The peach varieties and methods of orchard management

ALBERT R. MANN
LIBRARY

New York State Colleges

of

Agriculture and Home Economics

Cornell University

Cornell University Library

SB 371.R68

The peach varieties and methods of orcha

3 1924 003 395 t20

Cornell University
Library

The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.

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THE PEACH
VARIETIES AND METHODS OF ORCHARD MANAGEMENT

THESIS
FOR B.S.in Agr.

o
KENNETH D. ROOOELL

1912.

THE PEACH.
VARIETIES AND METHODS OE ORCHARD MANAGEMENT.

In the following discussion the logical beginning
would seem to lie in a brief description of the several
groups under which peaches are classified and a mention
of the more important varieties as they fall under
these various headings. In a special report of "The American
Pomological Society w for 1904-05 R.H.Price has described
these five groups as follows-

I."Peen-To;- Tree rather large, vigorous, branches willow-
like, come out at an angle of about forty degrees;f lowers
large, appear frequently in January in the states bordering
on the Gulf,bloom at a low temperature and very irreg-
ularly ;winter buds small, oblong, rather sharp pointed,
grow c&ose to the limb; leaves narrow, long and inclined
to hang on all winter ;fruit much flattened; skin white
mottled with carmen; flesh white ;flesh sweet but has a
peculiar almond taste jeeed nearly round, much compressed
at the ends, corrugations small, somewhat round. This race
takes its name from the variety Peen-To which is its
ancestor-was imported from Australia by P.J.Blakaans of
Georgia in 1869, but its origin has been traced to China.
This variety and some seedlings from it fruit well in the
northern part of the citrus belt. Seedlings of Peen-To
fruit better farther north than the parent variety. Angel

(3)
and Waldo are seedlings of Peen-To.

Z* South China;- n The parent of this raoe is the variety
Honey, The tree is a medium sized grower, branches come out
at an angle of about fifty degrees and curve upward, less
willow-like than the Peen«*Tojwinter buds very prominent
round to oval, two or three buds often occur at the same
place, occasionally projected axillary buds owcurjbuds
occur on the limb all aiding to the tip leaving no vacant
spaces as we see in the n Persian"race.The dark red buds stand
out fromtthe limb at an angle of about fifty degrees;
leaves are small, slightly trough shaped, in the fall the
color becomes slightly brownish red, foreshowing the
color of the fruit in the young trees ;hang on late in the
fall jblossoms veryblarge* and profuse, very resistant to
cold. A sure bearer in the Gulf States, requires short
seasons of rest. Fruit rather small, slightly oval and a
little flattened; suture very deep at the base but onjy
extends one third the way down, apex long and recurved, has
peculiar honey sweet flavor; seed is oval with apex slightly
recurved, corrugations slight, prominent flange on one side.
Honey, which is the parent of the race is supposed
originated in Southern China, hence the name of the race.
Was imported from China by Charles Downing in 1850, and
fruited for the first time in America under the care of
Henry Lyon of South Carolina .Was introduced for the first
time in America by P. J.Bercksmans in 1858. Valuable Americaan

(3)
seedlings from Honey are Pallos, Climax, Coleman and Early China?
3. Spanish; -"The parent of this race is unknown byt
the type is supposed to have been brought over by the
early Spanish Settlers.

Tree is about the largest we have. The "Indian" type
of this race has much"Persian"blood and these trees are
not so largw. Limbs large, long and spreading, inclined to droop
down except 9n the" Indian Type"; buds larger than those of
South China and nearly always occur singly on the new wood;
oval and project out from the wood at an angle of fifty
degrees; short naked places occur on the bearing wood,
color of the buds is dull greyish; leaves small, flat, hang
on late in fall, stay green during severe drought a, turn
slightly yellow in the fall, foreshadowing the color of the
fruit in a young tree;blooms often large and profuse. The
fruit ripens very late, nearly always downy, color tinged
with mire or lSesyellow, nearly always acid and of low quality.
The"Indian"type is usually streaked with re & sometimes
blood red under the skin. Seed is oval, nearly flat, apex
prominent, corrugations very large and wide;at the base
they run more longitudinally than in any other race, flange
oftenoccurs on one side.

A heavy bearer and sure cropper in its proper zone. The
"Persian"blood in the" Indian "type carries it well up into
the Central States. The seedlings one usually sees bearing
such loads of small peaches along the fence and road sides

(4)
most frequently belong to this race. The following are some
varieties belonging to this race- Cobbler, Columbia, Druid,
Galveston, Guadalupe , La Reine , Lulu , Onderdonk, Sanders ,
Texas and Victoria.

4, North Chinaj- tt The parent of this race is Chinese Cling
which is supposed to have originated in North China.

Tree is a medium sized grower, blooms nearly always,
large buds, slightly larger than those of" Spanish "and
more pointed, many latent buds occur near the tips of the
limbs, in the Gulf States especially, stand out at an angle
of about forty-five degrees; branches are short thick and
stubby. Leaves are very large and flat, near fall in the southern
states especially the foliage turns a peculiar pea green
and by this character alone one can easily recognize
Chinese Cling and its seedlings in an orchard at once. Fruit
the largest, dead white with small red blush on one side,
ripens first on the out sidd, sometimes the skin may be
easily stripped off by hand, The seed is round and irregular
somewhat more prominent on one side. It is by far the most
important race known to the peach world. Such noted varieties
as Elberta,Maimie Ross and Carmen belong here. These go
into the great markets of the north by the solid train load.
Chinese Cling was imported bly Charles Downing and Henry
Lyon in 1850 was the first to fruit it. A second impor-
tation was made in 1860 by Wialiam A.Spottswood of the
United States Navy. From this later importation originated
such varieties as Lee, Stonewall, and Spottswood.Scme

(5)
othere belonging to the race are Albert, Be mice, Becquett
Free, Family Smock, and Thurber.

