Silos for preserving British fodder crops stored in a green state. Notes on the ensilage of grasses, clovers, vetches, etc

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SILOS

FOE

PRESERVING BRITISH FODDER CROPS

STORED

TS A GEEETJf STATE.

NOTES ON THE ENSILAGE OE GRASSES,
CLOVERS, VETCHES, ETC.

Cffmptolt fxam Wnviaag Sources

BY

THE SrB-EDITOR OF "THE HELD,

5>

LONDON:
HOEACE COX, "FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STEAI^D.

1883.

LONDON :
PRINTED BT HORACE COX, "FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STBA.ND.

PREFACE.

The storage of green fodder in pits is a subject to widcli tlie
attention of the agricultural world lias been directed, from
time to time, for many years past. The German practice was
described in the " Transactions of the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society" fully forty years agoj but it is not sur-
prising that this fact should be almost unknown to people
of the present generation, although the article was copied into
Stephens's "Book of the Farm," printed in 1844. It is
more remarkable, however, that so little should be known of
what has been said and done within the last few years, and
that ensilage should now be generally looked upon as a new
invention. In the Farmer, in 1870, Mr. T. Schwann wrote on
the "sour-fodder" process as carried out in Hungary; and
he alluded to it again in the Field in 1876, when writing about
M. Goffart's doings in France. Professor Wrightson, when
reporting on the agriculture of the Aastro-Hungarian Empire,
in the " Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,"
ia 1874, said that this " sour hay " was well worth the atten-
tion of our agriculturists ; and he returned to the subject in
the Times in 1875. The Agricultural Gazette published an
illustrated description of the process about the same period,
besides many more recent contributions; and numerous
articles have since appeared in the various agricultural
journals of the three divisions of the United Kingdom.

A few, but very few, silos have been constructed in this
country, as will be seen by the following pages ; and these
have mostly been built within the last year or two, and are
small in dimensions. The experiments of one English gentle-
man (Mr. A. J. Scott), whose letter is printed on page 179,
commenced seven years since — which is as far back as the
earliest silos made in the United States. The great impulse
given to the ensilage process in this country dates only from

iv 'Preface.

tte summer of 1882, when the Vicomte Arthur de Chezelles
paid a visit to the Royal Agricultural Show at Reading, and
gave to Enghshmen some account of his doings. The striking
woodcut of a silo of more than 1000 tons capacity was calcu-
lated to impress itself on the mind ; the statement that
hundreds of acres of clover, tares, sainfoin, lucerne, and
artificial grasses were stored therein showed the application of
the system to crops ordinarily grown on British farms ; and
the subsequent visit of Mr. H. Kains-Jackson to the Chateau
de Boulleaume, and his account of the feeding of 130 milch
cows, besides bullocks, sheep, and horses, upon this pitted
fodder, proved that the question had at length been brought
within the range of the practical politics of the farmyard.

Discussion was no longer limited to the weekly press, but
occupied a conspicuous place in the columns of the daily
journals, and spread far and wide throughout the kingdom;
and on reading about ensilage, people at once began to
suggest methods for improving or simplifying a process of
which they had had little experience, or none whatever.

It is well for beginners to " hasten slowly ; " they should
learn to walk before they attempt to run. Many of the
suggested improvements are old methods tried years ago, and
found wanting ; supposed new and simpler processes have
long been in use, but have been discarded by the best practi-
tioners as not economical ; and plants mentioned as especially
suited to the silo have already been pitted, and given unsatis-
factory results by reason of the want of chemical constituents
requisite to the perfection of the process.

The main object of this book is to give the beginner a good
footing, and set him on the right path. With this view,
especial reference has been made to M. GofEart's precepts, to
which is added such other information as is believed to be
reliable J and in the Appendix are collected together many
articles and letters illustrative of the subject, particularly as
regards experiments at home, and with the ordinary crops of
British farms.

^ield Office, March, 1883.

CONTENTS.

'CHAP. PAGE

I. Inteoductoet 1

II. Oeops foe the Silo. — Grasses^ clovers, lucerne,
vetches, green rye and oats, roots and miscel-
laneous crops 7

(III. 'Making the Silo.'— Earthen pits and other simple
forms of silo ; best kinds ; American silos of
concrete, wood, &o. ; English silos 20

-IV. Cost op Silos. — Estimation of capacity and cost
of American sUos bmlt of wood, concrete, brick,
stone, and mixed materials ; French and English
silos ; relative capacity of silos and hay-barns j
roofs, weights, and planks 43

y. Filling and Emptying the Silo. — Mixture of dry
material with green fodder; influence of wet
weather; chopping up fodder; slow v. quick
filling ; the use of salt ; the covering boards ;
closing the doorway ; opening the pit 65

TI. OovEEiNG UP THE SiLO. — Straw and other materials 79

VII. Weighting the Silo. — Amount of weight to put

on ; consequences of insufficient pressure 81

VIII. Effect of Ensilage on Foddees. — Quality of ensi-
lage shown by quality of butter ; fermentation
in the pit ; advantages and losses produced by
fermentation 86

yi Qontents.

CHAP. PAGE

IX. Feeding Qualities of Ensilage. — Sir Jolm Lawes
on ensilage and turnips ; American and Bnglisli
experiments in feeding and milk production 95

X. SUMMAKT OF PeACTIOB 102

APPENDIX.

Silo of tlie Vicomte de Chezelles, witli an illustration j

Mr. H. Kains-Jackson's account of crops and cattle

on tHe Boulleaume estate, cost of silo, &c. ; analysis

of clover ensilage by Mr. F. Woodland Toms, F.O.S. 107

Ensilage of clover in wet seasons, by M. Lecouteux and

tlie Vicomte de Ohezelles 114

Clover stored in earthen pits, by M. Louis Darblay 116

Ensilage of roots, by M. Lecouteux 117

Ensilage witliout a silo, by Mr. H. Kains- Jackson 117

Experiments on Lord Walsingham's estate j Mr. H.
Woods' lecture ; results of feeding experiments, witli
analyses of liay, ensilage, and milk by Mr. Francis

Sutton, F.O.S 119

Professor Carroll's experiments- on tlie Albert Model
Farm, Glasnevin, Ireland, witli analyses of rye grass
and ensilage by Dr. Cameron 129

A Scotcli experiment witb vetclies, &c. (Mr. Imrie's) ... 132

Ensilage of green rye in Essex (Mr. Gibson's) 133

Ensilage of trifolium in Kent (Mr. Hoare's) 135

Ensilage of green oats in Suffolk (Col. Tomline's) 135

Experiences of a tyro in Wales, by Mr. C. E. Kenyon ... 137
Feeding experiments in France,- by M. Oottu, with analyses

of various kinds of ensilage 139

Experiment on the feeding properties of ensilage, by

Professor Henry , 142

Contents. vii

PAGE

Trial of ensilage with ewes, by Mr. H. Woods 143

M. Goffart on " sour-krout " 145

Dr. Voelcker, P.E.S., on ensilage, at meetings of tlie

Royal Agricultural Society and Society of Arts 146

Analyses of rye and maize ensilage, by Dr. Voelcker 150

Tlie cbemistry of ensilage, by Mr. Woodland Toms, witk
analyses by Professors Grandeau, Moser, Weiske,

and Von Wolff ^ 151

Silo at East Oowton, Yorkshire, with results of experience,

plan, &c., by Mr. T. Easdale 165

Another Yorkshire silo, by Mr. Geo. Broderick 168

Cost of silos in Durham, by the Eev. 0. H. Ford 171

Two years' experience with ensilage in Hampshire, by
Mr.- A. Grant, with analysis of grass ensilage by

Mr. Woodland Toms 173

Clover hay and ensilage in Hampshire, by Mr. A. J. Scott,'

with analyses by Dr. Voelcker 178

Cost of Hampshire silos in chalk, by Mr. T. Potter 180

Slate for silos, by Messrs. Brindley and Co 181

Influence of silos upon meat production, by Mr. W. W.

Goode 182

Ensilage congress at New York 187

Silos among the Ancients, by Mr. B. H. Cowper 191

Ensilage of sprouted oat-sheaves, by Mr. 0. A. Kemble . 193

Cementing the inside of silos, by Mr. Edgar Hall 194

Adverse views — the " Ensilage Eever " 195

Feeding Horses on ensilage 196

Mechanical substitutes for weights, by various corre-
spondents 1"S

Portable silos of concrete slabs, their construction, and

estimates of cost, by Mr. W- H. Lascelles 206

BOOKS ON ENSILAGE.

The following is a list of books on ensilage. Those marked f we have-
not seen, but take the partiotdars from Dr. Thurber's book :

"Manuel de la Culture et de I'BnsUage des Mais et autres forrages
Terts." Par Auguste GofEart. 3rd edition. Paris : G. Masson,
120, Boulevard Saint Germain. 1879.

t M. GofEart's book was translated by Mr. J. B. Brown, and published
at New York in 1879.

" Culture et BnsUage du Mais-fourrage et des autres fonrrages verts."^
Par Ed. Lecouteux. Paris : Librairie Agricole, 26, Rue Jacob.
1875.

" The Book of Ensilage ; or, the New Dispensation for Farmers." By
John M. Bailey. New York : Orange Judd Company, 7S1, Broad-
way. 1881.

f " Ensilage of Green Forage Crops in Silos." By H. B. Stevens,
Echo Dale Farm, Dover, Massachusetts. Published by the author.

" Silos and Ensilage : the Preservation of Fodder Com and other
Green Fodder Crops." By Dr. George Thurber. New York :
Orange Judd Company, 751, Broadway. 1881.

"SUos and Ensilage. A Record of Practical Tests in several States
and Canada." Special Report No. 48; Department of Agricul-
ture. Washington : Government Printing OfiB.ce. 1882.

" Ensilage : its Origin, History, and Practice ; with Experimental
Trials and Results, and lEustrated by Plans, &c." By Henry
"Woods. Norwich : Stevenson and Co. London : W. Ridgway,
169, Piccadilly. 1883.

" Ensilage : A System for the Preservation in Pits of Forage Plants
and Grasses, independent of Weather. By Thos. Christy, F.L.S.
London : Christy and Co., 155, Fenchurch-street. 1883.

" Ensilage in America : its Prospects in English Agriculture. By
James E. Thorold Rogers, M.P. London : W. Swan Sonnenschein
and Co., Paternoster-row. 1883.

SILOS

FOE

PRE8EEYIM ERITISH FODDER CROPS.

CHAPTER L-INTRODUCTORY.

Bad seasons and severe competition have made it imperative
on the British farmer to look to something more profitable
than corn crops as a means of existence. The most fruitful
source of profit seems now to lie in the feeding of live stock
of some description or other ; for^ whereas wheat and other
cereals are kept down to exceedingly low prices by the enor-
mous supplies forthcoming from countries where they can be
grown at considerably less cost than in these islands, the
demand for butcher's meat and for dairy produce increases
faster than the supply, and prices are enhanced accordingly,
despite the efforts of foreigners to send us dead carcases and
live stock, butter, cheese, and other produce.

How long this state of things will last it is diflicult to say ;
but meanwhile it behoves the agriculturist to make the most
of his opportunities, and to turn his resources to the best
account, so as to be able to hold his own when the pinch
comes. If he can, by recoiirse to new processes, feed his
stock more cheaply than heretofore, and store his fodder
crops in safety instead of leaving them to rot in the fields
under rainy skies, he may be able to withstand competition
should it become more sharp than at present. It will be well,
therefore, for him to put aside his amour propre, forget the
fact that British agriculture has been held up as a model for

Silos for Fodder Crops.

all nations to foUow, and ascertain whetlier there may not be
found in foreign books a leaf or two well wortli studying and
acting upon.

In the year 1876 particulars were given in the Field of
what was being done, and had long been done, upon the
Continent, in the way of storing green fodder in pits as
winter food for stock ; but nobody then seemed to take heed
of the matter in this country. The subject had also been
alluded to in the agricultural press of America, and the first
silo is said to have been made and filled in 1876 by Mr. Francis
Morris, who officiated as president at the recent Ensilage
Congress at New York. In the same autumn, Mr. C. W.
Mills buried in a trench some maize that had been damaged
by frost, and he found its condition so good next spring that
he used it for feeding his cattle. After this, others tried
experiments; and, M. Goffart's manual having been trans-
lated as a text-book, our American cousins set vigorously
to work, and proved the process to be both practicable and
profitable. Now it has spread far and wide throughout the
States, and accounts of the wonderful results have been
brought back to the Old World by writers, some of whom
appeared to imagine that the process was an American
discovery, and quite a new invention.

Seven lean years have made many British farmers more
receptive of new ideas than they were formerly. Numbers
are now willing to construct silos, and anxious to know how
to set about the work ; and those who have any knowledge of
the subject have freely given information thereon. But prac-
tical experience in this country is as yet very limited, and
some who have constructed silos have either not had the best
advice or have followed notions of their own, and thus have
fallen into serious errors through not knowing what to avoid,
because they have been unaware of the fact that what they
were about to do had been tried long ago, and proved to be
bad practice.

The object of these pages is to lay before beginners some
information as to what to do and what to avoid. It is

Silos for Fodder Crops.

undesirable, on every consideration, to start witli tlie notion
tliat all is so easy, success so certain, and cost so trifling,
that you cannot do wrong in trying the process. Exaggerated
accounts in this respect are sure to produce a counter-
current. People who are misled by such statements, and
who have not taken the precautions necessary to obtain good
results, are sure to cry out that the process is a deception ;
that they have spent so much in hard cash, have wasted so
many tons of fodder, and have obtained in return only a mass
of manure.

That the cost may be trifling under certain circumstances,
is one advantage of the process, as many persons who cannot
afiord a large outlay are thus enabled to carry out experiments
with their ordinary crops. But they must not run away with
the idea that, because the process is easy, success is rendered
so certain that they can dispense with precautions necessary
to safety. If they are unwilling to take the trouble requisite
to ensure success, they had better leave the matter alone,
or they may only waste their materials. With due care,
good results may be obtained with small means and rough
appliances ; but such results must not be expected to be as
perfect in all respects, nor eventually so economical, as those
which can be obtained by the employment of large, well-
designed, and permanent structures. It is not by any means
essential that people should begin with very costly works :
these may, if desired, be afterwards carried out by those who
can spare the capital, and who have satisfied themselves by
tentative experiments that a judicious outlay on a liberal scale
will be a saving of money in the end.

Much of the advice here given is translated or summarised
from the writings of M. Auguste GofEart* (of the Chateau de
Burtin, near Nouan-le-Fuselier, department of Loir-et-Oher),
who may be said to be the father of the modern process
known as ensilage, which means storage in a silo or pit. The

* Manuel de la Cxilture et de I'Bnsilage des Mais et autres Fourrages
verts. Par Auguste G-offart. Paris : G. Masson, 120, Boulevard St.
Germain.

B 2

4j Silos for Fodder Crops^

ancient practice of using pits as stores for farm produce
(more especially grain) dates back for thousands of years.
Old Greek writers mention these pits by tbe name of siros ;
Latin authors use the word sirus — so that storing of com in
a pit would be to put it in siro. As in many other words,
the letter r got changed into I in course of time ; and old
Spanish and French books show that silo was the word used
for such pits centuries ago.*

* Further information on the storing of com, &c., in pits by the ancients,
as alluded to in the Bible and in many Greek and Roman authors, will be
found in the Appendix. Modem French writers have, by the addition
of prefixes and suffixes, formed from the word silo quite a vocabulary
not generally to be found in dictionaries, though some are contained in
the latest supplement to Littre, with the authorities and dates of their
first-known employment, which only go back for some seven or eight years ;
but even Littre does not give all that we now meet with. Those which
we have seen include ensiler, to put in a silo, and desensiler, to take out
of a sUo ; and these verbs are used in various tenses, as f ensile, j'ensilais,
j'ensilerai, and so on, besides forming participles, ensilant and ensile.
The noun ensilage is used in two senses, meaning the process of storing
in a pit, and also the substance stored ; desensilage is the process of
emptying the pit ; ensileur, the person who stores his farm produce in
this way, and so on. Ensilotage is another word which has been used ;
but Littre objects to it as inaccurately formed, there being no t in sUo.
The noun, ensilage, is not nearly so recent in its origin as other of the
words, for we find it used in French works on agriculture, published
twenty years or more ago, which make no mention of the storage of green
fodder in silos ; it is there used with respect to the pitting of potatoes
and other roots, in like manner as potatoes, mangold, turnips, &c., are
pitted in this country. In writing in English about this process of
storing green crops in pits, some persons turn the word ensilage into a
verb, and say, " The grass was ensilaged," or, " He was ensikging
clover ;'' but this mode of expression is both awkward and unnecessary.
No doubt we commonly turn a noun into a verb, and say to pit, to pot,
to pile, to stack, whereas the French, from their noun pile, form the
verb empiler, and from pot form empoter, with empotage as a noun
similar to ensilage in character. We, however, should never think of
saying " I empotaged some plants," instead of " potted ; " nor 'is it
desirable to use such words as " ensilaged " and " ensilaging," when we
can say " pitted," " sUoed," &c. There can be no more objection to the
use of silo as a verb than there is to our using " stucco " in the same way ;
and for so employing this and other words ending in o, we have the
authority of dictionaries as well as every-day practice.

Silos for Fodder Qrops.

It is unnecessary, howeyer, to dwell longer on tMs part of
tlie subject. Suffice it to say that a German named Klapp-
meyer described, about a bundred years since, a method of
keeping green fodder by burying it in a pit, thereby prodiiciag
a so-called " brown hay ; " this process is still practised in
some parts of Germany and Hungary, and, with some modi-
fication, makes "sour fodder/' and much the same sort of
thing has been carried out for years by many persons in
France, with certain yariations of practice, to suit convenience.
More than thirty years ago Klappmeyer's process was tried
for two seasons by M. GofEart, but he found the result not
nearly so satisfactory as he wished, and then he began experi-
menting on his own account, and has little by little brought
his method of preserving green crops to its present highly
improved, if not perfected, state of practice; and, having
commenced with four small silos, less than three cubic yards
each in capacity, he has gone on building others larger and
larger until he has about a dozen silos and his storage of green
fodder exceeds 1000 tons a year. He feeds therewith more
than a hundred head of horned cattle, besides horses, &c.,
throughout the winter and far into the summer, until the new
crop of forage is ready to be cut. M. Goffart is a practical
agriculturist and a man of great energy. He admits that he
had but meagre success at the beginning ; and for the first
twenty years he had to content himself with keeping his
green fodder for three weeks or a month longer than he
otherwise was able to do; but he persevered nevertheless,
changed his mode of practice, and thus eventually extended
the time of keeping from a few weeks to double as many
months. He says he has found it necessary to alter his
opinions in course of time, and to retract advice which he
gave years ago ; but he only does so when he has proved by
experience that he can obtain better and more profitable
results by changing his method of procedure, and he may
therefore be looked on as a very safe man to follow.

The information here given, however, will not be limited
exclusively to what is said by M. Goffart, but will be supple-

Silos for Fodder Crops.

merited by particulars taken from articles and letters in the
Field and otlier jonmals, English a.nd foreign, as well as the
oflBcial report of the Agricultural Department of the United
States — such deta.ils, however, being only selected as seem
best suited to the circumstances of our own country and its.
ordinary crops.

In the numerous quotations which we give iu the Appendix,
there will necessarily be found many conflicting opinions as to.
cause and effect, even among those who are writing favourably
of the system ; but it should be remembered that all have not.
had an equal amount of experience, and it will be seen, from
what we have just said of M. Goffart, that even the oldest
are compelled by the logic of facts to change their opinions.
We have not thought it desirable to expunge these conflicting
statements, but would suggest that where anyone is in doubt,
as to which opinion in the Appendix he should attach most
importance to, he will generally find in the earlier part of the
book — if the point be one of any particular importance — an
opinion from M. Goffart, who may be taken as a fitting
person to give the casting vote.

CHAPTER II.-CROPS FOR THE SILO.

Most of tlie writings on ensilage liitlierto published have
related to the preservation of maize or Indian corn (commonly
spoken of in America as "corn/' without any prefix). At
present maize is but little grown in this country — so little,
indeed, as to be practically non-existent. Accordingly, it is
not proposed to say very much here about that plant, although
it occupies the greater portion of M. Goffart's book. If in
course of time it should be found that maize can be grown
with advantage in these islands, so as to be cut green for
forage (for it should only be old enough to form the ear, and
not be allowed to approach ripeness), it will be very easy to
adapt the process to that plant, as the, mode of procedure is
the same for maize as for grass, clover, green oats, and other
English produce, except that with maize it is desirable that it
be cut up into quarter -inch lengths, owing to the thickness of
the stems, which render it difficult to preserve whole, and
more difficult for the cattle to masticate. On economical
grounds it is therefore desirable to go to the cost of maize-
cutting machinery (worked by steam or horse power, where
maize is grown on a large scale), instead of attempting to use
the fodder uncut ; but with grass, and other of our green crops,
there is not the same necessity for cutting into chaff, and
such fodder may be preserved in an excellent condition
without being chopped up. Some persons, however, prefer
to pass it through a chaff-cutter, and there is no objection to
this being done ; but it is questionable whether there is with
these crops, any such advantage as would compensate for the
cost of machinery and labour, unless the plants are very hard

8 Silos for Fodder Crops.

stemmed; and even these may be preserved whole with a
sufficiently liberal allowance of pressure.

Many people seem to be under the impression that silos are
of comparatively little use in this country without maize,
which they look upon as a more nutritious fodder than our
ordinary grass crops. This, however, is a mistaken notion;
for, although the ripe Indian corn is a very rich cereal, the
entire maize plant, consumed as green fodder, is not nearly so
nutritious as is often supposed. It is certainly very highly
spoken of by M. Goffart, and he cultivates it largely himself —
not, however, because it is more nutritious, but because it
suits his soil much better than many other crops, and he says
that his land will produce double the weight of maize that it
will of mangold. Moreover, he contrives to get two crops a
year off the same ground, by cutting green rye in May, and
immediately afterwards planting maize, which is sufficiently
advanced towards maturity by the autumn to answer his
purpose. In America, too, maize thrives so marvellously, and
is grown on so extensive a scale, that any mode of preserving
it as green fodder, where other winter foods are difficult to
obtain, must necessarily cause the system to be widely adopted
among the myriads of farmers who dwell on that vast con-
tinent. The advantage of maize as a fodder plant is therefore
beyond question; though its value lies, not iu its iaherent
richness, but in its abundant growth and consequent cheap-
ness, where soil and climate are suitable. It is not, indeed,
so nutritious as fodders ordinarily grown in these islands ;
and the means adopted for its preservation in pits are not
special to itself, but may be equally well applied to the
produce of British farms. Thus, M. Goffart says :

The precepts wMch I have set forth with respect to the ensilage of
maize apply indiscriminately to all other fodders, and ensure the same
success. If I have treated more especially of maize, it. is because in that
marvellous plant I have found the elements of new agricultural wealth
from the day when I succeeded in ensuring its indefinite preservation by
ensilage, and thus was enabled to feed my beasts thereon throughout the
year. Before it was saved by ensilage, maize provided them with food for
barely three months, during the season when it could be given to them in
a green state.

Value of Maize,

In other parts, of his book, M. Goffart makes the following
remarks :

Now, is maize in itseK a rich food ? Evidently not. Besides the
analyses, more or less exact, which have been published, one unanswerable
fact proves that it is not rich in nutritive principles, and that is, the large
amount which must be eaten to keep beasts in good condition. This fact
I have recognised and published a score of times. But, after all, it is
merely a question of getting the animals to consume a larger quantity.
Nobody would maintain that a given weight of maize would replace the
same weight of lucerne, clover, or sainfoin : but that does not prevent any-
one from making up by quantity what is wanting in nutritive properties,
and thus keeping beasts as well on maize as on the richest of grasses.

My beasts, especially the milch cows, when they live solely on fresh
maize during the summer, consume very large quantities, and their beUies
are always widely distended, which proves that the food has not aU the
richness that is desirable, and that they are obliged to make up for defective
quality by excessive quantity. When they eat maize that has been in the
silo and is fermented, their beUies decrease in size, their ration (which
they themselves diminish) is reduced in weight, and their general condition
becomes more satisfactory.

I need hardly say that green rye is much richer than maize, and that a
smaller quantity of the former feeds as well as a larger quantity of the
latter ; a mixture of these two fodders constitutes an excellent regimen.

Without wishing to discourage experiments in the culture
of maize in these islands, it is desirable that persons who
attempt it should proceed cautiously, and not make large
ventures until they have ascertained whether it is likely to
succeed on their soils. M. GofEart says : " There are certain
indispensable conditions in the physical, hygrometrical, and
chemical condition of the soil, the absence of which may
render the profitable cultivation of this forage impossible."
In his own case, where the soil is favourable, he manures
heavily with farmyard and artificial manures, and thus, if the
crop does not turn out well, there may be a heavy loss.
These matters ought to be taken into consideration, and
M. Goffart does not hide them; for, although he is a very
warm advocate of maize -culture, where conditions are suitable,
he nevertheless says :

Maize is a ruinous crop in bad seasons. Nothing is more advantageous
than a successful maize crop ; nothing more ruinous than a bad crop of

10 Silos for Fodder Crops.

maize. More than 40 tons an acre on the one hand, and less than six tons
on the other. Such are the divergencies that I hare observed in fifty-
places in 1878.

Ordinary meadow grass^ rye grass, and cloyer tave been:
pitted during tlie last two years by Mr, A. Grant, a gentleman
residing in Hants. In tbe autumn of 1881 lie stored in. a small
experimental silo a scanty crop from. 4| acres of bop cloyer
and rye grass, and found tbat it made capital fodder. En-
couraged by this experiment, be enlarged bis scale of opera-
tions, and in tbe summer of 1882 saved in tbis way about
70 tons of meadow grass, witb perfect success. Five acres were
cut and carried in beavy raia ; and tbis portion came out of
tbe silo mucb darker in colour tban tbat wbicb bad been carried
in fine weatber ; but it proved to be equally good fodder. Mr.
Grant likewise siloed a few loads of TriEolium incarnatum,
also cut and carried in rain ; but tbis, baving been put into a
very small pit, and witb insufficient weigbt on tbe top, did not
turn out so well as otber samples ; nevertbeless it was all
eaten up by tbe cows. Tbe butter-producing quality of tbe
milk was greatly improved. An analysis of a sample of tbe
meadow grass ensilage, wbicb was of a bigbly nutritious,
character, will be found ia tbe Appendix, together witb a,
lengthy statement of tbe results of Mr. Grant's experience.

Eougb grass, cut from" the roadside, and otber coarse, stalky
grass and strong aftermath have, when pitted, produced very
good results in tbe North Eiding of Yorkshire. Mr. Thos.
Easdale, writing from tbe Estate Office, Pepper Arden Hall,
Northallerton, has given full details of tbe experiment ; and
from these particulars (reprinted in- tbe Appendix) it will be
seen ■ tbat the quantity of milk and quantity of butter were-
mucb improved in cows fed on the ensilage.

On tbe Earl of Wbarncliffe's estate at Hawes, also im
North Yorkshire, a beavy crop from five acres of natural
meadow grass was put into silo in August, and gave excellent
results when opened in January. Particulars of this experiment
are also given ia the Appendix.

Grasses. ll

In Wales, toOj ensilage lias been made from grass. Mr.,
0. E. Kenyonj of Brynllwydwyn, Macliynlletli (wkose letter-
is reprinted in tlie Appendix), states that yearling calves were
particularly fond of the preserved grass, and throve well on it.
His milch cows were found to require a little cotton cake or
bean meal to keep up the quality of the mUk and make rich
cream; but the butter had more of the colour, if not the-
flavour, of that from grass-fed cows, than was the case before,
using ensilage.

Some rye grass was well preserved in experiments carried
out by Professor Carroll, at the model farm of the Albert
Institution, Glasnevin, Ireland; and analyses of the grass
when cut, as well as of the ensilage, will be found ia the
Appendix. A mixture of comfrey and lucerne was wholly
spoiled, and so was some rye grass that had simply been
laid on the ground and povered over by a mound of earth — a
process that M. Goffart condemns; as always giving bad
results.

Ordinary green grass is made into ensilage by the dairy
farmers of Holland; and when, in the spring of 1882, a.
number of Norfolk tenant farmers accompanied Sir T. PoweH
Buxton and Mr. Samuel Hoare in a tour of inspection of
Dutch farms, one of the party said in the Field: '^The
greatest novelty we saw in Holland was ensilage made from
green grass, which interested us more than anything else ;
and the experiment -will be tried by more than one of us this
summer." The ensilage was further spoken of a.s " capital
milk-producing food."

In Norfolk a highly-satisfactory experiment has already
been carried out on Lord Walsingham's home-farm, at
Merton. Mr. Henry Woods, in a lecture delivered before the
Wayland Agricultural Association on Feb. 5, 1883, gave full
details of what had been done. It appears that the fodder
put into the silo was very coarse common grass, gro-wn in a
wood, and of so poor a character that people to whom it had
been given, did not care to cut and carry it away ; yet after it
had been five months in the pit, it proved excellent food for

12 Silos for Fodder Crops.

stockj and the cows tliat were fed partially upon it increased
their supply of milk, which improved also in richness, and the
quantity and quality were both enhanced from time to time as
the rations given to the animals contained increased proportions
of ensilage ; and when two cows were deprived of the ensilage
for a couple of days they each gave three quarts of milk less
per day. Analyses of the milk, and of hay and ensilage made
from the same grass, are given in the Appendix.

Clovees, Luceene, and Vetches.

Clovers have been preserved in silos by several English
gentlemen with more or less success ; but they seem to require
a greater amount of. pressure than grass, owing, no doubt, to
the stems being stronger and more elastic, and requiring more
force to expel the air which necessarily is iutermingled with
the fodder when it is put into the silo. In a previous page it
is stated that Mr. Grant^s success with Trifolium incarnatum
was not so great as with grass ; but he attributed this to the
fact that the clover was put in a small silo and had also had
insuflBcient pressure.

Mr. A. J. Scott, another Hampshire gentleman (the analyses
of whose hay and ensilage are given in the Appendix), was
likewise not so successful with some clover as could be
wished j for while his clover hay (cut in July) showed 15'87
per cent, of albumenoids, his ensilage (cut from the same field
in September) gave but 10'55 per cent. This considerable
falling off in nutritious ingredients appeared much larger than
would be likely to arise solely from the difference between the
quality of the first and the second crop of clover, and the
large amount of acid (5-73 per cent.) seemed to indicate that
a destructive amount of fermentation had been allowed to go
on in the silo. We accordingly made inquiry as to the amount
of pressure that had been put upon the fodder ; and it will be
seen from Mr. Scott's second letter that there was a defect iu
the arrangements, whereby the ensilage was practically left
without any pressure on it after the first settlement, and air

Clovers. 13

would consequently obtain ready admission into tlie mass — a
fact wliicli most probably will account for the unsatisfactory
result.

