selection of hop cuttings as a cardinal point in
the laying out and utilisation of the hop garden, asserting
that “when this procedure is adopted the business of agri-
culture becomes an art, in which practical knowledge and
science are united’.
In taking cuttings the age of the parent plant should also
be borne in mind, youthful and vigorous gardens yielding
the best cuttings, whereas those from old stocks are inferior
in reproductive power, and those from very young planta-
tions are generally weak. Four to six year old gardens are
the most suitable for yielding cuttings.
When the hops have suffered from disease or damage by
hail in any season the plants will be weakened, and it is
advisable not to take cuttings from gardens that have been
injured in this way.
PLANTING A Hop GARDEN.
Drainage.
It may occasionally happen that the planting of a hop
garden must be preceded by a regulation of the condition of
the soil as regards moisture. In draining a projected garden
it must be remembered that the conditions differ somewhat
from those of ordinary arable land, where, as a rule, 4 feet
is regarded as a sufficient depth for the drain pipes ; whereas,
if the untimely obstruction of the pipes by the roots of the
hop plants is to be averted, the drains in hop gardens must
be laid correspondingly deeper.
The most suitable depth is 5 feet, deeper drainage lower-
ing the water level to such an extent as to easily cause
drought. Drainage may be effected by either open trenches
or underground channels, the former, however, being seldom
CULTIVATION. 87
employed except for drying wet or boggy patches. Occa-
sionally it may be necessary to provide deep water-furrows
in order to afford a ready outlet for surface (rain) water,
which furrows are best cut in a direction aslant the line of
greatest slope. The greater the angle of gradient the more
gradual must be the descent of the water-furrows ; and only
when the slope of the ground is gradual is it permissible to
run these furrows:straight up and down, since, were this
course adopted in steeper ground, they would very soon be
silted up, and it would be vain to expect them to have any
good effect.
Generally, when drainage is necessary in hop gardens,
the underground channel system is adopted, faggots, stones,
or pipes being used, though the latter are to be preferred,
since pipe drains cost very little more than either of the
others, and, even if they did, their greater durability more
than counterbalances any increased expense. Only where
drain pipes are difficult or impossible to procure can faggots
or stone drains be advantageous. Usually the branch drains
or feeders are laid in the direction of the greatest fall, i.e.,
perpendicular to the horizontal curves, and run into a main
drain at the bottom end of the field. Hg
Drainage is always a less expensive operation in hop
gardens than in ordinary arable land, on account of the
deeper cultivation necessarily practised in the former and the
facility with which the two tasks can be carried out together.
The only care required is to see that the pipes are not laid
in any loose strata of soil, as otherwise they are liable to get
out of line, and the whole system becomes deranged.
Generally speaking, soils that are badly in need of drain-
age before they can be used for hop-growing are only met
with exceptionally. Ixrigation, although it would occasion-
ally prove advantageous, is very seldom resorted to in hop
gardens (America).
88 HOPS.
Preparing ‘the Ground.
Probably no hop-grower is unaware that deep and high
cultivation is absolutely necessary on land intended for hops.
In grubbing up-old stocks it soon becomes apparent to what
a depth the roots penetrate in the soil, and at which level they
develop most abundantly. And although the maximum depth
attained by the roots, which may be as much as 13 to 16
feet, must not be adopted as a basis in cultivation, the ground
must at any rate be loosened, turned and mixed as far down
as the great bulk of the roots develop. In any case a
thorough preparation of the soil to a depth of 20 in. to 2 feet
is not only necessary but profitable. It is not everywhere
that ground destined for hops is trenched uniformly all over,
the plan adopted in backward countries such as Russia
being to dig pits about 20 inches deep here and there near
the stocks, a method which is cheaper than digging over the
whole surfacé by hand. Where, however, horse or steam
power can -be applied, the digging of such pits is not always
cheaper than more thorough and uniform treatment of the
ground all over. It is also easy to understand that, since,
where pits are dug, the soil is loosened only in the immediate
vicinity of the rootstocks, the lateral roots soon get into
very hard ground, which they penetrate with great difficulty,
if at all; and already on this account a thorough working
of the entire area to the prescribed depth is the more advan-
tageous plan. The cost of digging such pits amounts to 12s.
or 14s. per acre, according to the class of soil.
Deep cultivation, i.e., uniform trenching of the whole
area of the hop garden, can be carried out in various
ways :—
1. By hand digging exclusively.
2. By horse labour (trench ploughing) in conjunction
with spade work.
CULTIVATION, 89
3. By horse labour alone.
4. By steam power (steam cultivation).
Trenching by hand is the best and most effectual method,
though the most expensive. Under the most favourable con-
ditions a man can only trench an area of 30 to 60 square
yards to a depth of 20 to 24 inches per eight-hour day, so
that the cost of digging an acre of ground at a daily wage
of 2s. amounts to 160s. to 320s. In many places, especially
on very steep ground, hand labour is indispensable, and it is
also suitable where the area to be dealt with is small.
When hand trenching is practised the first step is to dig
a pit about 40 inches wide and 20 to 24 inches deep across
the one end of the field. Into this trench is shovelled the
earth from the next strip, a second trench being thus formed,
which is filled with soil from the third strip, and so on until °
the whole field has been treated alike. The last trench of all
is then filled with the soil taken out of the first trench and
wheeled to the further end for that purpose.
Where the field is very wide it is best divided into plots
about 10 yards wide, each. of which is trenched in the manner
already described. To reduce the labour of carting the soil
from the first trench to the other end of the field the work
of trenching is begun at opposite ends in adjoining plots (see
Fig. 18). Thus, if plot 1 be commenced at the top end, the
final trench at the bottom can be filled with the soil taken
out in digging the first trench of plot 2. If the ground is
parcelled into an even number of plots there will be no need
to transport any soil at all from one end of the field to the
other, and where there is an odd number of plots only the
contents of the one trench in the final plot will have to be
so transported.
The principal advantages of hand trenching are that, in
the first place, it enables the surface to be levelled where
this object is desired ; furthermore, that weeds, and especially
90 ; HOPS.
such as propagate from roots, can be effectually combated,
and even certain animal pests destroyed, and stones and
roots got rid of; and, finally, that the work facilitates the
thorough mixing and loosening of the soil, as well as any
convenient displacement of the different layers, while its
thoroughness undoubtedly assists the satisfactory growth of
the plant.
eres pe ==.
k nN t =
Fic. 18.—Field parcelled out in plots for hand trenching.
With regard to the mixed system of trenching, the ground
is trench ploughed with a strong instrument to a depth of
20 to 24 inches, men armed with spades being set. to work
behind the plough, to dig and turn over the bottom of the
furrows. Given a sufficient number of men to keep pace
with the plough the ground can be got over very quickly in
this way, and the soil is stirred to a depth of 20 to 24 inches.
Of course the work is not so thorough as where hand trench-
ing is practised exclusively, though less expensive, and in
CULTIVATION. 91
many kinds of soil quite sufficient. On light, sandy loam
soils in particular this system fully effects the desired results.
Cost of trench ploughing per acre.—About & of an acre can
be ploughed a depth of 12 to 14 inches per working day of
eight hours with a six-horse team, so that it takes about a
day and a half to plough 1 acre. Two drivers and one
ploughman are required, so that altogether this is equivalent
to ten days’ work of one horse and four and a half days’
work of one man. Taking the cost of horse labour at 5s.
per day and wages at 2s. per day, the total cost for plough-
ing works out at—
10 days’ horse labour at - 58s,= £210 0
43 days’ wages 2.= 0 9 0
Total per acre £219 0
In addition to this comes the expense of digging out and
turning over the soil of the furrows a further depth of 8 to
10 inches ; and, as one man can turn over about 4, of an acre
a day, we must add twenty days’ wages, together with, say,
1s. per acre for the wear and tear of the plough and gear, thus
giving a grand total of £5 per acre.
Deep cultivation by horse labour alone can be carried out
in three ways only, viz., by
(a) Two single ploughs, one behind the other ;
(b) An ordinary plough, followed by a subsoil plough
(grubber) ;
(c) A strongly built plough performing both tasks at
once :
though a depth of more than 20 inches can rarely be ex-
ceeded by this system.
(a) The depth at which the two single ploughs can be
set depends on the nature of the ground, the looser the sur-
face soil the deeper the furrow cut by the first plough. The
proportionate depths cut by each—the width of both furrows
92 HOPS.
being the same—should. be selected so that not more than
four horses will be needed for each plough, and under these
conditions the top furrow being, say, 12 inches and the sub-
soil furrow 8 inches, two four-horse teams will cover & to j of
an acre per eight-hour day. The cost per acre then works
out at—
12 days’ labour of 1 horse at 5s. = £3 0 0
6 a 1 man at - 98.= 012 0
Total per acre £312 0
Or, including 2s. for wear and tear £3 14 0
(o) If the second plough is replaced by a grubber which
merely loosens without turning the subsoil, the expense will
probably be smaller than for double ploughing. This is the
case when the subsoil is not stony or very compact, so that
the grubber can be drawn by two horses when set to a depth
of eight inches. In such event the work will only cost—
9 days’ work of 1 horse at 5s. = £2 5 0
6 a 1 man at 2..= 012 0
Wear and tear 2.= 0 2 0
Total cost per acre £219 0
(c) When the ground is turned over to a depth of 18 to
20 inches at one operation, by means of a strongly built six-
horse plough covering $ to 3 of an acre per eight hours’ day
and requiring the services of two drivers and one ploughman,
the cost per acre will be—
9 to 12 days’ work forlhorseat 5s.=£2 5 Oto£3 0 0
43 to 6 ‘ lmanat 2.= 09 0, 012 0
Wear and tear - 2.= 02 0, 02 0
Total cost per acre £217 0,, £314 0
In many cases highly satisfactory results are obtainable
by ploughing alone ; but in proportion as the soil increases
in heaviness and compactness so the plough becomes less
CULTIVATION. 93
suitable than the spade for the attainment .of the object in
view. Nevertheless, team work deserves special considera-
tion wherever there exists a scarcity of farm hands, and
affords economic advantages which fully compensate for
the drawback of any less efficient working of the soil.
By means of horse labour not only is the work finished
more quickly and at less cost, but—and this is one of the
great advantages—the farmer is rendered less dependent on
manual labour.
In point of efficiency trench ploughing stands next to
spade work. Ploughing, followed by subsoil grubbing, is
suitable for ground with stony subsoil; and double ploughing,
or single ploughing with a deep plough, is more adapted for
ground of a uniform character.
Within the last few years steam cultivation has come
within the purview of the hop-grower. John Fowler & Co.
construct steam trenching ploughs for extra deep cultivation
(30 inches), specially adapted for work in nurseries, withy
beds, vineyards, and hop gardens, where the usual (12 to 14
inches) deep ploughing is not sufficient to thoroughly pre-
pare the soil. This steam trenching plough works with a
single share and has been successfully used in hop gardens.
Naturally, the employment of steam cultivation presupposes
large areas, and it is equally self-evident that not every hop-
grower is in a position to purchase or possess a steam plough
of his own. Steam tackle may, however, be hired from con-
tractors ; and where the opportunity affords steam cultiva-
tion should not be neglected. Bearing in mind the rate at
which the implements are forced through the soil, the
quality of the work is excellent and may be ranked along
with hand labour; moreover there is no trampling of the
ground by horses, etc., and thus another advantage is gained.
The cost of trench ploughing to a depth of about 27
inches by steam amounts generally to about 15s. or 16s. per
94 HOPS.
acre when the tackle is hired, and the farmer must, as a
rule, provide the coal and water for the engines. A not
unimportant factor is the distance of the farm from the
contractor’s depét, since of course the transport of the
tackle to and fro has to be included in the cost.
The most. appropriate time for working the ground
intended for hopsis in the autumn. Frost, as is well known,
exerts an almost unsurpassable beneficial influence on ground
newly turned up from the subsoil; even the hardest clods
being unable to withstand its action but crumbling to pieces
spontaneously. When spade labour is practised the work:
may also be done during the winter, but, of course, not at a
time when the ground is very wet or deeply covered with
snow, though in dry frost hand trenching can be carried on
without objection, the only difficulty then encountered being
the loosening of the frost-bound surface crust, which can be
done with picks.
An additional advantage of trenching in autumn and
winter is that, when delayed till the spring, the pressure of
work at that season is liable to delay the operation past the
most favourable time for planting, and thus retard the
growth of the hops for that season. It is undoubtedly
preferable for the work of preparation to be so far advanced
by spring time that a single harrowing or scuffling is
sufficient to get the ground ready for planting. Moreover,
if the ground is loosened deeply in the spring a considerable
loss of moisture will ensue, which is certainly not likely to
assist such a thirsty plant as the hop to thrive.
In trenching drained ground care must be exercised to
prevent injury to the drains by the displacement of the
pipes.
Marking out for Planting.
. As soon as the ground is dry enough in spring and has
been harrowed down, the next step is to mark it out for
CULTIVATION. 95
planting. The area allowed for each plant is not the same
in all hop districts, this being a consideration depending on
various ‘circumstances, such as custom, the variety of hop,
the soil, method of training, and the conditions as to light.
Speaking generally, it may be said that, other conditions
being equal, free-growing varieties of hops must be granted
more space than others, or, in other words, the late ripening
sorts must have more room, on account of their more
luxuriant foliage, than the early kinds. It must also be
borne in mind that plants of a given variety can be set
closer in gardens where they are trained on frames than in
poled gardens ; also that where low frames are used closer
planting is permissible than when the frames are high, the
hops growing more freely under the latter conditions than
when trained low.
Naturally ground that is in good heart will be able to
support a larger number of plants per unit area of surface
than poorer soil, and consequently the plants may be set
closer together. The closeness of the setting, however, even
in the richest soil, is limited by the natural requirements of
the hop for light and warmth, and it may thus happen that
the ground could support a larger number of plants than is
advisable in view of these conditions.
With regard to the relation between the number of
plants on, and the crop from, a given unit of surface it
would be erroneous to assume that the latter would increase
concurrently with the former; because when the plants are
set too closely together their development is retarded, normal
growth is prevented, and the result is an inferior crop both
in quantity and quality. Moreover, an increase in the
number of plants per acre is attended with a notable
addition to the cost of maintenance and cultivation, where-
by the profits are reduced. ,
On the other hand excessively scanty planting is also
96 HOPS.
disadvantageous: the plants drain the soil in an uneco-
nomical manner, producing luxuriant foliage; and, even if a
larger crop of cones is put forth, the quality of the latter will
be found far from satisfactory, since, as already mentioned,
an excess of nutrient material leads to the production of
inferior and swollen cones. Furthermore, where a large pro-
portion of the surface is thus left unplanted great induce-
ment is offered to the growth of weeds, and, in the case of
soils inclined to dryness, the loss of moisture by evaporation
is increased, to the detriment of the hop plants. It is thus
evident that the amount of room to be left for each plant
depends on different factors and that various local con-
ditions will have to be considered before a decision is made.
No invariable rule can be laid down, but the case of each
district and even each garden requires to be taken separately
in order that, from the actual conditions of soil, climate,
variety and mode of training, the grower may fix upon the
most suitable room to allow each plant to develop and crop
in the most satisfactory manner. Even an estimate is
difficult to fix, direct and accurate experiment being the
only infallible guide to success. Such experiments are not
difficult for the grower to carry out; but the question is
primarily one for hop-growers’ associations or colleges to
investigate and solve.
The experiment is, as just mentioned, easy to perform,
all that is necessary being a few plots of ground each
measuring about a hundred square yards. The soil should
be as nearly uniform as possible, and represent in point of
physical and chemical characteristics the average land of the
district. Where the soil of the district varies considerably
an endeavour should be made to classify the different kinds
into groups and perform a separate experiment for each
group. Assuming that six plots of land are available, they
may for example be planted on the following system :—
CULTIVATION. 97
Square Spave Number of
occupied by Plants per
Plot No. each Plant. 100 sq. yds.
1 4:0 sq. yds. 25
2 35 28 -
B 30 33.
4 25, 40
5 20 ,, 50
6 5 4, 66
These experimental gardens will require to be carefully
observed and studied for a few years, the crop from each
plot being examined separately for quantity and quality, and
the cost of cultivation set down. The results will then
afford a clear and reliable indication of the most favourable
distance for setting the plants under the prevailing con-
ditions of the district.
When planting a new garden in a district where hops
have not previously been grown, it is usual to set the plants.
at the same distance apart as those in the nearest hop
district, and then ascertain by subsequent experiment
whether any future modification is desirable or necessary.
In any event the late kinds of hops require, under other-
wise equal conditions, a wider space than the earlier sorts.
Thus, for instance, if 2 square yards has been found the
most advantageous for early hops in any locality, about 23
square yards should be allowed for the late varieties.
A visit to the various hop districts and an examination
of the amount of space left for each plant will show that the
extreme limits are 1 to 5 square yards. The largest number
of plants, 10,000 per hectare (about 4,000 per acre), is met
with round Neutomischl in Posen (Strebel).
The room allowed for each plant in English and American
gardens is very large, according to continental ideas. In
America the sets are often planted 86 inches apart each way,
the space occupied by each plant being therefore 5‘9 square
yards, i.e, there are about 820 per acre, or only about 3 as
many as in the Neutomischl gardens referred to above. In
7
98 HOPS.
Bohemia (Saaz district) a space 171 square yard is left
for each stock, or 6,944 per hectare (about 2,770 per acre).
When set on the square system the sides of the square
measure 48 inches ; or, if planted in rectangles the rows are
60 inches wide and the plants about 38 inches apart in the
rows. More than 6,944 stocks per hectare are seldom met
with in the red-hop districts of Bohemia, and in the green-
hop districts the number is sometimes as low as 4,220 per
hectare (1,690 per acre), each plant then occupying an area
of 2°82 square yards of ground.
The following table compiled by Strebel and supplemented
by the author gives a better view of the conditions prevailing
with regard to the number of plants. per acre in various
districts.
Distance
between Area
_. . | oceu- | No of
District. pied by| stocks Remarks.
Plants| each | per acre.
Rows. | ina | stock.
row.
Ft. Ft. |Sq.yds.| (Abt.)
4°75 | 4°75 | 2:51 | 1905
Bavaria -{ 4:92 | 4:26 | 2:33 | 2050
' 5:90 | 4:26 | 2-80 | 1710
i 4:59 | 4:59 | 2°35 | 2040
Wirtemburg -{ 4:92 | 4:59 ; 2°51 | 1905
| 5:25 | 4:92 | 2-87 | 1665
4-92 | 4:92 | 2-69 | 1776
Baden -{ 557 | 492 | 3-05 | 1568
3°54 | 3°08 | 1:19 | 4000 | Neutomischl.
Prussia - -{ 4°92 | 4:26 | 2:33 | 2050
5:08 | 4°59 | 2°59 | 1842
Alsace 4:92 | 4:59 | 2°51 | 1905
pee nee tea ate } Saaz, red-hop land.
Bohemia .- ;
4:59 | 4:13 | 2:10 | 2272 | Auscha, red-hop land.
4:92 | 5-18 | 2°83 | 1688 | Green-hop land.
Styria 5°18 | 518 | 2:98 | 1605
Hungary - { 6°23 | 6:23 | 4:32 | 1108 /\S8. Abraham,
Siebenbiirgen - -\} 518 | 5:18 | 2°98 | 1615 | fSchassburg.
England . - . 6°23 | 6-23 | 4:32 | 1108
+, foccasionally | 4°66 | 4:04 | 2:10 | 1085 &
Russia | usually - - | 5-74 | 466 | 298+] 1615 |x. Zelinka.
Nth. Yakima (U.S.) 722 | 7:22 | 579 | 825 | Dr. Ramm.
CULTIVATION. 99
Before the ground is marked out the system of planting
must be decided upon. The conditions of cultivation in hop
gardens necessitate a certain’ degree of uniformity in the
relative position of the plants. Thus they may be arranged
in equilateral or equiangular triangles, in squares, rect-
angles, or (more rarely) in the form of a polygon.
The triangular system of planting does not really possess
the special advantages claimed for it in some quarters;
nevertheless it is suitable in some ‘“‘ wire work”’ gardens on
account of the better distribution of the plants. If, for any
reason, the equilateral triangle is selected as the basis of
planting, the following calculations will be necessary before
measuring off the ground :—
To obtain an equilateral triangle (Fig. 19) the sides (s) of
which shall measure 1°5 yards, the distance cd=h, the
hypotenuse, is found as follows :—
2 = 8 ye
I= 8-5; h = 5/8 = > JB = 1-299 or, say, 18 yd.
This distance must then be measured off along the
longitudinal rows as shown in Fig. 19, and, on joining the
points a, b, d and so on, a series of perfectly equilateral
triangles will be obtained. With this system a larger
number of plants are present per unit of area than when set
in squares with the same length of side (1°5 yards), but
conversely each plant occupies a correspondingly smaller
space of ground than in the square system.
AY Smt (te
oe = * WE} = 1:9485 sq. yds.
(4840 + 1-9485 = 2484),
Square system: F, = s? = 1°5 x 1:5 = 2°25 sq. yds.
(4840 + 2-25 = 2151).
Triangular system: F = 2
i.e., in the latter case 2,151 and in the former 2,484 plants
can be set per acre; but by planting on the square system
at distances of /1°9485=1:395 yard apart the larger number
of plants (2,484) can also be got into an acre.
100 HOPS.
Marking the ground off into triangles is always a more
troublesome job than setting it out in squares or rectangles ;
and, furthermore, the triangular method increases the
difficulty of team work in cultivating the garden, as well
as causing loss of time in tying the plants to the poles.
Thus, when the plants are set in squares, and usually also
when set in rectangles, the tyer can generally deal with four
q
es“
i)
“ a
See \
m . a
Fig. 19.—Planting on the triangular system.
plants from one centre, which is not altogether practicable
when triangular setting is adopted. And when the plants
are so high that a ladder has to be used in tying, this
inconvenience of the triangular system becomes more
apparent, the hop ladder having to be shifted a greater
number of times. In most cases square or rectangular
planting is preferred (Figs. 20 and 21).
CULTIVATION. 101
The arrangement of the plants in polygonal order, as was
formerly done in some places and is probably still practised,
is inadvisable. The direction of the longitudinal rows is
generally indicated by the natural situation of the garden.
If, however, free choice is possible the rows should run from
south-east to north-west on light dry soils, and from north
ay
Pe.
a oS
Bye Pr Sei esac e2e----- 4 --—=4D
C3
7a
Ww ~3
4
|} ___*¢ —> Cy
(_
| b
< - ron —< c
s
2 s q
- Cc
Fig. 20.—Planting in squares.
to south on compact moist ground. By this means, in light
soil, the direct impact of the sun’s rays (insolation) between
the rows is prevented, the loss of water by evaporation being
thereby reduced, and the ground retains its store of moisture;
whilst on the other hand, in the case of heavy soils, the
north and south direction of the rows does not oppose any
102 HOPS.
obstacle to the penetration of these rays, which therefore
help to dry the ground more rapidly than would otherwise
be the case.
Where possible, on steep inclines the rows should run at
right angles to the line of greatest fall. This plan helps to
minimise silting; nevertheless, as already mentioned, the
shape of the field usually determines the direction in which
ae
3
E G
Fig. 21.—Planting in rectangles.
the rows shall run—generally parallel to the longer sides of
the garden, irrespective of the points of the compass.
If the new garden is open towards the north and west,
and unprotected by hills, plantations or buildings, it is
advisable to plant the exposed sides with trees, or at least
make the end rows narrower. The shield thus formed will
CULTIVATION. 108
afford a certain amount of protection to the garden by
ameliorating the evil influence of wind and storms, the
former especially.
Though the task of marking out the ground for hop
planting is, of itself, very simple, it must nevertheless be
done carefully, since careless and irregular marking renders
the hop garden permanently unsightly and increases the
difficulties of ploughing.
For marking out in the triangular system~-the following
procedure should be adopted: In the first place, if the field
is not naturally rectangular, a rectangular space must be
pegged out (see m, n, 0, p, Fig. 19). Then, in the position to
be occupied by the first row aa, a cord, knotted at intervals
representing one half of the side of the desired triangle, is
stretched in a direction parallel to the side mn, and the
position of the knots is marked by pegs. The same plan is
next followed along the side op.
Then a second cord is stretched from a in the direction gq,
this cord being also knotted, but in such a manner that the
intervals between the knots are equal to double the length
of the hypotenuse, i.e. = 2h. The position of these knots,
which represent the position of the subsequently erected hop
poles, is marked by pegs. In gardens where frames are to be
used for training the hops it is better to put in at once the
pegs to which the training wires will afterwards be attached.
The first row will now be finished, and the second row may
be commenced by laying the cord along the direction cc, mark-
ing off the single length h and from this point marking off
the knotted lengths=2h. The third row is treated like the
first, the fourth like the second, and so on.
That portion of the field lying outside the pegged rect-
angle is marked by the aid of a set frame (Fig. 22) made of
laths, the limbs s s being the same length as the sides of the
triangle, and enclosing an angle of 60°.
104 HOPS.
Another system of marking off (equilateral) triangles is
shown in Fig. 23.
Setting out the square and rectangular systems (Figs. 20
and 21) is a very simple matter. If the latter plan be
adopted, a quadrangular portion is pegged out on the ground
if the field is of irregular shape. A cord knotted at the
Ff |
™
Fig. 22.—Set frame for “ss
acute angles. 2
ae
o7 S) >
~—
eS Teee
5
Fic. 23.—Planting in equilateral triangles.
proper intervals is then drawn from the site of the first hole
ain a direction parallel to AB, and the position of the knots
marked out by pegs.’
After determining the position of the point c and laying
out on the side CD (Fig. 20) the same divisions as on the line
1 The planting chain invented by Baer, of Masneukirchen, can be recom-
mended (supplied by F. Zimmer, Getreidemarkt 1, Vienna VI. Price, 25K.=
25s.).
CULTIVATION. 105
ay, the cord is stretched in the direction ac, and the position
of the knots marked by small rods. The points a! c! are
connected by the cord, and the marking, etc., continued at
ao, a? ¢,3 etc., as before. In rectangle work (Fig. 21) the
procedure is similar to that in square work.
a b
‘Fig. 24.—Rectangular straight edge, (a) for square work, (b) for rectangular
work.
When irregular corners are present they are marked out
by the aid of a rectangular straight edge (Fig. 24, a 5).
The following table gives the number of plants per acre
when set at the various distances specified :—
Approximate No. of stocks per acre.
Distance pence Square work. Rectangular work. Hegutlatorst telanule-
between sore .
OME stocks in
the row. Spee No. of Sree No. of erece No. of
ie upie x occupie x
br plete stocks. by plants, stocks. by planta. stocks.
Ft. Ft. Sq. ft. Sq. ft. Sq. ft.
43 4 oa sige 18 1180 was sora
44 43 204 2040 iia st 18} 2357
K 5 43 nis is 224 1904 sia on
5 5 25 1777 “igi we 21 2053
54 44 oes nee 233 1785 8 tas
' 54 5 Oe aii 264 1666 se tee
54 54 273 1562 sels ai 232 1804
53 5 she a 273 1568 = -
5s 5 os = 993 1470 es a
64 64 39 1108 = ia 334 1278
ne e's 524 826 45 954
106 HOPS.
Planting.
According to local climatic conditions and the state of
the weather the planting of the sets is carried on from the
middle of March to the middle of May, but may equally
well be performed in the autumn, provided root cuttings are
available or ordinary cuttings have been taken early in that
season, and the ground has been suitably prepared. As,
however, these conditions are rarely attainable, spring plant-
ing is the almost invariable rule. Dead stocks are replaced
up to May and even later.
It has already been stated that the positions marked in
setting out the ground indicate not the positions of the sets.
but those of the poles, or, in the case of frame work, the
pegs for the attachment of the training wires.
To determine the best position for the sets certain points.
have to be considered, especially in poled gardens. In the
first place, as far as the relative position of the plants and
poles is concerned, the matter is decided by the direction of
the prevailing winds, so that, if blown down, the poles will.
fall towards the plants and not away from the latter. This.
arrangement is desirable in order to prevent the plants being
torn asunder or broken by the strain of the falling poles.
Having fixed upon the above relative position for the
plants—which, as a rule, will be to the west or south of
the poles—the holes to contain the sets are dug about 8 to
12 inches from the marked spot in the direction indicated.
To facilitate working, uniformity of direction and distance
in setting must be maintained throughout the entire garden.
The reason for planting the sets a little way from the poles.
instead of close to them is to prevent damage to the roots.
in pitching the poles. Of course it is impossible to entirely
obviate any injury to the roots during poling, since the lateral
roots thrown out by the stock extend much farther than the
CULTIVATION. 107
8 to 12 inches named. Nevertheless, it would be impracti-
cable to plant the sets so far away from the pole marks as
to preclude the risk of contact in poling, such procedure
inevitably increasing the difficulty of working the ground
and training the bine. On the other hand, where wires are
used, the position of the sets with respect to the marks is
immaterial, though of course uniformity must be maintained
throughout the entire garden. The holes are dug with the
spade or hop mattock, the latter being most in use; its
form varies according to local custom and requirements,
the pointed shape (Fig. 25) being most suitable for stony
and heavy land and the broad form (Fig. 26) for lighter soils.
The holes are made about 8 to 12 inches in diameter and
12 to 14 inches deep. Before planting the sets, half a spade-
ful of strong compost or a handful of well-rooted dung should
be placed in the bottom of each hole and covered over with
a thin layer of soil. When the sets are not planted as soon
as they have been taken up out of the ground it is advisable
to water them before setting, since the soil sticks to them
better after this treatment and they sprout more quickly.
The question now arises as to the best number of sets to
plant in a hole: one, two, or more? So far as experience
goes, one is quite sufficient for each hole, provided the set
is fresh, strong and healthy, i.e., fulfils all the requirements
exacted of a good, sound set. The correctness of this view
is by no means impeached by the practice, customary in
many places, of planting two and three sets in each hole,
the object of which procedure is to avoid the necessity of
replacing such sets as fail to strike, since it is hardly pro-
bable that where two or three are planted together they
will all perish by rotting or otherwise, and so leave blanks
to fill up. Moreover the idea is often met with that the
individual sets will ‘sooner or later unite to form a single
stock, an impression which is, however, erroneous. Even
108 HOPS.
though the roots of the different sets become closely inter-
twined and the projecting rootstock is apparently homo-
geneous, there can be no question of an actual fusion of the
sets or their roots, and a close examination will always
show that the individuality of the plants has been maintained
and can be clearly discerned. Thus there will be two or
three independent plants, from which eventually only two
or three stems will be required for training, and consequently
’ (%
Fic. 25.—Pointed mattock. Fic. 26.—Broad mattock.
the presence of the additional shoots merely entails extra
expense and labour in removing same. Therefore, even if
planting two or more sets in each hole were advisable in
the first place, the superfluous plants should be got rid of
at the time of the first or second cutting.
No doubt the avoidance of replanting defective stocks
is an advantage that cannot be lightly dismissed. Never-
theless, a simple calculation of the cost will reveal that
CULTIVATION. 109
this advantage is rather dearly purchased when sets have
to be bought, the usual price varying from 16s. to 24s.
per 1,000.
When planted on the square system, 44 ft. x 4 ft. apart,
one set in each hole makes a total of about 2,270 per acre,
which would cost about 36s. to 54s. If planted two sets
in a hole, the number required would be 4,540, and the cost
72s. to 108s. per acre; and with three sets per hole the expense
would be correspondingly increased. Assuming now that
10 per cent. of the sets die—a high enough estimate for
cuttings of any pretensions to quality—the total number
required for single setting an acre of ground would be
2,270 + 230 = 2,500, equivalent to an outlay of 40s. to 60s.
per acre. Of course a bed would have to be set apart for
planting out the reserve sets for filling up, but this does
not entail any great expense, since, allowing a space of 12
inches square for each set, the 230 sets would only occupy
an area of as many feet square; and as the plants are only
destined for temporary sojourn no particular preparation
of the ground is required. Moreover the cost of labour in
replacing defective sets is a small item in comparison with
the saving effected in the purchase of sets for double
planting.
Thus 4,540 sets per acre (two in a hole) cost 72s. to.
108s., whereas 2,270 + 230 = 2,500 per acre only cost 40s.
to 60s. ; the extra expense of double planting being therefore
32s. to 48s. per acre.
Although the objection may be urged that where re-
planting has to be done the plants are liable to be irregular,
it may nevertheless be justly replied that, according to
experience, the initial small differences are rapidly equalised
and almost cease to be noticeable in the second year ;.
consequently there is no need for any great anxiety on
this account.
110 HOPS.
In reviewing the foregoing particulars it is evident that,
for reasons of economy, it is better to plant only one set in
each hole, and take the risk of having to fill up any eventual
blanks, than to pay out two or three times the initial outlay
for sets. Even when the latter are home grown single
planting is advisable.
The sets are planted in such a manner that the upward
pointing buds are in a vertical position. To facilitate striking,
the thin covering of earth drawn over them from the side,
with the hand or hoe, is pressed moderately tight against
the sets, and the top is then covered over with about 1%
to 2 inches of soil (Fig. 27).
The head of the set should be about 4 to 6 inches below
the level of the ground, so as to be covered with about the
Fic. 27.—Planted set,
same depth of soil when the garden has been levelled. In
light land the sets should be planted rather deeper than in
heavy ground. If only a very thin layer of earth covers
the set numerous inconveniences arise. In the first place,
experience shows that there is then a tendency to produce
lateral runners in the roots, which draw away a not incon-
siderable proportion of the nutrient matter absorbed from
the soil, as well as that elaborated in the green organs of
the plant, on which account they have been very properly
termed “robbers”. In addition to this, the stocks from
cuttings originally planted somewhat shallow will in course
of time, by successive cutting every year—whereby a portion
of the last year’s bine is always left—reach so near the
CULTIVATION. 111
surface that usable sets can no longer be cut therefrom.
Such stocks also throw up shoots too early in the year,
an undesirable tendency, since they are liable to be nipped
by frost, whereby an undoubted loss of structural material
is sustained.
Furthermore, as pointed out by Fruwirth, a thicker
covering of soil over the sets is also advisable, because it
keeps the ground moist around the base of the underground
stem, and thus favours the growth of rootlets, i.e. the
Fig. 28.—Planting two or three sets in a hole.
organs whose task it is to absorb nutrient matter from the
soil. The more plentiful the rootlets the better is the
plant able to utilise the soil and manure—in other words,
to feed itself and develop.
Growers exhibiting any particular preference for planting
two or more sets in a hole should remember to arrange them
with their heads towards a common centre, and with the
butts pointing outwards (Fig. 28).
Cultivation and Cropping of the Hop Garden in the First Year.
Given warm, damp weather in spring, the first shoots
will make their appearance about a fortnight after planting.
Every. hop-grower knows that the sets are not invariably
uniform in this respect, but that there will always be a
few that require longer to come up, as well as others that,
from one cause or another, lose their vitality and die.
112 HOPS.
If gaps are noticed in the sets about a month after
planting it is probable that the plants in such places have
succumbed. As, however, deep planting may also be the
cause of late sprouting, it is well to carefully scrape away
the soil from above the sets in question, and to examine
whether they are alive or not. If the former be the case,
a little assistance in the shape of removing a portion of the
overlying soil will suffice to enable the shoots to quickly
make their appearance. Should, however, the sets be
found to have rotted or become sickly, there is no other
course open but to replace them by others, for which
purpose it is necessary to always have a certain number
in reserve, planted in a special bed. If these reserve sets
have already sprouted they will soon overtake the neigh-
bouring plants, provided they are transplanted with care,
so as not to disturb the adherent soil or injure their
vitality during removal.
If drought sets in soon after planting, or while the plants
are still in an early stage of development, it is advisable to
feed the plants with water, or, better still, diluted liquid’
manure. The nitrogen in the latter stimulates the plants
to more vigorous growth; the production and activity of
the roots is assisted, and they soon penetrate deep enough
to find sufficient moisture to enable them to withstand
drought without injury.
As soon as the stems attain a height of 20 to 30 inches
the plants require hoeing, the superficial loosening of the
soil helping to keep the subsoil layers moist, and thereby
facilitating root formation. Opinions are somewhat divided
as to whether the plant should be trained or left to grow
loose the first season. The author believes in the former
course, and considers the alternative to be excusable only
where the expense of training during the first year is for
some reason or other very considerable.
CULTIVATION. 1138
Although the return from a first year’s crop (virgin hops)
—about 15 to 2 cwts. per acre of somewhat open and poor,
though saleable, cones—forms an item not to be despised,
and loose-growing hops do not produce any appreciable
quantity of cones, it is on other grounds than this that
the author regards training as preferable even in the first
season. Contrary to the general assumption, the young
plants are not weakened in any way by being trained, but
actually develop much more vigorously, as inspection of
the stems and leaves will readily show.
The following special reasons may be given in favour
of training the plants in their first year :—
1. Weeds can be eradicated more easily, since, if the
plants are left to sprawl over the ground, they are always
in the way of the weeders, and the leaves and stems
suffer damage which cannot by any means benefit the
plants; and matters are still worse when team work has.
to be doze.
2. It is uneconomical, particularly during the first year,
to leave uncropped the free space between the hop plants.
Even though’ extra manuring is required, a crop of vege-
tables—cucumbers, onions or beans—is worth considering.
The cultivation of hoed crops or vegetables in the
intervening spaces is certainly profitable, and can be re-
commended, especially to small farmers, who are seldom
in difficulties with regard to labour. Such crops, however,
require proper attention to be remunerative ; and sufficient
cultivation to attain this object without injury to the hop
plants is only possible where the latter are trained.
Of course, even where no other crop is being grown,
the hop garden must be hoed and weeded at least twice
during the season, in order to keep the ground clean and
aerated. By this treatment the depressions around the plants
gradually disappear, and by the autumn the entire surface
114 HOPS.
of the garden becomes levelled off—of course, provided flat
cultivation is adopted.
As far as possible the plants should not be cut offi from
the lower stem at gathering time, whether during the first
year or afterwards; because, though the cones are ripe, the
vegetation of the plant is still far from concluded, and the
leaves continue to elaborate materials, which, when the
plant dies down naturally, are partly carried down into the
roots, and become available for the plant in the succeeding
year. On the other hand, if the stems are cut whilst still
green, a certain quantity of fodder is obtained, but the
portable matter in the leaves and stem is wasted so far as
the plant is concerned. For this reason it should be laid
down as a fixed rule that the bine, after the cones have
been picked off, should not be cut until the leaves have
turned yellow or brown.
“‘WoRK TO BE PERFORMED ANNUALLY IN THE Hop GARDEN.
Naturally, the task of the hop-grower is by no means over
with the planting and first year’s cultivation of the garden.
On the contrary, when the ground is to become permanently
productive, a series of operations must be repeated every
year; and though the time at which the various tasks are
performed differs according to the district, and the means
employed are not everywhere the same, still the objects in
view are practically identical throughout. These regular
annual tasks appertaining to the hop garden are: working
the ground, cutting the stocks, manuring, training the bine,
pruning, trimming, and gathering.
Working the Ground.
It goes without saying that no invariable universal rules
can be laid down as to the working of the ground in hop
CULTIVATION. 115
gardens, the physical condition of the soil (especially in
respect of water), the quantity of weeds, the local climate,
and the situation of the garden, all being factors influencing
the task in different ways. Heavy land, for example, has to
be far more thoroughly worked than active, sandy loam, any
repeated deep stirring and loosening of the latter being
rather injurious than otherwise. The activity of such soil
is stimulated by working and a rapid decomposition of the
humus matter ensues, the result of which is to dry it and
lower its power of retaining moisture, thus depreciating two
properties which cannot be too carefully preserved and
improved in the case of light land.
Whereas, in dealing with heavy clay, the soil is deeply
stirred and rendered friable in order to bring the particles in
closer contact with atmospheric oxygen and open it up, it
frequently happens that the superficial loosening of light soil
is effected for the sole purpose of preventing loss of moisture
in the lower strata by interrupting the capillary ascent of the
water from below, and thus hindering the drying of the ground.
Of course the surface soil dries rapidly, but the inferior layers
retain their moisture for a considerable time owing to the
protection afforded by the cover sheltering the capillary
water from the direct influence of the sun’s rays and the
wind.
Dirty ground (i.e., infested with weeds) naturally requires
different treatment from land that is clean; and the result
of the multiplicity of influences at work is that hops are not,
and indeed cannot be, cultivated in the same way every-
where. In some districts flat cultivation is practised, in
others the lands are ridged ; more rarely each stock is treated
separately and surrounded by a small hillock of soil.
In the Saaz district, around Schwetzingen, in Southern
Styria, Alsace and England cultivation on the flat prevails,
or else the stocks are very lightly banked up with soil. At
116 HOPS.
some places near Saaz, particularly in wet or heavy ground,
the separate hillock system is in vogue. On the other hand
ridge culture is practised almost exclusively in the Auscha
and Dauba districts, as well as in Moravia, northern Styria,
Hungary, Posen, Wirtemburg, Bavaria, Russia, Galicia and
the United States. A comparison of the systems of ridging
pursued in the various countries named will, however, show
that there is no uniformity as regards the height of the lands.
In Auscha, Dauba, Neutomisch] and Spalt they are pitched
rather steep—about 27 inches in the two last-named districts ;
whereas in northern Styria, Galicia, Hungary, Russia and
elsewhere the general average is 12 to 16 inches.
If the causes (apart from custom) of these differences be
traced they will quickly be found to rest on specific local
conditions of soil and climate, and on the situation of the
gardens. In low-lying spots, on damp and compact soils, as
well as on such as are rich in humus, it is difficult to
dispense with ridges unless other means be taken for
regulating the removal of water; but they are superfluous
on light land—in fact, in view of the behaviour of this class
of soil towards water, its natural poorness in moisture, and
the thirsty nature of the hop plant, ridges would not only be
useless but also injurious.
The method of cultivation also stands in causative con-
nection with the climate as well as the kind of soil. Thus,
given similarity of soil, a wet district will need ridge or
hillock cultivation, whilst in drier quarters preference should
be given to working on the flat. It is therefore evident that
a single method of cultivation suitable under all conditions is
out of the question ; consequently all the factors capable of
influencing the well-being of the hop plant will have to be
considered before a decision is taken as to the method to be
adopted. Nevertheless, although the matter may appear
somewhat complicated to a beginner, the experienced
CULTIVATION. 117
agriculturist will have little difficulty in arriving at a correct
solution.
Whichever method—flat or ridge system—be adopted,
the ground must be worked in the autumn, since, like other
arable land, the hop garden must be turned up rough before
winter. The main object of autumn cultivation is to
thoroughly loosen the soil and render the latter as accessible
as possible to the action of frost. At the same time these
operations get rid of a large number of vermin, as well as
exposing the rootstocks of certain weeds whose vitality is
weakened, and in many instances entirely crippled, partly
by withering, partly by cold. It is very much to be regretted
that some hop-growers neglect autumn cultivation, notwith-
standing its great advantages; the more so because it is
evident that soil loosened in autumn is much easier to work
in the spring, and therefore offers advantages which no
farmer should overlook.
Many differences exist in the various hop districts with
regard to the methods of cultivation practised in autumn.
In Bohemia it is customary to loosen the soil between the
rows by hand or horse labour, and ridge the soil up towards
the plants on either side. The same method is pursued in
Germany, or else the soil is drawn up into a separate hillock
around each stock. In England, America and some other
districts the gardens are deeply trenched or tilled between
the rows, without regard to any particular shape. The
chief point to be regarded in working the ground with horse
labour is to see that the implements do not come too near
the rootstocks, mechanical injury to the latter in the
autumn, while growth is suspended and the soil is damp,
being dangerous and likely to cause rotting at the roots.
In the following spring work is resumed and continued
from March to the middle of July. This work is directed to—
1. The destruction of weeds.
118 HOPS.
2. The production of a loose surface, especially on light
soil.
3. Ridging the soil up to the plants, where ridge work is
practised.
For destroying weeds repeated hoeings and weedings are
requisite. Two hoeings are usually enough in gardens that
are well looked after; but, if very dirty, a third and. even a
fourth hoeing may be necessary. This work may be done
by hand or with the horse hoe, the former being better,
though the latter is the cheaper method.
When horse labour is employed, the work having to be
done crosswise of the rows, it is often necessary to help out
with hand labour in order to loosen the soil under the stocks.
If it seems advisable to hoe the garden a third or a fourth
time at an advanced period of the year, care must be taken
not to loosen the soil so deeply as to cause a loss of
moisture.
With regard to ridging, the investigations of several
workers hae shown that land thrown up into ridges or
hillocks is always subject to greater fluctuations of tempera-
ture than when left on the flat. In warm weather ridged
lands are always hotter by day and colder by night than a
flat surface, the first consequence of which increased warmth
is greater evaporation of moisture. This in fact constitutes
the main advantage of ridge cultivation, in that it presents a
means of protecting the hop from the injurious influence
of excessive wet in damp situations and compact soils. At
the same time the cleaning of the land is greatly facilitated
by the weeds being not only dug up but also buried in the
ground.
When the garden is ridged the work must be finished
before the hops come into bloom, because experience teaches
that deep-stirring the ground during or after flowering time
injuriously affects the production of cones. On many sides
CULTIVATION. 119
it is asserted that ridging favours the development of root-
lets, and consequently the assimilation of plant food from
the soil; but though this may be right under certain cir-
cumstances, ridging is never advisable for light soils inclined
to dryness, because in these a greater degree of attention
must necessarily be devoted to maintaining the soil moist
than to any eventual increased root growth of the plants.
On damp and heavy soils, however, the conditions are
different, and here ridging is suitable. As, where this
system is practised, the lower portions of the stem are
covered more deeply with soil, it is not surprising that the
cuttings from ridged gardens are always longer than those
from gardens cultivated on the flat, the latter yielding
plumper and shorter cuttings.
A short description of the implements used in hop
cultivation may now be given.
It is not very long since the ground in hop gardens was
worked entirely by means of hand tools, and even now this
is the case in small farms. No objection can be raised
against this practice where the garden is small and the
proprietor and his family are able to do the work themselves
without having to employ outside labour. On the contrary,
under these circumstances, the manual force available is
utilised to the best possible advantage, the fact of the owner
working for himself being the best guarantee for the quality
of the work done, which undoubtedly attains its highest
degree of perfection when performed with hand tools.
When, however, the area under cultivation for hops is
so extensive that extra manual labour has to be employed,
and is scarce or dear, then the limit of profitable cultivation
by hand is soon reached. There is no doubt that, in agricul-
ture especially, a good deal of work done by machinery is
inferior in quality to the same work effected by hand, be-
cause the former is devoid of understanding. Nowadays,
120 HOPS.
however, the farmer must be more of an economist, under-
standing cultivation and learning therefrom that, for
reasons of economy, team work must be employed in cases
where it approximates to, though it may not quite equal,
manual labour. Under existing circumstances the reduc-
tion of the cost of production must be the first considera-
tion of every farmer and hop-grower; and though this was
hardly feasible a few years back on account of the lack
of implements suitable for hop cultivation, that time has
Fia. 29. Fia. 30. Fig. 31.
Saaz hop mattock. Lower Bavarian broad mattock. Bayreuth hop mattock.
now gone by, and there are at present a large number of
excellent implements specially adapted for the work and
capable of fulfilling the requirements of the most exacting
grower. In the nature of things it is impossible to entirely
dispense with hand labour in the hop garden; nevertheless,
being expensive, it should be reduced to a minimum.
CULTIVATION, 121
Where the gardens are laid out on steep slopes even the
best horse implements are of little use, and in such places
hand tools will continue to be exclusively employed and
give favourable results. Of the different kinds of such
tools used for working the soil in various hop districts
there is no need to refer to more than a few typical forms.
The shapes current are by no means accidental, but have
been gradually evolved in harmony with local requirements,
particularly as regards the nature of the soil.
Fie. 32. Fie 33. Fig, 34.
Krumbach hop mattock. English hop mattock. Swabian hop mattock,
What shape of tool to use under any given conditions
is a question which practically settles itself, the pointed
form (Saaz mattock and Bayreuth mattock) being best
adapted for stony and compact soils, whilst for light land
the broad mattock is preferable, such as shown in Figs. 30,
and 32 to 34.
122 HOPS.
Digging forks and hooked forks are used where stony,
hard ground is in question, and they also do good service
in digging or turning over the ground.
Among implements, in case of need any single plough
may be used for hop-garden work, and grubbers, extirpators
and harrows are occasionally of good service. With the
latter it is necessary to see that they are not too wide for
the rows, in order that the plants may not suffer injury.
|
Fic. 35. ! Fia. 36. Fig. 37.
Hessian 2-tine hooked fork.’ English 3-tine hooked fork. Digging fork.
Only in the case of certain systems of training on
framework is there any difficulty in the way of using horse
implements; and of course their employment is restricted
when other crops are grown between the rows. Ploughs
and horse hoes, specially constructed for hop work, fulfil
their purpose better than the ordinary type of these imple-
ments. Originally swing ploughs were used for hop gardens,
CULTIVATION. 123
sometimes, however, fitted with wheels; but at present
small one-horse wheel ploughs that can be converted at
will into horse hoes or weeders by replacing the share by
suitable tines, etc., are finding extensive application. Such
a plough will turn over a furrow up to 7 inches deep,
and usually weighs about 95 lb. The price, with a single
extra share, is about £3 3s.; or, if fitted with extirpator
(17s.) and weeder (18s.), nearly £5.
Recognising that swing ploughs are somewhat difficult
to guide and erratic in their course, the result being that
Fig. 88.—Hop plough.
the work is not so good as it might be, hop ploughs are
now generally made with a fore-carriage, a very good type
being shown in Fig. 38. This one-horse plough is made
of iron throughout, the share and board being of best steel,
and the total weight about 90 lb. The method of setting
the depth of the furrow (see Fig. 38) is both novel and
good; and the implement which will turn a furrow 10
inches deep is particularly useful for covering up the stocks
before winter, and laying them bare again in the spring.
124 HOPS.
A typical form of weeding plough is illustrated in
Fig. 39. This is entirely made of wrought iron, and
consists of a frame which can be raised or lowered by
adjusting a screw clamp attached to the upright bar of the
wheel, together with six small shares fastened to the frame
by adjustable screw clamps. The width of the frame can
also be modified by a screw clamp at the back. This
implement is chiefly used for hoeing, levelling the surface
of the hop garden, and loosening the upper soil; and when
Fic. 39.—Weeding plough.
fitted with weed-cutters and extirpator feet may also be
advantageously employed for clearing the ground of weeds.
There are other small horse hoes, but as these and
ploughs, etc., are furnished by all the best-known imple-
ment-makers, they are too well known to need further
description.
All these implements are intended to economise the
expenses of cultivation, especially where wages are high,:
and thus afford an advantage which, under existing agricul-
tural conditions, cannot be too highly appreciated. Their
CULTIVATION. 125
extension is therefore advisable in the interests of hop-
growers themselves.
Cutting.
Before writing the present work the author applied for
advice to various authorities, both theoretical and practical,
and on the subject of the present section—cutting—was
favoured by Mr. Emanuel Zelinka, manager of the hop
plantations of Count Kleinmichel at Potschep (Tschernigov,
Russia), with a description of the process so comprehensive
as to appear particularly adapted for elucidating the matter
under consideration, and for which the author desires to
warmly express his indebtedness to that gentleman.
Zelinka says: ‘‘ The object of cutting the hop stock is to
remove the superfluous shoots or eyes, so that the nutrient
material absorbed by the roots may be conveyed to merely
a few residual shoots and favour their growth.
“This, or some similar device is also applied to the cul-
tivation of other forms of plants. The concentration of the
supply of nutriment alters the growth of the portions of the
plant left standing and increases their luxuriance, the cel-
lular texture becoming more abundant and the exterior
portions of the plant increasing in size. In the hop plant
this change is manifested by the greater length and thickness
of the bine, larger leaves, longer laterals, and more abundant
crop of cones. The activity of the roots is not in itself
quickened by the cutting of the stock, but is rather dimin-
ished, especially at first, so long as the food supplied does
not find any corresponding ready utilisation. This dimin-
ution is, however, very much less than the reduction in
volume of the aerial portions of the plant occasioned by the
cutting, and consequently the resulting artificial surplus of
root activity is placed to the good of the plant.
126 HOPS.
The reflex of this treatment is also manifested in an
improvement in the produce, repeated experiments having
shown that where cutting has been discontinued a retro-
gression in quality occurs! Endeavour is made to secure
this highly important concentration of food supply in the
hop plant not only by cutting the stocks, but also by sub-
sequently removing all later main shoots and laterals by
pruning and topping. All these precautions have the same
object in view, namely to direct the supply of nutrient material
into definite productive portions of the plants, in order to
increase their fruitfulness to the utmost. Cutting is the first
step leading to this goal, and is based on true economy of
nutrition.
Apart from this main object, cutting also fulfils the im-
portant purpose of enabling the growth of the plant to be
deferred at will (according to the time selected for the
operation) to the season recognised, by local experience, as
the most favourable to development and as affording the
greatest certainty of obtaining a crop. The following
points also may be regarded, not as objects, but rather as
useful results of cutting :—
1. Maintenance of the rootstock in the most approved
shape, and at the most suitable depth for ensuring efficient
protection.
2. Removal and suppression of injurious runners.
Lightened tillage labour.
Recovery of sets.
Rational procedure in manuring.
Greater facility in destroying pests.
Or im OO
1See Hopfencultur und Diingungsversuche, by Dr. C. Kraus (Munich, 1889),
p- 12. Strebel also, in his work on hops, says: “If a wild hop stock is cut
in a proper manner during several successive years it is found that the form
of the cones and their content of lupulin are altered for the better; conse-
quently cutting has an ennobling effect on the hop plant”.
CULTIVATION. 127
With regard to the first point, the wild hop stock forms,
according to the fertility of the soil, a smaller or larger
agglomeration of roots, from which numerous shoots are
thrown up every year. The majority of these shoots lan-
guish, either through lack of supports on which to climb
or through being kept under by others. The upper eyes of
the stock sprout the first, and on issuing from the ground
avail themselves earliest of the supports at hand, whilst the
later shoots from the deeper eyes usually remain in an in-
ferior condition, and are doomed to perish. Consequently
the underground parts of the stem are very short, and the
rootstock of the wild or permanently uncut plant is bedded
very shallow, the result of which is that, unless precautions
be taken, the stock is exposed to the influence of fluctuations
of temperature and humidity, so that its existence is pre-
carious and brief. This is the reason why wild hops are
never found in open and exposed situations, but always in
hedges and bushes where Nature herself makes provision for
the protection of the rootstock. As, however, the cultivated
hop must be grown as much in the sunlight as possible,
it is therefore necessary—and this necessity has been admitted
for centuries—to afford the rootstock sufficient protection
by means of a superimposed layer of soil. The same
necessity also led to the existing methods of cultivation,
wherein the piling up of soil over the stocks often proved
itself advantageous. It was soon recognised that the object
in view could not be permanently attained by the latter
means alone, owing to the tendency of the stocks to grow
in an upward direction more and more every year. Con-
sequently, recourse was had to the knife, and the ascent
was checked, the stock being kept down below the ground
level by cutting off the last year’s bine close to the stock
every spring. This treatment proved efficacious, and was
also found beneficial in other respects, the rootstock as-
128 HOPS.
suming a more convenient form, with a diminution of the
undesirable tendency to spread, and therefore becoming more
easy to deal with. Furthermore, the hop gardens, where
cutting was practised, assumed a more uniform appearance, |
without which horse labour between the rows would be
impracticable.
In respect of point 2: The rootstock of the wild hop is
characterised by numerous stolons or running roots, also
known as ‘‘robbers”’. These grow out horizontally from the
stock at a short distance below the surface, and throw up, a
little way from the parent plant, new shoots which, until
the runners have developed into independent plants, draw a
great part of their nourishment from the original rootstock,
and thereby weaken, if not entirely kill, the latter. This
undesirable property is also to some extent possessed by the
cultivated hop, and on this account the aforesaid runners
are carefully sought for at cutting time, when, if found, they
are severed from the parent plant and pulled up altogether,
a task generally requiring but little skill to perform suc-
cessfully. This treatment prevents wasteful dissemination of
the sap, an object that can only be attained by careful and
regular cutting every year, the formation of these runners
being retarded by this operation, in that the rootstock,
being kept a certain distance below the ground, is con-
strained to direct its shoots more upwards than laterally,
and to utilise its inherent force in developing the shoots
from the lower eyes. This accounts for the fact that runners
are seldom met with where cutting is properly performed.
3. It becomes much easier to work the ground close up
to the stocks themselves when they are so deep in the ground
as to be protected from injury during hoeing. Moreover, the
annual operation of cutting is always accompanied by a
thorough loosening of the soil in the immediate vicinity of
the stocks. This admits air to the strata enclosing the fine
as
CULTIVATION. 129
rootlets, and facilitates the solution and assimilation of pre-
viously insoluble plant food in those layers.
4. The old bine removed by cutting also bears a few
internodes bounded by fresh eyes, and here and there tiny
roots. The cut portion is distinguished by great vitality,
and, if planted, will rapidly grow to form a separate plant,
which will often produce blossom and fruit in the first year
and not infrequently be in full bearing by the second year.
Given equal conditions of environment, the quality of the
produce is equal to that of the parent stock, and for this
reason the best uninjured cuttings thus obtained are used
as a convenient and advantageous method of propagation.
When such cuttings are unprocurable recourse must be had
to raising: plants from seed or to planting root stolons, etc., a
more tedious performance.
5. The removal of the cover of soil before cutting affords.
the best opportunity for the application of the necessary
manure—in the form of stall manure, compost or concentrated.
artificial—near to or against the roots, thus making sure that.
the dressing will be utilised by the hop plant alone and will
therefore prove more efficacious in action. ;
6. Finally, another useful result of cutting is the possi-
bility it affords of destroying insects injurious to the plant,
such as caterpillars and wireworms, which are got at in the
quickest possible manner by uncovering the rootstocks.
The Non-cutting System.
Notwithstanding all the above-mentioned advantages of
cutting the rootstocks of hop plants, a proposition was made
a few years back by a large Wurtemburg hop-grower
(Hermann) to- abolish the practice on account of certain
objections to the system, which are now reproduced in full. |
1. Hermann claims that cutting the stocks every year
causes extensive wounds, which .never fully heal up, and, in
130 HOPS.
addition to wasting large quantities of nutrient material by
overflowing—though this is merely partial—leave putrescent
hollows and constrain the stock to develop abnormally,
besides causing prejudicial obstructions to the flow of the
sap, the result of which is to increase the tendency of the
stock to put forth superfluous shoots—just as in the case of
the willow, which by frequent lopping at the base of the
shoots acquires an increased capacity for throwing out new
ones. In the willow this is advantageous and is designedly
done; but in the hop plant the formation and removal of
more shoots than are absolutely requisite leads to the plant
being weakened.
2. Cutting shortens the life of the plant owing to its
enfeebling effect. Moreover, Nature practically fulfils the
task of cutting by allowing the aerial portions of the hop—
in common with other perennial plants — to die down.
Cutting increases the girth of the rootstock, which mostly
becomes sickly through the putrescent hollows formed, the
consequence being a partial curtailment of growth and a
constant hunger for manure. It is therefore (he says) beyond
doubt that cutting and certain other outrages occasioned by
the unnatural treatment to which the plant is exposed con-
tribute to the rapid decline of the cropping power.
3. Again, cutting delays the sprouting of the shoots and
retards the gathering time by 10 to 14 days, usually to the
grower’s disadvantage. Contrary to general belief an early
natural development does not injure the plant at all, since
the dreaded spring frosts do no damage unless the garden is
in a very unfavourable situation, the plant being not easily
frost-bitten, and, moreover, possessing in time of need a
reproductive power surpassed by very few other plants.
Consequently there is no need for anxiety in this respect.
“My own hop garden (he says), which is on the border of
a narrow grassy valley, has satisfactorily withstood the
CULTIVATION. 131
dangerous April frosts, the bine, at that time 40 to 80 inches
high, having suffered no damage, and now growing strongly
without manure. In a few plants only were the tips of the
delicate Saaz variety frost-bitten, but after the removal of the
injured part no further disadvantage could be observed. The
gain of several weeks in growth by non-cutting is undoubtedly
advantageous, since personal observation has led to the con-
viction that the advance secured in this way affords the best
protection against vermin of all kinds. The aphis, as is well
known, appears at the end of June or early in July and
infests from choice the half-grown, weak and sappy parts of
the plant; and those having a smaller power of resistance
are retarded.in development. On the other hand, uncut
plants are fully grown at the time of the invasion, and are
therefore better able to resist attack, besides being less
palatable to the aphis than the tender shoots. Consequently
it may be assumed that, by cutting the stock, we are favouring
the subsequent injury of the plant by aphides. Non-cutting
also affords the further advantage of accelerating the gather-
ing time by about 10 days, a circumstance usually more
favourable so far as drying the hops is concerned, as well as
profitable, the hops being all the sooner ready for market.”
4, Another drawback of the cutting system is that it
entails: the trampling of the ground while the latter is wet,
and therefore liable to poach: a great disadvantage on clay
soil. This is because cutting must necessarily be effected
at a time of year when the ground is seldom properly dry.
The treading up of the ground also increases the difficulty
and expense of subsequent hoeing.
5. Laying the plants bare and cutting them in the
early spring is in itself a very difficult and expensive
task.
6. Finally, one of the principal evils caused by cutting
is the great irregularity in the sprouting of the cut stocks,
132 HOPS.
so that strong, medium and weak plants are met with side
by side, the result being unequal ripening, diminished yield
and irregular quality. These calamities are increased by
the inevitable absence of uniformity in the depth of cut.