5. Persian; -"The parent of this race is unknown but
itris supposed to have come from the high altitudes of
Persia. Tree medium sized to large, limbs short and thick,
with long naked places, wood highly colored in fall and
winter foreshowing a highly colored fruit jbloom varies
in size j foliage sheds early, needs long period of rest;
fruit most highly colored and of best quality; stone more
flattened at the base than any other, corrugations
prominent at the apex but eeldomextend to the base as
in the Spanish, Well known varieties belonging to this
race are;- Alexander, Amsden, Amelia, Crawford, Downing,
Golden Drop, Hale Early, St. John etc.

The bulk of northern orchards haB come from this race.
However since such dreaded diseases as yellows and
rosette have destroyed large orchards of the extreme
northern states the tendancy of such growers now seems
to be to go farther south where North China varieties
are adapted?

SOIL; The peach will grow on nearly any soil but in
the commercial growing of the fruit a light, warm, sandy
soil is essential. While the trees will grow taller and
live longer on the heavier loamB,the high color and
rich flavor of the fruit will be lacking and can only be
secured on the lighter soils.

(6)
In connection with a light soil good drainage is essential
in peach culture. Drainage might be called the limiting
factor for peaches will grow on the poorest lands
providing they be well drained but will not grow on the
best if they be wet. "Wet feet "are fatal in the growing of
peaches. The ideal soil would be a light sandy loam with
a clay subsoil. Care should be taken to avoid hardpan.
If these conditions can be obtained better results will
follow even if the land is poor in plant food than if
the orchard be planted on very rich land of a heavier
nature.

PREPARATION OP THE SOIL; "Well dieared and well
cultivated land is preferred by peach growers. Cultivate the
field in some crop suitable to the locality for two or
three years before planting the peaches. This takes the
excessive nitrogen and general rawness out of the soil.
Old worn out land should be sown to clover or cow-peas
or some cover crop and plowed under before planting. If
the land is eatra rich crop with an exhaustive drjpp.
Generally it would be poor as land best suited for peaches
is generally poor and the green manure and cover crops
would be advisable. Where feasable it is better to grow
potatoes or some truck crop especially if the latter
requires manuring and fertilizing and thus being the
land into a garden condition. Most soils require deepening
in order to grow peaches and other fruits successfully.

(7)
Where poor land is being made fertile by plowing under
covercrop8 this can be obtained by plowing an inch deeperta year
for two ot three years. Subsoiling is of great benefit
in preparing land for peaches. Tillage should be as deep
as possible before the trees are planted for afterward
there will be no opportunity for deep plowing. All wet spots
should be underdrained."*

Land that has never been in peaches is very much
better than land where an orchard has grown and been
pulled out.Thi8 is so true that many growers advise
against planting on such land at all. This sentiment is
due to certain parasites, such as root aphis, rot-root
fungi, nematodes, etc, which, however insignificant upon
the roots of the mature trees, would mean certain death
to the new planting, If , however, after the land has been
cleared 6f the old orcaardjcrops be grown for two or three
years, these pests will die and the new trees can be
planted in safety. At the same time if the land is low
in fertility it can be improved and'a double result be
obtained.

SITE; -In connection with the soil the location
must be taken into consideration. The peach blooms very
early and the flowers are liable to be killed by late
spring frosts. The site, therefore, should be one that is
practically free from these frosts, or one where the

Year Book, for 1908, by M.B.Waite.

(8)
blossoming would be checked. Late spring frosts are less
likely to occur near large bodies of water. The water equal-
izes the temperature and retards thei bloom. Inregions
where these conditions are not to be obtains d>a northern
slope or some other backward site should be chosen.

PLANTING THE ORCHARDj-The distance apart at which
peaches are planted varies with the soil, climate, and with
the ideas of the individual planter. The standard distance
is 20 by 20 feet. Some growers in the north advocate
18 by 18 and in the east Mr. J.H.Hale approves of planting
as close as 13 by IS feet.Wheie the greatest yield per

acre is desired in the first few crops, distances under

are
16 feet satisfactory but after the first few yields the

trees become crowded and the ultimate results are not

as good as where the trees are planted 20 by 20. The

shorter distances are advocated by growers who believe

the life of the orchard to be ffom twelve to fifteen

years and therefore plan to make it pay while young. In

many cases this is true and orchards succumb to insect

pests and diseases but in regions where these troubles

are not predominant the larger distances are to be

preferredlSome planters favor the rectangular system

and this method has many advantages over the square

system.

The rectangular system consists in the platting

of the trees at a distance of 18 by 30 or 16 by 18 or

(9)
according to any such system that the individual Has.
By means of this system the advantages arising from both
the close and standard square methods by planting the
trees at say 13 by 16 and then after they begin to <£aowd
by taking out the 13 foot row leaving the orchard
planted 16 by 34. This is the filler system applied to
peaches.The trees begin to crowd at about four or five
year s, however, and ordinarily it would not pay to go to
the increased trouble and expense involved in this system.
The rectangular system of planting is rather convenient,
however, for it gives a better opportunity for cultivating,
spraying, and hauling between the rows. The square system
seems to be more popular and under ordinary circumstances
would probably be the more satisfactory. Having deciddd
upon the system of planting and the distances at which
the trees are to be planted the actual work of setting the
trees follows in order.