Tbat tbis loss of nutritive qualities is not necessarily tbe
result of making clover into ensilagej is sbown by the analysis
of a specimen from tbe silo of tbe Vicomte de Cbezelles, at
Chateau Boulleaume, near Liancourt St. Pierre, in the depart-
ment of the Oise, and not very many miles from Paris. Of
this immense sJlo, some particulars, together with an illustra-
tion, are given further on ; but it may here be stated that the
green crops from 170 acres were preserved in this single pit,
and that it is constructed to hold about 80 acres more.
Samples therefrom were sent to London — one being exhibited
for some time at the Corn Exchange, Mark -lane, and after-
wards at the Christmas Pat Stock Show at Norwich ; and
another, that was sent to the Field Ofl&ce, underwent chemical
analysis, the result of which is given in the Appendix.
Owing to the sample being detained by the Custom House
officials (who fancied that the ensilage was some new
preparation of tobacco), the analysis was not made till
about three weeks after the sample was removed from the
silo, and, from being opened and examined, it may meanwhile
have undergone some amount of deterioration, as seems
probable from the quantity of alcohol and acetic acid ; but its
nutritive qualities were nevertheless of a very high order;
and, as will be observed on comparing the analyses, whereas
the albumenoids in the clover hay from Alton, Hants, was
15-87 per cent., and in the ensilage from the same field only
10-55 per cent., the Prench ensilage contained 18-35 per cent,
of albumenoids. Of course these percentages are on the " dry
substance," as comparisons cannot otherwise be made of
fodders contaimng different proportions of water. This
Prench ensilage, it may be mentioned, had not been pitted in
a whole condition, but had been passed through a chaff-
cutting machine before being put in the silo. On a previous
occasion, however, M. de Chezelles had stored in the silo
about 80 acres of clover, put in unchopped, and much of it

14 Silos for Fodder Crops.

dripping wet with rain ; yet it cut out in capital condition
wlien tlie silo was opened, nine months afterwards.

M. Leconteux, the editor of the Journal d' Agriculture
Pratique, specially recommends that early crops of Trifolium
incarnatum be cut on coming into flower, and while the plant
is stiU tender, when the land can at once be sown with root or
other crops. His article (quoted in the Appendix) states that
rain is of little importance while the Trifolium is being pitted,
and that he has siloed cartloads dripping with water.

M. Darblay (also quoted in the Appendix) likewise shows
iis success with a similar crop, which he stored in a simple
«arthen pit.

Some clover ensilage on the farm of Mr. H. Hoare, at
Pagehurst, near Staplehurst, Kent, is reported to have been
very satisfactory j and this also had been cut into chaff before
being pitted. About 50 tons of Trifolium incarnatum were
put into two silos, and Mr. Austen, the farm bailiS, was of
opinion that there was more food in the ensilage than in the
same crop made into hay. Cattle fed upon it exclusively he
found to tire of it j so it was mixed with chaffed hay, and
thus made very good feed.

Lucerne has been successfully preserved in silos for some
years by M. Pornay, of Romorantin (Loir et Cher), and at the
district agricultural show at Bourges in 1879 M. Pornay was
awarded a silver medal for an excellent sample which he*
exhibited.

Some half-ripe vetches, corn, and beans were stored in a
rough silo by Mr. Imrie, of Whitehill, a member of the
Glasgow Agricultural Society; but, as will be seen by the
•account of the opening of the silo given in the Appendix, the
result was not very successful. It would appear, however,
that the defect was mainly due to unsatisfactory arrangements.

Geeen Rte and Green Oats.
Green rye is a favourite crop for ensilage with many French
farmers. M. Goffart grows it largely, gets it into the silo in
May, and immediately plants maize on the same ground. '

Green Mye and Oats. 15

Green rye has already been made inio ensilage in England ;
and in the course of a discussion which followed the reading
of a paper by Professor Thorold Eogers, M.P., on " Ensilage
in the United States" (at the Society of ArtSj London, on
Jan. 31, 1883), Mr. E. B. Gibson, of Saffron Walden, Essex,
said that in the previous May he had put into five small silos
"the produce of 20 acres of green rye, cut just as it was coming
into ear, and passed through a chaff-cutting machine before
being siloed. When taken out in September, the ensilage was
perfectly good, except a little at the top (which was mouldy,
■owing, we believe, to the absence of weight on the top of the
fodder, and consequently to the air not beiag excluded). At
the time of the meeting Mr. Gibson was feeding forty head of
cattle on 1^ bushels of ensilage, 1^ bushels of swede turnips,
and 21b. of cotton cake each per day ; and they throve so well
that he thought the cotton cake might be dispensed with
without any diminution in the milk. So satisfied was he with
the results, that he intended to convert a larger quantity of
green crop to ensilage ; and he felt certain that heavy land
farmers would find it highly beneficial to substitute ensilage
for roots.

Colonel Tomliae has preserved green oats at Orwell Park,
Ipswich, where the Prince of Wales went to see the silo
opened. The produce of 11 acres was cut into chaff, and
pitted during showery weather at the end of July and
beginning of August. When opened, in December, the
surface was mouldy and rotten, but the mass of ensilage below
was in good condition; and the produce of milk and butter
from cows fed upon it was vastly improved.

MiSClLLAlTEOIIS CeOPS.

Many other kiads of crops have been put into silos by
'■different persons. Before M. Goffart discovered that, by his
improved mode of ensilage, he could keep fodder for much
longer periods than he ha-d been accustomed to do, the
quantity of maize grown by him was comparatively small.
In 1872 the crops of his home farm of 300 acres included

16 Silos for Fodder Crops.

40 acres of wheat, 32 acres of rye, 80 acres of oats, 12 acres
of buckwlieat, 11 acres of Jerusalera artichokes (producing
2200 bushels), and 3| acres of maize (producing more than 150
tons), besides which his natural and artificial grasses, vetches
included, amounted to 600 tons, and his potatoes to 500
bushels. Six years later his growth of maize had reached
1100 tons. His experiments in pitting crops have been of a
widely varied character, for it appears that he has put into
his silos not only maize and rye^ and various kinds of clover
and trefoil, but Jerusalem artichokes^ beetroot, sorghum,,
comfrey, turnips, and potatoes. He says he has been more or
less successful with all of them, but makes no special remarks
as to his treatment of the majority. With regard, however,
to prickly comfrey he gives some particulars, showing that it
is very good fodder when freshly cut, but not well adapted
for ensilage alone, owing to the paucity of sugary matters
rendering it incapable of alcoholic fermentation. He says :

My beasts eat the green comfrey without eagerness, but without
repugnance. In autumn, at the time of ensilage, I mix a certain
quantity of it with my maize, and obtain very good results. The comfrey
appears to be superior to maize in nitrogenous matters, and the maize
win come to the aid of the comfrey through its greater richness in
certain very useful principles much sought after by the animals.

Maize contains, on the average, only 1'20 to 1'25 per cent, of nitro-
genous tnatters, whilst recent analyses of comfrey credit it with 2'70 per
cent, or more than double. These two plants, instead of being opposed,
serve to complete one another, to the great advantage of agriculture.

At the beginning of October, 1878, I put in the silo a few tons of
comfrey. The fodder was perfectly sound, but it is well known how poor
it is in sugary matters, and consequently how little fitted for alcoholic
fermentation. The results confirmed" our anticipations in all respects.
Despite all the care which I gave to this ensilage, I only obtained a
" brovra hay " — ^very good food, but quite refractory to alcoholic fer-
mentation. On exposure to the air, the comfrey soon underwent butyric
fermentation, and had to be consumed immediately, otherwise it would
quickly become unfit for the feeding of cattle.

M. Julien, president of the Eomorantin Agricultural Society,
in a report to the Central Agricultural Association of Sologne,
after speaking of the great advantages arising from the

Miscellaneous Crops. 17

ensilage of maize in that part of the country — ^where the
poorness of thfe soil, and the irregularity of the climate,
Tarying from excessive wetness to absolute drought, make
the cultivation of fodder crops very precarious — says with
regard to ensilage :

This process of preservation is also applicable to many other kinds of
green fodder, such as rye and rape ; buckwheat, before the straw arrives
at maturity ; the stems of Jerusalem articholfes — an excellent fodder,
which is generally wasted ; the leaves of beetroot, also clover and
lucerne, and especially the aftermaths, which it is impossible at times to
make into hay.

As an instance of multifarious contents in one silo, we may
quote from the recent report of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture the particulars of what was put into his
pit by Mr. 0. Cromwell, of Eye, New York :— " (1) 18in. of
green oats ; (2) 6in. of red clover ; (3) 6in. of Canada peas ;
(4) 2in. of brewers' grains ; (5) 2ft. of maize, sowed broad-
cast, and containing more ragweed than maize in the crop ;
(6) 5in. of grass ; (7) 12in. of sorghum ; (8) more maize.
Came out excellent, fresh and sweet."

In a report, made in 1875 to the National Agricultural
Society of France, by three commissioners (Messrs. Bella,
Moll, and Barral) appointed to visit M. Goffart's farm and
inquire into the subject of ensilage, the information given has
reference chiefly to maize, but the following remarks are also
made with respect to the preservation of other materials,
many of which are frequently thrown aside as useless :

In the Lyonnais district green leaves of the vine, preserved as food for
cattle, and for the goats which have made the reputation of the Mont
Dore cheese, have given excellent results from time immemorial. It is
the same in cider districts with silos of apple refuse. In various parts of
Germany vegetables of aU sorts — turnips, cabbages, and divers kinds of
leaves, flavoured with a little celery— have been preserved for the feeding
of cows for ages as far back in the night of time as cabbages destined for
the food of man have been preserved and known under the name of
" sour-krout."

In the north of Prance several eminent agriculturists— M. Georges, of
Orgival, near St. Quentin, among others — ^have for more than twenty

C

18 Silos for Fodder Crops.

years past suecessfuUy preserved their beetroot leaves in silos ; others
have applied the same process to sliced beetroots, and have found that
they kept better than when the roots were placed whole in ordinary pits
and silos. The beetroot pnlp from sugar distUleries also keeps well when
put into sUos.

Beetroot, it need hardly be stated, is but another word for
mangold, tetterave being the French name common to all the
species of this genus of plants, in like manner as mdngold-
wurzel is the name used by Germans. Accordingly, unless
some distinctive expression, such as hetterave globe jaune is
made use of, one cannot say that any particular variety of
the plant is indicated ; and therefore, where we have used the
word "beetroot" in the translation, it does not necessarily
mean that sugar-beet is alone referred to — it may also mean
the variety that we should designate by the name of " man-
gold." Of course, with the beetroot pulp just mentioned
there can be no doubt ; but the sliced beetroots alluded to a
few liaes before may equally well mean sliced mangold ; and
the same remark will apply to various other instances where
the word "beetroot" occurs.

M. Lecouteux (as will be seen by a quotation in the
Appendix) recommends that the roots be cut up, mixed with
straw, and put into the silo ; and he says that this method is
preferable to the common practice of storing them whole.
The Commissioners of the National Agricultural Society of
France (quoted above) likewise say that sliced roots keep
better than those which are left whole. They also discussed
the question whether mangold could be profitably grown on
M. Goffart's estate, and say :

The question may be asked whether, at Burtin, it would not have been
preferable to cultivate mangold {hetterave fourragere), which also gives
considerable returns per acre, and is so easily kept in winter. For anyone
who knows the Sologne country, this cannot be a matter of doubt. In
other parts there are farms where yellow globe mangold is almost sure to
give 40 tons per acre if you give in due season 40 tons of manure. But
such results are impossible in Sologne. Mangold is iU adapted to its soil,
whereas maize is easily grown there under good conditions, and gives
fabulous crops — 40, 50, and even 60 tons of excellent forage. Maize is
less rich than mangold, no doubt, when both are fresh ; but it is better

Miscellaneous Crops. 19

♦

suited to the feeding of milch cows, and is improved by elisilage. We
belieTB we shall not be far from the truth in saying that in Sologne, with
equal conditions of culture, the average produce of maize per acre would
be at least double that, of mangold.

In England the sugar-beet is comparatively little grown ;
but tlie remarks made by Mr. Duncan, at tbe Society of Arts
meeting previously alluded to, will sbow tbat tbe refuse pulp
from tbe sugar-beet lias been found of value in tbis country
as well as in France. Mr. Duncan said tbat, some consider-
able time since, wben his manufactory was actively engaged
in producing sugar from root pulp, some of the waste of the
latter, for which at the time there was no use or sale, was
placed in a trench, and remaiaed there uncovered for three
years. In a period of great scarcity it was taken out abso-
lutely uninjured, except a very small portion at the top, and
the neighbouring farmers were glad to give him 12s. per ton
for it. When in Canada some time since, he found the Hon.
G. Brown was about to convert a large quantity of grass to
ensilage. Mr. Duncan has a large sheep farm in Scotland,
where the quality of the grass is often so hard and indigestible
as to' be worthless ; and he fully anticipates that he shall
derive the utmost benefit in being able to feed his flock on
ensilage.

Brewers' grains are often preserved in pits in. much the
same manner as green fodder. And, long before anything
was known about silos in England, filberts, walnuts, &c., were
preserved by burying them in the ground. Those who are
fond of these fruits, and wish to keep them in good condition,
cannot do better than pack them closely in earthen jars, cover
the mouth of the jars tightly by some such method as tieing
them down with pieces of bladder, and then bury the jars a
foot or more underground. They will thus have diminutive
silos which vrill keep the nuts good for many months.

c 2

CHAPTER III.-MAKING THE SILO.

It is not desirable to run away with tlie idea tliat one pit is
just as good as another, and that a rough-and-ready silo will
answer exactly the same purpose as one that is carefully made.
Cheapness does not necessarily mean economy, and very often
it is quite the reverse.

One method which has been recommended, and which is
very likely to be attractive to beginners, on account of its
simplicity ,and freedom from outlay, is utterly condemned by
M. Gofiart. The plan alluded to is that of heaping up fodder
on the surface of the ground and then covering it over with
earth. M. Gofiart says that, except in the case of maize
covered up whole, he never knew an instance where the
results were not bad. This is borne out by the results of the-
recent experiments at the Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin^
Ireland, where grass covered up in this way became so
mouldy as to be perfectly unfit for food.

It is not, however, absolutely requisite to go to a large-
expenditure before making any attempts at the preservation
of green fodder in pits ; but it is desirable that the beginner
should bear in mind that he cannot obtain from small silos
and rough methods of procedure the full amount of success
that is obtainable from more perfect appliances. The more
carefully all arrangements are carried out, the greater is the
amount of success likely to be attained. No doubt very satis-
factory results may be obtained with comparatively small
expenditure ; and where the saviug in first outlay is of greater
importance to the beginner than a certain amount of waste in
the fodder, he can adopt that course which is most convenient

A Method to be avoided. 21

to himself. At the recent Ensilage Congress at New York,
one of the speakers said : " In the matter of silos, it makes
no difference whether they cost 25 dollars or 25,000 dollars ;
one will preserve your ensilage as well as the other ; the only
thing required is continuous pressure." But this should be
taken cum grano salis ; for you cannot make the pressure in
small silos equally as effective as in large ones, nor can you
press the fodder so compactly against rough surfaces as you can
where the walls are smooth ; and consequently there is more
waste of fodder with small silos and rough surfaces than with
large silos and sinooth walls. Where fodder is so abundant that
waste is of no importance, such a statement may pass muster ;
but it is not in accord with the teachings of the gentleman
to whom, at the same Congress, an address was voted to
" express their appreciation of the great value of the system
of ensilage discovered and introduced by him. M. Goffart
has tried cheap methods, and has obtained therefrom results
which are not likely to be exceeded by those who are without
his experience ; yet he has given up rough-and-ready modes
of storage, and betaken himself to silos of masonry as being
more -profitable in the end. Eespecting a simple and
" cheap " experiment carried out by a neighbour, he says :

One of them, who had buried more than haJf his ensilage in his dnng-
lieap, on adcoimt of its being putrid, said to me one day : " I cannot boast
of having had a thorough success ; I have only been half successful."

" What do you mean by half successful P " said I. " Do you mean that
you have lost haK your ensUage ? "

" Well," he replied, " half of it is about what I have lost ; but the rest
is in very good condition."

" Then," I rejoined, " you ought not to say that you have been haJf
fluccessful ; you have not succeeded at all. When a man loses half his
investment in any undertaking, he luis had no success ; it has been for
him a most disastrous business."

This was the reply made to a farmei- who, nevertheless,
by saving half his fodder, had done better than some others
who have tried the same method, which was that of heaping
earth over a mass of fodder laid upon the surface of the
ground.

22 8ilos for Fodder Crops.

Baethbn Pits, and othie Simple Forms of Silo.

M. Goffart does not condenm in equal fashion all simple
mettodsj altliougli he may have ceased to practise them. For
example, here are some particulars of the silos which he had
in use in 1876, as shown by replies which he gave to a series
of questions put by the " Soci6te des Agriculteurs de France :"

I preserve from 300 to 400 tons in eleven silos of various shapes and
dimensions. Five are old rectangular rooms, aU above ground. Six are
oval or rectangular vats of greater or less depth — one being half above
ground, and the other five almost wholly underground. The best are th&
last built, with semicircular ends, and half underground.

I pack the chopped maize in horizontal layers, whether the sUos ar&
simple holes dug in firm soils, or whether they are lined with masonry.

Since that time he has built the large sUos hereafter alluded
to, and increased his ensilage to about 1000 tons per annum.

At a conference held in connexion with the District
Agricultural Show, at Blois in May, 1875, he said, with respect
to pits simply dug in the ground :

The trial of an underground silo, without walls of masonry, has given
favourable results, so far as regards loss, which has scarcely amounted to-
1 per cent, of the fodder put into the pit ; but the soil crumbles away
rapidly when the sUo is empty, and in this respect it is inferior to waUs of
masonry.

And in a communication made to the Farmers' Dinner on
Jan. 12, 1876, under the presidency of M. Foucher de Oareil,
M. Goffart said :

I siloed two tons of chopped green rye before the 8th of May, 1876, in
a simple circular hole dug in firm soil without any lining of masonry. I
opened it on the 20th September, and except a top layer of an inch in
thickness, which was damaged, the rest was in a perfect state of preser-
vation, and was devoured by my beasts, which were then being fed on
green maize. Green fye is more easily preserved than maize, and is
naturally richer food. All green fodders may be preserved in the same
fashion.

In a report to the Central Agricultural Association of
Sologne in 1875, particulars of some roughly-constructed silos.

Silos made in Barns, 8fc. 23

on M. Goffart's farm are given by M. Julien, president of the
Romorantin Agricultural Committee, who says :

We visited the silos, some in buildings, and others in the fields. The
first consisted of brictwork compartments in an old cart-shed. They
were about 16Jft. long, 65ft. wide, and 8ft. high, built above ground.
They were empty at the time of our visit. A silo in a field was, however,
opened ia our presence. With the exception of some mouldy patches on
the upper layers, the fodder was in a very satisfactory state of preserva-
tion, and we can readily believe, with M. Goffart, that it might have been
kept much longer. Henceforth, earthen silos wiU be done away with at
Burtin, the owner finding it more advantageous to replace them by sUos
of masonry, which are more easily managed and give better preservation.

Silos simply dug in the earth should not be of such a depth as to be
in danger from infiltration of water. The bottom and walls should be
covered with a thin layer of straw, to prevent contact with the earth, and
the fodder be then packed in, either cut or uncut. On reaching the
surface of the ground, the fodder, having been well trodden down, should
receive a thin layer of straw, and then be evenly covered with a good
layer of earth, thick enough to prevent the penetration of rain.

The commissioners appointed by the National Agricultural
Society of Prance reported also on M. Goffart's ready adapta-
tion of means to ends, saying :

We have been very favourably impressed by seeing sUos placed in an
old distillery which, being empty, was now supplying the cows with their
daily provender. These silos are simply formed by the side walls of the
building, with dividing walls about 8ft. in height. No excavation has
been made, and the forage is heaped up on the soil as high as the floor
above will permit. Openings have been left in the dividing walls, so as
to allow of passage from one compartment to another, in order to fill and
empty them in succession.

Some English proprietors have already, in like manner,
turned existing buildings to account by running up dividing
walls in old barns, as mentioned in the case of the silos on
Lord Walsingham-'s estate in Norfolk, and the Earl of
Wharncliffe's in Yorkshire, particulars of which will be
found in the Appendix.

In the report, also given there, respectiiig the experiments
on the Albert Model Farm at Glasnevin, Ireland, it will be
seen from the analyses that a simple earthen pit gave good

24 Silos for Fodder Crops.

easilage, although the loss of nutritive materials was greater
than in the walled silo.

With respect to the use of earthen silos among the small
farmers of Prance, M. Lecouteux, the editor of the Journal
d' Agriculture Pratique, says :

Silos dug out of sound earth are those generally preferred by small
farmers, who do not want buildings of masonry. As I have often said,
earthen silos would tend to popularise ensilage on farms where, for some
reason or other, they shrink from constructing buildings. At Oer^ay
[where M. Lecouteux lives] the preference is in favour of buildings ; but
under these circumstances — ^that they are bams which are at liberty in
April, May, June, July, and part of August, and which, consequently,
may be filled with provender, that disappears in turn, and affords room
for the storage of grain crops. Later on, in October, the cereals being
thrashed out, the barns become silos for maize. There are thus three
successive destinations — silos for maize, sUos for trifoKum, and barns for
cereal crops. It is a suppression of " fallows " in farm buildings ; and
this kind of fallow is not one of those which cost least.

Mr. Francis Morris, who acted as president at the recent
Ensilage Congress of New York, is a strong advocate of
earthen silos ; and in the Special Eeport on Silos and Ensi-
lage issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1882,
the following remarks are made with respect to earthen silos
and Mr. Morris's operations :

The general use of ensilage must depend largely on its cheapness.
Costly sUos and expensive machinery must always be insurmountable
obstacles to a majority of farmers. For this reason, experience tending
to show what is essential to the preservation of fodder in sUos is of the
first importance.

Especial attention is invited to the earth silos mentioned in the state-
ment of Francis Morris, Esq., of Oakland Manor, Maryland. Mr.
Morris is a pioneer in ensilage in America, his first silos having been
built and filled in 1876. These were in the basement of his barn ; walls
of masonry. The next year he made a trench in sloping ground, so that
a cart could be backed in at the lower end for conveying ensilage to the
feeding room. The sides are sloping, and the average depth does not
exceed 6ft. The cost is simply the cost of digging a ditch of similar
dimensions. This trench was filled in 1877, and regidarly since, and has
kept its contents perfectly.

Mr. Morris has several silos of the same kind, in difEerent places, for
convenience of filling. He uses a large cutter driven by a steam-engine.

Earthen Fits. 25

^nd packs in the silo by treading with horses. The filling is carried
several feet above the surface of the ground, and rounded up at the
centre, the excavated earth serving to confine the ensilage. The cover-
ing is first roofing felt, then earth for weight.

Mr. Morris has put in whole fodder, and it has kept perfectly. He
•cuts it fine, mainly for convenience in handling and feeding. Whole
fodder (maize) should be laid across rather than lengthwise in the trench,
so that it can be taken out easily.

In order that the extent of Mr. Morris's operations may be understood,
it is proper to add that his estate at Oakland Manor comprises about 1700
•acres. His wheat crop this year (1882) was 5000 bushels, and his maize
is expected to reach the same figures. The meadows yield upwards of
200 tons of hay annually. The stock consists of 50 horses and mules,
100 cattle, 500 sheep, and 50 hogs. And as the whole is managed on
business principles, Mr. Morris very justly esteems his earth silos of
primary importance.

Tlie mformation given by Mr. Morris himself as to tlie
construction of his silos is very brief. With respect to the
locality where it should be placed, he says that the silo
should be made in the field where the crop is grown. The
feed must be carted, and therefore he considers that time
and trouble are saved, at the time of cutting, by putting
it into a pit on the spot. He digs a trench '^11 feet wide
•at top, 7 feet at bottom, as deep as convenient, and any
length required," and he covers up with 20 inches of earth.
The soil is marly clay, and the water never comes in.

The Baron Oorvisart is a strong advocate of earthen silos ;
and in such a silo, on his estate at Ohateauneuf-sur-Cher, he
stored in 1875 a large quantity of maize, for a sample of
which the Baron was awarded a gold medal at the District
Agricultural, Show at Bourges in May, 1879. In reporting
on this show, M. Franc, professor of agriculture at Cher,
said : " Hitherto nobody has produced ensilage kept for so
long a time. Four years : it is prodigious. We examined
the maize closely, and can affirm that the preservation was
perfect." The secret of this fodder keeping so long appears
to be simply that it was subjected to exceedingly high pressure,
owing to the great thickness of earth piled upon it. In an
article on Baron Corvisart's mode of practice in the Journal

26 Silos for Fodder Crops.

1 :--

d' Agriculture Pratique, the editor, M. Lecouteux, after giving
the dimensions of the trench and other particulars, says :
" M. Oorvisart estimates that his covering of earth exercises
upon each square metre a pressure of 4500 kilogrammes.
Neither air nor water, says he, with reason, can penetrate-
and interfere with its good and durable preservation." That
such should be the case under so great a mass of earth is not
surprising, seeing that 4500 kilogrammes per square metr&
are equal to about 9001b. per square foot ; and as the weight
of a cubic foot of earth varies from 801b. to 1001b., according
to its compactness, one can imagine what an immense thick-
ness of soil would be necessary to produce such a pressure.
As M, Lecouteux remarks, "It must not be supposed that
th^ digging of these trenches costs nothing •/' and he adds,
that he gives the preference to his own silos, which, as
already stated, are simply made by running up dividing walls,
in already-existing barns ; but, of course, people must h& '
chiefly guided by local circumstances.

Best KiNfis or Silos.

With respect to the question, '^What kind of silo is.
preferable ? " M. Goffart said, at the before-mentioned
Conference at Blois :

A silo on the ground level — a kind of room or oliamber — is that which
gives the best results during cold weather (from December to March
exclusively) ; but as soon as the temperature rises, fermentation sets in
with great, energy, and in 1874 and 1875, from the month of March, a
considerable settlement was seen to go on in such silos, owing to the slow
combustion which took place in the mass.

The underground silo, with walls of masonry, does not suffer from this
inconvenience. The temperature does not rise in them in March, nor
even in April. And at Burtin the ensilage which is being taken from the
silo at this time (May 8, 1875) has undergone only a slight fermentation ;
it is nearly in the same condition as when put into the silo seven
months ago.

If I were about to commence the construction of sUos, I would choose a
rather elevated spot, where the ground could be dug into to the depth of
six or seven feet without fear of an influx of water. I would make th©
silo of masonry, and carry up the walls a simUar distance above ground.

Silos at . Burtin.

27

and thus I should have a mixed silo twelve or thirteen feet high, and
seven to ten feet wide, half under and half above ground. During the
winter the part of the ensilage above the ground level would be consumed,
and the lower portion be reserved for the hot months, when the part
farthest from the entrance would be first attacked, and the cutting
carried back towards the door. In this way, I think, excellent condi-
tions would be obtained, suited to the , exigencies of the different
temperatures.

Since tlie time of that OongresSj M. Goffart has built soTeral
new siloSj together vpith extensive cattle-sheds ; and he has;
considerahly enlarged his ideas with respect to the dimensions-
of his silos, in like manner as he has greatly increased the
mimber of cattle which he feeds on ensilage. With regard to
shape, also, he has made some modifications, and now prefers
the silos to be " elliptical," as he calls them — though they are
not strictly elliptical, the sides and walls being straight and

GrEOTJND PLAN OF M. GoFFAHT's TkIPLE SiLO.

the ends semicircular. We give a plan of his latest construe--
tion, three silos combiued together, each being 5 metres
(about 16^ feet) in width, the same in height (half being below
and half above ground) and 12 metres (about 40 feet) in.
length J about 24ft. of the walls being straight, with a semi-

28 Silos for Fodder Crops.

circle at eacli end. With regard to tMs modification in form
M. G off art says :

If I have greatly modified my process of ensilage, the modifications
have related principally to the form, the dimensions, and above all the
•covering up of my silos.

The form has particularly occupied my attention ; it exercises a very
great influence on the results to be obtained. The form ought to be that
which avoids every kind of angle and offers the least obstruction to the
settlement of the materials in the sUo. The elliptical sUo represented in
the plan fulfils these conditions. All angles are done away with, and the
walls being vertical (not sloping as some persons make them) offer the
least possible resistance to settlement — but more than is desirable never-
theless. The elliptical form also presents another advantage, which is
very valuable as regards the strength of the silos. The underground
walls thoroughly withstand the thrust of the earth, which forced in the
walls of my first structures, and sometimes rendered them unserviceable.

With respect to the dimensions of my silos (length, width, and height),
those who have followed my doings can answer for my constant tendency
to increase them in order to obtain the greatest capacity. When you
must operate upon considerable quantities of fodder, and have in your
-cattle-sheds a large number of beasts to feed every day, you must not
hesitate to give to your silos the greatest dimensions compatible with the
other conditions of an easy and economical service.

Great masses keep much better than those which are small, or in other
words, the preservation in small silos is always less perfect than it is in
great ones, for these reasons : — However smooth the walls may be made
by plastering, the fodder always lodges against them; and whatever
precaution may be taken, the settlement close to the walls is sure to be
more or less obstructed, and this is detrimental to good preservation.
The trampling down alongside the walls may have been very carefully
done at the time of filling the silo, you may have heaped on the top
of the mass, alongside the walls, a very considerable quantity of heavy
weights (which is a practice that I cannot too highly commend), but the
best preserved materials will nevertheless be those farthest away from
the sides. Kear the walls there is commonly some amount of damage, and
-although it may not be important it is nevertheless desirable to restrain it
as much as possible. This particular damage is increased or diminished
according as the walls present a greater or- less amount of surface in
contact with the fodder as compared with the whole mass. Hence there
is considerable advantage in giving silos the greatest capacity possible, as
those which hold but a small quantity have proportionately a much larger
surface of contact.

Suppose, for example, a silo one yard square and one yard deep ; for a
single cubic yard of capacity there would be five square yards of surface.
If you multiply these dimensions by ten, and make your silo ten yards every

Large better than Small Silos. 29

way, you will then have a receptacle of 1000 cubic yards capacity, with a
surface of contact of only 500 square yards ; that is to say, there would
be, for every cubic yard of capacity, only haM a square yard of surface,
instead of five square yards as in the small silo ; and yon thus will have
diminished by nine-tenths the evil pointed out. I need scarcely say,
however, that I do not recommend silos of such dimensions as these.
I merely give an extreme illustration in order to render my meaning-
the more clear.

Fact answers only too well to the theory here set forth. I have continually
found the fodder not so well preserved in small silos as in large ones.
Whether the silo was great or small, I always used to find that, where the
fodder came into contact with the walls, there was a layer from half an
inch to an inch in thickness which had not kept weU. In large silos this,
forms but an insignificant part of the mass, and cannot produce any evil
effect ; but it is otherwise in small silos, where the damage may affect
15 or 18 per cent, of the mass. Nowadays, thanks to the care which I
take to put extra heavy weights on the mass close by the walls, the fodder
is as well preserved there as elsewhere.

Formerly I recommended silos of small dimensions; but that was
because I had not then discovered the marvellous results which may be
obtained by the employment of heavy weights in establishing and
maintaining density in the sUos. When ensilage was taken out, the air
quickly penetrated into the mass in the sUo (where a want of sufficient
density gave it free passage), and rapid deterioration was the result. It
was natural, therefore, to endeavour to check this as much as possible ;
for the first efEect of the penetration of air was to raise the temperature
of the mass to a very high degree by continuous fermentations (first
alcoholic, then acetic, then putrid) which rapidly succeeded one another ;
and the mass being thus a prey to a kind of slow combustion, went on
continually deteriorating as long as the ensilage remained in the silo-
Under such circumstances it was necessary to make the silos small, and to
get the contents eaten as quickly as possible. But when at last I
discovered that, by maintaining a constant density in the mass, the
penetration of air was rendered impossible, I then could abandon the
small silos for others on a more important scale.

Two years' experience have proved to me that my elliptical silos are
superior in form to all others. If I modify them in the future, it wiU be
solely with respect to their height, which it wiU be advantageous to
increase still further. This wiU be an easy operation, as it will
necessitate no alteration in that part which is already in existence.