Very different are the conditions when cutting is dis-
pensed with. In this case the rootstock remains intact,
and is therefore sound, smaller, free from incurable wounds,
and seldom puts forth superfluous shoots; the underground
runners, that are usually stimulated by cutting, are now
seldom met with. The buds that are destined by Nature
to bear fruit in the late summer develop into laterals, and
produce stronger shoots. The cost of preparing and cutting
the stocks is avoided, and there is no need to trample the
ground early in the year before it has properly dried, since
the plants are first hand-hoed for a distance of about two
feet all round each stock, after the ground is thoroughly
dry and the shoots are already 8 to 12 inches high. Ordinary
hoeing is not proceeded with until the bine has reached
a height of 40 to 80 inches.
In answer to these opinions of Hermann’s, Strebel
remarks as follows in his excellent work on the hop :—
‘‘ Without any wish to depreciate the value of Hermann’s
labours for the advancement of hop cultivation, it neverthe-
less seems advisable, in view of the importance of the ques-
tion of cutting versus non-cutting, to approach the subject
of these alleged disadvantages in an impartial manner.
It may be at once admitted that the work of cutting is
one of the most difficult operations in hop cultivation ; and
that unless each stock is cut in the manner most suitable
to each individual case—as well as if a blunt knife is used,
or the blue part of the stock is cut into in consequence of
carelessness in uncovering the root—more harm than good
is done, the results asserted by Hermann to follow cutting
in general being then sure to make their appearance to a
CULTIVATION, 133
greater or smaller extent—‘ rotting of the rootstock, irre-
gular shoots, and uneven quality of the cones’.’’ The in-
convenience referred to under Objection 4 may also be re-
cognised as real, but on the other hand the remaining
objections put forward against the practice of cutting can-
not be regarded as thoroughly well founded.
Referring to Objection 1, the plant is undoubtedly wounded
by cutting, and it must be admitted that if putrefaction of the
root ensues, such a result may be accelerated by that opera-
tion, though the latter is not inevitably the cause. Actual
overflow of sap at the cut surface of the stock is rarely
noticeable, and there can therefore be no question at all
of the waste of ‘a large quantity of valuable material ”’.
In addition to the wounds on the body of the stock,
those formed by cutting off the lateral runners, etc., also
come under consideration. These, however, also occur in
the plan, recommended by Hermann, of hoeing round the
stock, only with this difference, that when the stock is cut
the runners are taken off smooth close at the main root,
whereas with the hoe stumps are easily left, the eyes of
which put forth unnecessary shoots.
With regard to Objection 2, the indisputable fact that
many hop gardens more than twenty-five years old still yield
good crops, although the stocks have been cut every year, is
sufficient proof that cutting is not injurious in the manner
asserted by Hermann, whilst on the other hand convincing
proof that non-cutting prolongs the life of the plants is
lacking, since it is not much more than ten years that this
practice has been followed regularly. Moreover, even if
the life of the plant could be lengthened from twenty years
to twenty-five years by the abolition of cutting, little would
be gained thereby, because in very many instances there
is no intention of growing hops so many years in succession
on the same ground, special reasons, such as diminished
134 HOPS.
fertility of the soil, the uninterrupted fall in crop value,
decay of frame posts, etc., militating in favour of breaking
up the ground sooner. The “partial curtailment of growth”
is rather to be ascribed to improper cutting in the case
of individual plants than to the practice as a whole, as
otherwise it might be expected to occur in all cut stocks.
Whether, other conditions being equal, gardens that are
not cut require less manure than others is questionable ;
Hermann’s opinion on this point being apparently based
on his experience with low wirework training, as to which
reference will be made later.
Whether very early sprouting (Objection 3), such as occurs
with uncut hops, is always conducive to the best results as
regards cropping is a question that will be dealt with in
connection with the matter of autumn cutting. It is,
however, not always found that the cones on the earliest
uncut shoots are ready for picking before the others, since
the advantage gained by the former is often rendered illusory
by the action of frost, disease, or vermin; and the state of
the weather throughout the year has an important influence.
The present author in agreeing with the cogent and well-
founded replies of Strebel would only remark that Hermann
in introducing the non-cutting system did not bring forward
anything new, but merely revived an old and abandoned
custom, modified so as to give satisfactory results under
the conditions of growth accidentally prevailing in his
district, without, however, being in a position to claim
universality of application. Hermann also apparently al-
lowed himself to be guided by sundry erroneous assumptions ;
hence many of his proofs are inconclusive and some even
at variance with known facts. Thus, for example, the
early sprouting of uncut stocks is not generally regarded
as an advantage, but in some gardens, and even whole
districts, is considered as quite the opposite, owing to the
CULTIVATION. 135
dread of the late spring frosts, which have spoiled many an;
entire hop harvest. Similarly, early ripening is not always.
preferable, the question depending on the favourable or.
unfavourable state of the weather at that time. Neither
has the appearance of aphides anything to do with the
cutting or non-cutting of the rootstocks, these insects not
infesting the stems, but congregating on the under side of
the leaves (without regard to the age of the plant), where
they are best protected from the sun, wind and rain.
Furthermore, the expense of cultivation, so far from being.
smaller in cases where cutting is dispensed with, is occa-
sionally much higher in consequence of the increased
supplementary work necessary. Hence the method of non-
cutting, so warmly advocated by Hermann, must be regarded
as rather a retrogression than a sign of progress.
More than seventy years ago the non-cutting spatarn
was practised in the extensive hop gardens in the Huslitz
district of Russia; but the results proved in the highest
degree disastrous, and would undoubtedly have destroyed
the hop industry of the district if recourse had not been
had to cutting again.
Strebel rightly observes that Hermann’s views are ap-
parently based on experience of low wirework training.
Under these conditions there is formed, as soon as the.
plants are sufficiently developed, a regular horizontal roof
of foliage, which from June onwards performs the same
service for the uncut, and therefore shallow-lying, root-
stocks as is afforded by woods and thickets in the case of
wild hops, viz., it greatly assists in the equalisation of
temperature and fluctuations of moisture, and. enables the
uncut stocks to make progress—as well as resulting, under
certain circumstances, in the production of satisfactory
crops. On the other hand, the absence of shelter to
minimise the effect on the rootstocks of repeated fluctua-
136 .. HOPS. |
tions in temperature and moisture between the commence-
ment of growth and the middle of July suffices to weaken
the plants to such a degree as to render them suitable for
training on the very low wirework employed by Hermann.
In the meantime the unprotected shallow-lying stock is
starved, and consequently puts forth fewer shoots, and
cannot develop so fully as under normal conditions more
in accord with its natural requirements. This latter cir-
cumstance is calculated to call in question the quality of
naturalness claimed for the Hermann system; though in
itself the objection implies no deprecation, since as soon
as ever the hop plant is taken away from the conditions
natural to it in a wild state, and exposed to artificial
conditions of culture and imprisonment at the hand of
man, the modifications thus induced must necessarily lead
to a relatively increased cropping, no matter whether the
stocks are annually cut or left uncut. This result is
encountered in either case, but there is an important differ-
ence in the selection of means for attaining the object in
view. The question at issue is, Which of these two methods
is the more rational and permanently reliable? Exceptionally
and only under certain conditions, an intermittent, but not
periodical, deviation from the regular rule of cutting the
stocks every year, i.e.,an approximation to the non-cutting
method, will prove advantageous. On this point further
details will be given in the next section, dealing with regular
cutting.
Lhe Proper Performance of the Operation of Cutting.
Defective cutting, which unfortunately sometimes occurs,
has a prejudicial effect on both the quantity and quality of
the crop, and may, if frequently repeated, greatly reduce
the productivity of a hop garden. To cut all the stocks
in a garden exactly in the same manner—thereby disregard-
CULTIVATION. 137
ing their various individual peculiarities as well as many
subsidiary circumstances, influenced by the operation, and
necessary to be borne in mind-—would be a great mistake.
In considering the matter two principal points arise :—
1. The manner in which the stock should be cut.
2. The time for performing the operation.
1. Method of Cutting. 7
Before the stock can be cut it must first be laid bare
and accessible by the removal of the surrounding soil.
This operation is termed ‘“‘ opening,” and consists in turning
down with the plough the earth on each side of the stocks—
whether the land is in ridges or hills—and then removing
with the hand hoe the remaining strip—about 16 inches
wide—left in the centre, one half being drawn away on each
side, so as to leave along the line of the sets a shallow trench
in which the young shoots are already appearing above the
surface. In small or steep gardens, where the plough cannot
very well be used, the entire work is done by hand with the
mattock ; in other cases, however, ploughing is the rule. In
ploughing down great care is necessary to keep the share
from coming too close to the stocks and wounding them or
the shoots, especially when it is intended to use the cut sets
for planting or for sale; and in such case it is much better
to leave round each stock a small mound of earth untouched
by the hoe, and to only clear this away afterwards.
Both this task and the actual work of cutting the stocks
must be performed in fine weather, not during rain or while
the ground is wet—the necessity for this precaution being
self-evident. With settled weather it is preferable to leave
the opened rows exposed for at least half a day before
proceeding to cut them, this delay facilitating the aeration of
the ground, which is thereby rendered more friable and more
easily cleared away from round the stocks.
138 HOPS.
Wherever possible none but the most skilful and trust-
worthy hands should be employed in cutting, and they
should not be encouraged to work too quickly. Hach man
being provided with a well-sharpened hop knife, a small hoe,
and a hand basket, is set to work at a separate row, and
properly instructed as to the manner of dealing with
each special case. The first thing to do is to carefully clear
away the soil from round the stock, with the hoe, that portion
immediately covering the root being removed with the
fingers or a small stick. As soon as it is so far uncovered
that the older and darker portion is distinguishable from the
light-coloured one-year’s growth, the upper parts of the
lateral roots will also be visible: a condition absolutely
essential for the proper performance of the task in hand.
Attention is now bestowed on the condition of the root-
stock, its strength of growth—determined by the thickness
of the visible lateral roots as well as by the strength and
number of the last year’s shoots. Furthermore, the stock
must be examined for the presence of weaker subsidiary
shoots which carry buds and are often branched, especially
when the ground is in good heart. Having now convinced
himself of the soundness and vigour of the stock, the cutter
kneels down, knife in hand, and begins his work, the weak
outside shoots preventing access to the main stock being
taken off first close to the butts, by short cuts with the end
of the blade, care being taken to avoid severing any of the
true roots. This is termed ‘trimming the stock”. The
true roots are distinguishable from the injurious stolons in
that, unlike the latter, they do not remain of equal thickness
or increase in diameter the further they extend from the.
plant, but taper away from the stock, subdivide into branches,
and grow downwards instead of approaching the surface. It
often happens that the small lateral roots are cut off inten-
tionally, under the erroneous impression that the stock
CULTIVATION. 139
should be trimmed thoroughly ; but this purposeless cutting
is not only a waste of time but also positively injurious to
the plant, by robbing the latter of organs contributing to its
nourishment. All true roots round the stock, be they never
so small, should be left untouched, and should be protected
as much as possible when uncovering the stock. If, how-
ever, any of them are wounded, notwithstanding all the care
employed, it becomes permissible to cut the same off clean.
Under what condition the lateral roots may be safely removed
is a point that will be dealt with later on.
When the stock has been trimmed and all the trimmings
collected in the basket, so that the shoots are fully visible
from tip to base, the true work of cutting is begun, in con-
nection with which important operation the following rules
should be observed :—
(1) The knife used must be very sharp, and the cut
surface on the shoots should be clean, true, somewhat
aslant, and without any constriction, fissure or tear. The
blade should be as thin as possible, and shaped with a
curve towards the tip; and, according to the hardness of
the steel, must be sharpened with a whetstone at intervals
during the work. In large gardens, where a number of
men are engaged in cutting, it is better to employ a man,
skilled in the task, to keep all the knives in good cutting
order. The best hop knives are made from scythe-points
(Fig. 40), or those of the Wurtemburg type (Fig. 41),
provided the blades are thin enough.
To prevent the splitting of the shoots, the latter should
be held in the other hand and drawn towards the edge of
the knife, as well as inclined sideways away from the stock.
(2) The cut should be made from below upwards, sloping
towards the stock, and, if possible, by a single stroke of the
knife at the proper height, etc., so that no after trimming
is required.
140 HOPS. .
(8) The extent to which the shoots are cut back must
bear a definite relation to the vigour of the stock, and
harmonise with the state of development of the latter, as
well as serving to regulate the normal progress of the
plant. Thus excessive luxuriance of growth should be
restrained by the cut, whilst weak growths are protected.
without being overtaxed, and ordinary vigorous growth is
afforded opportunity for the full development of its powers
of productivity.
On the basis of these rules the operation of cutting will,
as is also evident from the details given below, have to be
=
a
Fic. 40.—Hop knife made from Fig. 41.—Wiirtemburg hop
the tip of a scythe. knife.
carried out in different ways, care being taken to observe
the following points :—
The more vigorous the rootstock the stronger the shoots,
and the thicker and more numerous the lateral roots and
subsidiary shoots; consequently the greater the number of
eyes at the base of the stern, and in proportion as this is
the case the deeper must the shoots be cut back, though
the basis to go upon is the number of eyes and not the
length of stem left in proportion to the strength of the
stock. In determining how many buds (eyes) may be
allowed to remain, it is necessary to keep in mind both
CULTIVATION, 141
the degree of vigour and soundness of the stock, and the
purpose to be attained by cutting,’ a middle course being
maintained between the degree of concentration desirable
in the nutrient materials and the resulting accumulation
of sap.
Consequently it becomes necessary to distinguish be-
tween four different methods of cutting: (a) close or short
cutting ; (b) the ordinary cut; (c) the long cut (stimulating
and quickening); (d) simple topping.
The examples given below are intended to more fully
explain these various methods, and to indicate tne conditions
under which either of them is preferable to the others.
(a) Close Cutting.
If, when uncovered, the rootstock is found to be over-
grown, so that it forms a regular tangle of shoots and
roots, as happens in very fruitful or highly-manured
gardens, then the shoots are simply cut off close against
the parent stock; since in this case the latter is too
vigorous, and it would be a waste of trouble to consider
how many eyes to leave, there being always a number
lying dormant, which, being quite near the source of supply
of the nutrient material, at once absorb the accumulation
of sap following on the operation of cutting, and hence the
leaving of any other eyes would result in a corresponding
subdivision of the total food matter available.
1 It would, however, be erroneous to set up as a criterion the number of
stalks to be kept for training, including those held as reserve. Thus, for
example, if two or three stems are to be trained in the case of a very strong
stock, and an equal number left to serve as reserves, 7.¢., a total of four to six
being left—instead of ten to twelve, as advisable under these circumstances—
the growing power of such a stock will not be sufficiently drawn upon by a
long way, and an injurious choking of sap will result, which may lead to
enfeeblement and disease; or, if this difficulty be overcome, the stock will
put forth a number of small useless shoots, to the great detriment of the
plant.
142 HOPS.
The considerable check to the flow of sap consequent
on such drastic cutting moderates the undue luxuriance of
the plant, and reduces it more closely to the normal rate.
Of course such abnormal stocks must be most carefully
freed from all subsidiary shoots; and at the same time this
is an occasion when the smaller lateral roots need not be
protected but may be pruned away, an advisable procedure
under the exceptional circumstances of the case.
In addition, close cutting may also be practised where
very old but exceedingly vigorous and strongly-developed
stocks, resembling small tree trunks, have to be dealt with,
as happens in some specially favoured gardens where hops
have been grown in the same spot for an entire span of
human existence.
(b) Ordinary Cutting.
If the rootstock is strongly and normally developed, and
consequently fully provided with healthy stems; the visible
lateral roots being also sound and strong, and the stock
itself compact and uninjured, though at the same time no
abundant growth of subsidiary shoots is apparent—a smail.
number of these, such as three to five, may be disregarded—
then the ordinary method of cutting (Fig. 42) is practised.
The three best stems are selected, and, the others being
removed by a clean cut close against the stock, are examined
separately for the white plastic eyes on the base of the stem
near the old stock, which eyes form the buds for the new
shoots. The bine thrown up by these buds is usually not
merely the most fruitful, but also yields the richest cones.
If at least two to four such buds are found on each stem the
upper portion is cut off a short distance above them. Of
course, in the absence of such buds at the base the cut must
be made above the next lowest pair on the stem, even
though these be an inch or more above the base of same.
’
CULTIVATION. 1438
In this way a total number of not less than six, or more
than twelve, visible eyes are left on the stems, the former
number applying in the case of weak stocks, and the latter
to stronger ones, whilst in those of medium vigour nine eyes
will be the average, these numbers having been found to best
fulfil the purpose in view, under normal conditions. There
being neither an excessive nor an insufficient tax upon the
Fig, 42.—Ordinary cut.
supply of nutrient material, no obstruction or purposeless
division of the sap is occasioned, and sufficient nutriment
is at hand for the normal development of the plant.
When an otherwise perfectly sound stock has put forth
only two stems, these should be cut in the above described
manner, so as to leave a total of six to eight eyes on the two
together.
(c) The Long Cut.
This differs from the ordinary cut in that, in addition
to the basal eyes, the next or two next internodes are left on
the residual stem.
The long cut with two superior internodes is termed the
rejuvenating or stimulating cut, since the portions of the
stems left on the old stock throw off new roots, and in the
144 HOPS.
future form a new young stock. This cut is practised under
the following circumstances :—
(i) If a stock that is already several years of age bears
only a single stem, this is an indication of something ab-
' normal in the development of the stock and points to some
enfeebling injury caused by insect or human agency.’ Should
careful examination fail to reveal the existence of any putre-
faction or mechanical injury, but, as is usual, a number of
subsidiary shoots, the single stem is cut so as to leave one
internode, or two in the absence of the basal eyes, i.¢., a
total of four to six buds. On the other hand, if the stock
is found to be injured or rotten in any place, it. must then
be treated as one that is diseased, and, if sound enough to
be of any good at all, must be left with three internodes on
the stem.
(ii) Rootstocks that are weak in the stems and lateral
roots and without subsidiary shoots, though free from
wounds. or rot, are evidently defectively nourished. They
are, however, seldom found alone, being generally in groups
in poorer parts of the hop garden. A good dressing of
manure is the only remedy. In cutting stocks of this kind
the two strongest stems are selected (provided more than
this number are present), and the rest taken off close against
the butt. Itis rare that well-developed eyes are met with
at the base of the stems in these impoverished stocks, and
for this reason the two selected stems are cut off above the
1In such cases the cause may be attributable to carelessness in training or
tying the bine, or to perforation or gnawing on the part of wire-worms or
canker-worms, or to an accidental combination of the two evils. Unskilled
labourers are liable to take hold of the young bine by the tip, thus breaking
off the heads, and then, in order to conceal the damage, pluck the injured
bine right off. If the stock in question only puts forth a few shoots it may
‘happen’ finally that only a single one is left. Under such circumstances the
stock may still keep sound, though it will usually be found weakened by the
excessive obstruction of sap, and it is but rarely that such single stems develop
‘with any great vigour. | aa
CULTIVATION. 145
lower internodal buds, so that at least four, or at most eight,
eyes are left.
(ii) The first cutting in a newly planted garden is per-
formed in the same manner, because the stocks of the young
plants are generally but imperfectly developed in the second
year of growth; on which account the long cut, leaving four
to six eyes per shoot, is advisable. Nevertheless, exceptions
to this rule are not uncommon, the early planting of vigor-
ous selected sets in very fertile soil often resulting, with a
favourable season, in such strong rootstock. development by
autumn that the long cut can only be practised with great
circumspection, and must be discarded in favour of the
ordinary cut in the case of such stocks as are well provided
with buds on the last year’s stem or on the body of the stock
itself. On the other hand, where the soil is poor, the plant-
ing late, and the weather unfavourable, it may happen that:
the root development of the sets during the first year is:
but poor, in which event simple topping must take the place
of the long cut.
(iv) Diseased rootstocks, already a prey to partial de-
composition and exhibiting putrid or decayed patches on the
surface, must be thoroughly overhauled to ascertain whether
they are still capable of producing plants that will crop well
enough to be remunerative.
Wounds occasioned by the ravages of insects, by careless-
ness in tillage or during cutting, or by canker, may result in
a more or less extensive destruction of the rootstock sub-
stance. To obtain accurate information as to the extent of
this destruction it is necessary to carefully excise, with the
hop knife, all the dead matter of the stock, the residual
healthy material then enabling one to judge of the likelihood
of the stock being productive. Thus, if only about a fourth
or third part is dead the stock may be left, provided the
remaining shoots are well developed and sound; but if one
146 HOPS.
half or more»of the entire stock is already rotten it must be
grubbed up altogether, a fresh pit being dug, filled with
fresh soil, and planted with a new set in place of the old
stock.
In cutting diseased but still suitable stocks two inter-
nodes are left on each stem, or three on the strongest if the
stock is deep enough in the ground. The total number of
eyes left should amount to eight or twelve, because under
the circumstances any checking of the sap must be avoided
as far as possible. Then, if the old stock should die off, these
stems will form the basis for a new one; for which reason
this very long cut is known as the rejuvenating or stimulating
cut.
Small decayed stumps on the rootstocks, remains of dead
shoots, must not be regarded as indicating unsoundness, but
should be removed in trimming the stock.
(v) Gardens suffering from age and a diminution of
cropping power may be rejuvenated, if the stocks are set
comparatively deep in the ground, by means of the long cut,
which, when assisted by heavy manuring, will ensure them ~
a new lease of fertility. If, however, as the result of repeated
cutting in this manner, the stocks are very close to the
surface, the long cut will have little effect, especially if the
soil is poor.
In performing the rejuvenating cut in old gardens two to
three internodes are left on the stems, care being taken that
the tops of the latter are all on about the same level—2 or
24 inches below the surface. The number of the internodes
on each stem will depend on this condition, the number of
eyes being, under these circumstances, a less decisive factor.
(vi) If, in a young hop garden, it is found, after two or
three years, that the stocks are too deep in the ground—in
consequence either of an error in planting or of the ground
in the holes having sunk—so that the shoots are late in
CULTIVATION. 147
coming up in the spring, they may be heightened by means
of the long cut, leaving one, two, or three internodes on the
stem.
(d) The Topping Cut.
For this cut it is unnecessary to uncover or open the stock,
the ground being merely scraped away by means of a small
hoe so as to expose the topmost internode of the underground
stem. This internode is then cut off above the second pair
of buds, only the topmost pair being removed.
It often happens, when late hops are introduced from
other, especially more southern, districts, that the new sorts
do not properly develop their cones, but yield unsatisfactory
results, even for several years. In order to accelerate the
adaptation of these varieties to their new environment, the
topping cut, applied in the autumn once or in two successive
years, will afford effectual assistance.
Before a hop garden is grubbed up the topping cut may
be practised either in the last year, or even in the penultimate
year as well, this method being preferable to leaving the
stocks uncut, because the topmost pair of eyes produce stems
that yield very few cones. Even when the hops are left un-
cut the shoots from these top eyes are seldom used, since they
easily break in training them on to the poles; consequently,
in such event, topping would prevent a waste of material.
From the foregoing examples it is evident that the selec-
tion of the various methods of cutting the hop stock depends
on a number of conditions, and that the choice is not an
immaterial one in so far as the effect on the development of
the plant is concerned. Particular care is requisite in cutting
the stocks in young gardens, because of the immature develop-
ment of the rootstock; whereas in older gardens a little
irregularity is less injurious.
148 HOPS.
Apart from those given, other considerations also in-
fluence the selection of the method of cutting to employ.
In some cases the physical properties of the soil govern the
relative number of eyes to be left on the stem ;! in others
additional transitory influences, such as injury to the plants
by hailstorms in the previous year, fresh manuring, the
occurrence of swarms of vermin, or the results of disease,
floods, etc., may necessitate a suitable and well directed
modification of the cut. Under any circumstances, how-
ever, the following rule should form the basis of operations,
namely, that the existing condition and strength of the stock
is the prime measure of the extent to which the stems
should be cut back so as to leave a larger or smaller number
of shoots. This being borne in mind, the probability of error
will be greatly reduced. As will be evident from what has
already been stated, the circulation or accumulation of sap
plays an important part in this connection, and accordingly
the main questions in every case will be, how many
stems
(1) The stock is to put forth and
(2) Is to supply with nutriment throughout the entire
period of vegetation.
Unfortunately these two points are only too often
neglected and left undistinguished, although it is a very
natural thing for a close connection to exist between root
activity and the productivity of the plant. If, however,
the rootstock cannot put forth a number of shoots
at least approximating to the quantity it is capable of
nourishing thoroughly, the activity of the roots is checked
at the outset. When this is carried to excess it is only in
rare instances that the activity can subsequently revive; in
most cases it remains crippled for some years, and the more
1 Soils that form a superficial crust are more easily penetrated if a large
number of shoots are left.
CULTIVATION. 149
so in proportion as the initial power of developing shoots
was less drawn upon. For this reason the number of eyes
left on the stem should be proportionate to the vigour of the
stock; and also, at a later stage, the number of shoots left
for fructification purposes must—unless the root activity is to
be intentionally destroyed—be such as the stock can feed
abundantly, with the assistance of the plant food in the soil.
The old rule of leaving only two or three shoots is erroneous.
That it is not advisable to train more than three shoots on
one pole or wire is right enough, but this by no means
implies that—given a sufficiently strong stock and well
trenched fertile soil—it is bad practice to train four, five, or
even six and seven shoots on two or three poles or wires.
Even admitting that these last two numbers are the excep-
tion, it is often possible to use for fruit-forming purposes
four or five shoots from one stock, and that with double
advantage. A duly proportioned demand laid on the root
activity of the plant not only leads to an increase in the
quantity of the crop, but also to a recognisable improvement
in the quality of the cones, and is justified on both economi-
cal and physiological grounds. In cultivating fruit and
vegetables it is customary to aim at the formation of larger,
better developed, and therefore more valuable specimens of
produce by reducing the number of bearing shoots or even
thinning out the fruit itself. In hop-growing, however, the
conditions are different, the cones being wanted compact and
rich in lupulin, instead of large and thick-leaved, like, for
instance, the cones at the ends of a lateral branch are liable
to become through an accumulation of nourishment. The
closer the cones are together the smaller quantity of lupulin
will they contain, and therefore the more deceptive they are.
Consequently, the distribution of the cones over several vines
and several poles or wires will result in a richer produce.
True, they will be smaller and not thickly clustered ; but,
150 HOPS.
for the same reason, they will be more compact and better
provided with lupulin.
Although this question has no immediate connection
with the operation of cutting, it is referred to in the present
place because, later on, stress will be laid on the necessity of,
as far as possible, preventing any immoderate checking of
the sap, whether at cutting time or afterwards; such
checking being so intimately connected with the desired
rational degree of concentration for the nutrient fluid, and so
greatly affecting the activity of the roots, particularly in
gardens that are still in the first few years of growth. The
evil is less to be dreaded in older stocks because, develop-
ment being completed, they have always a sufficient number
of dormant eyes to form a certain reserve of consumers
sufficient for any eventuality.
In the description already given of the various typical
methods of cutting reference has been made to certain
minimum and maximum numbers of eyes. Experience
teaches, however, that the number of shoots put forth
only very rarely coincides with the quantity of eyes left
behind, and that usually they exceed the latter, though the
conditions are occasionally reversed. Here on the one
hand it is a question of the vital activity of the plant
attempting to counteract any arbitrary treatment, and on
the other of the opposing action of inimical forms of life.
This notwithstanding, some standard is required in practice
for guidance in the course to be adopted, though no implica-
tion is made that a single eye less or a couple more than the
indicated number constitutes any great error. It is evident
that, in counting the number of eyes round the periphery
of a stem, one or another may be easily overlooked. On
the other hand, young shoots that have already appeared
above the ground are liable to destruction by insects or
man, and therefore mathematical accuracy is not to be
CULTIVATION. 151
looked for in results that are dependent on Nature. This,
however, does not alter the rules laid down on the basis
of prolonged experience, and it would be altogether unjusti-
fiable to regard these rules as problematical on account of
the above-mentioned circumstances. Nevertheless, should
it be urged as an objection against the said rules that
cutting performed on lines laid down by old practitioners
is very successful locally, the reply may be made. that the
rules, as given, are deduced from local methods, and are in
fact neither more nor less than a collection of practical
experiences, varied because gained in different localities.
It will readily be admitted that such precision in cutting.
takes a deal of time to perform, and that few growers, let
alone paid labourers, take the proper amount of care over
it. Our object now is, however, not so much compulsory
reform as a thoroughgoing introduction to, and elucidation
of the subject. He who is contented with old custom may
abide by it, but whoever strives after improvement will
certainly find here several useful indications. So far as
the time occupied is concerned, this applies solely to
beginners, who have to acquire the necessary skill in cut-
ting, whereas practised workers will find no difficulty in
following the rules already given, and therefore will not
require to take longer than usual over.the work. (This
Zelinka confirms from his own lengthy, practical experience
in cutting hops.) :
As a supplementary, practical hint, it may. be mentioned
that to employ a separate set of labourers to uncover and
open the hop stocks immediately before proceeding with
the cutting is inadvisable, although this course has been
recommended in one work on the subject. The reason is
that such labourers cannot appreciate certain irregularities
and defects in the performance of their task (wounding the
roots and stems, imperfectly uncovering the stocks, etc.)
152 HOPS.
so well as if they had to do the cutting themselves, and
consequently the work of the cutters is rendered more
difficult to perform with accuracy and precision. Care must
also be taken to gather up all cuttings, even the smallest
portions, into the baskets provided for that purpose, and
convey them outside the hop garden, especially when the
latter is in a damp situation; since any cuttings dropped
in between the rows will strike and grow. It is therefore
useful to appoint one or two boys for carrying the baskets
away when filled.
Finally, it is in many places advisable not to let the
cutters cover up the cut stocks, since not only is their task
thereby lightened, but the supervision of the work of cutting
is also rendered easier by the stocks being left uncovered
for a while. It is better to set another lot of men on to
cover up the stocks with compost, etc., in such a manner
that several of the newly-cut stocks in each row are left
bare for inspection. No damage at all need be feared from
withering during the very short time that elapses between
cutting and covering. After the latter operation is con-
cluded, a small hillock of earth indicates the position of
each stock. The depth of soil over the stocks should not
exceed 4 to 6 inches, and is preferably less, particularly in
compact soils; the depth should, moreover, be uniform
throughout the garden, since otherwise the shoots will come
up irregularly. Where gaps exist they should now be filled
up by digging suitable holes, about 12 inches deep and
across, and planting fresh sets after filling the holes with
fresh top soil or compost, care being taken to preserve the
proper alignment of the rows, and the distance between
stocks.
CULTIVATION. 153
2. Proper Season for Cutting.
The satisfactory growth of the hop plant is influenced
as much by the season chosen for cutting as by the
accurate performance of the work. It is only the aerial
portion of the hop plant that dies down after its lifework has
been accomplished ; but vitality remains in the underground
rootstock for many years without cessation, even through
the winter, except that it lies dormant during that season,
as is the case with other perennial plants and with hiber-
nating animals. The permanent physiological activity of
the hop stock during the winter can be demonstrated by the
following experiment: a few stocks are cut in the autumn,
and some of the cuttings are planted at once, whilst others
are stored away safe from frost, in moist sand, until the
spring planting season. These latter being then planted out
along with a number of sets obtained by spring cutting, it
will be seen, on comparing the resulting fully developed
plants later in the same year, that, other conditions being
equal, those from spring cuttings are superior to the others.
This circumstance allows of the conclusion that a certain
amount of circulation of sap continues in the stock through-
out the winter, whereby the substance of the cuttings
becomes more completely developed and their vital force
improved. And it is this unextinguished vitality of the root-
stock that has to be borne in mind when the question of the
proper season for cutting comes under consideration.
There are two main systems in this respect: spring
cutting and autumn cutting. The latter is usually performed
in October, when the aerial portion of the plant is either
already dead or moribund. On the other hand, spring
cutting extends over a longer period at a time when the
vitality of the plant is already reawakened, and may com-
mence in March—or even February in some districts—and
154 HOPS.
finish towards the middle or end of May. Consequently a
distinction is drawn between ‘‘early”’ and “late” spring
cutting. Which is the best time for the operation is an oft-
debated point in hop-growing circles, but opinions are so
divided that no final conclusion is ever attained. The
majority of growers and the results of comparative experi-
ments, however, favour early spring cutting, for the reason
that this ensures a heavier crop. This would be sufficient
to settle the matter altogether were a large yield the sole
desideratum, which is not the case under the existing market:
conditions ; in fact to keep solely in view the production of a
maximum quantitative crop would be fatal to the interests of
the hop-grower of the present day. In the present state of
the industry such a procedure would reduce the profits to.
below zero. On the other hand, quality is a matter of con-
tinuously increasing importance, and one that depends to a
certain extent on the quantity, the two standing in inverse
proportion, %.¢., the larger the number of cones produced by
a plant the poorer the quality, and vice versd, the best varieties
being characterised by a very moderate yield. Consequently,
under existing conditions, a more favourable result will
follow the preference for high quality rather than heavy
cropping. The value of improvement in this direction is so
much the greater on account of the wide field still open.
In discussing, below, the season for the operation of
cutting, it will be shown to what extent the quality and
quantity of the produce are influenced by the time of year
at which this work is carried on.
(a) Autumn Cutting.
This is rarely practised, notwithstanding that its many
drawbacks are accompanied by great advantages, and that,
under ‘certain conditions, it is capable of furnishing really
surprising results. As a rule autumn cutting is restricted
CULTIVATION. 155
to mere portions of a garden, and is only exceptionally
resorted to for the whole. It is always suitable wherever—
(i) The area under hops is large, and, consequently, the
cutting cannot be got through in time, or performed with
sufficient care, in the ‘spring. It also enables the summer
work to be more conveniently apportioned.
(ii) In high-lying or northerly districts where the winters
are long, and there is no alternative but autumn cutting or
late spring cutting.
(i) Finally, in gardens on light, sandy soil (not compact
clays), and in gardens that are protected from excessive wet,
are drained or have a sloping position.
In all these cases, however, autumn cutting is only
advisable when an abundance of thoroughly mixed, well
matured, and, above all, friable compost, rich in humus, is
available for covering the cut stocks instead of with soil, the
quantity required for each stock being about three pecks.
Where this is unobtainable and the cut stocks have to be
covered with ordinary soil, the latter sets so hard in the
winter that the young shoots find great difficulty in making
their way through in the spring, and are also liable to break
off when attempts are made to loosen the crust.
The extent of the influence exerted by autumn cutting on
the health of the plant and on the quantity and quality of
the product has formed the subject of numerous researches.
The results, however, show that no generally applicable
conclusions can be drawn, but only such as bear on special
cases, as mentioned below. On one point alone does
unanimity exist, namely—that under certain circumstances
autumn cutting presents numerous advantages that cannot
be gainsaid.
In the compilation on hop cultivation’ edited by Dr.
C. D. Kraus a réswmé'is given of the advantages and draw-
1 Beobachtungen tiber die Cultur des Hopfens, viii., 1885, p. 5.
156 HOPS.
backs of the autumn system of cutting, according to which
the latter greatly preponderate. Nevertheless, subsequent
researches and experience in the subject form a basis for the
definite assumption that the system has by no means
received the attention it fully merits. That, in many places
where the factors necessary to success are non-existent, the
method had yielded unsatisfactory results is no criterion of
its value. Just as little is the system to be regarded as one
suitable for universal application, for it should rather be
looked upon as a fit, and often very valuable, means of
affording assistance in hop cultivation under conditions
otherwise not exactly normal; and in this character autumn
cutting deserves to be fully appreciated.
A closer examination of the aforesaid relative ad-
vantages and drawbacks of the system will show that
no great benefit is derived from the advantages claimed in
respect of earlier and more vigorous development of the
plant, and earlier flowering and ripening; and the conse-
quences claimed to ensue therefrom, viz., prolonging the
life of the garden, higher yield, protection against vermin,
are neither to be regarded as always correct, nor as the
true purpose in view—in fact, they probably cannot be
properly considered as resulting from autumn cutting at
all. The same, however, equally applies to the alleged
drawbacks. It is self-evident that hop stocks are more
liable to injury by wet when they have been cut than if
left intact, and in fact may be killed outright; but, as in
such event the injury is due to the wet and not to the act
of cutting, the blame cannot be ascribed directly to the
latter. It may be observed that land whereon hop stocks
are rotted before spring by excessive wet, after autumn
cutting, is not suitable for hop cultivation at all, since,
under such unfavourable conditions, the uncut stocks would
be especially liable to damage from the same cause. Prob-
CULTIVATION. 157
ably it would be nearer the truth to say that, where
rotting of the stocks is found to ensue after autumn cut-
ting, the real reason is to be sought in bad management
rather than in the cutting per se; or in the prevalence
of wet—most probably owing to the stocks having been
covered up so deep that they must perish, in any case,
through the exclusion of air. As already stated, the stock
remains alive throughout the winter, and for the main-
tenance of this vitality air is indispensable; and in the
case of uncut stocks the necessary circulation is maintained
by the tubular stems,! which project above the surface of
the ground. When the stocks are wet some substitute for
these tubes must be provided, an object accomplished (or
that should be accomplished) by employing friable, light,
humous, and therefore porous, compost for covering the
stocks—or, in the worst cases, light, sandy, and porous soil
may be used. Under these conditions rotting of the stocks
after autumn cutting will hardly occur—at least that is the
conclusion drawn from observation of stocks constantly
treated in this manner for twelve years without a single
case of injury.
Another objection raised against autumn cutting is that
early development necessitates favourable spring weather.
This, however, applies solely to late spring frosts, the
above quoted experience having demonstrated that autumn
cut hops are not more liable than others to suffer from
the attacks of vermin, honey. dew, smut, or the influence
of extreme changes of temperature; both spring cut and
autumn cut hopes being equally affected at one time or
1A striking example is afforded by perennial water plants, the rootstocks
of which are in deep water, and which nevertheless are able to live through
the winter under an air-tight sheet of ice. In this case the tubular stems,
which are either hollow or filled with highly porous cellular texture, and
project above the water, must be regarded as important ventilators for the
circulation of air.
158 HOPS.
another, without any positive greater susceptibility being
so far observable on the part of either. In this respect
an observation restricted to one or two seasons is far from
sufficient. On the other hand, it is quite true that autumn
cutting does not invariably yield equally good results in
all situations and districts, but that in many places spring
cutting, performed at the proper time, is alone suitable.
It is also true that the favourable results of autumn
cutting depend mainly on the weather, and that, even in
the districts where it is most applicable and most generally
employed, its consequences are not always superior to those
obtainable by spring cutting. Similarly, the various kinds
of hops behave towards autumn cutting in different ways,
so far as the date of ripening is concerned. In some years
it is the early hops, in others the late varieties, that give
the largest crops after autumn cutting; and even in the
same year the quantity and quality of the crop of both
kinds may vary considerably in different situations under
the same system of cutting. Nevertheless, in the majority
of instances autumn cutting: has behaved better in the
case of late hops, especially in districts where the period
of vegetation is short, an increase both in yield and quality
being observable; whereas, in the case of early hops, the
improvement is generally in point of quality at the expense
of quantity. It may therefore be assumed that, in small
gardens with early hops and on compact soils, no advantage
is derivable from autumn cutting when the period of vegeta-
tion is long. Even where the system appears advantageous
no remarkable difference in results is found, in comparison
with spring cutting, when the seasons are normal. How-
ever, in abnormal years when spring cut hops yield extremely
poor crops, the favourable results of autumn cutting are
perfectly surprising ; and it is herein that the real value
of this system consists, since it forms the sole means of
CULTIVATION. 159
protecting the grower against a complete failure of crop.
This solitary but very weighty circumstance is sufficient
to remove all doubts as to the utility of autumn cutting!
The repeated proof that autumn cutting is capable of
largely increasing the yield in years when spring cut hops
seriously fail is a reason for warmly recommending the
former system, though no guarantee is given that an equally
favourable result will necessarily be obtained under different
conditions.
Briefly, every grower will do well to make a trial of
autumn cutting in part of his hop area, provided the afore-
said essential conditions to success are present. Finally it
may be remarked that autumn cutting should never be
performed while the bine is still green and sappy, but
must be deferred till October, and later if possible, by
which time the eyes will be so well developed that they
1 Zelinka states that he also shared these doubts, and, until taught better
by striking facts, could not for a long period regard with favour the com-
pulsory adoption of regular autumn cutting, notwithstanding the convincing
statements of Strebel and Fruwirth to the effect that autumn cutting is less
weakening to the plants, in that it does not deprive them of the reserves of
material, which by the time spring has arrived have ascended from the stock
into the stems before the latter are cut; further, that the eyes left from the
autumn cutting develop better during the winter, so that the plant gains a
start in the spring when vegetation rewakes, etc.
In 1894 and 1896, two years in which the Russian hop crop was greatly
affected—partly by the long-continued drought, from the commencement of
vegetation to the middle of June, and partly by continuous and protracted
wet weather—the following results in lb. per acre were obtained from the
two moieties of one and the same hop garden :—
Kind. . Autumn Cut. Spring Cut.
1894. 1896. 1894. 1896.
Early hops : ‘i 556 1b. 520 lb. 250 lb. 82 lb.
Late hops se BB, 950 ,, 300 ,, 145 ,,
In point of quality, also, the autumn cut hops were superior, especially
in 1896. Although yielding six and « half times as many cones, the latter
plants were not more fully developed than the spring cut vines, which were
remarkably luxuriant in foliage, though cropping badly.
160 HOPS.
can be counted as easily as in spring. In no case need
there be any fear of injury to the cut rootstocks by frost.
(6) Spring Cutting.
This is the method most generally adopted, because the
hop was originally cultivated in districts with such a favour-
able climate that no need was experienced for performing the
operation at any other time of the year, and the custom
was followed in other districts to which the industry
afterwards spread. Compared with autumn cutting, the
performance of this work in the spring offers the advantage
of enabling the flowering and gathering time to be regulated
so as to ensure their occurrence at the period most suitable
under local conditions, according as the stocks are cut at
an earlier or later date. It also furnishes better sets, and
less difficulty from weeds is met with in spring cutting.
The other advantages ascribed to spring cutting, viz.,
. greater ease in performance and more favourable healing
of the wounds in the stocks, repose on an erroneous founda-
tion, since the wounds do not heal over at all but merely
dry up and die, whether produced in spring or autumn ;
and the ease with which the work can be carried out
depends rather on the prevailing weather than on the
season of the year. Generally, however, spring cutting
is the custom, and in most hop districts is the almost
invariable rule.
The most advantageous time for spring cutting is a
matter that, in view of all the subsidiary circumstances to
be taken into consideration, can only be determined after
comparative experiments extending over a series of years.
It will vary according to the geographical situation and
climatic conditions of a given district ; also with the aspect
of the garden, the variety of hops grown (early or late
CULTIVATION. 161
sorts) and the early or late commencement of spring
weather.
The following chart shows the customary dates at which
spring cutting is practised in the various continental hop
districts, from which it appears that the work extends
from February to May, but that in the majority of places
April is the prevailing month; whilst only in a few in-
stances, such as Jura, Rhenish Prussia and Wiirtemburg,
are the hops cut as early as February, and on the other
hand it is not completed until May in Bohemia, Upper
Austria, Sweden and Russia.
Theoretically considered, early cutting appears best,
but on practical grounds late cutting is not infrequently
found desirable. Physiological considerations and the
economy of nutrient material speak in favour of the former
course: the earlier the cutting the less will the plant be
weakened and the smaller the amount of stored up food-
stuff wasted ; furthermore, the earlier will the shoots come
up and hence the vegetative period and working life of the
plant be increased. For these reasons early cutting is
desirable wherever situation and climate permit. Where,
however, the question of securing the crop is brought to
the fore by reason of adverse conditions of weather, then
late cutting increases in importance, delay being advisable,
not only on account of late spring frosts, but also by reason
of the weather usually experienced at flowering and fruiting
time. Thus, the rainless, hot, windy weather occurring
regularly at a stated period of summer in some districts,
and injurious to the bloom, may be circumvented by
retarding the cutting so that inflorescence occurs later
and at a less unfavourable time. Hop districts little affected
by late spring frosts are unfortunately rare, and in most
districts these occur with great regularity, though the
damage done is not uniformly great, a good deal depending
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CULTIVATION. 163
on the situation of the garden and on the variety of hops
grown. These frosts injure the plant, not merely by con-
gealing the young shoots, but more frequently by setting
up an abnormal sap circulation, whereby the plant is
rendered sickly, and rarely recovers fully during the same
year. In the case of delicate varieties it is by no means
necessary that the temperature should fall below freezing
point for this injury to occur, a drop to 8° to 4° C. being
quite sufficient. The injurious influence of these low
temperatures is revealed by the pale, light-green colour of
the plants, the damage being greater as the fluctuations of
temperature are the more pronounced. The usual result
is to weaken the organisation of the plant and predispose
it to various diseases. However, the stocks that are cut
late in districts where the cold days appear first in June
are also exposed to similar cooling, and are more likely
to suffer injury than if cut earlier. It has often been noticed
in various hop districts that when the plants have been
affected by cold after development has proceeded for some
time the crop is very plentiful, but the quality leaves much
‘to be desired. For this reason late cutting, where regularly
practised, cannot always be regarded as a protective agency
against late frosts or late cold weather. There are other
motives for considering late cutting as partly desirable,
partly necessary; the latter being the case where early
cutting becomes impossible on account of the lateness of
spring.
It is quite true that the hop plant is the more enfeebled
in proportion as cutting is delayed after the awakening of
vegetation in the spring; though it cannot be asserted that
such weakening of the rootstock is always, and uncondition-
ally, disadvantageous to the grower. Thus by robbing the
plant of that portion of the reserve material which had
already been used in forming shoots previous to cutting, and
164 HOPS.
constraining it to put forth new shoots, its vegetative powers
are highly taxed; and although this causes a transitory
fatigue of the rootstock, the final result is to lengthen its
duration. The plant itself then has a more youthful
appearance, is richer in sap, and the blooms appear while
it is still in the prime of youth. Such plants are more
tender and delicate, but are better capable of yielding a valu-
able crop than older plants that are already past their prime,
ic., are in an advanced stage of life before flowering time
comes. Thus, in the Saaz district for example, the practice
of late cutting contributes not a little to the fineness of
quality of the hops there produced. Consequently, to totally
discard late cutting would be a precipitate and ill-considered
action, as well as a one-sided solution of the problem as to
which time for cutting is the most advantageous to the
grower in this or that district ; whereas the question demands
full consideration from all sides and of all circumstances,
together with a ripened judgment of previously collected
experiences. The best means of attaining our object is that
of comparative experiment. Only too frequently has a
choice to be made between two evils; and therefore the
decision which of them is the smaller should be based not
on mere hypotheses, but on facts wherever possible, 2. ¢.,
on known results. In this connection it will often trans-
pire that assumptions and preconceptions are a long way
from the truth. Owing to the manifold factors influencing
vegetation in different localities, no universally applicable
conclusions can be drawn; since late cutting may cause the
plants to bloom late in one district, whereas in another there
is but little difference in this respect between late and early
cutting. Furthermore, local conditions influence the time
of cutting, not merely on account of climate, situation and
weather, but also by reason of market conditions and other
established customs.
CULTIVATION. 165
In many districts, particularly in the south, endeavour
is made, by all available means, to obtain a very early crop,
so as to have the first parcel of produce in the market,
because prices are then more favourable. In other places
attention is bestowed on the production of a superior article
rich in lupulin, owing to the absence of a market for inferior
grades ; and in others again the main point kept in view is
abundance, there being little difference of quality obtainable
throughout the district.
Manuring.
An examination of the various opinions now prevailing
on the subject of manuring hops will reveal that, although
considerable divergences exist with regard to the quantity
of manure and the method of application, all experts agree
in considering stall manure and compost the best fertilisers
for hops. Here and there the use of artificial manures for
hops is customary to a variable extent—results of a few
exact experiments on hop manuring have been published—
nevertheless the practice is not so far very widespread. The
reason for this is primarily that, with hops more so than any
other cultivated plants, the influence of the manure on the
quality as well as on the weight of the crop has to be con-
sidered; and it is precisely this condition that so greatly
complicates the attainment of lucid results, because, up to
the present, the proper key to judging the quality of hops
has not been discovered, a very wide margin being left to
individual opinion. Furthermore, the hop is a plant exposed
_to such numerous accidents-and dangers affecting the amount
and quality of the crop that the results of even the most.
accurately performed experiments are easily rendered
nugatory by some circumstance or other. Only in normal
years can one hope to gain any clear idea of the effect of the
various fertilisers on hops.
166 HOPS.
Whatever manure is applied, the amount of materials
taken up from the soil by the plants must always be taken
as the basis for estimating the substances to be replaced,
and on this point accurate information is afforded by
analysing the plant, or rather its ash — see following
table :—
“ot 100 parts of ash contain
mn
Portion of plant 32 \|% #
: 1 a> : ‘ : &
examined. E FI ea 8 3 3 3 g g é
2° /a a] Z 5 2) & a
Hop cones 26 7°55 | 34°61 | 2:20 | 16°65 | 5°47 | 1°40 | 16°80
Leaves - 9 | 17:20 | 18°18 | 3°35 | 42:90 | 6-50 | 0°79 | 5°79
Bine -- - 6 4°56 | 29-12 | 3:53 | 32°52 | 7-03 | 0°73 | 10-21
Entire plant tee 3 8°48 | 24°57 | 2°55 | 26:97 | 9°57 | 1:94 | 8:01
Assuming that, as reported by Hirzel, the following quan-
tities are produced per acre :—
Lb.
Leaves - 3,235
Bine 3,824
Cones - 662
Total 7,721 lb.,
then, on the basis of the foregoing figures, the amount of
materials removed from an acre of soil every year will be as
follows :—
Amount removed in Ib. per acre.
In the gg | 8 ;
no Psy fo} G fo) £3: 3S ds a
geile | S2l es] Slaeleleait¢é|éle
Cones 49°98} 21:3} 17:28; 0°53} 8:34] 2°71/0°72] 8-40] 1:78] 8-14] 1:59
Leaves. 55642 |111-9) 73-43 | 18-76 | 238-74 | 36-23 | 4°52 | 32:03] 9-06 | 118-72 | 14°55
Bine- - - |174°37] 60°0| 50°86] 4:20] 56°59] 12-24/1-14/17:97] 5°35] 18-00) 14°15
Entire plant | 780°77 | 193:2 | 141°57 | 23-49 | 303-67 | 51°18 | 6-38 | 58-40 | 16°19 | 139-86 | 30°29
‘Dr. E. Wolff's Aschenanalysen, Part ii., 1870-1880 (Berlin, 1880).
CULTIVATION. 167
Assuming, further, 2,727 as the number of plants per acre,
the weight of dry matter removed from the soil by each plant
will average 1286°8 grams, of which
Grams.
The cones take 110:3
The leaves take 539°2
The bine takes 607°3
Total 1286'8
100 Tar et ash 100 parts of dry matter contain
a ro) 3} & to . &
2 é ‘ ro) io} co} & | :
S/R ile ielifl eel e/ ele |sigis
3°59 | 16°36 | 3°19 | 3-22 | 2°61; 0°08 | 1:26 | 0°41} 0-11 | 1:27 | 0°27 | 1:23 | 0°24
3°91 | 21:31 | 2°64 | 3°46 | 2-27 | 0°58 | 7-38 | 1°12) 0°14] 0°99 | 0:28 | 3°67 | 0°45
3°01 | 7°50 | 8:09 | 1°57} 1:33) 0°11] 1°48 | 0°32 | 0-03 | 0-47 | 0°14 | 0°34 | 0°37
3°93 | 18-25 | 5-03 | 2°50 | 2°08 | 0-22 | 2°29 | 6-81 | 0°17 | 0°68 | 0°33 | 1°55 | 0°43
These figures, referred to the four principal food-stuffs in
the soil—potash, lime, phosphoric acid and nitrogen—work
out as follows :—
No. of grams taken from the soil by each plant.
In the
Ash, K20. Cao. P2035. N.
Whole plant 130-13 23°60 50°61 9°73 32°20
Cones - 8:33 2°88 1:39 1:40 3°55
Leaves - 92:74 12°24 39°79 5°34 18°65
Bine - 29°06 8:48 9°43 2:99 10-00
It is scarcely necessary to add that these figures are
merely intended to serve as approximate indications, since
they will naturally fluctuate according to the variety of the
hop, soil, manuring, season, method of cultivation, etc.
Their value should not, however, be under-estimated, since
it is not feasible to consider every special case by itself,
whilst at the same time it is necessary to approach the
question of hop-manuring from a definite point of view.
168 HOPS.
Owing to the circumstance that the cones alone are sold,
the leaves and bine being left on the land, the amount of
valuable plant food annually removed from the soil by the
hop crop is not so very great, the quantity of nitrogen and
phosphoric acid being notably smaller than is taken by a
medium wheat crop (about 1,700 lb. per acre).
An average hop An average wheat
crop, 662 Ib. per crop, 1,700 lb. per
acre, contains acre, contains
Lb. Lb.
N 21-30 < 34:51
K, 17:28 > 10:38
CaO 8°34 > 1:03
P.O; 8-40 < 15°74
Ash 49:90 > 33°32
The conditions are, however, very different if we compare
the amount of materials required to produce, on the one hand,
a medium crop of straw and grain in the case of wheat, and,
on the other, those necessary to form the total aerial portion
of the hop plant per unit of surface; and of which amounts
the soil must contain a large multiple in order to enable
either kind of crop to develop vigorously and in a normal
manner.
Thus, a medium crop removes, per acre of soil—
In the case of wheat In the case of hops
(grain, 1,700 Ib. ; (cones, 662 lb. ;
straw, 4,000 lb.) stems and leaves, 7,060 Ib.)
Lb. Lb.
N 53°71 19320
K,0 39°70 141°57
CaO 13°44 303-67
P.O; 26°06 58°40
Ash 248:12 780-77
These figures very clearly show that hop gardens require
a far larger supply of manurial matter than corn land. This
fact is fully recognised in practice, and every hop-grower
knows that it is only by abundant manuring that his gardens
will continue to yield good crops,
CULTIVATION. 169
Since, as already remarked, the bine and leaves of the
hop plant generally remain on the farm, it follows that the
major part of the plant food they contain is sooner or later
returned to the land.
To maintain the fertility of the soil in equilibrium it is
therefore principally necessary to devote attention to the
amount of plant constituents that actually goes. off the land
in the form of hop cones, the chief of these constituents being
nitrogen and potash, an ample provision of which in the soil
has been proved by numerous experiments to be of prime
importance to the well-being of the hop plant. Of course,
also, according to the nature of the soil, neither lime nor
phosphoric acid should be forgotten.
Usually there is no need for any special addition of sul-
phuric acid, magnesia, or iron to the soil, plants in general,
and hops in particular, requiring such small proportions
of these bodies that there is no fear of the ground becom-
ing exhausted in this respect. Furthermore, sufficient
amounts of these last-named bodies, to some extent in a
dormant condition, are added to the soil in stall manure,
in compost, and also in some artificial manures, e.g., potash
salts, etc.
Inter alia, the method of gathering the hop crop exercises
a certain influence on the amount of plant food required.
Thus, if the bine is cut off at picking time the transmigratory
substances present in the leaves and stems are lost to the
rootstock, and consequently an increased manuring is neces-
sitated.
Hanamann’s researches (Allgemeine Brauer- und Hopfenzeit-
ung, 1887) show that when the cutting of the bine is delayed
until the plant has died down after harvest, 28°3 per cent. of
the phosphoric acid present in the stem and leaves at gather-
ing time will have returned to the rootstock, together with
170 HOPS.
32°1 per cent. of the potash and 26°3 per cent. of the nitro-
gen.
The question whether, in hop gardens, the manure should
be applied direct to the stocks, along the rows, or over the
entire surface of the garden, has already been repeatedly
ventilated. Under existing circumstances, however, the
consensus of practical opinion is rightly in favour of the
first-named procedure.
In supplying plant food to the soil the following funda-
mental rules should be acted upon. In the first place, the
manure must be applied in such a manner that its con-
stituent materials can be utilised to the utmost possible
extent ; and furthermore, for economical reasons, the quan-
tity of manure must be the smallest consistent with the
production of a good crop. Both these conditions can only
be fulfilled, when hops are in question, by manuring the
stocks.
It is an undoubted fact that the absorption, i.e., the utilisa-
tion, of plant food is greater in proportion as the material is
closer to the assimilative organs of the roots. If, however,
it be remembered that the hop plant develops a widely ex-
tended root system, and that the finer rootlets, occupying
an area of about 40 inches in diameter around the plant,
constitute the organs of assimilation, it will be evidently
preferable to spread the manure over the aforesaid area than
to apply it direct to the stock, the latter being, in fact, an
injurious procedure, for self-evident reasons.
On the other hand, manuring the rows or the entire
surface of the garden would necessitate the application of a
very considerable quantity of manure, and would result in
the waste of a portion of the nutrient materials, especially
1Tn the absence of any decisive proofs to the contrary based on thorough-
going investigation, this return of matter to the roots must be regarded as
actually occurring.
CULTIVATION. 171
nitrogen; or would at least favour the growth of weeds,
which, owing to the large space allotted to the hop plant
for well-known reasons, find very ample room for their
development. In fact, the manuring of the entire area of
a hop garden is only justifiable when other subsidiary plants
are cultivated thereon, and in all other circumstances is a
wasteful proceeding.
The best time to manure hops is in the spring, and
the work may be advantageously carried on in conjunction
with the task of cutting, the manure being applied and
worked in at the same time as the cut stocks are covered
up again. Sometimes, though less frequently, hops are
manured in the autumn, good results being obtained by this
plan in many places, especially on heavy soils. In such
cases also, if autumn cutting is practised, the two opera-
tions could very well be combined; otherwise the manure
is spread before the ground is worked in the autumn, and
ploughed in.
Stock-manuring is effected by hoeing out a small trench
all round the stock at a distance of 12 to 20 inches from
the latter, placing the manure therein, and covering it over
with soil. The quantity of manure required to fully cover
the requirements of each stock can be easily calculated,
provided the weight and constitution of the plant to be
produced, and the composition of the manure are known.!
If well-rotted stall manure is employed, about 9 to 15 lb.
per stock, according to the condition of the soil, will gener-
ally be sufficient,? though a little more will do no harm.
The excessive use of stall manure, however, cannot be too
. emphatically deprecated, since this manure, and especially
1 Emil Wolff, Praktische Diingerlehre, Appendix (Berlin, 1892).
2 Given fairly well rotted stall manure containing 0°5 per cent. of nitrogen,
0-26 per cent. of phosphoric acid, 0°63 per cent. of potash and 0:7 per cent. of
172 HOPS.
the liquid portion, contains a great deal of nitrogen, which
is readily convertible into nitric acid, and is consequently
very rapid and energetic in its action. Now the presence
of an excess of. active nitrogen induces an immoderate
luxuriance of foliage, but damages the crop, frequently in
a quantitative sense and almost invariably in point of
quality. Plants that put forward an abundance of leaves
sometimes produce only a very few cones, and these are
loose, lumpy, frequently infoliated, and poor in lupulin
granules, besides having a great tendency to smell of
garlic. Consequently, in determining the quantity of stall
manure to use for hops it will be necessary to make ex-
periments and not exceed the maximum ascertained as
most suitable; since otherwise, apart from the possibility
of a diminished crop, the inferior quality of cones likely to
result will be difficult of sale—perhaps altogether unmarket-
able should the season be one in which good quality hops
are plentiful.
This applies not only to stall manure and liquid manure,
but also to all active nitrogenous fertilisers, such as dried
blood, sulphate of ammonia, and especially nitrate of soda.
Under certain circumstances, however, the energetic
action of the said nitrogenous manures is exceedingly valu-
able to the hop-grower. For instance, when hops have
been damaged by night frosts, drought, wind or hailstorms,
lime, the following quantities of manure will be necessary to fully replace the
several constituents removed from the soil by each hop plant :—
6,440 grams of stall manure correspond to 32°20 grams N.
3,742, 4 ‘9 973 4, P,O,.
3,746, re * 23°60 ,, K,O.
7,230 = ,, sy 8 50°61 =,, CaO.
Hence 2,727 plants per acre will require, to fully replace
the nitrogen, say, in round numbers, 38,600 lb. of manure.
the phosphoric acid, é 22,400 ‘5
the potash, Ke 22,500 “
the lime, ” 48,400 5
CULTIVATION. 173
an application of about one gallon of dilute liquid manure
to each stock, or a weak solution of nitrate of soda in
water, will prove beneficial, as also when the leaves of the
hop have to be plucked off in consequence of mildew.
Again, the application of similar rapid fertilisers is some-
times advisable in old gardens where the root activity of
the plants is naturally low, the best time for the applica-
tion being at the first or second hoeing. In some places it
is customary to give the hops a dressing of liquid manure
shortly before they come into bloom, but this is advisable
only on the poorer classes of soil.
Next to stall manure, compost or mixed manure finds
the most widespread application. The quality and com-
position of compost vary considerably according to the
materials employed in its preparation, the principal value
of this class of manure consisting in the mineral plant
food, since the percentage of nitrogen is almost invariably
lower than in stall manure. Hence compost is less stimu-
lating to the production of foliage, and has a more favour-
able influence on the quantity and quality of the cones;
and its composition renders it more suitable for soils that
are rich in humus and nitrogen. As, however, compost
is not capable of improving the physical character of soils,
which is one of the principal objects to be kept in mind in
the manuring of hop gardens, it cannot, when used alone,
permanently fulfil the purpose in view. Generally the
conditions are such that it is preferable to employ stall
manure and compost as the principal fertiliser in alternate
years, the reason for such a method, apart from its advis-
ability on soils rich in nitrogen, being that many farms
produce an insufficient quantity of stall manure to supply
the hop gardens every year without robbing the rest of
the arable land. Ifthe soil of the hop garden is natur-
ally rich in nitrogenous matter, dressing with stall manure
174 HOPS.
can be omitted for a couple of years, or even longer, without
decreasing the crop; in fact, under these circumstances,
the application of compost for several years in succession
is advisable, in view of the attainment of higher quality
in the cones. Furthermore, in such event, it would be
well to consider whether artificial manures are not prefer-
able to compost, because of their greater portability.