SETTING THE TREES; -In the setting out of orchards
there are a great many methods in use. In fact nearly
every grower has either systems of hid own or modifications
of other methods which amount to the same thing. There
are, however, certain methods which are more or less
standard. Probably the most common of these is the furrow
system.

The Furrow System consists in the measuriing off of
the land to be planted and the placing of a stake at the

(10)
end of each row around the orchard. Then, by lining tfntwith
the stakes, the field is checked off, with a one horse
plow, into squares or rectangles, according to the planting
system that is used. The trees are then planted at the
intersections of the furrows. With a skillful man at the
plow, and provided the field is fairly level, the planting
can be very accurately done. It is very evident, however,
that if the land is undulating the system wilfc not work
out very successfully.

The other methods of locating the trees can go
unmentioned, except one which is most suitable under all
conditions and in all cases the most accurate, This is
commonly called the stake method and has been very ably
described by Mr. CD. Jarvis of the Storrs Experiment Station
at Storrs Conn. The following is quoted direct.

"The determination of the correct position of the teees
is often one of the most difficult tasks in connection
with the starting of young orchards. The problem is a moa?e
serious one when large areas are considered and when tie
location selected is on irregular and uneven land. For
convenience in cultivation and also for the sake of appear-
ance, the trees should be set in such a way that they
will be in line in all directions. With this in mind it
is usually advisable t6 indicate the position of each
teee by a stake, and to lay out the whole field before

(11)

setting thB trees

In square or rectangular fields the stakes for a
row of trees on all sides of the orchard may be set
by measuriftg^the distance into spaces of the required
length; for example if the trees are to be set 20 feet
apart each way on the square method, the stakes are placed
every 20 feet on all sides of the field. The position
of the intervening trees may be readilly determined
by sighting between the stakes on the opposite sides.
On small acres the land may be marked off with a line
connecting the opposite stakes, in both direct ions. The
point of intersection of these lines indicates the
position of the trees. On larger areas the position of the
trees is usually determined by sighting across the field
or by the use Of a modified corn marker. Sometimes a
plow is used to open up a furrow in both directions.

Before attempting to lay out a field that is irregular
in outline it must be squared off in such a way that the
rows running across the field will be at right angles
to the rows running in the other direction. A base line
running along a straight side of the field is first chosen.
If there is no straight side,a straight line running
along the longer side of the field may be established.
At right angles to this straight line and near each end
may be projected two other lines. On small areas this may
be done with two straight edges and a carpenter's square

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QfeAe. /Tlefhod c> a Planting

(12)
but on large areas this method is not sufficiently accurate.
The best and most reliable method is that described in the
accompanying diagram. At the desired point (A) on the
base line a stake is set and exactly 60 feet from this
on the same line another stake (B) is set. By stretching
a string 80 feet long from the first stake (A) and another
string 100 feet long from the second stake (B) and by
bringing the two ends together at (C) the position of the
third stake 4ay be determined. Then the desired line is
drawn from A through C to the other side of the field.
The same operation is repeated near the other end of
the field. The distance between the rows, one way, may be
marked off on the projected lines and the distance between
the rows, the other way, may be indicated on/the base line
and also on the line parallel to it on the other side
of the field. The rows in both directions can be extended
to the marginof the field.

On hilly land it is often very difficult to get the
trees lined up properly. In such caees telephone wire
is sometimes employed to stretch across the field. To in-
dicate the position of the trees a smaller wire may be
wound around and soldered to the larger one at the required
distances. The telephone wire is stretched tightly and a
stake set at every point indicated by the soldered wire.
In the hollow places where the wire is high above the
ground, a plumb-bob may be necessary to find the exact

( 13)
Position where the stake should be set. Twine, on account
of its stretching character, is unsuited to this purpose.
The main point in measuring off uneven land, is in keeping
the measuring line level 1 *.

PRUNING: -There is a reciprocal relation between
the absorbing capacity of the roots and the food
producing power of the leaves of a growing tree. A strongly-
developed root system makes a healthy top possible but
the vigorous root system could not have been attained
without the food which is first prepared by healthy foliage.

In taking a tree from the nursery row a large
proportion of the original root system is left in the
ground. In this way the balance between the top and the
roots is broken and the branches must be correspondingly
reduced while the new roots are developing. Both root
pruning and top pruning are generally considered by
growers to be helpful to young trees. The rate, however,
at which the cutting back isddone is much disputed,
some growers advocating extreme pruning and others very
little. Experiments have shown that in different regions
different methods produce the best results.

Some few years ago H.M.Stringfellow of Texas
devised a system of root pruning which has since become
known as the Strinfellow or stub-root system. It cuts off
practically all the roots, leaving only stubs an inch or
two long, and it cuts back the top to a mere stump twelve
to eighteen inches long. In his teock entitled "The New

(14)
Horticulture", says, "cut back just below the collar and
just under the first good side root s n . We should, "not leave
any length of the main or tap root with side roots cut back ff .

Soon after Stringfellow offered this extreme method
of pruning young teees the Deleware Experiment Station
ran a series of tests in the endeavor to determine the
relation between the rate of pruning and the general
development of the young trees. At both Newark and Seaford
three groups of Early Crawford trees were set out, eighteen
in a group. The roots of one third were pruned to a length
of eight tooleB inches, another third to a length of three
inches, and the last third were pruned according to the
ideas of Stringfellow. At Newark the soil is>a heawy well
drained clay, loam with a stiff subsoil eight to ten inches
below the surf ace. At Seaford the land is a warm well
drained sandy loam with a stiff subsoil two feet below
the surface.