Since writing tlie above, however, M. Goffart has said
that, in consequence of the greater difficulty and cost of
roofing satisfactorily the triple silo, he should be inclined,
in any future structure, to make it with two instead of three

30

Silos for Fodder Crops.

divisions, and obtaia the same capacity by an increase of
lengfcli. He tad previously made botb double and single silos
witl. tlie rounded ends^ so bad bad practical experience of
tbeir respective advantages. It may be added tbat tbe triple
silo just described is only separated by a 10ft; road from a
feeding sbed for nearly eighty beasts, tbe doors of tbe' sUos
facing tbose of tbe cattle sbed. Tbe accompanying illus-
tration gives a view of M. Goff art's triple silo.

Elevation op M. Soffakt's Teiple Silo.

In America, some of tbe writers on tbis subject recommend
tbat tbe silos be made rectangular, and tbat tbe corners be
cut ofE. Tbis is but a reversion to a former practice of
M. Groffart, wbo said in bis communication to tbe Farmers'
Dinner of January, 1876 :

I have siloed in 1875 as I did in 1874, except a few improvements
which have given better results. Having observed that the angles of my
old silos constituted weak points, where the fodder did not settle evenly,
and where its preservation was not so good, I replaced the right angles
by obtuse angles. The inconvenience disappeared; thanks to this simple
modification the angles no longer present the exceptional damage, which
goes on increasing with time.

But, altbougb be found an improvement from tbe comers
being cut off, be found still further improvement from the
ends being rounded, and hence bis subsequent recommendation
of "elliptical" silos.

As to precautions to be taken in tbe construction of silos,
M. Goffart says :

Precautions in making Silos. 31

Too much care cannot be taken in the construction of silos. The under-
ground part especiaUy ought to be the object of particular precautions.
The fact should never be lost sight of that the waUs have constantly to
resist two kinds of thrust, in opposite directions. When the silo is
«mpty the masonry has to undergo pressure from the ground without ;
and this is especially dangerous to new waUs. When the silo is fuU, the
masonry, more particularly that which is above ground, has to withstand
■the pressure exercised by the ensilage, increased as it is by the weights
requisite to put thereon in order to secure preservation.

Any undue economy in these constructions may have to be paid for
very dearly. Nevertheless it is not necessary to slavishly follow the
method which I have adopted. Instead of making all my walls of brick-
work, I might, so far as regards the underground portion, have made use of
hydraulic concrete, which costs one half less than the former, but in such
case you should be very sure of your materials and workmen, which can
■seldom be relied on in country places.

It would be advantage for those who have a hiU at hand to utUise it, so
that one side of the silo should be entirely underground and the upper
part of the wall be on a level with the ground by which the waggons
containing the fodder could be brought up, and upon which the chaff-
cutting machine could be placed, if used, so that the chopped fodder
would fall from the machine into the silo. It is impossible, however, to
lay down a general plan suited to all situations ; the arrangements will
depend upon the surface of the ground, the existing buildings which are
to be utilised, the nature of the soil, and so forth.

In choosing a site for the construction of silos, it is desirable not to lose
sight of the fact that their distance from the feeding sheds may have a
considerable influence on the economy of labour. They should be as close
at hand as possible, in order to diminish carriage ; but sometimes there is
an advantage in placing silos farther- away, in order to avail oneself of
more suitable ground.

The door of the silo ought to be at the end ; because, if opened in the
middle of the long wall, two surfaces would be exposed to the action of
the atmosphere. The door should be closed before putting in the fodder,
.and this may be done by means of planks fitting into grooves in the walls.
Such was the method that I first adopted; but now I, close the entrance
of my silos by means of temporary brickwork plastered inside with
hydraulic mortar, and this waU is pulled down again at the time of opening
the sUo. This brickwork closes the opening much more efEeotually than
the boards, whatever care may be taken to adjust them one upon another.
Each of these openings may be closed up by a bricklayer in the course of
a.n hour or two.

Having given the plan of silo recommended by M. Groffart
as best for the storage of green fodder, we now add some

32 Silos for Fodder Crops.

particulars from other sourceSj seeing that wliat may suit one-
person's means and requirements may not be equally con-
venient to another.

The Vicomte db Chezillbs' Silo.

There isj we believe^ no single silo in the world that
approaches the dimensions of that built by tbe Yicomte de-
Ohezelles, at Liancourt St. Pierre, in the department of the-
Oise. Prom a letter written by the Vicomte (printed in the-
Appendix) it appears that the silo is 216ft. long, by nearly
20ft. in width, and has a depth of 13|ft. The produce of"
1 70 acres of clover and other green crops were put into this pit
last summer, and there was still space for more. The capacity
is given in the estimate appended to Mr. Kains-Jackson's
article as 1475 tons; but making the same allowance for-
unoccupied space as we have done in other cases, we estimate
its capacity as 1200 tons. The particulars included in the
Appendix, and the illustrations also given there, render it
unnecessary to enter into more detail at present. Few
persons would be likely to build so huge a silo," but it mights
be made of any length required.

American Silos of Ooncbete, Wood, &c.

In his American "Book of Ensilage," Mr. John M. Bailey
gives a plan which has some degree of resemblance to a
double silo of M. Goffart's, except that the ends are not
rounded ofE, as he now builds them, but have the inner angles
removed as previously alluded to. Mr. Bailey says :

Having resolved to try the experiment thoroughly, I selected a side -
hiU, excavated on the west side and south end 7ft. deep, and put in on
ihe west side a solid stone wall 44ft. long and 12ft. high, built of very
heaTy stone and in a most substantial manner. I afterwards banked up
on this side to the top of the wall, making a level spot upon which to set
an engine and ensilage cutter ; also to drive carts upon, to deposit the
fodder as it came from the fields.

I then commenced building the silo walls. These are 15in. thick,
built in the following manner : First, Sin. X 4in. scantling are set up at
each of the angles, and also at intervals of about 8ft. on each side of the

Flan of Concrete Silo.

33

walls. These scantlings being placed 18in. apart, planks 12ui. wide and
IJin. thick are set np inside the scantling, leaving 15in. between the
planks as the thickness of the walls.

M. GofBart recommends that the comers be rounded. I thought that
cutting them off, as shown in the diagram, would answer as well and be
much less expensive.

The concrete is made by mixing one bushel of cement with three of
plastering sand and four of clean gravel. This is thoroughly mixed
together when dry ; it is then wetted and thoroughly mixed again,
making a very thin mortar.

1. Ensilage.

4. Stonefcreights.

6. Doors.

2. Straw unont.

5. Vertical slice to be taken out

7. Cement floor.

3. Plank covering.

daily.

8. Drainage.

About Sin. in depth of this mixture is put in between the planks ; then
stones of all sizes and shapes are packed and bedded in this layer of con-
crete, after which another layer of concrete is poured in on top of this
layer of stones, and the operation is repeated until the space between the

D

34

Silos for Fodder Crops.

plaaks all round each silo is filled ; then the planks are raised about lOin.,
and the space filled with concrete and stones as before, until the walls are
at the desired height. The best way is to have a sufficient nuniber of
hands to just raise the wall the width of the plank each day.

A 4iii. X 12in. sill was bedded on the wall in the last layer of concrete.
Upon the sill a wooden building was placed, with posts 5ft. high, the
beams on the top of these posts being thoroughly braced to the posts,
thus firmly tying the whole structure together.

The cost of the structure will, of course, vary in different localities, as
the cost of labour and materials varies. My silos (capacity about 400
tons) cost me about |500 (lOOL), or about 5s. for each ton's capacity.
Large ones will cost less, small ones more.

SUos may be built of stone, pointed with cement mortar, and plastered
•on the inside ; or of brick, or of concrete, as mine are. Whichever

material is the cheapest and most convenient in any locality is the best to
use. Brick wiU cost more than the concrete. Concrete wall costs here
about 10 cents (5(Z.) per cubic foot.

Large silos 40ft. to 50ft. long, 15ft. to 18ft. wide, and 16ft. to 24ft.
deep are the cheapest : they will not cost more than 4s. or 5s. for each
ton's capacity. They require no repairs, and, if properly built, wiU last
for ages. The cost, therefore, of storage-room for ensilage is about 3d.
per ton yearly. My plans of building sitos are cheaper than to dig pits
in the ground.

Small silos, capable of holding enough ensilage for ten to twenty cows,
can be constructed by digging and walling up, as for a cellar, when stone
is plentiful. Mix one part cement with two parts sand, and make a
concrete floor about lin. thick. Put a cheap battened roof over it to
ieep the rain and snow out, and you have just as good a silo as any. One

American Silos. 35

12ft. wide, 30ft. long, and 12ft. deep would not cost, besides the labour,
over 101. where stone is plentiful, and it would hold enough ensilage, to
winter twelve to fifteen cows.

The figure opposite gives a sectional view of the silo, letter I showing
3 X 4in. scantling ; II, 1^ X 12iii. plank, between which and the rough
wall a concrete or grout is poured ; and III, a dotted line showing the face
of the concrete pointing and plastering. A door 4ft. X 8ft. is in the centre.

Anyone wlio intends to do his ovra concrete work would do
well to obtain fuller information respecting the proportions
and proper mixing of the cements of our own country ; and
they will find detailed particulars in various works, such as
" A Practical Treatise on Concrete," by Henry Eeid, O.B.,
or " OoncretCj its Use in Building, and the Construction of
Walls, Moors, &c." by Thomas Potter, both books pubhshed
by Messrs. Spon of Charing Cross, London.

In some of the American statements of cost there are very,
wide differences ; but, with regard to figures that are very
low, it must be borne in mind that vast numbers of farmers
in the States are their own carpenters, brijjklayers, and
labourers ; and, in stating what their silos have cost them,
some of them allude only to money paid out of pocket, taking
no note of the work they have done themselves in their spare
time, or of the use they have made of any lumber or rough
materials found on their own farms. At the recent congress
at New York some ensilage was shown from a silo said to
have cost only |10 (about 21.), and to hold ten tons. This
would be nearly as large as the Durham sUo, of which par-
ticulars are given in the Appendix, and for which the mere
excavation of soil costs one-third more than the entire outlay
on the American silo. As to the construction of the latter,
no pa,rticulars are given, so we cannot say how it was done.
Possibly, however, it was a wooden silo, built entirely above
ground, or the end of a barn partitioned off.

In some of the accounts of ensilage in America it has been
stated that ice-houses have been turned into silos. It must
not be supposed, however, that these are necessarily pits dug
in the ground, lined with masonry, and closely shut in above,
as is the case with most of the ice-houses in this country. In

D 2

36

Silos for Fodder Crops.

the States ice-houses are commonly built of wood, above
ground, and are left open to the air between the roof and the
top of the walls, so that there would be little difference in
their method of storing ice and storing fodder. In these ice-
houses the walls are built of double planking, much after the
fashion shown in the ground-plan for building the concrete
walls of Mr. Bailey's silo on page 33. But, of course, the
joists that are there represented outside the planks should be
between the boards in the wooden silo, as the inside walls
of the silo should be as smooth as possible ; and planed boards,
placed upright, would be better than rough ones, because they
would allow the fodder to slide down more evenly and pack
better — which is a very great advantage. We have not seen a
representation of a wooden silo, but the following small figures
of an American ice-house will doubtless afford a tolerable idea
of some among those which are said to have been applied to

I' ' j ^Hii.

I. "

the storage of green crops instead of the storage of ice. The
window shown in the building is intended for the purpose of
ventilation, already alluded to as common in American ice-
houses ; but in a building specially erected for a silo it would
be advantageous, for convenience of filhng, to have the roof
raised, as shown in the side view of Mr. Bailey's silo. The
following description of the mode of making the walls of a.
similar structure may be interesting as showing how American
farmers set to work in such matters :

Mark out your ground the size you require for the house ; then, com-
mencing at one comer, dig a double set of holes opposite each other,
1 foot deep and 1\ii. apart, on each side of the intended building, say

English Silos. 37

3ft. equidistant, so that when the posts stand up they will present a
double row, l^it. apart. Then set in your posts, which should be of oak,
chesnut, or some lasting wood, and pack the earth firmly around them.
The posts should be fuU 8ft. high above the ground to where the pkte
of the roof is attached. If the posts are sawed, they may be 4in. x 6in. in
size, set edgeways towards each other. If not sawed, they may be round
sticks cut from the woods, or split from the body of a tree, quartered,
and lined to a surface to receive the planking. Of course, when the
posts are set in the ground, they are to show a skeleton of what the
building is to be when completed. When this is done, square ofE the top
of each post to a level all round ; then frame or spike on to each line of
posts a plate, say Bin. wide and 4in. to Gin. deep, and stay the two plates
together strongly, so as to form a double frame. Now plank or board up
closely the inside of each line of posts, that the space between them shall
be a fair surface. Cut out, or leave out, a space for a door in the centre
of the side where you want it, and board up the inner partition sides of
this opening, so as to form a door-casing on each side, that the space
between the two lines of posts may be a continuous box all around. Then
fill up this space between the posts with sawdust, well packed from the
ground up to the plates. For the roof, take common Sin. x 4in. joists
for rafters ; or, in place of them, poles from the woods, long enough, ill
a pitch of full 36° from a horizontal Une, to carry the roof over the
outside of the plates. Secure the rafters well to the plates by pins or
spikes, and then board over.

English Silos.

The silos as yet built in England are generally small, and of
an experimental charaeter. Particulars of several are givep
in tlie Appendix, wliicli we may summarize here as follows :

The Hampshire silo of Mr. A. Grant is 30ft. by lift., and
10ft. deep, divided in the middle ; besides this he has a small
■experimental pit, 6ft. x 6|ft. x 6^ft. The capacity of the
former would be 66 tons, and of the latter Httle more than
5 tons, according to the rule stated on page 45.

The Yorkshire silo, a plan of which is given by Mr. Easdale,
is 12ft. long, 7ft. wide, and 8ft. deep, giving a capacity of
about 13| tons.

Mv. Hoare's silos, at Pagehursib, Kent, are described as two
10ft. cubes separ^/ted by a wall. Their capacity would thug
be 40 tons.

Colonel Tomline's silo, at Orwell Park, SuSolk, is 26ft. ]by
12ft. and 12ft. deep, or 75 tons capacity.

38 Silos for Fodder Crops.

Lord "Walsmghani's first experimental silo (described in Mr.
Woods' lecture) was a very small one^ only 4ft. broadj 4ft. 4in.
deep, and 8ft. 4in. long, or barely 3 tons capacity. In Ms,
second season lie tad a bam divided into compartments, so as
to make three silos, each 14ft. 4in. by 6ft. 3in., and 9ft. Sin.
deep, the total capacity of the three being about 50 tons.

The silo on the Earl of Wharncliffe's estate, described by
Mr. Broderiok, is also made in a barn, and consists of two
compartments, each 14ft. square by 15ft. deep, the capacity of
the pair beiug not quite 60 tons.

Mr. Kenyon's silo, in Wales, is llfft. by 10ft., and lift,
deep, having a capacity of 26 tons.

Mr. Gibson, of SafEron Walden, has five silos, 14ft. by 12ft.,
and 12ft. deep. If the ensilage in these pits could be com-
pressed in the ordinary way, their total capacity would be
rather over 200 tons ; but, as they are covered over with a
concrete top, with manholes for filling, and no weights are
put on the fodder, they must hold much less than the above
weight. The quantity of rye put in last June was estimated
at 80 tons. We shall be glad to hear that an alteration has
been made in this arrangement, as we consider the process a
bad one, tending to direct waste of material from mouldiness,,
and indirect waste from unchecked fermentation in the pit.

The Eev. C. H. Ford has a silo constructing at Bishopston,
CO. Durham, the dimensions being 15ft. by 7ft., and 8ft. deep,
or about 18 tons capacity. Details are given in Mr. Ford's
letter ia the Appendix.

Mr. Kains- Jackson, being a Kentish man, has given the
name of the " Kentish silo " to the design which appears on
page 40. It will be seen that it is about three-fourths under-
ground, and that it is covered by a movable roof, which can
be taken off in sections, or run to and fro, as required during
the process of filling or emptying the pit. Further details
will be found in the following particulars and specification :

This silo — ^whioh I call a " Kentish sUo " — could be conveniently placed
alongside any farm roadway for ease of access, or adjacent to the home-
stead. Its movable roof renders it a receptacle that would serve many

The Kentish Silo. 39

purposes of storage. In the specification, cost has not been spared so far
as the employment of best materials, but such structures should last
many generations; in fact, the "Kentish silo" would be well nigh an
indestructible "farm improvement." The illustrations may be left to
speak for themselyes.

As to the cost, any country builder could give an estimate from the
specification given below. The amount, as given to me by a " quantity
surveyor," is not a very important one j but each district having draw-
backs or facilities, tenders should be obtained in the localities where the
sUos have to be buUt. Doubtless the walls might be made of concrete ;
indeed, good concrete has many recommendations, but bricks or stones
always form valuable materials in themselves, and are permanent repre-
sentatives of the outlay, whereas " concrete " scarcely represents money,
and is a substance that somehow seems to invite fraud in the making.
Where the proprietor or tenant supplies the right materials and sees
them properly mixed, concrete silos may be recommended.

Specification of Woeks required to be done in building a sUo for the
storage of grass, clover, and other green forage.

Excavator. — ^Excavate to a depth of 12ft. from the surface of the
ground, to a length of 80ft. and breadth of 10ft., and cart away the soil
to where directed. The earth in the foundations is to be well rammed
down, so as to form a natural bed, and not made up of loose earth ; sand,
if found, is to be allowed for by the contractor. Excavate the earth at
one end in front of silo, 30ft. long, gradually sloping to bottom of pit, as
shown, if required.

Bricklayer. — Build in Flemish bond the walls and piers of best hard
weU-bumt grey stocks, laid in cement composed of one part of approved
cement and three of clean sharp sand, with footing of four courses of
brickwork. Build in the one end of wall ISft. X 10ft., and build a brick
pier 15ft. X 1ft. 2in. on each side at other end, as shown. Lay the
bottom of the pit with concrete 1ft. in depth, with a layer of asphalte 2in.
in thickness on top. Form a drain in the asphalte and concrete through
the centre the entire length, with a fall of 6in. from the centre towards
each end, and also with a slight fall from either side of walls. Provide
and lay a damp course of unbroken slates, laid, breaking joint in cement
above projection of footing course. Leave a rebate at top of walls the
entire length to receive the wall plate ; size, 9in. by 6in.,

Carpenter. — Provide and fix a wall plate to run the entire length of
pit (80ft.) on each side, size, 6in. by 6in., to receive the rails, and secure
same firmly to walls with nails or screws ; provide wood blocks for same,
to be inserted in the wall.

Fownder and Smith. — Provide and fix iron rails, 4in. by 2ui., to run
the entire length of walls on each side (viz., 80ft.). Provide eight covers,
as shown, with galvanised iron roofs, l-16th of an inch in thickness.

40

Flan and Ferspectwe

MIL FOR ROILINQ ROOF RUIUnJNa ON TOP OF Wt

a E

3o'o"n,_

1

Plan

THE KENTISH SILO.

Elevation of the Kentish Silo.

41

'Jotted. LI

Lime shows deptT i of p it l^-y '-J

'concrete foundation X 'vj

Perspective Ele

ELEVATIOM OF END

42 Silos for Fodder Crops.

each 10ft. by 10ft., with bearers and six rollers, three on each side, to fit
rails ; make same to run easily, the roofs to have a pitch of 1ft. 6in. from
centre ; the galvanised iron cover to be firmly joined together at ridge,
and to project over the bearers and rollers, as also over the walls a
distance of 2iii., with a small eaves gutter on either side of the cover ;
each end of the cover (roof) is to be made so that, when the covers are
close together, they will overlap each other slightly, as shown iu the
drawing, to prevent rain from drifting in.

General Bema/rTes. — The whole of the work is to be carried out without
stoppage, and to the satisfaction of the owner for whom the works are
done ; the materials are to be sound and good in their respective trades,
and everything left complete and in good working o^der at finish. The
contractor failing to complete any of the works commenced by him, shall
be liable for the cost incurred in obtaining another contractor to finish
the work, and the amount so forfeited shall be deducted from the
original contract.

According to the rule given in the next chapter for esti-
mating the capacity of silos^ the structure here described would
hold 240 tons of ensilage ; but, of course, the length could be
reduced as thought desirablej and the capacity diminished in
proportion.

CHAPTER IV.-COST OF SILOS.

The cost of silos must necessarily be influenced by various,
circumstances, as tlie materials of whioli they are made, the
dimensions that are chosen, the nature of the soil on which
they are built, and the power of adapting existing buildings
to new purposes. It is impossible to lay down a general rule
as to what any particular structure should cost, even when
you have chosen the size and materials, because local circum-
stances will make a considerable difference in the outlay, and
what may be a cheap mode of building in some districts will
be very expensive in others.

In certain localities, abounding in gravel and sand, con-
crete may be very cheaply made ; in other places it m.ay be
advisable to have recourse to quarried stone ; elsewhere brick-
work may be more economical ; while some estates may have
an abundance of timber that can be profitably turned to
account. Even those who would adopt the simplest form of
silo, by merely digging a pit in the ground, will find that
they cannot advantageously do in loose, porous soils, liable to
incursions of water, what others can accomplish in firm,
sound earth, out of the reach of floods.

The mere cost of excavation becomes a considerable item
where pits are dug in the ground, whether these are or
are not lined with masonry, concrete, or planking. Work of
this kind may be said to have a fixed rate of cost, because, if
you wish to have a pit of 10 cubic yards capacity, you must
dig out 10 cubic yards of soil, and if you wish to make it two,
three, or twenty times larger, you have two, three, or twenty

44 Silos for Fodder Crops.

times as mucli work to do, and tlie cost is proportionately
increased.

It is otherwise witli structures built above ground. Tliere,
if you double tbe lengtL. of eacb of your walls, you double the
cost of building tliem ; but the space tbey inclose is increased
fourfold, and consequently the relative cost of that space is
only one-half that of the smaller enclosure. And if you make
all the walls ten times as long, the space is increased 100
times, and the relative cost is only one-tenth. Obviously,
therefore, large silos must be relatively much cheaper than
small ones, except so far as regards the cost of excavation ;
and even where excavations form part of the scheme, if they
are lined with masonry or concrete, &c., the cost of building
walls in these structures wiU follow the same law as when the
walls are wholly above ground.

Where there are unused barns, outhouses, &c., they may often
be rendered serviceable as silos at a very moderate outlay.
M. Goffart, M. Lecouteux, and other French farmers have
thus freely availed themselves of the means at their disposal,
as will be seen from quotations given further on; many
American farmers have done the same ; and a similar course
has been followed in England, on the estates of Lord Walsiug-
ham in Norfolk, and the Earl of Wharncliffe in Torkshire.

Estimations of Capacity akd Cost.

What is here proposed to be done is, not to say that silos of
such and such dimensions can be built in any way for a given
sum; for, although some readers might find it true, others
Tvould find it false. Even where a manufacturer in London
or any other large town may undertake to supply materials at
a certain rate, the expense of conveyance by rail and road may
add considerably to the first cost, especially if workmen are
sent likewise. Widely divergent statements have, however,
been made public as to what silos have cost, or must cost, but
so little has been said to explain the circumstances afEectiag
the respective buildings, differences in size, and variations in

Standard of Qapacity in Silos. 46'

estimates of capacity, that the conflict of assertion has been
very bewildering. It is thought^ therefore, that a collection
of facts from various sources — principally foreign, because so
little has yet been done in our country — may not be without
utiHty to those who would form some notion of the expenditure
incurred under circumstances having more or less resemblance
to their own.

In giving these statements of cost, an endeavour has been
made to reduce them to a common standard. One man may
say that his silo has entailed an outlay of a certain number of
dollars, and that it will contain so many tons of fodder ; and
another may have a larger silo but be content with a much
more moderate estimate of its capacity. Obviously no fair
comparison can be made under such circumstances ; and
therefore, in all the records here given, the capacity of the
silos in tons is calculated at the rate of 50 cubic feet to
the English ton — we say English ton, because the American
ton is only 20001b., and therefore is about one-tenth less than
ours, being, in fact, a little under 18cwt.

The reasons for taking 50 cubic feet of capacity as repre-
senting a ton of ensilage are these : — M. Groffart has shown
that ensilage, well compacted under heavy pressure, has a
weight averaging about 812 kilogrammes the cubic metre,
which is equivalent to almost exactly 501b. per cubic foot. He
also shows that, if proper care is taken in filling, there need
not be more than about one-tenth of the depth of the silo
unoccupied when the fodder has settled down. If, then,
we take 50 cubic feet at 501b. each, we get 25001b. ; but,
deducting one-tenth of this for unoccupied space, we get
2500 — 250, or 22501b., and therefore we have a very close
approximation to the English ton, which is 22401b.

It may be considered that silos in general are seldom or
never likely to contain more than a ton weight of ensilage in
60 cubic feet^of space, whereas many that are unskilfully
filled and insufficiently weighted will hold a very great deal
less. How greatly persons may be out in their estimates
will therefore be seen by the following statement made by an

46 Silos for Fodder Crops.

owner of silos in reply to questions issued by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture :

Last season my silo was 32ft. by 14ft., and 12ft. high ; I have added
10ft. to the height, and built another the same size. The whole capacity
is now 1000 tons.

This is a remarkable example of exaggerated estimate.
The cubic contents of these two silos is under 10,000ft. each,
and 1000 American tons are equal to 2,000;0001b., so that, if
not an inch of space were left unoccupied in these two silos,
the ensilage would have to weigh more than 1001b. per cubic
foot to make up that weight. Our estimate of the capacity of
these two silos is barely 200 tons each, or a total of 400 tons.

Wooden Silos.

In America wooden silos on a large scale have been built,
as well as small and make-shift contrivances. The largest
we have heard of are those of the "West Point Butter and
Cheese Association, Nebraska. This association owns a herd
of more than 300 milch cows, which were fed on ensilage as
far as the supply permitted. The following particulars were
given by Mr. William B. Eager, vice-president and manager
of the association. In this, as in the subsequent instances, the
particulars of the silos, and the cost in dollars, are extracted
from the report of the U.S. Department of Agriculture; but
the capacity and cost per ton, placed between brackets, are the
results of calculations we have made on the standard already
explained.

Four silos, joined together, requiring five side walls. Dimensions of
each silo, 40ft. by 12ft., and 19ft. deep, inside measurement. Made of
upright pine timbers 12in. wide, lined inside with 2-in. plank, outside
with inch boards ; space between filled with dry clay tamped solid.
Floor, 2-in. plank, over four inches of broken brick. The four sUos cost
$2400, complete, and aU above ground painted. [Capacity, 730 tons;
cost, 13s. 6d. per ton.]

The following additional particulars respecting these wooden
silos are quoted from the American OuUivator and Country

Wooden Silos. 47

Gentleman. It will be observed tliat the apparent difference
of dimensions arises from the thickness of the wallsj those
just stated being internal measurements ; the 54ft. mentioned
below is made up of four silos 12ft. in width, with the inter-
vening and external walls :

The "West Point building is 64ft. by 43ft., and substantially built,
the posts and plates being of pine timbers 12in. square. It is set in
an excavation on a side hill, so that the north side is against a bank
20ft. deep, while the south foundation is level with the roadway. The
studding of the walls and the partitions between the four silos into which
the building is divided is 2ui. by 12in., planked on each side with 2iii.
pine, and the 12in. space between is packed with clay. This renders the
sides perfectly air-tight. Mr. King, the superintendent, says if they
were building again, they would use bricks, and cement the walls, which
would save the inconvenience of cross-beams in each sUo.

Here are details of some other large wooden silos. The
first was built by contract for $500, its owner having
previously built a concrete silo, partially underground, which
cost (including drainage) more than $1300, although its
capacity was less.

Wooden sUo, all above ground. Dimensions, 40ft. by 20ft., and 18ft.
deep. Built of chestnut posts, set in the ground 3ft. apart, with double
lining of hemlock boards, and tarred paper between. Cost, $500.
[Capacity, 290 tons ; cost per ton, 7s. 3c?.]

Wooden silo, 20ft. by 30ft., and 12ft. deep, 5ft. above ground and 7ft.
below. Sides of 2-in. pine boards, tongued and grooved ; bottom of
concrete. Total cost of silo, roof, and drainage, about $500. [Capacity,
144 tons ; cost per ton, 14s. 6^.]

The following particulars, it will be seen, relate chiefly to
silos made in buildings already existing. The use of wood
under such circumstances seems to be commonly adopted ;
and in many cases the partitions in silos of concrete or
masonry are made of double walls of wood, lined with tarred
sheathing paper, or filled with sawdust, ashes, or earth tightly
rammed. It will be observed that " hemlock " is the wood
frequently used : this is a very common species of spruce fir
.grown in American forests. In various instances, with
wooden and other silos, we give particulars of how they are

48 Silos for Fodder Crops.

built, thinking that these may be of interest to many readers,
although the owners have not furnished any details of cost.

Silo all aboTe ground, and was one end of a hay bam, new timbers
being thrown across barn to constitute one side of sUo, the other three
sides being sides and end of barn. Upright 2-iii. plank nailed to girths
of barn, the plank coal-tarred, building paper put on, and 1-in. boards
nailed on to break joints with plank, and the boards coal-tarred. No bad
taste imparted to ensilage by the tar. Had to plant heavy timbers at
two sides of silo, and tie them together to keep sUo from bulging.
Dimensions, 10ft. by 18ft. and 16ft. deep. Cost, including four extra
iron rods and extra timbers, |114. [Capacity, 58 tons ; cost per ton, 8s.]

Silo built in a bam, and made of double walls of hemlock boards, the
space between being filled with sawdust. Dimensions, 13ft. by 12ft., and
8ft. high. Cost, |30. [Capacity, 25 tons ; cost per ton, 5s.]

Silo built on basement floor of cattle-feeding shed, but not under-
ground. Dimensions, 18ft. by 22ft., and 20ft. deep. Walls of matched
hemlock boards, with 3-ply roofing-felt between ; timbers Sin. by lOia.
runniag horizontally, the lower six being 12in. from centre to centre,
then increasing in space one inch until the top is reached. There is a
row of doors, one for each division, between the timbers. [Capacity,
160 tons ; cost not stated.]

Dimensions, 24ft. by 12ft., and 12ft. deep. Built of wood, as wood
affords less moisture than stone or brick (this is for silos underground).
The cost all depends on the cost of labour and lumber. I build them for
100 tons at a cost of $50. [A sUo of the dimensions here given would,
however, only hold about 70 tons.]

OoNCEETE Silos.

Concrete is a favourite material for silos in the United
States, and the following are particulars of some of those
reported to the Department of Agriculture. It will be seen
that there are very wide variations in statements of cost,
owing to nothing having been charged in some cases for
labour or for materials found on the farm, whereas in others
everything has had to be paid for. In many cases the infor-
mation is undesirably vague as regards roofing. Where the
silo is made in a barn, there is, of course, no outlay in this
respect ; and where built outside an existing cattle-shed, the
cost of lengthening a sloping roof, so as to extend it over the

Concrete Silos. 49

silo, would be less tlian roofing-in a separate building. We
cannot, bowever, supply details that are wantiag in the
Report.

Silo, 40ft. by 14ft., and 19ft. deep, half underground. Concrete walls,
1ft. thick. Cost 1320 dollars, including a deep nnder-drain, which cost
perhaps 150 dollars. [Capacity, 212 tons ; cost per ton, 26s. The
owner of this silo afterwards contracted for the erection of wooden silos,
particulars of which have already been given, and the cost per ton
was only 7s. Sd.]

Silo sunk in gravel bed in back part of barn cellar; the top of silo
being on a level with feeding room in front part. Dimensions, 12ft. by
8ft., and 8ft. deep. Cost between 50 and 60 dollars, " less value of
gravel." [Capacity, 15 tons; cost per ton, about 15s. or 16s., but the
farmer looks upon the gravel dug out as having a value, which may be set
off against part of the outlay.]