In manuring hops with compost the best time to apply
the same is—like stall manure—immediately after cutting,
though, instead of spreading’ it in a ring around the stock,
the compost is mixed with soil, and then used to cover up
the stock again.
All kinds of farm waste, such as sweepings, spoilt
fodder, ashes, weeds gathered before seeding, ditch clean-
ings, road sweepings, leaves, etc., are suitable for making
compost ; and dead hop vines, chopped up small, may also
be added. The various materials are heaped up in layers
alternating with soil, and kept moist by occasional sprink-
ling with water, or, better still, liquid manure. An addi-
tion of lime is particularly efficacious and remunerative,
and it is highly advisable to plant the heap with cucumbers
or the like, as a protection against undue dryness. To
ensure intimacy and uniformity of admixture of the various
materials in the compost the heaps should be frequently
turned, in any case not less than twice a year! It is
likewise very important to clear the heap of weeds before
the latter have time to seed, since, if this precaution be
neglected, the weed seeds find their way with the compost
on to the land, the results being very unpleasantly felt in
the subsequent tillage operations in the hop garden. As a
1 A. Adorno, of Kaltenberg-Tettnang, advises the author that he prepares
for his hop gardens a compost of stall manure, shoddy dust, and soil, and
always obtains very good results.
CULTIVATION. 175
general thing, a compost heap will be ready for use after
one or two years’ storage. The quantity to be employed
in the case of each stock cannot be given in exact figures
owing to the variable composition of the mass; at any rate
it may serve as a guide to state that, according to the
composition and degree of decomposition attained, from 17
to 33 lb. of compost will be enough for a stock, the actual
amount being determined according to local conditions.
Experiment has shown that stall manure can be re-
placed for one or more seasons in hop gardens by artificial
fertilisers as well as by compost. According to Schoff’s
report in his work on hop cultivation in the Saaz district
(Saazer Hopfenbau) he obtained very good results with guano
for over thirty years in succession, without stall manure or
with only a very small quantity of the latter. He calculates
on a dressing of 35 grams! (1 oz.) of guano per stock.
Now, the quantity of plant food in such a dressing is very
modest, and, whilst probably sufficing to restore to the soil
the quantity of material sold off the ground in the form
of cones, is not enough to maintain the garden long in a
fruitful condition.
Dr. Stutzer, who advises that hops should be dressed
with stall manure and commercial fertilisers alternately,
recommends the following quautities for each plant :—
Nitrate of soda 160 grams (53 oz.) = 24:80 grams N;
superphosphate (16 per cent.) 100 grams (83 oz.) ; or Thomas
slag (16 per cent.) 200 grams (7 oz.) = 16 grams of phosphoric
acid (P,O,) soluble in water (82 grams soluble in citrate) ;
and sulphate of potash (50 per cent.) 90 grams (33 02.)=45
grams K,O.
1 Thirty-five grams of guano, containing 10 per cent. of N, 87 per cent. of
K,0, 16 per cent. of P,O, and 12 per cent. of CaO, are equivalent to 3-5 grams
of N, 1:05 grams of K,O, 5°60 grams of P,O,; and 4:20 grams of CaO.
176 HOPS.
In order to ensure better utilisation of the nitrate of soda,
Stutzer recommends its division into three portions, one
half the total being applied in April, one fourth early in
June, and the remainder in the middle of July; this-is
particularly advisable in rainy climates.
The quantities given by Stutzer will in most cases be
sufficient to induce normal growth; but as the amounts of
phosphoric acid and potash are larger than those removed
by an average hop crop, the ground will gradually become
richer in these two substances.
Fruwirth,! who rightly advises caution in the use of
nitrate of soda, proposes to replace an average dressing of
stall manure by—
120 grams (44 oz.) of nitrate of soda,
100 ,, (3% oz.) of superphosphate, and
80 ,, (2% 02.) of sulphate of potash.
These figures do not differ greatly from those of Stutzer,
and in this case also the ground will become richer in phos-
phoric acid, and, to a smaller degree, in potash. The quality
of the cones is said not to have depreciated under the
influence of this dressing, but to have remained about equal
to that obtained by the aid of stall manure.
The reports issued on the results of the experimental
manuring of hops with artificials are somewhat divergent, a
circumstance not surprising, in view of the different classes
of soil on which hops are grown in various localities. Most
of these reports are defective in that, as a rule, merely the
weight of cones gathered was recorded, leaving more or less
unconsidered the influence of the manuring on the quality of
the produce.
1 Wiener landw. Zeitung, 1898.
CULTIVATION. 177
The following results were furnished by the’ manuring
experiments conducted in the Spalt experimental hop garden
in 1895, reported by Kraus! :—
Yield of cones
per stock.’
Grams. Ratio.
Unmanured - 152°4 100°0
Manured with 100 grams of superphosphate
and 120 grams of nitrate of soda per
stock - 161:9 106-2
Do., plus an addition of 70 grams of chloride
of potash 209-4 | Average
Do., plus 72 grams of sulphate of potash RIOG 1ST"
(instead of the chloride) 211°8
The cones of the unmanured plots were uniform in
development, mostly very ripe and partly weather-beaten.
Those from the plots dressed with nitrate of soda and super-
phosphate were better in colour but less satisfactorily
developed ; and similar results were obtained from the plots
treated with the potash salts, except that many of the cones
were small. In view of the high requirements of the hop
plant as regards potash, Kraus recommends experiments
directed to the elucidation of this question, and expresses the
opinion that, given a sufficiency of nitrogen and phosphoric
acid, an addition of potash would certainly prove beneficial on
soils deficient in that substance. Furthermore, on the basis
of a series of experiments on the manuring of hops, he
arrived at the conviction that, by maintaining the correct
proportion between nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash,
better results in point of quality of produce can be obtained
than when stall manure is used exclusively. If, however,
the proper ratio be neglected, artificial manures may furnish
bad results, particularly in the case of nitrate of soda, which
produces coarse and irregular cones when used in excess.
1 Wochenschrift des landw. Vereines in Baiern, vol. 1xxxvi.
12
178 HOPS.
Wagner’s experiments on hop manuring harmonise with
those carried out at Spalt, and show that artificials will pro-
duce as large a crop, and even 3°6 to 34°4 per cent. more
than is obtainable from stall manure alone. He is of opinion
that the use of-artificials for hops will prove advisable and
remunerative under certain circumstances.
Different results, however, were obtained at Hohenheim
in 1883, nitrate of soda and superphosphate being found
superior to a dressing in which these substances were supple-
mented by sulphate of potash and magnesia (Strebel, Hand-
buch des Hopfenbaues).
Worthy of mention are the researches of the German
Hopgrowers’ Association, in whose experiments nitrate of
soda, superphosphate and potash were used in addition to
stall manure. It was found that a dressing of nitrate of
soda, superphosphate and stall manure gave a larger crop of
cones than the last-named alone; whilst the joint use of
superphosphate, potash and stall manure reduced the yield
to less than that furnished by the stall manure alone?
Dr. A. M. Grimm® reported that on the Marienhof
estate, near Neumark (West Prussia), experiments in hop
manuring have been carried on for a decade, very good
results being obtained by dressing each stock with—
100 grams (34 oz.) nitrate of soda = 15 grams of nitrogen.
= 17 ae phosphoric acid
100 ,, (3% 02.) superphosphate -{ aolublein water:
70 ~,, (24 02.) sulphates of a aK
and magnesia ” potash,
It has also been found that—
A larger application of nitrate of soda injures the quality
of-the cones ;
’ Wochenschrift des landw. Vereines in Batern, vol. lxxxvi.
2 Oesterr. landw. Wochenblatt, 1887.
3 Wiener landw. Zeitung, 1897.
CULTIVATION. 179
Thomas slag is less effective than superphosphate, but
produces an after effect;
An addition of potash by itself (in 1892) increased the
crop by about 400 lb. of cones per acre ;
Chloride of potash is more effective than the sulphate ;!
whilst an addition of about 31 oz. of sulphate of magnesia
per stock favourably influenced the colour of the cones.
The soils on which these Marienhof experiments were
performed are loamy and humous sands.
Ever since 1891 Adorno of Kaltenberg, near Tettnang,
has used Thomas slag and kainit in addition to stall
manure and compost—and occasionally nitrate of soda—for
hops. The most favourable results were obtained by ap-
plying to each stock a half dressing of stall manure in
conjunction with 100 grams (33 oz.) of 18 per cent. Thomas
slag and 125 grams (43 0z.) of kainit. Like many others, this
experimentalist advises caution in the use of nitrate of soda.
Noteworthy experiments are those carried out in the
hop gardens of Count Schwarzenberg at Hermanka, near
Rocov.? These afford certain information as to the pecu-
niary advantages resulting from the application of artificial
manures to hops. Thus, it was found that, with hops
at about £7 per cwt., the most profitable results were ob-
tained from a full dressing of—
Ber ie Per stock (2,727 to the acre).
Grams.
Nitrate of soda 360 60 (2:11 02.)
Superphosphate (18 per cent.) - 330 55 (1:98 oz.)
Kainit 540 90 (3°16 02.)
whereas when the price falls to £5 a simple dressing with
kainit—780 lb. per acre—would pay best, full manuring
being no longer profitable at this price.
1The converse is reported from other quarters.
‘2 Oesterr. landw. Wochenblatt, 1897.
180 HOPS.
There would certainly be little difficulty in adding still
further to the list of experiments already cited; but none
of them are of more than local value, and consequently
are inapplicable directly to other conditions.
On summing up what has been said with regard to the
use of artificial manures for hops it will be evident, in the
first place, that the question is still far from a satisfactory
solution. Dr. Behrens appropriately says that Remy,’ who
has devoted himself to the thankworthy but thankless task
of collecting the results of experiments in hop manuring,
only succeeded in confirming that the positive results
obtained bear no proportion at all to the expenditure of
mental and material adjuncts, especially labour, involved
in carrying out the experiments in question.
Notwithstanding this poverty of results from such a
quantity of active endeavour, we should not be discouraged
from further attempts, more especially since there are, and
always will be, a number of growers who, for some reason
or other, are not in possession of sufficient stall manure to
fully supply the requirements of their hop gardens without
robbing the remainder of their arable land; and it is for
these growers in particular that the question of artificials
for hops is one of special interest and high importance.
And even if the results of previous manuring experiments
do not permit the deduction of any universal rules as to
the most advantageous method of dressing hop land, never-
theless they admit of the following conclusions being
drawn :—
1. By the use of artificial manures the otherwise
customary dressing of stall manure can be dispensed with
for hops during one or more years without any fear of
1 Remy, ‘‘ Ueber die Ergebnisse der bisher in Deutschland ausgefiihrten
Hopfendiingungsversuche ” (Results of German experiments in hop manuring)
Wochenschrift fiir Brauerei, 1897.
CULTIVATION, 181
injuring the quality or weight of the crop, provided the
artificials be correctly selected for replacing the materials
removed from the soil.
2. The excessive use of nitrate of soda or other rapid
nitrogenous fertilisers stimulates the hop to luxuriance of
foliage and stem, but at the same time exercises an un-
favourable influence on the form and quality of the cones,
frequently causing the latter to become loose and lumpy in
form and of disagreeable odour.
3. Manuring with phosphoric acid and potash, without
any or more than a small addition of nitrogen, generally
leads to a more compact growth of the plant, the cones
being usually handsome and sightly in appearance, and
with an agreeable aromatic odour.
4. In view of the high percentage of potash in hops
particular attention must be directed to this constituent
of plant food, which has proved useful when employed
alone on soils wherein it is naturally deficient. Of the
potash salts used the sulphate is preferable to the chloride.
5. An excess of nitrogen retards the ripening of the
cones, whereas phosphoric acid and potash shorten the
vegetative period.
Finally, it may be remarked that the property of favour-
ing the production of flowers, ascribed to phosphoric acid
in some quarters, has not, so far, been shown conclusively
to exist, and is probably mythical.
Traiming the Hop Plant.
The natural requirement of the hop, namely, the satis-
faction of its climbing impulse, can be complied with in a
variety of ways, though, a few special exceptions apart, only
two principal essentially different methods of training are
practised, viz., 1. Pole work, in which the plants are trained
182 HOPS.
on poles; and, 2. Framework, wherein wire or string is used.
The former, being the older method, may be dealt with first.
1. Poled Gardens.
Of all the various trees the pine and fir yield the best
hop poles,! the slender and straight growth of the stems
rendering them particularly suitable for this purpose among
others. Scotch fir and other woods are more rarely used for
hop poles. As a rule the poles are 25 to 30 feet long, with a
diameter of 3 to 4 inches at the butt, and, consequently, the
best pine and fir trunks are those of 20 to 30 years’ growth.
The trunks, which are preferably felled during the winter
months, are usually just roughly trimmed of their branches
before being sold to the hop-farmer, to whom is left the
further task of preparing the poles by sharpening, trimming
up, and stripping the bark.
The price of poles naturally varies with the locality, fir
poles costing 30s. to 60s. per hundred, or sometimes as
much again. Consequently a stock of poles represents a
considerable amount of capital.
Occasionally the operation of trimming the poles is
restricted to removing the rough outer bark. Although it is
often recommended that, for the protection of the hop plant,
the whole of the bark should be stripped because of the
harbourage afforded by the cracks and fissures to vermin in
winter and in the breeding season; still this course is objected
to in some cases, for the reason that the bine does not climb
so readily on the smooth pole but slips down and requires
more frequent tying, which increases the expense of cultiva-
tion. The advantages and drawbacks of stripping are not
difficult to estimate; nevertheless stripped and unstripped
poles are often found in use side by side.
1 Translator’s Note.—Ash is more widely used in England.
CULTIVATION. 183
A skilled workman is able to trim from 200 to 250 poles
per diem ; and the next step is to sharpen or point the butt
ends in pyramid form, ‘to facilitate their penetrating the
ground when they come to be pitched. With a sharp axe
about 400 to 500 poles can be pointed in a day.
‘A further precaution in the preparation of hop poles is to
protect the lower ends as much as possible from rot, and
this is particularly advisable and remunerative in view of the
large capital outlay represented by a stock of poles. In
treating the poles with this object in view, it must be borne
in mind that, to be efficacious, the preservative material em-
ployed must be applied, not merely to the part of the pole
in immediate contact with the soil, but to a larger portion,
since the poles are most liable to damage and rot soonest in
the part just above the ground level. Hence the preser-
vative treatment must be applied for a length of about 50
inches measured from the butt of the pole.
One well-known method of preserving poles is by charring
the wood, the simplest way of effecting this being to hold
the butt end of the poles over an open fire and keep them
slowly rotating on their own axis until the wood is carbonised
to a depth of } to2 of an inch. This is, however, not only
a tedious and cumbrous method but also less effective than
others, such, for instance, as impregnating the wood with
carbolineum, tar, or creosote, which are easy and simple in
application. A mere coating the surface with these
materials is sufficient for attaining the object in view, but
the treated portions of the pole must remain in contact with
the preserving liquid for at least six hours, to allow time for
its penetration into the wood. The operation is greatly
facilitated by heating the liquid.
Wood impregnated with copper sulphate (blue vitriol)
solution is also very durable. The treatment consists in
immersing the poles—which should be still in a fresh, green
184 HOPS,
state—in a vat filled with a 30 per cent. solution of copper
sulphate. In four days the wood will be saturated and able
to stoutly withstand rotting. The drier the poles the longer
the time required for steeping, perfectly dry wood absorbing
practically none of the solution.’ ,
A cheap method, said to be capable of protecting the
butts of hop poles, consists in partly filling the holes the
poles are to occupy with a mixture of coal ashes and lime
(2:1). It is also averred that either of these materials is
useful when employed separately,? but it is questionable
whether such treatment is not likely to injure the adjacent
roots of the hop plant. In any case the method is worth a
trial.
When treated, the poles are conveyed to the hop garden
and distributed there in such a manner as to minimise
subsequent loss of time in carrying them about. As soon as
the new second shoots begin to appear above the ground the
work of “poling” or ‘‘ pitching the poles’ is commenced.
For this purpose a hole about 20 inches deep is driven into
the soil by means of the ‘‘hop bar” (Fig. 438), at each peg
marked out in new gardens, or on the site of the previous
year’s poles in older gardens. To enable the work to be
done with sufficient ease and rapidity the hop bar should be
1 Zeitschrift fiir das gesanumte Brauwesen, 1898, vol. xxi., No. 51. Dr.
Holzner reports in his review of the month (November) :—
Impregnating Wood.—Dr. Kraus read before the German Mining Association
a paper on the various methods of preserving wood: (1) With mercury
chloride (‘mercury stone’’); (2) with zine chloride (‘‘ white vitriol”); (3)
with tar oil; (4) with aluminium sulphate and cupriferous iron in solution
(1 : 80), followed by calcium chloride (1 : 50) and milk of lime (1:40). Inthe
first three methods the wood is only superficially impregnated by the filling of
the cells with the preservative material. On the other hand, in the fourth
(Hasselmann’s) method the cell walls are chemically modified under the
high pressure (24 to 3 atmos.) employed, and are thereby enabled to resist
putrefaction and decomposition (Allgemeine Brauer- und Hopfenzeitung,
No. 266, p. 2716).
2 Hopfen- und Brauerzeitung, 1888.
CULTIVATION. 185
fairly heavy ; and an active workman can drive 600 to 1,000
holes a day, according to the nature of the ground and the
state of the weather. The poles are pitched as soon as the
holes are made, the pitcher grasping the pole with both
hands, about breast high, and forcing it straight into the
hole; then lifting it out again and making another stroke,
the operation being repeated until the pole is firmly fixed to
a depth of 20 to 24 inches in the ground. Finally, the soil at
the base of each pole is tightly compressed either with the
foot or a small wooden rammer. In a well-managed garden
the poles should exhibit proper alignment, and great care
should be taken to avoid damaging the stocks or shoots
during the holing and pitching.
A few words about the length of the poles may not be
out of place here.
Apart from the advisability of providing longer poles for
free-crowing hops than for such as are less luxuriant, it is
also preferable, when this is possible, to employ shorter poles
in young plantations. Experience shows that young hops
have a great tendency to grow in an upward direction, and
produce very long stems, but only a few laterals, when the
poles are high. It is also frequently observed that such hops
as have grown very high in their youth remain enfeebled for
two or three years after, and yield but a small crop. As,
however, in buying new poles, great stress is, for economical
reasons, rightly laid on sufficient length, and one is hardly
disposed to shorten the poles for the sake of young hops,
it is better, in the absence of worn-out poles from older
gardens, to nip the tops off the young bines when they have
attained a height of 16 to 20 feet, thus stopping their up-
ward growth and favouring the development of the laterals,
i.e., the cropping power.
This precaution will, however, only furnish the desired
results provided the tops are removed early enough in the
186 HOPS.
season to allow the aerial buds, from which the laterals
spring, time to develop fully before the plants come into
flower. In one and two year old gardens the poles should
not, theoretically, exceed 16 to 20 feet in height, full-sized
poles (25 to 35 feet) not being used until the succeeding
year.
Fig. 43.—Hop bar. Fic. 44.—Hop ladder.
With regard to the thickness of the poles it should be
remarked that hops climb more quickly up thin poles than
thick ones, and that the former are consequently preferable.
This consideration, however, is overcome in practice by the
circumstance that thin poles are almost impossible to procure
of the desired length.
Given favourable warm, damp weather the young plants.
grow fairly quickly, and are ready,for tying by the time they
CULTIVATION. 187
are 20 to 25 inches high. Usually two or three stems are
trained on each pole, the others being simply cut off, with
the exception of two or three left as reserves to replace any
of the trained stems that may be injured or killed by frost
or accident. If the reserve stems are found superfluous they
are cut down at the second tying. To train more than two
or three stems on a pole is inadvisable, a further subdivision
of the sap ‘being more disadvantageous than otherwise in
the sequel, since experience shows that a stock bearing two
or three well-nourished stems is always better developed,
and often yields a better crop, than if the sap had been sub-
divided to a greater extent by bearing more stems.
As the hop is obliged to twine about the lowest and there-
fore thickest portion of the pole at starting, and very easily
slips down from such thick supports, it has to be tied to the
pole two or three times in the early stages of training.
The second tying is performed when the plants are 60 to 80
inches high, and can still be reached from the ground, but for
the third tying, at a height of 10 to 13 feet, use is made of the
hop ladder (Fig. 44), which, in order to economise time, is
set up in such position as enables the tier to reach as many
plants as possible without shifting.
In tying care should be taken to fix the supporting band
underneath (never above) a pair of leaves, and never to fasten
the bine tight against the pole. The material for tying is
generally straw,! cut into 2-foot lengths and steeped in water
for several hours before use; reeds, rushes and bast are more
rarely employed.
Owing to the trampling of the soil by the polers and tiers
it becomes advisable to hoe or earth up the plants as soon as
the tying is finished.
1Translator’s Note.—This refers, of course, to Continental practice, rushes.
being the favourite tying material in English gardens.
188 HOPS.
Tying should never be begun early in the morning, since
the bines are then sappy, brittle, and easily broken. Hence
the work should be postponed, at least until the dew is off
the plants.
In addition to training, there are certain other useful
precautions to be taken with regard to the bine during the
period of growth ; but as these more properly belong to the
wire-work method of training, their consideration will be
postponed for the present.
Poles that are blown down by the wind or pulled down
maliciously must, of course, be set up properly again as
soon as possible.
Without going into the question of picking, which forms
the subject of a separate section, it may be mentioned that
in poled gardens it is usual to cut the bine at gathering
time, because the use of ladders for picking the cones would
be too troublesome, tedious and expensive. Attempts have
been made to make use of poles that could be lowered
when required, a ring and nail being employed to attach
the pole to an oaken -post driven into the ground. This
system, however, being expensive and inconvenient in
practice, has not found any extensive application.’
The bine having been cut through at about 30 to 40
inches above the ground level, the poles (of the ordinary
kind) are lifted by the aid of the pole-puller (Fig. 45), and
sufficiently loosened to be withdrawn from the ground by
hand. They are then laid down with care and stripped
of their bine, great care, however, being taken to prevent
damage to the cones through tearing the bine off too
quickly, since if bruised or covered with soil they spoil
the appearance of the pocket and considerably reduce the
selling value.
1 Allgemeine Hopfenzeitung, 1882. Poles of this kind were used, as an
experiment, at Petrowka-Rasumowska, in Russia.
CULTIVATION. 189
The stripped poles are then cleansed from the dirt
sticking to the butt end, and are stacked in the garden
through the winter, housing being seldom practised. The
stacks contain 100 to 200 poles, arranged upright in pyramid
or conical form, or laid horizontally on wooden staddles.
In the former case three or four poles are tied together at
Fic. 45.—Pole-puller.
the top, and, after being spread out at the bottom (Fig.
46), the points are forced into the ground, thus forming a
foundation against which the remaining poles of the stack
are piled. It is evident that in this mode of storing the
butts of the poles may easily suffer damage from contact
with the wet ground; nevertheless the plan is preferable
190 HOPS.
to laying them flat down or with a gentle slope, because,
under such circumstances, any water finding its way into
cracks in the wood has no opportunity of draining away, and
therefore helps to set up premature rotting. If, however,
horizontal stacking is decided upon, care must be taken to
keep the poles from direct contact with the ground, by
Fic. 46.—Pyramidal foundation for stacking poles.
first putting down two or three wooden beams and then
laying the poles across them, the ends of the stack being
kept up by suitable wooden uprights.
Owing to the habit various injurious insects have of
taking up their winter quarters in the cracks of poles, the
latter should always be thoroughly overhauled and cleaned
before use, a practice, however, only too frequently neglected.
To be successful the operation of cleaning, by scraping out
the cracks and brushing the poles over with petroleum,
should be performed with sufficient. care. Drawing the
CULTIVATION. 191
poles through the flame of an open fire, or leaving them
in water for a few days, has also been recommended for
killing the vermin with which they are inhabited. The
latter plan is more effectual, but is liable to lessen the
durability of the poles.
Strebel recommends, as the best means of killing vermin,
that the poles should be fumigated with gaseous carbon
bi-sulphide, the poles—thirty or forty at a time—being
placed in a roomy box containing a basin filled with
carbon bi-sulphide. After an exposure in the closed box
Fic. 47.—Combined pole and wire training.
to the fumes of the liberated gas for three to four hours
all organisms adhering to the poles will be effectually
killed. About a pint of carbon bi-sulphide will be sufficient
to treat 1,000 poles.
“Mention may be made here of a method practised in
some places, with a view to economising poles, of poling
only every third stock, the two plants on either side being
trained on wire or string, as shown in Fig. 47. Although
this plan has the advantage of cheapness, yet it fails to
answer very well, because the bines grow together at the
192 HOPS.
top, shade one another and produce a large number of .
loose, ‘‘shaded” cones. That the poles, etc., in this
method are easily blown down is self-evident.
The so-called “wire cross” (Fig. 48), patented a few
years ago by Hiittl,’ of Saaz, is really by no means new,
Fruwirth having reported the existence of similar arrange-
ments in American gardens at a much earlier date, and they
were also known around Schwetzingen in the eighteenth
century. This cross recalls the old pyramidal system, in
oa N
Fic. 48.—Wire cross system of training.
which a central pillar was provided at the apex with a
ring carrying a number of hooks or eyes and serving to
train sometimes a8 many as a dozen bines. Owing, how-
ever, to its insecurity in rough weather, and the mutual
shading of the plants, the pyramid system never came
into extensive use.
1 Wiener landw. Zeitung, 1894.
CULTIVATION. 193.
The wire cross system ‘is worthy of consideration’ for
shy-growing varieties and gardens that are sheltered from
the wind, its cheapness being an advantage that should
not be undervalued. The central poles, having to carry.
the iron crosses, which are fixed by nails, must, however,
be stronger than ordinary hop poles.
Huttl avers that the crosses will last for twenty-five
years, and that only one-fourth of the poles—which are not
taken up for the winter—need renewal every eight to twelve
years.
Hiuttl uses pack-thread for training. In consequence of
the smaller capital.to be sunk in poles, the abolition of
poling, and the circumstance that the bines require less
tying by reason of the greater ease with which they cling
to the thin supports, the expenses in this system are con-
siderably lower than in the ordinary poling method. It.
must not, however, be forgotten that the wire crosses in~
crease the difficulty of working the garden by horse labour.
2. Frame Training.
Owing to the desire to keep down the cost of. pro-
duction a need has for some years existed, in districts
where wood is scarce, for a cheaper method of training
than on poles, the wire cross and simjlar systems being
only successful exceptionally, and therefore not permanently
satisfactory. :
Considerable attention has been devoted to this ques-
tion, both by theorists and practical men; but it was not
until the ‘forties’ or “‘fifties” that a definite turn was
taken, andthe value of frame training began to be recog-
nised, the way having been prepared by the early experi-
ments of Matthieu de Dombasle.!
1 According to Strebel, the first attempts to train hops on wire frames
were made by De Dombasle in 1835.
13
194 HOPS.
At the present time the number of suitable types of
frame for hop-training is large. Without taking any
account of the material on which the bines are trained—
such as wire, string, old bines, etc.—or of which the pillars
of the frames are made—wood, iron—these systems may
‘be classified, according to the method of training and the
height of the frame-work, into the following groups :—
According to the Method of Training :—
(1.) Frames with vertical training, the bines climbing
on perpendicularly stretched wires (string or old bine), ¢.g.,
the Schwend method.
(2.) Frames with inclined training wires, running on
the slope, as in the Wirth system.
(3.) Frames with mixed vertical and inclined training,
e.g., the Haupt system.
(4.) Frames combining the vertical or inclined method
with horizontal training, eg., the Hermann system.
According to the Height of the Frames :—
(1.) High frame-work, the longitudinal wires being at a
height of 20 to 26 feet above the ground (Wirth’s system).
(2.) Medium high frames, with wires 13 to 20 feet ‘high
(Stambach’s and Haupt’s systems).
(3.) Low frames, the longitudinal wires being 7 to 13
feet above the ground level (Hermann’s system).
A distinction is also drawn between lightly constructed
frames and such as are storm-proof.
The earliest frames actually used were of the high,
vertical-wire type. On these the bine climbs vertically
just as on poles, but, owing to the small diameter of the
supports, less frequent tying is required. The high system,
however, suffers principally from its insecurity in case of
stormy weather, and as it was recognised that to overcome
this defect would necessitate a large outlay, the use of
lower frames came into favour.
CULTIVATION. 195
In order to avoid arbitrarily restricting the longitudinal
development of the plant as a result of reducing the height
of the frames, a matter of some importance in the case of
free-growing varieties of the hop, recourse was had to train-
ing on the slope. This is done by stretching the training
wires in a sloping direction from the stocks, to meet the
horizontal wire running exactly over each row of plants.
Again the longitudinal wires are arranged to run midway
between each pair of rows, the ascending wire being then
led straight up to meet them on the right and left hand
alternately; or else, in order to increase the length of the
bine without raising the frame, the training wires are
run up with a double slant so as to meet the head wire at
an acute angle.
In this manner the original high frames (up to 33 ft.),
which were not very storm-proof, have gradually given way
to the lower systems, now largely employed in one modifica-
tion or another.
In the case of high frames, even though the evil of cutting
the lines at picking time can be avoided, either by attaching
the upright wires to the head wires by hooks and eyes, or by
mounting the head wires so that they can be lowered and
the line thus brought to a convenient height for picking
without the aid of ladders, there still arises the further task
of mounting the frames so as, without adding to the expense,
to increase their security in case of storms, and at the same
time enable the harvest and other work to be carried on from
the ground without need for any special preliminary measures.
The low-frame, combined upright and inclined system, al-
though tried earlier, really owes its adoption to the result
of these attempts, the principal representative of the class
being the Hermann system, the frames of which were
originally only about 80 inches high. It was soon found,
however, that the close restriction thus placed on the growth
196 HOPS.
of the bine could not be borne except by a very few varieties
of hop, only the early Goldings and a few others being able
to adapt themselves to the dwarfed condition entailed by
this low training, and that, too, only when the ground is
poor and the manuring scanty. One undeniable drawback
of these low frames is the training horizontally or at a very
low angle, since even at an angle of 50° to the ground level
the hop begins to lose its climbing propensities, and these
disappear altogether when the supports incline still further
towards the horizontal, so that the bine has to be tied
repeatedly to induce it to twine. It has been put forward as
a special advantage of the low-frame system that the hops
trained in this manner always form a more or less compact
root of foliage, which protects the soil from drying too quickly
on the one hand, and on the other ameliorates the injurious
effects of very heavy rain storms, the soil being maintained
damp and loose. Against this assertion it must be empha-
sised that such a roof of foliage is anything but conducive
to the production of well-formed cones rich in lupulin.
High frames are expensive, and, as usually constructed,
are not storm-proof. The low-frame systems, while uniting
the advantages of cheapness and capacity of resisting stormy
weather, are nevertheless attended by drawbacks of their
own, and therefore cannot be beneficially employed except
under certain well-defined conditions. In view of ‘this a
middle path was chosen by erecting frames of medium height
(13 to 20 ft.), which, in the author’s opinion, constitute the
system of the future. Zelinka very truly remarks that
“frames of medium height usually behave the best, often
uniting all the advantages of dwarf cultivation and obviating
the drawbacks of the high frame”’.
This, however, by no means implies that high and low
frames should be invariably discarded. Where the ground
is rich, humous and well manured, the hops. free-growing,
CULTIVATION. 197
and the gardens in low-lying, foggy situations, the high
frame cannot well be dispensed with. Of course, in order
to avoid the necessity of making the frames very high,
recourse may be had to training on the slope, taking care,
however, that the angle of the training wires is not smaller
than 50°; and in reality it should not fall below 60°. Lower
frames can be recommended for districts where high winds
are prevalent, as also for warm climates, poor sandy soils
and high situations, provided the variety of hop is selected
accordingly. The disadvantages of horizontal training can
be rendered less apparent in steep gardens by running the
wires up and down the line of greatest slope and training the
bines up-hill.
It is thus evident that no one system of frame is, or can
be, equally suitable under all circumstances, owing to the
variable conditions of plant growth and nature of soil. The
reason for the wide divergence in opinions on one and the
, same type of frame is often due to a fault, by no means
uncommon in agricultural circles, namely, the generalising
of results obtained under a definite set of conditions; that is
to say, applying them to other conditions without sufficiently
taking to heart that one man’s meat may be another man’s
poison.
If, however, the hop-grower constantly keeps in view all
the factors bearing on the case, and really appreciates that
local conditions must decide the type of frame to be chosen—
that is to say, if he specialises—then his proceedings will be
certainly successful. |
Although the medium size frames have been just
mentioned as the best, nothing more is implied in that
statement than that the localities to which this type of
frame is best adapted are of more frequent occurrence than
those for which the very high or very low systems are
preferable. . ,
198 HOPS.
The opinion, occasionally heard, that under otherwise
similar conditions wire training produces fewer and inferior
cones to pole-work is a prejudice due solely to the con-
servatism characteristic of individual growers. As a rule,
unsuccess is rather to be sought in an erroneous choice of
the type of frame than in the use of wire training per se.
On this point reference may be made to an experiment
by Dr. J. Behrens,’ proving that when the frame system
is ill-chosen the hops yield a smaller crop than if trained
on poles. The experiment was made in a garden where
three systems of training were in use: two systems of wire
work and one of ordinary poling. One of the frame systems
was that of Hermann, 80 inches high, the other being
composed of ascending wires 10 ft. high, which, at a height
of about 40 inches from the ground, branched and led to
two different sets of horizontal-wires. The soil was uni-
form, the hops the local, Schwetzinger variety. Particulars
of yield, area occupied by the systems of training, number
of stocks, etc., are given in the following table :—
30 & Weight of 5
3 ‘ s cones ie 4 3 | Sa
& | 2 | @ | gathered. as. ga] ag
No Method of -la|s Hos | F2 | ss
training. 3 4 bs 5 S22 Bo | op.
2e|g\i2| él | gh! | 22| 38] zg
as ES Ss i ‘5 ao os 2. g
ald}|aloa a me a = B
Acre. Lb. Lb. % Oz %
I. | Hermann wire - | 1896 | 0°24 | 400 | 446°4 | 122-7 | 100: 27°5 | 11°66 | 0-442 | 1:83
Il. | Higher wire -| 1896] ,, | 250 | 489-1 | 123-8 | 100: 28-0. 11°61 | 0-485 | 2-23
TII. | Poles -| 1896] ,, | 440 | 623-0 | 129°8 | 100: 20°8 | 12°05 | 0°358 | 3°10
Behrens says: ‘‘In accordance with what might be ex-
pected, the figures show that the cones are smaller in the
case of pole training, and larger and coarser on the wire
1Dr. J. Behrens, ‘‘ Ueber Erziehung und Diingung des Hopfens” (Hop
Cultivation and Manuring), Zeitschrift fiir das g te Bre , 1898,
No, 4.
CULTIVATION. 199
work. As regards quality, the produce of the poled hops
was appraised as the best, both by ourselves and independent
experts. The cones from the wire frames, with horizontal
training, were greatly inferior, the cones being coarser,
looser, and with a smaller percentage of lupulin, the aroma
leaving much to be desired, and, in the case of the parcel
from the plot trained on the Hermann system, scarcely
resembling that of hops at all. This last-named parcel was
by far the poorest of any from the three systems under
comparison.” The hops from the higher wire-work, though
poorer than those from the poled stocks, were nevertheless
better than those yielded by the Hermann system. It
may therefore be assumed. with approximate confidence
that had Behrens included in his experiments a higher
wire system, with inclined or vertical training, all the
differences in quality referred to would have vanished, and
at the same time a certain degree of equality in the
quantitative yield would have, been secured. Thus, ac-
cording to a private communication from a landowner
(Adorno) of Kaltenberg, very satisfactory results have been
obtained with the Wirth high-frame (26 ft.) system at
Tettnang, where Schwetzinger hops are grown, among
others, the crop being quite equal, both in weight and
quality, to that of the same variety grown on poles. F-
Wachtel also, who uses 26-foot frames as well as poles on
his estate at Horosedl near Saaz, reports that the crop
was identical in each case. On the other hand, he
characterises the low-frame systems as unsuitable for the
Saaz district.
In Wachtel’s opinion, the circumstance that a well-
chosen wire system yields better crops than poling has:
no connection with wire training, but is rather due to the
fact that frames are mostly in use in gardens that have
only been planted within the last ten years or so, and that
200 - “HOPS.
the produce of these, so to speak, virgin soils has . been
compared, without more ado, with that of poled gardens
thirty years old or over, and more or less exhausted.
Furthermore, the high productivity of new plantations
induces good growers to manure freely so as to obtain
a good return in the next year, whereas the older gardens
are often treated in a stepmotherly fashion. These two
circumstances combined have led to the idea that the hops
are rendered more fruitful by being trained on wires.
Notwithstanding an unusual luxuriance of foliage,
Zelinka! derived great benefit from the Haupt frame
system (modified to 20 ft.), and harvested about 1,200 lb.
of dry, handsome and uniformly shaped cones per acre, the
quantity and quality being perfectly satisfactory.
A further proof that a well-chosen frame system will
produce hops not inferior to those grown on poles is af-
forded by the results displayed at the Bavarian Hop and
Barley Show held at Nurnberg in 1897, and reported by
Dr. C. Kraus in the Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brauwesen.
Nearly all the prize hops on this occasion were from wired
gardens, all the first prize winners exclusively ‘so. This
shows that no depreciation of the crop will follow the
adoption of a carefully. selected frame system, unsatisfactory
results being mostly due to the employment of an ill-judged
height of frame. The question then naturally arises as to
the proper height to be given to the frames. In this con-
nection Zelinka, an adherent of the medium frame, expresses
the opinion that “in case the growth is too luxuriant and the
garden is not in a very damp or low situation, the necessity
for erecting excessively high frames can be overcome by
allowing the first 25 to 30 inches of the bine to hang down
1K, Zelinka, “ Die Cultur des Hopfens auf Drahtgeriisten”’ (Hop-growing
on wire frames), Wiener landw. Zeitung, 1896.
CULTIVATION. 201
on the ground, and afterwards topping the stems when they
reach the head wires. The best time for topping is when
the earliest flower buds make their appearance, and the
length of the bine at this period forms a suitable guide for ;
the proper altitude of the frame; if the plants overtop the
head wires before the flower buds appear, then the frame
is too low; whilst if the buds come out before the bine tops
the wire, this indicates that the frame is to the same extent
unnecessarily high. Of course 8 to 12 inches either way Is
a matter of little moment, and the difference in height,
due to variations in the season, will seldom exceed these
figures.” ‘
Provided a wire-work system has been erected with under-
standing there is no need to fear the results will suffer by
comparison with poling, the development and yield of the
plants being as normal in one case as in the other. In this
respect there is nothing to choose between them.
One important point, however, is the relative cost of
starting, maintaining and working the two systems. In
districts like Saaz, where 100 good 23- to 26-foot poles can
be obtained for 28s. to 30s., it will cost little, if any, less to
erect a good strong frame system than would be required to
stock the same area with poles. ‘When, on the other hand,
hop poles cost 40s. to 60s. per 100, as they do for instance in
Wiirtemburg, the conditions are very different, and prefer-
ence should undoubtedly be given to frame-work. Thus, in
Bohemia poled gardens continue to predominate, whilst in
Wiurtemburg and other districts the use of wire frames is
spreading.
With regard to the expense of maintenance, here also
the price of wood is the principal deciding factor ; and, in
addition, the cost of dressing the poles with preservatives has
to be considered in poled gardens. On the other hand, in
the case of frames the training material is an onerous item,
202 HOPS...
and though attempts have been made to utilise old bine
for training, the latter have always proved insufficiently
strong to bear the weight of the plants and to withstand
the force of the wind, to say nothing of the difficulty
attending the attachment of the training bine to the head
wires. Wire, though an excellent material for training hops,
is still a very expensive article; but even this objection
is small in comparison with the trouble experienced in
stripping the wires of bine in the autumn, which is often so
great and expensive a task that new wire is purchased in
preference.
The opinion is now gaining ground that string is the
cheapest material for hop-training. It is true that string is
far weaker than wire, easily rots, and tears at the point of
attachment to the horizontal wires ; is liable to be gnawed
through by insects, and is frequently of insufficient tensile
strength in consequence of defective manufacture. Never-
theless, since wire is sometimes used for not more than one
season, string is preferable on account of its cheapness. To
increase the resisting power, string may with advantage
be steeped in a 3 to 4 per cent. solution of alum or copper
sulphate (blue vitriol) before use. Cords laid with thin
strands of wire, however excellent they may be, are too
expensive to be thought of for training hops.
The management of frame-work gardens is simpler, and
consequently cheaper, than that of poled gardens. The clean-
ing and trimming of poles in autumn, as well as distributing
and pitching them in the spring, are tasks unknown in frame
gardens. The work entailed in these operations is not only
disagreeable in itself, but also from the fact that it has to be
done at a time of year when other arable land has to be
attended to; whereas repairs to frames, such as tightening up
the wires, replacing lost pegs, etc., can be done in the winter
time.
CULTIVATION, 203
Furthermore, a single tying is often sufficient when the
hops are trained on vertical wires or strings, whereas in pole-
work several tyings are necessary.
It is therefore principally in the generally lower working
expenses that the superiority of frame training is evidenced.
To these come the further advantage that, except in very low
frames, where the foliage of the plants forms a more or less
compact roof, the thin training material used in frame
gardens allows easier access of light and warmth than is the
case in poled gardens. The effect is increased by the fact of
the plants being trained alternately one towards the right and
the next towards the left, and so on. Another point wherein
frames are superior is that they constitute an effectual
remedy against many of the enemies of the hop plant, in
that the nests and habitat of many fungi and insects—the ©
poles—are absent.
Finally, as already mentioned, there is no difficulty in
arranging the wires so that the cones can be picked without
having to cut the bine. This is an advantage not easily
attainable in poled gardens, but which should never be
wanting in frame systems, even when the frames are not so
low that the cones can be picked from the ground.
One drawback in frame-work is that, if the upright wires
and pillars are unskilfully arranged, team work in the
rows becomes a matter of difficulty, if not impossibility.
The liability of the bines to sway to and fro is also a disad-
vantage, since it causes the bine to rub against the training
material, and also leads to friction between the latter and
the head wires and pegs at the points of attachment, the
consequence being that both the bine and its support are
liable to become injured and broken, thus allowing the whole
to fall to the ground together.
However, on weighing up the relative advantages and
drawbacks of the two systems, it becomes evident that, when
204 HOPS.
‘
properly constructed, the balance of superiority is in favour
of frames, and their employment in pion: to poke can
therefore be warmly recommended.
“A good frame should fulfil the following conditions :—
1, Cheapness, simplicity, aes and power of withstand-
ing rough weather.
2. Pillars and training wires must be so arranged as to
offer no hindrance to team-work between the rows.
3. An arrangement must be provided to enable the crop
to be easily picked without having first to cut the bine.
- To explain the various terms, such as head wires, training
wires, etc., used in the foregoing description, a diagrammatic
illustration of part of a framed garden is given in Fig. 49,
where—
S = the pillars or posts, usually of wood and more rarely
of iron; in the latter event they are set in a brickwork
foundation, In the newer frame systems the posts are
mounted on the slope, as at S' so as to equally divide the
angle between the straining wires (R) and the head wire
continuation (li) of same.
L = the head or longitudinal wires, running either
directly over the rows of stocks or else parallel thereto.
Such of these wires as pass over the head of the posts, or
through hooks at the top, and serve to fix the frame at the
ends, are known as straining wires (R); and these, as well
as the other head wires shown, either traverse the whole
length of the rows in a single piece, or consist of a number
of lengths, each equal to the distance between two stocks.
At the junction of each pair of lengths is an eyelet O, serv-
ing for the attachment of the training wires. Owing to the
considerable weight of bine and supports to be borne, the
head wires have to be of strong wire, about ;}, to } inch being
the usual thickness. In the Schwend ‘ stom prol ” system
the single wires are replaced by four- toseven-strand wire ropes.
CULTIVATION. 205
‘The cross wires, T, must also be very strong. These
pass crosswise over the posts, or through hooks at the
heads of same, and serve as supports for the intermediate
| Un \. ;
tai
te te ne
er ce:
A |
Al
wis
mm
WOT. re Ti
||)!
Nas
A!
s
“teh tl
™y
\
|
Ut
Fic. 49.—Frame system : vertical training. _
we (Verankerung = anchors.) i
rows of head wires. Thé ends of the straining wires and
cross wires must be firmly anchored in the ground in order
to impart the necessary degree of rigidity to the whole frame.
206 HOPS.
Sometimes the cross wires are replaced by simple poles or
spars.
A = the training wires (cords), uprights or supports for the
bine; and, according to the system of training pursued, these
wires are arranged vertically, aslant, or zigzag. They are
attached at the bottom to iron or wooden pegs, P, driven
into the ground near the stocks, and are fitted at the top
with hooks to engage with the eyelets in the head wires, or
Fia. 50.—Lever wire-straining tongs.
are fastened by merely twisting the end a few turns round
the latter. This is more usually the case when string is
used for training, in which event the support is simply cut
through at the top when the crop is to be gathered. When
training wires are tightly fastened to the head wires the latter
must be slackened at picking time to enable the pickers to
reach the cones.
CULTIVATION, 207
In order to render the whole system rigid, the straining
Wires and cross wires must be drawn perfectly tight, and
anchored in a suitable manner. If this precaution is omitted
the wires will ‘‘give”’ sooner or later, and hang in festoons,
the loosely hanging training wires being then blown about
by the wind with injurious results.
Under certain circumstances strong iron posts, to which
the wires can be fastened and strained, will serve the place
of anchors, though the plan illustrated in Fig. 49 is prefer-
able. The method shown consists in digging pits about 20
inches deep, in each of which is embedded an oaken slab
40 inches by 4 inches, provided with slings of iron wire, and
then weighted with stones and covered up with soil. The
projecting eyelet terminals of the slings are then attached to
the straining wires, and the latter drawn tight. To lower
the bines and wires at picking time the connection between
the straining wires and the slings is relaxed.
Since the stability, of the frame is mainly dependent on
the degree of tension imparted to the wires employed for
stiffening the frame, particular attention must be bestowed
on the straining of these wires. For this purpose an ordinary
windlass or a special lever wire-straining tongs (Fig. 50) is
used.}
The Principal Types of Frames.
It would occupy too much space, without any useful
result, to describe all the known kinds of frame-work for
hop cultivation, some of which have merely been tried ex-
perimentally. Consequently only a few typical forms will
now be dealt with, such as have been used in modified
shapes in practice, the remainder being merely briefly
touched upon.
1 Strebel, Handbuch des Hopfenbanes
208 HOPS...
The first attempts to replace poles by some other method
of training were made during the second half of the eigh-
teenth century, when a beginning was made with crosses
and pyramids; these, however, did not find any great
favour.
The French agriculturist De Dombasle is generally
acknowledged as having been the earliest (1837) to erect
frames, in the present sense of the term, for hop-training ;
and, in course of time, his idea was modified and developed
in various ways, whereby the originally primitive form, pre-
senting few advantages, gradually evolved into the frames
of the present day. —
The Dombasle: system was of moderate height, but
remained at first without imitators, being recognised as
little adapted to the nature of the hop. Nevertheless, it
gave the first stimulus, and a lively interest in frame train-
ing began to spread, though the results were not always
of the best. The builders of the frames were often short
of the requisite knowledge of the habits of the plant, which
were frequently overlooked altogether, the main object aimed
at being to get a storm-proof frame, whilst in other cases
~ stress was laid on some quite pubortinsie ‘function of the
frame-work.
Among these earlier systems those of Ramm! and
Kiferle! are worthy of mention. Both were high, that of
Ramm measuring from 20 to 23 feet, with vertical training
wires, and head wires that could be lowered when necessary ;
whilst Kiferle’s frame was 33 feet high, and differed chiefly
from the other in the slanting arrangement of the training
wires. The stocks were planted on the triangular system,
and the head wires mounted between the rows, the training
wires being led up to the right and left alternately.
‘EH. Perin, Hopfenbay (Strassburg, 1874).
CULTIVATION. 209
The Schlegel, Mégling and Gohler frames are also of
the high type, but without any specially novel features.
Like the two first-named they are not very storm proof.
An active promoter of frame training was Friedrich
Wirth of Kaltenberg, near Tettnang, who himself invented’
and experimented with a series of different systems. Of
these two have found extensive application, namely, the
high, vertical system and the trestle system, either in their’
original form, or modified.
iW
i
! 4 He
Fig. 51.—Wirth’s high vertical-wire frame.
Wirth’s vertical 28-foot wire frame?! (Fig. 51) is charac-
terised by great simplicity, but is not sufficiently proof
against rough weather. The arrangement is as follows :—
Frame posts are erected between the sixth and seventh,
twelfth and thirteenth plants (and so on) in every other
row, the posts at the ends of the garden being: joined to-
gether by poles or spars, and the interior parallel rows of
1 Wirth, Der Hopfenbau (Stuttgart, 1878).
14
210 HOPS.
posts by wires. Each row of plants corresponds to a longi-
tudinal chain, the separate lengths in which are equal to
the distances between the plants in the row. The train-
ing wires fastened at the bottom to pegs are bent in the
form of hooks at the top, and led vertically upwards to the
Ss
Fa
een
oa
Fic. 52. Fia. 53.—Wirth’s trestle system.
Gathering hook.
head wires, where they hook into the small links by which
the lengths are joined together. Picking is rendered very
easy, each training wire being readily suspended or removed
from the head wire by means of the gathering hook (Fig. 52).
The cost of this frame-work amounts to about 5d. to 6d. per
plant.
CULTIVATION. 11
Wirth’s trestle system (Fig. 53). The special feature
in this is the replacing of the single posts by trestles con-
sisting of two poles crossing each other near the top and
fastened at the point of intersection. In this case the poles
need not be any thicker than ordinary hop poles. To in-
crease the rigidity and power of standing rough weather it
is advisable to arrange the trestles alternately, so that one
set is longitudinal and the other transverse to the direction
of the rows. They are joined together by wires running
lengthwise and across, and anchored at the sides and ends
of the garden; or the cross wires may be replaced by wooden
spars. The longitudinal head wires may run either directly
over the rows or midway between them, according to the.
style of training adopted. The training wires are hooked
either into eyes on the head wires or loosely on the latter,
and in this alternative are prevented from slipping out of
place by small stops of annealed wire twisted round the
head wire on either side of the hooks. At picking time the
training wires are taken down by means of the gathering
hook, and laid on the ground.
Wirth constructed his trestle frames 24 to 26 feet high for
vertical training and 23 feet for training on the slope. In
setting up the trestles care is necessary to prevent hindrance
to team-work, and it is also advisable to have the trestle poles
about 3 feet longer than the actual height of the frame
demands, so that as the bottoms get rotten in course of time
they can be sharpened anew and set up again without alter-
ing the height of the frame. The cost of trestle frames is
about 5d. to 7d. per plant.
Two other frames made by the same inventor may be
briefly mentioned : the 23-feet sloping frame and the low wire
frame. The former is somewhat complicated and requires a
special modification in the arrangement of the rows, which
have to be alternately 72 inches and 40 inches apart.
212 HOPS.
The low frame (12-foot posts) is also for training on the
slope and is recommended by Wirth for use in steep gardens.
Another excellent type is the 25-foot frame of Scipio and
Herth! (Fig. 54), a principal advantage of which is the
sloping of the terminal posts both at the ends and sides of
the garden, so as to equally divide the angles enclosed by the
straining wire and head wire. This enables the frame to
oppose a stouter resistance to rough weather and does away
with the necessity of staying the terminal posts, unavoidable
when the latter are set up vertically. The posts in the
interior of the garden are upright.
Fig. 54.—Scipio and Herth plan.
The end posts are set up between the first and second,
seventh and eighth, thirteenth and fourteenth rows, and so
on, the other posts in the rows being set up so as to divide
the ground into squares.
The stocks are planted on the triangular system, each
pair of rows being trained to one head wire. Consequently
the latter are stretched over the first, third, fifth, seventh
alleys, and soon. String is used for training, the method of
leading the strings being shown in Fig. 55.
1H. Zeeb, Der Handelsgewtichsbau (Stuttgart, 1880).
CULTIVATION. 213
At picking time the strings are cut off at the upper end,
and the head wires are lowered in the spring for clearing
them of the remnanis.
The impossibility of working the ground by horse
labour in the alleys containing the posts is a drawback to
this system. The cost of erection is about 4d. to 5d. per plant.
Perin constructed a frame on which the hops are trained
vertically at first and then spread over a roof of wire netting,
but this system is not storm-proof and has several other
‘
bas ere ace oy 4 * setsccme =
Ameen nee rt af fewonsned poe
‘a a] Serre | Qesms remeotie re
Cee | Wesson Per Frrrrenceny
denne Grattan a . | ee
Ae seaneees 9 Gast - Gomccasnd poor 9
Davenen ence < Gee cer eee. hy Paes a RK Qrevereeee fed
1 2 3 4 6 é 2 ts 8
i= C=
Fic. 55.—Ground-plan of garden trained on the Scipio and Herth system.
defects, the lines having to be cut before the cones can be
picked off. Besides, light and warmth can only gain access
on one side,
The best storm-proof frames are those of Schwend and
Heijak, both of which are for vertical training, though
they can be modified for training on the slope without
any particular difficulty. Their great defect, however,
is the high cost of installation, and on this account they
have met with but little favour, despite their undeniable
advantages.
914 . HOPS.
Schwend employs two separate sets of wires (or rather
galvanised-wire rope), one for stiffening the frame and
rendering it storm-proof, whilst the other serves for training
the plants. The posts are set in brickwork, those at the ends.
being on the slope, and are topped with galvanised-iron caps.
The frame is 23 to 27 feet high and is very strong and well
constructed of the best materials, the cost being 1s. to 1s. 3d.
per plant. The training wire ropes are suspended from the
head wires and attached at the bottom to strong spiral pegs
of iron wire (Fig. 56). With the exception of the alleys
containing the sloping posts the garden can be ploughed in
all directions.
Fic. 56.—Spiral iron peg.
The Heijak system is somewhat cheaper and more simple,
there being no special storm wires. Diagonal wires are
employed for strengthening the frame, and chains are used
instead of wire rope. Lach thirty plants form a separate
system. The training wires can be easily hooked on to or
released from the head wires. Originally, vertical training
was contemplated, the frames being 27 feet high, but
subsequently the height was reduced to 13 to 16 feet.
The Kirschner mast system and the Kastner ring wire
system are devoid of importance.
The reasons leading to the adoption of low frames have
already been discussed. At the outset it may be said that
CULTIVATION. 915
the departure was from one extreme to the other. De
Dombasle’s wire frame was of the low type, and this was
followed by high-frame systems for the most part, which
in turn gradually decreased in size (Jourdeuil, Erhardt,
Wirth systems).
The chief advocate of low frames was Hermann,! a hop-
grower at Ottmarsheim, who, in projecting a somewhat
modified method of cultivation, introduced an 80-inch wire
frame, which seemed at first destined to change the whole
course of the hop-growing industry. Its advantages had,
however, been- overestimated, the hop plant not submitting
to such a “straight waistcoat’? method of treatment with-
out undergoing deterioration.
The construction of the Hermann frame (Fig. 57) is as
follows :—
The posts are of iron, set in stone sockets or brickwork.
Those on the outside all round are set on the slope, and,
being the main support of the frame, are made of X-section
bar iron, while those in the interior of the garden are
upright and of circular section, old iron gas-pipes being
suitable when such can be procured.
Diagonally over the heads of the side posts run the cross
wires, which are anchored firmly in the ground at each end,
and are provided with eyelets for supporting the head wires.
The interior posts are erected in such a manner that, taken
in a diagonal direction, they come in every fourth row, and
at every fourth or fifth stock in the row. Like the cross
wires, the longitudinal head wires, passing over the heads
of the end posts, are also anchored in the ground.
Each row of plants corresponds to two rows of equi-
distant head wires, which in the original construction—
1 Hermann also experimented with a frame only 40 inches high. Beob-
achtungen iiber die Cultur des Hopfens im Jahre 1884, Pott and Kraus
(Munich, 1886).
216 HOPS.
the plants being set on the triangular system, 60 inches
apart—were separated by an interval of 30 inches. No
. special reason exists, however, for triangular planting, the
square or rectangle being equally suitable.
Hermann recommends string for training thé: bine, the
strings being attached to iron pegs in the ground and led
upwards aslant’ to the right-hand and left-hand head
wires alternately (Fig. 58), so that'the top of each string
.
Fic. 57.—Hermann’s low-frame system.
is vertically opposite the position of the next succeeding
stock.
As soon as the bine reaches the head wire it is trained
horizontally, but is topped, to prevent further extension,
as soon as the point of attachment of the next training
string is reached. Assuming the stocks to be planted in
triangles 60 inches apart, then with an 80-inch frame the
total length each bine can be trained amounts to 18 feet.
CULTIVATION. O17
The frame as described costs about 6d. to 7d. per plant ;
‘though, if the great durability of the iron posts be dis-
regarded and their place filled with wooden ones, ' the
primary outlay may be reduced by about half.
It has already been admitted that under certain circum-
stances the ‘Hermann and other low-frame systems can be
successfully employed. For guidance in using his system
Hermann recommends the following precautions :—
1. Restricted manuring, especially with nitrogenous ferti-
lisers. The reason for this is evident in view of the necessity
- for checking the growth of the plants.
a.) 0 gate 270 aes Serer eee °
rw 2 So mae tots Pym NS
PARSivi Settee
ieee ed wees wee O Trg ent)
Se useaene re TS ee we
~ort “7
Som Teen
) *° or) “So eagy a
Fie. 58.—Ground-plan of Hermann’s system of training.
2. Pruning, we. removing all laterals below the head
wires, in order to induce more vigorous development in those
that are left at the top. This precaution, also practised toa
smaller extent in other methods of cultivation, is especially
advisable in the Hermann system, because any cones that
might be produced on the lower laterals would be more or
less unfit for use owing to the shade of the leafy cover above.
3. Topping the bines, by cutting off the tip of the stem
as soon as the length reaches 16 to 17 feet, or at least when
it arrives at the position of the adjacent plant on the head
218 HOPS.
wire. This treatment retards the longitudinal growth of the
bine, but, in the case of some varieties and soils, may also
reduce the crop.
4. Abolition of cutting the stocks. Hermann was con-
vinced, from results obtained in his experimental (poled)
garden, that this affords a means of considerably retarding
the growth of bine. If stocks are left uncut in spring a
larger number of eyes will .develop, but the shoots are all
weaker than those put forth in smaller quantity after cutting ;:
and, on removing the superfluous shoots later, the bine from
the uncut stocks—so the observation of twenty instances
teaches—remains smaller, both in length and thickness, than
that from cut stocks throughout the whole period of vegeta-
tion. Whether this intentional weakening of the bine
improves its productivity, may be left out of consideration.
From the foregoing particulars it is evident that the
employment of the Hermann system entails a limitation of
the growth of the bine. Apart from the restricted manuring,
the topping of the bine, and the omission to cut the stocks,
this limiting tendency is assisted by the practice—unnatural
so far as the nature of the plant is concerned—of horizontal
training, since this procedure always results in a shortening
of the internodes. Moreover, since the bine is, of itself,
incapable of twining round horizontal supports, it entails
frequent tying, which costs both time and money. True,
the low-frame method presents many advantages; but, on
the other hand, it is undeniable that the arbitrary control
thereby exercised over the habits of the plant can only lead
to the desired object under certain definite and limited
conditions.
The best criterion of the utility of the low-frame system.
is the fact that it has by no means become so widely
extended in practice as was initially expected. To ascribe
this exclusively to conservatism on the part of growers
CULTIVATION. 219
would be to attribute their opposition to self-sufficiency and
conceit.
At present the tendency is rightly in favour of medium
frames. Baron Carl von Haupt, who merits great praise for
introducing frame training into Styria, originally employed as
an experiment 70-inch frames. Recognising, however, that
low frames could not furnish the results promised by their
inventors, he substituted a 13-foot frame as being apparently
the most suitable height for enabling the plant to develop in
/y
‘me -
a free and natural manner.?
Lie ME HMM OO TOME aon
Fig. 59.—Haupt’s medium-wire frame.
The plants are set in spaces 60 inches square, and
over each row runs a chain composed of lengths of wire
supported in every second row by posts erected at intervals
of six stocks and serving to carry the head and cross wires,
the ends of which are anchored in the ground.
A second line of longitudinal wire, 70 inches high, runs.
under each head wire and is fastened to the posts by hooks.
In the rows without posts the lower wires are fastened by
hooks on to hop poles which also serve as supports for the
upper wires.
In the next place, each hop plant is provided with a short,
1 Brunck’s dwarf cultivation for hops (flexion theory) is quite Utopian.
2See Pott and Kraus’s Report, already cited.
220 HOPS.
thin wooden rod reaching up to the lower wire and fastened
thereto with a lapping of wire. From the point of inter-
section a cord is run up to the first or second length in the
head wire, according to the height the plant is allowed to
attain, and is there fastened by a hook and eye. The bine
will grow up the thin rods without any support as far as the
lower wire, and is then trained horizontally until the position
of the next plant is reached, whereupon it climbs of its own
accord up the slanting string. When the strings are con-
nected with the nearest length of head wire (Fig. 59) the total
training height of the frame is 203 feet, but this is increased
to 24 feet if the junction is made at the eye of the second
length away; in this event, however, the training angle is
rather less than 45°. .