At Newark on the clay soil the results were as follows-
Eight inch roots; Seventeen lived all being in first class
condition. The new roots were diagonally downward and there
were no tap roots. The roots arose largely near the ends
of the old roots, a few from the body of the tsee. These
came into leaf the earliest of the three groups.
Three inch roots {eighteen lived, allitn first class condition
They were larger than the long rooted series. The new roots
were diagonally downward, no tap roots. The roots arose

(15)
largely from near the ends of the old roots , although
more were from the body of the tree than in the first case.
These trees came into leaf a few days later than the
longer rooted.

Stub prunedjOf the eighteen but ten lived, five were second
class, one was third class and four were worthless. The new
roots were not more downward than the others and there
were some distinctly lateral systems. As a lot these trees
were distinctly inferior.

At Seaford on the sandy loam the results were slightly
different.

Eight inch roots jEighteen lived and all were first class.
The new roots grew strongly downward, there werecno tap
roots and the newcroots arose largely from near the ends
of the old roots. The roots were more downward here than
at Newark.

Three inch roots;Eighteen lived, seventeen of which were in
first class condition. There were no differences to be
noticed in this group from the group with the longer roots.
Stub pruned; In this case seventeen lived, only two of
which were first class fifteen being worthless. The roots
were smaller as were also the tops. The tops were well
formed. The new roots were not more downward than the others.
Except with the two the roots were fewer and smaller than
where the trees were pruned differently. The roots in all
three tests were more downward than at Newark.

(16)
In 1896 at the Cornell Station a similar experiment
was carried in which five groups of twenty Horton Rivers
peach trees were pauned in the following manner.
A. Roots normal, six inches long. Of these sixteen! lived. All
the roots had a strong downward tendanoy.The average weight
of the trees in December 1897 was seventeen pounds.
B. Roots cut to four and one-half inches long;0f these
eighteen lived.These were the strongest and most thrifty
of any of the groups. The roots all struck downward.
C. Roots cutbto three inches long. Fifteen lived. Ten had
downward growing roots and five had very flat or horizontal
systems.

D. Roots cut to two inches. Of these nine lived, five having
downward growing roots and five having the horizontal. roots.
E. Root s cut to one inch long. Twelve lived, six had downward
roots and six had flat roots. The average weight was one
pound and fourteen ounces.

Prom these two series of experiments it seems to be
very clear that the medium method of pruning, and not
the long or the ahort systems is the one to follow.
In New York we have seen that the trees whose roots were
pruned to four and one-half inches gave the best results,
while in Deleware the most satisfactory length was found
to be three inches. There are of course exceptions to
every rule and many exceptions to every rule that is
laid down for the fruit grower, but it may be safely said

(17)
I think that the roots should be cut to a length of
from three to five inches. TWhen the growing season starts
suddenly as is the ease in the northern states, the root
system is called upon more strongly than in the southern
districts where the season is slower. It follows then
that more length of root should be left in the north than
in the south.

"The peach usually bears on the shoots of the previous
year j therefore heading in thins the fruit. Heading- in
also induces a growth of new shoots, and thereby increases
the fruit bearing wood.Heading-in is also advantageous
in removing winter- injured twigs. Notwithstanding these
advantages, heading-in of the peach is a Question of local
application and of training the top to some given form.
It is more generally practiced on heavy lands, on which
the trees grow exuberantly, than on sandy lands. In thee
commercial peach regions, trees are rarely headed-in
at least not after they begin to bear. If heading-in is not
practiced, the chief attention to be given to the tree
after the general framework of the top is formed, is to
trim out the weak and dead interior wood by means ofl
hand shears. This fine wood diesoor becomes weak after
bearing and should be removed!*

"Young peach trees allowed to grow at will at the
first season after setting should have their three or
four leading branches make a growth of from two and ?a
half to four feet each. Fall and winter pruning has not
been satisfactdry with us, and thereflore all pruning is

feailev

(18)
delayed untilllate winter or early spring. In the early days
it was my custom, in trimming trees one year planted, to
out branches back to within twelve or fifteen inches
of the mainsstemjbut as this tends to form rather a toom
close head for the foundation year, I now prefer to leave
the first season's growth two and one-half to three feet
long, and to reserve the severe shortening-in for the second
third and fourth years. Besides the main branches to be
cut away the first year, it will be necessary to cut off
some lateral branches entirely and to shorten others some-
what. With liberal culture and manuring, each of the three
or four main branches will, in the second year, throw out
from their tipt- two or three leaders, each of which should
make a growth of three to four feet. Early in theespring
following prunigg should begin, with the object of
building a broad,,low,open headed tree. This is accompolished
best by first thinning out all crowding inside branches
and leaders, and shortening-in all otherd ffom one-half
to three-fourths of the new years growth, the closest cutting
being in the central top. The third years fork ^should be on
the same general planjand it will often be found, unless the
second years work was exceedingly rteil done, that some of
the third years work ought to have been d6ne then. The
object of the first three years pruning is to establish
a well-formed teee best suited to forcing the greatest
amount of fruit to the highest perfection at the least