Three silos, adjoining feeding sheds, with top on same level as floor.
Two silos 22ft. by lift., and one 22ft. by 15ft., and all 12ft. deep. Built
of concrete, four parts sand, one part cement ; walls 18in. thick, with
comers rounded. The three sUos cost $600. [Capacity of the three silos,
195 tons ; cost per ton, 13s.]

Six sUos, side by side, 25ft. by 16ft., and 14ft. deep. Concrete, one part
cement, five parts coarse sand, five parts small stones ; built between planks
supported by studding in such manner that the planks can be raised after
being filled with concrete. A wedge driven lightly between studs to
spring them apart, say half an inch, allows the planks to slip upward easily
and without cracking walls which are stiU soft. Cost, about six cents
(3d.) per cubic foot of contents, having to haul sand, cement, and
lumber three miles. [Capacity of the sis sHos, 670 tons; cost per
ton, 12s. 6d.']

Separate silo, 12ft. by 20ft., and 12ft. deep, 6ft. being below and 6ft.
above ground. Built of concrete, 12in. thick. Cost, |160. [Capacity,
58 tons ; cost per ton, lis. 6d.]

SUo 32ft. by 12ft., and 10ft. deep, buUt on a bank adjoining a cow-
shed, with door opening from bank side into the silo — the floor of silo
being about 3ft. lower than floor of cow-shed. Built of concrete 14in. to
16in. thick ; one part cement to five parts sand, mixed while dry, then
wetted so that it will pour from the pails in which it is carried ; any kind
of stone being used. Posts set in the ground, and lined with 2-in. plank,
were used as framework ; and when this was taken down the walls were
plastered with cement made with less sand. The bottom was covered
with gravel about 2in. thick. Cost, $200, including light frame building
over it. [Capacity, 77 tons ; cost per ton, lis.]

E

50 Silos for Fodder Crops.

Two compartments (adjoming and opening into cattle shed), each 13ft.
by 19ft., and 19ft. deep, with Bin. of the corners cut off from top to
bottom. Built of concrete, one part cement to four and a half of sharp
grareUy sand, wetted with whitewash made by slacking quicklime under
water two days previous to using. All the field stones that can be put in
are embedded in the cement. Cost, about |250, exclusive of roof.
[Capacity, 92 tons ; cost per ton, without roof, lis.]

Silo connected with bam, opposite cattle. Dimensions, 30ft. by 12ft.,
and 14ft. deep. Wall, 18ia. thick, one-third cement, two-thirds sand.
Cost, $225. [Capacity, 100 tons ; cost per ton, 9s. 6^.]

Three sUos adjobiing end of bam and opening on a level with stables ;
each 15ft. by 10ft., and 16ft. deep. Concrete walls, 20in. thick, made of
cement, gravel, and small stones. Cost of the three sUos, $100 each.
[Capacity, 46 tons each ; cost per ton, 9s.]

SUos, 40ft. by 12ft. and 15ft. deep, 10ft. being below the surface of the
ground. Concrete 17in. thick below the surface, and 12in. thick above
ground, cemented so that the inside was perfectly smooth. Cost, sixty-five
barrels cement, flOO ; excavating, $25 ; hauling stone, $75 ; labour, $110 ;
whole cost, $810. [Capacity, 144 tons ; cost per ton, 9s. Excavating is
here set at a very low figure, the cost not amounting to 6d. per cubic yard.
A marked diBEerence is shown in the first brick silo opposite.]

Silo 40ft. by 13ft., and 13ft. high to the sUls of the superstructure.
Walls, 16i[i. thick, made of concrete ; a gable roofed building, with sills
bedded in top of cement walls, increases depth of silo 5ft. Cost $400.
[Capacity, including the superstructure, 187 tons ; cost per ton, 9s.]

Silo by the side of and parallel with barn, and so arranged that the
ensilage comes from the sUo to the floor directly over the animals to be
fed — ^the bam being built agaiust a side hill, with the silo on the upper
side. Dimensions 50Jft. by 124ft., and 16ft. deep. Built of concrete
made of hydraulic cement, gravel, and cobblestone. Cost, 350 doUars,
including roof. [Capacity, 200 tons ; cost per ton, 7s. 3d.]

Three silos, 20ft. by 12ft. each, with 10ft., 18ft., and 22ft. respective
depth. " As I have sand, gravel, and stone near, it enables me to bmld
cheaply. My three silos, with capacity of 250 tons, cost 300 dollars."
[The American ton being about one-tenth less than the English, this
agrees very closely with our estimate of their capacity, which is 240 tons ;
cost per ton, 5s. Sd.^

Silo under bam, extending up and opening into driveway in front of
cattle. Dimensions 21ft. by lift., and 18ft. deep. Concrete 15in. thick
up to floor of driveway (9ft.) and matched boards above (9ft.) Cost, $75
or $80. " I used a part of my barn cellar, therefore had no excavating."
[Capacity, 83 tons, cost per ton, 3s. 9d. to 4s.]

Briak and Stone Silos. 51

Two silos, 30ft. by 15ft., and 22ft. deep, 18ft. being of concrete, and 4ft.
of framework. Cost 300 dollars for materials, superstructure included ;
" did the work ourselTes." [Capacity, 200 tons each ; cost per ton, 3s.,
without labour.]

Silo, 60ft. by lift, and 12ft. deep, with doors opening into cattle-
feeding shed. Made of rough stone, lined with concrete. Cost 75 dollars
for cement. " I did the work with my men in spare hours, during stormy
weather." [Capacity, 160 tons ; cost per ton, barely 2s. — the only direct
outlay being in the purchase of cement, the other materials and labour
being found on the farm.]

Beick Silos.

Bricks appear to be but seldom used in America for this
purpose, tbe only records we find being the following, except
in instances where they are used in making additions or
alterations :

Silo 23ft. by 12ft.,' and 12ft. deep, 10ft. being below and 2ft. above
ground. Walls of brick, 12in. thick, laid in cement ; bottom, one layer
of brick with 2in. cement over. Cost of brick, cement, lime, and labour,
$275. About $75 of this amotint was for labour in excavating and
removing dirt. [Capacity, 66 tons ; cost per ton, 17s. Qd. The amount
paid for excavating and removing earth seems very heavy, as there would
only be about 140 cubic yards" dug out, and the cost would thus be about
2s. 3d. per cubic yard.]

Two silos adjoining, on upper side of hillside barn, each being 21ft. 3in.
by 10ft. 6in., and lift. deep. Brick waOs, 12in. thick, each long side
strengthened at the middle by buttress 16in. thick ; sides and bottom
lined with cement. The two silos, and extension roof of bam over them,
cost $350. [Capacity of the pair, 96 tons ; cost per ton, 15s.]

Silo 30ft. by 14ft., and 12ft. deep, built of two courses of hard-burnt
brick kid in cement ; bottom cemented. Cost, $250 ; but I had every-
thing to buy or hire ; under favourable circumstances, as good a silo
could be built for $125. [Capacity, 100 tons ; cost per ton, 10s. 6d.']

Silo in comer of bam, vrith door opening into feeding alley. Dimen-
sions, 14ft. by 17ft., and 23ft. deep ; built of bricks and cement. Cost,
about $175. [Capacity, 110 tons ; cost per ton, 6s. 6cZ.]

Stone -BUILT Silos.

The silos built of stone include those which have cost
a higher sum (as compared with their capacity) than any
others included in the returns made to the U.S. Department

E 2

52 Silos for Fodder Crops.

of Agriculture ; but they appear to be built regardless of
expense, and, as tlie owner says, they are not a fair criterion
of what silos should cost. They stand first on the following
list, which is arranged in order of cost per ton :

Two silos, built imderffromid, with stone walls 18in. thick, laid up and
faced with cement ; bottom concrete ; a blind drain extends around the
sides. " The cost of my silos is not a fair criterion for others who seek
utility only. The silo I have just finished is built in the field where my
cows pasture, for the purpose of supplying them with green fodder in the
months of July, August, and part of September, when the grass is dried
up. This silo is 6ft. by 8ft., and 9ft. deep. This silo wiU cost me about
$150. The one constructed last year cost almost $350. It is 9ft. by
15ft., and 15ft. deep. Both are covered by ornamental buildings, which
add about half of the cost." [Capacity of small silo, about 8^ tons ; of
larger buUding, about 20 tons ; and the cost per ton in each case about
31. 13s.]

Two granite sUos, one 24ft. by 12ft., and the other 24ft. by 7ift., both
13ft. deep. The granite laid in cement and grouted inside ; thickness
of walls not stated. Cost of both silos, $500. [Capacity of the two,
120 tons ; cost per ton, 17s. 6d.]

SUo 64ft. by 20ft., and 26ft. deep. Walls of stone and cement ; the
floor of stones, 4ft. by 6ft. each, laid in cement. Cost, about $2000.
[Capacity, 675 tons ; cost per ton, 12s. 6i.]

SUo connected with cattle shed. Dimensions, 25ft. by 18ft., and 15ft.
deep. Stone wall, laid up dryj 4ft. thick at bottom ; 3ft. thick and 12ft.
high ; the last 3ft. rubble and cement 18in. thick ; lined from 2ui. to 4in.
thick with cement on the bottom and sides. Cost, $350. [Capacity,
135 tons ; cost per ton, lls.J

Silo on a side-hill, the top level with roadway. Dimensions, 30ft. by
20ft., and 20ft. deep, divided by a partition. The walls are of limestone,
3ft. thick and 13ft. high, laid dry and faced with cement ; above this
height there is 7ft. of matched boards ; the partition is also of matched
boards, double, and filled with earth. Cost, $600, exclusive of farm
labour. [Capacity, 240 tons ; cost per ton, 10s. 6d., besides farm labour.]

Silo built in a steep bank at end of bam. Dimensions, 35ft. by 16ft.
and 22ft. deep. Built of field stone, pointed' with cement, and plastered.
The soil being blue gravel, the digging was expensive, making the whole
cost about $550. [Capacity, 246 tons ; cost per ton, 10s. 6d.]

Two silos under one roof, each 36ft. by 12ft., and 12ft. deep. Built of
stone Uid in mortar and cement. Cost, $500. [Capacity of the pair,
207 tons ; cost per ton, 10s.]

SUos of Mixed Materials. 53

Silo, 46ft. by 15ft., and 14ft, deep, divided by a wooden partition.
Stone walls, 10ft. ; wood, 4ft. Cost, about $450. [Capacity, 190 tons ;
cost per ton, 10s.]

Two silos, each 33ft. by 14ft., and 16ft. deep ; 18in. walls of stone and
mortar, lined with cement. Cost, $600. [Capacity of the two silos,
315 tons ; cost per ton, 6s. 8d.]

Silos of Mixbd Mateeials.

Tke Americans seem very fond of using several kinds of
materials in their silos, and in many cases tlie stonework or
concrete is only carried up to the ground level, and the
remainder is built of wood. The first example in the fol-
lowing list goes much more fully into details of cost than any
we have met with. In many other cases the particulars are
altogether wanting :

Two sUos, 20ft. by 12ft., and 12ft. deep — 6ft. being above ground and
7ft. below. One silo was built of stone, laid dry, 18in. thick, faced with
6in. of grout cement and small stones, and one thin coat of cement to
make a smooth surface. Bottom grouted and smoothed; superstructure
of wood to shed water. The second silo was constructed of small stones,
and cement made thin and poured between the stones. In constructing
this wall, 2in. by 4in. studding was placed plumb 2ft. lin. from face of
excavation and 3ft. apart. Inch boards were placed horizontally on inner
side of studding, between which and face of excavation the stones were
laid. When completed, the boards and studding were removed, and the
face of the waU pointed with cement to make a smooth surface. The
cement mortar used was in proportion of one of cement to two of sharp
sand. One silo was weighted with stones packed in barrels ; in the other,
four cast-iron screws were attached to beams overhead. Cost of SUo
No. 1 : — Excavation, $112-63 ; laying walls and cementing, ,$143'31 ;
wood and labour, $87-66 ; 40 barrels cement, $47-20 ; total, 390-69. Cost
of SUo No. 2 : — ^Excavation, $4290 ; laying walls, $87-77 ; cementing,
$20-60; cement and freight, $159-96 : ironwork for press, $37 '96; wood
and labour, $132-09 ; screws and freight, $60-24 ; total, $531-41. [Capa-
city 58 tons each ; cost of No. 1 silo per ton, 28s. ; cost of No. 2 per ton,
38s.]

Double silo, exterior wall, 2ft. thick and 16ft. high ; partition wall, If ft.
thick, of stone and cement, forming two pits, each 14ft. by 15ft., and 16ft.
deep. On the wall 1 built a frame, 9ft. posts, sided- up with grooved and
tongued boards, covered with building paper, then clapboarded. Inside
of studding, lined up with IJin. grooved and tongued spruce, well painted.

54 Silos for Fodder Crops.

and flush with inside of silo wall, so that the covers may rtm down
without any impediment, making a total height of 20ft. The floor is
grouted with gravel and cement Sin. thick, and inside of walls plastered
with cement. Cost, $1000. [Capacity of the pair, 178 tons; cost per
ton, 23s. M.']

Double silo, 24ft. long, 7ft. and 8ft. wide respectively, and ISft. deep.
Built of stone ; outside walls dry, 30in. thick at bottom and 20in. at top ;
division wall 20in. thick, laid in cement, and all walls plastered with
cement. The walls were built by masons, in accordance with their notions
of fitness, with the result of an extravagant cost. Above the silo walls
is a kerb of matched boards, 6ft. high, for settling room. Of course a
roof covers the whole. Cost between |700 and $800. [Capacity, 150 tons ;
cost per ton, 20s. to 22s.]

SUo, near cattle shed, the ensilage being raised in a box by means of a
hay-carrier arrangement to a car, which carries it to the cattle shed.
Dimensions, 27ft. by 12ft. and 15ft. deep, with 3ft. kerbing around the
top. WaUs of rubble sandstone 18in. thick, made smooth inside with
cement. Cost, $413-42, including superstructure, which cost $119-40.
[Capacity, 97 tons ; cost per ton, 18s., including superstructure.]

SUo, 40ft. by 13ft., and 13ft. high to the sills of the building covering
it ; the walls being of 16in. concrete, on which are bedded the sUls of a
gable-roofed building, which increases the depth of the silo 5ft. Cost,
$400. [Capacity, 187 tons ; cost per ton, 9s.]

Silo, 16ft. by 9ift., and Oft. deep, in bam cellar, near to cattle staUs.
Walls of stone and concrete for 6ft., and the rest of wood. Adding
value of stone and sand on hand, the total expense was about $100. I
used 16 barrels of cement. [Capacity, 47 tons ; cost per ton, 9s.]

SUo on one side of barn floor, 50ft. by 15ft., and 18ft. deep. "Walls
stone and cement, 4ft. to basement floor, brick and cement 10ft. to feeding
floor, and double matched boards 4ft. above floor ; bottom and walls below
floor cemented. Cost, $521, which is much more than necessary. Mine
was the first one built in this vicinity, and I wished to avoid a failure.
[Capacity, 270 tons ; cost per ton, 8s.]

Silo, 18ft. by 12ft., and 15ft. deep, 10ft. being stone wall, then a sill
and studs 5ft. to plate, sheathed flush with the wall. Cost, $100.
[Capacity, 65 tons ; cost per ton, 6s. 6d.]

SUo in comer of a barn, which has a cellar 9ft. deep. Dimensions
14ft. by lift., and 18ft. deep, 9ft. being below and 9ft. above floor of
bam. The walls below, on two sides, are the cellar- waUs cemented ; on
the other two sides they are made of brick and cement : and above the
barn-floor there are two thicknesses of boards with tarred sheathing
paper between them. Cost $84. [Capacity, 55 tons ; cost per ton, 6s. 6d.]

French Silos. 55

Silo, 20ft. by 15ft., and 17ift. high. The waU at the bottom is 3ft.
high and 1ft. thick, of brick laid in cement ; on this waU is a plank laid
in cement for a sill ; the remainder of the wall is of studding and 2in.
plank, with two thicknesses of tarred paper, and over the paper are
boards. The floor is of brick, laid in and covered by cement. Cost,
about $1S0. f Capacity, 105 tons ; cost per ton, 6s.]

The vdde divergencies in these statements of cost are very-
striking, but the difference as regards the substantial nature
of some structures as compared with others, and the extent to
which existing buildings have been turned to account in some
cases, will go far to explain much of the difference, especially
if we bear in mind the fact that American farmers are very
handy men, and do much of their own building work. When
everything has to be paid for, there seems no reason for sup-
posing that silos would cost less in America than similar
sti'uctures in England ; indeed, the reverse might be expected
to be the case, seeing that the cost of labour is much higher
there than here, and the price of purchased materials is not
often likely to be less.

Fkench Silos.

In France, on the other hand, it may be expected that silos
would cost less than in England, because labour is cheaper ;
and the statements made by M. Goffart and the Vicomte de
Chezelles both bear out this impression. In excavation alone
a large saving would be effected. The statement of cost of
M. de Chezelles' silo, given in the Appendix, puts down
65 centimes per cubic metre (equal to 5d. per cubic yard) for
excavating and cartiag earth ; whereas, in Mr. Hale's esti-
mate of his Durham silo, the cost of excavating alone is stated
as Is. per cubic yard; and in one of the American reports
recently given (page 51) the sum stated for excavating and
carting is equivalent to about 2s. Zd. per cubic yard ; verily
a most remarkable difference. In concrete work there is
not such a wide divergence — Mr. Bailey stating it as 10 cents
per cubic foot (or about lis. per cubic yard) in America,
wHle M. Goffart gives it at 12 francs the metre (or 7s. 6d.

56 Silos for Fodder Crops.

per yard) in the account below. The brickwork, at 20f. per
cubic metre, is equal to about 12s. 6(?.per cubic yard. In
England, in favourable localities, concrete may cost 7s. or
8s. per cubic yard, and in others it will cost double, if
not more.

M. Goffart gives the following particulars respecting the
construction of his last silos, which, he says, were much more
costly than they would be in many places, owing to the nature
of the soil :

My farm at Bnrtin presents exceptional difficulties to the formation of
silos. It is traversed by a little river, the Neant, which has a weir across
it for the service of my water-wheel, and thus a very high head of water
is kept throughout the neighbourhood. Everywhere on the farm, water
is found at the depth of about 3ft. ; and, as I always make my sUos at
least 6ft. deep (because the underground part keeps much cooler in summer
than that which is above the soil), I am obliged to make this lower portion
water-tight, in order to avoid flooding ; and this entails a pretty heavy
outlay. The works are as follows :

The excavation made for the foundation of my sUos is carried down
about 7ft. below the ground level. In order to dig so far down without
being stopped by water, it is necessary, in the first place, to cut a drain
to carry off the waters to the depth of 7ft., and conduct them into the
mUl stream about 80 yards below the turbine.

The excavation being finished without obstruction, owing to this pre-
liminary drainage, I lay down, over its whole extent, a bed of concrete,
6in. thick, composed of broken bricks and hydraulic cement. Upon this
bed of concrete I build, up to the ground level, vertical walls, which form
the boundaries of my silos, making them two bricks (or 18in.) thick.
Arrived at this ground, I reduce the thickness of the walls to a brick
and a haE (about 14in.), and then carry them up to their full height of
about 17ft. The walls finished, I give the inside and the bottom a coating
of Portland cement, so as to make the whole perfectly water-tight. These
works cost :

15S"562 cubic metres of ordinary brickwork, at the rate

of 20 franoB the cubic metre Slllf. 24c.

30'47 cubic metres of concrete, at 12 francs the metre ... 365 64
Cost of excavation, coating with cement, and other

expenses, about 700

Total 4176f. 88c.

My three connected silos thus will have cost me as nearly as may be
4176f. 88c. (about 167?.) ; and as their total capacity is 812'45 cubic metres,
each cubic metre of capacity will have cost me 5f . 14c.

French Silos. 67

These explanations suffice to show that silos at Burtia cost more than
in most cases. I had to build on perfectly flat ground, often full of
water, the intrusion of which into the silo must be prevented at any cost.
I had sad experience of this not long ago. The water found its way
through a crevice into one of my silos filled with green ryet and all that
part which the water reached, to the depth of about a foot, was spoilt. I
have therefore spared no expense to attain the desired end, and I am
certain of having attained it, by drainage especially.

A cubic metre being equal to about 35^ cubic feetj the
total capacity of these silos will be about 28,690 cubic feet,
and the cost barely l^d. per cubic foot of capacity. It is
stated by M. Goffart that his ensilage averages 812 kilo-
grammes (or about 16cwt.) per cubic metre, which would
be about 501b. per cubic foot, and consequently the silos
above mentioned would contain about 650 tons of ensilage
if they were full. Taking these silos, however, as already
explained, at nine-tenths of their full capacity, their con-
tents would weigh rather more than 670 tons, and the cost
per ton would be about 6s. ; but to this would have to be
added the roofing, of which no mention is made, and the
addition of which would seem to have been an after-thought,
as M. Goffart says :

I have of late come to the conclusion that large silos should not be with-
out a permanent roof. The absence of covering was not inconvenient for
my small silos, which could be quickly covered up by means of a few
hundred faggots, but it was no longer the same when my silos -had each of
them more than 500ft. of surface. I have therefore decided to cover
each of my new silos by a slate roof, although it is somewhat costly. The
most economical roof would doubtless be obtained by the use of bituminous
paper, for which a light framework would suffice. Unfortunately it only
answers when it is of excellent quality and put lip by able workmen.

The cost of the Yicomte de Ghezelles' large silo is propor-
tionately much less without its covering — which, however, is
not merely a roof, but is a kind of Dutch barn, in which are
stored the grain crops of the farm. From the particulars
given in the Appendix, it will be seen that the cost of the
silo alone was about 160Z., and that of the barn superstruc-
ture 250L, or 4101. in all. The capacity, estimated as before
stated, would be about 1200 tons, or about 2s. 6d. per ton for

58 Silos for Fodder Crops.

silo alone, and nearly 7s. a ton if the Dutch, barn be considered
merely as the roof of the silo — which, however, would not be
a fair representation of the facts, seeing that the barn is
applied to other purposes.

English Silos.

Very little is known as yet as to the cost of silos in England,
because so few have been built, and the expenditure on these
has, in most cases, not been stated.

Mr. Hoare's double silo, with a capacity of 40 tons, and
without any roof, is reported to have cost 50L, or 25s. per ton.

Mr. E. Gibson's five pits cost 150L; and from their dimen-
sions they should, if properly filled and weighted, contain
about 200 tons ; but the quantity of green rye put in them is
said to have been 80 tons. Taking their full capacity, the
cost per ton would be 15s.

Lord Walsingham's three silos, made in a clay-built barn,
and having about 50 tons- capacity, cost 30Z., or 12s. per ton.

Mr. Ford's silo, of which estimates are given in the Appendix,
has 17 tons capacity, and the cost varies from about 401. to
44Z., according as it is built of rubble slag, concrete, or brick-
work. If the excavating and carting be done by the owner,
the cost would be reduced to the extent of 61. or 81., as shown
in Mr. Ford's letter : the estimates also include 16Z. for
concrete blocks, for weights, and the pulley for lifting them.
Altogether the total cost per ton, without any of the reduc-
tions alluded to, is a shilling or two over or under 21. 10s.,
according to the materials used.

Mr. W. A. Gibbs, the well-known inventor of the hot-air
apparatus for drying wet hay and corn crops, has widely
circulated in the agricultural and daily press a letter on
estimates for silos, in which he says : —

Prom America it is reported that Mr. MiEs has had two silos constructed
of 40ft. long, 13ft. wide, and 20ft. deep. The walls are 2ft. in thickness,
and made of concrete and stone, faced with cement. The cost of these is
said to have been about $700 (140i.). These two pits held the produce of
thirteen acres, which is stated as 600 tons.

JEnglish Silos. 59

In order to ascertain what silos of these- dimensions -would cost us in
England, I obtained an estimate for two exactly similar in size and mode
of construction, and found they would cost me 7801. ; hut the contractor
explained that, if I had had gravel on my estate for the making of concrete,
they could probably be made for 400L On the other hand, he pointed out
that, if in sinking 20ft. or any less depth it caused an influx of water, this
would largely increase the cost, and he declined to be bound by any
definite estimate of cost that would cover that contingency.

Mr. Gibbs appears, however, to be under a wrong impression
as to the work done in America for 170Z. being similar to that
for which the English contractor asked more than five times
as large an amount of money. He says : " The discrepancy
between the American estimate and the one furnished by my
contractor is too great to be reconciled, unless by a clerical
error;" but he has overlooked the fact that Mr. Mills^s two
silos are not new buildings, made with walls of concrete and
stone 2ft. thick, but are silos constructed inside a large barn,
the concrete walls of which are utilized, and surmounted by
a wooden structure. The particulars of these silos given in
the " Journal of the American Agricultural Association " are
as follows : —

He (Mr. Mills) has two sUos or pits, each 40ft. long, 13ft. wide, and
20ft. deep, located in the centre of his bam, the walls of which are con-
structed of a concrete of stone and cement 2ft. thick,' the sides and ends
parallel, and the bottom well cemented. Upon the walls, flush with the
inside of them, a structure of ordinary boards is buUt, 15ft. high, which
serves as a feeder to the pit, and which, when both are filled, wiU
compensate for the shrinkage' of the mass by compression.

It does not appear that there was an excavation in the
barn ; but in the estimate furnished by Mr. Gribbs^s contractor
there would be excavation to the depth of 20ft., which, in the
two silos, would require the removal of more than 20,000
cubic feet of soil. The capacity of the two silos, on the same
basis as previously stated, would be about 260 tons each, and
the cost of the alterations and additions equal to 7s. per ton.
The 780Z. estimate of Mr. Gibbs' s contractor, for digging 20ft.
into the ground (which is not to be recommended) and
building the silos of stone and concrete, would amount to

60 Silos for Fodder Crops.

about 33s. per ton ; and the 400 L estimate, in case of there
being gravel for concrete^ would be about 18s. per ton.

At a meeting of the Croydon Farmers^ Club on the 1st
of March Mr. Lascelles exhibited some portable concrete
blocks, easily screwed to wooden framework, and thus formed
into buildings, which may be put up very quickly and taken
down again at will. The system promises to be well suited
to the formation of silos under some circumstances j and if
we should receive plans and estimates of cost in sufficient
time, they will be inserted in our Appendix. We also give
there some estimates by Mr. T. Potter of the cost of making
silos in chalk soils.

Eblative Capaoitt of Silos and Hay-Baens.

Many landowners build on their estates permanent hay-
barns for the use of their tenants ; and as, by the pitting of
green crops instead of drying them, it may become desirable
to construct one kind of permanent building instead of
another, it may be as well, while considering the capacity and
cost of silos, to take into consideration also the cost and
capacity of hay-barns. No doubt it .may be said that hay-
barns can be dispensed with, as, indeed, is already done on
many farms, where the hay is stacked and thatched, instead
of being put under roofs ; but, although this is so commonly
done, it does not follow that it is the best course of pro-
cedure ; and, unless hay-barns were believed to be economical
in the end, it is hardly to be supposed that the owners would
go to the expense of building them at all.

With the keeping of hay, as with the preservation of ensi-
lage, there are two modes of proceeding. You may have
sound permanent buildings that will last for generations, or
you may have makeshift contrivances which avoid any large
outlay at jSrst, but entail a continued repetition of indirect
expenditure afterwards. Silos of masonry, &c., may be dis-
pensed with in like manner as it is possible to dispense with
hay -bams ; the fodder may simply be buried in the earth, as
already shown, instead of being put in permanent buildings ;

Silos and Ilay-barns. 61

but persons who have had long experience with the rough
methods have nevertheless found it worth their while to go to
the expense of replacing them by masonry and concrete, as
being, on the whole, m.ore economical. Beginners can choose
for themselves which course they prefer.

As ensilage is so much heavier than hay, owing to its being
preserved with all its moisture, and thus being about three-
fourths water, some persons seem to imagine that it must
occupy a large amount of space as compared with hay. But
the reverse, of this is the case ; for if a barn were turned into
a silo, it would contain about double as many acres of grass
as it would hold if the grass were made into hay.

Dry hay, as it is commonly called, contains, on the average,
about 15 per cent, of moisture, so that in a ton of hay there
would be about 17cwt. of really dry substance. The ensilage
made from grass contains about 70 per cent, of" moisture. In
Mr. Grant's excellent sample of grass ensilage from Hamp-
shire there was just that proportion; in some others there
was more, and in some less. In a ton of such ensilage there
would consequently be 6cwt. of dry substance, as against
17cwt. in hay; i. e., the weight of feeding-ihatter in a ton of
hay would be not quite three times as great as that in a ton
of ensilage.

Hay would require, however, about six times as much barn-
room as ensilage. We have already stated that one ton of
ensilage would occupy 50 cubic feet, making allowance for
space unoccupied by settlement. Hay, when first packed in
barn, could hardly exceed 71b. or 81b. per cubic foot on the
average, and therefore nearly about 300 cubic feet of space
would be required for a ton. Hence, weight for weight, hay
requires, as above stated, about six times as much space as
ensilage ; but ensilage has only about one-third as much dry
substance as hay; consequently, in a silo of a given size
double as much feeding-matter may be contained as could be
put in a hay-barn of equal dimensions.

As to the cost of permanent hay-barns, there will be found
in The Field of March 3, 1883, a plan and statement of cost

62 Silos for Fodder Orops,

of some hay-barns built upon the Earl of Shrewsbury's estates
in Shropshire^ Staffordshire, &c. Although sound and ■well-
built, they are not extravagant structures, but are recom-
mended on account of their economy. The cost is from \2l.
to 14L per bay, according as a large or a small number is
built, and the capacity of the bay is about 14 or 15 tons, so
that the cost would be about 18s. per ton ; and, as a ton of
hay contains about three times as much dry feeding-matter
as a ton of ensilage, 18s. per ton for the hay-barn would be
about equivalent to 6s. per ton for the silo.

Eooi's OVER Silos.

A considerable difference in the outlay will be necessary if
roofs are dispensed with. Such is not unfrequently done in
Prance, where the silos are covered by means of faggots,
trusses of straw, or any other convenient matters, being
stacked over the pit, thus affording shelter as well as weight.
In other cases a thicker layer of soil is made to answer the
same purpose — a tarpaulin being first placed over the fodder,
in some instances, if the earth is porous. Both these methods
have been adopted by M. Goffart,,and the latter is used by
some American farmers. Still, there is no doubt that roofs
are advantageous ; and M. Goffart said on this point, when
replying to a series of questions in the Journal de I' Agriculture :

Is there any advantage in putting a roof over open-air silos ?

It is an expense which I have hitherto dispensed with, because, having
filled my silos, I stacked over them a quantity of faggots intended for
consumption on the farm. I thus obtained increased pressure (always very
useful) as well as a temporary coveriug. Nevertheless, there are certain
local conditions under which, in the absence of faggots or straw, it would
be advantageous to establish a permanent roof, which would also shelter
the men when filling and emptying the pit.

In another passage (quoted on p. 57) he refers to the use
of waterproof paper on Kght framework as a cheap form of
roof. For such a purpose the " Willesden Paper," made by
the Waterproof Paper Company, Canal Works, Willesden
Junction, seems well adapted. It is 4Jft. wide, made in

TFeights and Planks. 63

long lengths, and varies in price according to thickness;
the 4-ply or roofing paper costing about 2d. per square foot.
A thinner paper would probably suit as a waterproof lining
between boards, if silos are made of wood.

"Weights and Planks.