Picking is a simple matter, the strings being unhooked
from the head wires, and the bine laid over the lower wire,
where it can be picked even by children, without any need
for ladders or benches. :
The Haupt system has been improved and utilised for
free-growing hops by Zelinka,’ who uses a 20-foot frame, the.
lower wire, to which the bine is led by fixed vertical supports,
being 80 inches high, thus enabling the garden to be worked
by horse implements.
Given an angle of 60° for the training wires, the plants
can be grown to a height of 33 feet with this frame. Contrary
to the usual practice, Zelinka mounts the head wires across
the rows, so that the plants can be trained at the desired
angle and distributed alternately, right and left, just as if two
rows of longitudinal wires were available. To facilitate pick-
ing the training wires can be unhooked from the top wire
and laid over the lower row, and after being denuded of cones
the bines are left where they are till they die down naturally.
’E, Zelinka, “ Die Cultur des Hopfens auf Drahtgeriisten,” Wiener landw.
Zeitung, 1896.
CULTIVATION. 221.
Somewhat nearly resembling the Haupt system is the
Stambach 133-foot wire frame (Fig. 60). Here the plants are
trained at an angle of about 50° up to a height of 80 inches,.
and thence to the head wires at a more gentle slope, two
rows of head wires being employed to each row. The training
wires thus have a zig-zag shape, to maintain which they are
suspended by short supports hanging from the head wires.
They are unhooked at gathering time and laid on the ground
together with their attached bine. Finally, it may be re-
' marked that both the Haupt and the Stambach frames are.
iH
' ;
(i /
i
J
Uy
— i x zip a YY ra y
Fic. 60.—Stambach’s medium-wire frame.
of rather complicated construction ; but this is offset by their
advantages, and, besides, they are capable of modification.
When string is used for training, a special patented tying-
machine! (Figs. 61 to 64) may be employed for fastening it
to the head wires. The machine consists of—
1 The author is indebted for this description to the Management of the
Saaz Hop-growers’ Association.
229, HOPS.
1. A rod of suitable length to reach the head wires, and
fitted with a hook at the top ;
2. A slide that moves up and down the rod and can be
drawn, by means of a cord, up to the level of the head wire,
re-descending automatically, as soon as the knot is tied, into
the most convenient position for the user to attach the
training string without having to bend or stretch himself.
On this slide is fixed—
3..The tying-machine (knotter), Fig. 61, composed of a
wooden fork to the upper end of which is attached the nickel-
plated tying mechanism consisting of three principal parts,
viz., the grip d, the lever e, and the locking plate 6, against
which the grip is pressed by the lever after the training
string has been lapped. As can be seen from Fig. 62 the
string is caught and held fast by the grip d, and, as shown in
Fig. 63, is drawn down through the loops by the weight of
the machine in descending, thus forming the knot illustrated
in Fig. 64.
The machine works in the following manner: the rod
being suspended from the head wire by means of the hook
at the top, and the tying mechanism being set at a height
convenient for the user, one end of the training string is
passed in a double loop over the two right-hand parts of
the grip, the short free end being then fixed tightly in the
metal piece } on the left of the grip so as to offer a certain
hold to the latter. :
Care is necessary to see that the end of the string lies on
the left side as shown in Fig. 61, whilst the right-hand loop
leads to the ball, which generally remains on the ground.
When the loops are made the slide is raised to the level of
the head wire D by means of the cord, the left-hand cord i
being then pulled to raise the lever so as to enable the grip
to catch hold of the short end of the string (see Fig. 63),
whereupon the machine is at once allowed. to drop, thus
CULTIVATION, 223
Try,
;
md
rene
3
r 4
i 3 &
3
, &
4 k
} §
ig
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4
Vy NY
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id
\
Fic. 61.—Machine for tying hop-training strings to head wires.
224 HOPS.
tying the knot. The spring & serves to automatically set the
lever in position for looping a fresh string. All the user has
to do is to move the rod along to the next stock, loop on a
fresh length of string, raise the machine to the proper height,
pull the left cord 7 and let the slide drop, whilst an attendant
woman or child cuts the string off at the ball, passes the free
RSW
}
TOY
@
Y
CSI
=
peaperus
Fie, 62.—Machine for tying hop-training strings to head wires.
end to the tier, and fastens the lower end of the tied length
to the peg in the ground. The work thus goes on without
interruption.
With a very little practice a man can tie 1,500 to 2,000
strings per working day of ten hours.
CULTIVATION. 225
Bines that have been blown down, or otherwise detached
from the training string before harvest time, can also be
@ D
0)
(Car SIIBAGS
Lid idi AEA hah able leds
PO AINTTIAAAATINC SAAB SAAN IS D
Fig. 63. Fia,
fer)
4,
Machine for tying hop-training strings to head wires.
replaced by means of this machine, a strong thread being
tied on to the bine and then fastened to the head wire in the
manner already described.
15
226 HOPS.
Pruning, Cropping, Topping and Leaf-stripping the Hop
Plant.
By these operations the grower is enabled to exercise
considerable influence on the growth of the plant, and the
formation and development of the cones. If the trained
plants are left alone it will be noticed that the lower laterals,
up to a height of about 80 inches, will bear only a few im-
perfect and inferior cones, if any at all, the true bearers
being the higher laterals. If these under-laterals are re-
moved by pruning the stems the sap is necessarily con-
veyed to the higher portions of the plant, the result being
a more vigorous development of the laterals, and conse-
quently a more plentiful crop of better formed cones. This
fact is recognised, and the practice of pruning is therefore
pursued regularly with good results, the lower laterals being
cut off with the shears or a sharp knife. It is inadvisable
to break or tear off the laterals, because of the large wounds
thereby inflicted on the bine. ;
The laterals may be also shortened by cropping, the
effect of which is to induce the production of ‘fruitful
branches. This operation can, however, only be carried
out conveniently in low- or medium-frame gardens, since
in the case of poles or high frames the aid of a ladder is
required and the work becomes tedious and more ex-
pensive.
It is very important that the cropping should be done
just at the right time, neither too early nor too late. As
a rule it is commenced when the laterals have put forth
four to six pairs of leaves, the branch being then cut off
just beyond the last pair. For red hops the work should
be over by Ist July, and for green hops a fortnight later ;
otherwise the uniform flowering of the plants will be dis-
turbed, and the cones will ripen irregularly. Reliable men
CULTIVATION. 227
alone should be entrusted with this task, an. unskilful
worker doing more harm than good.
Topping or cutting off the tips of the bine is a precau-:
tion adopted to restrict the longitudinal growth of the plant,
and has been practised from time immemorial: in fact, it
is absolutely necessary in low-frame gardens. It is also
advisable in other systems (pole or high-frame), where the
hops are observed to be developing too freely in point, of
height as the result of high fertility of soil, favourable
weather or the use of highly nitrogenous manures. The
first result is a stagnation of the sap, which therefore flows
more abundantly into the laterals; and it is only after
some little time that the buds of the uppermost leaves put
forth new leaders, these being, however, more sluggish in
their growth than the tips of untopped bines.
Topping should not be performed too early. As a rule
in high-trained gardens it should be resorted to when the
bines reach the tops of the poles at an earlier date than
usual. Very early or very late topping is disadvantageous.
to the crop, the amount being reduced in the former case,
and uniform ripening prevented in the other, thus lowering
the quality of the produce. In lower frames where the
operation is one of necessity, the time of performance de-
pends on the length of bine best suited to the particular
system in use.
Finally, the practice of stripping the bine of its leaves
must be referred to. The removal of healthy, green leaves,
which are really the workshops wherein the constructive
material, so important for the entire organism of the plant,
is elaborated, is an erroneous proceeding, which even
scarcity of fodder will scarcely justify. Hence the custom
of stripping, pursued as a regular thing in many places,
must be strongly condemned as an unnatural and abusive
treatment of the hop plant.
228 HOPS.
Of course the removal of leaves in order to prevent the
spread of disease is a different matter altogether, since in
such cases, unless this course be adopted, the crop may be
entirely or partly ruined; whereas, if the infected leaves
be stripped off in good time and a barrier thereby opposed
to the extension of the disease, the plants not infrequently
recover so far as to produce a better crop than they would
have done had the leaves been left on.
Picking.
Red hops are ready for picking in the second half of
August, whilst green hops are not ripe, as a rule, until
early in September.
The outward signs indicating incipient and full ripeness
in the cones are as follows :—
1. The cones begin to close up in a manner peculiar to
each variety, and the colour gradually becomes yellowish-
green to golden.
2. Seeds, when present, will indicate the approach of
full ripeness by their colour change to brown.
3. The cones feel greasy, crackle when squeezed, and the
peculiar odour of the lupulin becomes prominently notice-
able. The formation of lupulin granules ceases when the
cones are ripe for picking.
4. The lower foliage leaves assume their autumn colour-
ing and drop off.
If picking be delayed beyond the proper time the bracts
spread apart, the cones open and look shrivelled, whilst a
large proportion of the lupulin falls out, and the quality
of the produce is thereby impaired. The colour will also
be inferior to that of hops picked at the proper time, the
bracts having a reddish (foxy) tinge; and the goods suffer
in value from their inferior appearance.
CULTIVATION. 929
It is therefore a matter of great importance to the
grower to correctly estimate the right time for picking,
and to accelerate the work as much as possible in order
to preserve the quality of the produce, bearing in mind
that, although premature gathering means a certain loss
of quality, it is nevertheless preferable to leaving the hops
to get over-ripe where the area under cultivation is large
and labour scarce.
Although almost universally recognised as a faulty prac-
tice, the cutting of the bine at picking time is still performed,
as a matter of convenience, in poled gardens almost without
exception. Using ladders in picking hops on the pole would
be a less practical method than having the poles specially
arranged so that they could be turned over with their load
uncut, a measure that is not beyond the bounds of possi-
bility. Nevertheless the usual custom is to cut the bine
off at a height of some 23 to 8 feet above the ground, lift
and loosen the pole with the pole-puller, pull it up by hand
and carefully lay it down. The bine is then stripped off,
either in one piece or in sections, over the head of the
pole, and at this point the actual work of picking begins.
If the picking is not performed in the. garden, but at the
homestead, the cut bine is bundled, carted off and stored
in a shady place ; but the sooner the cones are removed
the better, as, if they are left unpicked for some time, the
bracts split and the goods suffer loss of colour, lupulin and
appearance, and are therefore more difficult of sale.
The cones are pinched off either with the finger-nails
or with a picking ring which imitates the action of the
former. About } inch of stalk is left on the cone; if longer
the buyer grumbles, and if shorter the lower bracts easily
become detached.
It is highly advisable to sort the hops at the time
of picking, which can be done either by picking off the
230 HOPS.
handsomest and best developed cones first and the poorer
ones afterwards, or else by having two baskets, into one of
which the best cones are dropped, whilst the other serves
to receive the foxy, loose, short and inferior specimens.
The former method is preferable, as in the other there is
more likelihood of the two qualities becoming inadvertently
mixed in the hurry of picking, and consequently the uni-
formity of the samples is diminished.
As a rule hops are picked at a fixed rate, averaging 2d.
to 24d. per bushel. As a bushel of fresh cones weighs
-
et L o, peel jt Hy MA- Tyee ea, row gil ors "0 Ee YF. ofa
ar BE
me ae = eet Pe, if CFE, FTE Lie eee LB
———
Fic. 65.—Wolff’s hop picking and cen machine.
about 5 lb., the cost per cwt. amounts to between 4s. and
5s. A good picker will gather 16 to 22 bushels, or 65 to
105 Ib., per diem.
Warm dry weather is the principal desideratum at picking
time, but even with the most favourable weather it is better
not to set to work until the dew is off, since wet or damp
hops dry badly, and easily get off-coloured.
1 Three and a half lb. of green hops yield 1 lb. of dried cones, so that the
cost of picking works out at 14s. to 17s. 6d. per cwt. of dried hops.
CULTIVATION. 931
Attempts to pick hops by machinery have not been
lacking, an American machine (Looke’s) having been brought
out for this purpose more than a decade ago;! and in 1894
the Mills Hop-picking Machine Company of New York
patented an ingenious picker.
- Professor Leplae (Bulletin de l’Agriculture, 1897) has de-
saribeea a hop picking and sorting machine (Fig. 65) invented
by C. Wolff, and reports very favourably on: its action,
characterising it as a valuable appliance for large growers.
As, however, such machines inevitably entail the cutting of
the bine at gathering time, which is directly opposed to the
tendency of the age, viz., to pick the crop on the ground
and without cutting the bine, there is but little prospect of
their coming into general use—an opinion all the more
justified by the necessarily more or less imperfect action
of machinery for this purpose.
In gardens where the arrangements are such that the
crop can be conveniently gathered without cutting the bine
it follows that hand picking is the only method that can
be considered at all. In such event the stems will not be
cut until late in the autumn, and after the sap has gone
down.
Drying and Bagging.
To fit them for storage and transport hops require drying.
According to the variety, and especially the date of gathering
time, hops contain, when freshly picked, 65 to 75 per cent.
of moisturé, whereas, to be marketable in an air-dry con-
dition, they should not contain more than 10 to 14 per cent.,
since, if rich in water, they are liable to heat during storage
and spoil.
1Pott, Oesterreichisches landw. Wochenblatt, 1878.
2 Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brauwesen, 1895.
232, HOPS.
There are several methods of drying :—
1. In the open air, either in the sun or in the shade.
2. Indoors :
(a) Ordinary floor drying.
(6) Drying on hurdles or frames, either on a well-
ventilated floor or in special drying sheds. ,
(c) Drying by the aid of artificial heat in hop kilns.
Drying in the open air is practised in Russia and occa-
sionally in other districts as well, but is not an advisable
method ; because, in the first place, it places the grower at
the mercy of the weather, and, secondly, the necessary turn-
ing of the cones on the cloths or hurdles on which they are
spread results in a great loss of lupulin. Besides, prolonged
exposure to sunlight spoils the beautiful yellow-green colour
of the hops.
If open-air drying is a matter of necessity, then it should,
at least, be carried on in the shade. Under these conditions
the colour is retained better, and there is less waste of lupulin,
since the bracts do not open. Whichever method be em-
ployed, drying must be regarded as complete when the stalks
can be easily broken, without being brittle. An experienced
man, however, can tell whether the hops are dry or not by
inspection alone.
Drying on a well-ventilated floor, though scarcely an
ideal method, is at any rate better than open-air drying,
since it, at least, renders the grower independent of the
weather, unless large quantities are to be treated. In the
case of large hop plantations there will rarely be sufficient
room or floor space available for floor drying, and in such
event drying on hurdles, or, better still, in kilns, is more
suitable.
In floor drying the hops are spread out on the floor in
layers of 13 to 2 inches thick, and are stirred and turned two
or three times a day. According to the degree of ventilation
CULTIVATION. 233
and the state of the weather, the hops will be dry enough in
four to eight days for the depth of the layers to be increased
to 4 inches ; and in two to four days more they will be ready
to throw up into heaps, or even bagged.
Apart from the time and large amount of floor space
entailed by this method, it is attended by the disadvantage
that the frequent turning and stirring breaks up a large
number of the cones, and wastes a high proportion of lupu-
lin. A better method is that of drying on hurdles or frames,
which are placed on floors, granaries, or—where the quantity
is large—in special sheds. The hurdles are single frames of
wood, strengthened at the corners with wooden triangles, and
the inside space covered with rushes, matting, wooden rods,
wire, or coarse canvas, rush hurdles being appreciated for
their lightness, cheapness and smoothness. These hurdles
are made in different sizes, usually, however, about 64 inches
long by 32 inches wide, the cost of such a rush hurdle being
about ninepence or tenpence. Wired hurdles and those made
of rods are more expensive and heavier, wire being also liable
to rust and rods having nothing special to recommend them.
Canvas hurdles, though inferior to those of rushes, are most
frequently used.
The hurdles, which are covered with a 2-inch layer of
hops, are either mounted on. racks; so as to leave an inter-
vening space:of 12 to 20 inches between each hurdle and its
neighbour, or else are hung on cords from the’ roof of the
shed or drying room. Sometimes the cords are arranged
as ladders, a pair of such ladders being set rather closér
together than the length of the hurdle, whilst the steps are
as long as the hurdles are broad. Another plan is to provide
loops on the cords, and hang the hurdles thereon by means
of nails projecting from the frames, from three to six hurdles
being suspended one above another, according to the height
of the room. Again, the:hurdles may be provided with small
234 HOPS.
wooden feet, in which case they may be placed one on
another, without any racks or cords being required (Fru-
wirth).
Given efficient ventilation, the cones spread out on these
hurdles will be dry in three to five days, and they do not
require turning as in floor drying, an occasional gentle
shaking of the hurdle (once or twice a day), or slight
knocking on the under side, being sufficient to alter the
position of the cones. The advantages of this system are
very evident :—
1. The drying is accelerated.
2. A large drying surface can be obtained in a compara-
tively small space.
3. The cones, being left untouched throughout, retain
their form and lupulin content.
To obtain good ventilation a number of air inlets should
be provided near the floor of the room, and outlet openings
near the roof, all of which should be left open, except at
night or during wet weather.
Where the available rooms (granaries, etc.) are too small
to hold the necessary number of hurdles for drying the hop
crop, it may become advisable to erect special drying sheds.
These are frequently met with in Wurtemburg, especially
in the Tettnang hop district. They are also to be found in
Austro-Hungary at Schassburg (Siebenbirgen) ; and, accord-
ing to Zelinka, a few are in use in Wolhynia (Russia).
These drying sheds are all more or less in the same style,
the following description by Von Rodiczky referring to one
erected at Schassburg :—
The buildings are 130 to 200 feet long by 22 to 26 feet
wide, and are built of wood, there being generally two storeys.
The ground floor is used for storing implements and utensils,
while the upper room is fitted with racks divided into groups
of 10 to 14, so that the drying shed contains altogether
CULTIVATION. 235
1,500 to 2,000 hurdles 311 x 63 inches, and formed of wooden
frames$and matting, the cost being about 10d. each. The
hurdles in each rack are about 6 inches’‘apart. Down the
middle of the room is a gangway about 7 feet wide, and a
space of 20 inches is left at the sides, between the frames
and the wall. At first the hops are spread out to a depth
of only 1 to 14 inch, but at the end of three days they are
transferred to other hurdles in deeper layers (2 to 24 inches),
and six to eight days will see them quite dry and ready to
be turned out on the bagging floor. Here they are spread
out in 4-inch layers, and afterwards thrown into heaps,
the final operation of bagging being effected with a hop
press in the early hours of the morning. A shed of this
kind costs in Schassburg from £200 to £300 to build.
Hops dried in sheds are particularly handsome and uni-
form in appearance. Occasionally provision is made for
heating the drying sheds, in order to lessen the dependence
on external temperature and weather, as well as to accele-
rate drying.
The original arrangements for drying hops by artificially
heated air had little special to recommend them, but of late
years they have developed into the modern hop kiln (hop
oast), by the aid of which drying can be rapidly effected in
any weather without the hops being in any degree depreciated
in appearance, colour or lupulin content—always provided
care is taken to keep up the proper degree of heat and
afford a plentiful supply and proper discharge of air.
The first point to consider in erecting a hop kiln,
whether for continuous or intermittent drying, is the proper
arrangement of the heating apparatus; and the next, to
provide an efficient ventilation that shall also be under
proper control. So far as the former is concerned it should
be observed that no satisfactory results can be expected
from a hearth, etc., which allows the fumes and hot pro-
i
236 HOPS.
ducts of combustion to pass direct into the drying chamber,
even though the fuel used produces a minimum of smoke
(e.g., charcoal). The reason for this is that, apart from the
bad effect produced on the hop aroma by these fumes, the
temperature of the kiln is very difficult to regulate in
the case of an open fireplace. This is the more important
on account of the relatively low temperatures—20° to 35° C.
(68° to 95° F.) at the highest—employed, and which are
by no means easy to regulate for long. Greater heat must
not be used, or the value of the hops will be reduced, and
for this reason the practice adopted, e¢.g., in America, of
drying at 60° C. (140° F.) cannot be recommended as worthy
of imitation. Heating the drying chamber by hot air or
steam is decidedly preferable to open fires ; and, furthermore,
it must not be forgotten that the latter method causes far
more danger from fire and consumes a larger quantity of
fuel.
So far as hot-air circulation is concerned, a very brisk
current is required in the drying chamber. On the one
hand, as a matter of course, the deposition of moisture
in the form of dew or drops on the wall of the kiln must
be prevented ; but, on the other hand, the ventilation
should not be pushed so far as to cool down the drying
chamber and thereby retard drying. To obtain favourable
conditions for ventilation the kiln is built in the form of
a high tower, terminating in an outlet covered by a cowl.
Through the centre of this opening is led the flue from
the heating apparatus, so as to warm the air in the passage
and facilitate its escape from the drying chamber. A circular
damper of strong sheet metal is also generally placed below
this outlet, and, being suspended by chains passing over
pulleys and counterpoised at the other end, can be raised
or lowered as required, in order to reduce or heighten the
draught. Sometimes a special ventilating fan or similar
CULTIVATION. 237
exhaust is provided. The air admitted to the drying
chamber enters through pipes or other channels, debouch-
ing near the heating apparatus and fitted with valves or
dampers for regulating the supply. 7
The earliest hop kilns were built in England and
America. They were fitted with open fireplaces, which
were afterwards converted into closed stoves. English kilns,
with enclosed fireplaces are now largely in use, and are
generally of square or circular section.
Fic. 66.—The Karl hop kiln.
The drying floor of the kiln is covered to a depth of about
8 inches with green hops, which are turned once during the
eleven or twelve hours required for drying.
The Karl hop kiln! shown in Fig. 66, and used in
Bohemia, is fitted with portable drying frames (hurdles), and
differs mainly from the English type of kiln in the more
convenient arrangement of the heating apparatus and drying
floor.
1Uhland’s J'echnische Rundschau, 1898, No. 7.
238 HOPS. !
Of the newer kilns only those will be mentioned that are
acknowledged as good by experts, and are therefore worthy
of. recommendation.
The Heijak kiln (Fig. 67), introduced in the “ eighties,’’
differs from the older systems, and is specially designed for
treating large quantities of hops, the work of drying being
continuous. _
Fic. 67.—The Heijak kiln (diagrammatic sketch).
In the main this kiln consists of a large number of frames
(300) which slide on a spiral track placed round the interior
of a circular kiln, and are connected together by coupling-
hooks. To reduce friction, a number of small rollers are
arranged at intervals on the rails. A is an opening at the
CULTIVATION. 239 .
top of the kiln, through which the charged frames are
introduced, and a similar opening is provided below, at B,
for the removal of the frames after the hops are dried.
Motion is imparted to the train of frames by a crank, and
the kiln is heated by a furnace situated at the bottom and
communicating with the outside air by means of a conduit.
The heated air is delivered to the interior of the kiln through
distributing pipes turned so as to open towards the walls.
In order to supply sufficient ventilation, a vertical air pipe,
not shown in the drawing, is mounted in the centre of the
kiln, and is fed by two fans. The frames laden with green
hops gradually descend the spiral track, and, on reaching
the bottom opening, are removed, emptied, and sent up
again in a hoist to be re-filled. The speed is regulated so
that each frame remains about ten hours in the kiln, and
the temperature is maintained at 20° to 30° C. (68° to 86° F.).
The kiln can, of course, be used intermittently, in which
event the frames are all charged and introduced at once, and
left in for six to ten hours before discharging. In con-
tinuous work the output is about one ton of dried hops per
twenty-four hours. The kiln, though valuable for large
users, or associations of growers, is, however, too expensive
for small growers; and for the latter Heijak has constructed
the smaller kiln shown in Fig. 68, which may be termed the
“column” system, to distinguish it from the larger form.
The arrangement of this smaller kiln is as follows:
two or more columns, each of 30 to 50 superimposed
frames, are erected around a central free space, which is
divided into two or three storeys by means of boarded floors.
The frames are placed 6 inches (vertical) apart, and mounted
in such a manner as to leave wedge-shaped spaces (see Fig.
68) between the column and the kiln wall on thejone hand
and between the former and the charging space on the other,
so as to ensure regular distribution of the heated air. This
240 HOPS.
latter enters the free space on the charging side, and, as
shown by the arrows, passes between the frames in the
column to the space on the opposite side, whence it escapes:
through the cowl at the top. To force the air to follow this.
sinuous course instead of simply ascending through the
column, the canvas forming the bottom of the frames is:
ir =
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tg an
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Fig. 68. Fic. 69.
The Heijak kiln for small growers. The Léschner hop kiln.
coated on the under side with paint impervious to air. The
kiln is loaded and unloaded, each storey by itself, and a hoist
is provided to raise the green hops to each floor and remove
the dried charge taken from the kiln. A singie charcoal fire
is often used. The work is intermittent, and the output of
the kiln varies between four and eight cwt. of dried hops per
CULTIVATION. 241
twenty-four hours, according to the number of the columns
and the number and size of the frames in each.
The hops are spread out two inches deep on the frames,
and take ten to twelve hours to dry. The cost of erecting
this kiln is from £120 to £160, according to size.
The Loéschner kiln, Fig. 69, obtained the first prize in
the hop kiln competition instituted by the Saaz-Postelberg
Agricultural and Forestry Association in 1894. It is a
two-storey kiln, with two slow-combustion stoves of ex-
cellent construction on the ground floor. The heating
arrangement consists of three or four perfectly straight
pipes, perfectly gilled, conducting the products of combus-
tion to the chimney, and mounted in a conduit of masonry
beneath the bricked floor. To facilitate internal inspection.
and repairs each of the pipes can be drawn out from the
outside. The stoves are charged from a firebrick shaft,
which, when filled with fuel, keeps the fire going for seven
hours without any further attention.
In the upper storey are arranged two columns of frames,
with a space between for loading and unloading. Each
column contains twenty large frames, fitted with impreg-
nated canvas and mounted so as to project one beyond
another, and is surrounded on three sides by brick walls, iron-
lined doors separating the columns from the intermediate
room.
The heating flue, supplied with cold air at the bottom
near the stove, opens at the top into the kiln chamber,
where the hot air is discharged. In consequence of the
projecting arrangement of the frames, each one intercepts
its own share of the prismatic column of hot air ascend-
ing from the stove, and conducts the same in a nearly
horizontal direction over and under the hops, until, the
task of drying being accomplished, it escapes from the
frames and ascends to the roof.
16
249, HOPS.
Unlike other frame kilns the frames are not taken out
for loading and unloading, but are mounted so as to hinge
on the one side, the other side being suspended from sup-
ports. To charge the kiln with a fresh load of hops, the
whole of the frames are tilted upwards, except the lowest
of all, which is left in a horizontal position and filled with
the requisite quantity of hops. The others are then lowered
and filled in rotation. In unloading the kiln the lowest
frame is tilted downwards, and discharges its contents into
a basket underneath, of sufficient size to take the whole.
The others are then tilted, one after the other, in the same
manner without the hop-drier having any need to leave
his post.
It is advisable to keep the kiln fires alight during the
whole time picking is being carried on, as this ensures
constantly uniform combustion and the maintenance of a
maximum temperature in the flue gases and air throughout,
‘which would not be the case if the fires were allowed to
go out for a time and then re-lighted.
The advantages claimed for the Loschner kiln are :—
1. Economy of fuel.
2. No hoist is required, the building being lower than in
other kilns.
3. Greater simplicity of loading and unloading the frames
than in other kilns of equal size.
4, Supervision is easy, all the work being performed in
a single chamber.
5. Absence of fire risk.
The cost of this kiln is about the same as of the Heijak
kiln. .
The kiln, with patent heating stove, manufactured by
K. Gasch of Chodau is also on the frame system, the
arrangement being shown in Fig. 70. The heating apparatus
merits particular attention. Here a is a small hearth,
CULTIVATION. 243
adapted to the kind of fuel used, and giving a readily con-
trollable fire. The furnace gases are made to take a sinu-
5 ios
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Fic. 70.—The Gasch hop kiln.
ous course, by the arrangement of the flues, around a system
of ten heating conduits, c, of quadrangular section, and thence
into the smoke stack.
244 HOPS.
The heating conduits are open at both ends, one side
being in direct communication with the open air, and the
other connected with a conduit which delivers the hot air
into the dome, f, whence it escapes into the drying chamber
through apertures, g, and ascends through the frames con-
taining the materials to be dried. The water vapour and
spent air are carried away through a conduit, z, into the
smoke stack.
A brisk circulation is thus set up by the difference in
temperature between the air within and outside the kiln,
and is increased by the draught in the smoke stack. A
=
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Lf fe
Fia. 71.—The Zelinka continuous kiln.
simple device prevents any back-draught of smoke into the
kiln, and keeps the latter quite smokeless.
This arrangement entirely precludes risk of the hops
being burned or charred, and the cast-iron dome, /, prevents
any dropped cones from coming into contact with the stove.
A large kiln of this type is in use on the estate of Herr
Zemann at Radowesitz, near Aussig, and has given great
satisfaction.
The Zelinka hop kiln? (Fig. 71) is arranged to work con-
“Tua Culture du Houblon,” Prof. E. Leplae, Bulletin de lV Agricul-
ture, 1897.
CULTIVATION. 945
tinuously, and consists of a number of drying surfaces formed
by endless bands, on the upper one of which the green hops
are placed, and after remaining there for about half an hour
they are discharged on to the band next below, the top band
then receiving a fresh charge from an automatic hopper.
In this manner the hops are moved onwards and downwards
from one band to another until the floor of the drying cham-
ber is reached. By means of a special device the lower series
of bands move at less speed than the upper ones, so that
in proportion as the hops get drier they are piled up more
ma | Toon
Fic. 72.—The Miiller hop kiln.
thickly on the bands. When perfectly dry the hops are
discharged through the aperture Z. The hot-air circulation,
which is produced by a heating apparatus below the drying
chamber, is so regulated as to traverse the two moieties of
each band in opposite directions; hence the drying goes on
with great uniformity.
This Russian kiln may either be fitted up as a permanent
kiln or as a portable one, the latter being a novelty worthy
of attention, as it can be taken from one garden to another,
and renders carting the hops unnecessary.
1Uhland’s Technische Rundschau, 1898, No. 7.
246 HOPS.
’
The Miiller hop and fruit kiln (Fig. 72) is a very suitable
type for small growers, and is built on the plan of certain
fruit kilns, and for continuous work. It consists of a build-
ing of suitable size in which the drying frames are mounted
one above another. By means of an iron handle, ¢, all the
frames can be lowered together far enough to admit a newly
charged frame at the top, d, the lowermost frames, carrying
the driest hops, being removed in rotation through the door,
Bl
sn
Fig. 73.—The Tippmann hop kiln.
f. The necessary warmth is supplied by a heating apparatus
formed of horizontal pipes built into the brickwork founda-
tion. The smoke and the water vapour are carried off by
separate chimneys.
The Tippmann hop kiln (Fig. 73)! works in a similar
manner to the Miller kiln, and is arranged for operating
continuously. Four systems of conveyers are usually pro-
vided, each consisting of four endless chains mounted on
1Uhland’s Technische Rundschau, 1898, No. 7.
CULTIVATION. 247
two parallel shafts, and carrying a series of frames, the
number of which depends on the distance between the shafts,
and that of the bearer cams on the chains. The shafts
are rotated by a hand wheel, the vertical position of the
frames constituting a set being thereby altered at will. The
frames are put upon the conveyer chains by the aid of a set
of articulated levers, and are then moved slowly so as to
meet the current of heated air whereby their contents are
dried. On reaching the bottom the frames are drawn out
at one side of the kiln.
The products of combustion from the fireplace pass
into a coiled pipe surrounded on all sides by the cold-air
current, and the damp-laden air from the kiln escapes into
the atmosphere through a cowl.
The Andrlik and Hueber kiln (Fig. 74) is mainly designed
for the use of large growers or associations. It is heated by
a steam or hot-air apparatus composed of vertical cast- or
sheet-iron pipes, but its speciality consists in the portable
drying surfaces M,M. These platforms are mounted on rails,
an arrangement greatly facilitating the loading and unloading
of the kiln, the large frames being simply drawn out of the
kiln into the hop room (see Fig. 74). Each surface is com-
posed of two adjacent parts, which are thus easier to handle ;
and the ventilation is assisted by the furnace gases being
discharged through the air outlet.
A similar kiln is that of Kohn, who employs earthenware
or fireclay pipes, instead of iron, for the heating apparatus.
In 1897 a patent for a new method of drying was taken
out by Hans Humbser,! of Furth. The principal part of his
system consists in the circulation of warm air at a tem-
perature insufficiently high to volatilise any of the aromatic
constituents of the hop.
1 Oesterreichisches landwirthschaftliches Wochenblatt, 1897.
248 HOPS.
The air is drawnjout from the kiln chamber by exhaust
fans, and discharged into a cooling chamber, on the walls of
which the moisture is deposited ; whence, after being warmed
again to the requisite degree in an adjoining chamber, it is
A
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LH
~
Fic. 74.—The Andrlik and Hueber kiln.
returned to the kiln to resume its circulation. The drying
of the air can also be effected by means of suitable hygro-
scopic substances.
Another new system is that of K. Zorner, of Libotschan,
who uses revolving frame boxes, and claims to effect very
CULTIVATION. 249
rapid drying without loss of quality; but this system has not
yet been sufficiently tested.
There are also other hop kilns, but these are more or less
similar in arrangement to the types already described.
That kilning is the best of all methods for drying hops is
an undoubted fact, and the only question is whether the
small grower possesses sufficient capital to erect a kiln for
his own use. Even, however, where this is not the case, it
will always be easy for two neighbours, or a number of
growers in the same district, to combine for the purpose of
building a kiln, and thus obtain a benefit they would other-
wise be unable to enjoy. Under certain circumstances the
drying might very well be effected by contract with a kiln-
owner.
When all the advantages of kilning are considered, and it
is also remembered that well-dried and good-looking hops
meet with a ready sale at better prices, which not only
repays the cost of a kiln in a short time, but also means a
positive benefit to the producer expressed in coin of the
realm, it will readily be admitted that the erection of kilns—
those powerful levers of the hop industry in general—cannot
be too warmly recommended. Where the matter is too
difficult for the individual, association should be resorted to.
When sufficiently dried by moderate heat, the hops are at
once ready for bagging. If, however, in consequence of too
high a kilning temperature the bracts are brittle and liable to
break under the pressure employed, it is advisable to expose
the hops for a short time on an airy floor in layers not over
8 to 12 inches deep, and only proceed to bag them after they
have absorbed a little moisture and become more supple.
Bagging is often performed in the following manner: the
1¥Fruwirth mentions a “normal” hop kiln by Griinfelder, and another
by Hawuber, in his “ Oesterreichs Hopfenbau in der Jubiléumsperiode,”’ Oesterr.
landw. Wochenblatt, 1898. ' :
250 HOPS.
bag or ‘“‘ hop pocket ”’ is kept open at the mouth by means of
an iron ring, and is lowered down through a suitable hole in
the flooring, so as to hang free. The bagger then descends
into the pocket and treads down the hops, which are
shovelled in at intervals from the storage floor. When full,
the mouth of the pocket is sewn up, the package marked,
and conveyed to a dry storehouse. Treading tends to break
the cones, but this can be avoided by using a press, which is
forced down on the hops after each few shovels-full have
been thrown into the pocket. This plan is particularly
advisable when the hops are bagged direct from the kiln,
i.e., in @ very dry and brittle condition.
Carelessness, in bagging damp hops, may lead to very
serious loss for the grower, since damp hops soon heat in the
pocket and turn mouldy if not looked after in time, their
colour and aroma being damaged, and in fact their value not
improbably ruined altogether. The evil consequences of
spontaneous heating being known, it is highly advisable to
test the temperature of the bagged hops from time to time,
a thing easily done by driving a long steel needle in as far as
the centre of the pocket and drawing it out at intervals for
examination, an idea of the internal temperature being gained
from the heat of the metal. If the pocket is found to be hot
it must be re-opened and the hops dried over again. Incon-
veniences of this kind, however, are avoided by careful super-
vision on the part of the experienced grower.
PRINCIPAL AND SUBSIDIARY UTILISATION OF Hops AND
Hop GARDENS.
The main utilisation of the hop garden consists in the
gathering of the cones for brewing purposes. In addition to
this several subsidiary benefits are obtainable, to which a
short reference will now be made.
CULTIVATION, 251
In the first place there are the leaves to be considered.
These form a valuable fodder, whether in the green or dry
state. According to Dr. E. Wein! the composition of hop
leaves is as follows :—
Green foliage Dry foliage
with without with without
stalks. stalks.
Per cent. Per.cerit. Percent. Per cent.
Water 66:00 68:00 10°58 11:98
Nitrogenous matter (protein) 4°74 5-11 12-47 14:03
Fat 1:32 1:44 3-48 3-96
Non-nitrogenous extractive matter 14°61 13°72 38-41 87°74
Crude fibre 9°23 6°31 24:48 17°37
Mineral matter 4:10 5:42 10:78 14:92
Digestible matter in the above :—
Per cent.
60 to 70 of the albumin.
70 ,, 80 of the fat.
60 ,, 75 of the non-nitrogenous extractives.
However, since the premature cutting of the bine, or
stripping the leaves therefrom, has already been mentioned
as injurious to the vital force of the plant, it would, from a
theoretical point of view, be preferable to neglect this oppor-
tunity of subsidiary utilisation. In such event only the
loppings and trimmings would come under consideration as
fodder, the food value of the leaves and stems after dying
down being naturally very small.
Dried bine can very well be utilised as a tying material if
soaked for a short time in water.
Repeated attempts have been made to work up hop bine
as a textile material, and it was proposed by Dr. Pott to con-
sider the utilisation of the bine in paper-making. Bine con-
tains about 9 to 15 per cent. of fibre according to age, and
the canvas woven therefrom greatly resembles that made
from hemp; but as it is unbleachable it can only be used for
coloured stuffs.
1 Allgemeine Brauer- und Hopfenzeitung, 1886.
252. HOPS.
In view of the cheapness of wood pulp, hop bine cannot
be expected to attain any importance as a paper-making
material, the more so because the paper it furnishes cannot
be bleached and is therefore only suitable for packing."
Spent hops from the brewery are either thrown on the.
manure heap or worked up into compost. According to
Weiske? they contain—
Per cent.
Protein - 17:50
Substances extractible by ether 6:27
Crude fibre 22°30
Non-nitrogenous extractives - 49°21
Ash 4-72
but the same experimentalist states that their content of
digestible constituents is relatively low, only
Per cent.
4°46 of protein,
3-24 of fat (extractible by ether), and
26°15 of non-nitrogenous extractives
being digestible out of 100 parts of the dry substance.
Furthermore, the bitter flavour of spent hops renders them
unacceptable to cattle.
A very fine and appetising salad is afforded by the young
shoots cut off in spring. The shoots look like small asparagus,
which they also resemble in flavour and mode of preparation.
As they are produced in large quantities at a time when fresh
vegetables are scarce, it would seem advisable to send them
to market on a large scale. Up to the present time their use
for this purpose has been confined to the hop districts and
immediate neighbourhoods, and too little attention has been
bestowed on finding a wider circle of consumption.
Fruwirth states that in France and Belgium hop cuttings
taken in the winter are embedded in warm manure heaps
1 Wiener landw. Zeitung, 1897.
? Thausing, Theorie und Praxis der Bierfabrication, Leipzig, 1893.
CULTIVATION. 253
in December, and soon throw up luxuriant shoots, which
find a ready sale as vegetables.
Another small source of income is the sale of cuttings
for propagation, the price of which ranges from 16s. to
24s. per 1,000.
The quantity of hop cones consumed in the preparation
of liqueurs and for the extraction of lupulin for medicinal
purposes is comparatively insignificant, as would also be
the proposed utilisation of bine for the extraction of a
brownish red pigment mentioned by Stamm; and these
uses are merely referred to for the sake of completeness.
A special subsidiary industry, capable under certain
circumstances of association with hop cultivation, is the
growing of certain economic plants between the rows.
The advantages of this method of utilising the intermediate
free space have been largely contested. Undoubtedly the
practice leads to the removal of large amounts of water
and .plant food from the soil; and as the latter can be more
readily replaced than the water it is evidently advisable not
to attempt intermediate cropping in hop gardens on light,
dry soils unless irrigation is, or can be, practised. On the
other hand, in rich, well-manured soils not subject to water
famine intermediate fruit cultivation may be practised,
provided there are no special circumstances militating
against it; in fact, in poor hop years a positive result will
almost invariably be obtainable from this source.
Intermediate cultivation is chiefly advisable where the
area under hops is small, and as the grower and his
family attend to the work personally, and hand labour is
the rule, plants can be grown both between the hop stocks
in the rows and in the alleys. In large plantations, how-
ever, where team work is necessarily employed to reduce
the labour bill, intermediate, cultivation must be confined
to between the stocks. Furthermore, where the hops are
954 HOPS.
grown in “hills,” only such other plants as will stand
similar treatment can’ be cultivated in the rows.
In many places intermediate cultivation is restricted to
new plantations, and to the first two years, and is dis-
continued later on as being injurious to the cropping of
the hops. However, no such injurious result need be feared
if the ground is well manured and properly worked; and,
given a sufficient supply of plant food and moisture,
intermediate cultivation may be continued as long as the
garden is kept under hops, without the latter crop suffering
any diminution.
‘Of course, in the case of low-frame gardens, where the
dense shade caused by the hop plants would keep other
plants from thriving, intermediate cultivation cannot be
successfully carried on beyond the first year.
The best plants for intermediate cultivation are hoed
crops and pulse, the latter being preferable because they
take less nitrogen from the soil, whereas the others, like
hops themselves, require a greater proportion of nitro-
genous food. Unfortunately, one finds turnips, carrots,
cabbages, turnip-cabbages, early potatoes, and sometimes
maize, gherkins, onions, pumpkins, etc., more frequently
grown in hop gardens than leguminous plants, of which
beans and peas should be the first to select.
LiFe oF A Hop GARDEN: SUBSEQUENT CROPPING.
In the absence of reliable data nothing definite can be
stated as to the longevity of a hop stock. At all events
the plant is very long-lived, although the high reproductive
power of the underground parts is likely to cause erroneous
impressions to be formed on the subject. So far as the hop-
grower is concerned, however, the question is immaterial,
his interest in the matter being confined to the time the
CULTIVATION. 255
plant remains in full bearing. Even on this point no general
rule can be laid down, all that is definitely known being
that there are three main periods into which the productive
life of the hop plant may be divided, viz., the increasing,
maximum and decreasing stages. Under normal conditions
the plant attains its maximum bearing power in four or
five years after planting, remains in full productivity for
another eight or ten years, and then in many cases the
crop begins to diminish. Experience shows that beyond
the age of twenty years the yield becomes irregular and
uncertain, though of course there are exceptions, such as
those gardens that still continue to crop well at the age
of thirty years and more. On the other hand, many in-
stances are known where the plants are so weakened by
repeated attacks of disease or other severe injury that they
have to be prematurely broken up or replanted ; and it
frequently happens, in damp situations especially, that the
hops lose their productive power in eight to ten years.
When only a few of the plants here and there in a
garden are seen to be falling away in point of cropping,
it is not advisable to condemn the whole, since in such
event it will be sufficient to replace the weakly plants by
vigorous, new sets. If, however, the decrease is found to
extend to the majority, it then becomes time to gradually
rejuvenate the garden, or plant a fresh one. Rejuvenation,
which is chiefly confined to small plantations, consists. in _
replanting every other row, say the odd numbers, one, three, :
five, etc., one year, and in a subsequent year treating the
even-numbered rows in the same way, the object of this
procedure being manifestly to guard against a total failure
of crop.
If the whole of the garden is grubbed up at the same
time, and is to be replanted with hops, it must be immedi-
ately trenched, manured, and the new sets planted; or, if a
256 HOPS.
change of crop is desired, other plants are grown on the
ground for a few years before turning it into a hop garden
again.
Bearing in mind the heavy expense of a new garden,
it is evident that, even when the yield’ begins to decline, one
should not be in too great a hurry to begin grubbing up.
Should it be decided to discontinue hop-growing and sub-
stitute fruit trees, Strebel’s recommendation to plant young
trees in the garden several years before the change is actually
effected certainly merits consideration.
So far as experience goes, hops may be cultivated on
the same ground for an illimitable period, as is the case in
the Svalt district, so that a rotation of crops is unnecessary.
If, however, for any reason it is considered desirable to leave
an interval between the grubbing up of a garden and its
replanting with hops, the best change to make is by grow-
ing hoed crops, pulse or fodder plants. The selection of
the most suitable individuals of these groups must naturally
be influenced by local considerations. In Wiurtemburg the
following rotation is often adopted: Hops (average eighteen
years), wheat, potatoes, barley, clover, hops.
Cost OF PRODUCTION, YIELD AND SELLING PRICES.
The expenses of producing the hop crop, which naturally
differ, according to the method of cultivation and existing
economic conditions, in every hop district and even for
every grower, consist of :—
1. The capital outlay in starting the garden, with the
interest on this outlay, distributed over the whole life of
the garden ; and
2. The current working expenses incurred every year.
Where the cost of labour, the value of the soil, and the
price of poles, etc., are known quantities there is little
CULTIVATION. 257
difficulty in figuring out the cost of production for a given
locality, although there is one item that cannot be accurately
expressed in money value, viz., stall manure. This, however,
is generally reckoned at the local price. On the other hand,
there is considerable uncertainty in the calculation of the
net profits of hop-growing, owing to the wide range of
selling prices and the unreliability of the crop; and it is
only when the outgoings have been deducted from the actual
receipts that a true idea is gained. It is thus evident that
the results of any single year are insufficient to form a basis
for estimating the profit derivable from hop-growing ; and
in fact a prolonged experience of at least twenty years’
duration is necessary, since it is only by taking the
average net profits of a long period that a knowledge of
the interest (profit) returned on the capital invested can be.
gained.
In estimating the cost of production, the first thing to
ascertain is whether the garden is to be poled or worked
on the frame system; and, moreover, one must be fully
acquainted with, and take into consideration, all the local
factors likely to exercise any influence on the planting
and working of the garden.
Calculations of this kind are often made by taxation
officials, practical growers, and theorists ; of course without
any concordance in the results, as might be expected from
what has been said above.
Fruwirth, in his work on hop-growing, gives a general
scheme which, when the current rates of labour, etc.,
are inserted, will enable the cost of production to be
closely estimated for any given locality. Taking this
scheme as a basis, the calculation may be performed as
follows :—
Cost of planting per acre.
Trenching by hand to a depth of 23 to 30 inches, 30 to 60
17
258 HOPS.
square yards’ per diem per man; hence to dig 1 acre would
take one man 80 to 160 days.
Harrowing, about 4} acres, or, per acre 0°45 of one horse-
day and 0°23 of one man’s day.
Marking out the ground for planting, about } acre a day,
or two days’ work for one man per acre.
Cost of cuttings. If purchased, these must be entered at
cost price; but if home-grown and there is any local sale for
them they may be charged at current rates, whilst, if
unsaleable, merely a small sum should be put down for
expense of collection.
Digging holes for the sets, about } acre a day, hence
about four days’ female labour is required per acre.
Planting the sets, about } acre a day, or four days’ work
for one man per acre.
Rent. From this must be deducted the nett profit on any
intermediate crop grown. If any hops are picked the first
year their sale price must be deducted from the cost of
planting, before distributing the expenses.
The initial expenses must be increased by the addition of
interest on the capital outlay, reckoned for the average
number of years a garden will last, and, the total being
then divided by the time the garden is intended to be kept
under hops, the annual charge to be added to the current
expenses will be obtained.
1 Where trenching is done by the plough, the labour item is reckoned
from the number of horse-days, plus the day’s work of the ploughmen and
leaders. Thus, for example, a four-horse plough with two attendants will
turn over 1 acre a day a depth of 16 to 20 inches, so that four days’ work of
one horse and two days’ work of one man must be allowed for.
CULTIVATION. 259.
Current Annual Expenses
Poled gardens. Frame training.
Lasovur.— Winter Tillage.—One deep ploughing! = 1 acre per diem; or
2 horse-days and 1 man’s day per acre.
One harrowing = 4} acres per diem; or 0°45 horse-day and 0-23 man’s
day per acre. 1
Manuring.—Expense of cartage: This can only be determined locally
according to the distance from the homestead and the quantity.
Spreading manure” = 2 to 2 of an acre per diem; or 12 to 23 days’
work for 1 woman per acre.
Ploughing in the manure = 1 acre a day; or 2 horse-days and 1 man’s
day per acre.
Cutting the Stocks.—Ploughing down the earth from the rows = 1 acre
a day; or 2 days’ work for 1 horse and 1 day for a man.
Opening the stocks by hand = 0-19 to 0:2 acre a day; or about 10
days’ work for 1 woman per acre.
Cutting = 0°26 to 0:28 acre per diem; or about 34 days’ work for 1 man
per acre.
Covering the stocks again = 1-3 to 1-4 acre a day; or about # of 1 man’s
day per acre.
Poling Operations.—Sharpening,
cleaning, and perhaps firing the poles:
One man can deal with 240 to 300
poles a day; hence, where there are
2,400 poles per acre, their preparation
will take 8 to 10 days of one man’s
work. If the poles are steeped every
year the cost of this operation must
be added.
11f this work is done by hand and by female labour, the work done by one
woman in a day may be set down as 0:07 to 0:1 acre.
2In manuring the stocks at cutting time a man can cover about 1 to 1}
acre a day.
260 HOPS.
Current Annual Expenses—continued.
Poled gardens. Frame training.
Spreading the poles: 1 man |
can deal with 500 to 600 a day = 4
or 5 days’ work per acre.
Driving the holes: 500 to 600
per day, or 4 to 5 days’ work for 1
man per acre.
| Pitching the poles: 2,500 to
8,000 a day = ¢ to 1 man’s day per
acre,
Training, Tying and Removing Training, Tying, etc.—04 to
Superfluous Shoots.—About } acre | 0:43 acre per diem, or about 24 days’
a day, or 4 days’ work for 1 man per | work for one man per acre. (The
acre. expense is greater in horizontal train-
ing, the hops requiring to be tied
more frequently.) :
Two Tyings from the Ladder.’
—About } acre a day, or 4 days per
acre for the two operations.
Pruning.—About } acre a day, Pruning, Trimming and Top-
or 4 days for 1 man per acre. ping.—0°15 to 0:25 acre a day, or 4 to
6 days’ work for 1 man per acre.
First Hoeing (by Hand).—One woman can hoe 0:15 to 0°25 acre a
day-; or 4 to 6 davs’ work to the acre. With the plough or cultivator about
12 to 5 acres respectively can be got over in a day, the work required per
acre being therefore about 1 horse-day and 4 a man’s day, or ? of a horse-
day and } of a man’s day.
Second Hoeing (by Hand).—A woman can hoe 0:19 to 0°54 acre a day,
the work being lighter, and therefore 34 to 42 days’ work will be required
for lacre. If horse-labour is employed the work will be the same as for
the first hoeing.
Harvesting Operations. — Cut- | Unhanging the Wires.—2:4 to |
ting bine and pulling poles: 1 man | 4-9 acresa day; hence each acre will
can cover 0°44 to 0°51 acre per day, | take 0-2 to 0:4 day’s work.
80 1:8 to 2:2 days’ work is required ;
per acre.
!
CULTIVATION.
261
Current Annual Expenses—continued.
Poled gardens.
' Frame training.
a
' Picking.—Is mostly done by contract, with female labour.
Drying.—The labour varies according to the crop.
Collecting and Stacking Poles.—
0:24 to 0:29 acre per day, or 3°3 to 4
days’ work per acre.
Re-hanging Wires with Denuded |
_ Bine.—2-4 acres a day, or 0-4 day’s
4 work per acre.
Cutting Bine and Lifting Wires.
—0°61 acre a day, or 1-6 man’s day
per acre.
Ovurtay on Mareriat, and quota of interest, writing-off ‘paplial and
insurance,
Value of stall manure. applied.. dase
7
INTEREST AND . DEPREciation ox
Pouzs (averag life, 10 years).—First
item, 6 to 7 per cent. on working capi-
InteREsT, DEPRECIATION, AND
Repatk or Frame.—Calculated on
average duration.
TraIninc MatTEeRraL.—Total out-
lay for string if renewed annually,
or 4 the cost if used twice over; or
4 to 4 the outlay for the wire =e
the same is used 6 to 8 years.
tal and 10 per cent. for depreciation.
INTEREST, DEPRECIATION AND Repairs To Ki~n anp Firrines.—In-
terest, 4 per cent.; repairs, 2 per cent. ; ; depreciation calculated according
to life of building.. Fire insurance. Taterest: depreciation , (replacing) and
repair to the hopyard implements. Interest calculated as 6 to 7 per cent.
on capital invested ; purchase of new implements, 12 tio 15 per cent. ee
| Goltz).
Rent (4 per cent. of the freehold value). Insurance against hailstormis.’
The year’s quota of the expenses of intallation.
The sum total of the foregoing items gives the annual
cost of producing an acre of hops. The gross returns, from
which the nett profit is ascertained by deducting the outlay,
will either be the amount of money received ‘for the crop
alone, or, where any subsidiary profits are made, the sum of
all the receipts from the hop garden.
262 HOPS.
The principal factor—the pecuniary return from the crop
‘—is the product of two extremely variable values, viz., crop
and price, and is liable to great fluctuations. The crop, for
example, varies within very wide limits with the locality,
richness of soil, variety of hop, age of the garden, and the
‘season, as well as under the influence of insect ravages,
mould and other adversaries. Although in isolated years
the coarser varieties may yield as much as 12 cwt. per acre,
it must not be forgotten that the finer sorts rarely, if ever,
crop so well, and that not more than 5 to 6 cwt. per acre
can be expected; whilst in some years the yield may fall
to 14 cwt. or even less.
According to Schmied, in his work on agricultural taxa-
tion,! the average yield per acre in the Saaz district may
be appraised as follows :—
Full crop 5°25 ewt. per acre.
2 ” 4:00 ”
go» 3°50 ”
4 ” 2°60 ”
4 1-75 ”
2 ” 1:30 oe)
On the basis of many years’ experience he estimates that,
in the course of a decade, one full crop and one three-quarter
crop may be anticipated, each of the other fractional crops
occurring twice during the same period; so that the average
yield is about 27 cwt. per acre. In the Saaz district 1 lb.
of hops to each pole may be taken as the average, with
1 lb. as a maximum: figures which sufficiently show the
irregularity of the crop and the difficulty of accurately
estimating the profits beforehand.
In addition there is the great fluctuation in the price,
the rates being mainly dependent on—
_ 7 Anton Adam Schmied, “ Die landwirthschaftliche Tawationslehre und ihre
Anwendung bei den Expropriations-Schdtzungen, Prague, 1878.
CULTIVATION. 263
1. The total crop in any one year, i.¢., the ratio between
supply and demand.
2. The quality of the produce—frequently the subject of
biassed judgment.
’ 8. The available old stock.
The demand for hops can be fairly estimated from the
annual consumption of beer. If crop prospects are bad,
it is evident that all the brewers will endeavour to cover
their requirements as soon as possible; hence, when the.
crop is a failure, this circumstance, in conjunction with
the anxiety of the brewers, causes prices to rise to an
unusual degree, and it has often happened that growers
have made more money out of a poor crop than from
average or full crops in other years.
The wide fluctuations in hop prices can be seen from
the following quotations: in 1876 Saaz hops sold at £32 to
£37 10s. per cwt., whilst in 1897 they did not fetch more
than £10 10s. to £11 per cwt., and poorer sorts made
only £8 16s. to £9 16s. per cwt. The price of one and
the same quality of hops may, however, vary considerably,
not only from one year to another, but also at different
times in the same year, especially when the forecasts of
the world’s hop crop prove on verification to have been
unreliable. If, by accident or design, the estimate has
been too low, prices will have a tendency to fall. Sellers
who are able to dispose of their hops at the beginning of
the buying season will rarely have to complain of bad
prices; whereas waiting in such years is often attended
with bitter disappointment.
In any event, waiting to sell has little to recommend
it, prices being generally better in the early part of the
season than later on. Only on rare occasions are these
conditions reversed, as happens when the crop has been
over-estimated, or when bad weather or other adverse
264 HOPS.
causes have operated just before or during the ingathering
and reduced the crop. Moreover, it must not be forgotten
that, in view of the improved methods whereby hops can
be stored for more than a year without loss of quality, a
failure of crop will no longer have such a heightening
effect on prices as was formerly the case. | When a good
crop is succeeded by a bad one the presence of a stock
of the previous year’s hops operates against a rise in the
price of new ones, a circumstance which, though agreeable
to merchants and consumers, is highly unpleasant for the
grower, it being customary for the latter to sell his produce
during the first year, leaving preservation to the merchant.
In fact, the only occasion when a bad crop can now
greatly stimulate prices is when there is no old stock on
hand, 7.e., when there has been a succession of bad years.
To gain an idea of the influence exerted on the price of
hops by their quality (often, perhaps, merely by their origin),
it is sufficient to give a glance at current quotations. Thus
at Niirnberg, in November, 1897, the following prices
(shillings per cwt.) ruled (Krakenberger’s Report) :—
I. II. III.
9th Nov. 16th Nov. 28rd Nov.
Ordinary and Aischgrund hops,
according to quality 35s. to 75s. 40s. to 82s. 40s. to 95s.
Best hill-country hops 85s. ,, 87s. 90s. ,, 100s. 95s. ,, 140s.
Best Holledau hops 105s. ,, 110s. 110s. ,, 120s. 110s. ,, 125s.
Medium and Second Holledau
hops 60s. , 90s. 75s. ,, 95s. 75s. ,, 95s.
Best sealed MHolledau hops
(Wolnzach-Au) 110s. ,, 125s, 110s. ,, 135s. 120s. ,, 140s.
Spalt hops, according to situa-
tion and quality - 95s. ,, 125s. 100s. ,, 150s. 100s. ,, 150s.
Wiirtemburg hops, according to
quality - 70s. ,, 105s. 75s. ,, 115s. 75s. ,, 115s.
Baden hops - 80s. ,, 110s. 75s. ,, 115s. 75s. ,, 115s.
Best Saaz district hops 184s ,, 190s. 200s. ,, 210s. 210s. ,, 220s.
Best Saaz vicinity hops 170s. ,, 180s. 190s. ,, 200s. 200s. ,, 210s.
Medium and _ second Saaz
vicinity hops 140s. ,, 160s. 170s. ,, 180s. 180s. ,, 190s.
CULTIVATION.
Prices of Saaz Hops, 1832—1897.
Shillings per cwt. Mean price Shillings per cwt. | Mean price
Year. ae Middle] End |below/above] Year. ey Middle| End |below|above
of season. bree fee of season. ge tha
1832 | 420 | 660 | 540] ... | 346] 1865 | 350 | 376 | 240] ... 62
1833 | 440 | 260 | 130] ... 82 | 1866 | 310 | 330 | 410] ... 90
1834 | 260 | 100 | 100] 40] ... | 1867] 266 | 294 80} 70] ...
1835 | 100 | 180 | 140] 54 1868 | 196 | 120 | 120] 114] ...
1836 | 140 | 180 | 110] 50 1869 | 356 | 410 | 410] ... | 182
1837 | 180 | 100 | 110] 80 1870 | 160 | 130 | 180 | 104] ...
1838 | 240 | 180 90] 28 1871 | 340 | 450 | 216] ... 76
1839 56 70 96 .| 120 1872 | 280 | 340 | 340] ... 66
1840 | 150 | 170 | 110] 50 1873 | 264 | 304 | 180 4]...
1841 | 110 | 140 | 172) 54] ... | 1874] 376 | 400 | 394] ... | 132
1842 | 260 | 320 | 250] ... 82 | 1875 | 200 | 124 | 116] 108] ...
1843 | 190 | 220 | 150 8/ ... | 1876 | 640 | 750 | 700] ... | 442
1844 | 400 | 420 | 424} ... | 290] 1877 | 220 | 200 | 190} 50] ...
1845 | 210 | 170 80} 40] ... | 1878 | 230 | 270 | 150} 38] ...
1846 | 176 | 120 70 |} 32 1879 | 320 | 280 | 240] ... 26
1847 56 70 66 | 130 1880 | 200 | 190 | 220! 5 ag
1848 90 90 90 | 104] ... | 1881 | 260 | 240 | 180] 28] ...
1849 | 176 | 240 | 230] ... 22 | 1882 | 350 | 510 | 5382] ... | 210
1850 90 | 144 | 196 | 50] ... | 1883 | 400 | 294 | 268] ... 66
1851 | 250 | 350 | 430/ ... | 150 | 1884 | 226 | 240 | 230) 24] ...
1852 | 154 | 136 | 200] 96] ... | 1885 | 160 | 176 | 100} 108] ...
1853 | 200 | 250 | 136} 64] ... | 1886} 170 | 140 | 160] 98] ...
1854 | 310 | 320 | 410] ... 86 | 1887 | 266 | 260 | 210 Bi} ces
1855 | 200 | 144 90 | 116] ... | 1888 | 241 | 280 | 200] ... i
1856 | 116 176 | 156 | 110 1889 | 154 | 144 | 164] 100] ...
1857 | 176 | 124 | 104 | 196 1890 | 270 | 266 | 218 Dr) ams
1858 | 270 | 280 | 280] ... ... | 1891 | 156 | 170 | 184] 84) ...
1859 | 290 | 320 | 804] ... 44 | 1892 ; 260 | 230 | 204] ... 8
1860 |} 470 | 716 | 600| ... | 3886 | 1893 | 340 | 354 | 310] ... | 110
1861 | 280 | 210 | 220; 24] ... | 1894 | 150 | 180 | 168] 74] ...