(19)
poesible cost5

"After the right sort of a tree has been established
and trees have reached a bearing age, pruning for a year
or two may be continued, partially on the line of a correct
tree form, but more particularly as relating to fruit
product ion. And so wight here we abandon late winter and
early spring pruning, and do most of the work after the
fruit-buds begin to swell, bo that we can judge on inspection
which are alive and which are dead. In years when very few
buds have survived the frosts of winter, pruning should be
done with the object of retaining a great majority of the
living buds, regardless of t»ee form, which can be somewhat
righted the next year. Of course, in years when a good
number of buds are found alive, pruning can be oontinued for
form, but as the tree grows older, less and less pruning will
be required. The methods here described have in their
early years given handsome, even headed, well rounded trees
which have been exceedingly prof i table, although in later
years they have become less shapely. Asiit is results,
fruit results and dollar results ,thart count in commercial
peach culture, we judge the method to be a decided sucoess,
at least for sections where winter-killing of fruit-buds
is the greatest drawback to success, and we shall follow
it closely till some better plan presents itself. There
should be no off-year with peaches, except when fruit or
blossom buds are entirely killed by frosts. Right culture

(30)
proper feeding and pruning should each year stimulate
enough new growth to furnish far more buds than are ee-
quired for abundant crops".*

"The methods of pruning peach trees are the occasion
of much discussion among pomologists.The differences of
opinion turn chiefly about three practices, -short trunks
with rapidly ascendingnbranches,high trunks with more
horizontal branches, and shortening-in or heading back
tha annual growth. Each of these three methods of handling
or training peach trees had ardent advocates and pro-
nounced opponentd.lt is probable that each system has
distinct merits for particular cases. I believe that the
nature and fertility of the spil are the dominating factors
in these opposing" methods. A system of pruning which fits
thehslow growth and hard wood of sandy soils may not be
adapted to the rapid growth and heavier tops of trees
on strong soils. "**Perhaps the system that wotitld be most g
generally in accordance with the various methods would
be somewhat as follows ;-

Buy one year old trees. Plant in the spring. Trim the
roots to about four inches. Start head at six inches to
two feet according to conditions. Prune all of the side
branches to stubs one or two inches long. Choose from the
adventitious buds the four or five buds which are to
form the frame work of the tree. The second spring all
branches one-third to one-half of their length. The third

*J. H.Hale.
**L. H.Bailey

(31)
fourth and fifth years the head Bhould be kept .veil opened.
It is very important in peach culture to keep an
open head, and if the pruning is carefully icne in the first
few years, tbe later pork will greatly simplified.

CULTIYATION:-The only practical ir.ethod of caring for an
orchard is clean cultivation. With peaches especially
this is very important and the practice should be strictly
followed. Some grower? advocate a hoed-crop for. the first
two years, between the rows, but it id doubtful as to whether
even this is advisable. After the second year however,
the orchard should be kept claan.In the spring the ground
should be broken with a light plow, deer plowing not beijjg
necessary and after that an ordinary cultivator may be used.
Several cultivations are advised during the season. In
July or August a cover crop is planted. The exact time of
plant img will depend on the region and general conditions
prevailing. Cover crops serve three purposes in the orchard.
They protect the soil. enrich it, and hasten the seasonal
maturity of the tree. Many growers dc not approve of using
manure in the peach orchard, but instead use commercial
fertilizesr to obtain the neceseary Potassium and
Phosphoric acid and secure the nitrogen thr ought the legumes j la
planted as cover crops. They maintain that the nitrogen in the
manure causes an excessive growth of woody tissue at the expense
of the fruit. Still others doenot believe in leguminous
cover crops for they state thet the roots of the cover crops
bear a peculiar relation to the roots of the peaches and that

(33)

here also there is too much nirto^er. obtained for the best

rsesults in-the yield. After interviewing several practical

men who depend upon their peach crop for their daily bread

however it would seem that there is little or no foundation

for these beliefs. In all caees manure was used where it was

possible to obtain it. Moreover it was very liberally

me
applied. One fruit grower near Rochester told during an

interview that all there was to peach growing was

"manure and hard work" .Leguminous cover crops were also

strongly advocated, each, grower of course having his own particular

one. By means of this begging for information a mixture was

brought to my attention which seems to meet all requirements.

Shis was a combination of rye and vetch. They were planted

together in the late summer. The rye makes a good growth that fall

providing a good mat for the orchard. The vetch will get a good

start but used alone would hardly be sufficient to cover the

ground. The following spring the vetch makes aggod growth

and when plowed under the combination furnishes the soil with

a large amount of humus and also considerable nitrogen.

Red clover makes aggod cover in a young orchard where the

trees are not draining the soil of its moisture as is the case

in an older orchard. Of course the region, soil and climatic

conditions will govern and determine the cover crops that will

be used. The two mentioned above are especially adapted to the

state of New York. The main thing to be considered is to

secure al large amourt of humus and as much nirtogen as possibel

v33)
FERTILIZERS: -In the study of fertilizers for peaches, the
first thing to be considered is the natural fertility of the soil.
In some of the northern and western states the soil ie
sufficiently rich in plant foods to meet the demands ofl
heavy crops of fruit. Generally, however, the soils that are best
adapted to peach growing are more or lees lacking in the
elements essential to fertility. "Green manures and cover crops
should be utilized to their fullest possible extent in the orchard i
There are some soils so weli- supplied with humus that the
annual use of green manures is not necessary, or in some cases
desirable, as the amount of humus and nitrogen might be unduly
increased and an excessive or belated growth of twigs and buds
result. However, in most pefifch orchards, especially in the sandy -nd
poorer soils, this condition is not to be feared, and annual cover
crops should be plowed under. Or. a ^oder-'tely rich soil
perhaps all or nearly all of the nitrigen necessary can be supplies
with legunincus cover crops, but even here it is not always
s£afe to depend entirely on cover crops. Perhaps a dry year may
come with a heavy crop of fruit, and while an unusual draft is made
by the trees on the nitrogen in the soil very littleeis returned
to it, therefore the faitr©gen should be replaced artificially.
Indirect fertilization, therefore ffom nurse crops and cover crops
combined with the natural fertility! of the soil cannot be
depended on for maximun cro^s over rrost -"sections of the country.
Direct fertilization may be necessary. In the young orchard where tl
the soil is very fertile it may not benecessary to fertilize
the young trees until they come into bearing."*