Another considerable item of cost will be weights if they
are purchased. In the estimate of Mr. Ford's Durham silo it
will be seen that concrete blocks for weighting form about
one-fourth of the whole outlay, and the tackle to facilitate the
moving of them costs nearly half as much as the blocks;
whereas the planks are a comparatively moderate item. In
none of the American estimates do we find any mention of
expenditure on this respect. Anything available is turned to
account — blocks of stone, boulders, barrels of earth, sacks of
grain, casks of cider, blocks of firewood^ — ^in short, anything
of weight that may be on the farm. Barrels form a very
favourite vehicle for the weight, all sorts of substances being
packed therein and headed up. As they can be readily
rolled along, and whipped up by means of slings or falls, with
a horse to pull the rope that runs over the block, the process
of loading the cover is quickly accomplished, and a large
amount of weight can be put on by standing the barrels up on
end and close together. On this subject of covering and
weighting M. Goffart says :

Wten the ensilage is of great thicfcaess, the cost of planks is not very
important ; but when the sUos are shallow, the cost per square foot should
not be lost sight of, for it may become a rather heavy item. In any case
it would be a matter of importance to get rid of it, and I am going to try
some experiments for this purpose. I shall dispense with planks upon
one of my sUos, and shall merely place upon the bed of straw some well-
burnt bricks, so as to form a compact layer of sufficient height to give the
weight of about one hundredweight per square foot. My sUos have a
surface of 500 square feet, and my bricks weigh about 51b. each, there-
fore 10,000 bricks will be required for each of my silos. These bricks
would cost some 8Z. or more, but they would have the same value after as
before the temporary use to which they are put. Bricks in any case will
be better to handle than blocks of stone, the irregularities of which make
the work painful and slow. Of course for such a purpose it will be requi-
site to have well-burnt bricks, so that there should be no fear of breaking.

64 Silos for Fodder Crops.

If I had silos in England or Belgium, where cast-iron is cheap, I would
not hesitate to get blocks cast of pig-iron, of such shape that they would
lie suf&ciently close together. To be of a convenient weight, they might
be about Sin. thick, and for facility of handling should be cast with a
handle, as is done in the large weights used with scales. In this way a
very useful method of rapid shifting might be obtained.

I need not say that weights once raised up to the top of the silo ought
not to be taken down outside : they should be placed on the surrounding
walls ; and this is what I intend to do with the bricks.

Those who have near them quarries of cut stone would probably have
the advantage of buying rough-hewn stones, having an even surface, and
a thickness of lOin. or 12in. I wiU suppose a mean density of 1001b. to
1201b. per square foot. In this case a single layer would suffice to pro-
duce sufficient pressure. Old paving stones might, in certain cases, be
used advantageously, especially when they are nearly cubical in shape.

I intend to employ three different modes of covering my silos — (1).
Broken stones with old sackcloth put between so as not to let the stone
get mixed up with the fodder. (2). Bricks without boards. (3). Placing
upon boards the sacks of phosphate intended for my manure heaps. But
here, as in everything else, advantage should be taken of local resources
whatever may be most economical, but without losing sight of the other
conditions of good service, for nothing would be more dangerous than a
mistaken economy with regard to the means of compression.

Many persons are naturally anxious to avoid the trouble
and labour consequent on the use of heavy weights ; but the
difficulty'is to find anything that will answer as well. Com-
missioner Loring's American report says, pithily : " Screws
are used by some instead of weights. The objection to them
is that they are not self-acting, like gravity." Consequently,
if they are not continually watched, and screwed down from
time to time, the pressure may be lost as the fodder settles
down, and the air will get in and produce mischief. Various
methods have been suggested, and we reprint in the Appendix
some that have appeared in The 'Field — not because we have
faith in them, but because readers may have an opportunity
of seeing what has been done, or proposed to be done, in this
way, and may know that nothing has yet been proved to be
really a practical substitute for weights, while some experi-
ments have shown that damage to the ensilage may easily
result from using mechanical appliances, and not m.aking
sure that they continue to act.

CHAPTER V.-FILLING AND EMPTYING THE SILO.

As soon as tlie crop is cut^ it should be put into the pitj and
not be allowed to lie and wither in the sun. When the water
evaporates from the plants air enters and occupies the vacant
cells; and air in the silo is much more to be feared than damp.
Indeed, with the ordinary green crops grown in this country,
there seems to b,e httle fear of their containing too much
moisture for ensilage. Even maize, which contains a larger
proportion of water than our grasses and clovers, is not found
too moist when pitted alone ; and, in his earlier experiments,
M. Goffart spoilt some of his ensilage by partially drying his
maize.

MixTUEB OF Dry Matbeial with Green Fodder.

It has been said that, in order to absorb the moisture in the
green fodder, it is necessary to mix with it some amount of
dry chaff. This, however, is a mistake, and is contradicted
by the experience of years in France and America, as well as
by results obtained last season in England. The addition of
dry chaff may even do more harm than good, especially if
added in large proportions, as a very undesirable amount of
fermentation may be produced. The effects of mixing dry
chaff with green fodder are thus stated by M. Goffart :

When I first began with ensilage, I had, as the chief means of feeding
my beasts, a very large quantity of straw chaff, and whole straw of wheat,
rye, oats, &c. To induce the beasts to eat it, I mixed it as much as possible
with maize and rye chopped up green ; but I was not long in finding out
that the greater the proportion of straw the less the time the mixture
would keep. One fifth in volume, or one tenth part by weight, was the

66 Silos for Fodder Crops.

utmost that the maize could take without being quickly impaired. When
I exceeded these limits, the time it would keep diminished continually,
and ended by not lasting longer than forty-eight hours. I attribute this
to the fact that the straw, which is very dry by itself, takes from the
maize too large a proportion of its moisture.

A moist condition in ensilage, instead of being a cause of deterioration,
is, on the contrary, in some measure indispensable to the good preserva-
tion of the materials put into the silo.

In its normal condition, maize contains 85 per cent, of water. When,
by the addition of dry straw, the average amount of water in the mixture
is reduced below 75 per cent., its good preservation is greatly compromised,
and will very quickly become impossible if an attempt is made to go
beyond that.

Besides the too great dryness which may result from the presence of
the straw, another serious inconvenience is offered by this material —
particularly rye straw. This straw, when chopped up, consists of a large
number of smaU tubes with a hard envelope that long resists decomposi-
tion ; these tubes contain a considerable quantity of air — the worst enemy
of ensilage. Oat straw and others of soft texture are, from the latter
point of view, much less dangerous than rye straw.

When I have, at the commencement of my autumn ensilages, used up
the straw chaff from the threshed corn (which always are in the way
owing to the great amount of space which they occupy), I afterwards put
my fodders into the silo without any mixture whatever, and I find they
turn out well. There are, however, some cases in which it is desirable '
to add straw chaff, particularly with maize — ^but without exceeding
suitable limits.

As a case in point, where it would have been desirable to
mix some straw chaff with the chopped maize, before putting
it in the silo, M. Goffarfc mentions an instance where some
maize had been allowed to stand until it had become too ripe
and had got frost-bitten. Consequently, it parted with its
moisture much more readily than usual, and when the silo was
being filled, and before any weights were put on, the juice
of the maize ran out in a way that had never happened before
with him ; for ordinarily there is no liquid whatever in his
pits. In such a case as this it would certainly have been
advantageous had a sufficient amount of dry chaff been mixed
with the chopped maize to absorb the moisture ; but it was
quite an exceptional circumstance as regards maize, and can
have little application to our ordinary British fodder crops.

Straw chaff very often is mixed by M. Goffart with his green

Mixture of Chaff with Ensilage. 67

fodder^ before putting it in tlie pit ; not, however, for tlie pur-
pose of preserving that wliicli is moist, but to render digestible
that wliich is dry. With oat-straw, and other soft material, it
suffices to mix the chaff with the ensilage after the latter is
taken out of the pit, but it is otherwise with such harsh straws
as wheat and rye, the latter especially. Both these he uses
for feeding purposes ; but he found them practically valueless
if only mixed with the ensilage a few hours before being eaten,
as they are so tough as to pass through the animal almost
unaltered ; whereas a few months in the silo, mingled with the
green fodder, renders them digestible. Accordingly, this
course is adopted by M. Goffart as a matter of economy, and
with due care not to use too large a proportion of straw, for he
is fully alive to the danger, as is evident from the following
observations which he made in the Journal de I' Agriculture :
" Last winter I tried four experiments in four different silos.
One contained pure maize, and in the other three straw was
added in different proportions ; and the greater the proportion
of straw mixed with the maize the worse was the preserva-
tion." He thereupon resolved not to mix the straw before
pitting j but after a time he returned to his former practice,
not because he approved of the mixing, but because he could
not otherwise render the harsh straws digestible.

M. Lecouteux, editor of the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique,
was formerly in favour of mixing chopped straw with his
maize before putting it in the silo, but he afterwards changed
his opinions, and in 1879, in reply to the question whether
such a course is necessary, he said :

It is certain that some persons have congratulated themselves on making
such an addition. If I have removed it from my present course of
practice, it is because, contrary to my former ideas, I find that maize
needs no straw to absorb its excess of juice. It attains in the silo, when
unmixed, aU the qualities that are desirable for good provender. But I
fear I shaU not have enough maize for my ensUage of 1879, and there-
fore I shall mix together the maize and the late second crops (clover,
lucerne, and rye grass, the leguminous plants predominating), which are
almost always very difficult and very expensive to make into dry fodder.
In this way I shall fiU my silos and free myself from the never-ceasing
rains of the present year.

F 2

68 Silos for Fodder Crops.

Influence of Wet Weather.

From many quarters at home and abroad, there is evidence
that fodder can be pitted in wet weather, and yet make
excellent ensilage. Mr. A. Grant (whose experiments in
Hampshire are detailed at length in the Appendix) said in
letters to the Field :

I filled up the pit during continual iteavy showers, carrying the grass as
quickly as it was cut. The cost of cutting, carrying, and burying the
grass was 7s. \A. per acre. It would have cost me perhaps IL or more

per acre to make the same grass into hay I am now feeding my

cattle upon it. If there is any difference between it and some which was
cut and carried in fine weather, it is in favour of that carried during rain.
It was purposely carried in wet weather, for the sake of the experiment.
This is my second year's experience of ensilage, and I consider it a most
valuable plan of preserving cattle food; but, like everything else, it
demands care and thought. It involves a considerable outlay, but it
ensures a great saving of money and time and anxiety in the hay season.
It also gives an easy means of preserving late crops of artificial grasses,
such as second-cut sainfoin, late lucerne, &c., at a time of the year when
it is almost impossible to make hay.

Mr. Thos. Basdale, in the Yorkshire experiment which he
details, says that some of the grass was wet with dew and
other portions partially wet with rain.

M. Goffart thus answers a question on this subject :

Is there any inconvenience in putting maize into the sUo when wet with
rain ?

None at all. Last October I filled my sUo in the open air in frightful
weather. On several occasions the rain fell in torrents ; but the success
of that ensilage was none the less complete.

M. Lecouteux (in an article given in the Appendix), in
describing the ensilage of Trifolium incarnatum, mentions
that he had put cartloads into the silo when dripping wetj
and the Vicomte de Ghezelles did the same with his mixed
clovers, and in both cases the ensilage was excellent.
American writers, also, have given information to much the
same effect.

Chaffing of Grass Crops wnnecessary. 69

Chopping up Foddee.

Our ordinary Britisli fodder crops do .not, as a rule, require
to be dropped up in tlie same way as maize. An exception
may be made with respect to rye, wliich is so hard in the
straw ; but with our grasses and clovers the operation may be
dispensed with; and, indeed, it will be difficult to improve
upon the sample of Hampshire ensilage made from unchopped
grass by Mr. A. Grant, who has given details of his operations
(with an analysis of the ensilage) in an article which appears
in the Appendix. Clovers will doubtless require greater
pressure than meadow grass, especially if left till the stems
have become hardj but this should not be done, it being
best, as a rule, to cut fodder for ensilage while it is young and
full of sap. Of course, if anyone has convenience for cutting
up the fodder into chaff, this may be carried out, as in the
case of the Vicomte de Chezelles, who last year passed through
a powerful chaff-cutter the produce of 170 acres of clover,
sainfoin, lucerne, tares, and artificial grasses, before putting
the fodder in his silo. Two years previously (as shown by
a letter in the Appendix) he siloed about 80 acres of mixed
clovers, put into the pit in a whole condition, and much of it
dripping with rain. Some of this was chopped before being
given to the cows, fatting beasts, &c. ; but the store stock
had it given them unchopped.

When the food has to be cut up before being eaten, it is
well to consider whether it may not be more profitable to do
this at once, on a large scale, instead of doing it by driblets
from day to day, when actually required. There are some
kinds of food, such as roots, which it is unprofitable to give
to animals in a whole condition. Some French authorities
already quoted (page 18) say that roots keep better when
sliced and siloed than when pitted whole. May it not be
more profitable, then, to cut up a lot at once and put them in
the silo instead of cutting up enough for the day^s rations ?
This is a matter that may perhaps be worth experimenting on.

70 Silos for Fodder Crops.

Maize, like mangold, is a fodder which is more profitably
consumed wlien chopped up than when given whole ; and this
is what M. Goffart says on the economical side of the question
as regards the effect on the animals :

The advantage of chopping up the maize is not only as regards the
process of ensilage, but it can be done more economically by steam power
than by leaving the beasts to masticate it ; for this is not done free of
cost, seeing that the labour of grinding up the food is done at the expense
of a certain portion of what is eaten.

Formerly, when I gave the imohopped maize to my beasts, I have seen
them occupied in incessant efforts to break up the great stems, and this
labour so exhausted them that they did not improve, as they since have
done, on this excellent food, now that it is given to them in a form more
favourable to consumption.

People do not sufficiently take into consideration the influence which
the physical condition of the food, when consumed, has upon the effects
produced. Imagine two men, one obliged to feed upon unground wheat,
and the other with the same quantity of wheat turned into flour ; you
may be sure that the two men wiU not derive the same amount of benefit
from their food, although chemically they may be the same.

And this is what he says on the economical side of the
question as regards direct expenditure : —

The cost of chopping up and pitting 1000 tons of maize costs, at the
outside lOOOf. (40L) It is work done on a large scale, with the rapidity
due to the employment of powerful machines — that is to say, with all the
economy which belongs to the most advanced industrial processes. Instead
of proceeding day by day to chop up maize for the daily food of your
cattle, you prepare in one fortnight the food for 200 days ; you have put
your maize into such a condition that the man who looks after the
cattle has nothing to do but to go to the sUo, a few yards from the
feeding sheds, and fill the baskets which have to be emptied into the
manger.

Here are some figures which will more clearly show the economy of
employing chopped and siloed maize as compared with other modes of
feeding, so far as relates to the expense of labour. In a farm in the
valley of the Loire, which is carried on under the ordinary conditions of
that district, a number of beasts are fatted every winter on mangold, hay,
and oilcake ; a dozen beasts fed in this way give constant employment to
one strong man, who every day washes and cuts up the roots, and chops
up the hay or straw necessary for feeding the twelve animals. This man
is paid at the rate of i^i. (Is. lOd.) per day, and he therefore receives for
every animal under his care nearly 2d. a day.

Economy of Chopped Food. 71

At my farm at Burtin, with the maize prepared in advance and put into
the silos, a few yards from the cattle-sheds, two men, who are also paid
2if . per day, look after eighty beasts at a daily expense of little more than
a halfpenny a head. The difference in favour of Burtin is therefore for
each beast a daily saving of about five farthings, and on my eighty beasts
there is a daily saving of lOf . 68c. (about 8s. 6d)

Take at this rate 200 days (and 1000 tons of maize will give at least the
quantity necessary for that) and the total economy in labour in favour of
the ensilage . represents at Burtin for the last season more than 2000f .
(80J.) — i. e., more than double the sum expended in chopping up the maize
and making it into ensilage.

Slow v. Quick Pilling.

Various persons have recently advised^ vdtli respect to tlie
filling of sUoSj that the process should be carried on as rapidly
as possible, and that, if it cannot be completed in one day, the
boards and weights should be put on at once and not taken
off again till the filling is resumed. Such, indeed, was the
advice formerly given by M. Goffart ; but he has found cause
for altering his course of procedure as appears by the
following remarks :

Some years ago I advised the filling of silos as rapidly as possible.
This mode of proceeding sometimes leads to inconveniences which have
been pointed out by farmers in such terms as these : " When we have, in
accordance with your directions, filled as quicMy as possible a silo with
chopped maize, and covered it with planks and heavy weights, the settle-
ment produced during the first few days is so considerable, that the upper
half of the silo soon becomes empty, and consequently useless. We there-
fore require two silos of 100 cubic yards capacity in order to obtain 100
cubic yards of ensilage ; and the cost of making silos is thus doubled."

The undoubted inconvenience thus pointed out disappears almost entirely
when one has several silos of some capacity, so as to extend the period of
ensilage over a week or ten days.

I was wrong when I formerly said : " PiU your silos as quickly as
possible." Now that more effective means can be made use of, and
that some agriculturists put into the silo 100 or 120 tons a day, I say
on the contrary, " Don't fiU the same silo too rapidly ; but so arrange as
to fill several at a time in order to allow a settlement to take place."

In filling a silo by putting in every day a fresh layer of maize about
half a yard in thickness, you will check , fermentation sufficiently mean-
while, and at the end of a week or ten days of filling in this way the

72 Silos for Fodder Crops.

spontaneous settlement wiU be so great that the settlement afterwards will
not exceed one-tenth of the total height.

Such was the result which I obtained at Burtin last autumn. My silos,
which are about IBJft. in height, had an empty space at top of about
20in., or only one tenth of their capacity.

This advice is supported by experiences from America,
various instances being recorded of an extension of the filling
process over longer periods than mentioned above. One of
the most noticeable of these is given in the American
Cultivator, by Mr. Gilbert Morton, who says that he took
twenty-one days in filling his silo, containing 70 tons, and he adds
that " This shows that if we can take care to keep the corners
and sides well trodden,' we can take our own time in filling."
When, through delay in the filling, the surface of the fodder
in the pit shows symptoms of dryness, some American writers
advise that it be sprinkled with water by means of a garden
watering-pot. It is not advisable, however, that this be
done too copiously, as the water would run through to the
bottom instead of remaining where it is wanted. A sHght
sprinkling, repeated several times at short intervals, would be
much better than putting on- the same quantity of water all at
once.

Another thing should not be lost sight of in regard to slow
filling, and that is the greater opportunity it affords for the
escape. of air from the pitted fodder. "When the plant is cut
and put into the silo it retains for a time its natural elasticity,
and no reasonable amount of weight that can be put upon it
will so compress the mass as to drive out the air. If boards
and weights are put on at once, much air will be shut in that
ought to be driven out, and until the oxygen in the air is all
burnt up, fermentation will continue to go on, and great heat-
ing and consequent waste may be the result. If, however,
small layers of fodder are put in day after day, the undermost
portion becomes readily compressible before the process of
filling is completed; and, under the weight of each newly-
added batch of fodder, the air is forced up through the mass,
which being still open and porous, offers little obstruction to

Filling the Fits. 73

its escape. Thus, not only is the silo better filled, but there
is less heating, and M. Goffart never obtained ensilage with
so little signs of fermentation as he has done since he adopted
this gradual method of filling his pits.

There is one inconvenience, however, with regard to slow
filling, and that is, that it would be very troublesome for
the owner of a single silo to put in only a small quantity
day by day, and thus tediously spin out the process. When
there are several silos available (and M. Goffart has a dozen
or more), the men can be shifted from one to another at
will, and the work still go on vigorously ; but it is different
with operations on a small scale, and under such circumstances
one can scarcely do better than follow the method adopted
with Mr. Grant^s and Lord Walsingham's silos, viz., filling
and weighting the pit without delay, and at some convenient
time afterwards, when the mass has well settled down, lift off
the weights and boards, and fill up again to the brim.

With respect to his mode of filling his silos during his early
experiments M. Goffart says :

In 1852 I had four underground silos made with masonry, and cemented,
each having a capacity of about three cubic yards ; these silos I have
fiUed again and again continually: Until 1872 my ensilage (which,
moreover, was carried on upon a very limited scale) was regarded by
me only as a means of prolonging for three weeks or a month the
advantageous use of maize as food for my stock. With that view I
have made hundreds of experiments. I have mixed chopped maize and
straw in various proportions, to ascertain which would give the best
results. I have made silos in the open air, covering the fodder sometimes
with trusses of straw, sometimes with firm soil (never with sand, be it
understood). 1 have fiUed my four cemented silos with all sorts of mixtures
which would have put me on the road to definitive success if I had not
been always frightened too soon by slight indications of damage which I
fancied I observed on the surface, and which 1 unintentionally brought
about by my too-frequent examinations.

1873 arrived, and this time I had a genuine success, due in some
measure to chance ; for it must be admitted that chance nearly always
plays an important part in the most fortunate discoveries.

What the chance was which led M. Goffart to 'his present
practice is thus told in another part of his book :

74 Silos for Fodder Crops.

My first real success in ensilage was obtained in tMs way. I had filled
a kind of room with chopped maize, to nearly its full height, leaving an
empty space of only half a yard between the maize and the coiling ; then
I spread a layer of straw over the maize. Failure would have been
inevitable if I had folded my arms after these insufficient arrangements.
But I did not abandon the work which I had thus roughly begun, and for
several weeks I sent every morning a labourer (to whom I had given
some old clothes) to trample down the mass for a couple of hours, going
over it on all fours. The space between the maize and the ceiling was
soon doubled and trebled ; and when I cut the ensilage I had the satisfac-
tion of finding a better preserved material than any I had obtained up to
that time.

"What have I done since then ? I have simply replaced the man on all
fours, trampling down the mass at daily intervals, by a continuous
pressure effected by means of heavy weights. Prom the time that was
done success has been complete ; and yet I do not profess to believe that
the last word has been said by myself, or that others may not seek for,
and perhaps find, other improvements, and especially simplifications of
the process.

The Use of Salt.

Salt has often been recommended as a preservative of
ensilage^ and some persons have used it ia inordinate quantities.
But if the process is properly carried out, and the fodder in a
sound condition, salt is needless for preservation ; and if these
conditions are not comphed with, the salt will not suffice to
remedy the defect. M. GofEart's opinion is as follows :

Is it necessary to make use of salt in a silo ? Tou can do without it.
I often dispense with it myself, without the good keeping being interfered
with ; but I think the moderate use of salt is favourable to the health of
the animals, and I sometimes mix some with my ensilage at the rate of
2|lb. to 31b. to a ton, so that the animals may get loz. to IJoz. in their
daily ration of food.

M. Lecouteux, writing in the Journal d' Agriculture Pratique,
says : " I no longer employ salt, experience having demon-
strated that it is not required in order to obtain good fer-
mentation." And Dr. Thurber says that in America the use
of salt is generally abandoned.

In Lord Walsingham's first experiment with ensilage, not
only was salt mixed with the fodder at the rate of 201b. to the
ton, but a layer of salt one inch in thickness was spread over

Salt in Ensilage. 76

the surface before covering np tlie mass. Wlien the silo was
opened, instead of the ensilage being well preserved, it was
rotten for a depth of four or five inches. This unsatisfactory
result was thought to be due to the grass and clover having
been pitted when wet with rain. But grass and clover have
been put into the silo elsewhere when saturated with rain, and
yet have been well preserved ; and in this case the probability
is that the result was due to the layer of salt. This would at
once destroy all vitality in the herbage, and make it an
impenetrable mass, through which the air within could find
no' exit, and it would thus be shut inside and produce decay.
In the second experiment the quantity of salt mingled with
the fodder was raised to 401b. a ton. The ensilage was good,
not because of the large quantity of salt — for quite as good
preservation has been obtained without any salt whatever —
but probably because a large admixture of salt, evenly
scattered throughout the mass, is far less detrimental to
success than a similar quantity placed in one layer upon the
surface. It will be seen above that M. Goffart considers from
loz. to Ijoz. a sufficient amount of salt in a day's ration of
ensilage, which varies from about 601b. to 701b. In similar
quantities of Lord Walsingham's ensilage the cows would
receive from 17oz. to 20oz. of salt.

The Coveeing Boaeds.

These are ordinarily boards of l|in. or 2in. in thickness ; if
thicker they do not adapt themselves so well to any inequality
in the packing. They should cross the narrow way of the
silo, and be half an inch or an inch short, so as to sink freely
down without any obstruction; the small amount of vacant
space, with heavy weights, is not objectionable — indeed, it is
an advantage rather than otherwise, as it permits the air to
escape as the fodder settles down. For the same reason, it is
not requisite that the boards should fit very closely together
on the top. Some persons have had their boards tongued and
accurately matched together, so as to form large sections ; but

76 Silos for Fodder Crops.

this is objectionable for several reasons. They are not so
readily handled ; a larger portion of the surface has to be
exposed in cutting out than is either necessary or desirable,
so that there is greater risk of damage ; whereas, if the boards
are put in singly, you can take out one or more, according to
your requirements ; and, finally, although they m.ay serve
better to exclude air, they also are more effectual iu keeping
air in — a proceeding which is most strongly to be deprecated.

Closing the Dooeway.

In silos that are wholly or partially above ground, there
is usually a doorway ; the closing of this is a matter that
requires some degree of attention ; and the nearer the door is
to the bottom of the silo the more carefully should it be
attended to. M. GofEart experienced some trouble in this
way, and made various changes with a view to get over the
difficulty. He found that thin wood warped under the action
of the damp, and let the air penetrate. He replaced it by
small beams or bars of wood about 4in. square, made to fit
closely, and to slide down upright grooves placed one on each
side of the doorway. These did not open and overhang one
another like ordinary boards, but kept out the air much
better, and the damage decreased accordingly. With his last
silos, however, he a,dopted a still more certain method of
excluding the air, viz., temporarily bricking up the doorway.
He

I now close tlie entrance of my silos by means of temporary brickwork
plastered inside witli hydraulic mortar; and this wall is ptilled down
again at the time of opening the silo. This brickwork closes the opening
much more effectually than the boards, whatever care may be taken to
adjust them one upon another. Each of these openings may be closed
up by a bricklayer in the course of an hour or two.

Of course, as previously stated, the doorway should be so
placed as to cause the least possible exposure of the contents
of the pit to the action of the air, and therefore it should be
at the end or narrow way of the pit. The middle of the long

Opening the Silo. 77

wall would be the worst place, beoausej on cutting into the
ensilage there, it would be exposed on both sides.

Opening the Pit.

On opening the silo, as little as possible of the ensilage
should be uncovered, only a suflS.cient number of boards being
removed to give room for the operation of cutting to be
performed. It should be cut in vertical sections as is done in
a hay stack, and as much taken out each day, to the full width
of the pit, as is required for the day's consumption. The
weights should not be removed from the boards in the uncut
portion until absolutely required for the work to be done, as
pressure is even more necessary after the opening than before.
M. Goffart found the ensilage deteriorate very rapidly after
opening when weight was deficient ; and one of the American
farmers, in reporting to the Board of Agriculture, says : " In
opening our siLos we took all the stones off ; this was a
mistake, as we lost about a ton apparently from the want of
sujBEicient pressure to exclude the air." And the loss that
went on unseen from fermentation in the pit was probably
greater than the visible loss from mouldiness. Another
American farmer adopted a much wiser course when, instead
of taking the weights off altogether, he took the weights off
the boards to be lifted and piled them on the others not yet
wanting removal, and so increased the pressure during the
opening j and he was of opinion that the ensilage taken out
last was better than that taken out first. Whether such was
or was not the case, his alteration in the mode of procedure
was on the safe side.

Where the weights are removed, and the ensilage is dug
out from the surface alone (as is done by some American
farmers), the danger is much less than when the pressure is
wholly taken off and the mass is cut vertically from the end.
But it should only be done where the silo is small and deep, so
that the whole surface can be quickly cleared off- In a broad and
shallow silo it would be very impolitic to attempt this method.

In hot weather there is much greater Hability to deterioration

V8

Silos for Fodder Crops.

than in the winter montlis, and the heat afEects sUos above
ground more than those which are below. For this reason
M. Goffartj although he acknowledges the advantages of
above-ground silos, recommends that silos be built half
underground^ and he adopts the practice of cutting from the
top down to the ground level in cold weather, and leaving
untouched for the hotter season the lower portion, as shown
iu the accompanying illustration. He also recommends that,

Sectional View of M. Goppabt's Tbiple Silo.

in cutting out the ensilage of the lower section, it be begun
at the end farthest from door, and carried back towards the
entrance ; and he considers that in this way the exigencies of
the different temperatures will be best met, and excellent
condition maintained in the ensilage.

One of the American farmers recommends, for the purpose
of facilitating the cutting out the upper half of the contents
of the pit, that a layer of boards be placed in the middle of
the fodder while it is being packed. Th^ere can be little
objection to this course; but apparently much the same
advantage would be obtained, when the cutting is com-
menced, by taking the boards removed from the top and
placing them underfoot ; and the expense of a double set
of boards would thus be avoided.

CHAPTER VL-COVERING TIP THE SILO.

Some persons have advised tliat in packing the fodder in the
pit, it should be piled up in the centre at the finish ; but the
experience of M. Goffart is that such an arrangeraent is
detrimental to good preservation, and he says on this point :

The filling of the silo should be carried out in such a manner that the
layer of fodder should always be horizontal. The trampling down along-
side the walls (which ought to be as smooth as possible) is carried on
whilst the silo is being filled. A person going constantly round as close
as possible to the walls suffices for this operation. The topmost layer in
the silo should be made perfectly flat, and not higher than the level of the
wall. To ridge it up in the centre is a grave error ; the mass cannot be
sufB.ciently compressed, and dry rot sets in, which is not long in communi-
cating itself to' the mass below.

I have insisted upon the necessity of strongly compressing the siloed
stuff, and I return to it again because this point is decisive for the success
of the operation. The greatest compression will always give the best
preservation.

The filling having been completed, the covering up takes
place. Some of the American farmers put nothing whatever
between the boards and the fodder, thinking it unnecessary ;
and such a course is preferable to the use of anything close
and compact, which is likely to mat together and become
impenetrable, because, with a layer of this kind, air is shut
in which ought to be expelled. M. Goffart says :

The most important question — and one without which there can be no
good preservation- — is the covering up of the sUos. A layer of dry straw,
an inch or two in thickness, should be spread evenly over the green fodder ;
this straw should be covered with boards, and, finally, upon these boards
should be placed heavy materials to the extent of about 1001b. per square
foot of surface. Thinnish boards, such as battens, suit better than

80 Silos for Fodder Crops.

thicker deals, because they give more to the inequalities of settlement,
which are difficult to avoid. When silos are opened, it is rare not to see a
depression towards the centre — ^that is to say, at the part of the surface
which is farthest from the walls, and where consequently there is least
resistance to settlement.

But better even tlian BtraWj in M. GofEart's opinion^ are the
"needles " or leaves of pine-trees^ where sncli can be obtained.
In the forests in the Sologne district they are in great
abundance^ and M. Goffart utihses them largely as bedding
for his stocky by which means he is enabled to chop up his
straw and mix it vrith the cattle food. As to the use of these
pine-needles for covering up the fodder, he says :

The best covering consists of the newly-fallen needles from pine-trees :
the great quantity of resin which they contain prevents their decomposing
quickly, whilst soft straws, and especially damaged after-maths (which are
commonly employed) are rapidly softened and decomposed by the vapour
which escapes from the lower layer of maize and converts the stuff above
into a mere dungheap.

This mass of dung becomes impermeable, and completely imprisons the
vapour which, for want of an outlet, remains at the top of the layer of maize
and sets up the mouldiness which soon renders it unfit for feeding beasts.

In short, make use of pine needles if you have them at your disposal ; if
not, don't cut up the straw that you are about to employ, but use it whole,
and choose in preference the hardest you can get, such as will the longest
resist the action of moisture. Here rye straw stands in the first rank ;
next comes wheat straw, and then oat straw ; after -math grass should be
utterly proscribed.