1862 | 250 | 296 | 220 4 1895 | 210 | 186 | 146] 44
1863 | 256 | 230 | 250; 14] ... | 1896 | 120 | 180 | 120 | 100
1864 | 250 | 296 | 304] ... 24 | 1897 | 178 | 210 | 160} 42}
1832 to 1851 = 194s.
1852 ,, 1871 = 260s.
1872 ,, 1891 = 254s.
1878 ,, 1897 = 224s.
As the figures show, prices in the month of November,
It is also apparent that on
the same day (23rd November) the prices varied from 40s. to
1897, had an upward tendency.
266 HOPS.
189s. per cwt., according to quality, the better sorts being
quoted at rates four and a half times as great as those of the
inferior varieties.
When it is remembered that, in addition to the influences
already recorded, prices are also affected by prejudice in
favour of or against the produce of certain districts, it will
be admitted that the task of formulating an average rate,
suitable for the basis of profit calculations, is one of great
difficulty.
With regard to the subsidiary utilisation of hop gardens,
the profits vary considerably according to the:kind of plants
grown in intermediate cultivation, and are often difficult
to reckon for addition to the total profit. Where the bine is
cut at gathering time and dried it will yield about 18 to 18
cwt., worth about 2s. per cwt.
PART IV.
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE.
As is well known, dried and bagged hops kept for some time
in contact with the air lose their colour and aroma at a
comparatively rapid rate, and often assume an unpleasant
odour, whereby their value for brewing purposes may be
entirely ruined. The rate of depreciation increases in pro-
portion as the hops have been bagged in a more moist
condition and kept in warm, damp apartments; whilst, on
the other hand, their tendency to go bad may be retarded
(though not eradicated) by careful drying and storage in cool,
dry rooms. A. Mohl discovered a bacterium (Micrococcus
humuli Lawnensis) which he regarded as the cause of
deterioration in hops during storage. He looked upon this
organism as a generator of trimethylamine, the amine base
almost invariably detected in old hops. Kny and others
have, however, demonstrated the non-existence of such a
bacterium ; and further researches have shown that in the
great majority of cases the deterioration of hops is connected
with spontaneous heating.
Behrens was inclined to regard as the cause of spon-
taneous heating a bacterium which he named Bacillus
lupuliperda,! but subsequently altered his opinion, and con-
firmed that the organism in question was merely an
1Dr. J. Behrens, Studien iiber die Conservirung und Zusammensetzung
des Hopfens, Berlin, 1896.
268 HOPS.
accompaniment of the phenomenon and not its cause. He
was, however, able to prove that the bacillus discovered by
him, and described as very similar to the Bacillus (fluorescens)
putidus Fliigge, is the generator of ammonia and trimethyl-
amine in hops, which latter product is never found in sound
hops. «
The following information is taken from Behrens’ highly
interesting work :—
1. Spontaneous heating — which need not be dreaded
when the hops contain not more than 8 to 10 per cent. of
moisture—is due to the development and activity of various
micro-organisms, different kinds acting in different cases.
2. The mould fungi (Aspergillus, Penicillium, etc.), occurring
on hops that have spontaneously heated, destroy the acid
content of the hops, and convert the salts of ‘the organic
acids into carbonates.
Harz found the following varieties of mould fungi on
damp hops: Aspergillus glaucus, Penicillium glaucum, Mucor
nigricans, Mucor _TACEMOSUS, Mucor mucedo, Cladosporium peni-
cilloides, Haplotrichum roseum, Ulocladium botrytis.
- Matthews and Lott discovered, in addition, Oidiwm
lupult,
3. Of the anaerobic organisins, yeasts have been dis-
covered in hops.
- Owing to the great importance, to both brewer and
grower, of the changes occurring in hops during storage,
attempts have been made from time immemorial to discover
ways and means of maintaining the quality of the goods
unimpaired for long periods. Nevertheless, though much
has been accomplished by careful drying, close packing
in double air-tight packets of dressed canvas, and storage
in cool, dry stores, the results have never given perfect satis-
faction, mainly because the prepared sacking does not ensure
the thorough exclusion of air.
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE. 269
This defect having been recognised, bins lined with sheet
metal were introduced as storage receptacles, the lids being
soldered down after filling. Simultaneously, cylindrical
drums of galvanised iron came into use for the conveyance
and storage of hops. Latterly, to protect the hops from
atmospheric action the custom has arisen of pumping the
air out of the filled cylinders after they have been closed by
an air-tight lid; and occasionally carbonic acid gas or sul-
phurous acid gas is introduced to fill the resulting vacuum.
Far-reaching importance—whether rightly or no—has now
been attained by the process of sulphuring the hops in the
kiln. Originally practised in England and America, sul-
phuring was introduced on the Continent in the “‘ fifties,” and
at the present time the great majority of commercial hops
are treated by this process. It is, however, seldom performed
by the (Continental) grower himself, though the burning of
sulphur in the kilns greatly accelerates drying, but is mostly
left to the merchant. The purchased hops are spread out
about eight inches deep in a kiln arranged like a malt:
kiln, and are re-dried and sulphured, the sulphur being
burned in open pans underneath the kiln floor, or else in
special sulphur stoves. The sulphurous acid gas liberated
by this operation traverses the layer of hops, and, in addition
to destroying large numbers of micro-organisms, also im-
proves the colour. The excess of gas is generally carried
off through the ventilating cowl at the top of the kiln ; but,
where the treatment is practised in towns, means must be
devised for preventing the escape of the gas into the open
air—generally by passing the outgoing air through an inter-
mediate chamber containing caustic soda or some other
substance capable of combining with the gas. The amount
of sulphur required is usually taken as from 1 to 2 per cent.
of the weight of the hops in the kiln ; and the combustion
is so regulated that the hops are exposed to the action of the
270 HOPS, |
acid fumes for two or three hours. According to Weiss,
, about one-fifth of the total gas generated is retained by the
hops, whilst the remaining four-fifths escape through the
cowl.
In place of sulphur the combustion of carbon bi-sulphide
has been proposed (Strebel).
When the operation of sulphuring is finished, a current
of fresh air is allowed to pass through the hops for some
little time, and finally the hops are firmly compressed in
hydraulic presses, and packed in double pockets in metal
cases, metal-lined bins, or, more frequently, metal drums
(Fig. 75).
Metal drums for storing hops (H. Schuldes, Saaz).
Fie. 75. Fic. 76.
Drum with movable bottom and Drum with fixed bottom and mov-
lid, and three strengthening hoops, able lid, for ballots.
for direct heavy pressing.
To facilitate emptying the drums the hops are sometimes
compressed into separate “cheeses” to fit the drum, or else
they are pressed into cylinders (ballots), which are then
covered with canvas and slipped into the outer drums,
which they are made to fit. (Figs. 76,77). In other cases
a special tool (borer) has to be employed for getting the hops
out of the drums, or a longitudinal, flanged joint (Fig. 78)
is provided, which enables the drum to be opened at the
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE. 271
side. The movable lids are fitted with an air-tight packing
ring.
Hop presses are supplied by many engineering firms at
prices ranging from about £45 to £300, according to size
and strength; and the drums cost about £2 to £3 apiece.
Other forms of drums made of wood or prepared millboard,
and collapsible drums, are often recommended, but are not
very widely used, being of insufficient strength, though their
lightness and cheapness are favourable points. The usual
size of hop drums is about 50 by 24 inches, to hold 3 cewt.
Fic. 77. Fic. 78.
Drum for light pressing, with Drum with movable bottom and
movable bottom and lid. lid, and lateral flanged joint for
opening.
According to Thausing the cost of packing amounts to
about 4s. 10d. per cwt. in canvas pockets, 6s. in drums and
9s. 6d. in metal-lined cases, the latter being only suitable
for use once.
Hops that have been sulphured, pressed and well packed
will keep for two years and more, in good condition, fit for
use, as has been proved by many instances in practice.
‘That careful drying and cool storage out of contact with
air preserve hops is beyond all doubt, and there only remains
the question what part is played in this connection by sul-
phurous acid. Before going into this matter it may be
remarked that the small quantity of this acid introduced
272, HOPS.
by sulphured hops into beer is entirely innocuous to
health, a fact proved over and over again by Liebig and
others.
Opinions are greatly divided as to the value of sulphur-
ing. In its favour the following points are urged :—
1. The acid destroys the mould fungi, which form the
principal cause of deterioration during storage.
2. Sulphured hops absorb moisture less readily than those
that have not been treated in this manner.
3. Sulphuring also improves the colour of hops that are
deficient in this quality, and thus increases their saleability.
So far as the first point is concerned, the disinfecting
properties of sulphurous acid cannot be gainsaid: the only
question is whether the small quantity—0°1694 to 0°3160
volume per cent. (Behrens)—present in the atmosphere of
the kiln during the process is really sufficient to completely
destroy the mould fungi. Behrens’ exact researches are
rather adverse to this’ view, though he is disinclined to
attribute practical value to his results. He, however, men-
tions cases, known in practice, where sulphured hops have
been found to heat spontaneously, a ‘circumstance which
speaks against the complete disinfecting effect of the pro-
cess. On the other hand, the same observer records the
important fact that, even though sulphurous acid may not
be absolutely fatal to all the micro-organisms in hops, it
at any rate renders them a less favourable medium for the
development of mould fungi, whether the germs are derived
from the air or are present in the hops themselves. Proof’
is lacking as to the length of time sulphured hops can retain
this valuable property ; but it may, nevertheless, be taken for
granted that so long as the sulphured hops are kept out: of
contact with air no diminution in their “ sterility ’—if such a
term may be used—will occur, any change in this respect
only setting in after the hops have been deprived of: their
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE. 273
protective covering and exposed to the influence of the
atmosphere. In any case the circumstance that sulphured
hops form a bad nutrient medium for the development of
mould fungi must be placed to the credit of the process.
From Behrens’ experiments on the relative hygro-
scopicity of sulphured and unsulphured hops it would
appear that the difference in this respect is very slight
indeed, a weighed’ sample of each kind being found to
have absorbed nearly the same quantity of moisture after
fourteen days’ exposure to the air :—
Sulphured Sample without
sample. sulphur.
Grams. Grams.
At commencement of experiment 3-663 3°423
After 14 days 4:393 4:055
This shows that, under otherwise identical conditions,
the unsulphured sample absorbed 18°5 per cent., and the
sulphured hops 19°9 per cent. of water; values which, for
practical purposes, may be taken as equal.
Finally, as regards the influence of sulphuring on the
colour of hops, this is undoubtedly beneficial,| though
whether this is always an advantage is another question.
When the grower himself sulphurs fresh hops that are
of inferior colour, with a view to improving their appear-
ance and making them more saleable, there can be no
objection to the treatment, since it is at least performed on
fresh hops, whose character—improved colour apart—is not
appreciably altered, and the buyer is not deceived as to
their quality.
If, nevertheless, brewers have a certain objection to and
distrust of sulphured hops the reason is that some unscru-
1 According to Chodounsky, “pole rust” in hops is not masked by
sulphuring, but is rendered more clearly definable by this treatment
(Berichte der Versuchsanstalt fiir Brauindustrie in Béhmen, Prague, 1898,
. 28).
p- 28) 18
274 HOPS.
pulous dealers make a practice of sulphuring old, and
even spoiled hops, in order to give them a handsome ap-
pearance, and sell them either alone or mixed with good
hops, thus deceiving the purchaser. Consequently, in so
far as its use by such persons is concerned, sulphuring is
certainly not a commendable practice.
Sulphured (fresh) hops can often be detected by their
feel and smell, and are also indicated by uniformity of colour
in bracts and strigs, the latter being naturally the darker of
the two. On the other hand, they are more difficult to
recognise after prolonged storage, or when mixed with
unsulphured hops.
A primitive test for the presence of sulphured hops
consists in enveloping a clean silver spoon in a portion of
the suspected sample and exposing it in this condition to
moderate warmth for a short time. The presence of grey
to brown specks on the surface of the metal will indicate
sulphuring.
For greater certainty, however, the method proposed
by Konig? is’ preferable, viz.: 10 grams of the hops are
moistened and stirred up with sufficient distilled water to
cover them, and are left for an hour, the stirring being
repeated at frequent intervals. The extract thus obtained
is placed in a flask with a few lumps of granulated zinc
and afew drops of 20 per cent. hydrochloric acid in order
to produce evolution of hydrogen, the formation of sul-
phuretted hydrogen being tested for with a strip of paper
moistened with an alkaline solution of lead acetate, which
turns brown in presence of the gas in question. A check
experiment should be made with the re-agents without the
hop extract. It should be remarked that only a portion
of the sulphurous acid absorbed by hops in the sulphuring
’Dr. J. Konig, Die Untersuchung landwirthschaftlich und gewerblich
wichtiger Stoffe, Berlin, 1898.
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE. 275
process remains unaltered, another portion being oxidised
into sulphuric acid, whilst a third portion enters into
unstable combination with some, as yet undefined, con-
stituents of the hop (Behrens).
Numerous experiments have demonstrated the great
importance of the temperature of the storage chamber on
the preservation of hops. G. Barth has published a very
interesting paper on the proper method of storing hops,! and
arrived at the conclusion that cold is the best means of
minimising all the chemical and physical processes calcu-
lated to give rise to change in hops during prolonged storage.
Given low temperature and a low content of moisture, the
influence of micro-organisms is greatly circumscribed ; and,
moreover, the chemical modification of the hop resins will
be unimportant, since the lower the temperature the more
gradually do chemical reactions proceed. The effects of
cold will also be greatly supplemented by excluding atmos-
pheric air, as far as possible, from the chamber.
Barth refers to the circumstance that several large
English hop merchants have successfully employed cold
storage for hops, a practice also followed, at an earlier date,
in America. Messrs. Cattley, Gridley & Co., of London, cool
their store-rooms down to — 5° C. by the aid of refrigerators ;
and it is claimed that hops kept in this manner are indis-
tinguishable from new hops in freshness, aroma, colour and
brewing value.
Other merchants content themselves with reducing the
temperature to 2° to 3° C.
Dr. Issleib,? Adams,’ and others proposed storing pressed
hops in air-tight chambers charged with carbonic acid gas at
a temperature only a few degrees above zero C., this gas being
inert and therefore uninjurious to the hops, whilst prevent-
1 Zeitschrift filr das g te Br , 1898, No. 44,
2 Tbid., 1892. 3 Tbid., 1894.
276 HOPS.
ing the development of mould fungi, except such as are
anaerobic (capable of existing without oxygen).
Dr. Naumann and Pohl recommend sprinkling the hops
with very strong alcohol before pressing. Satisfactory results
attended the experiments made with this method at Weihen-
stephan.
A proposal to preserve hops by heating the pressed mass
to 100° C. has also been mooted; and Wrighton advocated
compressing undried hops in air-tight receptacles !
The necessity for an improved method of preserving hops
has repeatedly generated the idea of recovering the active
ingredients of hops by extraction and employing the extract
as a hop substitute.
Newton employed gasoline for this purpose; and
Lawrence, after experimenting with various solvents, fixed
upon petroleum spirit (ether). Fruwirth reports that this
method is used on a large scale by the New York Hop
Extract Company of Waterville, and that the product is
employed by brewers in the United States.
Percy and Wells? used a mixture of alkali and water, the
extract being then concentrated by steam heat and mixed
with saccharose. Salley (New York) preserves the hop
extract by means of alcohol.
Boule and others propose to remove the lupulin by
mechanical treatment, and, after extracting the bracts with
boiling water, evaporate the solution to dryness and incorporate
it with a suitable proportion of the lupulin, the product
being then packed in tins and used in place of hops.
According to Van Laer® this method is pursued in Belgium.
The method introduced by Breithaupt of Hagenau has
met with some attention in Germany. This consists in
extracting the hop oil by alcohol and preserving the residual
1 Leyser and Heiss, Die Bierbrauerci, Stuttgart, 1893. 2 Ibid.
3 Zeitschrift fiir das te Bre , 1898, No. 34.
g
PRESERVATION AND STORAGE. 277
hops in the usual manner. The latter are added to and
boiled with the wort as usual, whilst the oil is added to the
finished beer in cask.1 According to Leyser and Heiss, this
oil imparts an agreeable aroma to the beer.
With reference to hop extracts, the opinion expressed by
Stamm still remains practically uncontroverted, viz. : “The
complete supersession of hops by extract cannot be expected
until such time as science has definitely ascertained which
of the constituent bodies in the hop blossom and its lupulin
are the most important in the manufacture of beer; which
supplementary components exercise a favourable influence
on the quality and stability of the beverage ; and how these
are to be isolated unchanged from the hop. Thereafter will
arise the task of discovering a simple method of preparing
the extract so that it can be supplied more cheaply than the
crude hops themselves.”
In view of the high price of hops, it cannot be surprising
that frequent attempts have been made to provide hop
substitutes (¢.g., camomile, quassia, etc.). O. Schweissinger
in 1894 reported on a substance of this nature, sold as a hop
substitute under the name of ‘ Aromatin,” which proved on
examination to be finely rasped gentian root. That many
brewers use such preparations instead of hops must be
regarded as a mere fable, since it is evident that they would
themselves be the first to experience the consequences of
such deception.
At the present time the vexed question of the preservation
of hops is in a condition worthy of attention, notwith-
standing the prevailing diversity of opinion. Although the
means at present available do not permit hops being
preserved indefinitely, it must nevertheless be admitted as a
matter of high importance that they can be kept from
1 Leyser and Heiss, Die Bierbraueret, Stuttgart, 1893.
278 HOPS.
deteriorating for two to three years ; and indeed hardly any
one could wish for better results. Be that as it may, there
is still room for improvement in many respects, and the
problem is one that has not yet been finally solved.
|, PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE.
Physically considered, the hop cone is composed of the
following parts :—
1. The lupulin.
2. The bracts.
3. The fruit and rudiments of same.
4, The stalks and strigs.
Although richness in lupulin is necessary in a good hop,
it does not follow that this property alone constitutes good-
ness. The lupulin granules are, it is true, the recipients
containing the ethereal oil imparting to the hop its
characteristic odour ; but the agreeable aroma, still regarded
as the most important factor in determining the value of
hops, depends less on the amount than on the quality of this
oil. Therefore, for this reason alone, all methods of
appraising the value of hops solely by their lupulin content
must be regarded as defective. Add to this the circum-
stance that the oily content of the glands is not the sole
standard of value; and only in varieties exhibiting a similar
aroma, but differing in intensity, can the estimation of the
lupulin content form a reliable means of differentiation.
Methods have been elaborated by Fr. Haberlandt and
others, by means of which the percentage of lupulin, strigs,
stalks, bracts and fruit in the hop can be fairly accurately
estimated. Dr. Konig! gives the following method: About
100 cones, weighing 10 to 12 grams, are dried and placed on
1Dr. J. Kénig, Die Untersuchung landwirthschaftlich und gewerblich
wichtiger Stoffe. Berlin, 1898.
STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE. 279
a hair sieve of ,4;-inch mesh, where they are picked to pieces
with a pair of forceps—not by the fingers—and the individual
parts (bracts, strigs and stalks) sifted on to black glazed
paper. They are then collected separately and weighed to
determine their percentage value. Haberlandt obtained the
following figures from the examination of twelve different
varieties :—
Per cent.
Lupulin 7-92 to 15°70
Strigs and stalks 8°50 ,, 17°54
Bracts 69°79 ,, 78°36
Fruit - 0°02 ,, 7:80
the Saaz hops furnishing the highest percentage of lupulin, and
Alsatian hops the smallest. The last named contained the
lowest proportion of fruit; whilst the maximum was found
in Posen hops. Hanamann! has also recently published his
researches on samples of hops from Postelberg, Saaz and
Auscha (see table). The connection between these various
components and the estimation of quality will be referred to
later on.
The chemical constituents of hops have been the subject
of numerous researches, and a good deal may be learned from
the published results, both on the chemical substances con-
cerned and their influence in brewing, although no certain
conclusions can be drawn as to which have the greatest value
and activity, and what amounts of the same really play an
active part in the boiling process. To devote consideration
to all the chemical components of the hop cone would,
however, occupy too much space, and we must therefore be
content to briefly deal with the most important.
1Dr. J. Hanamann and L, Kourinsky, Zeitschrift fiir das landwirth.
Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, 1898.
280 HOPS. °
Percentage composition of air-day
substance.
Origin. J Characteristics.
2/2/8/2/4]8
i) 3S al n ® 3
a|/a@lala|e|é
Postelberg 13°13 | 67:06] 8-26 | 1-74 | 0°26 |7-78| Greenish, aromatic.
Seelowitz - 14:20 | 66-94 | 7-80 | 1-96 | 0-19 | 8-60 », very agreeable odour.
Tatina - 12-90 | 68-21] 8-98 | 1-65|0°10/9-06| Inferior, green.
Malnitz 13-04 | 67-94] 7:81 | 1-45 | 0-45| 8-03] More reddish, inferior.
Seelowitz - 14-05 | 66-09 | 8-00 | 1-42 | 0:07 | 8-67 | Yellowish, agreeable.
Auscha - | 12-22 | 62-50] 9-93 | 1:74) 4-14) 9°86] Inferior, yellowish. . _
Saaz (Town I.) |15-00| 65:38 | 7-10| 1-85 | 0-20] 8-81 | Highly aromatic, greenish.
Saaz (I.a) - | 13-93 | 66-03 | 6-99 | 2-26 | 0-19| 7°76 | Aromatic, greenish yellow.
Well-dried hops contain 8 to 12 per cent. of moisture,
and a larger proportion must be looked upon as suspicious,
at least.
Hop oil.—The content of the ethereal oil varies from 0°2
to 0°8 per cent. This oil which, according to its quality,
imparts a more or less agreeable odour to the hop, is con-
tained in the lupulin granules, and, being volatile, can be
recovered therefrom by distillation with steam.
Thus, if the hops be placed in water and heated, and
the condensed vapours collected in a receiver, the hop-oil
will be found floating as a pale-yellow film on the surface
of the accompanying water. The oil in the glands is united
with the resinous bodies in the form of a soft resin or balsam
(Thausing’). At 15°C. this bitter oil has the specific gravity
0°8751; it is readily soluble in ether, less so in alcohol, and but
very sparingly so in water, 20,000 parts of which, according
to Chapman, are required to dissolve 1 part of the oil. It is
volatile, not only at boiling heat but also at the ordinary
temperature, and it boils at 150° C. Although beer wort
only takes up a very small quantity of the oil during the
process of hopping, it is, nevertheless, this substance which
1Thausing, Die Theorie und Praxis der Malzbereitung und Bierfabrication,
Leipzig, 1898.
STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE. 981
renders the beer aromatic, and produces the agreeable odour
and flavour of the beverage. Once absorbed by the beer it is
no longer volatile, and probably passes into solution in the
alcohol formed during fermentation.
The obnoxious smell, “like rotten cheese,” developed
when hops are exposed to the air for a long time, does not,
as hitherto supposed, result from oxidation of the hop oil to
valerianic acid, the malodorous constituent being, as Chap-
man! has shown, an oxidation product of other constituents,
probably the soft resin?
On prolonged exposure to the air hop oil absorbes oxygen,
and solidifies to a hard resinous mass devoid of smell.
By fractional distillation Chapman separated the oil into
three distillates, the first of which proved to be a mixture of
two unsaturated hydrocarbons, the second a colourless oil
with an odour of geranium, and the third a sesqui-terpene,
to which Chapman gave the name humulene.
From the researches of Chapman and Meacham it also
appears that, contrary to previous assumptions, hop oil has
no antiseptic powers, a circumstance which throws doubt
on its alleged property of restricting fermentation.
Undoubtedly the chief function of hop oil in beer is to
impart aroma, and Fruwirth was therefore quite right in
saying that “all other effects of hopping can be produced by
using inferior kinds, but to develop a fine aroma in beer,
best hops are indispensable ”’.
Hop resins.—According. to Hayduck these are three in
number, the a, 8 andy resins. The first-named, the a resin,
can be precipitated from the alcoholic solution of ethereal
hop extract by lead acetate. The @ resin, after the removal
of the residual lead salt, re-solution in ether, agitation with 0°5
1 Bungener believes it to result from oxidation of the bitter principle of
the hop.
2 Zeitschrift fur das gesammte Brawwesen, 1898, Nos. 26 and 44.
282 HOPS.
per cent. of sulphuric acid and concentration, can be dissolved
in petroleum spirit, leaving the y resin as an insoluble re-
sidue.! Both the a and £@ resins are soluble in petroleum
ether, and have been termed the ‘‘soft resin” by Briant,
Meacham and others. When hops are extracted with ether
all three resins pass into solution, and the one insoluble in
petroleum spirit is known as the ‘‘hard”’ (y) resin, and
considered as of no value in brewing (Behrens). Briant
and Meacham hold the opinion that the percentage of soft
resin is a measure of the quality of the hops, a view ap-
parently shared by Delbriick. They cite in support the
known fact that hops rich in soft resin behave better in
practice than those short of this constituent, and that during
storage, even when air is excluded, a portion of the soft
resin is gradually converted into the worthless y resin.
Behrens,? however, considers that to set up the content
of soft resin as a basis of quality is at least premature
since, whilst first-class hops contain 8°24 to 12°07 per cent.,
second-class hops contain 8:90 to 11°22 per cent., and those
of third-class order 9°49 to 10°25 per cent., figures which
would appear to militate against the reliability of such an -
assumption.®
The soft resins are only sparingly soluble in pure water,
but dissolve more readily in sugar solutions, and are ac-
credited with a certain antiseptic property, chiefly restricting
lactic fermentation. In solution these resins are bitter, and
Hayduck therefore assumed them to constitute the bitter
principle of the hop. He also found that under repeated
‘ Leyser and Heiss, Die Bierbrauerei, Stuttgart, 1893.
2 Zeitschrift fiir das g te Br , 1898.
3 Recently Dr. C. J. Lintner, who had elaborated a titrimetric method for
the estimation of the soft resin—bitter principle—in hops, showed that the
percentage varies between 7:04 and 14°62 per cent., according to the variety,
Auscha green hops giving the lower value and Hallertau hops the higher
figures (Zeitschrift filr das g te Br , 1898, No. 31).
STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE. 283
boiling their antiseptic properties became impaired : probably
their conversion into inert y resin may account for this.
The bitter principle.—Liermer succeeded in isolating from
hops, and even from beer, a white crystalline substance,
which he termed lupulinic acid. This body, insoluble in
water, disolves in alchohol, and in this solution exhibits an
intensely bitter flavour, recalling the bitter taste in beer.
He ascribed to it the formula of C,,H,,O0,, and believed that,
notwithstanding its insolubility in water, it is the cause of
the agreeable bitter flavour of beer.
Etti discovered in the ethereal extract of hop cones a
similar bitter crystalline body, which, however, differs from
Lermer’s acid in being soluble in water.
The bitter principle extracted from hops by Issleib was
identical in solubility and bitter flavour with that found by
Etti.
The lupulinic acid prepared by Bungener resembled that
of Lermer, being insoluble in water and not developing ‘its.
bitter flavour until dissolved in alcohol. He gave it the
formula C,;H,,0,,1 and mentioned its ready solubility in
alcohol, ether, benzol, chloroform, carbon bi-sulphide, and
glacial acetic acid; also, that it melts at 92° to 98° C.
Originally in doubt, he subsequently recognised it as the
cause of the agreeable bitter flavour in beer.
When exposed to the air pure lupulinic acid gives off
an odour of valerianic acid, on which account it is considered
that it is the lupulinic acid, and not the ethereal oil, which
undergoes oxidation and’ develops the rotten cheesy smell
of old hops.
According to reports from the laboratory of the Kalinkin
Brewery, St. Petersburg,? two lupulinic acids have been
1More recently Lintner and Barth corrected the formula to C,,H3,0,
(Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brawwesen, 1898, No. 45).
2 Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brawwesen, 1892, 1896.
284 . HOPS.
isolated, one corresponding to the a resin and the other to
the @ resin. Both the a and the 8 lupulinic acid are in the
form of small rhombic crystals, insoluble in water, but dis-
solving to a bitter solution in alcohol. On long exposure
to the air the colourless crystals turn reddish yellow, and
are finally converted entirely into resins, giving all the re-
actions of the corresponding parent resins. The f acid
proved to be fully identical with Bungener’s acid, and
probably Lermer’s acid is none other than 8 lupulinic acid.'
Hop tannin2—Tannic acid is present in the bracts, stalks,
strigs, and to a small extent in the lupulin granules, of the
hop cone. It forms a light brown amorphous powder, which
is only sparingly soluble in water, but dissolves readily in
dilute alcohol and acetic ether, and has an astringent taste.
In solution it gives an intense green coloration in pres-
ence of ferric chloride, but no precipitate. By the conversion
of tannic acid there is formed a reddish brown substance
(phlobaphene) only sparingly soluble in water and alcohol.
Hanamann® examined eight samples of Bohemian hops
by the Carpere-Barbieri method, and found the tannic acid
content to vary between 4°38 per cent. and 5:05 per cent. of
the total dry matter, the higher percentage being from the
finest hops.
Etti gives the formula of tannic acid as C,,H,,0,,. Little
is known as to the tannic acid of hops; nevertheless, it was
and is credited—in conjunction with the phlobaphene—with
the power of precipitating the readily decomposable al-
buminoids of beer wort, and thereby acting indirectly as a
preservative against the injurious reactions to which these
substances could give rise. ,
1 Zeitschrift fiir das gesammte Brauwesen, 1892, 1896.
2Dr, E. Prior, Chemie und Physiologie des Malzes und des Bieres, Leipzig,
1896.
’« Untersuchungen von Hopfen und Hopfenerden,” Zeitschrift fiir das
dandwirthschaftliche Versuchswesen im Oesterreich, Vol. I., No. 6, 1898.
STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE. 285
Behrens holds that no great importance attaches to tannic
acid in this connection, but that the colour is greatly
influenced thereby, the larger the quantity of hop tan-
nin present the paler the beer.
Nitrogenous constituents.1\— The total nitrogen in hops
amounts to 2 to 4 per cent. It is believed that the soluble
nitrogenous materials in hops stimulate the yeast in strongly
hopped beers to increased assimilation of nitrogen (Hay-
duck). Bungener detected asparagin in hops; and Griess.
and Harrow found cholin in aqueous hop extract acidified
with hydrochloric acid. Griessmayer, however, believes
that cholin does not exist ready formed in hops, but that.
it is a constituent of the lecithin they contain.
Acidity or acid content of hops.*—A freshly prepared aqueous
hop extract has a more or less acid reaction. Behrens in-
clines to the view that the increased acidity of wort subse-
quent to hopping is due to the acids introduced into the hops,
without this increased acidity having any appreciable import-
ance so far as the sterilisation of the wort is concerned.
Calculated in terms of lactic acid, the acidity of hops
varies, according to the variety and the season, from 2°81
to 6°75 per cent. (Behrens) of the air-dry matter. Behrens
assumes that the degree of acidity has an important bearing
on the colour of hops, since the dreaded red or brown col-
oration only appears when they are deficient in acidity,
through loss or neutralisation of acid by lixiviation, or the
action of light or of mould fungi. Fresh, healthy hops.
owe their acidity to phosphoric acid, malic acid and citric
acid, either in the free state, or, what is more probable, in
combination as acid salts.
1H, Prior, Chemie und Physiologie des Malzes und des Bieres, Leipzig,
1896,
2Behrens, Studien tiber die Conservirung und Zusammensetzung des.
Hopfens, Berlin, 1896.
286 HOPS.
Hop alkaloids \—Hops are assumed to contain an alkaloid
to which their narcotic action is ascribed, and Griessmayer
succeeded in isolating a body giving the general reactions
of alkaloids. This he termed lupulin; but the examination
of fine hops is said to have furnished merely negative results.
Williamson isolated a hop alkaloid which he named
hopeine,? and which is said to resemble morphine in its effects
though not attended by the same after-phenomena. Prior
assumes the identity with morphine of an alleged hopeine
preparation examined by Ladenburg. B.H. Paul discovered
cocaine in English samples of hopeine, and Gresshoff found
in other samples of different origin a body which, though
furnishing the reactions of an alkaloid, could not be brought
to crystallise.* 5
Although at present it cannot be asserted with confidence
that hopeine is the active alkaloid in hops, scarcely anyone
will be inclined to doubt that hops, like coffee, tobacco,
etc., do contain a specific alkaloid. As, however, nothing
is definitely known concerning this body, neither can any-
thing be said as to its importance in brewing. Probably,
like alcohol, its action in beer is to produce intoxication.
Carbohydrates and other non-nitrogenous constituents +-—In
addition to the cellulose present in hops Griessmayer dis-
covered glucose. Brown and Morris also found sugar and
an enzyme resembling malt diastase ; and gum was detected
by Rautert and Wimmer.
Finally, it may be mentioned that Wagner isolated from
hops a yellow body which he named quercitrin; and EKtti
detected arabic acid.
1Thausing, Theorie und Praxis der Malzbereitung und Bierfabrication,
Leipzig, 1898.
2H. Prior, Chemie und Physiologie des Malzes und des Bieres, Leipzig,
1896.
3 Ibid. 4 Ibid.
STRUCTURE OF THE HOP CONE. 287
In the seed of the hop Gresshoff discovered 244 per cent.
of a bitter, ill-flavoured oil.
Dr. Brand found decisive indications of boric acid in
the ash of hop cones; and this acid is also present in the
leaves and stem of the plant. The other ash constituents
have already been dealt with.
Thé following analyses give an idea of the chemical
composition of the hop :—
Hops from
Constituents. Neuhaus ‘
(Upper Saaz. Auscha.
Austria).
Water - 16°75 9-90 10°61
Ash (free from C04) 4:34 10°01 7:87
Silica 1:08 0-91 0-81
Organic matter - - - - - - | 77°83 79°18 80°71
100°00 | 100:00 | 100-00
Ethereal oil 0-48 0-13 0-17
Tannic acid in aqueous extract 4:01 2°52 3-18
Soluble in alcohol (sp. gr., 0° aa} - | 29-93. 20°12 20:97
(Containing resin - 17:05 14°57 15°14)
The residue exhausted by Organs matter a6 11°24 10°51
alcohol gave up to water\Inorganic ,, i 5°42 5:10
CO, in 100 parts of ash - - - 11°51 8-71 9°51
According to Behrens, 100 parts of the dry matter of
hops, free of silica, contain :—
Per cent.
Nitrogen - 3°62
Albuminoid nitrogen (Stutzer) 2°24
Nitrogen soluble in boiling water 1:58
Ethereal extract - 17°15
Soluble in petroleum spirit - 15°49
Soluble in water 24°83
Tannin 3°59
Ash 7:56
Nitric acid - traces
1 Erster Bericht iiber die Arbeiten der k. k. Versuchsstation in Wien aus
den Jahren 1870-1877, Vienna, 1878. 1
288 HOPS.
Chemical analysis of hops.—The estimation of the total
constituents being a troublesome and difficult task, and of
no great value in judging quality, the analysis is usually
restricted to determining the percentage of moisture, the
matter soluble in petroleum spirit, the test for sulphuring,
and occasionally the percentage of hop tannin.
Moisture (Prior) is estimated by drying 4 to 5 grams of
dismembered cones on watch- glasses over concentrated
sulphuric acid in vacuo and at ordinary temperature until
constant weight (two weighings on successive days) is.
attained.
Maiters soluble in petroleum spirit.—About 5 grams of the
dried hops (as above) are placed in a Schleicher and Schull
extraction cylinder, previously dried at 100° C. and tared with
weighing-glass. After re-weighing to ascertain the exact
weight of hops taken, the cylinder is placed in a Soxhlet
apparatus, treated with sufficient petroleum spirit to allow
of a suitable quantity draining down into the flask, and
extracted for 8 to 10 hours under a reflux condenser.
Lintner has recently brought out a titrimetric method for
estimating the soft resin.
Tannin.—See page 530 of Dr. J. Konig’s work, already
referred to, viz., Die Untersuchung landwirthschaftlicht und
gewerblich wichtiger Stoffe (Berlin, 1898).
The test for sulphuring has already been given in the
section on storage. —
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS.
Hops are still principally judged by certain external
characteristics, the numerous attempts to found a scientific
basis of valuation having been so far unattended with
satisfactory results. The estimation of the lupulin. is, if
not altogether worthless, at any rate without much value,
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS. 289
the active material in hops consisting not merely of this
body alone, but also of other constituents in the cones.
Moreover, estimating the percentage of soft and hard resin,
bitter principle and tannic acid at present affords but very
slight guidance in judging quality, the more so because of
the conflicting opinions prevalent as to the value of these
constituents in brewing operations.
Even though the empiric method based on the factors
of colour, shape, aroma, etc., of the cones gives no ab-
solutely exact information, still, by constantly examining
and comparing samples, and by learning the experience
gathered by brewers in dealing with the different varieties
of hops, one gains sufficient skill to form an approximately
correct judgment of the quality of the samples submitted.
In fact, the eye of the connoisseur must be acquired, and
this of course necessitates practice, and plenty of it! Even
the best expert may be deceived; not, perhaps, when it is a.
question of judging between a coarse variety and a very fine.
one, but when two similar kinds (say fine and very fine) have:
to be differentiated. Some merchants claim ability to telk
the district a sample comes from by inspection alone; but,
though they may succeed now and again, they certainly
cannot always hit the mark. Brewers very frequently
leave the appearance of the hops out of the question, and
buy according to origin alone. The reason for this is that
certain districts have gained a world-wide reputation for
their hops, and one often hears the opinion that good hops
cannot be obtained from any other. Certainly there is
a good deal in the idea, when it is considered that the
quality of hops is primarily nothing more than the product
of soil and climate, combined with more or less skill in
cultivation. Nevertheless, such prejudices should not be
carried to extremes by any buyer, or he will be certain
to rue it if he gets into the hands of a dealer who knows
19
290 HOPS,
his weakness and trades upon it by endeavouring to foist
upon him hops as being of this or that origin without
bestowing any attention on the actual quality of the goods.
On this account brewers are warmly recommended not to
let themselves be led away blindly by the origin of their
purchases (though this factor has a certain value), but to
keep a strict eye on the outward indications of quality
of submitted samples, and, when necessary, to supplement
their own judgment by a chemical or physical examination.
The points to be borne in mind in judging the quality
of hops are :—
Form and size of the cones (Thausing, 1.c.).—Apart from
malformations, due to the influence of weather or disease,
the shape of the hop cone is specific in each separate
variety, the divergences being easily ascertained by com-
paring specimens of different sorts. However, they may
be reduced to three main types: the oval, the elongated or
cylindrical, and the globular. The conical shape, measuring
4 to 1; inch long and 2 to £ inch across the thickest
part, is the most highly esteemed. The inferior, or less
noble, varieties usually have long cylindrical cones, often 14
to 2 inches, and even 23 inches in length. According to the
form and size of the cones the growth is referred to as
“fine” or ‘“‘coarse”’. Globular cones are held in as low
esteem as stunted ones. Where the cones are handsome
and uniformly developed, so that regularity in form and
size is apparent, they are termed a ‘“‘ good” growth, in
contradistinction to “poor” growths, i.e. mixtures of well-
developed and stunted cones. The arrangement of the
bracts is also a factor to be considered, since cones with
open or staring bracts are generally poor in lupulin, as the
latter readily drops out under these conditions. Loose
cones are characteristic of coarse varieties ; though looseness
may also be induced by leaving the picked cones some time
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS. 291
before they are dried, or by drying at too high a tem-
perature, especially if they have been picked before they
were properly ripe.
Cleanness—A good sample of hops must be free from
-foliage leaves, bits of stems, stunted cones and other
impurities. Torn cones indicate careless picking and treat-
ment, and also loss of lupulin. The stalks left on the cones
ought not to be longer than a small fraction of an inch, long
stalks being merely useless ballast and so much dead loss to
the buyer.
It should also be mentioned that best hops ought to be
quite or nearly free from seeds; when the latter are present
the brewer receives a smaller percentage of useful matter per
unit of weight.
Colour.—This should be naturally pale greenish yellow
to golden, i.e., not artificially produced from discoloured hops
by sulphuring.
The great stress laid on a handsome light colour is often
the cause of premature picking. In any case the rule
“better early than late” is applicable, but this should not be
pushed to extremes, unripe hops being always poor in lupulin
and therefore deficient in aroma. They also are green in
colour and lack the tinge of yellow.
Hops may be discoloured from various causes. Thus,
when blown about by wind they become spotted and lose
in appearance, though the quality is unchanged. Again, hops
that have been picked late and left on the poles until they
turn rusty are spoken of as “pole-red”. This is really only a
superficial defect, but a less innocuous state is the redness or
brown colour arising from bad drying or spontaneous heat-
ing (floor redness), which, especially the latter, cause a
deterioration of quality, the hops losing their fine natural
gloss, and generally smelling of valerianic acid. Smutted
hops owe their black tinge to the presence of Fumago salicina,
292, HOPS.
and are unsightly and saleable with difficulty. Age has a
not unimportant influence on colour, the cones gradually
turning brown. All things considered, it is well to examine
discoloured hops with particular attention, although they are
not in all cases necessarily bad.
Condition of the bracts—The bracts of the finer varieties
of the hop are always tender and finely striated, whereas
those of the coarser kinds are invariably more or less tough
and leathery. The best guide to their condition is afforded
by touch.
Lupulin content.—Hops richin lupulin are known as “ heavy,”
whilst those poor in this body are referred to as “‘light”’.
The larger the proportion of lupulin and the more agreeable
the aroma the more valuable the sample, though lupulin is
not the sole criterion of quality. In fresh hops the lupulin
is pale to golden yellow, but it darkens progressively with
age. To obtain a rapid idea of the lupulin content of a
sample it is sufficient to break open a few cones and draw
them, under gentle pressure, over a sheet of white paper;
the more distinct the mark left the larger the percentage,
and the paler the colour the younger the hops. Value is also
placed upon the agglutinant property of hops, which should
be so strong as to cause them to adhere together when a
few are pressed in the hand, and only regain their original
form after some time. The cones should also feel greasy,
not dry.
Aroma plays a principal part in determining quality, and
should be agreeable, not too sharp. Most “green” hops
have a disagreeable penetrating odour of garlic, whereby
they can be distinguished from the finer “red’’ varieties.
The conditions, however, are not always so simple, and, as a
matter of fact, very great experience is necessary to differ-
entiate between samples with less widely divergent, or more
closely approximate, shades of aroma. New hops have the
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS. 293
most powerful aroma, and with progressing age it declines,
until finally displaced by the aforesaid cheesy smell. In
testing the aroma a few cones are rubbed between the hands
and smelled, the result also indicating whether the sample is
at all mouldy or fusty. In order to ascertain whether the
sample contains a mixture of red and green, or old and new,
hops a larger number of cones must be taken and examined
separately for aroma, colour, etc.
For beer prepared from malt cured at a low kiln heat hops
with fine aroma must always be used; whereas in darker beers,
the smell and taste of which are influenced by the products
formed at the high kiln temperature employed for the malt,
the aroma of the hop occupies a less prominent position, and
therefore such as are less aromatic may be used in this
case. :
Age of hops and sulphuring.—Age diminishes the value of
hops. Though defective colour, aroma and stickiness are
characteristic of aged hops, a microscopic examination is
necessary to make sure. Under the microscope the lupulin
granules of new hops are plump, smooth, full; and, when
squeezed, discharge a pale yellow liquid. On the other
hand, the granules in old hops are irregular, wrinkled,
contracted, and their contents are consistent, viscous, and of
dark brown colour. The method of detecting sulphur has
already been explained.
After having judged a sample of hops according to the
foregoing characteristics, the learner will also no doubt
endeavour to fix the origin. This will not be so easy when
parcels are bought from merchants insteadof growers, since
the former, for business reasons, sometimes mix parcels of
different origin, i.e., add inferior qualities to finer sorts, or
vice versd. It also sometimes happens that a parcel of
doubtful or unknown origin is simply dubbed with a fine-
sounding name in order to facilitate the sale. However, as
294
HOPS.
already stated, origin, when indisputable, is certainly not
without value as a criterion of quality.
On the basis of his own experience and that of other
experts, Thausing drew up the following classification of
hops from the various (Continental) producing districts,
arranged in order of quality :—
See ew
mo por ©
OMIA Mp wp
A.
Saaz I.* (stiff soil).
Saaz II.* (heavy land).
. Spalt L.* (stiff soil).
Saaz IIT.* (vine land)
Auscha red-hop land I.* (heavy land).
Spalt IT.* (heavy land and Kinding).
. Spalt ITTL.* (vine land).
. Auscha red-hop land IL* (light soils).
Wolnzach district and Au sealed hops.
. Hallertau.
. Schwetzingen and Sandhausen.
. Posen (Neutomischl).
. Wurtemburg.
. Kast Styrian and Moravian (Irschitz).
15.
Galician I.*, Alsatian, Grenzhausen (Nassau), Allen-
stein (West Prussia).
16.
Galician II*, Upper Austrian I.*, South Styrian,
Aischgrund, Betzenstein, Bavarian mountain hops.
17.
18.
Hungarian and Siebenburgen.
Hersbruck, Altdorf, Laufen, Middle Franconia and
Bamberg, Upper and Lower Franconia, Russian I.*
19.
20.
21.
22.
Burgundian.
Auscha green-hop land and Upper Austrian IT.*
Lorraine.
Altmark, Dannenberg.
23.
24.
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS. 295
Belgian (Alost and Poperinghe) and North French.
Russian IT.* and ITI"
The Austrian districts, classified separately, fall into the
following order :—
eee
wonr ©
1.
OMONAA PR wD
B.
I. Saaz District.
. Goldbachthal, with Satkau-Teschnitz and environs.
. Liebeschitz and environs.
. Eastern district as far as Winarschitz-Pochwalov.
. Upper Eger.
Podersam district ; environs of Kolleschowitz.
. The plains around Saaz.
Lower Eger from Stankowitz to Lischau.
. Western district.
Jechnitz and environs.
Northern district, environs of Welmschloss.
. Rakonitz and Schlan district.
Brux district.
. Postelberg and Laun district.
II. Auscha Red-hop Land.
Polepp and environs, Liebeschitz and immediate
vicinity (Koblitz).
2.
3.
Drahobus and environs.
Plains around Auscha.
Til. Eastern Styria.
IV. Moravia.
V. Galicia (good soils).
VI. Upper Austria (good soils).
VIL. Southern Styria and Galicia (inferior soils).
296 HOPS.
VIII. Stebendiirgen and Hungary.
IX. Auscha Green-hop Land (Hirschberg and environs, Dauba and
environs), and Upper Austria (inferior soils).
This classification is of course not absolutely accurate
and invariably correct, since fluctuations in point of quality
will occur in every district, according to the situation and
the conditions of the season. Nevertheless, the preceding
list admirably serves the purpose of general guidance.
Fr. Chodounsky' recently published an article on judging
hops from their outward characteristics, in which stress is
laid on the form of the strigs (spindles). He says: “In its
fundamental shape the strig is either bent in an irregular
zig-zag fashion, or exhibits uniform windings of varying
pitch, six to nine in number (or ten to thirteen, and even
more, in heavier hops). The strig, especially in the best
varieties, is covered with fine whitish grey hairs; but in
others these hairs are lacking, and in such case the brown
colour of the strig becomes more apparent, the striated
surface being then visible, whilst in wild hops the strig is
blackish and nearly smooth. The bracts rest on more or
less tender stumps, which are barely discernible or else
slightly project, and apparently run in a spiral line towards
the apex of the cone.
“The typical form is the fine strig of the best old Bohe-
mian red hop, or of the excellent Spalt hop, with numerous
close windings, on which the stumps appear as mere inocula-
tions. On the other hand, the shape alone of the coarse
strig indicates opposite properties.” In concluding his paper
Chodounsky recommends judging by points, the following
twelve characteristics being taken into consideration: ‘‘Size
of cones, colour, lustre, uniformity, absence of injury, form
1 Berichte der Versuchsanstalt fir Brauindustrie in Bohmen, II. Decennium,
Part II., Prague, 1898.
JUDGING THE VALUE OF HOPS. 297
and type of cone, shape of strig, amount and purity of bracts,
lupulin, general odour, special aroma, seeds”. He regards
the first five of these as of subsidiary importance. Hach
property is divided into four classes (1, 2, 3, 4), and the
total sum of points for first-class hops is twelve, those with
twenty-four being classed as good, with thirty-six as medium,
and all beyond that figure as bad.
PART V.
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION.
CONCURRENTLY with the annually increasing consumption
of beer has grown the demand for hops, and naturally the
area under hop cultivation has kept pace to a corresponding
extent ; and when the brewing industry was flourishing hop-
growing proved highly remunerative. The result of this
was that competition soon brought about a condition of
discord, the production! exceeding the demand, and this
state of things has been perpetuated by the introduction of
improved methods of storage, by which failures of crop can
be more or less counterbalanced. This over-production,
however, applies to the grand total of hops grown, and
not to those of fine quality; nevertheless it is calculated to
seriously affect the welfare of the growing industry as a
whole.
If the various continents be arranged in the order of
their production of hops, Europe takes the foremost place,
America coming next, and finally Australia.
In Asia (India) and Africa (Cairo) the cultivation of hops
has not as yet gone beyond the experimental stage.
(See Table on pages 300-301.)
Of European countries Germany takes the front rank
in hop-growing; then follow England, Austria, Russia,
1 This has doubled in the last twenty years.
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 299
' Belgium, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden and
Norway, and finally Switzerland.
Germany.—The area now under hop cultivation is about
42,000 hectares (103,800 acres),! or 0°16 per cent. of the entire
arable land of the country, a decline of about 4,600 hectares
(11,870 acres) within the last ten years. The annual pro-
duction invariably exceeds the home consumption, so that
there are always considerable quantities of German hops
available for export. The total crop in 1897 amounted to
489,150 cwt., and the consumption to 461,060 cwt., thus leav-
ing a surplus of 28,090 cwt. for export. This figure is by no
means high, and in good years, with which 1897 cannot be
classed, may easily be increased fivefold.
The kingdom of Bavaria occupies premier place as a hop-
growing centre, producing more than all the rest of the
German Empire together. The area under hops is about
0°76 per cent. of the total arable land. The best hops are
grown in Middle Franconia, and especially around the town
of Spalt. Other Bavarian hop districts are: Kinding,
' Aischgrund, Wolnzach, Hersbruck, Hallertau, etc. In these
districts free cropping varieties are mainly grown.
The centres of hop-growing in Wurtemburg (where 0°73
per cent. of the total arable land is under this crop), are
Rottenburg, Stuttgart and Tettnang (on the Bodensee).
Free-cropping varieties are also favoured here.
Baden, with 0°38 per cent. of its total arable land under
hops, produces a very good quality article, especially around
Schwetzingen.
In Alsace-Lorraine the principal hop district is that of
Hagenau in the north-east of the province ; 0°65 per cent. of
the total arable land is in hop gardens.
1 According to private advices received by the author from the Imperial
Statistical Office, Berlin, the actual area is only 39,525 hectares (95,195 acres).
300 HOPS.
Hop-GROWING STATISTICS
1875. 1887.
District § é ig |é & |x | ge
istrict. z Fy £ S- Ba E g % 8
er q |=s] eg a S5| 32
em £ ss} = &S |Se| $6
< a |e | < a |B a
Acres. Cwt. Acres Cwt. |Cwt.) Cwt.
Bavaria - - | 44,282 4°80] 67,035} 246,700)/3°68] 108,000;
Wiirtemburg 12,282) 18,765] 79,000/4°21} 24,000
Baden - 4,385 7,670| 57,400|7°48} 11,000
Alsace-Lorraine 18,750] 11,720) 73,100|6-43 7,000}
Other parts of Germany - | 15,075 11,530] 36,000/8-12) 515,050}
Total for Germany - | 94,774 116,720} 492,200/4°21) 665,050
Bohemia - - | 15,110 26,050! 90,000|3°45} 42,090)
Galicia -| 1,400 3,988} 18,000/4°51 5,000
Styria 2,780 4,065) 12,000|2°94 5,050
Other parts of ‘Austria 2,080 2,412) 183,500)5°:29} 42,136
Total for Austria 21,370 36,515) 183,500)/3°65) 94,276
Hungary and mlebenbanged ee | “id 3,500} ... 5,400
France - - 10,000) 9,010) 71,000)3-88) 80,000
Holland and Belginm 16,605 10,000} 96,000'9-60} 78,000}
Russia - 500| 7,188] 46,000\6°40) 29,000}
Other European countries 690 1,530 9,800/6-40| 76,310
England - - | 64,015) 64,392! 425,000/6-60} 700,000
8.
Total for Kurope (exclusive ere
of Austria and Germany) 91,810 92,120) 651,800/7-07| 968,710
Grand total for Kurope - [207,955/1,106,980|5-32]245,355)1,277,000)4-20)1,728,026
America (including South
America) - 40,570 50,000 6°60} 270,000
Australia 625 me }880,000 B44].
eee =) 249, 150/1,309,980|425)295,355|1,607,000| ... {1,998,026
Consumption 1,309,500} ... 1,998,026) ...
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 301
FOR THE WHOLE WORLD.
1896. 1897.
S| S ip |S & |e be District.
5 S |S) 52 & |B,| 83
gn S les] sa S |38| 38
4 = |e | 4 Bk eg
Acres. Cwt. |CwtJ Acres. Cwt. |Cwt.) Cwt.
65,581) 335,000/5:10} 65,750) 273,000)4°15) 145,782] Bavaria -
14,646] 103,000/7:04] 15,000) 57,500/3°83| 28,062) Wiirtemburg -
6,606} 53,000/8-02] 6,625) 47,150/7-10) 15,349 Baden -
10,645} 85,000/7-98] 10,750] 62,000/4°66) 7,588} Alsace-Lorraine -
7,697| 37,000/4-81] 6,875] 49,500/7°20] 264,280] Other parts of Germany -
105,175] 618,000/5-83}105,000| 489,150|5-61) 461,060} Total for Germany -
31,500) 164,600)5:20] 31,437| 118,700/3°77/ 68,098] Bohemia -
3,850) 9,432/2°44§ 4,103 9,100|2°21 8,554] Galicia -
4,065 9,240/2-241 4,065, 9,390|2°30 6,685] Styria -
3,840] 15,744/4-71] 3,840] 18,085/5-41| 68,788] Other parts of ‘anietea -
42,755] 199,016|4:56] 42,945) 155,275/3°61) 152,325] Total for Austria - -
905 7,000)7°71 905 5,820/5°86) 18,085] Hungaryand Seca
10,000] 45,000/4-50} 8,085] 31,600/3'93) 61,720] France . - -
11,250} 85,000/7-55} 11,750) 60,000|5°10) 72,552] Holland and Belgium -
10,000} 80,000|8-00} 12,500} 62,800)5°02} 36,960} Russia -
? 8,500] ? Ring 8,780] ? 56,263] Other European countries
58,940] 500,000|8-48] 51,000} 389,500\7°67| 619,184] England -
ae Total for Hurope (exclusive
91,095] 720,500/7-90] 84,190} 558,000,6°62) 859,764) { of Austria and Germany)
239,080/1,532,516|6-41]232,135!1,202,425/5-18/1,473,149] Grand total for Hurope -
America (including South
60,000} 490,000/8-16} 56,250) \ , ; ' America) - -
9 90,000] ? 9 } 418,950 7°45} 512,050) Australia A
ies pal for the whol
299, 030)2,042,516|6-19}288, 885 1,621,375/5-6211,985,199]( Czand otal for the whole
1,923,756) ... 1,985,199) ... Consumption - -
302 HOPS.
In Prussia the hop district of Neutomischl, in Posen, is
a very old centre of this industry. About 0°02 per cent.
of the total arable land is under hops, and the quality is
generally classed as medium.
England.—The hop industry is at present on the decline.
Acres. Crop. Cwt. per acre.
1885 71,327 509,170 7:14
1890 53,961 283,629 5°26
1897 50,863 383,365 7:52
The area under hops, therefore, decreased by 20,464 acres
between 1885 and 1897. Owing to the enormous consump-
tion (619,184 cwt. in 1897), English growers are unable to
meet the demand, and supplies are imported from Germany,
America and Belgium. Austrian hops are feebly represented
in the English market.
The chief growing centre is Kent, more ground being
under hops there than in all the other hop counties
together.
Acreage under
County. Hops in 1897.
Berks —
Gloucester 40
Hants 2,306
Hereford - 6,542
Kent 31,661
Monmouth 2
Salop 129
Suffolk 2
Surrey 1,416
Sussex 5,174
Worcester 8,591
Total 50,863
The best English hops are the East Kent Goldings, but,
with few exceptions, the other varieties grown are of only
medium quality according to Continental ideas.
Austria.—In point of quantity Austria is third on the list
of European hop-producing countries; but in the quality of
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 303
its produce it merits the premier position, not in Europe
alone, but throughout the whole world.
The average yield of the Austrian hop gardens in the ten
years 1885 to 1894 amounted to 125,370 cwt. (W. May).
The production and home consumption are fairly balanced,
there being a margin of surplus for export in good years :—
Austria-Hungary.
een gt Voneprepoem:
1896 218,440 154,955
1897 155,275 152,325
According to the statistical information issued by’ the
Austrian Ministry of Agriculture, the area under hops in
in 1897 was 17,178 hectares (42,945 acres), or 0°16 per cent.
of the total arable land. In 1875 only 8,549 hectares (21,370
acres) were under this crop, the increase during the twenty-
four years being, therefore, 8,629 hectares (21,575 acres), or
100°93 per cent. (see following table).
In Bohemia, at present, 12,575 hectares (31,437 acres) are
under hops, or 0°48 per cent. of the total arable land. The
best qualities are produced in the north-eastern districts,
especially in Lower Egerland and the Midland Mountains,
where 6,525 hectares (16,320 acres) are grown. Saaz and its
environs form the most wide-renowned hop-growing centre ;
and there none but the finest red hops are cultivated. Ac
cording to locality the hops are named Saaz “town,”
‘“‘parish,” and ‘‘district’’ hops. In 1896 the Lower Eger-
land and Midland Mountain gardens produced 82,556 cwt.
of hops, or 5°04 cwt. per acre, an extraordinarily high yield
for this district, the crop being usually not more than one-
half to two-thirds of this amount.
The hill country of the Beraun district and Brdywald
comprises 2,632 hectares (6,580 acres) of hop land, which pro-
duced 33,070 cwt. of good quality hops in 1896.
304 HOPS.
The southern slopes of the Sudetes, including the hop
centres of Auscha and Dauba, contain 1,921 hectares (4,800
acres) of hop land producing red and green varieties. The red
hops, especially from the plains around Polepp and the neigh-
bourhood of Liebeschitz, are highly esteemed, and nearly equal
Saaz hops in quality. Round Dauba green hops of coarser
character and freer cropping are produced, the total crop for
the entire district being 20,000 to 24,000 cwt. The Bohe-
mian lowlands contain 1,460 hectares (3,650 acres) of hop
gardens, yielding 20,000 to 24,000 cwt. of medium fine hops.
Outside these districts and scattered about over the country,
are a number of small gardens totalling some 120 to 170
acres.
As shown by the preceding table, the area under hops
in Bohemia has increased by about 16,320 acres, or 108°02
per cent., since 1875.
Styria : In Middle Styria about 1,112 hectares (2,780 acres),
and in Lower Styria about 514 hectares (1,285 acres) of hops are
grown the area being 0°38 per cent. of the total arable land.
Good red hops are mostly grown, and there has been little
change in the acreage since 1885. The chief centres in Middle
Styria are Furstenfeld and the Feistritz, Ritschein, Lafnitz
and Ilz valleys, but unfortunately the good hops here pro-
duced are often ignored. In Lower Styria the central point
is Cilh, the gardens being in the Sann valley. The total crop
varies from 6,000 to 12,000 cwt.
In Galicia the hop land amounts to 1,641 hectares (4,102
acres), or 0°04 per cent. of the total arable land; some 3,500
acres being in the eastern division of the province, and the
remainder in the west. Asa result of a succession of crop
failures the industry has declined of late years, though the
quality is good, and some lots at the last Paris exhibition
were considered very good indeed.
In West Galicia — the district of the Imperial Royal
305
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION.
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306. HOPS.
Agricultural Society of Lemberg — large hop gardens are
met with round Lemberg, Brody, Stanislawczyk, Zloczow
and Rohatin; and isolated gardens are scattered about over
_ the whole country. The total crop is from 10,000 to 16,000
cwt. per annum,
Upper Austria: Of the 816 hectares (2,040 acres) under
hops in this province 750 hectares (1,870 acres) lay between
the Danube and the Bohemian border, the remainder between
Traun and Inn. Green hops are mostly grown, their quality
leaving a good deal to be desired. The crop varies between
6,000 and 12,000 cwt.
Moravia, with a hop acreage of 511 hectares (1,278 acres),
produces annually 4,000 to 9,000 cwt. of good medium hops.
Large gardens are met with near Olmiitz and Prerau on the
confines of the Sudetes, as well as at Prossnitz, etc., to the
south of Olmiitz; and isolated gardens are dotted here and
there about the country generally.
Carynthia, with 9 hectares (23 acres) under hops, is devoid
of importance; and in Bukowina and Lower Austria the
industry has practically disappeared.
Hungary and Siebenbtirgen. — According to Dr. von
‘Rodiczky the acreage under hops is 907 (363 hectares) and
the crop varies between 5,000 and 6,500 cwt., or 5°39 to 716
cwt. per acre.
Hop-growing is carried on in the following counties :—
Acres.
EHisenburg- 115
Torontal 95
Bacs-Bodrog 85
Baranya 70
Somogy 65
Zemplin 85
Arad - - 30
Bereg - 12
Other centres 35
Hungary 542
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 307
Acres.