(24)

The elements that go to form fruit are potassium and
phosphoric acid. An experiment was made at the Geneva Station,
Bulletin 265, in order to determine just how much of the
various plant foods were used and where they were used. It
was found that 19.3 $ of all thnitrogen used went to the ftfuit
while 76.7$ went to the leaves and wood. In the case of potassium
50$ waw foiSnd in the fruit and 50$ in the leavesaand wood.
Of the phosphoric acid, 47$ was in the fruit and the remaining
53$ distributed throughout the tree. This shows conclusively that
the fruit is largely dependant onr.the last two elements.

To determine the amount ofl nitrogen, potassium, and phosphoric
acid etc. that brought the best results in the orchard, the
Connecticut Experiment Station began a test in 1896. Six plots
were chosen, each covering one-third of an acre. On each of these
plots 48 trees werecplanted. Fertilizer was applied as follows.
Plot A;65 pounds of muriate of potash; 160 pounds acjd phosphate.
Plot BjSameaas above with 17C pounds of cotton seed meal.
Plot C;65^pounds of muriate of potash;160 pounds acid phosphate.
Plot D;130 " n " « " ;160 " » « n .
n lot E:360 " " w n ii : 160 " » « " .
Plot F;260 pounds of high grade sulphate of potash and ICO
pounds of acid phosphate.

167 Pounds of slaked oyster shell lime were annually applied
to the northern half of each plot.

Until 1901 crimson clover was sown each year in August on
D,E,and F and plowed under im May.

Plot A has an abundance of potassium and phosphoric acid but
no nitrogen. Plot B has each year 500 pounds of cotton seed meal

(35)
per acre, which means 35 pounds of nitrogen. The other plots receivsi
the nitrigen from the cover crops.

Plots C,D,and E should show the effects of a heavycdreesir.g
with muriate of potaeh and F shou'd show the effects of a heavy-
dressing of high grade s"ilphate.

Each year a certain number of trees died and were tepiaced
by new ones in the spring. I'o case of yellows was found i r the
orchard till 1900.

The following tables show the results of the experiment ;-
Number of Dead Trees

Plot

1896

'97

f 98

'99

'00

'01

'02

•03

Tota

A

2

13

3

1

10

4

5

6

42

B

3

6

1

1

2

3

5

21

C

3

3

1

1

7

3

3

5

25

D

1

2

C

8

3

4

2

20

E

1

5

lv,

7

F

2

3

5

Total

7

23

6

3

27

15

25

14

Plot A lost more trees than the rest, 5/6 of the trees ir.
8 years. Plots E and F lost the fewest trees.

In 1898 there was a fine set of fruit buds but most of
the very young ffuit fell later in consequence at and just
after setting time o f cold storms

The following tables show the yields from the different

plots

(36]

I

1899

No. of baskets

A
65

B
117

C

81

No. of trees in

bearing

except

Early Rivers

20

31

Ow

Average nO.

baskets per

bearing tree.

3.2

3,8

3

D E F

110 155.6 140.5

27 36 30

4.1 . 4.1 4.7

1900
A B f D F F
No. baskets 140.25 212.5 151.5 190.75 279 243. S5

No. of trees bearing

except Early Rivers 26 35 29 33 44 40

Average no. baskets

per bearing tree 5.S 6.3 5.2 5.8 6.3 6.1

1901

No. baskets ABC D E F

66.5 99 73.75 113.75 168 172.5
No. trees bearing

except Early Rivers 20 30 26 "1 40 37

Average no. baskets

per bearing tree. 3.3 3.3 2.8 3.6 4.2 4.2

1902
A B C D E F
Ho. baskets 48,5 117.5 64 69.5 1?5 80.5

No. trees bearing

except Early Rivers 31 33 31 31 33 35

Average no. baskets

per bearing tree. 1.6 3.6 2.1 2.2 3.8 P. 3

^7)

1903
A " C D E F
No. baskets 74 63 43 41 55 41

No. trees beraing

except Early Rivers 33 32 30 30 34 36

Average no. of

baskets per bearing

tree 2.2 2.0 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.1

Plots F and F were each given 256 pounds of nitrate
of soda in the Spring of 1903

It will be noticed that plots D,E,and F to ^hich the
heavy applications of potassium and phosphoric acid were given
yielded most heavily up till 1903 when the nitrogen was added.
Plots D,F,^nd F lost the fewest trees. Another p<b<brt worthy of
mention is that no Yellows developed on the limed portions.

The question of fertilizer for th*> peach may b~ summed
up in a very few words; Be sure to use enough potassium and ph
phosphoric acid and little enough nirtogen.ITc definite la?;
can be laid down a-s conditions of soil etc differ greatly. As
Shtown in the preceeding experiment therevis no danger of
applying too much potassium or phosphoric acid for a
practical man would hardly use more thar 78C pounds of muriate
of potash or 46C pounds of rhosphcrica acid per acre. Study
conditions from year to year and act accordingly.

(28)

INSECT PESTS OF THE PEACH
San Jose Scale; It is believed that this scale pest came
originally from China. It was first reported in this country
at San Jose, California, hence its name. It was first found in the
east in 1887 and has ever since been the terror of the
fruit-grower.