Never lose sight of the fundamental principles which assure success in
ensilage — continued pressure to expel aU the air contained in the silo.
This air, at the time when you have rapidly carried out the process of
ensilage, represents at least one half of the cubic space occupied by the
pitted material. Leave this air in contact with the material, and it wiU
end in the whole mass undergoing serious damage.

The vapour which escapes more or less freely from the pitted material,
according to temperature of the latter — which is always disposed to rise a
little at the upper part of the sUo — is equally a cause of deterioration when
the vapour is imprisoned. But, on the contrary, it is harmless when it
finds an outlet among the stones and bricks which form the covering.

In many localities, where pine-needles are not obtainable,
gorse, heather, or reeds may often be got, and would probably
answer the same purpose.

CHAPTER VII.-¥EIGHTmG THE SILO.

This is a point on wMch M. Goffart insists as more essential
than any other part of the process, and some of his American
disciples far outdo their master, as they state that they put on
four or five times as much weight as is recommended in the
following extract, the italics of which are in the original:

It is indispensable to put on the cover or movable plcmks of the filled
silo about 100Z6.^er square foot of heavy matters, such as stones, &o.

Here I come to tlie most important point — ^whieh I have had the most
trouble in determining, and which I have only lately settled. When a
sUo has just been filled, it is not merely necessary to exclude the outer air,
it is requisite in the first place to expel the mass of air which is shut up in
it. This is the part which the heavy weights put upon the sUos have to
perform, ajid by means of which I attain the desired end.

A layer of clay, which hermetically seals up the pit, is exactly opposed
to this object. It is necessary that the air inclosed in the silo should find
means of escape between the planks above; it is necessary that great
pressure should drive out the air as quickly as possible from the place
where its presence would cause most serious mischief.

This great pressure ought to continue for several months, because the
tramphng down at the time of ensilage, however thoroughly carried out, is
not in itself sufficient. At the time when the green fodder is chopped up,
it is stUl living, and endowed with such elasticity that it reacts strongly
against the momentary pressure which you have put upon it. It is not
the same, however, after a few weeks or a few months ; the fodder soon
undergoes a softening which diminishes the elasticity, or, in other words,
increases its compressibility to a considerable extent.

It is when these physical and 'chemical modifications are accomplished
that the heavy weights, which I have indicated as an indispensable condi-
tion to success, produce their salutary effect. They follow the fodder as
it collapses, and produce that state of very high density which is necessary
to put it beyond reach of deterioration.

In a footnote to the above, M. Goffart says that " the
pressure ought not to exceed the limit beyond which it would

G

82 Silos for Fodder Crops.

cause the juice to run out bi the maize." In maize there is so
much more moisture than ordinarily occurs in British fodder
plants^ that there is little fear of our ensilage being overdone
with pressure. Even with maize^ the squeezing out of the
juice was quite an exceptional occurrence. M. GrofEart says
that his silos are not, as a rule, wet at the bottom, but merely
moist, even when nothing is put with the maize to absorb the
moisture. There was one very marked instance to the
contrary, but it arose from quite an exceptional condition of
the maize, the cause of which is thus explained :

When maize has been cut before the frosts, is chopped up in a sound
condition and put fresh into the silo, it does not easily part with its
moisture, even when submitted to very strong pressure. But it is not so
when the fodder is too ripe, and has been exposed to rain and frost late in
the autumn. Thus, having in October, 1876, for want of sufficient silos,
found myself unable to pit the whole of my crop of maize, I was obliged
to improvise a new sUo in an old building, wherein to store the surplus,
and this could only be done at the beginning of December.

The stalks, being touched by the frost, had become limp and broken
down. They were difficult to chop up ; but the worst of all was, that the
chopped maize had only been put in to the depth of about 4ft. when, by
reason of the pressure put upon this first layer, the juice suddenly began
to run out under the door, and the flow continued for several days. There
was thus a serious loss, which I should have avoided by mixing chopped
straw with the overripe maize.

Except in this particular case, my maize has never parted with any
portion of its moisture ; and on taking out the ensilage, the bottom of my
silos have been found nearly dry, scarcely moist.

Some American farmers, however, state that the juice of the
maize has been squeezed out by 1001b. pressure, and that they
therefore intend to use less weight in future ; but in the
absence of evidence on the point, one cannot say how much of
this result may be due to the maize being, like M. Goffart's,
in an exceptional condition. And in one case where the
bottom of the pit was thought to be swimming with the juice
of the fodder, the liquid was found to be due to a leakage of
water, which ruined four or five tons of the ensilage.

In connection with this question of excessive weight, the
fact ought not to be overlooked that the pressure ordinarily

Weighting the Silo. 83

put on the top of tlie mass is but sinall in comparison witli the
pressure undergone by the fodder at the bottom, from which
the juice would be most likely to be driven out, if driven out
at all. In the instance just mentioned, of the frost-bitten
maize, it will be seen that the juice was forced out by the mere
weight of the fodder itself, before the pit was full, and conse-
quently before any additional pressure was put on the surface.
But in cases where the fodder is in a sound condition, any
expression of juice is more likely to result from excessive
depth in the pit than from excessive weight on the surface.
In many of the American silos the depth is 20ft. or more, the
deepest being 25ft. In such a case the pressure on the fodder
at the bottom of the mass would be at the rate of half a ton or
more to the square foot, without the addition of any weight
upon the surface ; and a difference of a couple of feet in th6
depth of the sUo would have as much effect on the pressure at
the bottom as a difference of 1001b. per square foot in the
weight upon the top. This surface pressure is requisite for
the purpose of keeping the top layer in sound condition, and
thus preventing deterioration from being conducted from the
surface downwards ; and in shallow pits it is of more im-
portance than in deep silos, where the great bulk of the
ensilage is kept in good condition by its own specific gravity.

With regard to the amount of weight essential to the good
preservation of the fodder, M. Goffart said, in the Journal de
I' Agriculture :

If yon ask me what is tlie weight that I consider indispensable, I reply,
put on the ntmost possible. The more you ■ compress, the more certain
will be the success. A pressure of 2001b. per square foot wiU ensure
perfect preservation. I long contented myself with less weight — 601b. to
801b. at the most : it was not sufficient. Tou should never have less
than 1201b.

In his book, subsequently published, he frequently men-
tions 1001b. as the necessary weight; but in the meantime he
had altered the shape of his silos so as to remove obstruction
to settlement ; and a pressure which would be sufficient in a
large silo very smoothly cemented and free from angles would

G 2

84 Silos for Fodder Crops.

not suffice in a smaller silo with greater obstructions. More-
over, a difference in the condition of the fodder when put in
the pit may make a considerable difference as to the result
obtaiued by the same pressure. M. Goffart chops his maize
into pieces little more than a quarter of an inch in length,
.and therefore it packs very closely, and leaves in the mass a
very small amount of air. The difference produced by a
departure from this practice is shown in the following extract :

In 1876 a farmer from the valley of the Loire came to take the dimen-
sions of my elliptical silo, and reproduced it exactly on his own farm.
He filled it in autumn, and when he opened it in the course of the winter
he took out only a badly-preserved material, which his beasts ate with
repugnance. Quite disappointed, he brought me a sample of his maize,
which, before putting in the sUo, he had cut up in lengths of 2in. or more,
or five or six times as large as he had been advised to do. I at once saw
the cause of his want of success.

The reason for departing from the advice he received was
that it took a long time for his machine to cut up the fodder
so small, as he had no steam-power, and he thought he could
save time by cutting greater lengths ; so he saved his time
and spoilt his ensilage, for he had not sufficient weight to
compress the fodder under the altered conditions.

The effect produced by pitting the maize whole, with
insufficient pressure, is shown by the following remarks of
M. Goffart in the Journal de V Agriculture :

One circumstance which most struck me last winter in the numerous
visits I paid to the farms where maize is siloed whole is, the rapidity and
intensity with which is developed, from the first days, the alcoholic fer-
mentation which has so much attraction for the beasts. Everyone knows
that the preservation of maize offers little or no difficulty during the first
weeks.

Unfortunately, after alcoholic fermentation (which is shorter in dura-
tion according as it is more energetic), comes acetic fermentation, which
is much to be regretted, and may bring on inflammatory action among
the animals. It greatly diminishes the nutritive value ' of the siloed
vegetables ; I have experienced it a score of times in my own cattle-sheds.

The fermentations which fatally and too rapidly succeed to those just
mentioned are the more or less putrid.fermentations. The hungry beasts
will still eat — with marked dislike, however — ^the maize which has reached
this state of decomposition ; but be sure that their constitution will not

Weighting the Silo. 86

be long; in showing visible signs of deterioration. The conclusion I have
come to is, that the object to be attained in ensilage is the hindering of
every kind of fermentation during and after pitting ; in short, the best
means of avoiding • bad fermentations is to let none of any kind be pro-
duced. This result is obtained by a great division of the vegetables and
an energetic pressure which expels the last atom of air from the silo.

One may comprehend why the chopped maize keeps so much better
than the unchopped. The former weighs only about 201b. or 221b. the
cubic foot ; when chopped small, 451b. or more is compressed into the
same space, or more than double. What an enormous quantity of air
must therefore be shut up between the stalks !

By means of heavy pressure, even damaged fodder may be
made to produce " brown hay," whicli is eatable, though far
inferior to good ensilage. M. Goffart says :

In September I pitted several loads of second-cut mixed clover. It was
largely composed of white clover, birdsfoot trefoil, and hybrid clover, in
which there was no want of sugary matters. Unfortunately this crop was
too far gone ; it was much past maturity, and, having been laid for some
weeks, the bottom of the stems had turned yeUow. I siloed this with the
utmost care, added about 71b. of salt, and gave most energetic pressure.
At the end of December, when it was taken out of the sUo, I found
before me a blackish clammy mass, devoid of flavour, though looking
much like very rotten manure. It was the " brown hay ." described liy
Klappmeyer. The animals ate it without distaste to the last morsel.
When exposed to the air, instead of setting up alcoholic fermentation, it
soon acquired a slight flavour of butyric acid, but without the animals
being less inclined to eat it. If, however, the butyric fermentation is
allowed to go on, the animals refuse it altogether. I have proved this
nearly a dozen times.

This " brown hay " is still made in Germany and Hungary,
but is not an economical product as compared with well-made
ensilage. Usually it is made from crops that have been par-
tially dried. When butyric fermentation sets in, it has to be
consumed quickly, or it will soon become uneatable, for the
reasons above stated.

CHAPTER VIII.-EPFECT OF ENSILAGE ON FODDERS.

The effect which ensilage will produce on the fodders put inta
the pit will mainly depend upon the manner in which the
process is carried out. Undoubtedly there may be a very
great deal of waste if the work is badly done ; and it is not
surprising that persons who have seen the bad results, and not
the good, should utter words of warning or condemnation.
If they are to be blamed, it is for drawing general conclusions
from too limited an array of facts ; for, however true their
facts may be, and however bad the results which they have
seen, these facts and results do not override other facts and
results of an opposite character; they only serve to prove
that, although a process may be good in itself, it may often
be spoilt in its application. What is the end to be aimed
at in the process, and what it is capable of producing, is
thus set forth by M. G-offart :

The end which I have pursued for so many years, and which I have
ended by attaining, has always been the same — ^to preserve for the winter
feeding of animals the green fodder on which they feed in summer, in the
condition the least removed from that in which that fodder produces its
best efPects. "Well, then, I have solved that problem as completely as
possible, in the most absolute way.

My maize, my green rye, my fodders of every Idnd, have scarcely
changed colour after eight or ten months of ensilage. Given as an
exclusive food to my animals, they produce exactly the same effects — ^tho
same abundance of milk and butter, the same flavour and colour of the
latter.

These are the results, determined during many winters, which have
warranted me in coming to this conclusion : " The problem is no longer to
be solved, it is solved."

These qualities, so important in the grass or summer butters, preserved '
in the winter or ensilage butters, are in my eyes the veritable touchstona

Fermentation. 87

when one has to determine the respective merits of the different processes
of preserving forage. Let a farmer show me the butter which his ensilage
gives during the winter, and I shall need no other evidence to decide on
his ability in, making ensilage. The workman is known by his work.

Fermentation in the Pit.

Fermentation can be no more carried on without consump-
tion of the material fermented^ than a fire can be made to
burn without consumption of the fuel by which it is fed. In
both cases combustion is going on, and the more abundant
the supply of oxygen the more rapidly the burning proceeds.
If you stop the draught, a fire will languish and die. out ; and
a similar result is produced in the silo if you lessen the supply
of air by the imposition of heavy weights. When fermenta-
tion runs through its full course of developmentj most per-
nicious results may ensue j and it is therefore necessary to
" nip it in the bud." M. Goffart remarks on this subject :

In one of my articles, in the Journal de V Agriculture of June 17, 1876,
I said : " The end to be attained is, to prevent every kind of fermentation,
both before and after the fodder is in the. silo ; for the way to avoid bad
fermentations is to allow none of any sort to be produced."

It is through not having discovered this principle sooner, that so many
investigators have, like myself, lost many years in fi-uitless experiments.
We wished to preserve maize by fermentation ; that is to say, we turned
our backs on the solution of the problem. Fermentation is not a preserva-
tive ; on the contrary, it is always a step towards more or less putrid
decomposition — towards actual destruction.

I have experienced this hundreds of times. When my maize had con-
tracted alcoholic fermentation in my silos (badly managed then, for at
first I did not know how to manage them otherwise), I hastened to get
the food consumed as quickly as possible, under pain of seeing it pass
to acetic fermentation, then soon afterwards to lactic or to putrid
fermentation.

These experiences, so often repeated, and always fruitlessly, ended by
discouraging me. For a long time I resigned myself to expecting from
my silos only a temporary preservation, for a few weeks at the utmost —
that is to say, for the time which elapsed between the putting of the fodder
into the silo and the appearance of the putrid fermentations.

Many persons seem to think that the course most requisite
for the preservation of ensilage, is to make the top of the silo
air-tight. But exclusion of air from -without is of less imme-

X

88 Silos for Fodder Crops.

diate importance than expulsion of the air which is within ;
and if the top of the silo be hermetically sealed as soon as the
fodder is pitted, more harm than good will be done, as air
will be shut in that ought to be allowed to escape. When the
crop is first put into the pit, more than half the space occupied
is filled by air ; and if the fodder is to be maintaiaed in good
condition, this must be , driven out as well as kept out ; for,
unless such is done, a process of slow combustion will go on^
which will attack first the most nutritious ingredients of the
plant, and, unless checked, will end by destroying the mass so
far as its feeding value is concerned. Heavy weights effect
the double purpose of driving out air and keeping it out ;
whereas hermetically sealing the top of the pit, even if it can
be done, only effects one purpose, and that the least important.
In his early experiments M. Groffart closed the top of his silos
with clayj and he thus relates the consequences :

Having successively filled my silos, and had the layers trodden down by
persons dancing on them with very great energy, I placed on the surface
a layer of straw chaff about four inches in thickness, and on that a layer
of adhesive clay carefully beaten down, so as to prevent any communica-
tion between the ensilage and the outer air. During the next few days, I
closed, every morning, any cracks that were to be found in the covering.

When, at the end of a few weeks, I proceeded to open a silo thus treated,
I invariably found a space of an inch or two between the ensUage and the
clay covering. No matter how forcibly the maize had been rammed down,
there had been a further settlement, and the upper portion had undergone
deterioration which would rapidly be communicated to the layers beneath.
To prevent such a result, I had no other course but to get my ensilage
consumed as quickly as possible.

Subsequently I abandoned the clay as a covering for my silos. Imme-
diately after treading down my mixture of maize and chopped straw, I
placed over all a cover made of oak, exactly shaped to fit the silo, and
descending with the ensilage as this settled down. This simple change
produced a decided improvement, though stiU insufficient — ^the mischief
was only deferred for a while ; but I was upon the right road.

Nowadays I ^tiU make use of the same silos, and I obtain complete
preservation for an indefinite period of time. The chief point of difference
is this : I place upon the cover of my silo, as soon as it is fiUed, about a
hundredweight of stones, &c., for each square foot of surface.

By my former method, the .preservation was only temporary and in-
complete ; by the new method it is unlimited and absolute.

Fermentation. 89

That fermentatibn can be cliecked by heavy weights on the
fodder is proved by experiment. It is a common thing for
ensilage to have an alcoholic or an acid smell when first taken
out of the pit. If the alcoholic flavour is very marked, there
has been more fermentation^ and consequently waste, than is
desirable ; if there is strong acidity, matters are worse still.
That such results may be prevented by due care is shown
by M. Goffart^s experience :

In April 1877 I opened my last elliptical silo, which contained nearly
100 tons of maize pitted in October 1876^-i.e. more than seven months
before. The whole presented itself as a most compact mass of a brownish
green tint; the temperature did not exceed 10° 0. (50° Pahr.), and there
was no appreciable odour ; on being put to the mouth, the maize at that
instant was quite tasteless, and the absence of smell and taste produced
at first an almost unpleasant sensation.

I took out from the mass a few hundredweights for the next day's
rations of my beasts ; and scarcely was the maize exposed to contact with
the air when it underwent a veritable metamorphosis ; the brownish colour
became sensibly greener, and a commencement of alcholic fermentation
was soon produced, without exceeding the limits which that fermentation
ought never to go beyond.

This silo was not completely exhausted till the 10th of August, and the
maize remained in good condition to the last day. My 40-days maize had
at that date arrived at the stage when it is fit to be cut for fodder ; it had
attained its fuU height, and from the month of August my beagts eat it in
a green state.

The interregnum of maize, as food for my stock, was only ten days in
1877, and my rye ensilage, scarcely cut, will be consumed in the winter.

My beasts, fed on maize ensilage throughout the winter, drink scarcely
anything when let loose in the middle of the day to go and drink at the
river which runs through my farm ; they nearly all return to their houses
without having approached the water.

It must not be inferred, however, that M. GofEart objects to
fermentation under all circumstances. His object is to prevent
it in the sHo, but to permit it in the ensilage taken out of the
pit j for he can control it in the latter case, but in the former
it cannot be regulated. Within certain limits the fermenta-
tion of the fodder is beneficial ; beyond those limits it is
wasteful, and may become positively injurious. As a few
hours will suffice to develope the good qualities of fermenta-
tion, there is no need to run the risks arising from its

\

90 Silos for Fodder Crops.

lengtliened occurrence in the pit ; but M. Goffart considers
tliat these risks would be preferable to no fermentation at all^
for he says :

If it were necessary to dispense with fermentation in order to avoid the-
loss of materials which is undergone in silos, I should prefer to undergo
that loss, because I attach the highest value to fermentation, the good
effects of which are indisputable ; but, fortunately, the two points can be
easily reconciled.

The benefits of fermentation are these : Thanks to fermentation, the
siloed materials undergo a commencement of decomposition which facili-
tates the digestion and increases the nutritive or assimilative power. My
beasts, especially the milch cows, when they live exclusively on fresh
maize during the summer, consume it in very large quantities, and always,
have the belly greatly developed — ^which proves that their food has not all
the richness desirable, and that they are obliged to make up for the
deficiency of quality by excessive consumption. When my beasts eat siloed
and fermented maize, the belly decreases, and their ration (which they
themselves limit) diminishes in weight, and their general state becomes
more satisfactory. Let us, then, not attempt to suppress fermentation, but
only to regulate it.

How he regulates the fermentation is to open the mass of
ensilage taken from the pit, mix it w^ith the chafE or other food
to be given with it, and let it lie until it has heated suflS.ciently.
In warm weather twelve hours may suffice, and in cold weather
twice as long may be necessary. In one exceptional instance,
where the fodder had been frost-bitten before being put into
the silo, fermentation did not set in for two days or more.
With respect to the effect of leaving it to the second day
under ordinary circumstances M. Goffart makes these remarks :

I have said elsewhere that the fodder taken out of the mass ought,
before being given to the animals, to be exposed to the action of the air
for fifteen or twenty hours, in order to set up alcoholic fermentation.
After that time (which may, however, be lengthened or shortened some-
what, according as the external temperature is high or low) the fermenta-
tion becomes excessive, and therefore harmful ; the spontaneous heating
produced in the stuff when it ceases to be compact ought never, if possible,
to be allowed to exceed 90° to 100° Pahr.

Two years ago I had no silos on my farm at GouiUon, and on alternate
days I had the ensilage taken from my silos at Burtin to feed the cattle on
the other farm. On the second day the heat of the ensilage thus carried
greatly exceeded the limits that I have just laid down, and the alcohoUo

Fermentation. 91

vapours came off so abundantly as to show the serious loss which was
going on. Acetic acid, too, was not long in also showing itself. In the
North of France the beetroot pulp given to cattle in winter is sometimes
very acid ; and it is to this circumstance that I attribute the poor quality
of milt and butter obtained from animals fed upon this food.

Losses by Fermentation in the Pit.

Two celebrated scientific authorities on agriculture expressed,
last autumn, opinions tliat were pretty strongly adverse to tte
ensilage process; and for so doing they have been rather
sharply attacked by enthusiasts in its favour. Those scientific
opinions may have been founded, in some measure, on defective
samples of ensilage, but it would be w;rong to assume that
there was no ground for the notes of warning that have been
uttered. Instances of serious loss, such as have been set
forth by Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Voelcker, undoubtedly do
occur, though their occurrence may not be a necessary conse-
quence of the process. The endeavour should be to avoid
such loss by following the best hne of procedure, and not
court disaster by setting to work in full faith that precautions
are needless, and that everything must come right. Here is
a portion of a letter by Sir J. B. Lawes, which appeared in
the Times of Oct. 26, 1882 :

About a year and a half ago I received a bulky volume on the subject
of ensilage from the United States. The writer, who was most enthusiastic
with regard to the system — which he said would create a revolution in the
agriculture of the country — furnished some important statistics respecting
the loss which took place in the silo. Indian com was the substance
used, which, according to the author, when put into the sUo contained
6 per cent, of ash, as calculated on the dry state ; while the ensilage when
taken out contained 9 per cent, of ash, calculated also on the dry state. If
this destruction of the vegetable matter, which amounts to about 40 per
cent., extended equally over the whole crop, it would be serious enough ;
but unfortunately it is the substances which possess the highest feeding
value that are the most easily destroyed. The heat generated, and the
smell of alcohol and acetic acid, to which the author also alludes, can have
had no other source than the sugar which is found so abundantly in Indian
com at the time oi blooming.

Last year I wrote some articles on the subject of ensilage, which were
published in the United States, and I then pointed out how serious was

92 Silos for Fodder Crops.

the loss of the nutritious portion of the plant which appeared to take
place in the silo. I concluded by remarking that, although under the
conditions of agriculture that prevailed in the States, ensilage might he
profitably used, still I hardly thought that the British farmers, who had
to produce "the food for their stock at a great cost, could afEord to adopt
a system which apparently destroyed so large a proportion of the
nutritious matter.

It is quite possible that the loss mentioned as occurring in the United
States may have been exaggerated ; but, at all events, before the process
is generally adopted in this country it would be desirable that experiments
shotdd be carefully carried out, which would not only test the fact of
ensUage being a palatable food for stock, but also settle the important
point of its cost as compared with the ordinary process of haymaking ;
and, further, what was the respective loss of food in each process.

It is beyond question tliat there is a loss of some of the
most nutritious parts of the plant when alcohol and acetic acid
are formed by fermentation ; and it is beyond question, also,
that in some samples of ensilage these products occur in great
abundance. But it does not follow, because such facts are
stated, that the loss is a visible one, or that the writer means
it to be understood that what is left in the pit cannot be eaten.
The food may be readily consumed by the cattle, and may be
nutritious also ; but it will not contain all the nutriment that
might have been there had the process been more skilfully
carried out ; and so far as this loss is allowed to go on, so far
will it impair the economy of the process. Such a loss,
however, as Sir John Lawes quotes (40 per cent.) is so
enormous that the idea of some error naturally suggests itself ;
and, as the estimate is founded solely on the increased quantity
of ash, the probability of error is not very remote, seeing that
the accidental admixture of a small quantity of earth with the
sample of fodder taken from the pit would materially alter
the proportion in the analysis.

Persons not accustomed to consider the effects of fermenta-
tion often fail to appreciate the losses that may arise therefrom.
What is not apparent to the eye is too often passed over as
though it were non-existent ; but everyone who is in the habit
of burning gas in his house would be aware that a quantity of
gas, for which he has to pay, might easily escape without his

Losses hy Fermentation. 93

being any tlie wiser, so far as his sight is concerned ; and so
it is with the most nutritious portions of the hay. It may be
said, however, that if yon cannot see the escape of gas, you
can readily smell it, and stop the leak. True ; and in like
manner you can smell the alcohol and acetic acid, and thus can
trace the source of mischief j but in neither case can you
restore the loss. All that you can do is to endeavour to
prevent loss for the future — which, in the case of ensilage,
will be by adopting a better course of proceeding the next
time you fill the silo.

There is one point, however, in connection with ensilage
which has not yet been duly considered by our great agri-
cultural authorities, but which, nevertheless, deserves the
fullest investigation ; and that is, admitting that in all cases
there must be some amount of loss in substance (and French
chemists of eminence have proved that it is very small in the
case of the ensilage made under the skilled management of
M. Goffart), yet that loss, if not excessive, may be compensated
by the greater degree of digestibility produced in the mass by
the ensilage process.

Some articles on " The Chemistry of the Silo " have recently
appeared in the Meld, and some portions of them have been
reprinted in our Appendix. In one of these articles, the
writer, Mr. F. Woodland Toms, F.O.S., touches on this part
of the subject in the following passages : —

The tendency of fermentation to break down and render soluble the
fibre of the pitted food is a most valuable feature in ensilage. Com-
parative analyses by Grandeau and by Leohartier ; the results obtained by
Dr. Cameron, with the Irish rye-grass experiments ; Mr. Sutton's analysis
of Lord Walsingham's ensilage— aU show this property of prolonged
fermentation. The object of digestion is to convert food into a condition
that is soluble in the juices of the body ; and that portion of the substance
which cannot be so dissolved is not only useless but objectionable, as
having a tendency to exhaust the animal by labour in vain. It further
hinders the digestion of substances that are very nutritious in themselves,
by encasing them round, as is seen with seeds which frequently pass
unaltered through the animal, whereas, if crushed or husked, they would
be very valuable food. The experiments of M. Grandeau and Mr. Sutton
indicate that there is more soluble matter in ensilage than there is in the

94 Silos for Fodder Crops.

dried or green fodder — reckoning, of course, pound for pound of the dry
matter in each. Whether it is always so, when we compare grass or hay
with the weight of ensilage that would have been produced if these had
been put in the pit, is the great unsettled question, around which turns
the whole economical value of the process.

The view, then, that I take of the ensilage process is this — That those
who feel inclined to shirk in any way the imposition of the weights
necessary to compression will be ill-advised in trying the process at all ;
for, economically, I do not think their endeavours will prove profitable
in the long run. They may see distinctly enough the mouldiness or
putrescence that is upon the surface, and may estimate its amount as
compared with the mass of apparently sound food that is in the pit ; but
it will be well for them to bear in mind that they only observe a portion
■of the mischief, and that this may represent but a minor part of the actual
waste, if regard be paid to the loss which has been going on in unseen
parts of the silo, in consequence of a defective mode of carrying out the
process. If, however, the fermentation be skilfully controlled, I see no
reason why the improvement in quality, brought about in the mechanical
condition of the food, may not more than compensate for the loss in
•quantity, considering the very large margin of undigested matter which
coarse fodders contain.

Ensilage, has, moreover, the advantage of saving labour, and of being
independent of the weather ; and these two are in themselves sufficient to
counterbalance a considerable amoimt of the loss that takes place in
the silo.

The suggestion in tlie last paragrapli of Sir Jolin Lawes's
letter — that experixaents should be carefully carried out to
ascertain the cost of the process of ensilage as compared with
that of haymaking, and the respective loss of food in each
process — is undoubtedly a good one. We should bear in
mind, however, that we have not merely to compare ensilage
with well-made hay, but that well-made hay becomes almost
an impossibility with ordinary appliances at times when the
■ensilage is excellent. Such was the ease with grass pitted
during pouring rain in the Hampshire experiment of Mr. A.
Grant, who says : " The cost of cutting, carrying, and burying
the grass was 7s. Id. per acre. It would have cost me,
perhaps, IZ. or more to make the same grass into hay."

CHAPTER IX.-FEEDING QUALITIES OF ENSILAGE.

Some excellent results are recorded as to the feeding qualities
■of ensilage ; nevertheless the evidence is not all on the same
side. For example^ Sir J. B. Lawes gives, in an article in
the Agricultural Gazette, the following particulars relative to
an experiment carried out in the United States, which goes
to show that there was less nutritive matter in 1001b. of ensi-
lage than in 401b. of turnips, although the solid substance in
the former was four or five times as much as was contained
in the latter. He says :

In the experiments upon the feeding properties of ensilage carried out
at the New Jersey Experimental Station, four cows were selected from a
herd for experiment. For a period of twenty-eight days all received
exactly the same amount of food, consisting of clover hay, wheat straw,
brewers' grains, cotton-seed meal, and turnips. During this time No. 1
gave an average of 235lb. of milk daily ; No. 2 gave .25-llb. ; No. 3,
25-61b. ; No. 4, 24-llb.

In a second period of twenty -eight days the cows Nos. 1 and 2 were
fed with exactly the same food as before ; while Nos. 3 and 4 received the
same, with the exception that 1001b. of ensilage was substituted for 401b.
of turnips.

Under the same diet as before, Nos. 1 and 2 increased their daily
product of milk l^lb. and lib. respectively, but those which received the
ensilage showed a trifling decline.

It will be observed that the only change in the diet of the cows Nos. 3
and 4 in the second period was the substitution of 1001b. of ensilage for
401b. of turnips. The description of turnips used is not stated, but the
dry matter in the 401b. would not amount to more than from 31b. to 51b.,
while 1001b. of ensilage would contain 181b. of dry matter ; and this large
increase in food, we find, was followed by a slight decline in milk; and
yet ensilage is said to be above all things suitable to the production of
inilk!

96 Silos for Fodder Crops.

It is difficult to account for such a result ; and there is
nothing here to explain itj as no analysis is forthcoming to
show whether the ensilage was a good or a bad sample.
Certainly this eTidence is at variance with that of some
owners of silos who have reported to the U.S. Department of
Agriculture. Here are some examples :

Messrs. Bartow and Sons, Pittsfield, Massachusetts : " We have resorted
to root crops for the last five years ; we like them very much, but ensilage
is better. It does not cost near so much in labour and fertilizers, and
gives better results. We n^ver had so good a flow of milk in the winter."

Wt. G. H. Ames, Draout, Massachusetts ; " Ensilage takes the place of
roots, and is raised much easier and cheaper. It is about two-fifths the
value of good English hay."

Mr. Gr. H. Hammond, New London, Connecticut : " Cost of feeding on
ensilage, as against hay, roots, and meal, 1 to 3. MUk much richer, and
an increase of 30 per cent, in quantity."

Mr. G. A. Pierce, Stanstead, Canada : " The condition of the stock fed
on ensilage is very good. They commenced to gain as soon as they were
fed on ensilage ; formerly they had hay, roots, and some grain. It is a
great advantage over the system of feeding hay and roots in winter."

Professor J. M. McBryde, KnoxYille, Tennessee : " AU our milch cows
receiving ensilage showed a notable improvement in milk. Butter made
from milk of cows, fed on ensilage, of excellent flavour. Three yearliug
steers fed exclusively on long forage ; one weighing 4281b. received a
daily ration of 201b. hay, gained 221b. iu 28 days ; another, weighing
' 4571b., received 101b. hay and 201b. ensilage, gained 281b. ; a third, weigh-
ing 4421b., received 401b. ensilage and gained 381b. Two pounds ensilage
gave better results than lib. hay. It is plain that animals should be fed
on mixed rations of ensilage and matter rich in albumenoids."