Klein-Kockel 15
Gyross-Kockel 187
Also-Feher 50
Udvarhely ‘ 45
Mayros-Torda 30
Haromszek 20
Kolozs 18
Siebenbiirgen 365
Hungary and Siebenbiirgen together, 907 acres.
The chief hops grown here are Karly Saaz, Wirtem-
burgs and English Colegates.
Russia.—May'! reports that the cultivation of hops is
carried on in nearly every part of Russia, but mainly on a
small scale for satisfying local requirements, hop-growing for
sale being restricted to certain districts in Central Russia,
the South-west Provinces, the North-west, and Poland.
In Central Russia the hop industry is centred in the Gusz-
lizy basin, situated along the rivers Guszlizy and Nera and
their tributaries, and comprising the districts of Bogorodsk
and Bronnizy in the province of Moscow, Jegorjewsk in the
province of Rjasan, and Pokrow in the province of Vladimir;
also along the left bank of the Oka, a portion of the district
of Kassimow (Rjasan), the environs of Susdal (Vladimir),
and part of Kostroma. Further eastward, hops are grown in
the districts of Tschebokssary and Zarewokokschaisk (Kasan)
and in several parts of the province of Nijnei-Novgorod.
In the south-western provinces the chief centres are in the
districts of Dubno, Rowno, Luzk, Ostrog and Vladimirwolynsk
in Zhitomir (Volhynia).
In the north-west hops are grown in a few districts in
the province of Minsk, and in Bjelostok and Grodno
(Grodno) ; as well as in the Kalisch, Kielce, Radom, War-
saw and Ljublin districts of Poland.
1 Zeitschrift fiir das g te Br , 1897, No. 13.
308 HOPS.
May gives the acreage under hops in 1894 as about 5,550
desjatin (15,000 acres), divided as follows :—
.
Desjatin. Acres.
Guszlizy 800 (2,160)
Volhynia 1,650 (4,460)
Poland - 800 (2,160)
Other centres 300 (820)
3,550 (9,600)
The other 2,000 desjatin apply to small gardens where
hops are grown for local consumption only, in Guszlizy,
Minsk, Grodno and Central Russia.
Russian hops are generally deficient in quality. Accord-
ing to private advices from Zelinka all varieties are grown,
though for the most part cuttings are obtained from Bohemia
(Saaz, Auscha, Dauba) and in many places Bavarian and
English (Goldings) hops are grown.
Belgiwm.—The area under hops is about 11,750 acres
(4,700 hectares) and is concentrated in two main districts :
that of Alost, north-west of Brussels, and that of Poperinghe,
in the extreme west of the kingdom. The hops are of poor
quality. In 1897 the consumption amounted to 72,552 cwt.,
which is covered by an average crop, estimated at 80,000
cwt. The industry is in a retrograde condition.
France-—Hop-growing is carried on in 13 departments,
the acreage being about 8,000 acres (3,214 hectares), and the
crop averaging 33,000 to 35,000 cwt. The chief centres are
in Céte-d’Or, 1,110 hectares (2,775 acres) ; Nord, 915 hectares
(2,285 acres); Meurthe-et-Moselle, 814 hectares (2,035 acres).
In 1897 the consumption amounted to 61,720 cwt., and is
therefore only about half covered by an average crop, the
balance being imported from Germany, Belgium, etc.
The Netherlands.—Here only a few hops are grown, thé
acreage being reported as 200 hectares (500 acres), and the crop
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION. 309
as 1,000 to 4,000 cwt., whilst the consumption amounts to
12,000 cwt.
Denmurk is also unimportant as a hop-growing country,
there being only 260 hectares (650 acres) under this crop.
The production amounts to 2,000 to 3,000 cwt., and the con-
sumption to 12,755 cwt.
Sweden and Norway.—-Production in 1897, 5,100 cwt.;
consumption, 15,415 cwt.
Switzerland.—According to the Viennese brewing journal,
Gambrinus, 1,550 cwt. of hops were produced and 9,485 cwt.
consumed in 1897.
United States—The area under hops is about 56,200
acres. New York State is the principal centre of the
industry, and, according to Ramm, no less than 87,000 acres
of hop land were in cultivation there in 1889. Of the other
eastern States, Wisconsin, with, however, only 1,000 acres, is
the only other hop district. On the west coast hops are
grown on a large scale in California, Oregon and
Washington.
American hops are mainly derived from English cuttings.
In quality they are mostly inferior and often bad, according to
Continental standards. The annual crop is between 300,000
and 500,000 cwt., and the consumption about 480,000 cwt.
(1897). The surplus, which in previous years was con-
siderable, is exported to Europe, England being the chief
buyer.
Estimates of the acreage and cropping of American
hop gardens are generally inaccurate and unreliable. The
following report forwarded to the author by the late Dr. Max
Ritter von Proskowetz, Austro-Hungarian Consul at Chicago,
considerably modifies the currently accepted conditions of
the American hop-growing industry.
310 HOPS.
Acreage under Hops. For the fone Boren
‘ log
Year. : % 1 8
z | 4 a] a
>» | 2 las] & .
3 E . | 3 2 s 3
Z = 6 5 a So |
Acres. Acres. Acres. | Acres. | Acres. Cwt. Cwt.
1890 - | 35,000 4,338 2,620 | 4,015 | 45,973 | 834,314 | 7:20
1991 - | 34,600 6,101 8,900 | 5,340 | 49,941 | 339,206 | 6°72
1892 - | 33,100 8,000 6,000 | 7,000 | 54,100 | 363,668 | 6°65
1893 32,300 | 9,000 | 10,000 | 8,000 | 59,300 | 487,055 | 7-90
1894 30,177 | 10,000 | 15,000 | 8,600 | 63,777 | 521,856 | 8:10
1895 26,238 5,700 | 16,500 | 8,500 | 56,938 | 476,193 | 8:19
1896 22,190 4,500 | 12,000 | 7,200 | 45,890 | 285,390 | 6:15
1897 - | 19,735 3,000 9,000 | 6,000 | 37,735 | 326,160 | 8°55
It is therefore evident that the cultivation of hops in
America is decidedly on the wane,a matter that will
naturally be a source of pleasure to the European grower.
Australia.—Little:is known of the condition of the
growing industry in the southern continent, except that
the crop was estimated in 1896 at 20,000 cwt., which is
probably in excess of the truth.
Finally, a brief survey will be given of the total hop pro-
duction throughout the world. As a rule this averages about
2,000,000 cwt., and is nearly counterbalanced by the annual
consumption. On the basis of the tables already given, the
percentage of total production and consumption applicable ta
the various hop-growing countries works out as follows :—
Production. Consumption.
Per cent. Per cent.
Germany - 30°2 23-2
Austria 9°6 78
France ale 31
Belgium 3-7 3-7
Russia - 3-9 17
England 24:0 31:2
Other European countries 09 35
America and Australia 258 258
100-00 100-00
HOPS. 311
THE HOP TRADE,
The hop market of the world, the state of which is de-
pendent on the crop of the current season, the stock from
the previous year and the probable demand, is controlled by
Germany, Austria and the United States, and is largely in
the hands of merchants who serve as go-betweens for the
grower on the one side and the consumer (brewer) on the
other, the latter generally preferring—whether as a matter
of convenience, credit, or for other reasons—to deal with
agents rather than direct with the growers.
Export of Hops from the Jurisdiction of the German Customs
Union in 1897.
(S. Ulitz, Nurnberg.)
To Cwt.
England 52,670
Belgium 30,060
France 25,296
United States 19,984
Austria-Hungary 11,316
Sweden 8,952
Netherlands 8,888
Denmark 8,280
Switzerland 7,268
Russia . 4,746
Brazil 4,744
Norway 2,382
Chili 1,954
Australia 1,830
Italy 980
Argentina 754
Other countries - 8,108
Total 198,212
The largest hop market in the world is that of Nirn-
berg,? where a large proportion of the total crop finds its
1. Struwe, Der Hopfenhandel, Berlin, 1891.
2In 1894 there were about 22 commission agents, 50 local dealers, 150
merchants and 42 export houses engaged in the hop trade at Nurnberg.
312 HOPS.
way every year, and where there is a large colony of hop
merchants, agents and dealers. Many of these have their
own warehouses and conditioning houses, and there are
also warehouses for provisional storage in the town. Con-
ditioning establishments are really necessary at Nurnberg,
it being the custom among a large section of Bavarian
growers to leave to the merchant the task of getting the
hops ready for sale; consequently, it frequently happens
that the former are careless over the drying of their pro-
duce. Moreover, in many cases the hops are bought by
the merchants as soon as picked, and are sent into the
town for further treatment.
The part played in Germany by Nurnberg is performed
in Austria by the town of Saaz, which is the centre of the
hop trade in the latter country. Of course the volume of
business done is smaller than in Niirnberg, since the
supply is principally a local one; nevertheless a large trade
is carried on, chiefly in the finer qualities.
Other large hop markets are held in London, New York
and Warsaw; and there are smaller business centres in
all producing districts.
Where—and this is unfortunately too often the case—
the brewer does not deal direct with the producer, the hop
trade passes through several intermediate phases. First
of all there are the local dealers, who buy from the grower,
either at home or at the local market. Then comes the
merchant, who deals with the consumer (brewer). Next
there is the consignment house for export trade; and finally
the commission agent, who is either entrusted by one or
more growers to sell their produce, or else is commissioned
by merchants or consumers to approach growers with
bids for their wares. Where the merchant buys outright
and conditions the goods, or stores them for a longer or
shorter time as his own property, the purchasing is done
THE HOP TRADE. | 313
by agents or buyers, working on salary or commission, and
sometimes doing a little on their own account as well.
‘Their endeavour is, of course, to buy good hops on the
lowest possible terms; and by reason of their experience,
skill and other qualities they are occasionally able to beat
the grower down in price to his great disadvantage. As
a rule the small grower knows little or nothing of the course
of the world’s market, and therefore often falls a ready
victim to the wiles of the buyer’s agent, his superior in
commercial knowledge. Frequently the agents in a district
settle a scale of prices among themselves and worry the grower
with tales of over-production, large stocks of hops left over
from the previous year; decry the quality of his wares ;
exhibit diffidence in the matter of striking a bargain—in
short, leave no means unused for bringing the sellers to
waver and part with the hops at a low price. For such
practices the districts widely removed from marketing centres
prove a remunerative field. So long as the agent is down
in the country ‘over-production’’ is a word that flows
glibly from his lips; no hops are ‘good enough” for him,
etc., etc.: but when he interviews a consumer he tells a
very different story; deplores that this season good hops
cannot be got except at high rates; avers that estimates of
the new crop are all wrong, etc., etc. To buy as cheaply
and sell as dear as possible is his sole maxim and rule of
conduct. Of course this is a fundamental rule all through
the commercial world, and is not confined to the hop trade ;
and there is no objection to-it so long as business methods
are based on a solid foundation, since it is the natural
course of events. But when every possible means—right
or wrong—is employed to make the grower faint-hearted
and induce him to part with produce, won by the “sweat
of his brow,” for a song, one can no longer regard such
conduct as respectable dealing, and it should be opposed in
‘the most resolute manner.
314 HOPS.
Although in this respect matters are better than was
formerly the case, nevertheless instances of trickery on the
part of dealers are still sufficiently frequent; and it is such
as these that destroy mutual confidence between producer,
merchant and consumer, the innocent—forming, be it said
for the honour of the commercial world, certainly more than
90 per. cent.—suffering equally with the guilty. Whilst it is
evident, even to the most casual thinker, that every effort
should be made to suppress this unscrupulous dealing,
which is largely responsible for the unsatisfactory position
of growers, endeavours must be made to protect respectable
trading, since it is to this class of merchant that the in-
dustry is greatly indebted, especially for the improvements
made in the preservation of hops during storage.
However, it is difficult, probably impossible, to indicate
a way for suppressing objectionable practices in dealing,
the mania of speculation having now so developed and
extended in the hop trade that the evil cannot be abolished
at once, or even quickly. Of course the attainment of this
end would be greatly facilitated if growers confined their
dealings to respectable merchants or sold direct to the
consumer; and by the establishment of associations for
selling the goods. This, however, would necessitate, as
an indispensable preliminary, a suitable adjustment of the
conditions of credit; but so long as the grower and con-
sumer look on the merchant as the sole dispensing power
in the matter of credit, any great improvement can scarcely
be expected. If the brewer wishes to buy from the grower
he is expected to pay cash, the latter being usually in
want of money and not able to wait; and, as the brewer
has not always the necessary funds available at the time of
purchasing, but is none the less bound to cover his require-
ments in the matter of hops, he has no other recourse
than to approach the dealer and make time bargains. In
THE HOP TRADE. 815
this way the dependence of the consumer on the merchant
is established.
On the other hand, it frequently happens that the hop-
grower has to make use of the merchant’s credit by getting
an advance from the latter on his crop, or by selling the
produce before it is harvested; and thus in either case a
condition of dependence is established, the grower—as the
weaker—being generally the sufferer. Thus, if prices rise
during the season after a crop has been sold in advance,
the dealer will rarely consent to give the seller any share
in this improvement, whilst if prices fall and the grower
has the advantage, the dealer will not give way, and
eventually may demand the return of his advance, until
finally the farmer is obliged to comply with his terms.
Another reprehensible method of dealing is that wherein
the dealer treats with a certain section of his clients
(growers) at a definite price, but gives a sort of additional
premium either on every packet or in proportion to the
total purchase. This plan damages the interests of the
other growers, in so far as they are led to believe that the
apparent price is the real market quotation—nothing being
said about the premium—whereas really the two together
make the real selling price. Even if any grower really
earns an extra premium by bestowing special care on the
curing of the hops—and this is the reason usually alleged.
for the practice—there need be no secrecy, aS no one
could begrudge him the higher value merited by his wares.
Openness and veracity on the buyers’ part will always
bear better fruit than such unjustifiable dealing, which
always gives rise to suspicion.
It is justly alleged against certain dealers that they
falsify the origin of their hops. Every one who knows
anything at all of the hop trade is aware of the important.
part played by the origin of the parcels offered for sale.
316 HOPS.
Therefore any falsification in this respect not only deceives
the consumer, but is also injurious to the reputation of the
good districts put forward as the sources of inferior samples.
An equally reprehensible practice is that of mixing old and
new hops, even if both are really from the same district ;
and it also frequently happens that good hops are mixed
with poorer kinds, and’ the whole sold under the name of
the finer variety.
The only way open to the brewer to avoid such trickery
is either to buy direct from the growers or to deal solely
with reliable wholesale merchants who are above such prac-
tices. Provided the brewer does not require impossibilities,
the merchants will know how to appreciate his custom, and
will not fail to treat him fairly.
Brewers should make it an invariable rule to buy ex-
clusively on samples, to look closely after the goods at the
time of delivery and insist on their being up to sample.
At the present time the hop-growing industry is un-
doubtedly in a state of depression, and growers are passing -
through a hard time; a condition attributed to over-produc-
tion, the predominant position of the middleman, and in~
sufficient guarantee of reliability of origin.
So far as over-production—that powerful lever in the
hands of the buying agent—is concerned, the assertion is
hardly correct under existing conditions.
In the first place, the area under hops in England has
been considerably reduced in the course of the last decade,
having fallen from 71,327 to 50,863 acres from 1885 to 1897.
In Germany also the acreage has been diminished by about
11,500 acres within the last ten years, and the American
hop-growing industry has considerably declined of late.
Although, on the other hand, about 7,500 acres more
land are now under hops in Austria than in 1885, and an
increase of about 5,000 acres is recorded in Russia, the result-
THE HOP TRADE. 317
ing increase is undoubtedly less than the diminution afore-
said, so that a compensation of area is out of the question.
It is specially noteworthy that the enlarged hop area in
Austria is almost entirely confined to Bohemia, where the
yield per acre is notably much smaller than in England and
Germany.
The reason for this increase in Bohemia is certainly due
solely to the fact that good hops, such as are produced there,
are always saleable. This sufficiently explains the meaning
to be attached to the term over-production, and it would be
going beyond the mark to immediately set about reducing
the area under hop cultivation without further consideration,
since the increase in Bohemia is a sure indication that hops.
of good quality are always in demand.
Consequently if any necessity for restricting the area
under hops is spoken of, it applies solely to the inferior and
freer-cropping varieties, for which remunerative prices can
no longer be obtained now that the public taste demands.
better hops, especially in pale beers. The keen competition
‘in the brewing trade compels every brewer to look after good
hops, and of these truly there is no superfluity. Therefore
it should be the aim of growers to produce as many hops as.
they can of the finer varieties and reduce the area under
poorer kinds; and this of course means a diminished output,
the better hops being small croppers.
Over-production is a very convenient fetish for the dealer
to terrify the grower with who is ill acquainted with the true
state of affairs, and force him to part with his hops at a low
price.
Now let us see whether there is really any ground at
all for complaining about over-production at the present
time. In the statistical table already reproduced the total
area under hops in all parts of the world is given as 249,150:
acres, and the total consumption in 1897 as 1,998,026 cwt.
318 HOPS.
If, then, the annual consumption (which is. continually grow-
ing) is to be covered by the production in any one year, an
average yield of about 8 cwt. per acre must be obtained.
This, however, is one that can only be reckoned upon in a
good hop year, i.e., once, or at most twice, in a decade. Of
course there are seasons when the crop exceeds the con-
sumption; but, on the one hand, these good years are by
no means so frequent as is sometimes averred, and, on the
other, the surplus consists mainly of inferior sorts, although
the better kinds are affected in price by the glut. At any rate
the bogie of over-production is not so very dreadful after all ;
then, either all published data on acreage, production and con-
sumption are false, or else ‘‘ over-production ”’ is a mere fable.
On the grower’s side, the predominant position of the
middleman and the insufficient guarantee for the reality of
the alleged origin of hop parcels are looked upon as the
cause of the depression under which the industry is suffer-
ing. Now, in himself the middleman is far from being
as dangerous as the aforesaid condition of dependence
frequently existing between. him and the producer and
consumer. It would be wrong to abolish the respectable
middleman, since he is really necessary, especially in districts
remote from market centres. The grower has neither time
nor opportunity. for studying the conditions of the world’s
market ; besides, he often lacks the necessary knowledge,
and is too poor a salesman. Frequently, too, the grower
has not the appliances for treating the hops like the mer-
chant with his properly installed plant and his accurate
knowledge of how to supply the consumer’s needs. In this
respect the only remedy is by association.
As a result of the complaints made by growers against
middlemen, associations for the sale of hops have been
instituted in Bavaria. Struwe! reports that the first of
1K, Struwe, Der Hopfenhandel, Berlin, 1891.4
THE HOP TRADE. 319
these was founded in 1888 at Férrenbach (Hersbruck) by a
clergyman named Kelber, who also did valuable service in
establishing the Raiffeisen Agricultural Loan Society.'
Like all new institutions, until they are well known and
have gained the confidence of the parties interested (in this
case the brewers), this association had to contend with
difficulties at the start. The organisation is somewhat as
follows :—
In each hop-growers’ loan society is a special hop com-
mittee, the members of which are vowed to discharge their
duties. The chief task they have to perform is to see that
particular care is exercised in cultivating, picking and drying
the hops, the special inducement being that such as do not
come up to the mark in cleanness and drying are simply
rejected. Then the committee has to classify the hops, take
samples and deposit them with the chairman, who retains
one-half of each for reference, and sends the remainder out to
the different brewers’ associations. When orders are received
the committee has to see that deliveries are up to sample,
the chairman attending to the necessary correspondence, and
to the marking and sealing of the packets. The conditions
of sale are: Cash on delivery, the growers being unable to
give credit. The wrappers are charged 3s. each if not re-
turned, and 2s. per cwt. is reckoned for sulphuring. The
goods are delivered free at the nearest station. Every August
the president of the society convenes a meeting of delegates
from the hop-growers’ associations, at which meeting the
necessary instructions as to which breweries to apply to and
the scales of prices to be charged are discussed. Thus, in 1890
the prices were fixed at 20s. above the current rates for hill-
country hops at Nurnberg, this association being in the
district known as the Niirnberger Schweiz. Recently, the
1 Most of these societies are connected with the German Central Agricul-
tural Loan Society at Neuwied.
320 HOPS.
selling branch of the Neuwied Association’s work has beer
transferred to a private firm.
It is self-evident that such associations cannot success-:
fully compete with the capital strength of the middleman,
unless themselves possessed of a large capital ; and where
they lack the necessary means the State should intervene to.
keep them alive. In this respect the Bavarian Government
sets an example worthy of imitation by other States in assist-
ing associations of this kind, not only with considerable sub-
sidies, but also with loans free of interest.
According to their means the sale associations in Germany
are more or less well provided with appliances for pressing,
drying and sulphuring hops; some even having their own
warehouses, like the Holledau Association, founded in 1896.
by the Abens Loan Society.
A prominent part is now played by the numerous asso-
ciations for securing a proper guarantee of the origin of hop
parcels. Certain unscrupulous dealers have made fortunes
by falsifications of this nature, viz., buying small quantities
of, say, fine Saaz hops, mixing them with larger amounts of
hops from other districts, packing the mixture in good
packets, and, after marking and sealing them in imitation.
of their suppositious origin, selling the whole as Saaz hops.
This vending inferior goods under a false flag is calculated
to greatly injure the reputation of the renowned producing
districts ; and in order to put an end to this unfair dealing
the growers in various places have combined and established
institutions or halls for marking their produce, the first to.
take action being the districts of Saaz and Spalt, which
suffered most from the state of things alluded to above.
In 1884 the town of Saaz, in conjunction with 300 hop-
growing communities and the Hop Dealers’ Association,
founded the Saaz Hop-Marking Institute (‘‘ Signirhalle’’)
for attesting the origin of hops grown in the surrounding
THE HOP TRADE. 321
districts ; a similar service for the “‘ town ”’ hops is performed
by the local Hop Growers’ Association. Differences, however,
arose in course of time between the town and the producing
communities, which in 1891 led to the formation of the
Saaz Hop-Producing Communities’ Union, with the follow-
ing as its primary objects: Furthering intelligent methods
of cultivation ; subsidising and supervising experimental hop
gardens; holding meetings at different centres; reading papers;
in short, everything calculated to restore the reputation of
Saaz hops and protect them from malversation in commerce.
The Union may also build market halls to store members’
hops and sell them to the best advantage for the owners ;
and, finally, approach the Administration and the various
traffic managers with a view to the readjustment of taxes and
tariffs. The main accomplishment of the Union has been
the registration of a trade mark, the first of the kind ever
granted for raw agricultural produce in Austria.
This Union, which now numbers upwards of 300 hop-
producing communities among its members, finally dis-
sociated itself from the town of Saaz by establishing an
independent marking institution (the Hop-Marking Institute
of the United Hop-Producing Communities of Saaz).
An idea of the working of the Institute may be gained
from the following brief sketch of its methods :—
The object of the Institute is to certify the origin of hops
produced in the Saaz district; to ensure that none but
hops grown in the district are marked and sealed as Saaz
hops; and to see that parcels are kept unadulterated so
long as they continue to bear the stamp of the Union upon
them.
The only hops admitted for marking are the fine red
hops grown in the district, and these must be in an
unspoiled condition, and not of such low quality for the
season as to be classed as ‘‘ outshots”’.
21
322 ''' HOPS.’
The net profits accruing from the working of the Institute
will be devoted by the meeting of delegates to purposes
favourable to the common interest of the associated com-
munities.
The management of the Institute is in the hands of the
Union, which acts—
(a) Through the Assembly of Delegates.
(0) Through the Committee.
(c) Through the Board of Management.
(d) Through the Superintendent.
The last named is the manager-in-chief of the Institute,
and carries out the decisions of the Board, the Committee,
and the Assembly of Delegates. He represents the Institution
inside and out of doors, and also towards the Administration
in case of fines and proceedings.
Each producing community must select in committee
two delegates, who shall assist the local chairman or his
deputy in making an exact memorandum and under-
taking all sales of hops belonging to the said community,
and also assist the chairman or his deputy in keeping the
crop and sale registers, and making out the certificates of
origin.
Every year in the second half of August these local
delegate-committees must send to the Board of the Institute
a report on the estimated crop and number of hop stocks
grown by the different producers.
In the marketing season the local chairman, assisted by
one of the delegates, must send in to the Board a detailed
list of all sales made, with all certificates of origin that have
been issued for any single parcel, but not made use of, whatever
the cause,
The hops sent in for marking must be unsulphured red
hops produced within the community, and the packets must
be sealed (with lead seals if necessary) within the community,
THE HOP TRADE. 323
numbered, booked, marked with the trade mark and accom:
panying indications of origin. 4
The sulphuring and re-packing of the hops must be
performed under the supervision of the Board of Manage-
ment, and only in such places as are declared suitable by the
Board. If the hops are sulphured, the same must be
specially mentioned on the certificate (despatch ticket) see
by the Institute.
All the printed stationery required for reports, etc, on
hop cultivation, crops, sales, and for certificates ; all materials
for sealing and marking the packages; and the trade-mark
stencils, are obtained by the different communities from the
Board at cost price.
If the community marks and certificates of origin are
found correct by the officials at the Institute, who may
inspect and examine the hops, the said certificates of origin
are retained in the custody of the Institute, and the hops
are hall-marked, 7.¢., they receive the stamp and seal of the
Institute, and, if necessary, are re-marked. They also
receive the Institute’s certificate that they are pure,
unspoiled red hops from the community in question, and, if
necessary, particulars of the corresponding sale district.
The hops passing through the Institute, after being
bagged and weighed, are sealed with the seal of their
particular community at the mouth of the packet and also
at the side seams ; they are also marked with the trade mark,
a seal bearing the name of the union in the centre with hop
bine and blossoms as decorations all round. This seal is
affixed to the head of the bale.
Red sealing-wax is used, and the seals have to be care-
fully impressed so as to be fully legible.
All hops must be sealed in presence of the superintendent,
his deputy, one of the two appointed delegates, or an official
appointed by the Board. The delegation of the work of
324 HOPS.
sealing to servants of the community, police officers, or any
unauthorised persons, without the supervision of the above-
named officials, is prohibited.
The packets or bales are then marked with serial numbers,
the name of the community and the year of production, the
marks being inscribed over one of the side seams and in the
upper third of the package, care being taken that no package
leaves the community, even if sold direct to a consumer,
without bearing the serial sale number. This sale number
and the year must be legibly marked in black printers’
ink.
Any producer or group of producers previously accustomed
to mark their packages with any special design, or desirous
of doing so in future, may carry out their intentions in this
respect; and it is even desirable that the name of the com-
munity should appear. Nevertheless, such inscriptions should
be as clear and legible as possible, and affixed over the vacant
side seam within the upper third of the package. Naturally
the sale number on the bale must correspond with that on
the certificate and in the sale register, and any inaccuracy
must be rectified at once.
For each package of hops a certificate of origin and
weight ticket, principally to denote the weight of the hops,
is issued for the information of the Institute. This certificate
has to be signed by the local chairman or his deputy,
by a delegate, an official, and the grower (or growers if the
package contains mixed produce). It is then dated and
stamped with the official stamp of the community—obtain-
able from the Institute and bearing the name of the com-
munity in legible type. This certificate forms the central
portion of a triple sheet, one section of which is retained
at the Institute, the certificate being issued with the parcel
when sold, and the counterfoil, properly filled up, remaining
in the custody of the community.
THE HOP TRADE. 325
Certificates that are filled up irregularly are simply refused
by the Institute. No erasure is permitted on either certificate
or counterfoil, and all corrections must be clearly initialled.
The Institute retains the original signatures of the issuers
of the certificates as evidence, so as to be able at any time to
prove the accuracy of the tickets.
Every buyer should receive the certificate corresponding
to his purchase. If from any cause he omits to take the
tickets the counterfoils must be filled up, the certificate
marked as unclaimed and sent in to the Board with the
fortnightly reports of sales, or else delivered, on demand,
to the official authorised by the Board to collect them.
The local chairman, his deputy, or the appointed officials
must see to it, where a grower lives in one community and
has his gardens in another, that the hops are marked by the
community in which they are produced.
Fractions of packets leaving the community must be
‘treated just the same as entire bales.
Hops of any green varieties and hops that have been
sulphured elsewhere than under the supervision of the
officials of the Institute may not under any circumstances
be sealed, trade-marked or certified. On the other hand,
hops sulphured under supervision as aforesaid may be sealed,
etc., but the certificate must expressly state that they have
been so sulphured.
Outshot hops of inferior quality may, on request, be
marked with the seal of the community and provided with
a certificate of origin, but must never bear the trade mark ;
and the certificate must state expressly that they are “out-
shots, of bad quality, without trade mark”. Adherence to
the rules laid down is strictly enforced on all the officials con-
cerned, and neglect in this respect may lead to the offending
community being suspended or expelled from the Union.
The communities are empowered to levy a charge of 5d,
326 HOPS.
per package for the certificate, sealing, etc., such charge
being payable by the buyer.
‘The following rules apply to marking and certifying
hops brought to the Institute :—
At the request of the owner and purchaser of hops
grown within the jurisdiction of the Union, the goods will
be marked and certified by the Institute, provided they are
eligible under the regulations.
The marking consists in legibly inscribing with printers’
ink on the side seams of the package—
(1) The year of production.
(2) The district to which the hops belong, whether the
inner or outer section of the Saaz country.
(3) The corresponding serial number of the Institute.
(4) The name of the Union.
All marks indicating hops produced in the inner zone
(Bezirk) of the Saaz district shall be in blue ink, and those
relating to hops from the outer zone (Kreis) in red. (The
town of Saaz marks its hops with green ink.)
A leaden seal is affixed to the head of the package,
and bears a plain imprint of the name of the Institute
and the seal of the Union in blue or red wax, according
to the origin of the hops, as just mentioned.
For each package, after being hall-marked, the person
who has applied for and paid the cost of the said marking
recelves a despatch ticket certifying, for commercial pur- —
poses, the purity of origin of the goods in question. This
ticket, which contains a description of the hops in the
package, must be signed by the superintendent or his
deputy, by the meter and the managing officials.
In the case of hops that are to be sulphured or packed
in any other than the usual kind of package, notice must
be given to the management, and the goods must be weighed
in the Institute, examined for quality, and then sulphured
THE HOP TRADE. 327
in a place declared suitable by the Board and under’ the
supervision of the Board’s officials, whence, after re-packing
and sealing, they are returned to the Institute. They are
then marked and provided with the usual despatch ticket ;
but when they have been sulphured the tickets must ex-
pressly state ‘“‘sulphured under control ”’.
So far as available space allows, both hall-marked and
unmarked Saaz hops from communities belonging to the
Union will be stored in the warehouses at the Institute,
on payment of the dues fixed below :—
The charges for hall-marking are as follows :—
(a) Weighing toll for each weighing, 10 heller (1: heller
= zyd.) per 50 kilos (=1 cwt.), the minimum charge being
20 heller. :
(0) Making out devuach card, marking and ee:
krone (10d.) per package.
(c) Any stamp duty legally payable on the despatch cards
will be charged extra.
(d) Attendance at weighing machine, 8 feller per package.
All charges must be paid to the Institute by the parties
on whose account the said services are performed. In
addition to the charges for hall-marking are the following:—
(a) Loading and unloading hops, 6 heller per package.
(b) Rent and insurance, 6 heller per package per diem. If
stored longer than a fortnight the rent is then reduced to
4 heller per package for each day beyond the first fourteen.
(c) Emptying the hops in the storage of the Institute,
1 krone per package (in addition to a and 6).
(@) Bagging (to be done by men authorised by the
Institute), 60 heller per 50 kilos.—As a rule, the hops must
not be left loose (unpacked) any longer than is necessary
to dry them fit for packing.
(e) Supervision during the preparation and bagging of
the hops, 1 krone per 50 kilos (gross).
328 HOPS.
The Institute is liable for damage, caused by the act
of its servants or by theft, to any hops stored in its
warehouses.
The Institute is fully covered by insurance against fire ;
and all that need be done by the proprietor of any hops
that may be destroyed by fire whilst in storage at the
Institute is to send in particulars of his claim. No re-
sponsibility, however, will be assumed for loss of quality
or weight during storage.
For the information of dealers and consumers the Board
will from time to time insert in selected public prints parti-
culars of the serial numbers and weight of the packages
hall-marked in the Institute, and the names of the parties
for whom these services have been rendered.
The Board will always be willing to give information to
buyers, consumers and merchants as to the freedom from
adulteration of hops marked in the producing communities
or in the Institute itself.
The foregoing rules and regulations are taken from the
statutes and by-laws of the Union.
The by-laws also relate to the suspension or expulsion
of offending communities or individuals. These extracts
thus clearly evidence the energy and care which the Union
devotes to secure a reliable guarantee of origin for the pro-
duce of its members, and how it uses every available means
to protect itself and consumers from unfair competition.
Notwithstanding all precautions, however, falsifications
‘of origin are still met with, though rarely. To render them
impossible is really the task of the brewer, who should
refuse any parcels of so-called Saaz or other fine hops unless
accompanied by a proper certificate.
In a publication on Saaz hops an expert of some standing
has reviewed the matter of sale associations in Bohemia, and
he avers that the spirit of common weal is still insufficiently
THE HOP TRADE. 329
developed in the district, especially among growers. He is
of opinion that serious differences would arise in the case
of such a sale association working on a large scale, with the
result that both the sale association and the Hopgrowers’
Union would suffer great injury, if not disruption. Accord-
ing to his view, it would be better to begin experimentally
on a small scale; and when the producers have found good
results to follow, the shrub will soon grow into a large tree.
Where the district is too large to centralise the work in
one association, a number of smaller associations could be
affiliated.
Since 1897 a Hop-marking Institute, on the same lines
as that at Saaz, has been in work at Spalt, and comprises
100 localities, 26 belonging to the inner zone, and the others.
to the outer zone of the Spalt district.
Other institutes, in larger number but less strict in their
regulations, exist in Germany, especially in Bavaria, where
hops are marked with seals lent by the Administration.
At present about 1380 of these seals are in use in Bavaria.
Each sealed package is accompanied by a weight certificate,
usually impressed with some special design representing
some notable object, such as a church, a castle or landscape
view, in the producing community. These sealing associa-
tions have their own presses and kilns, and some of them
also their own warehouses. Those lacking the necessary ap-
pliances are liberally subsidised by the Bavarian Government
and the sale associations, and can acquire loans free of
interest.
In conclusion it seems advisable to refer to the means
whereby the hop-growing industry may be furthered and
directed into a better and healthier course. These com-
prise :—
1. A restriction of the area under inferior sorts in favour
of the better varieties.
330 HOPS.
2. The establishment of experimental gardens directed by
skilled hands and devoted to all questions affecting the hop
industry, such as: the still obscure subject of hop manuring ;
testing the qualitative and quantitative cropping powers and
faculty of resisting disease possessed by the different varieties
of hops; and the influence of different methods of training on
the productivity and general well-being of the plants. Also
the study of the influence of cutting and various methods.
of tillage, and the means of combating insect and vegetable
pests. These gardens should be in touch with experimental
stations investigating the chemistry of the hop and its action
in brewing. Many so-called experimental gardens at present.
fulfil their purpose in only a very imperfect manner.
3. Careful picking, sorting and especially drying of the
crop, the last-named operation frequently deciding the
appearance and saleability of the produce. Artificial drying
(kilning) should be more generally practised, as it is quicker
and better preserves the colour of the goods. Preference
should naturally be given to kilns that are efficient without.
being too costly, and the heating and ventilation of which
are well under control. ;
4. Reducing the cost of production, partly by introducing
cheaper methods of training, partly by using team work
in tillage wherever possible.
5. The raising of the intellectual status of the industry by
means of literary efficiency, travelling lecturers and meet-
ings. In Bohemia the question of starting a hop college
and garden has been broached, the time devoted to hop
cultivation in most agricultural colleges being too small.
' 6. An important factor consists in holding hop shows,
to afford an opportunity of getting acquainted with the
produce of various districts, and also to bring before the
notice of growers all the latest novelties in machinery,
implements and appliances relating to hops and their
THE HOP TRADE. 331
cultivation. Means should also be provided for enabling
the poorer growers to visit these exhibitions.
7. Strenuous endeavours must be made to root out the
class of unscrupulous middlemen. In this task the growers,
consumers and respectable merchants should combine.
Institutes for guaranteeing the origin of hops are also
necessary in the interests of both grower and brewer ; and,
wherever possible, growers should unite to form sale
associations, State assistance being given (as in Germany)
where funds are too scanty for this purpose. The State
is also intervening in Russia to aid the local hop industry.
8. An eye should be kept upon the favourable adjust-
ment of imports and freight tariffs applying to hops.
9. Another means of furthering not merely the hop.
industry, but agriculture generally, would be a thorough
readjustment of the conditions of agricultural credit, and
the establishment of Associations. This would relieve the
former from many difficulties, and the necessity for com-
pulsory sales would be rendered less frequent.
The German Hop Growers’ Association has done good
service to the industry in that country, and its example
is worthy of imitation in other countries.
INDEX.
A.
Acarus coccineus, 63.
Acidity of hops, 285.
Adorno on frame training, 199.
Aged stocks, cutting, 146, 147.
Age, influence on quality, 293.
Agromyza frontalis, 57.
Alcohol as a hop preservative, 276.
Alkaloids in hops, 286.
Allenstein hops, 41.
Alsace-Lorraine, statistics of pro-
duction, 299-301.
Alsatian hops, 41.
Altitude of hop districts, 65, 70.
American early hops, 38.
green hops, 40.
hop districts, 64, 65, 70, 73,
74.
America, statistics of production,
300, 301, 309, 310.
Analyses of hops, 287, 288.
of hop plants, 166, 167.
Analysis of leaves, 251.
of spent hops, 252.
of stall manure, 171.
Andrlik and Hueber’s kiln, 247,
248.
Aphides, 58, 59.
enemies of, 62, 63.
Arabic acid in hops, 286.
Area occupied by plants, 97-109,
170.
under hop cultivation, 298-
310.
Aroma as a standard of quality,
292, 293.
“ Aromatin,” 277.
Artificial manures, 165, 175-181.
Ash, percentage of, 287.
Asparagin in hops, 285.
Aspergillus glaucus, 268.
Associations for selling hops, 314,
318, 319-331.
Auscha green hops, 40.
red hops, 39, 84.
Australia, hop districts of, 65.
statistics of production, 300,
301, 310.
Australian hops, 40.
Austria, hop-growing in, 5-9.
statistics of production, 300,.
306, 310.
Austrian hop districts, 70-72.
Autumn cultivation, 94, 117.
Autumn cutting, 154.
B.
Bacillus lupuliperda, 267.
Bacillus putidus, 268.
Bacteria in hops, 267, 268, 272.
Baden, statistics of production,
299-301.
Bagging hops, 231, 249, 250.
Bavaria, statistics of production,
299-301.
Beech moth, 58.
Behrens on frame training, 198.
on spontaneous heating,
268.
Belgian green hops, 40, 41.
Belgium, statistics of production,.
300, 301, 308, 310.
Bine as fodder, 114.
— chemical composition of,
166, 167.
utilising old, 251, 266.
Bitter principle, 282, 283, 284.
Blackbrand, 49.
Bohemia, statistics of production,
300, 301, 303, 304, 305.
334
Boric acid in hops, 287.
Botys silaceatis, 61.
Bracteoles of hop cone, 20-22.
Bracts of hop cone, 20.
percentage of, 278-280.
Buds left on cutting, 141-152.
“ Buffs,” 41.
Cc.
Canadian hops, 40.
Canterbury hops, 40.
Carbohydrates in hops, 286.
Carbonic acid in storing hops, 269,
275.
‘Cellulose in hops, 286.
Cherry moth, 61.
Chloride of potash.
manures.
Chodounsky on judging hops, 296.
Cholin in hops, 285
Cicada, damage by, 60.
Cladosporium penicilloides, 268.
Classification of hops according
to period of ripening, 36-41.
Climate, influence of, on quality,
74-76.
influence on method of cul-
tivation, 116.
suitable for hops, 64, 76.
Climbing properties of the hop,
12.
See Potash
Close cutting, 141, 142.
Cluster hops, 40.
Cockchafers, damage by, 52.
Colegate hops, 40.
Colour, influence of sulphuring
on, 273.
Colour of cones and quality, 291.
Compost, 173-175.
Cone, malformations of, 42, 44.
Cones, appearance as a standard of
quality, 290.
appearance of ripe, 228.
compound, 43.
dropping off, 47.
hop, 19, 22.
Consumption of hops, 300, 301,
302, 308, 309, 310, 317.
Cooper hops, 39.
Cost of cultivation, 89-93.
Covering up cut stocks, 152.
stocks, cost of, 259.
Cropping bine, 226.
INDEX.
Cropping, effect of autumn cutting
on, 158-160.
intermediate, in hop gar-
dens, 113.
young gardens, 111-114.
Crop, yield of, 256, 262.
yield per acre, 298-310.
Cultivation of hops, 64-226,
Cutting, alleged defects of, 129-
136.
autumn, 154-160.
bine, 114.
bine at picking time, 229.
close, 141, 142.
diseased stocks, 145.
influence on growth, 130,
141, 142, 148-150, 154-165.
influence on nutrition, 125,
126, 148-150, 161.
influence on root growth,
128.
long, 141, 143-147.
methods of, 137-165.
ordinary, 141-143.
proper performance of, 136,
137, 151.
proper season for, 153, 154.
results of, 126, 128.
spring, 153, 160-165.
the hop stock, 125-165.
topping, 141, 147.
Cuttings, best age of plants for,
, 86.
cost of, 258, 259.
propagation by, 27-33.
selection of, 81-86.
treatment of, 32, 33.
utilising, 252.
D.
Damage by weather, protection
against, 49, 103.
Dauba green hops, 40.
late green hops, 41, 84.
Dealers’ methods, 312-316.
Degeneration, 82.
Depth of holes for sets, 106, 110..
Digging, cost of, 89, 258.
_| Direction of rows, 102.
Discoloration of cones, 291. :
Diseased rooistocks, cutting, 145.
Diseases of hops, ¢ 45-52,
INDEX,
Distance between plants, 95-109.
Dombasle frame, 208.
Drainage, 77, 86, 87.
Drought, effects of, 46.
Drums for storing hops, 270, 271.
Drying hops, 231-249.
in the kiln, 232, 236-
249.
— in the open air, 232.
on hurdles, 232, 233.
on the floor, 232, 233.
sheds, 234, 235.
E.
Early hops, 37, 84.
Earthworms, damage by, 55.
Earwigs, 61.
Egypt, hop-growing in, 65.
Enemies of the hop plant, 49-63.
England, hop-growing districts,
302.
— statistics of production, 300,
301, 302, 310.
English early hops, 38, 39.
— grape hops, 40.
late hops, 41.
Enzymes in hops, 286.
Ethereal oil, percentage of, 287.
European hop districts, 64, 65, 70.
Europe, statistics of production,
300, 301.
Experimental hop gardens, 96, 97,
330
Export of hops from Germany,
Extirpators, 122, 124.
Extractives, determination of, 288.
percentage of, 287.
F.
Farnham hops, 40.
Female flower of hops, 18-21.
Fertilisers. See Manures.
Flat cultivation, 115-119.
Fleabane moth, 58.
Floor redness, 291.
Flower of the hop, 17-21.
Fog, damage by, 49.
Forks, 122.
Foxy bracts, 228.
Frames, construction of, 204.
for horizontal training, 194.
335
Frames for inclined training, 194,
219-221.
— for mixed training, 194, 195.
— for vertical training, 194,
204, 208, 215.
high, 194, 195, 208.
low, 194, 195, 196, 215-219.
medium, 194, 195, 200, 219-
221.
storm proof, 204, 213.
Frame training, 193-222.
France, hop-growing in, 5.
statistics of production, 300,
301, 308, 310.
Fruwirth on cost of production,
257.
on manpuring, 176.
Frost, effect of, on hop shoots, 67.
injury to shoots by, 163.
Fruit of hop plants, 21-27.
See seeds. .
Fumago salicina, 291.
Fungoid parasites on hops, 49-52.
G.
Galician green hops, 40.
Galicia, statistics of production,
300, 301, 304, 305.
Gamma moth, 58.
Gasch’s kiln, 242-244.
Germany, hop districts of, 70-73.
hop-growing in, 2-4, 5, 6.
statistics of production, 299-
301, 310.
Glucose in hops, 286.
Golden eye fly, 62.
Goldings, early, 39.
medium early, 40.
Gracilaria fidella, 57.
Greenbine hops, 40.
Green hops, 35, 40, 41, 83.
Grimm on manuring, 178.
Grubbers, 122.
Gum in hops, 286.
H.
Hail, damage by, 48.
Hairs of the hop plant, 14-16, 26.
Haplotrichum roseum, 268.
Harrowing, cost of, 258.
Harrows, 122.
Harvesting. See Picking.
336
Haupt frame, 194, 200, 219, 220.
Heartwort weevil, 62.
Heijak frame, 213, 214.
Heijak’s kiln, 238-240.
“ Hengst” hops, 36, 41.
Hermann frame, 194, 195, 198, 199,
215-218.
on non-cutting, 129-132, 218.
Hill hops, 41.
History of the hop plant, 1-10.
Hoeing, 112, 113, 137.
cost of, 260.
Holland, statistics of production,
300, 301, 308.
Holzner and Lermer on lupulin
glands and granules, 23-26.
on malformations, 42-
44,
on the hop flower, 20,
21.
Honeydew, 47, 50.
Hop bar, 184, 186.
bug, 59, 60.
cones, chemical and phy-
sical structure of, 278-288.
composition of, 166, 167.
Continental nomenclature
of the, 11.
districts, 64.
Hopeine, 286.
Hop extract, 276, 277.
flea, 59.
gardens, intermediate crop-
ping in, 113.
life of, 254-256.
subsequent cropping in,
256.
growers and dealers’ associa-
tions, 318-331.
growing industry, how to
improve the, 317, 330-332.
kilns, 236-249.
knives, 139, 140.
ladder, 186.
leaves as fodder, 261.
louse, 58, 59.
marking institutes, 320-331.
miner moth, 57.
oil, 280, 281.
bitter, 287.
extracting, 276.
plant, area occupied by, 97-
109, 170
INDEX.
Hop plant, characteristics of, 11-
2s
chemical composition
of, 166, 167.
poles, 182-186.
carbonising, 183.
cost, 182.
of dressing, 259.
of pulling, 260.
of spreading, 260.
of stacking, 261.
dimensions of, 185, 186.
impregnating ‘and
dressing, 183, 190, 191.
lifting, 188.
pitching, 184-186.
pointing, 183.
storing, 189, 190.
stripping, 182.
treatment of, 61, 62.
resin, percentage of, 287.
resins, 281-283.
shoots, utilising, 252.
substitutes, 277.
tannin, 284.
trade, 311-331.
vine snout moth, 58.
weevils, 53, 55.
worm, 61.
acidity of, 285.
alkaloids in, 286.
Allenstein, 41.
Alsatian, 41.
‘American, 38, 40.
analysis of, 238, 287.
arabic acid i in, 286.
asparagin in, 285.
Auscha, 39, 40, 84.
Australian, 40.
bacteria in, 267, 268, 272.
bagging, 231, 249, 250.
Belgian, 40, 41.
boric acid in, 287.
“ Buffs,” 41.
Canadian, 40.
Canterbury, 40.
carbohydrates in, 286,
cellulose in, 286.
eholin in, 285.
classification of, 36-41.
climate for, 64-76. ‘
climbing prouenilee: of, 12.
Cluster, 40.
|
PEP Do a |
INDEX.
Hops, Colegate, 40.
a sa eC a
ee ere a |
Cooper, 39.
cultivation of, 64-266.
cutting the stocks, 125, 165.
Dauba, 40, 41, 84.
diseases of, 45-52.
drying, 231-249,
early, 37, 84.
enemies of, 49-63.
English, 38, 40, 41.
enzymes in, 286.
Farnham, 40.
female flower of, 18-21.
fungoid parasites on, 49-52.
Galician, 40.
glucose in, 286.
Goldings, 39, 40.
green, 35, 40, 41, 83.
Greenbine, 40.
gum in, 286.
“ Hengst,” 36, 41.
hill, 41.
Humphrey’ s seedlings, 39.
Hungarian, 40.
hygroscopicity of, 273.
insects beneficial to, 62, 63.
insects injurious to, 52, 62.
Jones, 39.
judging value of, 288-297.
Juggles, 41.
late, 41, 84.
lecithin in, 285.
light required by, 68, 69.
male flower of, 17, 18.
manuring, 165-181.
marketing, 311-331.
Mathon, 40.
medicinal properties of, 2.
medium early, 39, 40, 84.
Meopham, 39.
moisture necessary to, 68-
76.
mould fungi in, 49, 50, 268.
Neutomischl, 41.
New Zealand, 40.
nitric acid in, 287.
nitrogen in, 287.
organic matter in, 287.
Pacific, 39.
pale green, 35.
Palmer’s seedling, 39.
picking, 228-231.
planting, 86, 87, 106-111.
337
ee plant food requirements of,
Posen, 38, 41.
preserving, 267-278.
presses for, 271.
Prolific, 39.
propagating, 27-33.
pruning, 217, 226.
quality of, 288-297.
quercitrin i in, 286.
red, 34, 35, 37-40, 83.
Rohatin, 38.
Rottenburg, 41, 84.
Saaz, 37, 84.
Schwetzingen, 38.
selling price of, 263-266.
Semsch, 39.
Siebenbiirgen, 38.
soil for, 76-81,
Spalt, 38,
spent, utilising, 252.
spontaneous heating
267, 268.
storage of, 267-278.
Stuttgart, 41.
Styrian, 38, 40.
sugar in, 286.
sulphuring, 51.
Re ae Vas | ee a
tannic acid in, 284.
tannin in, 287, 288.
Tasmanian, 40.
training, 112, 181-225.
tying, 186-188.
valley, 41.
varieties of, 33-41.
vermin on, 52-62.
Victoria, 40.
Lat dase hy 4
16.
washing,
— Whitebine, 40, 41.
wild, 65, 69, 127, 128.
yeasts in, 268.
Horse hoes, 122, 124.
Humbser’s kiln, 247.
Humphrey’s seedlings, 39.
Humulene, 281.
Hungarian green hops, 40.
in the kiln, 269-274.
warmth necessary for,
50, 51, 56,.
in,
66-
57,
Hungary, statistics of production,
300, 301, 305-307.
Hygroscopicity of hops, 273.
22
338
I.
Ichneumon flies, 63.
Implements, 119-125.
Impregnating materials for hop
poles, 183, 184, 191.
Improvement of varieties, 83, 85.
India, hop-growing in, 65.
Inflorescence of the hop, 17-21.
Injuries to growth of hops, 41-62.
Insecticides, 56, 57, 59, 60.
Insects beneficial to hops, 62, 63.
injurious to hops, 52- 62.
Interest and depreciation, 261.
Intermediate cropping, 253, 254.
Trrigation, 87.
J.
Jones hops, 39.
Judging value of hops, 288-297.
Juggles, 41.
Julus guttulatus, 53.
K.
Kainit. See Potash manures.
Karl’s kiln, 237.
Kiferle frame, 208.
Kohn’s kiln, 247.
Kraus on impregnating wood, 184.
L.
Ladybird beetle, 63.
‘Late hops, 41, 84, :
Lateral runners, 110.
Leaf-stripping bine, 226-228.
Leaves, chemical composition of,
166, 167, 251.
Leaves of the hop plant, 14-16.
Lecithin in hops, 285.
Light. required by hops, 68, 69.
Liquid manure, 173.
Long cut, 141, 143-147.
Loschner’s kiln, 240-242.
Lovage weevil, 62.
Lupulin, 286.
content as a standard of
value, 278, 292.
extracting, 276.
glands, 23-27.
granules, structure of, 23-27.
percentage of, 278-280.
Lupuliniec acid, 283, 284.
INDEX.
M.
Male flower of hops, 17-18.
Malformations, 41.
Manure, compost, 173-175.
influence of, on growth,|172,
177, 180, 181.
— liquid, 173.
stall, 171.
weight of dressing, 171, 175-
181
Manures, 165-181.
artificial, 165, 175-181.
nitrogenous, 172, 175-181.
Manuring, 165-181.
cost of, 259. —
cut stocks, 155, 157.
experiments in, 177-180.
method of, 170, 171, 173, 176.
season for, 171.
sets, 107, 112.
Marketing hops, 311-331.
Markets, hop, 311, 312.
Marking out frames, 103-105.
ground, 94, 105.
Mathon hops, 40. }
Mattocks, 107, 108, 120, 121.
Medicinal properties of hops, 2.
Medium early hops, 39, 40, 84.
Meopham hops, 39.
Mice, damage by, 52.
Micrococcus humuli, 267.
Mildew. See Mould fungi.
Moisture, determination of, 288.
necessary for hops, 68-76.
percentage of, 280, 287.
Moonspot hoverer, 63.
Mould fungi in hops, 49, 50, 268.
Mucor mucedo, 268.
Mucor nigricans, 268.
Mucor racemosus, 268.
Miiller’s kiln, 245, 246.
N.
Nematode worms, 55, 56.
Netherlands, hop- -growing in, 4.
Neutomischl hops, 41.
New Zealand hops, 40.
Nitrate of soda, 175, 176-179,
181.
Nitric acid in hops, 287.
Nitrogen in hops, 287.
INDEX.
Nitrogenous constituents of the
hop, 285.
manures, 172, 175-181.
Non-cutting system of cultivation,
129-136, 218. .
Niirnberg hop market, 311.
0.
Oidium lupuli, 268.
Omaloplia variabilis, 53.
Opening out stocks, cost of, 259.
the stocks, 187.
Ordinary cutting, 141-143.
Organic matter, percentage of, 287.
Origin, certificates of, 322-327, 329.
— falsification of, by dealers,
315, 316, 320.
judging, 293.
means of preventing falsifi-
cation of, 318-329.
Otter moth, 53.
Over-production, alleged, 313-318.
Ovule of hop flower, 21.
P.
Pacific hops, 39.
Pale green hops, 35.
Palmer’s seedlings, 39.
Peacock butterfly, 58.
Pear] fly, 63.
Penicillium glaucum, 268.
Perigoneum of hop flower, 21.
Physical composition of hop cones,
38, 39.
Picking, 228-231.
cost of, 261.
machines, 230, 231.
ring, 229.
time, 84, 228.
Pistil of hop flower, 21.
Plant food, replacing by manure,
171.
— — requirements of the
hop, 77.
weight
acre, 166-168.
Planting, 86, 87, 106-111.
autumn, 81, 106.
cost of, 258.
spring, 81, 106.
time for, 81-86.
removed per
339
' Ploughing, 90-94, 137.
cost of, 259.
Ploughs, 122-124.
Pole and wire training, 191-193.
Poled gardens, planting, 106.
Pole-puller, 188, 189.
redness, 291.
training, 182-193.
Polygonal planting, 101.
Posen green hops, 41.
red hops, 38.
'|Potash manures, 175-179, 181.
Preserving hops, 267-278.
Presses for hops, 271.
Production, cost of, 256-261.
statistics of, 298-310.
Prolific hops, 39.
Propagation of the hop plant, 27-33.
Pruning, 217, 226.
cost of, 260.
Prussia, statistics of production,
302.
Q.
Quality, classification of, 293-296.
judging, 288-297.
Quercitrin in hops, 286.
R.
Rain, damage by, 48.
Rainfall in hop districts, 70-76.
Ramm frame, 208.
Rectangular planting, 102, 104.
Red hops, 34, 35, 37-40, 83.
Red rust, 51.
Red spider, 56.
Reflux of matter to the roots, 27.
Rejuvenating cut, 146.
Rent, 261.
Replacing dead sets, 107-109, 112.
— dead stocks, 152. ©
Resins. See Hop resin.
Ridge cultivation, 116-119.
Rohatin golden hops, 38.
Roots of the hop plant, 18, 14.
Rootstock activity during winter,
153.
Rottenburg hops, 41, 84.
Russia, hop-growing in, 5.
Russian medium early hops, 40.
Russia, statistics of production,
300, 301, 307, 308, 310.
340
8.
Saaz hop market, 312.
— hop-marking institutes, 320-
328.
— red hops, 37, 84.
Schwend frame, 194, 204, 213,
214.
Schwetzingen red hops, 38.
Sciaphila Wahlbomiana, 60.
Scipio and Heath frame, 212.
Seed of hop plant, 21-27.
reproduction by, 29, 30.
Seeds, hop, 17, 41.
percentage of, 278-280.
Selection in hop plants, 27-33.
Selling price of hops, 263-266.
Semsch hops, 39.
Sets, number in each hole, 107,
109, 110, 111.
Siebenbiirgen red hops, 38.
statistics of production, 300,
301, 305-307.
Silica, percentage of, 287.
Situation of hop gardens, 81.
Smut, 49, 50, 291.
Snails, damage by, 57.
Soil, influence of, on method of
cultivation, 116.
suitable for hops, 76-81.
Soils, analyses of, 78-79.
modification of, by cultiva-
tion, 78.
Spalt early hops, 38.
hop-marking institute, 329.
Spicule of hop cone, 20, 21.
Spindle of hop cone, 20, 21
Spontaneous heating in hops, 267,
268.
Spring cultivation, 117-125.
Spring cutting, 153, 160-165.
Square planting, 101, 104, 109.
Stalks, number left to grow, 140-
152.
Stall manure, 171.
, chemical composition
of, 171.
Stambach frame, 194, 221.
Stamm on hop extracts, 277.
Statistics of production, 298-310.
Stem of the hop plant, 14-16.
Stigma of hop cone, 20, 21.
Stipules on hop leaves, 16.
Stocks, number per acre, 97-109.
INDEX.
Storage, cold, 275.
of hops, 267-278.
Strebel on non-cutting, 132, 133.
Strig of hop cone, 20, 21.
maggot, 62.
Strigs, appearance indicative of
quality, 296.
percentage of, 278-280.
String. See Training materials.
Stripping damaged bine, 51, 57, 60.
Stuttgart hops, 41.
Stutzer on manuring, 175.
Styrian green hops, 40.
red hops, 38.
Styria, statistics of production,
300, 301, 304, 305.
Sub-soil of hop gardens, 77.
Sugar in hops, 286.
Sulphate of potash. See Potash
manures.
Sulphuring and quality, 293.
detection of, 274.
hops, 51.
in the kiln, 269-274.
Sulphurous acid in storing hops,
269.
Summer- or sun-brand, 46.
Summer temperature of hop dis-
tricts, 70-76.
Superphosphate, 175, 177-179.
Sweden and Norway, statistics of
production, 309.
Sweden, hop-growing in, 4.
Switzerland, statistics of produc-
tion, 309.
T.
Tannic acid in hops, 284.
Tannin in hops, 287, 288.
Tasmanian hops, 40.
Thomas slag, 175, 176, 179.
Tillage, 88-94, 114-125.
winter, 259.
Tippmann’s kiln, 246.
Tongs for straining wires, 206.
Topping bine, 201, 217, 226, 227.
cut, 141, 147.
Training, 112, 181-225.
cost of, 260.
defects of horizontal, 196
218.
frames, 193-222.
hops, 181-225.
?
INDEX.
Training influence of system on
cropping, 198, 200.
material, cost of, 261.
— materials, 193, 202, 203, 206,
220.
number of shoots per pole,
149.
pole, 182-193.
pole and wire, 191-193.
— relative advantages of sys-
tems, 196-197, 201-204.
See Frames.
wire-cross, 192, 198.
Trenching, 89-94, 117.
cost of, 257, 258.
pace aaa planting, 99, 100, 103,
Trimming the stocks, 137.
Tying bine, 186-188.
cost of, 260. Z
— machine for training-string,
221-225.
U.
Ulocladium botrytis, 268.
V.
Valley hops, 41.
Varieties of hops, 33-41.
selection of, 81-86.
Vermin, 52-62.
eradication of, from poles,
190.
Victoria hops, 40.
341
Ww.
Wachtel on frame training, 199.
baste necessary for hops, 66-
Washing hops, 50, 51, 56, 57, 59.
Weeds, eradicating, 113, 115, 117,
118.
Whitebine hops, 40, 41.
Wild hops, 65, 69, 127, 128.
Wind, damage by, 48.
Wire. See Training materials.
Wire-cross training, 192, 193.
Wireworm, 52-53.
Wirth frame, 194, 199, 209-212.
Wolff hop-picking and sorting
machine, 230.
Wirtemburg, statistics of pro-
duction, 299-301.
Y.
Yeast in hops, 268.
Yellowing of hop leaves, 45, 46.
Young gardens, cutting, 147.
Z.
Zelinka frame, 220.
on autumn cutting, 159.
on frame training, 200.
on stock-cutting, 125-129.
Zelinka’s kiln, 244, 245.
Zorner’s kiln, 249.
ABERDEEN UNIVERSITY PRESS.
Catalogue
JULY, 1906
pecial Gechnical Works
MMIANUFACTURERS, STUDENTS, AND “TECHNICAL
SCHOOLS
BY EXPERT WRITERS
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Compounding Oils ... ses, 8
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Dampness in Buildings 30
Decorators’ Books... wee 28
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Scheele’s Essays ... fees 0)
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Steam D: ing re.
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Textile Fabrics . 20
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Brazil Wood—Alkanet—Santal Wood—Archil—Coal-tar Lakes—Red Lakes—Alizarin Com-
pounds—Orange and Yellow Lakes—Green and Blue Lakes—Indigo—Dragon's Blood—
Gamboge—Sepia—Indian Yellow, Puree—Bitumen. Asphaltum, Mummy—Index.