These insects pass the winter in an immature state under

the scales .They mature early in the spring and the young
are born in June. In the coirse of the season there are three or
four generations. The young are born alive and the breeding
goes on until late in the autumn. A single fenpale scale can
produce in a single season several hundred young. Breeding
continues until late fall when the sold weather tills all
but the small half-formed scales which persist and thus
complete the life cycle.

The scale is to be found on the infested tree the year
around, sometimes in great masses on the branches.lt is nearly
circular and about the size of a pin-head. Sometimes it becomes
so abundant that it appears on the fruit causing small red spots
on the surface.

The best time in which to fight this pest is when the scale
is in an immature state, namely in the winter, Spraying is done
while the tree is dormant either late in the fall or early in
the spring. when the tree is badly infested two applications are
madd,one in the fall and the other in the spring.

Lime-sulphur, 1 to 8 for a 33 or33 degree concentrate is the
beet remedy. This should control the scale very effectively.

(39)
The Peach Borer; The borer is a common anfi important enerr.y

of the peach. It has been known east of the Eochies since the

earliest settlements.

The presence of the peach borer may be detected by the

gummy matter which exudes from the drowns of trees in which

they are working. The larvae feed on the sofC inner bark of

the crown of the foot and the base of the trunk. So active

are thee larvae that they will often completely girdle a trunk.

When badly infested the foliage will turn a sickly yellow

and if not treated the tree will die in a 8 hort time. With

the exception of San Jose Scale probably more trees are lost

through this medium than from any other cat»se,that is any

insect cause.

The adults of this borer are clear winged moths resembling
wasps, the females being a deep steel blue with a broad orange
band across the abdomen. The fore-wings are opaque, being covered
with bluish scales, the hind wings transparent except for the dark
margin. The males are smaller with clear rwings and three or four
narrow stripes of yellow across the ^bdomen.

In New York State the moths appear from the middle of July to
the last of August, there being but one generation a year.
The female lays her eggs usually on the base of the trunk
often laying as many as 800 eggs. These reddish-brown eggs
hatch in aboyt ten days, the young larvze entering the bark through 1
small cracks from whence they work into the soft under bark.
Here they feed until fall and they are forced to hibernate.

(30)
In the spring the feeding is resumed, the larvae entering the
lower layers of the bark. This causes tfee masses of gum to exude
which give a clue to the pBesenne of the boresc.The full
grown larva:- is about one inch in length, light yellow with
a brown head and thoracic legs and four pairs of prolege on
the abdomen. The body is thinly covered with small brown hairs.

The full grown larvae spin cacoons at or near the surface
of the ground, pupate and emerge as moths in about a week.

Control; A good means of preventing injury by these borers
is to mound the soil around the trunk as high as possible just
before the moths appear in the spring. This forces them to
lay their eggs high up on the trunk where the small borers
may be easily found. This in itself seem to prevent the
establishment of the pest. Early in the fall the earth should
be levelled down and a search made for the larvae. Ordinary
building paperif wrapped around the trunk and extending
into the groung and also tied at the top just below the
crotch will prevent the deposition of the eggs. These
wrappers should be placed around the trunks before the moths
appear and removed early in the fall.

Theele two methods of control will greatly reduce the number
of infested trees and the reaaining boreBB should be wormed out
late in the fall and early in the dpring by means of a knife
and a piece of wire. If the orchard is closely watched and the
boress wormed ant as fast as they appear, little trouble need
be experienced on their account.

The Peach Twig BorerjThe peach twig borer is largely a pest

(31)
of the west. Some small damage however has been done in

Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland and it will perhaps he well

to mention thepest.

The larvae of this borer work in the tender shoots in the
early spring. Later they enter the fruit especially the later
varieties. The adult moth is dark grey with fore-wings
expanding about one-half inch and marked with darker spots. The
full grown larvae is about one-half inch long of a dull reddish
brown color.

The Peach Tree Bark Beetle jThe presence of this beetle
is imdicated by numerous small worm holes which give the tree
the appearance of having received a charge of bird shot. More
or less gum exudes from these small holes. This beetle attacks
weak and deseased trees although ycung trees are often attacked
and ^adlay damaged. The injury is largely due to the presence
of dead or dying trees which allow the beetle* to increase
and allowing their spread to the healthy trees.

When the beetles are present in large numbers their injury
to the trees is quickly brought to the attention of the
grower by the large amount of sap exuding- from the small
holes in the trunk and branches. The larvae and beetles both
cause injury to the tree. The beetles in the fall fly to the
trees and form their hibernation cells. These are injurious
to the tree for in the following spring there will be a loss of
sap from each. In the spring the beetles leave these cells and bur-
row into the bark only to emerge again i- a short time in
order to form egg burrows in the sickly trees. Sap flows from these
burrows in large amounts forming large gummy masses. After a few

(38)
years the ence healthy trees become sickly due to the repeated

attacks of the beetle and the latter then form their egg

burrors there, the larvae soon completing the work. There are two

broods a year, the summer brood appearing in the last half of

August and the other hibernating over the winter.

Control jDestroy all dead and deseased wood, burn all
prunings and trimmings. Trees which are affected should be 1
liberally fertilized so that they may make a quick growth in
the spring and better withstand the injury. If the tree is washed
with a solution containing one pint of crude carbolic to ten
gallons of a- thick soap the beetles will be prevented from o
oviposition.HThite-washing has al^o been advised a small
amount of portland cement being added to make the mixture
more adhesive.