As the New Jersey experiments quoted by Sir John Lawes
show that 2ilb. of ensilage gave worse results than lib. of
turnips, and those of Professor McBryde show that 21b. of
ensilage gave better results than lib. of hay, must we con-
clude that there is more feeding value in lib. of turnips than
in IJlb. of hay ? or may we suppose it possible that the ensi-
lage used in the New Jersey experiment was not of first-rate
quality ?

It is hardly to be supposed that Mr. McBryde (who is pro-

Feeding Experiments. 97

feasor of agriculture at the University of Tennessee) has fallen
into the error of judging from a sample of bad hay, because
he carried out a long series of experiments with more than
twejity animalsj and expressly states that the hay and meal
were of the best quality. He tested the value of hay alone
with ensilage alone; hay with difiEerent meals, and ensilage
with different meals ; and also various mixtures of ensilage
with dry forage and food rich in albumenoids; and he
gave the tabulated results in an article published in the
American Agriculturist, and copied into Dr. Thurber's book
on " Silos and Ensilage." The following are among results
that will be of most interest to British farmers, because, not
only is maize ensilage put in comparison with hay, but we
have a comparison between maize ensilage and clover ensilage :

Daily Bations per 10001b. live weight. The animal gained per cent.

201b. hay (taken as a standard) I'Slb.

101b. „ 201b. oat straw, ejlb. Indian corn meal ... 3'91b.
101b. „ 201b. ensilage (maize), 6ilb. Indian corn meal 7'2 lb.
201b. oat straw, 201b. ensilage, 6ilb Indian com meal 8'6 lb.

201b. hay GJlb. Indian com meal 5"71b.

201b. „ 6ilb. cotton seed meal :. 5-61b.

201b. „ 6ilb. rice com meal 7'51b.

401b. enaUage (maize), 6 Jib. Indian com meal 10'21b.

401b. „ „ 6 Jib. cotton seed meal lOllb.

401b. „ 1 „ 6Jlb. rice corn meal 2'8 lb.

51b. hay, 6ilb com meal, 401b. maize ensilage 6'25 lb.

51b. „ 6Jlb. „ 401b. okver ensilage 9-03 lb.

In the Appendix is given a very interesting statement of
results obtained in an experiment carried out by Professor
Henry of the Agricultural Department of the Wisconsin State
yniversity. Equal lots of maize were taken from the same
field, one half being dried and stacked and the other half put
into the silo. At the end of two months a feeding experi-
ment was commenced and carried put for six weeks with four
cows, all receiving daily lib. of Indian com meal, l|lb. of
oil meal, and lib. bran, with as much dried maize or ensilage
as they liked to eat ; but the two cows which had ensilage for

H

98 Silos for Fodder Crops.

the first three weeks liad dried fodder for the next three
weeks, and vice versa. The quantities of milk and butter
resulting from the different foods were as follows :

Milk. Butter,

lb. oz. lb. oz.

Ensilage (^Zms meal) produced 1456 8 69 8^

Dried fodder ( p^Ms meal) produced ... 1322 15 53 31

Increased produce from ensilage 133 9 6 5

There was thus an increase from the ensilage of about 10
per cent, in the milk and 12 per cent, in the butter; and not
the least curious feature of the experiment was this — that,
although with both classes of fodder the cows were allowed as
much as they could eat up clean, the proportion of ensilage
eaten was 29 per cent, less than the dried fodder consumed.
This is a direct confirmation of M. Goffart's statement (quoted
on page 9), that where the fodder is deficient in quahty the
animals make up for it by excessive quantity, and that when
put upon ensilage, which has more nutritive power, they
diminish the consumption of their own accord.

In the returns made to the U.S. Department of Agriculture
from about a hundred farms on which silos have been con-
structed, there is a remarkable agreement of opinion as to the
advantages of ensilage, although, as might be expected, some
attach a higher value to it than others. It is not necessary,
however, to go over these returns seriatim, especially as they
relate almost wholly to maize ensilage. Suffice it to quote
from Commissioner Loring's report the following passage, in
which the opinions of the whole are summarised :

Ensilage has been fed to milch cows more generally than any other class
of stock, and no unfavourable results are recorded. There can be no
doubt its greatest Talue will always be found in this connection. There is
a marked increase in quantity and improvement in quality of milk and
butter after changing from dry feed to ensilage, corresponding with the
effect of a similar change to fresh pasture. A few seeming exceptions
are noted, whifch will probably find explanation in defects easily remedied
rather than such as are inherent.

Ensilage has been fed to all classes of farm stock, including swine and
poultry, with results almost uniformly favourable. Exceptions are noted

Feedinff Mxperiments. 99

in the statements of Messrs. Coe Bros, and the Hon. C. B. Henderson',
where it appears that horses were injuriously a/ffieeted. It should be
borne iu mind, in this connection, that ensilage is simply forage preserved
in a sUo, and may vary as much in quality as hay. The ensilage that is
best for a milch cow may be injurious to a horse, and that on which a
horse would thrive might render a poor return in the milk paU.

In France comparatively little kas been done in the way of
accurate experiments to determine the relative value of
ensilage and other feeding stufEs. An interesting letter from
M. Cottu is quoted in the Appendix; but M. GofEart, with all
the work he has done and the practical results he shows
in various ways, does not appear to have carried out any
comparative feeding experiments analogous to those reported
from America. He frequently speaks of the profitable use
of ensilage ; but statements as to the cost of growing maize
in France, and the growth of animals fed on it, will not afford
information of practical service to English readers. Here is
one of his remarks on the Subject :

It is for experience alone to determine the question of the feeding value
of maize. What I can affirm is, that with me, at Burtin, with the mode
of preparation which I carry out, maize, with the addition of one -tenth its
weight of oat straw, keeps my animals in perfect condition. I am aware
that things are not the same everywhere.

Maize ensilage is undoubtedly an excellent auxiliary in the fattening of
beasts ; it has the merit of exciting their appetite in the highest degree,
and causing them to eat in large quantities the palm-nut cake, which
would certainly be more or less distasteful to them if it were not mixed
with the maize which has so much attraction for them.

According to my experience fattening would be a very favourabte
means of utilising maize ensila,ge. The least favourable method would be
to consume it by young growing beasts. As concerns fattening, these
conclusions appear to me to be beyond doubt. It is thus that the maize
will be employed most profitably, because the attraction which it has for
beasts will lead them to consume at the same time certain very rich
matters, such as earth-nut and other cake, the taste of which is very
repugnant to the animals when given to them unmixed.

In England, with our small amount of experience, it is not
to be expected that there would be very much information of
carefully-conducted experiments with respect to comparative

H 2

100 Silos for Fodder Crops.

feeding values ; but of general statements, favourable in
oharacterj a good number of instances have been published in
the Field and elsewhere, some of -which are reprinted in the
Appendix. Thus Mr. A. Grant has made the following
remarks with respect to ensilage :

I thoroughly believe in it. It increased the yield of my cows last year,
and of course is very cheap food, and saves the cost of 'making' the hay,
the cost of saving the crop being merely the cutting and carting. It also
has this effect, that the cattle in winter eat a soft damp food instead of a
hard and dry one, and this must be an advantage to their digestive organs.
.... The quality of butter is very good. I tried three cows feeding on
crushed oats, linseed cake, and very good hay, and when placed on
ensilage, with a little crushed oats, they gave 26 per cent, more butter.

Mr. 0. E. Kenyon, in his " Experiences of a Tyro in Wales,"

Although no trial was made of the feeding value of ensilage in com-
parison with hay or other fodder, we were satisfied that it was a whole-
some and useful kind of food for cattle of any age. A lot of yearling
calves were particularly fond of it, and seemed to thrive well on the
preserved grass. Milk cows were found to require a little cotton cake,
bean meal, or other concentrated food in addition, to keep up the quality
of the milk and make rich cream. On the other hand, the butter had
more of the colour, if not flavour, of that from graas-fed cows, than was
the case before using ensilage. '

And Mr. Basdale's letters contain the following statements :

A test as to the production of milk and butter cannot at the present
time be easily ascertained, owing to the fact that all the cows calve early
in the ensuing spring, and therefore would naturally now be drying off.
Exact accounts are, however, being kept, with the result that, even under
the circumstances just stated, both mUk and butter have increased in
quantity during the short time the cows have been fed with ensilage;
while the quantity of milk, butter, and cream continues all that can be
desired. The quality of ensilage given to each cow per day is about
451b. weight, plus the ordinary rations of the usmal feeding meals or cake.
.... The butter and cream continue of the very best quality, while the
improvement in the general appearance of the cows is most decided.

But by far the most important evidence is that furnished
by Mr. Henry Woods, in his lecture before the Wayland Agri-
cultural Society, Norfolk, a portion of which is quoted in the

Quarts.

Degrees

68

.. 12

70

.. 13

71

.. 15

77

.. 16

82

.. 16

Feeding Experiments. 101

Appendix. The experiment was carried out on Lord Wal-
singham's home farm, where five cows were fed on a fixed
quantity of crushed oats and bran, with as much as they
could eat of coarse fodder, which consisted first of chaff
(composed of two-thirds barley straw and one-third hay) and
afterwards of gradually diminishing quantities of the same
kind of chaff mixed with gradually increasing quantities of
grass ensilage. From the table given by Mr. Woods it will
be seen that the amount of milk and cream obtained on
the last day of each course of feeding was as follows :

AH chaff (of hay and barley straw) yielded per day. ,
One-third ensilage and two-thirds chafE „
One-half ensilage and one-half chaff „

Two-thirds ensilage and one-third chaff „
Three-fourths ensilage and one-fonrth chaff „

This ensilage was made from grass of exceptionally coarse
and poor quality, yet as soon as it was given to the cows the
flow of milk increased, and there was a continued gradual
increase with the augmented proportions of ensilage allowed,
till at the end of one month's experiment the result differed
from that obtained at the beginning by 14 quarts of milk per
day, or an increase of more than 20 per cent. And on two
of the cows being deprived of the ensilage for a couple of
days, they each gave three quarts of toilk less per day. It is
even more noteworthy that the quality of the milk was also
greatly improved, as shown by the increased amount of
cream.

No comparative experiments in cattle-feeding, except for
dairy stock, have been carried out in England ; but M. Goffart,
Baron Corvisart, and others in France, have been enabled to
double or treble their number of beasts by means of ensilage ;
and similar reports come from America. Hence we find
records of an abundant supply of farmyard manure, and a
considerable increase in the produce of crops.

CHATTER X.'^SUMMARY OF PRACTICE.

[This cliapter is ooiy inteiwied to set forth briefly the course suggested
to be followed, ■without entering into the why and the wherefore.
Beferences are made, from time to time, to previous pages in which
reasons and authorities are given.]

The silo should be secured from any invasion of water,
wlietlier from above or below. (P. 56.) You need take no
trouble in trying to make it air-tight at the surface. (P. 81.)

If the silo is situated above ground, in a barn or under a
roof, there will be little difficulty in keeping out the water;
but if an excavation be made in the soil, precautions must be
taken against an influx from below. (P. 57.)

Where liable to infiltration of water, simple earthen pits
should be avoided (p. 23) ; and, at the foot of rising ground,
the pressure of subterranean water may even force an
opening through cemented floors, unless made of a good
thickness.

When silos are constructed wholly above ground, and not
inside barns or other buildings, it is desirable, if possible, to
give them a northern rather than a southern exposure, and to
avail oneself of any shade that is to be obtained. Warm
weather prejudicially affects the ensilage, and it tells most on
silos above ground, (P. 26.)

The walls of the silos are best made perfectly upright.
(P. 28.) If they have an outward slope, proper settlement is
obstructed ; and more weight is then required to force down
the mass at the sides, where compression is more needed.

Walls should be smooth, to facilitate settlement. (P. 21.)
When pits are dug in strong soils, where there is no fear
of flooding, the walls may nevertheless be smoothly plastered

Summary of Practice. 103

witli advantage, or lined witli planed boards, set up on end' —
wliicli is better than having the boards laid horizontally.

When the fodder is cut, it should be got into the silo as
soon as possible. (P. 65.) The longer it is allowed to lie
and wither in the field, the less likely it is to keep well.

Crops for the silo are best cut when young and succulent.
Green rye should be cut about the time when the head begins
to be formed, oats when in blossom or in the milky condition>
and clovers and grasses as soon as they come into flower.

Grasses, clovers, vetches, &c., need not be passed through
the chaff-cutter before being put into the pit, especially if they
are young. (P. 69.) But the stronger and more elastic the
stems of the plants the more weight will be requisite to
compress them. When the crops are allowed to stand till the
stems become old and woody, it may be preferable to pass
them through a chaffing machine, as they would then pack
well with less weight.

It is not necessary, with our ordinary fodder plants, to mix
straw, or other dry material to absorb the moisture. (P. 65.)
Indeed, such admixture would be likely to do more harm than
good, so far as regards the preservation of the ensilage.
(P. 66.)

If you have dry fodder that you wish to make more palatable
to the stock, a small quantity might, for that purpose, be
mixed with very succulent crops; but you must be careful
not to add too much, or you may endanger the condition of
the whole. (P. 67.) Pew of our crops would admit of the
addition of a tenth pa.rt of dry fodder.

Eain need not prevent the storage of crops in the silo.
(P. 68.) More damage is likely to arise from letting the
crops lie long on the ground than from pitting them in a
moist or even wet condition ; but, for all that, an excessive
quantity of water should be avoided.

Salt is not required for the purpose of preserving the
fodder ; but a moderate quantity may be useful to the stock.
(P. 74.)

The fodder, on being put into the silo, should be spread

104 Silos for Fodder Crops.

evenlj, to prevent the occurrence of Inmps in some places and
hollows in others ; and tlien it should be trodden down^
more especially alongside the walls. (P. 79.) Some farmers
turn horses or bullocks into large silos, to do the treading;
but they cannot get so near to the edges as men, who can do
good service by going round sideways with their heels
close to the walls. Elsewhere the trampling is of minor
importance.

Unless heavy weights are put on the mass after the silo is
filled, the previous trampling will have been of small avail.
It m.atters little how the pressure is put on, so that it is
sufllcient and continuous. It is even more wanted at the end
of a long period than it is at the beginning. (P. 88.)

With the best-formed silos and the smoothest walls the
weight should not be less than 1001b. to the square foot.
(P. 81.) With rougher appliances the weight may be
doubled or trebled with advantage. When earth is used it
should be piled on to the depth of 2ft. or more, and especial
care be given to the trampling down at the edges of the pit.

Between the weights and the siloed fodder there should be
a layer of straw — the dryer and harder the better (P. 79) ; or
a layer of pine-needles, gorse, heather, reeds, or some other
. substance that will not readily mat together, but will allow
the air to escape freely as the mass becomes more and more
compressed. (P. 80.)

Boards are usually laid upon the layer of straw, &c., before
the weights are put on. (P. 75.) They have a decided
advantage wherever lumps of stone, barrels of earth, or any
rough weighty matters are used. But where the weights
consist of matters that pack well together, as evenly-shaped
blocks of concrete or cut stone, bricks, square wooden boxes
containing clay, &c., the boards may be dispensed with.
(P. 63.) Sometimes loose earth is shovelled directly on to
the straw ; but it is liable to get mixed up with the fodder
when the pit is opened. Sand should never be used in this
way, as it runs into every crevice. (P. 73.)

The weights should, for the most part, be placed at the

Stimmary of Practice. 106

ends of the board, close to tte walls. If the fodder is -well
pressed down at the edges, the centre is pretty sure to be all
right. (P. 28.)

The boards need not be tongued or made to fit with great
accuracy. A few crevices are useful in permitting the escape
of air from below, which must be forced out by the weight
above if the fodder is to keep well ; and if the mass is well
compacted, and the weights are kept on, air is not likely to
get in afterwards.

When there are several silos, so that the workmen can be
transferred from one to another, it is best to fill the silo
slowly at intervals, extending over a week or ten days, a foot
or two being put day by day into each pit. (P. 71.) By
this means the fodder packs closely, and is so well settled
down by the completion of the filling, that nearly all the
space in the silo will be utilised.

If this course cannot conveniently be adopted, the silo may
be filled and the weights put on at once. After the lapse of
some weeks, when the mass has settled down, the weights
and boards may be taken off and the silo again filled to the
brim, after which it may be again covered and weighted.
(P. 73.)

The silo may be kept six or eight weeks, or as many
months, before being opened.

The ensilage should be cut out from a narrow end of the
pit. (P. 76.) The boards and weights should be removed
from only a small portion of the, surface, and a vertical
section made so as to cut out a slice of sufficient thickness for
the day's consumption.

The continuance of the pressure during the period of
cutting out is most important. If the weights be taken off in
advance, mischievous results may ensue. (P. 77.)

The more perfectly the ensilage has kept, the less fermenta-
tion will have taken place in the pit. Exposure to the air,
under such circumstances, is desirable for a few hours, in
order to set up alcoholic fermentation before giving the food
to the animals. (P. 90.)

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APPENDIX.

THE SILO OF THE VICOMTE DE CHBZELLES.

Tms silo — wMcli isj we believe, tlie largest single silo in
tlie world — has been the subject of articles in the Times
as well as other journals. It was first brought to the notice
of English readers by an article in The Field, accompanied by
a woodcut, here reproduced. Mr. H. Kains-Jackson has
returned to the subject on several occasions ; and from his
various articles in The Field we make the following selections,
giving the dates when they appeared, so that anyone may
know where to find the complete articles should he wish
to refer to them.

{The Field, Aug. 5, 1882.)

By the courtesy of M. le Vicomte de Chezelles, I am enabled to give the
following particulars as to his large and practical working of the System :
Under date, July 31, the Viscount writes me, from near Chaumont-en-
Vesin, Oise, that harvest work is in fuU swing on his estate, and so he has
time to send only an account of the principal features of his mode of
ensilage. A large photograph accompanies the letter, and the illustration
given is on a reduced scale, but suiEciently indicates the construction of
the silo. M. de Chezelles writes :

" I cut aU sorts of forage with one of Wood's mowers, and five men
follow the machine to load the carts, which at once convey the crop to the
silo, where a powerful chaff-cutter cuts up the forage as fast as three men
can feed it, whilst two other men unload the carts. The above ten men
work together, being paid by the job, their wages being commonly about
8s. per hectare, the pay varying according to the nature of the crop.

" I so arraage the number of carts and horses, reckoning the distances
of the fields from the silo, that there may be a continuous supply furnished
to the chaff-cutter, which should work on without interruption, as by this
means the ensilage is made regularly and economically in a very few days.
As a matter of fact, in this way I have out, carried, and formed into
ensilage the produce of about 170 acres of trifolium, sainfoin, lucerne,
iaieea, and artificial grasses.

108 Appendix.

" For the silo two men are -wanted to level and stow the cut forage as it
falls from the chaff-cutter. Twice a day a couple of bullocks or horses
are driven over the ensilage, so that it may be trodden down evenly. This
work is better done by animals than by men. An occasional sprinkle of
salt assists fermentation, and gives a savour that animals appreciate.

" My silo is 72 yards long by 6| yards wide, and 4| yards high. It is
desirable to raise the layers of forage a yard above the top level of the
sUo, and this quantity above the surface is inclosed with boarding. By
shrinkage and settlement the ensilage soon sinks to the pit level. Directly
the silo is full, I at once have it covered as soon as possible with a bed
of earth about a foot thick, and the forage is then left for some three
months, to become ripe for feeding of stock. It is imperative that rain
and air should be excluded.

" For two years I have now successfully fed all my faxm animals, con-
sisting of twenty horses, thirty-six bullocks, one hundred and twenty
milch cows, ten hundred to twelve hundred sheep and lambs, with this
ensilage, mixed with straw and roots ; in the feeding of horses I mix
carrots or potatoes with the forage. All the stock have been kept in
thriving condition — indeed, they have been wonderfully well whilst fed on
this green food stored in pits."

One of the first impressions in reading the above letter was that the
scale — ^nearly 200 acres of crops being saved — brings the subject at once
under practical agriculture ; and next that horses can be fed with as much
advantage as cows upon ensilage. Hitherto I had regarded the process as
more interesting to dairymen than to ordinary farmers. Lastly, in point
of expense, reckoned lOd to Is. dd. per ton for reaping, carrying, and
cutting (the chaff-cutter should be driven by. a steam engine of four to six
h.p.), makes the system the most economical of any.

{TU Field, Nov. 4, 1882.)

I have just visited probably the largest sUo in Europe— that of the
Viscount Arthur de ChezeUes, of Chteau BouUeaume, Ldancourt St.
Pierre, Oise, France. It is really a fine yet most economical structure — an
excellent barn and perfect silo ; a great oblong shed, roofed with tHes,
72 yards long, 6| yards wide, 4| yards high from the ground level — an
immense cover for the cereal crops of a large farm. The floor is sunk
some 12ft., and is paved and drained. The side walls and one end wall
are lined with rough stones set in mortar, whilst the front is partly walled
up, and a wide door allows the entrance of trucks on rails to come and be
filled. This great basement suggested comparison with the hold of a big
ship ; and in it at present is stowed away the produce of 170 acres of
various sorts of forage— cut, carried, and made into green chaff last July —
which fills the whole space, excepting where a remnant of last year's
ensilage occupies some 16ft. at one end.

The forage was cut by English mowing machines; five men followed

Vicomte de Chezelles' Silo. 109

them and loaded into carts, which delivered the green stuff at the side of
the sUo, upon the carriers of a powerful " Albaret " chaff -cutting machine,
two men unloading and three men feeding ; so that ten men were employed,
and these were paid 8s. to 16s. per hectare (2J acres), according as the
crops were light or heavy. The whole business was so arranged in
relays that the work went on uninterruptedly, and the chaff-cutter, driven
by 7 h.p. engine, poured out a green stream of food that, like water, soon
became level through being trimmed and stowed by a couple of workmen.
Twice a day buUocks (here much used for farm work) walked over the
mass and gave it compactness. A little salt was occasionally sprinkled
on the layers, more to give the fodder an appetising flavour than for any
other purpose. When, in a few days, the sUo was filled — swallowing up
all and whatever the farm could give it — the forage was covered up,
without any layer of straw or boards, by a strata of the light sandy soil,
some foot and a half thick. Naturally the mass subsided under the
weight of earth, and became nicely compressed, but scarcely more than is
hay in a large stack.

At this period, to all intents and purposes, the superstructure became
and looked simply a great shed with a nice even sandy floor ; just the plaec
to invite the reception of the cereal crops which — wheat, oats, and some
barley — were ripening in the fields. In a short time, from floor to the
angles of the roof, the building was fiUed ; and, in evidence of the present
season's good com crop in France, several grain ricks had also to be
built.

I fancy there are not three farmers in England who would have had as
much faith as had the proprietor of this estate, when he confided the
produce of 170 acres of land to this great pit in such conditions ; but two
years' previous experiments gave confidence, and a large and valuable bulk
of property was left in the fuU expectation that for this coming winter a
wholesome and nutritious store of animal food would be available for the
20 horses, 36 bullocks, 120 milch cows, and 1200 sheep that constitute the
live stock of the farm at Chateau BouUeaume. That such expectation was
fairly fulfilled I went to see for myself (as I promised I would in The
Field) at the opening of the silo on the 12th of October.

Previous to my arrival at Liancourt St. Pierre, I had received a letter
from M. Georges, the manager of the farm, to say that, owing to the
abundance of green keep still in the fields, the opening of the sUo would be
postponed untU November. However, upon the day I had come to see the
actual opening, the sUo, by the courtesy of the Vicomte, was opened, and
on the 12th of October, 1882, I had for the first time a block of new
ensilage in my hands. I took it at once to a yoke of Charolaise oxen that
happened to be within a short distance, looking, with the great cart loaded
with beetroot pulp, a picture from out the canvas of Rosa Bonheur. These
bullocks took the ensilage, eating it with relish, as a horse takes a mouthful
of hay from the hands. All doubt as to the food being freely taken was
therefore at an end. To reach the ensilage, a load or two of the super-

110 Appendix.

imposed corn had to be removed ; next the stratum of earth was shoyelled
aside, and the brpwn-black mass of ensUage below was laid bare. "Without
the loss of a minute I jumped down into the pit, thrust my hands between
the substance with some difficulty, from its compressed state, and found
the temperature decidedly high, certainly of blood heat, whilst a smeU
rather agreeable than otherwise, such as comes from breweries— sweet,
alcoholic, and condimental — made itself observed. The heat gave no
apprehension, and was not considered objectionable, previous years'
experiments proving such condition was unattended by danger. Without
iurther delay, I took, as a geologist takes a fossil specimen from a freshly
cut rock-section, three samples of the new ensilage, and a fourth sample of
the old (1881) stock, and placed them in separate tin cases, which were
only closed with string, since I feared to have them soldered down on
account of possible difficulties with the Custom House authorities. The
work so far was complete, and the opening of the sUo that Thursday
afternoon was a success ; the food stored there was good provender for the
coming winter. The instance, in this present case, is all the more notable,
because, whilst different experimentalists have advocated various plans as to
method of covering, necessary weight, time and manner of opening, and
divers details, here there was an absence of all niceties ; here was a working
example that aU practical farmers could easily follow. Simplicity, efficiency,
and economy were the characteristics of the silo -work at Chateau
Boulleaumft

I next put forward a supposed difficulty-^namely : that the bulk of
ensUage, from which a portion was cut away, must on each occasion be
protected afresh, and such portion taken away must be consumed iu
twenty-four hours, or it would become worthless. Nothing of the sort
was to be feared, as I was told, from the experience of last season. The
ensUage is simply cut away as wanted, just as a few trusses of hay would
be cut from an ordinary stack. If this be a fact [and to-day, Nov. 1, after
a lapse of eighteen days, one of the samples on view in the Corn Exchange,
Mark-lane, under the clock, on Mr. Gripper's stand, retains sweetness and
savour, as many visitors attested], there appears a reasonable probability
that in future, cubes of ensilage, instead of being regarded as so much
perishable green food, may become a marketable' commodity of extensive
use for feeding dairy and other cattle, and not, as hitherto, be limited to
consumption on the farms where it is produced. Practice has shown the
way, and below will be seen what science, through chemical analysis, has
to add. An analysis has been made at last, and why it was not made
before was told the readers of The Field — our Custom House sentinels
stopped and challenged the new visitor I had sent to England and thought
he was " tobacco " in disguise !

Invicta.

Vicomte de Chezelles' Ensilage. Ill

Analysis of Vicomte de Chezelles' Ensilage.

The following tabular statement represents the percentage composition of
the samples of fodder, consisting of trefoil, lucerne, tares, and grass, cured
on the ensilage systeni by the Vicomte de Chezelles.

Volatile Matter :
Water 50-30 per cent.

Free acetic aoid

1-20

Alcoliol

1-80

Solid Matter :

9-12

ATnTnnm'a. , j , ,,

006

Fatty matter

2-07

Soluble carbo-hydrates :
Sugar (maltose)

2-94
. 2-23
. 10-32

Starcb and digestible cellulose

Peotons substances (gum,

mucilage, &c.) . .

15-49

Insoluble carbo-hydrates (fibre) 14-35 „

Mineral matter (ash) 5-61 ,,

* Containing nitrogen, 1-44 per cent.

The following represents the composition of the substance (when dry)

contrasted with two samples of dry lucerne analysed by Dr. Von Wolff, of

the Hohenheim Imperial Experimental Station, Germany. The first

sample was dried with care on a barn floor ; the other (a portion from the

same crop) was dried in the field in the ordinary way. During the first

two 'of the four days to which the latter sample was exposed to the

atmosphere, it became subjected to the action of a slight shower of rain

and to a thunderstorm :

i?«„!i„™„ Carefully-dried Field-dried

Jinsuage. Lucerne. Lucerne.

Albumenoids 18-35 17-00 14-94

Fibre 28-87 31-81 33-90

Fat, Soluble Carbo-hydrates, I gg ^g.g^

and Alcohol (if any) )

Ash 11-29 7-39 6-94

The above figures so clearly show the high feeding value of this sample
of ensilage, that they may be allowed to speak for themselves. I wish
only to point out that, contrary to generally accepted opinion, my experi-
ments led me to believe that the sugar formed by the fermentation of
ensilage is not " grape sugar " or " glucose,'' but sugar of malt, or
"maltose." The acetic acid, although of course indicative of the loss of
nutritious feeding material, is probably not. without value as a condiment.
Its amount in the above sample is much less than in the specimen of highly

112 Appendix.

fermented hay, the analysis of which was given in my " Chemical Investi-
gation of Hays " {The Field, Oct. 14, 1882).

F. WooDLAOT) Toms, F.C.S.
7, Busby-place, Camden-road, London, Nov. 2, 1882.

[A careful botanical examination of the above sample of ensilage after-
wards showed that, although various crops, as stated in page 107, were
stored in the sUo, they were by no means equally distributed, and that the
sample analysed consisted mainly of clover (TrifoUum pratense), with a
small admixture of barley and some of the common grasses, such as
Alopecurus pratensis, Agrostis albus, Bromus moUis, &c., all cut up into
chaff before being put into the pit.]

Statement of Cost of Vicomte de Chezelles' Silo.
{The Field, Feb. 17, 1883.)
I give below the detailed cost of the silo at Chateau Boulleaume, Oise,
France, the particulars and figures being copied from a statement affixed
in the JParis Show at the Paris Exhibition of Ensilage, made by Vicomte
Arthur de Chezelles, and appended to drawings and photographs :

Silo of 1475 tons capacity, suitable for containing the produce of
250 aorea of forage, costing 2fr. 70o. for each ton, or 3989fr. 48o.,

say sterling .£160

Fr. ct.
Excavating and carting earth (1368'80 metres), at 65o. ... 889 72

Concrete for foundations and floor 86 40

Masons' work, 4fr. the metre — 435"56 metres 1742 24

Cartage .of stones (dug out from the estate), Hme, and

sand, 2fr. the metre 871 12

Wood around the pit, 5 steres, at 60fr 300

Fixings of iron, and Roman cement 100

rr.3989 48^160

Babn STTPEKSTBtrCTUBE, to shelter about 20,000 sheaves :

Pr. ot.

Elm posts, 11865, at 86fr. the cubic metre 1008 52

Woodwork o£ Norwegian pine ' 2050 43

Carpenter's labour 750

Bolts and nails 400

Blacksmith's work 180 75

Tiles and laths 1629

Laying tUes..! 235

6253 70
Total cost Fr. 10,243 18 say .£410

Estimate for a sUo that would hold the produce of 126 acres, and with-
out superstructure, 80Z.

Vicomte de Ghezelles' Silo.

113

Specification foe Building a Chezelles' Silo.

In the specification of tlie " Chezelles Shed and Silo," the plan is simply
reduced in size from the large one previously given, in order to make it
suitable to most English farmers. As wUl be readily seen, the eaves could
easily be extended, and the sides inclosed, so as to form a roomy stable
or dairy and cow shed at very small cost. This buUding commends itself
as economical and adaptable to most farm purposes.

Specification of Woeks required to be done in the erection of a grain
shed and of a sUo for storage of grass, clover, and other green forage.

Excavator. — Excavate to a depth of 9ft. and cart away the soil excavated
to such place as shall be directed. The earth in the foundation is to be
well rammed down, so as to form a solid level flooring, in a natural bed,
and not made up of loose earth. Sand, if found, is to be allowed for by
the contractor.

Chezelles' Silo and Grain Shed.