THE MANUFACTURE OF PAINT. A Practical Handbook
for Paint Manufacturers, Merchants and Painters. By J. CRUICKSHANK
SmitH, B.Sc. Demy 8vo. 200 pp. Sixty Illustrations and One Large
Diagram. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Preparation of Raw Material—Storing of Raw Material—Testing and Valuation of Raw
Material—Paint Plant and Machinery—The Grinding of White Lead—Grinding of White
Zinc—Grinding of other White Pigments—Grinding of Oxide Paints—Grinding of Staining
Colours—Grinding of Black Paints—Grinding of Chemical Colours—Yellows—Grinding of
Chemical Colours—Blues—Grinding Greens—Grinding Reds—Grinding Lakes —Grinding
Colours in Water—Grinding Colours in Turpentine—-The Uses of Paint—Testing and Matching
Paints— Economic Considerations—Index.
DICTIONARY OF CHEMICALS AND RAW PRO-
DUCTS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF
PAINTS, COLOURS, VARNISHES AND ALLIED
PREPARATIONS. By Georce H. Hurst, F.C.S. Demy
8vo. 380 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s. ; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; strictly net.
THE MANUFACTURE OF LAKE PIGMENTS FROM
ARTIFICIAL COLOURS. By Francis H. JeENnison,
F.LC., F.C.5. Sixteen Coloured Plates, showing Specimens of
Eighty-nine Colours, specially prepared from the Recipes given
in the Book. 136 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
8s.; Other Countries, 8s, 6d.; strictly net.
ead Contents.
The Groups of the Artificial Colouring Matters—The Nature and Manipulation of Artificial
Colours—Lake-forming Bodies for Acid Colours—Lake-forming Bodies’ Basic Colours—Lake
Bases—The Principles of Lake Formation—Red Lakes—Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Violet
and Black Lakes—The Production of Insoluble Azo Colours in the Form of Pigments—The
General Properties of Lakes Produced from Artificial Colours—Washing, Filtering and Fin-
ishing—Matching and Testing Lake Pigments—Index.
aL ;
3 € oad
THE MANUFACTURE OF MINERAL AND LAKE
PIGMENTS. Containing Directions for the Manufacture
of all Artificial, Artists and Painters’ Colours, Enamel, Soot and Me-
tallic Pigments. A Text-book for Manufacturers, Merchants, Artists
and Painters. By Dr. Joser Berscu. Translated by A. C. WRIGHT,
M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc. (Lond.). Forty-three Illustrations. 476 pp., demy
8vo. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other Countries,
15s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Introduction—Physico-chemical Behaviour of Pigments—Raw Materials Employed in
the Manufacture of Pigments—Assistant Materials—Metallic Compounds—The Manufacture
ot Mineral Pigments—The Manufacture of White Lead—Enamel White—Washing Apparatus
—Zinc White—Yellow Mineral Pigments—Chrome Yellow— Lead Oxide. Pigments —
Other Yellow Pigments—Mosaic Gold—Red Mineral Pigments—The Manufacture of Ver-
milion—Antimony Vermilion—Ferric Oxide Pigments—Other Red Mineral Pigments—Purple
of Cassius—Blue Mineral Pigments—Ultramarine — Manufacture of Ultramarine — Blue
Copper Pigments—Blue Cobalt Pigments—Smalts—Green Mineral Pigments—Emerald
Green—Verdigris—Chromium Oxide—Other Green Chromium Pigments—Green Cobalt Pig-
ments—Green Manganese Pigments—Compounded Green Pigments—Violet Mineral Pig-
ments—Brown Mineral Pigments—Brown Decomposition Products—Black Pigments—Manu-
facture of Soot Pigments—Manufacture of Lamp Black—The Manufacture of Soot Black
without Chambers—Indian Ink—Enamel Colours—Metallic Pigments—Bronze Pigments—
Vegetable Bronze Pigments.
PIGMENTS OF ORGANIC OriGIN—Lakes—Yellow Lakes—Red Lakes—Manufacture of
Carmine—The Colouring Matter of Lac—Safflower or Carthamine Red—Madder and
its Colouring Matters—Madder Lakes— Manjit (Indian Madder)—Lichen Colouring Matters—
Red Wood Lakes—The Colouring Matters of Sandal Wood and Other Dye Woods—Blue
Lakes—Indigo Carmine—The Colouring Matter of Log Wood—Green Lakes—Brown Organic
Pigments—Sap Colours—Water Colours—Crayons—Confectionery Colours—The Preparation
of Pigments for Painting—The Examination of Pigments—Examination of Lakes—The
Testing of Dye-Woods—The Design of a Colour Works—Commercial Names of Pigments—
Appendix: Conversion of Metric to English Weights and Measures— Centigrade and Fahrenheit
Thermometer Scales—Index.
RECIPES FOR THE COLOUR, PAINT, VARNISH, OIL,
SOAP AND DRYSALTERY TRADES. Compiled by
AN ANALYTICAL CHEMIST. 350 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India
and British Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net. :
Contents.
Pigments or Colours for Paints, Lithographic and Letterpress Printing Inks, ete.—
Mixed Paints and Preparations for Paint-making, Painting, Lime-washing, Paperhanging,
etc.—Varnishes for Coach-builders, Cabinetmakers, Wood-workers, Metal-workers, Photo-
graphers, etc.—Soaps for Toilet, Cleansing, Polishing, etc.—Perfumes—Lubricating Greases,
Oils, etc.—Cements, Pastes, Glues and Other Adhesive Preparations—Writing, Marking,
Endorsing and Other Inks—Sealing-wax and Office Requisites—Preparations for the Laundry,
Kitchen, Stable and General Household Uses—Disinfectant Preparations—Miscellaneous
Preparations—Index
OIL COLOURS AND PRINTING INKS. By Louis
Epcar Anpés. Translated from the German. 215 pp. Crown 8vo.
56 Illustrations. Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Linseed Oil—Poppy Oil—Mechanical Purification of Linseed Oil—Chemical Purification of
Linseed Oil—Bleaching Linseed Oil—Oxidizing Agents for Boiling Linseed Oil—Theory of
Oil Boiling—Manufacture of Boiled Oil—Adulterations of Boiled Oil—Chinese Drying Oil and
Other Specialities—Pigments for House and Artistic Painting and Inks—Pigment for
Printers’ Black Inks—Substitutes for Lampblack—Machinery for Colour Grinding and
Rubbing—Machines for mixing Pigments with the Vehicle—Paint Mills—Manufacture of
House Oil Paints—Ship Paints— Luminous Paint—Artists’ Colours—Printers’ Inks :-—
VEHICLES—Printers’ Inks:—PIGMENTS and MANUFACTURE—Index.
(See also Writing Inks, p. 11.)
4
CASEIN. By Rosert Scuerer. Translated from the German
by CuHas. SALTER. With 11 Illustrations. 160 pp. Price 7s. 6d. ;
India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; net.
Contents.
Casein, its Composition and Properties—Preparation and Purification—Casein Water-
Paints—Casein Putties and Adhesives—Casein Plasters and Pastes—Casein in the Textile
Industry—Casein Foodstuffs—Various Uses of Casein as Paper, Pulp, etc.
SIMPLE METHODS FOR TESTING PAINTERS’
MATERIALS. By A. C. Wricut, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc.
(Lond.). Crown 8vo. 160 pp. Price 5s.; India and British Colonies,
5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Necessity for Testing —Standards— Arrangement—The Apparatus—The Reagents —
Practical Tests--Dry Colours—Stiff Paints—Liquid and Enamel Paints—Oil Varnishes—
Spirit Varnishes—Driers—Putty—Linseed Oil—Turpentine—Water Stains—The Chemical
Examination—Dry Colours and Paints—White Pigments and Paints—Yellow Pigments and
Paints—Blue Pigments and Paints—Green Pigments and Paints—Red Pigments and Paints—
Brown Pigments and Paints—Black Pigments and Paints—Oil Varnishes—Linseed Oil—
Turpentine.
IRON CORROSION, ANTI-FOULING AND ANTI.
CORROSIVE PAINTS. Translated from the German of
Louis EpGar ANpES. Sixty-two Illustrations. 275 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.;
strictly net.
Contents.
Iron-rust and its Formation—Protection from Rusting by Paint—Grounding the Iron with
Linseed Oil, etc.—Testing Paints—Use of Tar for Painting on Iron—Anti-corrosive Paints—
Linseed Varnish—Chinese Wood Oil—Lead Pig: ts—Iron Pig ts—Artificial Iron Oxides
—Carbon—Preparation of Anti-corrosive Paints—Results of Examination of Several Anti-
corrosive Paints—Paints for Ship’s ie var ah es 4 Compositions—Various Anti-cor-
rosive and Ship's Paints—Official Standard Specifications for Ironwork Paints—Index.
THE TESTING AND VALUATION OF RAW MATE.
RIALS USED IN PAINT AND COLOUR MANU.
FACTURE. By M. W. Joneses, F.C.S. A Book for the
Laboratories of Colour Works. 88 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 5s.; India
and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Aluminium Compounds—China Clay—Iron Compounds—Potassium Compounds—Sodium
Compounds—Ammonium Hydrate—Acids—Chromium Compounds—Tin Compounds—Copper
Compounds — Lead Compounds — Zinc Compounds — Manganese Compounds — Arsenic
Compounds—Antimony Compounds—Calcium Compounds—Barium Compounds—Cadmium
bc ea a Compounds — Ultramarine —Cobalt and Carbon Compounds — Oils
—Index.
STUDENTS’ MANUAL OF PAINTS, COLOURS, OILS
AND VARNISHES. By Joun Furnett. Crown 8vo. 12
Illustrations. 96 pp. Price 2s. 6d.; Abroad, 3s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Plant — Chromes — Blues — Greens — Earth Colours — Blacks — Reds — Lakes—Whites—
Painters’ Oils—Turpentine—Oil Varnishes—Spirit Varnishes—Liquid Paints—Enamel Paints
5
Varnishes and Drying Oils.
OIL CRUSHING, REFINING AND BOILING, THE
MANUFACTURE OF LINOLEUM, PRINTING AND
LITHOGRAPHIC INKS, AND INDIA-RUBBER
SUBSTITUTES. By Joun Geppes MclIntosy. Being
Volume I. of the Second, greatly enlarged, English Edition, in three
Volumes, of ‘‘ The Manufacture of Varnishes and Kindred Industries,”
based on and including the work of Ach. Livache. Demy 8vo. 150 pp.
29 Illustrations. 1905. Price 7s. 6d.; Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d. ; strictly net. Post free.
Contents.
Oil Crushing and Refining ; Oil Boiling—Theoretical and Practical; Linoleum Manufacture;
Printing Ink Manufacture; Rubber Substitutes; The Manufacture of Driers; The Detection
of auuleerakion in Linseed and other Drying Oils by Chemical, Physical and Organoleptic
Methods.
DRYING OILS, BOILED OIL AND SOLID AND
LIQUID DRIERS. By L. E. Anp#s. Expressly Written
for this Series of Special Technical Books, and the Publishers hold
the Copyright for English and Foreign Editions. Forty-two Illustra-
tions. 342 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
13s. 6d.; Other Countries, 15s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Properties of the Drying Oils; Cause of the Drying Property; Absorption of Oxygen ;
Behaviour towards Metallic Oxides, etc.—The Properties of and Methods for obtaining the
Drying Oils—Production of the Drying Oils by Expression and Extraction; Refining and
Bleaching; Oil Cakes and Meal; The Refining and Bleaching of the Drying Oils; The
Bleaching of Linseed Oil—The Manufacture of Boiled Oil; The Preparation of Drying Oils
for Use in the Grinding of Paints and Artists’ Colours and in the Manufacture of Varnishes
by Heating over a Fire or by Steam, by the Cold Process, by the Action of Air, and by Means
of the Electric Current; The Driers used in Boiling Linseed Oil; The Manufacture of Boiled
Oil and the Apparatus therefor Livache’s Process for Preparing a Good Drying Oil and its
Practical Application—The Preparation of Varnishes for Letterpress, Lithographic and Copper-
plate Printing, for Oilcloth and Waterproof Fabrics; The Manufacture of Thickened Linseed
Oil, Burnt Oil, Stand Oil by Fire Heat, Superheated Steam, and by a Current of Air—Behaviour
of the Drying Oils and Boiled Oils towards Atmospheric Influences, Water, Acids and Alkalies
—Boiled Oil Substitutes—The Manufacture of Solid and Liquid Driers from Linseed Oi! and
Rosin; Linolic Acid Compounds of the Driers—The Adulteration and Examination of the
Drying Oils and Boiled Oil.
Oils, Fats, Soaps and Perfumes.
LUBRICATING OILS, FATS AND GREASES: Their
Origin, Preparation, Properties, Uses and Analyses. A Handbook for
Oil Manufacturers, Refiners and Merchants, and the Oil and Fat
Industry in General. By GrorGe H. Hurst, F.C.S. Second Revised
and Enlarged Edition. Sixty-five Illustrations. 317 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 1ls.; Other Countries, 12s,;
strictly net.
Contents.
Introductory—Hydrocarbon Oils—Scotch Shale Oils—Petroleum—Vegetable and
Animal Oils—Testing and Adulteration of Oils —Lubricating Greases—Lubrication—
Appendices—Index.
6
TECHNOLOGY OF PETROLEUM: Oil Fields of the
World—Their History, Geography and Geology—Annual Production
and Development—Oil-well Drilling—Transport. By Henry NeEv-
BERGER and HENRY Noa.uat. Translated from the French by J. G.
McInTosH. 550 pp. 153 Illustrations. 26 Plates. Super Royal 8vo.
Price 21s.; India and Colonies, 22s.; Other Countries, 23s. 6d. ;
strictly net.
Contents.
Study of the Petroliferous Strata—Petroleum—Definition—The Genesis or Origin of
Petroleum—The Oil Fields of Galicia, their History—Physical Geography and Geology of
the Galician Oil Fields—Practical Notes on Galician Land Law—Economic Hints on Working,
etc.—Roumania—History, Geography, Geology—Petroleum in Russia—History—Russian
Petroleum (continued)—Geography and Geology of the Caucasian Oil Fields—Russian Petro-
leum (continued)—The Secondary Oil Fields of Europe, Northern Germany, Alsace, Italy, etc.—
Petroleum in France—Petroleum in Asia—Transcaspian and Turkestan Territory—Turkestan
—Persia—British India and Burmah—British Burmah or Lower Burmah—China—Chinese
Thibet—Japan, Formosa and Saghalien—Petroleum in Oceania—Sumatra, Java, Borneo—
Isle of Timor—Philippine Isles—New Zealand—The United States of America—History—
Physical Geology and Geography of the United States Oil Fields—Canadian and other North
American Oil Fields—Economic Data of Work in North America—Petroleum in the West
Indies and South America—Petroleum in the French Colonies.
Excavations—Hand Excavation or Hand Digging of Oil Wells.
Methods of Boring.
Accidents—Boring Accidents—Methods of preventing them—Methods of remedying them
—Explosives and the use of the “Torpedo” Levigation—Storing and Transport of Petroleum
—General Advice—Prospecting, Management and carrying on of Petroleum Boring Operations.
General Data—Customary Formula—Memento. Practical Part. General Data
bearing on Petroleum—Glossary of Technical Terms used in the Petroleum Industry—Copious
Index.
THE PRACTICAL COMPOUNDING OF OILS, TAL-
LOW AND GREASE FOR LUBRICATION, ETC.
By An Expert O1L REFINER. 100 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.;
India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Intruductory Remarks on the General Nomenclature of Oils, Tallow and Greases
suitable for Lubrication —Hydrocarbon QOils—Animal and Fish Oils— Compound
Oils—Vegetable Oils—Lamp Oils—Engine Tallow, Solidified Oils and Petroleum
Jelly— Machinery Greases: Loco and Anti-friction—Clarifying and Utilisation
of Waste Fats, Oils, Tank Bottoms, Drainings of Barrels and Drums, Pickings
Up, Dregs, etc.—The Fixing and Cleaning of Oil Tanks, etc.—Appendix and
General Information.
ANIMAL FATS AND OILS: Their Practical Production,
Purification and Uses for a great Variety of Purposes. Their Pro-
perties, Falsification and Examination. Translated from the German
of Louis EpGar ANDis. Sixty-two Illustrations. 240 pp. Second
Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India
and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Introduction—Occurrence, Origin, Properties and Chemical Constitution of Animal Fats—
Preparation of Animal Fats and Oils—Machinery—Tallow-melting Plant—Extraction Plant
—Presses—Filtering Apparatus—Butter: Raw Material and Preparation, Properties, Adul-
terations, Beef Lard or Remelted Butter, Testing—Candle-fish Oil—Mutton-Tallow—Hare
Fat—Goose Fat—Neatsfoot Oil—Bone Fat: Bone Boiling, Steaming Bones, Extraction,
Refining—Bone Oil—Artificial Butter: Oleomargarine, Margarine Manufacture in France,
Grasso’s Process, “ Kaiser’s Butter,” Jahr & Miinzberg’s Method, Filbert's Process, Winter's
Method—Human Fat—Horse Fat—Beef Marrow—Turtle Oil—Hog’s Lard: Raw Material—
Preparation, Properties, Adulterations, Examination—Lard Oil—Fish Oils— Liver Oils—
Artificial Train Oil—Wool Fat: Properties, Purified Wool Fat—Spermaceti: Examination
of Fats and Oils in General.
THE MANUFACTURE OF GREASES, BLACKINGS
AND LUBRICANTS. By RicHarp Brunner. Translated
from the Sixth German Edition by CuHas. Satter. 10 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. ¢d.; net, post free.
7
THE OIL MERCHANTS’ MANUAL AND OIL TRADE
READY RECKONER. Compiled by Frank F. SHERRIFF.
Second Edition Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo. 214 pp. 1904.
With Two Sheets of Tables. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s. ;
Other Countries, 8s. 6d. ; strictly net.
Contents. ;
Trade Terms and Customs—Tables to Ascertain Value of Oil sold per cwt. or ton—Specific
Gravity Tables—Percentage Tare Tables—Petroleum Tables—Paraffine and Benzoline Calcu-
lations—Customary Drafts—Tables for Calculating Allowance for Dirt, Water, etc,—Capacity
of Circular Tanks Tables, etc., etc.
THE CHEMISTRY OF ESSENTIAL OILS AND ARTI-
FICIAL PERFUMES. By Ernest J. Parry, B.Sc.
(Lond.), F.LC., F.C.S. 411 pp. 20 Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Price
12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other Countries, 15s.;
strictly net.
Contents.
The General Properties of Essential Oils—Compounds occurring in Essential Oils
—The Preparation of Essential Oils—The Analysis of Essential Oils—Systematic
Study of the Essential Oils—Terpeneless Oils—The Chemistry of Artificial Perfumes
—Appendix : Table of Constants—Index.
VEGETABLE FATS AND OILS: Their Practical Prepara-
tion, Purification and Employment for Various Purposes, their Proper-
ties, Adulteration and Examination. Translated from the German of
Louis Epcar Anp&s. Ninety-four Illustrations. 340 pp. Second
Edition. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 11s.; Other
Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
General Properties—Estimation of the Amount of Oil in Seeds—The Preparatino
of Vegetable Fats and Oils—Apparatus for Grinding Oil Seeds and Fruits—Installation
of Oil and Fat Works—Extraction Method of Obtaining Oils and Fats—Oil Extraction
Installations—Press Moulds—Nonedrying Vegetable Oils—Vegetable drying Oils—
Solid Vegetable Fats—Fruits Yielding Oils and Fats—Wool-softening Oils—Soluble Oils—
Treatment of the Oil after Leaving the Press—Improved Methods of Refining—Bleaching
Fats and Oils—Practical Experiments on the Treatment of Oils with regard to Refining and
Bleaching—Testing Oils and Fats.
SOAPS. A Practical Manual of the Manufacture of Domestic,
Toilet and other Soaps. By Grorce H. Hurst, F.C.S. 390 pp.
66 Illustrations. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 15s. ; strictly net.
Contents.
Introductory—Soap-maker’s Alkalies—Soap Fats and Oils—Perfumes—Water as
a Soap Material—Soap Machinery—Technology of Soap-making—Glycerine in Soap
Lyes—Laying out a Soap Factory—Soap Analysis—Appendices.
Textile: Soaps.
TEXTILE SOAPS AND OILS. Handbook on the Prepara-
tion, Properties and Analysis of the Soaps and Oils used in Textile
Manufacturing, Dyeing and Printing. By Greorce H. Hurst, F.C.S.
Crown 8vo. 195 pp. 1904. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.;
Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents. . :
Methods of Making Soaps—Hard Soap—Soft Soap. Special Textile Soaps—Wool
Soaps—Calico Printers' Soaps—Dyers’ Soaps. Relation of Soap to Water for Industrial
Purposes—Treating Waste Soap Liquors—Boiled Off Liquor—Calico Printers and Dyers’
Soap Liquors—Soap Analysis—Fat in Soap.
ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE OILS AND FATS—Tallow—Lard—Bone Grease—
Tallow Oil. Vegetable Soap, Oils and Fats—Palm Oil—Coco-nut Oil—Olive Oil—Cotton-
seed Oil—Linseed Oil—Castor Oil—Corn Oil—Whale Oil or Train Oil—Repe Oil.
GLYCERINE. ; ee
TEXTILE OILS—Oleic Acid—Blended Wool Oils—Oils for Cotton Dyeing, Printing and
Finishing—Turkey Red Oil—Alizarine Oil—Oleine—Oxy Turkey Red Oils—Soluble Oil—
Analysis of Turkey Red Oil—Finisher's Soluble Oil—Finisher's Soap Softening—Testing and
Adulteration of Oils—Index.
8
Cosmetical Preparations.
COSMETICS : MANUFACTURE, EMPLOYMENT
AND TESTING OF ALL COSMETIC MATERIALS
AND COSMETIC SPECIALITIES. Translated
from the German of Dr. THEopoR KOLLER. Crown 8vo. 262 pp.
Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s. net.
Contents. : . ,
Purposes and Uses of, and Ingredients used in the Preparation of Cosmetics—Preparation of
Perfumes by Pressure, Distillation, Maceration, Absorption or Enfleurage, and Extraction
Methods—Chemical and Animal Products used in the Preparation of Cosmetics—Oils and Fats
used'in the Preparation of Cosmetics—General Cosmetic Preparations—Mouth Washes and
Tooth Pastes—Hair Dyes, Hair Restorers and Depilatories—Cosmetic Adjyncts and
Specialities—Colouring Cosmetic Preparations—Antiseptic Washes and Soaps—Toilet and
Hygienic Soaps—Secret Preparations for Skin, Complexion, Teeth, Mouth, etc.—Testing and
Examining the Materials Employed in the Manufacture of Cosmetics—Index,
Glue, Bone Products and
Manures.
GLUE AND GLUE TESTING. By Samuet RipgEat, D.Sc.
(Lond.), F.I.C. Fourteen Engravings. 144 pp. Demy 8vo. Price
10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents. :
Constitution and Properties: Definitions and Sources, Gelatine, Chondrin and Allied
Bodies, Physical and Chemical Properties, Classification, Grades and.Commercial Varieties
—Raw Materials and Manufacture: Glue Stock, Lining, Extraction, Washing and Clari-
fying, Filter Presses, Water Supply, Use of Alkalies, Action of Bacteria and of Antiseptics,
Various Processes, Cleansing, Forming, Drying, Crushing, etc., Secondary Products—Uses
of Glue: Selection and Preparation for Use, Carpentry, Veneering, Paper-Making, Book-
binding, Printing Rollers, Hectographs, Match Manufacture, Sandpaper, etc., Substitutes for
other Materials, Artificial Leather and Caoutchouc—Gelatine: General Characters, Liquid
Gelatine, Photographic Uses, Size, Tanno-, Chrome and Formo-Gelatine, Artificial Silk,
Cements, Pneumatic Tyres, Culinary, Meat Extracts, Isinglass, Medicinal and other Uses,
Bacteriology—Glue pening: Review of Processes, Chemical Examination, Adulteration,
Physical Tests, Valuation of Raw Materials—Commercial Aspects.
BONE PRODUCTS AND MANURES: An Account of the
most recent Improvements in the Manufacture of Fat, Glue, Animal
Charcoal, Size, Gelatine and Manures. By THomas LamBeErt, Techni-
cal and Consulting Chemist. Illustrated by Twenty-one Plans and
Diagrams. 162 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Chemical Composition of Bones—Arrangement of Factory—Properties of Glue—Glutin
and Chondrin—Skin Glue—Liming of Skins—Washing—Boiling of Skins—Clarification of Glue
Liquors—Glue-Boiling and Clarifying-House—Specification of a Glue—Size—Uses and Pre-
paration and Composition of Size—Concentrated Size—Properties of Gelatine—Preparation
of Skin Gelatine—Drying—Bone Gelatine—Selecting Bones—Crushing—Dissolving—Bleachin:
—Boiling—Properties of Glutin and Chondrin—Testing of Glues and Gelatines—The Uses of
Glue, Gelatine and Size in Various Trades—Soluble and Liquid Glues—Steam and Waterproof
Glues—Manures—Importation of Food Stuffs—Soils—Germination—Plant Life—Natural
Manures—Water and Nitrogen in Farmyard Manure—Full Analysis of Farmyard Manure
—Action on Crops—Water-Closet System—Sewage Manure—Green Manures—Artificial
Manures—Mineral Manures—Nitrogenous Matters—Shoddy—Hoofs and Horns—Leather
Waste—Dried Meat—Dried Blood—Superphosphates—Composition—Manufacture—Common
Raw Bones—Degreased Bones—Crude Fat—Refined Fat—Degelatinised Bones—Animal
Charcoal—Bone Superphosphates—Guanos—Dried Animal Products—Potash Compounds—
Sulphate of Ammonia—Extraction in Vacuo—French and British Gelatines compared—Index.
9
Chemicals, Waste Products and
Agricultural Chemistry.
REISSUE OF CHEMICAL ESSAYS OF Cc. W.
SCHEELE. First Published in English in 1786. Trans-
lated from the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, with Additions. 300
pp. Demy 8vo. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries,
6s.; strictly net. :
. _ Contents.
Memoir: C. W. Scheele and his work (written for this edition by J. G. McIntosh)—On
Fluor Mineral and its Acid—On Fluor Mineral—Chemical Investigation of Fluor Acid,
with a View to the Earth which it Yields, by Mr. Wiegler—Additional Information
Concerning Fluor Minerals—On Mang: , Magnesi or Magnesia Vitrariorum —On
Arsenic and its Acid—Remarks upon Salts of Benzoin—On Silex, Clay and Alum—Analysis
of the Calculus Vesical—Method of Preparing Mercurius Dulcis Via Humida—Cheaper and
more Convenient Method of Preparing Pulvis Algarothi—Experiments upon Molybdzena
—Experiments on Plumbago—Method of Preparing a New Green Colour—Of the De-
composition of Neutral Salts by Unslaked Lime and Iron—On the Quantity of Pure Air which
is Daily Present in our Atmosphere—On Milk and its Acid—On the Acid of Saccharum Lactis
—On the Constituent Parts of Lapis Ponderosus or Tungsten—Experiments and Observations
on Ether—Index.
THE MANUFACTURE OF ALUM AND THE SUL-
PHATES AND OTHER SALTS OF ALUMINA AND
IRON. Their Uses and Applications as Mordants in Dyeing
and Calico Printing, and their other Applications in the Arts, Manufac-
tures, Sanitary Engineering, Agriculture and Horticulture. Translated
from the French of LuciEN GEscHWIND. 195 Illustrations. 400 pp.
Royal 8vo. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 15s. ; strictly net.
Contents,
Theoretical Study of Aluminium, Iron, and Compounds of these Metals—
Aluminium and its Compounds—Iron and Iron Compounds.
Manufacture of Aluminium Sulphates and Sulphates of Iron—Manufacture of
Aluminium Sulphate and the Alums—Manufacture of Sulphates of Iron.
Uses of the Sulphates of Aluminium and Iron—Uses of Aluminium Sulphate and
Alums—Application to Wool and Silk—Preparing and using Aluminium Acetates—Employment
of Aluminium Sulphate in Carbonising Wool—The Manufacture of Lake Pigments—Manu-
facture of Prussian Blue—Hide and Leather Industry—Paper Making—Hardening Plaster—
Lime Washes—Preparation of Non-inflammable Wood, etc.—Purification of Waste Waters
—Uses and Applications of Ferrous Sulphate and Ferric Sulphates—Dyeing—Manu-
facture of Pigments—Writing Inks—Purification of Lighting Gas —Agriculture—Cotton Dyeing
—Disinfectant—Purifying Waste Liquors—Manufacture of Nordhausen Sulphuric Acid—
Fertilising.
Chemical Characteristics of Iron and Aluminium—Analysis of Various Aluminous
or Ferruginous Products — Aluminium— Analysing Aluminium Products — Alunite
Alumi xdium Aluminate—Alumini Sulphate—Iron—Analytical Characteristics of Iron
Salts—Analysis of Pyritic Lignite—Ferrous and Ferric Sulphates—Rouil Mordant—Index.
AMMONIA AND ITS COMPOUNDS: Their Manufacture
and Uses. By CAMILLE VINCENT, Professor at the Central School of
Arts and Manufactures, Paris. Translated from the French by M. J.
SaLTeR. Royal 8vo. 114 pp. Thirty-two Illustrations. Price 5s. ;
India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
General Considerations: Various Sources of Ammoniacal Products; Human Urine
as a Source of Ammonia—Extraction of A iacal Products from Sewage—
Extraction of Ammonia from Gas Liquor—Manufacture of Ammoniacal Com-
pounds from Bones, Nitrogenous Waste, Beetroot Wash and Peat—Manufacture of
Caustic Ammonia, and Ammonium Chloride, Phosphate and Carbonate—Recovery
of Ammonia from the Ammonia-Soda Mother Liquors—Index.
10
ANALYSIS OF RESINS AND BALSAMS. Translated
from the German of Dr. Kart DIETERICH. Demy 8vo. 340 pp.
Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.;
strictly net.
Contents.
Definition of Resins in General—Definition of Balsams, and especially the Gum Resins—
External and Superficial Characteristics of Resinous Bodies—Distinction between Resinous
Bodies and Fats and Oils—Origin, Occurrence and Collection of Resinous Substances—
Classification—Chemical Constituents of Resinous Substances—Resinols—Resinot Annols—
Behaviour of Resin Constituents towards the Cholesterine Reactions—Uses and Identi-
fication of Resins—Melting-point—Solvents—Acid Value—Saponification Value—Resin Value
—Ester and Ether Values— Acetyl and Corbonyl Value—Methy!l Value—Resin Acid— Syste-
matic Résumé of the Performance of the Acid and Saponification Value Tests.
Balsams — Introduction — Definitions—Canada Balsam—Copaiba Balsam — Angostura
Copaiba Balsam — Babia_ Copaiba Balsam — Carthagena Copaiba Balsam — Maracaibo
Copaiba Balsam—Maturin Copaiba Balsam—Gurjum Copaiba Balsam—Para Copaiba Balsam
—Surinam Copaiba Balsam—West African Copaiba Balsam—Mecca Balsam—Peruvian
Balsam—Tolu Balsam—Acaroid Resin—Amine—Amber—African and West Indian Kino—
Bengal Kino—Labdanum—Mastic—Pine Resin—Sandarach—Scammonium—Shellac—Storax
—Adulteration of Styrax Liquidus Crudus—Purified Storax—Styrax Crudus Colatus—Taca-
mahac—Thapsia Resin—Turpentine—Chios Turpentine — Strassburg Turpentine—Turpeth
Turpentine. Gum Resins—Ammoniacum—Bdellium—Euphorbium — Galbanum—Gamboge
—Lactucarium—M yrrh—Opopanax—Sagapenum—Olibanum or Incense—Acaroid Resin—
Amber—Thapsia Resin—Index.
MANUAL OF AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY. By
HERBERT INGLE, F.I.C., Lecturer on Agricultural Chemistry, the
Yorkshire College; Lecturer in the Victoria University. 388 pp. 11
Illustrations. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.;
Other Countries, 8s. 6d. net.
Contents.
Introduction—The Atmosphere—The Soil—The Reactions occurring in Soils—The
Analysis of Soils—Manures, Natural—Manures (continued)—The Analysis of Manures—The
Constituents of Plants—The Plant—Crops —The Animal—Foods and Feeding—Milk and Milk
Products—The Analysis of Milk and Milk Products—Miscellaneous Products used in Agri-
culture—Appendix—Index.
THE UTILISATION OF WASTE PRODUCTS. A Treatise
on the Rational Utilisation, Recovery and Treatment of Waste Pro-
ducts of all kinds. By Dr. THEopor KoLLerR. Translated from the
Second Revised German Edition. Twenty-two Illustrations. Demy
8vo. 280 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
The Waste of Towns—Ammonia and Sal-Ammoniac—Rational Processes for Obtaining
these Substances by Treating Residues and Waste—Residues in the Manufacture of Aniline
Dyes—Amber Waste—Brewers' Waste—Blood and Slaughter-House Refuse—Manufactured
Fuels—Waste Paper and Bookbinders’ Waste—Iron Slags—Excrement—Colouring Matters
from Waste—Dyers' Waste Waters—Fat from Waste—Fish Waste—Calamine Sludge—
Tannery Waste—Gold and Silver Waste—India-rubber and Caoutchouc Waste—Residues in
the Manufacture of Rosin Oil—Wood Waste—Horn Waste—Infusorial Earth—Iridium from
Goldsmiths’ Sweepings—Jute Waste—Cork Waste—Leather Waste—Glue Makers’ Waste
—Illuminating Gas from Waste and the By-Products of the Manufacture of Coal Gas—
Meerschum—Molasses—Metal Waste—By-Products in the Manufacture of Mineral Waters
—Fruit—The By-Products of Paper and Paper Pulp Works—By-Products in the Treatment
of Coal Tar Oils—Fur Waste—The Waste Matter in the Manufacture of Parchment Paper
—Mother of Pearl Waste—Petroleum_ Residues—Platinum Residues—Broken Porcelain.
Earthenware and Glass—Salt Waste—Slate Waste—Sulphur—Burnt Pyrites—Silk Waste—
Soap Makers’ Waste—Alkali Waste and the Recovery of Soda—Waste Produced in Grinding
Mirrors—Waste Products in the Manufacture of Starch—Stearic Acid—Vegetable Ivory
Waste—Turf—Waste Waters of Cloth Factories—Wine Residues—Tinplate Waste—Wool
Waste—Wool Sweat—The Waste Liquids from Sugar Works—Index.
11
Writing Inks and Sealing Waxes.
INK MANUFACTURE : Including Writing, Copying, Litho-
graphic, Marking, Stamping, and Laundry Inks. By Sicmunp LEHNER.
Three lilustrations. Crown 8vo. 162 pp. Translated from the German
of the Fifth Edition. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s. ; net.
oe ie Contents.
Varieties of Ink—Writing Inks—Raw Materials of Tannin Inks—The Chemical Constitution
of the Tannin Inks—Recipes for Tannin Inks—Logwood Tannin Inks—Ferric Inks—Alizarine
Inks—Extract Inks—Logwood Inks—Copying Inks—Hektographs—Hektograph Inks—Safety
Inks—Ink Extracts and Powders—Preserving Inks—Changes in Ink and the Restoration of
Faded Writing—Coloured Inks—Red Inks—Blue Inks—Violet Inks—Yellow Inks—Green
Inks—Metallic Inks—Indian Ink—Lithographic Inks and Pencils—Ink Pencils—Marking Inks
—Ink Specialities—Sympathetic Inks—Stamping Inks—Laundry or Washing Blue—Index.
SEALING-WAXES, WAFERS AND OTHER ADHES-
IVES FOR THE HOUSEHOLD, OFFICE, WORK-
SHOP AND FACTORY. By H.C. Sranpace. Crown
8vo. 96 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries,
6s. ; strictly net.
Contents. :
Materials Used for Making Sealing-Waxes—The Manufacture of Sealing-Waxes—
Wafers—Notes on the Nature of the Materials Used in Making Adhesive Compounds—Cements
for Use in the Household—Office Gums, Pastes and Mucilages—Adhesive Compounds for
Factory and Workshop Use.
Lead Ores and Compounds.
LEAD AND ITS COMPOUNDS. By Tuos. Lamssrrt,
Technical and Consulting Chemist. Demy 8vo. 226 pp. Forty I{lus-
trations. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; net. Plans and Diagrams.
Contents.
History—Ores of Lead—Geographical Distribution of the Lead Industry—Chemical and
Physical Propevibs of Lead—Alloys of Lead—Compounds of Lead—Dressing of Lead Ores
—Smelting of Lead Ores—Smelting in the Scotch or American Ore-hearth—Smelting in the
Shaft or Blast Furnace—Condensation of Lead Fume—Desilverisation, or the Separation
of Silver from Argentiferous Lead—Cupellation—The Manufacture of Lead Pipes and
Sheets—Protoxide of Lead—Litharge and Massicot—Red Lead or Minium—Lead Poisoning
—tLead Substitutes—Zinc and its Compounds—Pumice Stone—Drying Oils and Siccatives
—Oil of Turpentine Resin—Classification of Mineral Pigments—Analysis of Raw and Finished
Products—Tables—Index.
NOTES ON LEAD ORES: Their Distribution and Properties.
By Jas. FairiE, F.G.S. Crown 8vo. 64 pages. Price 2s. 6d.; Abroad
3s. ; strictly net.
Industrial Hygiene.
THE RISKS AND DANGERS TO HEALTH OF VARI-
OUS OCCUPATIONS AND THEIR PREVENTION.
By Leonarp A. Parry, M.D., B.Sc. (Lond.). 196 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly
t,
= Contents.
Occupations which are Accompanied by the Generation and Scattering of Abnormal!
Quantities of Dust—Trades in which there is Danger of Metallic Poisoning—C ertain Chemi-
cal Trades—Some Miscell. nus O ions—Trades in which Various Poiso nous Vapours
are Inhaled—General Hygienic Considerations—Index.
12
Industrial Uses of Air, Steam and
Water.
DRYING BY MEANS OF AIR AND STEAM. Explana-
tions, Formulz, and Tables for Use in Practice. Translated from the
German of E. Hauspranb. Two folding Diagrams and Thirteen Tables.
Crown 8vo. 72 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
British and Metric Systems Compared—Centigrade and Fahr. Thermometers—Estimation
of the Maximum Weight of Saturated Aqueous Vapour which can be contained in 1 kilo.
of Air at Different Pressure and Temperatures—Calculation of the Necessary Weight and
Volume of Air, and of the Least Expenditure of Heat, per Drying Apparatus with Heated
Air, at the Atmospheric Pressure: 4, With the Assumption that the Air is Sey Satur-
ated with Vapour both before Entry and after Exit from the Apparatus—B, When the
Atmospheric Air is Completely Saturated before entry, but at its exit is only 2, 4 or } Saturated
—C, When the Atmospheric Air is not Saturated with Moisture before Entering the Drying
Apparatus—Drying Apparatus, in which, in the Drying Chamber, a Pressure is Artificially
Created, Higher or Lower than that of the Atmosphere—Drying by Means of Superheated
Steam, without Air—Heating Surface, Velocity of the Air Current, Dimensions of the Drying
Room, Surface of the Drying Material, Losses of Heat—Index.
See also ‘‘ Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling Apparatus,” p. 27.
8 gs
PURE AIR, OZONE AND WATER. A Practical Treatise
of their Utilisation and Value in Oil, Grease, Soap, Paint, Glue and
other Industries. By W. B. CowELL. Twelve Illustrations. Crown
8vo. 85 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries,
6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Atmospheric Air; Lifting of Liquids; Suction Process; Preparing Blown Oils; Preparing
Siccative Drying Oils—Compressed Air; Whitewash—Liquid Air; Retrocession—Purification
of Water; Water Hardness—Fleshings and Bones—Ozonised Air in the Bleaching and De-
odorising of Fats, Glues, etc.; Bleaching Textile Fibres—Appendix: Air and Gases; Pressure
of Air at Various Temperatures; Fuel; Table of Combustibles; Saving of Fuel by Heating
Feed Water; Table of Solubilities of Scale Making Minerals; British Thermal Units Tables;
Volume of the Flow of Steam into the Atmosphere; Tet perature of Steam—Index.
THE INDUSTRIAL USES OF WATER. COMPOSI-
TION — EFFECTS—TROUBLES — REMEDIES—RE-
SIDUARY WATERS—PURIFICATION—ANALYSIS.
By H. DE La Coux. Royal 8vo. Translated from the French and
Revised by ARTHUR Morris. 364 pp. 135 Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d.;
Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s. ; strictly net.
Contents.
Chemical Action of Water in Nature and in Industrial Use—Composition of Waters—
Solubility of Certain Salts in Water Considered from the Industria! Point of View—Effects on
the Boiling of Water—Effects of Water in the Industries—Difficulties with Water—Feed
Water for Boilers—Water in Dyeworks, Print Works, and Bleach Works—Water in the
Textile Industries and in Conditioning—Water in Soap Works—Water in Laundries and
Washhouses—Water in Tanning—Water in Preparing Tannin and Dyewood Extracts—Water
in Papermaking—Water in Photography—Water in Sugar Refining—Water in Making Ices
and Beverages—Water in Cider Making—Water in Brewing—Water in Distilling—Preliminary
Treatment and Apparatus—Substances Used for Preliminary Chemical Purification—Com-
mercial Specialities and their Employment—Precipitation of Matters in Suspension in Water
—Apparatus for the Preliminary Chemical Purification of Water—Industrial Filters—Indus-
trial Sterilisation of Water—Residuary Waters and their Purification—Soil Filtration—
Purification by Chemical Processes—Analyses—Index.
(See Books on Smoke Prevention, Engineering and Metallurgy, p. 26, etc.)
13
X Rays.
PRACTICAL X RAY WORK. By Frank T. Appyman,
B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., Member of the Roentgen Society of London;
Radiographer to St. George’s Hospital; Demonstrator of Physics and
Chemistry, and Teacher of Radiography in St. George’s Hospita)
Medical School. Demy 8vo. Twelve Plates from Photographs of X Ray
Work. Fifty-two Illustrations. 200 pp. Price 10s. 6d.; India and
Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Historical—Work leading up to the Discovery of the X Rays—The Discovery—Appara=
tus and its Management—Electrical Terms—Sources of Electricity—Induction Colle
Electrostatic Machines—Tubes—Air Pumps—Tube Holders and Stereoscopic Apparatus—
Fluorescent Screens—Practical X Ray Work-—Installations—Radioscopy—Radiography—
X Rays in Dentistry—X Rays in Chemistry—X Rays in War—Index.
ee . : List of Plates.
Frontispiece—Congenital Dislocation of Hip-Joint.—I., Needle in Finger—II., Needle in
Foot.—III., Revolver Bullet in Calf and Leg.—IV., A Method of Localisation.—V., Stellate
Fracture of Patella showing shadow of ‘ Strapping ".—VI., Sarcoma,—VII., Six-weeks-old
Injury to Elbow showing new Growth of Bone.—VIII., Old Fracture of Tibia and Fibula
badly set.—IX., Heart Shadow.—X., Fractured Femur showing Grain of Splint.—XI., Bar-
rell’s Method of Localisation.
India-Rubber and Gutta Percha.
INDIA-RUBBER AND GUTTA PERCHA. Translated
from the French of T. SEELIGMANN, G. Lamy TorviILHON and H.
FAaLcONNET by JOHN GeppDES McInTosH. Royal 8vo.
[Out of print. Second Edition in preparation.
Contents.
India- Rubber—Botanical Origin—Climatology—Soil—Rational Culture and Acclimation
of the Different Spezies of India-Rubber Plants—Methods of Obtaining the Latex—Methods
of Preparing Raw or Crude India-Rubber—Classification of the Commercial Species of
Raw Rubber—Physical and Chemical Properties of the Latex and of India-~-Rubber—
Mechanical Transfurmation of Natural Caoutchouc into Washed or Normal Caoutchouc
(Purification) and Normal Rubber into Masticated Rubber—Softening, Cutting, Washing,
Drying—Preliminary Observations—Vulcanisation of Normal Rubber—Chemical and Physical
Properties of Vulcanised Rubber—General Considerations—Hardened Rubber or Ebonite—
Considerations on Mineralisation and other Mixtures—Coloration and Dyeing—Analysis
of Natural or Normal Rubber and Vulcanised Rubber—Rubber Substitutes—Imitation Rubber,
Gutta Percha—Botanical Origin—Climatology—Soil—Rational Culture—Methods of
Collection—Classification of the Different Species of Commercial Gutta Percha—Physical
and Chemical Properties—Mechanical Transformation—Methods of Analysing—Gutta Percha
Substitutes—Index.
Leather Trades.
PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE LEATHER IN-
DUSTRY. By A. M. Vitton. Translated by Frank T.
AppymaN, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C., F.C.S.; and Corrected by an Emi-
nent Member of the Trade. 500 pp., royal 8vo. 123 Illustrations.
Price 21s.; India and Colonies, 22s.; Other Countries, 23s. 6d.; strictly
net.
Contents.
Preface—Translator’s Preface—List of Illustrations. . . ;
Part I., Materials used in Tanning—Skins: Skin and its Structure; Skins used in
Tanning; Various Skins and their Uses—Tannin and Tanning Substances: Tannin; Barks
(Oak); Barks other than Oak; Tanning Woods; Tannin-bearing Leaves; Excrescences ;
Tan-bearing Fruits; Tan-bearing Roots and Bulbs; Tanning Juices; Tanning Substances
used in Various Countries; Tannin Extracts; Estimation of Tannin and Tannin Principles.
Part II., Tanning—The Installation of a Tannery: Tan Furnaces; Chimneys, Boilers,
-etc,; Steam Engines—Grinding and Trituration of Tanning Substances: Cutting up Bark;
Grinding Bark; The Grinding of Tan Woods; Powdering Fruit, Galls and Grains; Notes on
14d
the Grinding of Bark—Manufacture of Sole Leather: Soaking; Sweating and Unhairing ;
Plumping and Colouring; Handling; Tanning; Tanning Elephants’ Hides; Drying;
Striking or Pinning—Manufacture of Dressing Leather: Soaking; Depilation; New Pro-
cesses for the Depilation of Skins; Tanning; Cow Hides; Horse Hides; Goat Skins; Manu-
acture of Split Hides—On Various Methods of Tanning: Mechanical Methods; Physical
Methods; Chemical Methods; Tanning with Extracts—Quantity and Quality; Quantity;
Net Cost; Quality of Leather—Various Manipulations of Tanned Leather: Second Tanning;
Grease Stains; Bleaching Leather; Waterproofing Leather; Weighting Tanned Leather;
Preservation of Leather—Tanning Various Skins. eae
Part III., Currying — Waxed Calf: Preparation; Shaving; Stretching or Slicking;
Oiling the Grain; Oiling the Flesh Side; Whitening and Graining; Waxing; Finishing; Dry
Finishing; Finishing in Colour; Cost — White Calf: Finishing in White—Cow Hide for
Upper Leathers: Black Cow Hide; White Cow Hide; Coloured Cow Hide—Smooth Cow
Hide—Black Leather—Miscellaneous Hides: Horse; Goat; Waxed Goat Skin; Matt Goat
Skin—Russia Leather: Russia Leather; Artificial Russia Leather.
Part IV., Enamelled, Hungary and Chamov Leather, Morocco, Parchment, Furs
and Artificial Leather—Enamelied Leather: Varnish Manufacture; Application of the
Enamel; Enamelling in Colour—Hungary Leather: Preliminary; Wet Work or Prepara-
tion; Aluming; Dressing or Loft Work; Tallowing; Hungary Leather from Various Hides
—Tawing: Preparatory Operations; Dressing; Dyeing Tawed Skins; Rugs—Chamoy Leather
—Morocco: Preliminary Operations, Morocco Tanning: Mordants used in Morocco Manu-
facture; Natural Colours used in Morocco Dyeing; Artificial Colours; Different Methods
of Dyeing; Dyeing with Natural Colours; Dyeing with Aniline Colours; Dyeing with
Metallic Salts; Leather Printing; Finishing Morocco; Shagreen; Bronzed Leather—Gilding
and Silvering: Gilding; Silvering; Nickel and Cobalt—Parchment—Furs and Furriery:
Preliminary Remarks; Ladigenous Furs; Foreign Furs from Hot Countries; Foreign Furs
from Cold Countries; Furs from Birds’ Skins; Preparation of Furs; Dressing; Colouring;
Preparation of Birds’ Skins; Preservation of Furs—Artificial Leather: Leather made from
Scraps; Compressed Leather; American Cloth; Papier Maché; Linoleum; Artificial Leather.
Part V., Leather Testing and the Theory of Tanning—Testing and Analysis of Leather :
Physical Testing of Tanned Leather; Chemical Analysis—The Theory of Tanning and the
other Operations of the Leather and Skin Industry: Theory of Soaking; Theory of Un-
hairing; Theory of Swelling; Theory of Handling; Theory of Tanning; Theory of the
Action of Tannin on the Skin; Theory of Hungary Leather Making; Theory of Tawing;
Theory of Chamoy Leather Making; Theory of Mineral Tanning.
Part VI., Uses of Leather—Machine Belts: Manufacture of Belting; Leather Chain
Belts; Various Belts, Use of Belts—Boot and Shoe-making: Boots and Shoes; Laces—
Saddlery: Composition of a Saddle; Construction of a Saddle—Harness: The Pack Saddle;
Harness—Military Equipment—Glove Making—Carriage Building—Mechanical Uses.
Appendix, The World’s Commerce in Leather—Europe; America; Asia; Africa;
Australasia—Index.
THE LEATHER WORKER’S MANUAL. Being a Com-
pendium of Practical Recipes and Working Formule for Curriers,
Bootmakers, Leather Dressers, Blacking Manufacturers, Saddlers,
Fancy Leather Workers. By H.C. STANDAGE. 165 pp. Price 7s. 6d. ;
India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net,
Contents.
Blackings, Polishes, Glosses, Dressings, Renovators, etc., for Boot and Shoe Leather—
Harness Blackings, Dressings, Greases, Compositions, Soaps, and Boot-top Powders and
Liquids, etc., etc.—Leather Grinders’ Sundries—Currier’s Seasonings, Blacking Compounds,
Dressings, Finishes, Glosses, etc.—Dyes and Stains for Leather—Miscellaneous Information
—Chrome Tannage—Index.
Books on Pottery, Bricks,
Tiles, Glass, etc.
THE MANUAL OF PRACTICAL POTTING. Compiled
by Experts, and Edited by Cuas. F. Binns. Revised Third Edition
and Enlarged. 200 pp. Price 17s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 18s. 6d. ;
Other Countries, 20s.; strictly net.
15
Contents.
Introduction. The Rise and Progress of the Potter’s Art—Bodies. China and Porcelain
Bodies, Parian Bodies, Semi-porcelain and Vitreous Bodies, Mortar Bodies, Earthenwares
Granite and C.C. Bodies, Miscellaneous Bodies, Sagger and Crucible Clays, Coloured
Bodies, Jasper Bodies, Coloured Bodies for Mosaic Painting, Encaustic Tile Bodies, Body
Stains, Coloured Dips—Glazes. China Glazes, Ironstone Glazes, Earthenware Glazes,
Glazes without Lead, Miscellaneous Glazes, Coloured Glazes, Majolica Colours—Gold and
Gold Colours. Gold, Purple of Cassius, Marone and Ruby, Enamel Coloured Bases,
Enamel Colour Fluxes, Enamel Colours, Mixed Enamel Colours, Antique and Vellum
Enamel Colours, Underglaze Colours, Underglaze Colour Fluxes, Mixed Underglaze Colours,
Flow Powders, Oils and Varnishes—Means and Methods. Reclamation of Waste Gold,
The Use of Cobalt, Notes on Enamel Colours, Liquid or Bright Gold—Classification and
Analysis. Classification of Clay Ware, Lord Playfair’s Analysis of Clays, The Markets of
the orld, Time and Scale of Firing, Weights of Potter’s Material, Decorated Goods
Count—Comparative Loss of Weight of Clays—Ground Felspar Calculations—The Conver-
sion of Slop Body Recipes into Dry Weight—The Cost of Prepared Earthenware Clay—
Forms and Tables. Articles of Apprenticeship, Manufacturer’s Guide to Stocktaking,
Table of Relative Values of Potter's Materials, Hourly Wages Table, Workman's Settling
Table, Comparative Guide for Earthenware and China Manufacturers in the use of Slop Flint
and Slop Stone, Foreign Terms applied to Earthenware and China Goods, Table for the
Conversion of Metrical Weights and Measures on the Continent and South America—Index.
CERAMIC TECHNOLOGY: Being some Aspects of Tech-
nical Science as Applied to Pottery Manufacture. Edited by CHARLES
F. Binns. 100 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
13s. 6d.; Other Countries, 15s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Preface—The Chemistry of Pottery — Analysis and Synthesis — Clays and their Com-
ponents — The Biscuit Oven — Pyrometry — Glazes and their Composition — Colours and
Colour-making—Index,.
A TREATISE ON THE CERAMIC INDUSTRIES. A
Complete Manual for Pottery, Tile and Brick Works, By EmiLe
Bourry. Translated from the French by WiLTon P. Rix, Examiner
in Pottery and Porcelain to the City and Guilds of London Technical
Institute, Pottery Instructor to the Hanley School Board. Royal
-8vo, 760 pp. 323 Illustrations. Price 21s.; India and Colonies, 22s. ;
Other Countries, 23s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Part I., General Pottery Methods. Definition and History. Definitions and Classifi-
cation of Ceramic Products—Historic Summary of the Ceramic Art—Raw Materials of
Bodies. Clays: Pure Clay and Natural Clays—Various Raw Materials: Analogous to Clay—
Agglomerative and Agglutinative—Opening—Fusible—Refractory—Trials of Raw Materials
—Plastic Bodies. Properties and Composition—Preparation of Raw Materials: Disaggrega-
tion—Purification—Preparation of Bodies: By Plastic Method—By Dry Method—By Liquid
Method—Formation. Processes of Formation: Throwing—Expression— Moulding by Hand,
on the Jolley, by Compression, by Slip Casting—Slapping—Slipping—Drying. Drying _of
Bodies—Processes of Drying: By Evaporation—By Aeration—By Heating—By Ventilation
—By Absorption — Glazes. Composition and Properties—Raw Materials — Manufacture
and Application—Firing. Properties of the Bodies and Glazes during Firing—Description
of the Kilns—Working of the Kilns — Decoration. Colouring Materials — Processes of
Decoration. , 3 . ‘
Part II., Special Pottery Methods. Terra Cottas. Classification: Plain Ordinary,
Hollow, Ornamental, Vitrified, and Light Bricks—Ordinary and Black Tiles—Paving Tiles—:
Pipes—Architectural Terra Cottas—Vases, Statues and Decorative Objects—Common Pottery
—Pottery for Water and Filters—Tobacco Pipes—Lustre Ware—Properties and Tests for
Terra Cottas — Fireclay Goods. Classification: Argillaceous, Aluminous, Carboniferous,
Silicious and Basic Fireclay Goods—Fireclay Mortar (Pug)—Tests for Fireclay Goods—
Faiences. Varnished Faiences-Enamelled Faiences—Silicious Faiences—Pipeclay Faiences
—Pebble Work—Feldspathic Faiences—Composition, Processes of Manufacture and General
Arr ts of Fai Potteries—Stoneware. Stoneware Properly So-called: Paving
Tiles —Pipes—Sanitary Ware—Stoneware for Food Purposes. and Chemical Productions—
Architectural Stoneware—Vases, Statues and other Decorative Objects—Fine Stoneware
—Porcelain. Hard Porcelain for Table Ware and Decoration, for the Fire, for Electrical
Conduits, for Mechanical Purposes; Architectural Porcelain, and Dull or Biscuit Porcelain—
Soft Phosphated or English Porcelain—Soft Vitreous Porcelain, French and New Sévres—
Argillaceous Soft or Seger’s Porcelain—Dull Soft or Parian Porcelain—Dull Feldspathic
Soft Porcelain—Index.
16
ARCHITECTURAL POTTERY. Bricks, Tiles, Pipes, Ena-
melled Terra-cottas, Ordinary and Incrusted Quarries, Stoneware
Mosaics, Faiences and Architectural Stoneware. By LEon LEFEVRE.
With Five Plates. 950 Illustrations in the Text, and numerous estimates.
500 pp., royal 8vo. Translated from the French by K. H. Biro, M.A.,
and W. Moore Binns. Price 15s.; India and Colonies, 16s. ; Other
Countries, 17s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Part I. Plain Undecorated Pottery.—Clays, Bricks, Tiles, Pipes, Chimney Flues,
Terra-cotta.
Part II. Made-up or Decorated Pottery.
THE ART OF RIVETING GLASS, CHINA AND
EARTHENWARE. By J. Howartu. Second Edition.
Paper Cover. Price 1s. net; by post, home or abroad, 1s. 1d.
NOTES ON POTTERY CLAYS. Their Distribution, Pro-
perties, Uses and Analyses of Ball Clays, China Clays and China
Stone. By Jas. Fairie, F.G.S. 132 pp. Crown 8yo. Price 3s. 6d. ;
India and Colonies, 4s.; Other Countries, 4s. 6d.; strictly net.
A Reissue of
THE HISTORY OF THE STAFFORDSHIRE POTTER.
IES; AND THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF THE
MANUFACTURE OF POTTERY AND PORCELAIN.
With References to Genuine Specimens, and Notices of Eminent Pot-
ters. By Simeon SHaw. (Originally Published in 1829.) 265 pp.
Demy 8vo. Price 7s. Gd.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Introductory Chapter showing the position of the Pottery Trade at the present time
(1899)—Preliminary Remarke The Potteries, comprising Tunstall, Brownhills, Green-
field and New Field, Golden Hill, Latebrook, Green Lane, Burslem, Longport and Dale Hall,
Hot Lane and Cobridge, Hanley and Shelton, Etruria, Stoke, Penkhull, Fenton, Lane Delph,
Foley, Lane End—On the Origin of the Art, and its Practice among the early Nations—
Manufacture of Pottery, prior to 1700—The Introduction of Red Porcelain by Messrs.
Elers, of Bradwell, 1690—Progress of the Manufacture from 1700 to Mr. Wedgwood’s
commencement in 1760—Introduction of Fluid Glaze—Extension of the Manufacture of
Cream Colour—Mr. Wedgwood's Queen’s Ware—Jasper, and Appointment of Potter to Her
Majesty—Black Printing—Introduction of Porcelain. Mr. W. Littler’s Porcelain—Mr.
Cookworthy's Discovery of Kaolin and Petuntse, and Patent—Sold to Mr. Champion—re-
sold to the New Hall Com.—Extension of Term—Blue Printed Pottery. Mr. Turner, Mr.
Spode (1), Mr. Baddeley, Mr. Spode (2), Messrs. Turner, Mr. Wood, Mr. Wilson, Mr. Minton—
Great Change in Patterns of Blue Printed—Introduction of Lustre Pottery. Improve-
ments in Pottery and Porcelain subsequent to 1800.
A Reissue of
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SEVERAL NATURAL
AND ARTIFICIAL HETEROGENEOUS COM.
POUNDS USED IN MANUFACTURING POR-
CELAIN, GLASS AND POTTERY. By Simeon Suaw.
(Originally published in 1837.) 750 pp. Royal 8vo. Price 14s.; India
and Colonies, 15s.; Other Countries, 16s. 6d.; strictly net.
17
Contents.
PART L, ANALYSIS AND MATERIALS.—Introauction: Laboratory and Apparatus:
€lements—Temperature—Acids and Alkalies—The Earths—Metals. ~
PART II., SYNTHESIS AND COMPOUNDS.—Science of Mixing—Bodies : Porcelain
—Hard, Porcelain—Fritted Bodies, Porcelain—Raw Bodies, Porcelain—Soft, Fritted Bodies,
Raw Bodies, Stone Bodies, Ironstone, Dry Bodies, Chemical Utensils, Fritted Jasper, Fritted
Pearl, Fritted Drab, Raw Chemical Utensils, Raw Stone, Raw Jasper, Raw Pearl, Raw Mortar,
Raw Drab, Raw Brown, Raw Fawn, Raw Cane, Raw Red Porous, Raw Egyptian, Earthenware,
Queen’s Ware, Cream Colour, Blue and Fancy Printed, Dipped and Mocha, Chalky, Rings,
Stilts, ete—Glazes: Porcelain—Hard Fritted Porcelain—Soft Fritted Porcelain — Soft
Raw, Cream Colour Porcelain, Blue Printed Porcelain, Fritted Glazes, Analysis of Fritt,
Analysis of Glaze, Coloured Glazes, Dips, Smears and Washes; Glasses: Flint Glass,
Coloured Glasses, Artificial Garnet, Artificial Emerald, Artificial Amethyst, Artificial Sap-
phire, Artificial Opal, Plate Glass, Crown Glass, Broad Glass, Bottle Glass, Phosphoric Glass,
British Steel Glass, Glass-Staining and Painting, Engraving on Glass, Dr. Faraday’s Experi-
ments—Colours: Colour Making, Fluxes or Solvents, Components of the Colours; Reds,
etc., from Gold, Carmine or Rose Colour, Purple, Reds, etc., from Iron, Blues, Yellows,
Greens, Blacks. White, Silver for Burnishing, Gold for Burnishing, Printer’s Oil, Lustres.
TABLES OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES.
Glassware, Glass Staining and
Painting.
RECIPES FOR FLINT GLASS MAKING. By a British
Glass Master and Mixer. Sixty Recipes. Being Leaves from the
Mixing Book of several experts in the Flint Glass Trade, containing
up-to-date recipes and valuable information as to Crystal, Demi-crystal
and Coloured Glass in its many varieties. It contains the recipes for
che&p metal suited to pressing, blowing, etc., as well as the most costly
erystal and ruby. Crown 8vo. Price for United Kingdom, 10s. 6d. ;
Abroad, 15s.; United States, $4; strictly net.
Contents.