The Elack Peach Aphis, *The black aphis attacks the roots,
tender shoots and foliage of the tree. when the aphie is on the
roots the presence of this pest is often not noticed until
much damage has been done. Young trees are especially affected,
the foliage taking on a sickly yellow tinge. However the young
shoots are affected when the roots are. The aphides cluster on the
tender shoots, at the crotch, and lo^ down on the limbs,
forming a disagreeable black mass over the young leaves
which curl up due to the injury caused. This injury is often so
great as to either kill or severaljr check the growth of young

stock.

Th"° wingless aphides live and multiply on the rcots
throughout the year, all being females ?nd giving birth to
live young. In the spring there is apartial migration to the

(33)

young foliage. They often appear on the twigs before the buds open.
Multiplication is rapid and a great (Seal of damage is done to the
i*nder shoots. Certain of the aphides develop wings and
migrate to other trees. In the summer most of the aphides are found
on the roots where they seem to prefer the young and mora
tender parts. This pest seems to be more numerous where the soil
is sandy.

Control j^here tho aphis believed to be present the roote
of all young trees should be examined before planting and
if found should be dipped in strong tobacco water. This tobacco
in the form of dust may be used dm the roots of orchard trees
by removing the surface soil and applying the dust which will
reach the roots by the process of leaching. If noticed on the
branches the control ih easy for they cluster on the trees until
the latter become crowded before migrating. Small twigs may be
removed and the pest controlled. A fifteen percent solution of
kerosene emulsion, or a one to four solution of whale oil soap
may be used as a spray. This must be forcibly applied in order
to penetrate into the curled leaves and honey dew. Also the
spraying should be done early before the leaves are badly
curled.

Green Peach A phis; The green aphis is of European origin
butshas been known as a peach pest in this country for years.
This aphis causes the leaves to curl up and also injures the
buds very badly.

The winter is passed in the egg state on the branches
of the peach, although the wingless females persist on the
summer food plaits where they are able to find sufficient

(34)

protection. The eggs are small, oval and shiny. Theseeeggs

hatch early in the spring, so early in fact that the etem mothers
are fully mature before the earliest blossoms open. About the time
the buds open the stem mothers are a deep pink colorand at
this time they begin to give birth to living young, which are a
pale yellowish green. Very few of this brood have wings. The
third generation is very largely winged and here migration starts.
By the middle of June these lice have almost wholly left the
tree and gone to the succulent vegetables etc. where they live
through the summer. In the fall winged females return to the
peach where wingless females are developed which produce the win-
ter eggs.

Trees which are affected by this pest should be sprayed
about one week before the buds open with a five percent
solution of kerosene emulsion. Whale oil soap or miscible oils
may also be used. If the trees are sprayed with lime sulphur
the aphides should be largely controlled.

(35)

DISEASES OF THE PEACH

BROWN ROT;- Brown Rot ie the most serious fungous disease
that the growers of peaches have to contend with, in this part
of the country. "The soft brown rot of the peach is caused by
a fungous which attacks the fruit and causes it to rot at
about the time when it is beginning to ripen. The peaches rot
very rapidly at this time and the disease causes them to
dry up and hang on the tree during the winter."*

All of these dried or mummied peaches should fte gathered
during the winter and burned in order to prevent the disease
from being carried over until next season. The tree should be
aprayed with a solution of lime and sulphur during the winter
when the disease is present. Self boiled lime sulphur may be used
as a summer spray when the fungous appears.

Peach Mildew;-The pwwdery mildew of the peadh, causes the 1
leaves to be curled up together and to appear to be covered
with a whitish powder. The tips of the growing stems are
often swollen and distorted. The disease sometimes occurs on
nursery stock in which case the trees should be gathered
and burned. Here also the disease can be dontrolled by
means of the self boiled lime sulphur.

Peach Yellows;-"This serious disease of the -peach has
as yet not been studied enough to isolate any definite
cause for it. Many theories have been advenced as to the cause
of the trouble but none of them have borne out by
investigation. The- lisease attacks the teee at various
stages in its development and causes it to die rapidly. The fruit
on a tree affected by Yellows ripens prematurely and ie usually

(36)
smaller than normal, and is characterized by red! streaks
running from the outside to the center of the fruit. Very often
we find that the fruit on a diseased tree will hang on the tree
throughout the entire winter.

It is characteristic for this disease to produce great clus-
ters of slender, wiry twigs on the main trunk and on the
branches. The color of the foliage is also usually quite
characteristic.

A similar and just as little understood disease is known
as the geach Bosette.The principle difference seems to be
that there is less tendancy to the production of the slender
wiry twigs and the fruit lacks the characteristic sfireaks
of red color.

Whenever either of these two diseases occur in the orchard
the trees affected should be cut down at once and burned.
There is practically no other remedy eorth considering.

REFERENCES

Year Book,U.S.Dept.of Agr. ,1900,1901,1902

New Jersey Sta.Rpt. 1907

Penn. Dept.Agr. Bull. 153

LiOHOuri Fruit Sta. Circular 2

Arkansaa Sta, Bull. 79

N.Carolina Bull. ig4

Mississippi Sta. Bull. 93

Michigan Sta, Bull. 177

Deleware Sta. Bulletins 45,62

California Sta. Bull. 97

Maryland Sta. Bull, 72

U.P.Hedrick,Rural New Yorker 1904 no. 63

Pruning Book L.H.Bailey

Fruit Growing in Arid Regions Paddock and Whipple

Special Report of the American Pomological Society for 1904- 05
Conn. Bulletin 63

Report of the Indiana Entomologist for 1909

Insects of the Farm Field and Garden Sanderson

Bulletin 283 Cornell University.

Etc, Etc, Etc