Ruby—Ruby from Copper—Flint tor using with the Ruby for Coating—A German Metal—
Cornelian, or Alabaster—Sapphire Blue—Crysophis—Opal—Turquoise Blue—Gold Colour—
Dark Green—Green (common)—Green for Malachite—Blue for Malachite—Black for Mela-
chite—Black—Common Canary Batch—Canary—White Opaque Glass—Sealing-wax Red—
Flint—Flint Glass (Crystal and Demi)—Achromatic Glass—Paste Glass—White Enamel—
Firestone— Dead White (for moons)—White Agate—Canary—Canary Enamel—Index.
A TREATISE ON THE ART OF GLASS PAINTING.
Prefaced with a Review of Ancient Glass. By ERNesT R. SUFFLING.
With One Coloured Plate and Thirty-seven Illustrations. Demy 8vo.
140 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d. net.
Contents.
A Short History of Stained Glass—Designing Scale Drawings—Cartoons and the Cut Line
—Various Kinds of Glass Cutting for Windows—The Colours and Brushes used in Glass
Painting—Painting on Glass, Dispersed Patterns—Diapered Patterns—Aciding—Firing—
Fret Lead Glazing—Index.
PAINTING ON GLASS AND PORCELAIN AND
ENAMEL PAINTING. A Complete Introduction to the
Preparation of all the Colours and Fluxes used for Painting on Porce-
lain, Enamel, Faience and Stoneware, the Coloured Pastes and Col-
oured Glasses, together with a Minute Description of the Firing of
Colours and Enamels. By FELIX HERMANN, Technical Chemist. With
Eighteen Illustrations. 300 pp. Translated from the German second
and enlarged Edition. Price 10s. 6d. ; India and Colonies, 11s.; Other
Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
18
Contents. ;
History of Glass Painting—The Articles to be Painted : Glass, Porcelain, Enamel, Stone-
ware, Faience—Pigments: Metallic Pigments: Antimony Oxide, Naples Yellow, Barium
Chromate, Lead Chromate, Silver Chloride, Chromic Oxide—Fluxes: Fluxes, Felspar,
Quartz, Purifying Quartz, Sedi tation, QO: hi Borax, Boracie Acid, Potassium and
Sodium Carbonates, Rocaille Flux — Preparation of the Colours for Glass Painting — The
Colour Pastes—The Coloured Glasses—Composition of the Porcelain Colours—The Enamel
Colours: Enamels for Artistic Work—Metallic Ornamentation: Porcelain Gilding, Glass
Gilding—Firing the Colours: Remarks on Firing: Firing Colours on Glass, Firing Colours on
Ponceinias The Muffle—Accidents occasionally Supervening during the Process of Firing—
Remarks on the Different Methods of Painting on Glass, Porcelain, etc.—Appendix: Cleaning
Old Glass Paintings.
Paper Staining.
THE DYEING OF PAPER PULP. A Practical Treatise for
the use of Papermakers, Paperstainers, Students and others. By
JuLius Errurt, Manager of a Paper Mill. Translated into English
and Edited with Additions by Jutius Husner, F.C.S., Lecturer on
Papermaking at the Manchester Municipal Technical School. With
Illustrations and 157 patterns of paper dyed in the pulp. Royal
8vo, 180 pp. Price 15s.; India and Colonies, 16s. ; Other Countries,
20s.; strictly net. Limited edition.
Contents.
Behaviour of the Paper Fibres during the Process of Dyeing, Theory of the
Mordant—Colour Fixing Mediums (Mordants)—Influence of the Quality of the Water
Used—Inorganic Colours—Organic Colours—Practical Application of the Coal Tar
Colours according to their Properties and their Behaviour towards the Different
Paper Fibres—Dyed Patterns on Various Pulp Mixtures—Dyeing to Shade—Index.
Enamelling on Metal. .
ENAMELS AND ENAMELLING. For Enamel Makers,
Workers in Gold and Silver, and Manufacturers of Objects of Art.
By Paut Ranpav. Translated from the German. With Sixteen Illus-
trations. Demy 8vo. 180 pp. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
1ls.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Composition and Properties of Glass—Raw Materials for the Manufacture of Enamels—
Substances Added to Produce Opacity—Fluxes—Pigments—Decolorising Agents—Testing
the Raw Materials with the Blow-pipe Flame—Subsidiary Materials— Preparing the
Materials for Enamel Making—Mixing the Materials—The Preparation of Technical Enamels,
The Enamel Mass—Appliances for Smelting the Enamel Mass—Smelting the Charge—
Composition of Enamel Masses—Composition of Masses for Ground Enamels—Composition
of Cover Enamels—Preparing the Articles for Enamelling—Applying the Enamel—Firing
the Ground, Enamel—Applying and Firing the Cover Enamel or Glaze—Repairing Defects
in Enamelled Ware—Enamelling Articles of Sheet Metal—Decorating Enamelled Ware—
Specialities in Enamelling—Dial-plate Enamelling—Enamels for Artistic Purposes, Recipes
for Enamels of Various Colours—Index.
THE ART OF ENAMELLING ON METAL. By W.
NormAN Brown. Twenty-eight Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 60 pp:
Price 2s. 6d.; Abroad, 3s.; strictly net.
Silk Manufacture.
SILK THROWING AND WASTE SILK SPINNING.
By Hoiiins Rayner. Demy 8vo. 170 pp. 117 Illus. Price 5s.;
Colonies, 5s, 6d.; Other Countries, 6s. ; strictly net.
F Contents.
The Silkworm—Cocoon Reeling and Qualities of Silk—Silk Throwing—Silk Wastes—The
Preparation of Silk Waste for Degumming—Silk Waste Deg ing, Schapping and Dis-
charging—The Opening and Dressing of Wastes—Silk Waste “ Drawing” or ‘ Preparing”
Machinery—Long Spinning—Short Spinning—Spinning and Finishing Processes-—Utilisation
of Waste Products—Noil Spinning—Exhaust Noil Spinning.
19
Books on Textile and Dyeing
Subjects,
THE CHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY OF TEXTILE
FIBRES: Their Origin, Structure, Preparation, Washing,
Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing and Dressing. By Dr. GEorG von
GeorGIEvics. Translated from the German by CHARLES SALTER.
320 pp. Forty-seven Illustrations. Royal 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India
and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s. net.
Contents.
The Textile Fibres—Washing, Bleaching, Carbonising—Mordants and Mor-
danting—Dyeing—Printing—Dressing and Finishing.
POWER-LOOM WEAVING AND YARN NUMBERING,
According to Various Systems, with Conversion Tables. Translated
from the German of ANTHON GRUNER. With Twenty-six Diagrams
in Colours. 150 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Power-Loom Weaving in General. Various Systems of Looms—Mounting and
Starting the Power=Loom. English Looms—Tappet or Treadle Looms—-Dobbiss =
General Remarks on the Numbering, Reeling and Packing of Yaru—Appendix— Useful
Hints. Calculating Warps—Weft Calculations—Calculations of Cost Price in Hanks.
TEXTILE RAW MATERIALS AND THEIR CON-
VERSION INTO YARNS. (The Study of the Raw
Materials and the Technology of the Spinning Process.) By JuLius
ZIPSER. Translated from German by CHARLES SALTER. 302 IIlus-
trations. 500 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
1ls.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
PART I.—The Raw Materials Used in the Textile Industry.
MINERAL Raw MaTERIALS. VEGETABLE RAw MATERIALS. ANIMAL RAW MATERIALS.
PART II.—The Technology of Spinning or the Conversion of Textile Raw
Materials into Yarn. J
SPINNING VEGETABLE RAW MaTEeERIALS. Cotton Spinning—Installation of a Cotton
Mill—Spinning Waste Cotton and Waste Cotton Yarns—Flax Spinning—Fine Spinning—Tow
Spinning—Hemp Spinning—Spinning Hemp Tow String—Jute Spinning—Spinning Jute Line
Yarn—Utilising Jute Waste.
PART III.—Spinning Animal Raw Materials. aha
Spinning Carded Woollen Yarn—Finishing Yarn—Worsted Spinning—Finishing Worsted
Yarn—Artificial Wool or Shoddy Spinning—Shoddy and Mungo Manufacture—Spinning
Shoddy and other Wool Substitutes—Spinning Waste Silk—Chappe Silk—Fine Spinning—
Index.
THE GRAMMAR OF TEXTILE DESIGNING. By H.
NisBet. With many Illustrations. (In the press.
: Contents.
Introduction—The Plain or Calico Weave and its Modifications—Twill and Kindred
Weaves—Diamond and Kindred Weaves—Bedford Cords—Backed Fabrics—Fustians—Terry
Pile Fabrics—Gauze and Leno Fabrics—Tissue, Lappet and Swivel Figuring—Ondulé and
Lapped Effects.
HOME LACE-MAKING. A Handbook for Teachers and
Pupils. By M.E. W. Mirroy. Illustrated with Diagrams. Crown 8vo.
64 pp. Price 1s. net, post free in United Kingdom ; Abroad, 1s. 6d. net.
20
THE CHEMISTRY OF HAT MANUFACTURING. Lec-
tures delivered before the Hat Manufacturers’ Association. Revised
and Edited by ALBERT SHONK. With 16 Illustrations. [In the press.
Contents.
Textile Fibres—Wool, Hair, etc.—Water, Chemistry of, and Impurities in—Tests of Purity
—Acids and Alkalies—Boric Acid, Borax, Soap—Shellac, Wood Spirit—Stiffening and Proofing
—Mordants: their Nature and Use—Dyestuffs and Colours—Dyeing of Wool and Fur—
Optical Properties of Colours.
THE TECHNICAL TESTING OF YARNS AND TEX-
TILE FABRICS. With Reference to Official Specifica-
tions. Translated from the German of Dr. J. HERZFELD. Second
Edition. Sixty-nine Illustrations. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d. ;
India and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Yarn T. pee Determining the Yarn Number—Testing the Length of Yarns—
Examination of the External Appearance of Yarn—Determining the Twist of Yarn
and Twist — Determination of Tensile Strength and Elasticity — Estimating the
Percentage of Fat in Yarn—Determination of Moisture (Conditioning)—Appendix.
DECORATIVE AND FANCY TEXTILE FABRICS.
By R. T. Lorp. Manufacturers and Designers of Carpets, Damask,
Dress and all Textile Fabrics. 200 pp. Demy 8vo. 132 Designs and
Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
A Few Hints on Designing Ornamental Textile Fabrics—A Few Hints on Designing Orna-
mental Textile Fabrics (continued)—A Few Hints on Designing Ornamental Textile Fabrics
(continued)—A Few Hints on Designing Ornamental Textile Fabrics (continued)—Hints for
Ruled-paper cig cae va Jacquard Machine—Brussels and Wilton Carpets—Tapestry
Carpets—Ingrain Carpets—Axminster Carpets—Damask and Tapestry Fabrics—Scarf Silks
and Ribbons—Silk Handkerchiefs—Dress Fabrics—Mantle Cloths—Figured Plush —Bed Quilts
—Calico Printing.
THEORY AND PRACTICE OF DAMASK WEAVING.
By H. Kinzer and K. WaLTerR. Royal 8vo. Eighteen Folding Plates.
Six Illustrations. Translated fromthe German. 110 pp. Price 8s. 6d.;
Colonies, 9s.; Other Countries, 9s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
The Various Sorts of Damask Fabrics—Dril! (Ticking, Handloom-made)—Whole
Damask for Tablecloths—Damask with Ground- and Connecting-warp Threads—Furniture
Damask—Lampas or Hangings—Church Damasks—The Manufacture of Whole Damask
—Damask Arrangement with and without Cross-Shedding—The Altered Cone-arrangement—
The Principle of the Corner Lifting Cord—The Roller Principle—The Combination of the
Jacquard with the so-called Damask Machine—The Special Damask Machine—The Combina-
tion of Two Tyings.
FAULTS IN THE MANUFACTURE: OF WOOLLEN
GOODS AND THEIR PREVENTION. By Nicoras
REISER. Translated from the Second German Edition. Crown 8vo.
Sixty-three Illustrations. 170 pp. Price 5s.; Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s. ; strictly net.
Contents.
Improperly Chosen Raw Material or Improper Mixtures—Wrong Treatment of the
Material in Washing, Carbonisation, Drying, Dyeing and Spinning—Improper Spacing of the
Goods in the Loom—Wrong Placing of pour eeene Weight or Width of the Goods
—Breaking of Warp and Weft Threads—Presence of Doubles, Singles, Thick, Loose,
and too Hard Twisted Threads as well as Tangles, Thick Knots and the Like—Errors in
Cross-weaving—Inequalities, i.e, Bands and Stripes—Dirty Borders—Defective Selvedges—
Holes and Buttons—Rubbed Places—Creases—Spots—Loose and Bad Colours—Badly Dyed
Selvedges—Hard Goods— Brittle Goods— Uneven Goods— Removal of: Bands, Stripes
Creases and Spots.
21
SPINNING AND WEAVING CALCULATIONS, especially
relating to Woollens. From the German of N. REISER, Thirty-four
Illustrations. Tables. 160 pp. Demy 8vo. 1904. Price 10s. 6d.;
India and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s. ; strictly net.
‘ : Contents.
Calculating the Raw Material—Proportion of Different Grades of Wool to Furnish a
Mixture at a Given Price—Quantity to Produce a Given Length—Yarn Calculations—Yarn
Number—Working Calculations—Calculating the Reed Count—Cost of Weaving, etc.
WATERPROOFING OF FABRICS. By Dr. S. Mrerzinsxt.
Crown 8vo. 104 pp. 29 Illus. Price 5s.; Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
: eh. Contents.
Introduction—Preliminary Treatment of the Fabric— Waterproofing with Acetate of
Alumina—Impregnation of the Fabric—Drying—Waterproofing with Paraffin—Waterproofing
with Ammonium Cuprate— Waterproofing with Metallic Oxides—Coloured Waterproof
Fabrics—Waterproofing with Gelatine, Tannin, Caseinate of Lime and other Bodies—Manu-
facture of Tarpaulin—British Waterproofing Patents—Index.
HOW TO MAKE A WOOLLEN MILL PAY. By Joun
Mackie. Crown 8vo. 76 pp. 1904. Price 3s. 6d.; Colonies, 4s. ;
Other Countries, 4s. 6d.; net.
’ ; Contents.
Blends, Piles, or Mixtures of Clean Scoured Wools—Dyed Wool Book—The Order Book
—Pattern Duplicate Books—Management and Oversight—Constant Inspection of Mill De-
partments—Importance of Delivering Goods to Time, Shade, Strength, etc.—Plums.
(For ‘‘ Textile Soaps’’ see p. 7.)
Dyeing, Colour Printing,
Matching and Dye-stuffs.
THE COLOUR PRINTING OF CARPET YARNS. Manual
for Colour Chemists and Textile Printers. By Davip PATERSON,
F.C.S. Seventeen Illustrations. 136 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. ;
India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Structure and Constitution of Wool Fibre—Yarn Scouring—Scouring Materials—Water for
Scouring—Bleaching Carpet Yarns—Colour Making for Yarn Printing—Colour Printing
Pastes—Colour Recipes for Yarn Printing—Science of Colour Mixing—Matching of Colours
—‘Hank” Printing—Printing Tapestry Carpet Yarns—Yarn abe ete we Printed
Yarns—Washing of Steamed Yarns—Aniline Colours Suitable for Yarn Printing—Glossary of
Dyes and Dye-wares used in Wood Yarn Printing—Appendix.
THE SCIENCE OF COLOUR MIXING. A Manual in-
tended for the use of Dyers, Calico Printers and Colour Chemists. By
Davip Paterson, F.C.S. Forty-one Illustrations, Five Coloured Plates,
and four Plates showing Eleven Dyed Specimens of Fabrics. 132
pp. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other
Countries, 8s. 6d. ; strictly net.
Contents.
Colour a Sensation; Colours of Illuminated Bodies; Colours of Opaque and Transparent
Bodies; Surface Colour—Analysis of Light; Spectrum; Homogeneous Colours; Ready
Method of Obtaining a Spectrum—Examination of Solar Spectrum; The Spectroscope and
Its Construction; Colourists’ Use of the Spectroscope—Colour by Absorption ; Solutions and
Dyed Fabrics; Dichroic Coloured Fabrics in Gaslight—Colour Primaries of the Scientist
versus the Dyer and Artist; Colour es by Rotation and Lye Dyeing; Hue, Purity,
Brightness; Tints: Shades, Scales, Tones, Sad and Sombre Colours—Colour Mixing; Pure
and Impure Greens, Orange and Violets; Large Variety of Shades from few Colours; Con-
sideration of the Practical Primaries: Red, Yellow and Blue—Secondary Colours; Nomen-
clature of Violet and Purple Group; Tints and Shades of Violet; Changes in Artificial Light
—Tertiary Shades; Broken Hues; Absorption Spectra of Tertiary Shades—Appendix: Four
Plates with Dyed Specimens Illustrating Text—Index.
22
DYERS’ MATERIALS: An Introduction to the Examination,
Evaluation and Application of the most important Substances used in
Dyeing, Printing, Bleaching and Finishing. By Pau HEERMAN, Ph.D.
Translated from the German by. A C. Wricut, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc.
(Lond.). Twenty-four Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 150 pp. Price 5s. ;
India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
COLOUR MATCHING ON TEXTILES. A Manual in-,
tended for the use of Students of Colour Chemistry, Dyeing and
Textile Printing. By Davip Paterson, F.C.S. Coloured Frontis-
piece. Twenty-nine Illustrations and Fourteen Specimens of Dyed
Fabrics. Demy 8vo. 132 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s. ;
Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Colour Vision and Structure of the Eye—Perception of Colour—Primary and Comple-
mentary Colour Sensations—Daylight for Colour Matching—Selection of a Good Pure Light
—Diffused Daylight, Direct Sunlight, Blue Skylight, Variability of Daylight, etc. etc.—
Matching of Hues—Purity and Luminosity of Colours—Matching Bright Hues—Aid of Tinted
Films—Matching Difficulties Arising from Contrast—Examination of Colours by Reflected
and Transmitted Lights—Effect of Lustre and Transparency of Fibres in Colour Matching
—Matching of Colours on Velvet Pile—Optical Properties of Dye-stuffs. Dichroism, Fluor-
escence—Use of Tinted Mediums—Orange Film—Defects of the Eye—Yellowing of the Lens
—Colour Blindness, etc.—Matching of Dyed Silk Trimmings and Linings and Bindings—Its
Difficulties—Behaviour of Shades in Artificial Light—Cclour Matching of Old Fabrics, etc.—
Examination of Dyed Colours under the Artificial Lights—Electric Arc, Magnesium and Dufton,
Gardner Lights, Welsbach, Acetylene, etc.—Testing Qualities of an IIluminant—Influence
of the Absorption Spectrum in Changes of Hue under the Artificial Lights—Study of the
Causes of Abnormal Modifications of Hue, etc.
COLOUR: A HANDBOOK OF THE THEORY OF
COLOUR. By Georce H. Hurst, F.C.S. With Ten
Coloured Plates and Seventy-two Illustrations. 160 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.;
strictly net.
Contents.
Colour and Its Production—Cause of Colour in Coloured Bodies—Colour Pheno-
mena and Theories—The Physiology of Light—Contrast—Colour in Decoration and
Design—Measurement of Colour.
Reissue of
THE ART OF DYEING WOOL, SILK AND COTTON.
Translated from the French of M. HELLoT, M. MacguerR and M. LE
Piveur D’Apuicny. First Published in English in 1789. Six Plates.
Demy 8vo. 446 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other
Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Part I., The Art of Dyeing Wool and Woollen Cloth, Stuffs, Yarn, Worsted, etc.
Part IL, The Art of Dyeing Silk. Part III., The Art of Dyeing Cotton and Linen
Thread, together with the Method of Stamping Silks, Cottons, etc.
THE CHEMISTRY OF DYE-STUFFS. By Dr. Georc Von
GeorcieEvics. Translated from the Second German Edition. 412 pp.
Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 11s. ; Other Countries,
12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Introduction—Coal Tar—Intermediate Products in the Manufacture of - Dye-stuffs—The
Artificial Dye-stuffs (Coal-tar Dyes)—Nitroso Dye-stuffs—Nitro Dye-stuffs—Azo Dye-stuffs—
Substantive Cotton Dye-stuffs—Azoxystilbene Dye stuffs — Hydrazones — Ketoneimides —
Triphenylmethane Dye-stuffs—Rosolic Acid Dye-stutfs—Xanthene Dye-stuffs—Xanthone Dye-
stuffs—Flavones—Oxyketone Dye-stuffs—Quinoline and Acridine Dye-stuffs —Quinonimide
or Diphenylamine Dye-stuffs—The Azine Group: Eurhodines, Safranines and Indulines—
Eurhodines — Safranines — Quinoxalines — Indigo —Dye-stuffs_ of Unknown Constitution —
Sulphur or Sulphine Dye stuffs—Development of the Artificial Dye-stuff Industry—The
Natural Dye-stuffs—Mineral Colours—Index.
23
THE DYEING OF COTTON FABRICS: A Practical
Handbook for the Dyer and Student. By FRANKLIN BEECH, Practical
Colourist and Chemist. 272 pp. Forty-four Illustrations of Bleaching
and Dyeing Machinery. Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d. ; India and Colonies,
8s. ; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Structure and Chemistry of the Cotton Fibre—Scouring and Bleaching of Cotton—Dyeing
Machinery and Dyeing Manipulations—Principles and Practice of Cotton Dyeing—Direct
Dyeing; Direct Dyeing followed by Fixation with Metallic Salts: Direct Dyeing followed by
Fixation with Developers; Direct Dyeing followed by Fixation with Couplers; Dyeing on
Tannic Mordant; Dyeing on Metallic Mordant; Production of Colour Direct upon Cotton
Fibres; Dyeing Cotton by Impregnation with Dye-stuff Solution—Dyeing Union (Mixed Cotton
and Wool) Fabrics—Dyeing Half Silk (Cotton-Silk, Satin) Fabrics—Operations following
Dyeing—Washing, Soaping, Drying—Testing of the Colour of Dyed Fabrics—Experimental
Dyeing and Comparative Dye Testing—Index.
The book contains numerous recipes for the production on Cotton Fabrics of all kinds of a
great range of colours,
THE DYEING OF WOOLLEN FABRICS. By FRANKLIN
BEECH, Practical Colourist and Chemist. Thirty-taree Illustrations.
Demy 8vo. 228 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other
Countries, 8s. 6d. net.
Contents.
The Wool Fibre—Structure, Composition and Properties—Processes Preparatory to Dyeing
—Scouring and Bleaching of Wool—Dyeing Machinery and Dyeing Manipulations—Loose
Wool Dyeing, Yarn Dyeing and Piece Dyeing Machinery—The Principles and Practice of
Wool Dyeing—Properties of Wool Dyeing—Methods of Wool Dyeing—Groups of Dyes—
Dyeing with the Direct Dyes—Dyeing with Basic Dyes—Dyeing with Acid Dyes—Dyeing
with Mordant Dyes—Level Dyeing— Blacks on Wool—Reds on Wool—Mordanting of Wool—
Orange Shades on Wool—Yellow Shades on Wool—Green Shades on Wool—Blue Shades on
Wool—Violet Shades on Wool—Brown Shades on Wool—Mode Colours on Wool—Dyeing
Union (Mixed Cotton Wool) Fabrics—Dyeing of Gloria—Operations following Dyeing—
Washing, Soaping, Drying—Experimental Dyeing and Comparative Dye Testing—Testing of
the Colour of Dyed Fabrics—Index.
Bleaching and Washing.
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE BLEACHING OF
LINEN AND COTTON YARN AND FABRICS. By
L. TAILFER, Chemical and Mechanical Engineer. Translated from the
French by JoHN GeppEs McIntosH. Demy 8vo. 303 pp. Twenty
Illusts. Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other Countries,
15s.; strictly net.
Contents.
General Considerations on Bleaching—Steeping— Washing: Its End and Importance—
Roller Washing Machines—Wash Wheel (Dash Wheel)— Stocks or Wash Mill—Squeezing—
Lye Boiling—Lye Boiling with Milk of Lime—Lye Boiling. with Soda Lyes—Description of
Lye Boiling Keirs—Operations of Lye Boiling —Concentration of Lyes—Mather and Platt’s
Keir—Description of the Keir—Saturation of the Fabrics—Alkali used in Lye Boiling—
Examples of Processes—Soap—Action of Soap in Bleaching—Quality and Quantity of Soaps
to use in the Lye—Soap Lyes or Scalds—Soap Scouring Stocks—Bleaching on Grass or on
the Bleaching Green or Lawn—Chemicking—Remarks on Chlorides and their Decolour-
ising Action—Chemicking Cisterns—Chemicking—Strengths, etc.—Sours—Properties of the
Acids—Effects Produced by Acids—Souring Cisterns—Drying—Drying by Steam—Drying
by Hot Air—Drying by Air—Damages to Fabrics in Bleaching—Yarn Mildew—Fermentation
—Iron Rust Spots—Spots from Contact with Wood—Spots incurred on the Bleaching Green
—Damages arising from the Machines—Examples of Methods used in Bleaching—Linen—
Cotton—The Valuation of Caustic and Carbonated Alkali (Soda) and General Information
Regarding these Bodies—Object of Alkalimetry—Titration of Carbonate of Soda—Com-
parative Table of Different Degrees of Alkalimetrical Strength—Five Problems relative to
Carbonate of Soda—Caustic Soda, its Properties and Uses—Mixtures of Carbonated and
Caustic Alkali—Note on a Process of Manufacturing Caustic Soda and Mixtures of Caustic
24
and Carbonated Alkali (Soda)—Chlorometry—Titration—Wagner s Chlorometric Method—
Preparation of Standard Solutions—Apparatus for Chlorine Valuation—Alkali in Excess in
Decolourising Chlorides—Chlorine and Decolourising Chlorides — Synopsis—Chlorine—
Chloride of Lime—Hypochlorite of Soda—Brochoki’s Chlorozone—Various Decolourising
Hypochlorites—Comparison of Chloride of Lime and Hypochlorite of Soda—Water—
Qualities of Water—Hardness—Dervaux’s Purifier—Testing the Purified Water—Different
Plant for Purification—Filters—Bleaching of Yarn—Weight of Yarn—Lye Boiling—
Chemicking—Washing—Bleaching of Cotton Yarn—The Installation of a Bleach Works—
Water Supply—Steam Boilers—Steam Distribution Pipes—Engines—Keirs—Washing—
Machines—Stocks—Wash Wheels—Chemicking and Souring Cisterns—Various—Buildings—
Addenda—Energy of Decolourising Chlorides and Bleaching by Electricity and Ozone—
Energy of Decolourising Chlorides—Chlorides—Production of Chlorine and Hypochlorites
by Electrolysis—Lunge's Process for increasing the intensity of the Bleaching Power of
Chloride of Lime—Trilfer’s Process for Removing the Excess of Lime or Soda from De-
colourising Chlorides—Bleaching by Ozone.
Cotton Spinning and Combing.
COTTON SPINNING (First Year). By THomas THORNLEY,
Spinning Master, Bolton Technical School. 160 pp. Eighty-four Iilus-
trations. Crown 8vo. Second Impression. Price 3s.; Abroad, 3s. 6d. ;
strictly net.
Contents.
Syllabus and Examination Papers of the City and Guilds of London Institute—Cultiva-
tion, Classification, Ginning, Baling and Mixing of the Raw Cotton—Bale-Breakers, Mixing
Lattices and Hopper Feeders—Opening and Scutching—Carding—Indexes.
COTTON SPINNING (Intermediate, or Second Year). By
THomaS THORNLEY. 180 pp. Seventy Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s. ;
strictly net.
Contents.
Syllabuses and Examination Papers of the City and Guilds of London Institute—The
Combing Process—The Drawing Frame—Bobbin and Fly Frames—Mule Spinning—Ring
Spinning—General Indexes.
COTTON SPINNING (Honours, or Third Year). By THomas
THORNLEY. 216 pp. Seventy-four Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Price 5s. ;
India and British Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Syllabuses and Examination Papers of the City and Guilds of London Institute—Cotton—
The Practical Manipulation of Cotton Spinning Machinery—Doubling and Winding—Reeling
-—Warping—Production and Costs—Main Driving—Arrangement of Machinery and Mill
Planning—Waste and Waste Spinning—Indexes.
COTTON COMBING MACHINES. By Tuos. THorn ey,
Spinning Master, Technical School, Bolton. Demy 8vo. 117 Illustra-
oe 300 pp. Price 7s. 6d. ; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
s. 6d. net.
Contents.
The Sliver Lap Machine and the Ribbon Cap Machine—General Description of the Heilmann
‘Comber—The Cam Shaft—On the Detaching and Attaching Mechanism of the Comber—
Resetting of Combers—The Erection of a Heilmann Comber—Stop Motions: Various Calcu-
sore Vara Notes and Discussions—Cotton Combing Machines of Continental Make—
ndex.
25
Collieries and Mines,
RECOVERY WORK AFTER PIT FIRES. By ROBERT
LAMPRECHT, Mining Engineer and Manager. Translated from the
German. Illustrated by Six large Plates, containing Seventy-six
Illustrations. 175 pp., demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
lls.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Causes of Pit Fires—Preventive Regulations: (1) The Outbreak and Rapid Extension
of a Shaft Fire can be most reliably prevented by Employing little or no Combustible Material
in the Construction of the Shaft; (2) Precautions for Rapidly Localising an Outbreak of Fire in
the Shaft ; (3) Precautions to be Adopted in case those under 1 and 2 Fail or Prove Inefficient.
Precautions against Spontaneous Ignition of Coal. Precautions for Preventing Explosions of
Fire-damp and Coal Dust. Employment of Electricity in Mining, particularly in Fiery Pits.
Experiments on the [gnition of Fire-damp Mixtures and Clouds of Coal Dust by Electricity—
Indications of an Existing or Incipient Fire—Appliances for Working in Irrespirable
Gases: Respiratory Apparatus; Apparatus with Air Supply Pipes; Reservoir Apparatus;
Oxygen Apparatus—Extinguishing Pit Fires: (a) Chemical Means; (b) Extinction with
Water. Dragging down the Burning Masses and Packing with Clay; (c) Insulating the Seat
of the Fire by Dams. Dam Building. Analyses of Fire Gases. Isolating the Seat of a Fire
with Dams: Working in Irrespirable Gases (‘‘Gas-diving ”): Air-Lock Work. Complete
Isolation of the Pit. Flooding a Burning Section isolated by means of Dams. Wooden
Dams: Masonry Dams. Examples of Cylindrical and Dome-shaped Dams. Dam Doors:
Flooding the Whole Pit—Rescue Stations: (a) Stations above Ground; (b) Underground
Rescue Stations—Spontaneous Ignition of Coal in Bulk—Index.
VENTILATION IN MINES. By Rosert Wasyer, Mining
Engineer. Translated from the German. Royal 8vo. Thirty Plates
and Twenty-two Illustrations. 240 pp. Price 10s. 6d.; India and
Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; strictly net.
Contents.
The Causes of the Contamination of Pit Air—The Means of Preventing the
Dangers resulting from the Contamination of Pit Air—Calculating the Volume
of Ventilating Current necessary to free Pit Air from .Contamination—Determination
of the Resistance Opposed to the Passage of Air through the Pit—Laws of Re=
sistance and Formule therefor—Fluctuations in the Temperament or Specific Re=
sistance of a Pit—Means for Providing a Ventilating Current in the Pit—Mechani-
cal Ventilation—Ventilators and Fans—Determining the Theoretical, Initial, and
True (Effective) Depression of the Centrifugal Fan—New Types of Centrifugal Fan
of Small Diameter and High Working Speed—Utilising the Ventilating Current to
the utmost Advantage and distributing the same through the Workings —Artifici-
ally retarding the Ventilating Current—Ventilating Preliminary Workings—Blind
Headings—Separate Ventilation—Supervision of Ventilation—InpDEx.
HAULAGE AND WINDING APPLIANCES USED IN
MINES. By Cart Vois. Translated from the German.
Royal 8vo. With Six Plates and 148 Illustrations. 150 pp. Price
8s. 6d.; Colonies, 9s.; Other Countries, 9s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents. eae :
Haulage Appliar Ropes—Haul Tubs and Tracks—Cages and Winding Appliances—
Winding Engines for Vertical Shafts—Winding without Ropes—Haulage in Levels and
Inclines—The Working of Underground Engines—Machinery for Downhill Haulage.
Dental Metallurgy.
DENTAL METALLURGY: MANUAL FOR STUDENTS
AND DENTISTS. By A. B. Grieritus, Ph.D. Demy
8vo. Thirty-six Illustrations. 200 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and
Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents. | .
Introduction—Physical Properties of the Metals—Action of Certain Agents on Metals—
Alloys—Action of Oral Bacteria on Alloys—Theory and Varieties of Blowpipes—Fluxes—
Furnaces and Appliances—Heat and T ‘emperature—Gold—Mercury—Silver—Iron—Copper—
Zinc—Magnesium—Cadmium—Tin—Lead — Aluminium—Antimony — Bismuth — Palladium—
Platinum—Iridium—Nickel—Practical Work—Weights and Measures.
26
Engineering, Smoke Prevention
and Metallurgy.
THE PREVENTION OF SMOKE. Combined with the
Economical Combustion of Fuel. By W. C. PoppLrewe.t, M.Sc.,
A.M. Inst.,C E., Consulting Engineer. Forty-six Illustrations. 190 pp.
Demy 8vo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries,
8s. 6d., strictly net.
contents.
Fuel and Combustion— Hand Firing in Boiler Furnaces—Stoking by Mechanical Means—
Powdered Fuel—Gaseous Fuel—Efficiency and Smoke Tests of Boilers—Some Standard
Smoke Trials—The Legal Aspect of the Smoke Question—The Best Means to be adopted for
the Prevention of Smoke—Index.
GAS AND COAL DUST FIRING. A Critical Review of
the Various Appliances Patented in Germany for this purpose since
1885. By ALBERT Pirscn. 130 pp. Demy 8vo. Translated from the
German. With 103 Illustrations. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents.
Generators—Generators Employing Steam—Stirring and Feed Regulating Appliances—
Direct Generators—Burners—Regenerators and Recuperators—Glass Smelting Furnaces—
Metallurgical Furnaces—Pottery Furnace—Coal! Dust Firing—Index.
THE HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF STEEL
IN THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Fripo.in REIsrEr.
Translated from the German of the Third Edition. Crown 8vo.
120 pp. Price 5s.; India and British Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries,
6s.; strictly net.
Contents.
Stee!—Chemical and Physical Properties of Steel, and their Casual Connection—
Classification of Steel according to Use—Testing the Quality of Steel — Steel-
Hardening -Investigation of the Causes of Failure in Hardening—Regeneration of
Steel Spoilt in the Furnace—Welding Steel—Index.
SIDEROLOGY: THE SCIENCE OF IRON (The Con-
stitution of Iron Alloys and Slags). Translated from German of
HANNS FREIHERR V. JUPTNER. 350 pp. Demy 8vo. Eleven Plates
and Ten Illustrations. Price 10s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 11s.; Other
Countries, 12s.; net.
Contents.
The Theory of Solution.—Solutions—Molten Alloys—Varieties of Solutions—Osmotic
Pressure—Relation between Osmotic Pressure and other Properties of Solutions—Osmotic
Pressure and Molecular Weight of the Dissolved Substance—Solutions of Gases—Solid Solu-
tions—Solubility—Diffusion— Electrical Conductivity—Constitution of Electrolytesand Metals
—Thermal Expansion. Micrography.—Microstructure—The Micrographic Constituents of
Iron—Relation between Micrographical Composition, Carbon-Content, and Thermal Treat-
ment of Iron Alloys—The Microstructure of Slags. Chemical Composition of the Alloys
of Iron.—Constituents of Iron Alloys—Carbon—Constituents of the Iron Alloys, Carbon—
Opinions and Researches on Combined Carbon—Opinions and Researches on Combined
Carbon—Applying the Curves of Solution deduced from the Curves of Recalescence to the De-
termination of the Chemical Composition of the Carbon present in Iron Alloys—The Constitu-
ents of Iron—Iron—The Constituents of Iron Alloys—Manganese—Remaining Constituents of
Iron Alloys—A Silicon—Gases. The Chemical Composition of Slag.—Silicate Slags—
calealeeng the Composition of Silicate Slags—Phosphate Slags—Oxide Slags—Appendix—
ndex,
27
EVAPORATING, CONDENSING AND COOLING AP-
PARATUS. Explanations, Formule and Tables for Use
in Practice. By E. Hauspranp, Engineer. Translated by A. C.
WricuT, M.A. (Oxon.), B.Sc. (Lond.). With Twenty-one Illustra-
tions and Seventy-six Tables. 400 pp. Demy 8vo. Price 10s. 6d.;
India and Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s.; net.
Contents.
ReCoefficient of Transmission of Heat, k/, and the Mean Temperature Difference, Shn—
Parallel and Opposite Currents—Apparatus for Heating with Direct Fire—The Injection of
Saturated Steam—Superheated Steam—Evaporation by Means of Hot Liquids—The Trans-
ference of Heat in General, and Transference by means of Saturated Steam in Particular
—The Transference of Heat from Saturated Steam in Pipes (Coils) and Double Bottoms
—Evaporation in a Vacuum—The Multiple-effect Evaporator—Multiple-effect Evaporators
from which Extra Steam is Taken—The Weight of Water which must be Evaporated from
100 Kilos. of Liquor in order its Original Percentage of Dry Materials from 1-25 per cent.
up to 20-70 per cent.—The Relative Proportion of the Heating Surfaces in the Elements
of the Multiple Evaporator and their Actual Dimensions—The Pressure Exerted by Currents
of Steam and Gas upon Floating Drops of Water—The Motion of Floating Drops of Water
upon which Press Currents of Steam—The Splashing of Evaporating Liquids—The Diameter
of Pipes for Steam, Alcohol, Vapour and Air—The Diameter of Water Pipes—The Loss
of Heat from Apparatus and Pipes to the Surrounding Air, and Means for Preventing
the Loss—Condensers—Heating Liquids by Means of Steam—The Cooling of Liquids—
The Volumes to be Exhausted from Condensers by the Air-pumps—A Few Remarks on Air-
pumps and the Vacua they Produce—The Volumetric Efficiency of Air-pumps—The Volumes
of Air which must be Exhausted from a Vessel in order to Reduce its Original Pressure to a
Certain Lower Pressure—Index.
Plumbing, Decorating, Metal
Work, etc., etc.
EXTERNAL PLUMBING WORK. A Treatise on Lead
Work for Roofs. By JoHN W. Hart, R.P.C. 180 Illustrations. 272
pp. Demy 8vo. Second Edition Revised. Price 7s, 6d.; India and
Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents. ; ;
Cast Sheet Lead—Milled Sheet Lead—Roof Cesspools—Socket Pipes—Drips—Gutters—
Gutters (continued)—Breaks—Circular Breaks—Flats—Flats (continued)—Rolls on Flats—
Roll Ends—Roll Intersections—Seam Rolls—Seam Rolls (continued)—Tack Fixings—Step
Flashings—Step Flashings (continued)—Secret Gutters—Soakers—Hip and Valley Soakers
—Dormer Windows—Dormer Windows (continued)—Dormer Tops—Internal Dormers—
Skylights—Hips and Ridging—Hips and Ridging (continued)—Fixings for Hips and Ridging
—Ornamental Ridging—Ornamental Curb Rolls—Curb Rolls—Cornices—Towers and Finials
—Towers and Finials (continued)—Towers and Finials (continued)—Domes—Domes (continued)
—Ornamental Lead Work—Rain Water Heads—Rain Water Heads (continued)—Rain Water
Heads (continued).
HINTS TO PLUMBERS ON JOINT WIPING, PIPE
BENDING AND LEAD BURNING. Third Edition,
Revised and Corrected. By Joun W. Hart, R.P.C. 184 Illustrations.
313 pp. Demy Svo. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other
Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
id ( bed la Liat Bending (continued) — Square Pipe
i nding — Pipe Bending (continued) — Pipe Bending (continued) — r
Bondiee Tad carcuiar Biome Curved Bends on Square Pipe—Bossed Bends—Curved
Plinth Bends—Rain-water Shoes on Square Pipe—Curved and Angle Bends—Square Pipe
Fixings—Joint-wiping—Substitutes for Wiped Joints—Preparing Wiped Joints—Joint Fixings
—Plumbing Irons—Joint Fixings—Use of “Touch” in, Soldering—Underhand Joints—Blown
and Copper Bit Joints—Branch Joints—Branch Joints (continued)—Block Joints—Block
Joints (continued)—Block Fixings—Astragal Joints—Pipe Fixings—Large Branch Joints—
Large Underhand Joints—Solders—Autogenous Soldering or Lead Burning—Index.
WORKSHOP WRINKLES for Decorators, Painters, Paper-
hangers and Others. By W. N. Brown. Crown 8vo. 128 pp. Price
2s. 6d.; Abroad, 3s. strictly net.
28
SANITARY PLUMBING AND DRAINAGE. By Joun
W. Hart. Demy 8vo. With 208 Illustrations. 250 pp. 1904. Price
7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Contents. . 7 :
Sanitary Surveys—Drain Testing—Drain Testing with Smoke—Testing Drains with Water
—Drain Plugs for Testing—Sanitary Defects—Closets—Baths and Lavatories—House Drains
—Manholes—Iron Soil Pipes—Lead Soil Pipes—Ventilating Pipes—Water-closets—Flushing
Cisterns — Baths — Bath Fittings —Lavatories —Lavatory Fittings—Sinks—Waste Pipes—
Water Supply — Ball Valves-—-Town House Sanitary Arrangements — Drainage—Jointing
Pipes—Accessible Drains—Iron Drains—Iron Junctions—Index.
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF DIPPING,
BURNISHING, LACQUERING AND BRONZING
BRASS WARE. By W. Norman Brown. 35 pp. Crown
8vo. Price 2s.; Abroad, 2s. 6d.; strictly net.
HOUSE DECORATING AND PAINTING. By W.
Norman Brown. Eighty-eight Illustrations. 150 pp. Crown 8vo.
Price 3s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 4s.; Other Countries, 4s. 6d. ;
strictly net.
A HISTORY OF DECORATIVE ART. By W. Norman
Brown. Thirty-nine Illustrations. 96 pp. Crown 8vo. Price 2s. 6d. ;
Abroad, 3s.; strictly net.
A HANDBOOK ON JAPANNING AND ENAMELLING
FOR CYCLES, BEDSTEADS, TINWARE, ETC. By
Wixiiam NorRMAN Brown. 52 pp. and Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
Price 2s.; Abroad, 2s. 6d.; net.
THE PRINCIPLES OF HOT WATER SUPPLY. By
Joun W. Hart, R.P.C. With 129 Illustrations. 177 pp., demy 8vo.
Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d. ;
strictly net.
Contents.
Water Circulation—The Tank System—Pipes and Joints—The Cylinder System—Boilers
for the Cylinder System—The Cylinder System—The Combined Tank and Cylinder System
—Combined Independent and Kitchen Boiler—Combined Cylinder and Tank System with
Duplicate Boilers—Indirect Heating and Boiler Explosions—Pipe Boilers—Safety Valves—
Safety Valves -The American System—Heating Water by Steam—Steam Kettles and Jets
—Heating Power of Steam—Covering for Hot Water Pipes—Index.
Brewing and Botanical.
HOPS IN THEIR BOTANICAL, AGRICULTURAL
AND TECHNICAL ASPECT, AND AS AN ARTICLE
OF COMMERCE. By EmmanuEL Gross, Professor at
the Higher Agricultural College, Tetschen-Liebwerd. Translated
from the German. Seventy-eight Illustrations. 340 pp. Demy 8vo.
Price 12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other Countries, 15s. ;
strictly net.
Contents.
HISTORY OF THE HOP—THE HOP PLANT-—Introductory—1The Roots—The Stem—
and Leaves—Inflorescence and Flower: Inflorescence and Flower of the Male Hop; In-
florescence and Flower of the Female Hop—The Fruit and its Glandular Structure: The
Fruit and Seed—Propagation and Selection of the Hop—Varieties of the Hop: (a) Red Hops; .
(b) Green Hops; (c) Pale Green Hops—Classification according to the Period of Ripening’
Early August Hops; Medium Early Hops; Late Hops—Injuries to Growth—Leaves Turning
Yellow, Summer or Sunbrand, Cones Dropping Off, Honey Dew, Damage from Wind, Hail
29
and Rain; Vegetable Enemies of the Hop: Animal Enemies of the Hop—Beneficial Insects on
Hops—CULTIVATION—The Requirements of the Hop in Receect of Climate, Soil and
Situation: Climate; Soil; Situation—Selection of Variety and Cuttin s—Planting a Hop
Garden: Drainage; Preparing the Ground; Marking-out for Planting; Planting; Cultivation
and Cropping of the Hop Garden in the First Year—Work to be Performed Annually in the
Hop Garden: Working the Ground; Cutting; The Non-cutting System; The Proper Per-
formance of the Operation of Cutting: Method of Cutting: Close Cutting, Ordinary Cutting,
The Long Cut, The Topping Cut; Proper Season for Cutting: Autumn Cutting, Spring
Cutting; Manuring; Training the Hop Plant: Poled Gardens, Frame Training; Principal
Types of Frames; Pruning, Cropping, Topping, and Leaf Stripping the Hop Plant; Pickin i
Drying and Bagging—Principal and Subsidiary Utilisation of Hops and Hop Gardens Life
of a Hop Garden; Subsequent Cropping—Cost of Production, Yield and Selling Prices.
Preservation and Storage—Physical and Chemical Structure of the Hop Cone—J udging
the Value of Hops.
Statistics of Production—The Hop Trade—Index,
Timber and Wood Waste.
TIMBER: A Comprehensive Study of Wood in all its Aspects
(Commercial and Botanical), showing the Different Applications and
Uses of Timber in Various Trades, etc. Translated from the French
of PauL CHARPENTIER. Royal 8vo. 437 pp. 178 Illustrations. Price
12s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 13s. 6d.; Other Countries, 15s.; net.
Contents.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Timber—Composition of the Vegetable Bodies
—Chief Elements—M. Fremy’s Researches—Elementary Organs of Plants and especially of
Forests—Different Parts of Wood Anatomically and Chemically Considered—General Pro-
perties of Wood—Description of the Different Kinds of Wood—Principal Essences with
Caducous Leaves—Coniferous Resinous Trees—Division of the Useful Varieties of Timber
in the Different Countries of the Globe—European Timber—African Timber—Asiatic
Timber—American Timber—Timber of Oceania—Forests—General Notes as to Forests ; their
Influence—Opinions as to Sylviculture—Improvement of Forests—Unwooding and Rewooding
—Preservation of Forests—Exploitation of Forests—Damage caused to Forests—Different
Alterations—The Preservation of Timber—Generalities—Causes and Progress of De-
terioration—History of Different Proposed Processes—Dessication—Superficial Carbonisation
of Timber—Processes by Immersion—Generalities as to Antiseptics Employed—Injection
Processes in Closed Vessels—The Boucherie System, Based upon the Displacement of the
Sap—Processes for Making Timber Uninammable—Applications of Timber—Generalities
—Working Timber—Paving—Timber for Mines—Railway Traverses—Accessory Products—
Gums—Works of M. Fremy—Resins—Barks—Tan—Application of Cork—The Application of
Wood to Art and Dyeing—Different Applications of Wood—Hard Wood—Distillation of
Wood—Pyroligneous Acid—Oil of Wood—Distillation of Resins—Index.
THE UTILISATION OF WOOD WASTE. Translated from
the German of Ernst HUBBARD. Crown 8vo. 192 pp. Fifty Ilustra-
tions. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s. ; net.
Contents.
General Remarks on the Utilisation of Sawdust—Employment of Sawdust as Fuel,
with and without Simultaneous Recovery of Charcoal and the Products of Distillation—
Manufacture of Oxalic Acid from Sawdust—Process with Soda Lye; Thorn’s Process;
Bohlig’s Process—Manufacture of Spirit (Ethyl Alcohol) from Wood Waste—Patent Dyes
(Organic Sulphides, Sulphur Dyes, or Mercapto Dyes)—Artificial Wood and Plastic Com-
positions from Sawdust—Production of Artificial Wood Compositions for Moulded De-
corations—Employment of Sawdust for Blasting Powders and Gunpowders—Employment
of Sawdust for Briquettes—Employment of Sawdust tn the Ceramic Industry and as an
Addition to Mortar—Manufacture of Paper Pulp from Wood—Casks—Various Applications
of Sawdust and Wood Refuse—Calcium Carbide—Manure—Wood Mosaic Plaques—Bottle
Stoppers—Parquetry—Fire-lighters—Carborundum—The Production of Wood Woo!—~Bark—
Index,
30
Building and Architecture.
THE PREVENTION OF DAMPNESS IN BUILDINGS ;
with Remarks on the Causes, Nature and Effects of Saline, Efflores-
cences and Dry-rot, for Architects, Builders, Overseers, Plasterers,
Painters and House Owners. By ADOLF WILHELM Keim. Translated
from the German of the second revised Edition by M. J. SALTER, F.1.C.,
F.C.S. Eight Coloured Plates and Thirteen Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
115 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries,
6s.; net.
Contents,
The Various Causes of Dampness and Decay of the Masonry of Buildings, and the
Structural and Hygienic Evils of the S Pr itionary M es during Building against
Dampness and Efflorescence—Methods of Remedying Dampness and Effiorescences in the
Walls of Old Buildings—The Artificial Drying of New Houses, as well as Old Damp Dwellings,
and the Theory of the Hardening of Mortar—New, Certain and Permanently Efficient.
Methods for Drying Old Damp Walls and Dwellings—The Cause and Origin of Dry-rot: its
Injurious Effect on Health, its Destructive Action on Buildings, and its Successful Repres-
sion—Methods: of Preventing Dry-rot to be Adopted During Construction—Old Methods
of Preventing Dry-rot—Recent and More Efficient Remedies for Dry-rot—Index.
HANDBOOK OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN ARCHI-
TECTURE AND BUILDING, AND THEIR ALLIED
TRADES AND SUBJECTS. By Aucustine C, Passmore,
Demy 8vo. 380 pp. 1904. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 8s. ;
Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net.
Foods and Sweetmeats.
THE MANUFACTURE OF PRESERVED FOODS AND
SWEETMEATS. By A. Hausner. With Twenty-eight
Illustrations. Translated from the German of the third enlarged
Edition. Crown 8vo. 225 pp. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies,
8s.; Other Countries, 8s. 6d.; net.
Contents. =
The Manufacture of Conserves—Introduction—The Causes ofthe Putrefaction of Food
—The Chemical Composition of Foods—The Products of Decomposition—The Causes of Fer-
mentation and Putrefaction—Preservative Bodies—The Various Methods of Preserving Food
—The Preservation of Animal Food—Preserving Meat by Means of Ice—The Preservation
of Meat by Charcoal—Preservation of Meat by Drying—The Preservation of Meat by the
Exclusion of Air—The Appert Method—Preserving Flesh by Smoking—Quick Smoking—Pre-
serving Meat with Salt—Quick Salting by Air Pressure—Quick Salting by Liquid Pressure—
Gamgee’s Method of Preserving Meat—The Preservation of Eggs—Preservation of White
and Yolk of Egg—Milk Preservation—Condensed Milk—The Preservation of Fat—Manu-
facture of Soup Tablets—Meat Biscuits—Extract of Beef—The Preservation of Vegetable
Foods in General—Compressing Vegetables—Preservation of Vegetables by Appert’s Method
—The Preservation of Fruit—Preservation of Fruit by Storage—The Preservation of Fruit
by Drying—Drying Fruit by Artificial Heat—Roasting Fruit—The Preservation of Fruit with
Sugar—Boiled Preserved Fruit—The Preservation of Fruit in Spirit, Acetic Acid or Glycerine
—Preservation of Fruit without Boiling—Jam Manufacture—The Manufacture of Fruit
Jellies—The Making of Gelatine Jellies—The Manufacture of ‘Sulzen’—The Preservation of
Fermented Beverages—The Manufacture of Candies—Introduction—The Manufacture of
Candied Fruit—The Manufacture of Boiled Sugar and Caramel—The Candying of Fruit—
Caramelised Fruit—The Manufacture of Sugar Sticks, or Barley Sugar—Bonbon Making—
Fruit Drops—The Manufacture of Dragées—The Machinery and Appliances used in Candy
Manufacture—Dyeing Candies and Bonbons—Essential Oils used in Candy Making—Fruit
Essences—The Manufacture of Filled Bonbons, Liqueur Bonbons and Stamped Lozenges—
Recipes for Jams and Jellies—Recipes for Bonbon Making—Dragées—Appendix—Index.
31
Dyeing Fancy Goods.
THE ART OF DYEING AND STAINING MARBLE,
ARTIFICIAL STONE, BONE, HORN, IVORY AND
WOOD, AND OF IMITATING ALL SORTS OF
WOOD. A Practical Handbook for the Use of Joiners,
Turners, Manufacturers of Fancy Goods, Stick and Umbrella Makers,
Comb Makers, etc. Translated from the German of D. H. SoxHLet,
Technical Chemist. Crown 8vo. 168 pp. Price 5s.; India and Colonies
5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; net.
: Contents.
Mordants and Stains — Natural Dyes—Artificial Pigments—Coal Tar Dyes — Staining
Marble and Artificial Stone—Dyeing, Bleaching and Imitation of Bone, Horn and Ivory—
Imitation of Tortoiseshell for Combs: Yellows, Dyeing Nuts—J vory—Wood Dyeing—Imitation
of Mahogany: Dark Walnut, Oak, Birch-Bark, Elder-Marquetry, Walnut, Walnut-Marquetry,
Mahogany, Spanish Mahogany, Palisander and Rose Wood, Tortoiseshell, Oak, Ebony, Pear
Tree—Black Dyeing Processes with Penetrating Colours—Varnishes and Polishes: English
Furniture Polish, Vienna Furniture Polish, Amber Varnish, Copal Varnish, Composition for
Preserving Furniture—Index.
Lithography, Printing and
Engraving.
PRACTICAL LITHOGRAPHY. By Atrrep Seymour.
Demy 8vo. With Frontispiece and 33 Illus. 120 pp. Price is.;
Colonies, 5s. 6d.; Other Countries, 6s.; net.
Contents.
Stones—Transfer Inks—Transfer Papers—Transfer Printing—Litho Press—Press Work—
Machine Printing—Colour Printing—Substitutes for Lithographic Stones—Tin Plate Printing
and Decoration—Photo-Lithography.
PRINTERS AND STATIONERS READY RECKONER
AND COMPENDIUM. Compiled by Victor Granam.
Crown 8vo. 112 pp. 1904. Price 3s. 6d.; India and Colonies, 4s. ;
Other Countries, 4s. 6d.; strictly net, post free.
Contents.
Price of Paper per Sheet, Quire, Ream and Lb.—Cost of 100 to 1000 Sheets at various
Sizes and Prices per Ream—Cost of Cards—Quantity Table—Sizes and Weights of Paper,
Cards, etc.—Notes on Account Books—Discount Tables—Sizes of spaces — Leads to a Ib.—
Dictionary—Measure for Bookwork—Correcting Proofs, etc.
ENGRAVING FOR ILLUSTRATION. HISTORICAL
AND PRACTICAL NOTES. By J. Kirxsripe. 72 pp.
Two Plates and 6 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Price 2s. 6d.; Abroad,
3s. ; strictly net.
Contents.
Its Inception—Wood Engraving—Metal Engraving—Engraving in England—Etching—
Mezzotint — Photo-Process Engraving—The Engraver’s Task—Appreciative Criticism —
| Bookbinding.
PRACTICAL BOOKBINDING. By Paut Apam. Translated
from the German. Crown 8vo. 180 pp. 127 Illustrations. Price 5s, ;
Colonies, 5s. 6d. ; Other Countries, 6s. ; net.
Contents. ;
Materials for Sewing and Pasting—Materials for Covering the Book—Materials for
Decorating and Finishing — Tools—General Preparatory Work — Sewing — Forwarding,
Cutting, Rounding and Backing—Forwarding, Decoration of Edges and Headbanding—
Boarding—Preparing the Cover—Work with the Blocking Press—Treatment of Sewn Books,
Fastening in Covers, and Finishing Off—Handtooling and Other Decoration—Account Books
—Schoo!l Books, Mounting Maps, Drawings, etc.—Index.
32
Sugar Refining.
THE TECHNOLOGY OF SUGAR: Practical Treatise on
the Modern Methods of Manufacture of Sugar from the Sugar Cane and
Sugar Beet. By Jonn Geppes McInrosu. Second Revised: and
Enlarged Edition. Demy 8vo. Fully Illustrated. 436 pp. Seventy-six
Tables. 1906. Price 10s. 6d. ; Colonies, 11s.; Other Countries, 12s. ; net.
(See ‘‘ Evaporating, Condensing, etc., Apparatus,” p. 27.)
Contents.
Chemistry of Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, Glucose, Invert Sugar, etc.—Purchase and
Analysis of Beets—Treatment of Beets—Diffusion—Filtration—Concentration—Evaporation—
Sugar Cane: Cultivation—Milling—Diffusion—Sugar Refining—Analysis of Raw Sugars—
Chemistry of Molasses, etc.
Bibliography.
CLASSIFIED GUIDE TO TECHNICAL AND COM-
MERCIAL BOOKS. Compiled by Epcar GrREENWooD.
Demy 8vo. 224 pp. 1904. Being a Subject-list of the Principal
British and American Books in print; giving Title, Author, Size, Date,
Publisher and Price. Price 7s. 6d.; India and Colonies 8s.; Other
Countries, 8s. 6d.; strictly net, post free.
Contents. f :
1, Agricalture and Farming—Agricultural Chemistry—Bee-keeping—Cattle, Pigs, Sheep
—Dairy and Dairy Work—Feeding Animals—Forestry—Fruit Growing—Irrigation—Manures
—Poultry Farming. 2. Air, Aerial Navigation. 3. Architecture and Building. 4. Art
—Lettering—Modelling—Ornament—Painting—Perspective. 5. Arts and Crafts, Amateur
Work. 6. Auction Sales. 7. Banking. 8. Book and Newspaper Production, Paper=
making, Printing — Bookbinding — Bookselling — Copyright — Journalism — Lithography —
Paper-making—Printing, Typography—Process Work—Stationery. 9. Brewing and Dis-=
tilling. 10. Cabinet-making. 11. Calculators, Ready Reckoners, Discount Tables.
12. Carpentry and Joinery. 13. Chemicals, Chemistry. 14. Coachbuilding. 15.
Commerce, Business. 16. Dams, Docks, Harbours. 17. Dogs. 18. Domestic Eco=
nomy—Cookery—Dressmaking—Laundry —Millinery. 19. Electricity—Alternating Currents
—Dynamos—Electric Heating—Electric Lighting—Electric Traction—Telegraphy—Tele-
phones—Wireless Telegraphy. 20. Elocution, Voice Production. 21. Engineering and
Metal Work—Architectural Engineering—Blacksmithing—Boilers—Bridges—Civil Engineer-
ing— Fuel, Smoke-- Galvanising, Tinning—Gas, Oil and Air Engines—Hardware—Hydraulic
Engineering —Indicators—Injectors—Iron and Steel—Ironfounding—Lathes, Tools—Loco-
motives—Machine Construction and Design — Marine Engineering— Mechanical Engineering—
Metal Work—Pattern Making—Pipes—Power Transmission— Pumps — Refrigeration—Saw
Filing—Screw Cutting—Steam Engine—Strains and Stresses—Turbines. 22. Factories and
Workshops. 23. Financial—Investments—Stockbroking. 24. Foods and Beverages—
Adulteration and Analysis—Bread—Cakes—Fish—Flour, Grain—Food and Drug Acts—Tea.
25. Foreign Exchange Tables, Metric System. 26. Foreign Langecges: 27. Gardening,
Flowers. 28. Gas—Acetylene—Gas Fitting Gas Lighting and Supply. 29. Glass. 30.
Glues, Inks, Pastes. 31. Horses. 32. Hospitals, Nursing. 33. House Decoration.
34. Hygiene, Public Health— Bacteriology— Hygiene —Public Health— Sanitary Inspection
—Sewage and Sewerage. 35. IndiasRubber. 36. Insurance. 37. Jewellery, Silver and
Goldsmith’s Work. 38. Land, Property. 39. Leather Trades. 40. Legal—Arbitration
—Bankruptcy Law—Commercial Law—Contract Law—Solicitors—Stamp Duties—Trustee
Law—Wills. 41. Metallurgy. 42. Military. 43. Mining, Quarrying. 44. Motor Cars
and Cycles. 45. Music. +6. Nautical, Navigation. 46a. Navy. 47. Oils, Fats. 48,
Optical, Microscopy, Instruments. 49. Paiats, Colours, Varnishes. 50. Patents,
Trade Marks. 51. Photography. 52. Physics. 53. Physical Training. 54. Plumbing,
Heating, Ventilation. 55. Pottery, China, Bricks. 56. Public Meetings, Elections,
Taxes. 57. Railways and Tramways—Construction of Railways—Carriage and Wagon
Building—Law of Railways—Light Railways—Management. 58. Rivers, Canals. 59. Roads,
Highways. 60. Shopkeeping, Ticket Writing. 61. Shorthand, Typewriting. 62.
Soaps, Candles. 63. Building, Co-operative and Friendly Societies. 64. Surveying.
65. Teaching, Education. 66. Telegraph Codes. 67. Textile Trades. 68. Timber.
69. Veterinary. 70. Watches, Clocks. 71. Water. Subject Index.
Scott, GREENWoop & Co. will forward these Books, post free, upon
receipt of remittance at the published price, or they can be obtained through
all Booksellers.
Full List of Contents of any of the books will be sent on application.
SCOTT, GREENWOOD & SON,
Technical Book Publishers,
19 LUDGATE HILL, LONDON, E.C.
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