Bricklayer, Ice. — Build in Flemish bond the walls and piers, as shown,
of best hard well burnt grey stocks, laid in good cement composed of one
part of approved cement and three of clean sharp sand, with footings com-
posed of four courses of brickwork. Lay the bottom of the pit with
concrete 1ft. in depth, with a layer of asphalte lin. in thickness on top.
Form a drain in the asphalte, and concrete through the centre of the pit
the entire length, with a fall from either side of the walls, and a fall of 6in.
from the centre towards each end. Provide and lay a damp course,

I

114 Appendix.

consisting of two courses of unbroJien slates, laid, breaking join in cement
above footings.

Carpenter and Joiner. — ^Timbers are to be supplied and fixed of the
following scantlings, well seasoned, free from large or dead knots, decay
and all other imperfections : Tie beam Sin. by 2in. ; king post, 6in. by 4in. ;
common rafter. Sin. by l|in. ; stmts, 4in. by 2in. ; ridge plate, Sin. by
2Jin. ; purlins, 4in. by 4in. ; principal rafters, 5in. by Sin. Uprights
(posts), Sin. by 6in., are to be placed at distances of 8ft. apart, and to be
tenoned into wall-plate as shown. An oak wall-plate to be provided and
fixed, size Sin. by Sin., to run entire length of wall.

Sffiter.— Slate the whole roof, as shown, with sound Bangor Countess
slating, on fir laths, and fixed with galvanised nails. Provide and fix a
slate ridge.

Founder and Smith. — Provide and fix a cast iron ogee eaves gutter on
each side of building, with a fall towards two cast-iron rain- water pipes at
either end, as shown. Provide iron ties where shown.

General Remarks.— Th.6 whole of the work is to be carried out and
finished completely from the time that it is commenced, without stoppage
(through the fault of the contractor), and in case anything may have been
omitted in this specification, that may or may not be shown in the drawing
that is absolutely necessary for the stability of the erection, the same shall
be executed by the contractor on written authority being givefli him.

Invicta.

ENSILAGE OF CLOVER IN WET SEASONS.

{Journal d" Agriculture Pratique, May, 1878.)

Many agriculturists, having a larger quantity of Trifolium incarnatum than
they can make use of in a green state, and, being unable to convert it into
dry fodder in this continuously wet weather, ask me if it is too late now
(end of May) to put into the silo the surplus clover, which has scarcely
done flowering.

The best time to obtain good ensUage from Trifolium incarnatum is to
cut it when it is in full bloom, as the plant is then tender. Such has been
done in my ensilage at Cer^ay this year. I sowed more Trifolium incar-
natum than my beasts could consume in the last three weeks of May ;
about the 15th of May we began to cut it, and we stored it in a sUo made
in a closed barn. It was filled in to the height of about 10ft., then
covered with a layer of straw about 20ui. in thickness, on which was
placed 6in. .or Sin. of earth, beaten down, and on this was piled a quantity
of straw in order to supply the required weight. About the middle of
July I hope we may begin to consume it, as we did last year.

It is a great thing to be able to store in the silo in spring a supply of
fodder against the fearful season of drought which at times parches us up
in Sologne, and especially when this early forage is removed from the

Clover in Wet Seasons. 115

ground with little trouble and expense, and replaced by other crops, as
maize, miUet, cattle cabbage, or roots. The feeding of green crops is
diflacult on dry soils where we c^n get fodders in spring and autumn, but
little, if anything, that can be cut in the height of summer. Such was my
position in Sologne, and I long despaired of being able to get over the
difficulty ; but the ensilage of Trifolium incarnatum has helped me out of
my trouble.

In other parts green rye is highly spoken of. It is an excellent green
crop, which, with abundance of manure, especially artificial manures, gives
immense produce. I have tried rye as recommended, chopping it up
small at the time of pitting ; but the beasts much preferred Trifolium
incarnatum, which, thanks to a spriog dressing of superphosphate, came
almost as early as the rye. I therefore hold to the clover, but without
ceasing to recommend rye or any other fodder which may be preferable
imder different circumstances. Besides, it is well to have several strings
to your bow ; and rye has this advantage, that it comes at a time when,
being chopped up with hay or straw, it facilitates the transition from dry
winter diet to the succulent food of spring.

Rain is of little importance when Trifolium iacarnatum is being stored
I have put cart-loads into the sUo dripping with water, and the fermenta-
tion has been none the less perfect.

It is needless to say that, as the ensilage of Trifolium incarnatum has
nothing to fear from underground humidity in winter in impermeable silos,
it becomes possible to practise it in silos dug out of sound earth. These
are the sUos generally preferred by small farmers, who do not care to have
them built of masonry. As I have often said, such sUos would tend to
make ensilage popular on farms where, for whatever reason, they are
unwilling to construct buildings.

At Cercjay the preference is in favour of buildings, but under these
circumstances. They are bams which, being imoccupied from April to
August, can be filled with provender that is removed in turn and affords
room for the storage of grain crops ; and later on, in October, when the
cereals are thrashed, these barns become sUos again. The buildings are
therefore apphed to three successive uses, being employed as silos for the
maize in autumn, as silos for the trifolium in spring, and as bams for the
cereal crops in summer. The building is, in fact, prevented from lying
fallow ; and such fallows are not the least in importance where, as in com-
mencing an undertaking, one has to consider whether it is better to lock up
money in bricks and mortar or to devote it to reproductive improvements,
resulting in an increase of the crops. E. Lecouteux.

{Journal d' Agriculture Pratique, April, 1881.)
The bad weather we had in the spring of 1880, at the time for cutting
ovir artificial grass crops, seemed to afford a good opportunity for making
an experiment in the ensilage of fodder on a large scale, and an abundant

I 2

116 Appendix.

crop of mixed clover was put into a silo about 200ft. in length, 20ft. in
width, and 13ft. in depth. The work was carried on in all kinds of
weather, and the clover, when put into the pit, was often dripping with
water. We covered the whole with a quantity of straw which we had at
hand, and which served as a covering at the same time that it afforded the
pressure indispensable to the good preservation of the fodder.

The whole remained in this state until the 10th of March, 1881, when
we made the first opening into the silo. We found the clover in a per-
fect state of preservation, giving off its alcoholic odour ; and all the
animals to which it was offered rushed at it, from the horses down to the
sheep. The horses on the farm eat it chopped up, as also do the cattle
and sheep, for the fattening of which it is mixed with pulp and cake ; but
the store cattle eat it in the rack just as it comes out of the pit. This
clover may be cut up for' several days ^ it does not heat in the mass,
although retaining all its succulence.

The effect of this food has been as beneficial to the cows as to the rest
of the stock. The milk has become more creamy from day to day ; and
the butter, instead of being pale, has assumed the yeUow tint of grass-fed
butter. In short, the further we go on the more we are convinced of the
excellence of this process of preservation, by which flowers and leaves (so
liable to be lost during conversion into hay) are retained by the plant,
together with all its nutritive qualities and appetising flavour.

Vicomte R. de Chezelles.

CLOVER STORED IN EARTHEN PITS.

(Journal de V Agriculture, Sept., 1876.)

At the beginning of June, having a large quantity of Trifohum incar-
natum which it was impossible for our beasts to consume in a green state,
we cut the surplus, and, without allowing it to wither in the sun, we put
it into some imwalled earthen pits in which beetroot pulp is stored during
the winter. After having well trampled down the fodder in the pit, we
heaped on from l|ft. to 2ft. of earth, sloping it so as to let the water run
off. After a few days, a settlement having taken place, we threw on some
more earth to close up all cracks through which air might enter. About
ten or twelve weeks afterwards, when we knew not what to give the
beasts, as the drought had kept back our maize, we decided to open the
sUo.

We were glad to find that our experiment had fuUy succeeded. A
particular odour indicated some amount of fermentation, such as takes
place in beetroot pulp^ and the fodder came out nice and green, with its
flowers beautifully red — ^in a word, just as it had been put into the silo.
An insignificant portion of the clover which had come into immediate
contact with the surrounding earth had become dark brown, and was

Clover in JEarthen Fits. 117

not given to the beasts. The fodder in the interior, on being offered
to the cattle, was consumed with avidity, and has rendered us a great
service of late.

Here, then, is an important resource for the agriculturist, who very
often, during the great heats of summer, knows not how to feed the cattle
in his stalls. It is an excellent means of utilising forage of divers kinds
when, as in the past summer, there axe abundant crops which come into
flower at almost the same time. Louis Daeblat,

Propri^taire-Agriculteiir a Chevilly (Loiret).

ENSILAGE OF ROOTS.

M. Lecouteux, editor of the Journal d^ Agriculture Pratique, says, with
respect to the ensilage of beetroot or mangold : " It is requisite to cut up
your roots in some fashion before being consumed by the stock. If kept whole
in pits they are liable to sprout, especially if the winter be mild ; and, besides,
the necessary quantity will have to be cut up day by day. It is preferable
to have them all sliced up in the first instance, and mixed with some straw
chaff, and then put into the silo, whence you can take out daily the
quantity required for consumption. You will thus have the double
advantage of securing better preservation of the crop, and avoiding the
inconvenience of setting men and teams to work day after day."

ENSILAGE WITHOUT A SILO.

[The following letter is sent by Mr. H. Kains-Jackson, who was one of
the party of agriculturists that paid a visit to HoUand in April 1882.
The wooden roof alluded to was similar to that represented in the woodcut
overleaf, except that the Dutch bam is here shown with a haystack
partially cut instead of being full of grass. As regards the mouldiness,
it it is a foot deep all over, the proportion of damaged fodder would be
considerable ; but the larger the stack, the smaller would be the proportion
of damage. Supposing a stack to be 20ft. square and 20ft. high, a foot
of mouldiness all over would represent about one-fourth of the whole
mass ; whereas, in a stack of the same height, but 40ft. square, the mouldy
portion would be reduced to one-eighth ; and so on.]

The experiment successfully made in HoUand of preserving grass in a
bUo was described last spring in The Field, after the return of the Norfolk
farmers from their visit. Mr. A. HoUand-Hibbert, of Munden, Watford, a
friend of Sir FoweU Buxton and Mr. Samuel Hoare, who accompanied the
party, now writes to me the following most interesting fact :

" Our mutual friend, Mr. CrommeUn, jun. (a young Dutch gentleman
studying agriculture on Mr. Van der Breggen's prize farm) was here

118

Appendix.

yesterday, and tells me the farmer is making the whole of his grass into
ensUage, and without a silo, as it is found a sUo is unnecessary.

" The new process is to drive a double line of poles into the ground, to
carry a flat sliding wooden roof, which is raised by means of pulleys. The
grass is brought and stacked, whilst four horses are unceasingly walked
over the mass as it is being built, and some salt is sprinkled over each fresh
supply of grass. As the stack rises in height, it is necessary to lower down

and hoist up, morning and evening, the horses, which is done by slings
and simple pulley gear, rigged near the stack. Each night the boarded
roof is lowered on to the trodden grass, and afterwards weighted. When
the required height has been reached, the stack is coniplete under its
weighted wooden roof, which is found to compress the mass satisfactorily.

" In result, when the stack is cut, the bulk is found to be good ensilage,
except the portion of the sides, which, from exposure to the air, are mouldy
and damaged to the extent of about a foot. Even this portion, however, is
not so much spoiled but that the heifers and pigs on the farm can eat it
with much relish.

" Of the whole process of ensUage, and its value for stock, Mr. Crom-
melin speaks very highly, after having seen it used on a large scale."

In comment on the above, the reader may remember that some weeks
ago I stated I was about to experiment on a ton of suitable green stuff,
whenever the season produced it, by passing it through a powerful press,
and making it into bvmdles of about a hundredweight. The above letter
is an encouragement for the experiment to be made as soon as opportunity
allows. Invicta.

Mr. S. Wood's Lecture. 119

ENSILAGE ON LOED WALSINGHAM'S MERTON

ESTATE.
(From TU Field of Feb. 10, 1873.)

In tlie Wayland Hall, Watton, Norfolk, on Monday last,
Mr. Henry Woods, of Merton, delivered a lecture on
" Ensilage : its Origin, History, and Practice,"* to a very large
assemblage of landowners and tenant farmers. The paper
being an exceedingly long one, and preceded or followed by
speecbes by tbe chairman (Sir R. J. Buxton, Bart., M.P.),
Lord Walsingbam, and several other gentlemen, it is
impossible for us to give a full account of the proceedings,
and we- therefore confine our report to a portion of the lecture
which treats of the experiments carried on on Lord Walsing-
ham's estate at Merton. After speaking of the origin and
history of the process, and what had been done in other
countries, and in various parts of England, Mr. Woods related

what had occurred within his own experience :

•
With a sagacious foresight, which I should have more promptly and
readily recognised, Lord Walsingham, upwards of two years ago, expressed
his confidence that this new method of preserving our green forage crops
was both sound in theory and practicable. He desired that it should be
fuUy investigated, and believed, if a series of trials were entered upon with
skill and care, results might be reached that would be of great service to
the agriculturist, pointing out to him one way at least of being less at the
mercy of such crippling seasons as those experienced in the last seven or
eight years. The thing, however, appeared to me as one of those charming
"fads " which some good-intentioned landowners, in singleness of heart,
take up ; seldom with other result than the expenditure of large sums of
money, which is worse than useless, because it stiU further disappoints,
disheartens, and discourages them. But Lord Walsingham was not to be
influenced against his own judgment, or turned away from the purpose
which he contemplated, by any argument that I advanced. Appreciating

* This lecture has since been publiehed with additions, and plans of the
buildings, by Messrs. Stevenson and Co., Market Place, Norwich.

120 Appendix.

keenly the strange and staxtling vicissitudes through which British agri-
culture has passed in these latter years, feeling how unreasonable it would
be to expect poor heart-sick, half -ruined farmers to incur the risk of " fancy
experiments " on their own- account — his lordship, whose hand readily
responds to any generous impulse, embarked upon a venture which no one
rejoibes more than myself has been, so contrary to my expectations, a
grand success.

In the month of July, 1881, we had a small silo constructed on the
groimd floor of a granary. Its internal measurements were 8ft. 4in. long,
4ft. wide, 4ft. 4ui. deep. In August we made our first experiment, which
was a sharp and trying one. I had read that chaff made from grass in a
damp state could be put into silos with the certainty of its becoming good
ensilage, and this assertion I decidedly tested. The chaff with which I
experimented was made in equal parts from second-crop red clover and
rank-grown succulent grass, cut from a pasture which had been heavily
folded with cake-fed sheep. The grass and clover were both cut and carted
in a drizzling rain. The chaff when made was at once put into the silo.
It was salted at the rate of lib. of common field salt to Icwt. of grass chaff,
and was trodden down as firmly as possible. A layer of salt, in thickness
about an inch, was placed on the top of the mass. It was cohered with
two wood shutters, upon which we spread a layer of bran, 9in. in depth.
The whole was weighted with large stones, weighing together about three-
quarters of a ton. After the lapse of about three months we opened our
little sUo. We found some of the contents to be useless. The upper
portions of the ensilage, to the extent of a third of a foot, were in a state
of decomposition, and unfit for feeding purposes. Decomposition was also
at w:ork at the bottom of the silo. Its extent was some four or five inches.
But brarond these upper and lower layers, although so wet that water could
be squeezed out of it very easily, the chaff was quite green and fresh, and
had a strong aromatic and acid-like smell. At the outset the cows when
offered the food did not take kindly to it ; but in the course of two or
three days they manifested a fondness for it, and ate it freely. Our success,
however, was only partial, though the result of the trial was by no means
unsatisfactory, and caused me to waver in my unbelief. Other experi-
ments, on a much larger scale and somewhat different plan, were arranged..
We naturally determined to profit by the lessons of our first trial. We
had learnt that it is not advisable to cut and cart grass for ensilage in so
wet a state as we had done ours ; and further, that we should not put a
layer of salt on the top of the mass.

We determined to convert one bay of a clay-bmlt barn, at Merton, into
sUos. This is how we did it. Across the bay front we put up a 14in.
brick wall to within 3ft. lOin. of the tie beam, and two division walls of
the same description, which gave us three sUos, each 14ft. 4in. in length,
6ft. Sin. in width, and 9ft. Sin. in depth ; the cubic space being sufficient
for at least fourteen or fifteen tons of ensUage ; but there is no reason why
two feet more brickwork should not be added to the height of the walls, so

Lord TFalsing ham's Experiments. 121

as to make room for three tons additional, or seventeen or eighteen tons in
each silo. The barn floor was laid with asphalte some years ago, and
therefore the silos required no new bottom. We covered the walls
with cement plaster, composed of Portland cement and well- washed road
silt, in the proportion of three of cement to one of silt. This coating,
which was about half an inch in thickness, answered well in every respect,
and showed, I think, that even clay-buUt barns are easily convertible into
good sUos. I ought to state that to prevent the brickwork being dis-
placed in the filling process, a 2|in. plank, 14in. wide, was properly
secured to the waU tops, and to facilitate the emptying of the sUos a
well-made IJin. boarded door, protected by a coating of hot tar and pitch,
was inserted in one corner of the front wall of each silo. The frames of
the doors were set on the inside, so that the doors opened inwards to the
partition walls, and the apertures were hermetically sealed by means of
4in. brickwork on the front sides. The total cost of these three sUos did
not exceed 30Z.

It was my serious intention that the experiments we made should not
err on the side of leniency. With this object I used coarse common grass
for the test. (Referred to in the Analysis as No. 1.) Two of the silos I
directed to be filled with grass taken from an oak wood, known as Merton
Wood. For some years I was in the habit of giving the grass to any
respectable person who Uked to cut it for litter. During the past few
years no one has cared to have it. , They have said, " It is such poor stuff,
if it once gets wet after being cut there is little chance of getting it dry
again ; it is then useless even as litter." You may therefore conclude that
if the ensilage system, when applied to grass of this coarse and common
character, has been at all successful, much greater things are to be gained
from a finer and better sort of material. The ensilage in the third sUo, I
may add, was from grass grown in a rough meadow. (Referred to in the
Analysis as No. 2.)

The silos were filled uninterruptedly, in the course of three or four days,
■early last July. Although the weather was dull and sunless, th,ere was no
rain. The grass was loaded on to waggons as it was cut, and conveyed
direct to the chaff-cutter. Amongst each cwt. of chaff 21b. of common
field salt was distributed. Let me here say, once for all, that a great deal
depends upon the treading and ramming process. The more effectually
this is done the better will be the ensilage. When the silos were quite
filled, the chaff having been as well-trodden and rammed down as possible,
the contents were covered with wood shutters, and over these we spread a
bed of coarse bran, about eight inches deep. For weights we used a lot of
clean flint stones, in wicker skeps, which cost a shilling apiece, and which
wiU last for years before requiring to be renewed. The pressure, which
we carefully distributed over the whole surface, was little more than a ton
and a half in each sUo, which contained, as I have before stated, about
fourteen or fifteen tons of cut grass. Three weeks after the filling of the
sUos the ensilage had shrunk to about a third of its original depth. We

122 Appendix.

tBen removed the weighted baskets and bran covering, again filled the silos
to the top, and replaced the boards, bran, and skep-weights. Little labour
and no difficulty attended this operation. The skeps were lifted on to the
partition walls, while the bran was put temporarily into sacks. An accurate
and detailed account of all the expenses incurred for the filling was kept
by the farm bailiff. The amount did not exceed 8s. 6d. per ton, or 12s. 9d.
per acre, the' crop averaging about one and a half tons per acre. There
was but slight heat, and no mouldiness visible when the shutters were
removed to refill the silos ; and it is also a fact worthy of notice that in the
ensUage now used from them there is nothing to indicate where the later
filling began. With regard to the cost of making ensilage of grass, as
compared with that for the same weight of hay, we had no actual data to
guide us to a definite conclusion. But I was desirous of getting some
reliable practical estimate, and through the kindness of Mr. W. Biddell,
M.P., of Lavenham HaU, Suffolk, and Mr. T. Gayford, of Wretham,
Norfolk, gentlemen of great experience and ability as valuers, I have
received particulars which enable me to state that in an average season the
cost of making one and a half tons of grass into hay, stacking, and after-
wards cutting into chaff, is from 25s. to 26s. per acre. From this it will be
seen that our ensilage was produced at a saving of 50 per cent, on the cost
of ordinary haymaking and chaff cutting.

Five months elapsed (Dec. 11) before we opened No. 1 sUo. On
removing the covering the thermometer registered 61°. This temperature
obtained to a depth of about two feet, when there w4s a considerable fall,
and still lower down it was quite cold. We fetched the ensUage over the
top, imtil we had cut down a section sufficiently large to admit of the
sealed door being opened; after which it was carried out through the
doorway in the usual manner. Now, as to the quality of the ensilage.
As you have seen, the grass we packed was very inferior to that used for
the small Trial Silo in 1881-82. Yet there was such a marked superiority
in the quality as to strike all of us with surprise. This improvement I
attribute to three causes, viz. — not having cut or carted the grass in a wet
state ; using about 21b. of salt instead of lib. to each cwt. of grass ; not
putting a layer of salt beneath the shutters before closing the sUos. This
year the ensilage is nicely moist ; but no water can be squeezed from it,
and it is quite free from mould. When first given them, the horses, cows,
and young stock ate it readily, and have since continued to do so. The
horses, to which we give one-third ensilage to two-thirds chaff, are doing
remarkably well. This is especially true of one horse, a notoriously bad
feeder, very squeamish as to its food. The team-man tried it with
ensilage mixed with straw chaff, and now the "bad-doing brute," as the
man described it when attention was called some time since to its low
condition, feeds well, and is visibly improving. It should b6 understood,
by the way, that the horses have the same allowance of corn now that
they had before mixing ensilage with their chaff ; but there is not one on
the farm fed with it that does not eat it with relish.

Lord Walsingham' s Experiments. 123

Value of Ensilage for Dairy Cows.

In the early part of last year, when we gave ensilage to our cows, the
dairymaid was so forcibly struck by the improvement in the colour of the
butter, that early in November she asked me to allow one of the silos to
be opened, in order that the cows might be fed with some of the ensilage
food, so as to be sure of butter of superior quality and colour during the
expected visit of their Royal Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Wales
to Lord and Lady Walsingham. In case of any failure, however, I
hesitated~to grant the request, and finally decided that no ensilage should
be introduced into the dairy until after the royal visitors' stay had termi-
nated. But, in order to ascertain the effect of the ensilage on the cows.
Lord Walsingham suggested, shortly before opening the silos, that the
milk and cream, before and after the ensUage feeding, should be carefully
tested, and the results tabulated. For this purpose I selected five
pedigree shorthorn cows, which dropped calves on Jiily 27, Oct. 27, Nov.
24, and two on Nov. 30, 1882. Previous to giving ensilage, each cow was
daily fed with 61b. of crushed oats and 31b. of bran, mixed with chaff
(composed two-thirds of barley straw and one-third hay). The five
animals jdelded, on Dec. 10, 68 quarts of milk, which the lactometer
showed contained 12 degrees of cream. We commenced feeding with
ensilage on Dec. 11, and the following tables give the daily diet and yield
from Dec. 14 to Jan. 10. Besides the proportions of ensilage and chaff,
the oats and bran were given as before in each instance.

1 EnsUage, fOhatf.

J Ensilage, J Ohaff.

1 Ensilage, \ Chaff.

f Ensilage, J Chaff.

1

i

5

s

1

1

o

1

1

i
1

1882.

Qts.

Deff.

1882.

Qts.

Depr.

1882.

Qts.

Dep.

1883*

Qts.

Deff

Dec. 14

70

13

Dec. 21

71

14

Deo. 28

72

15

Jan. 4

78

16

„ 15

70

13

„ 22

70

14

„ 29

72

15

„ 5

80

16

„ 16

70

13

„ 23

70

14

„ 30

74

15

„ 6

80

16

„ 17

70

13

„ 24

71

14

„ 31
1883.

74

15

„ 7

81

16

„ 18

70

13

„ 25

70

14

Jan. 1

76

16

>, 8

82

16

„ 19

70

13

„ 26

70

14

„ 2

76

16

„ 9

82

16

„ 20

70

13

„ 27

71

15

„ 3

77

16

„ 10,

82

16

It wiU be observed that on Dec. 14, three days after the ensilage was
first given, the milk had increased by two quarts with a rise of one degree
in the cream. This went on until the 20th. On the 21st the cows gave
seventy-one quarts of milk with fourteen degrees of cream, the latter
showing another rise of one degree. On the 22nd and 23rd, and the 26th
and 26th, they seem to have fallen back to the extent of a quart of ^Uk
per day, which was probably owing to the cold wet weather which we

124 Appendix.

experienced at that time; but, on the 27th, the lost "quart was recovered,
the supply again reaching seventy-one quarts and the cream making a
further advance to fifteen degrees. The quantity rose on the 28th another
quart (seventy-two quarts) and on the 30th and 31st seventy-four quarts
were registered, with no change noted in the state of the cream. New
Tear's day brought us seventy-six quarts and sixteen degrees of cream.
On Jan. 4 another quart was gained ; on the 5th and 6th eighty quarts
were given ; on the 7th, the return rose to eighty-one quarts ; and on the
8th to eighty-two ; these figures continuing to be recorded down to Jan.
10, when the test ended, and when the greatly unproved quality of the
cream had undergone no change. You wiU, therefore, see that when the
month's trial concluded we had raised the milk return by fourteen quarts
per day, and the quality of the cream to the remarkable extent of four
degrees. You wiU further observe from a study of the tables that the
increase in the quantity of milk, and improvement in the quality of the
cream, correspond with an increased amount of ensilage given to the
cows.

Before I turn from this branch of my subject, let me state that Lord
Walsingham's trials have abeady borne fruit. His lordship's example is
to be followed by a fine old English gentleman, who combines with a
sound practical business mind a kind-hearted disposition, that makes him
a inodel landlord. Lord ToUemache, of Helmingham, last week travelled
all the way from his estate ia Cheshire to inspect the Merton sUos and
their contents. He is specially interested in dairy-farming, and, being
satisfied of the utility of the system, he has determined to at once construct
four overground sUos under one roof on the Merton plan, each to hold
from twenty-five to thirty tons of ensUage. On Saturday evening his
lordship wrote me as follows : " After seeing the sUos and ensilage at
Merton, I am more than ever satisfied of the importance of introducing
that system, especially in a dairy county like this. Many thanks for the
box of ensilage you kindly put up for me, which I intend to open for some
leading tenants to see and examine the contents."

A Trial with Ewes.

Ensilage having been proved thus Valuable as a food for dairy stock, it
is only reasonable to suppose that sheep may be advantageously fed upon
it. Stfll, experimental knowledge is demanded in this as in other cases.
I am, therefore, glad to report that so experienced and well-known a flock-
master as Mr. Thomas Gajrford, of East Wretham, Thetford, has kindly
undertaken to feed a small nimiber of his sheep on ensilage, which I have
supplied to him twice a week. From sixty ewes, which had been taken
from the flock to get them forward in condition before lambing, he ran out
ten for the trial. On the first day he served out to them, with other food,
a p^eck of ensilage. At the outset they were evidently shy about taking it,
but stiU they cleared it all out before night. The next day the same

Lord WalsingTicmC s Experiments. 126

quantity was given, and eaten with less hesitation. On the third day the
allowance was raised to two pecks, and it was consumed without any
squeamiahness whatsoever. At the end of a week the daily ration was
raised to three pecks, and then and since they have evidently relished it,
preferring it to fresh, sound turnips. As far as can be judged, the food
agrees with them admirably. At aU events the appearance of their coats
has visibly improved, they have gained iu condition, and they continue to
do well all round. The shepherd reports most favourably of the food, and
I regard his testimony as especially encouraging, because my knowledge of
his class leads me to regard them as a very careful, cautious set of men,
who are exceedingly slow in forming opinions of new methods, and rather
disposed to look with disfavour than otherwise on any departure from the
orthodox routine of feeding the flock. It is, of course, too early to teU
what the influence of the ensilage wiU be upon the milk of the ewes.
That can only be determined after lambing ; but, by parity of reasoning,
it ought not to fall behind what we have experienced with our pedigree
cows. It is also to be especially remarked, that if sheep eat the food thus
readily in such a mild, open season as the present, they would certainly do
so during a severe winter, and in a cold, protracted, late spring — the time
of all others when flockmasters most require a succulent, palatable food
for their ewes.

Milk Analysis.

"We were naturally anxious to test the quality of our ensUage milk by
analysis, and on Jan. 9 we sent two samples to Mr. Francis Sutton, F.C.S.,
of Norwich, who, besides, holding the position of County Analyst, is
Analyst to the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture, and whose high attain-
ments are so widely known that I need not say another word about his
quahfications. No. 1 sample was the milk of cows not ensUage-fed ; No. 2
came from the five cows, the subjects of the test. The following is Mr.
Sutton's report : —

No. 1. No. 2.

■ Purefat 2-76 3-11

Sugar, casein, albumen, &c. ,.; 9'37 9'82

Water '. 87-87 87-07

100-00 100-00

Mineral matters (aah) 0-70 0-75

Specific gravity at 60° 10-30 10-32

This analysis, you -will observe, is in favour of the No. 2 (ensilage) milk
in every respect. Whilst in pure fat there was an increase of 0-35, and in
sugar, casein, albumen, &c., of 0-45, there was a decrease of -80 water.
Mr. Sutton also -snites to me as follows: "From my examination of the
ensUage, so far as it has now gone, I should be quite prepared to believe in
its value as a milk-producing food o-wing io the great proportion of soluble

126

Appendix.

nutrition in it. These results have fairly surprised me, and when you get
them I feel sure they wiU have the same effect upon yourself."

It is a striking fact, not to be passed over, that two cows which had been
fed with ensilage, on being deprived of the food for a couple of days, gave
three quarts of milk less each day.

Analyses of the Ensilage.

As to the constituent properties of our ensilage, it would be beyond the
province, and also the competency, of a layman to speak. Lord Walsing-
ham, gratified as he might well be with the milk-paU returns of the cows,
was extremely anxious to get as full and exhaustive analyses of the ensilage
as possible. We therefore sent two sets of samples of the food to Mr.
Sutton, and samples of hay made from grass of the same description as the
«nsilage, for the purposes of comparison. The first set (Nos. 1) consisted
of ensilage made from grass, which I have described as grown in the wood,
and hay from the same kind of grass. The second set (Nos. 2) comprised
■ensilage made from the coarse grass grown in the meadow near the wood,
and hay made from grass cut in the same meadow. The results of the
analyses are set out in the following table :

Analysis of Two Samples of Hat and Two Samples of Ensilage.

General Composition — Natural State.

Dried at 212° Pahr.

Hay
No. 1.

Hay
Nol2.

Ensi-
lage.
No. 1.

Ensi-
lage.
No. 2.

Hay.
No.l.

Hay
No. 2.

Ensi-
lage.
No.l.

Ensi-
lage.
No. 2.

"Water

22-20
8-21
4-06

61-04
4 60

24-90
9-75
3-16

68-60
3-70

74-30
6-24
1-78

16-91
0-77

65-96
9-17
1-88

22-18
0-82

10-55
5-20

78-50
6-75

13-00
4-20

77-85
4-95

24-28
6-92

66-80
3-00

Soluble organic matter

27-00
5-55

Insoluble organic matter

65-05

100-00

10000

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

Detailed Composition — Natural State.

Dried at 212° Fahr.

22-20

0-73
5-03

7-48
1-29
20-80
33-92
4-05
4-50

24-90

0-88
7-09

8-87
1-34
19-80
30-27
3-15
3-70

74-30

1-60
1-41

4-64
0-72
8-28
6-60
1-78
0-77

65-95

212
1-43

7-05
0-89
10-62
9-24
1-88
0-82

0-94
6-46

9-61
1-54
26-73
43-74
5-20
6-78

1-17
9-46

11-85
1-80
26-35
40-25
4-20
4-93

6-22
6-49

18-06
2-80
32-24
25-26
6-93
3-00

Albumen and protein substances

Insoluble protein compoundsf. . .
Sugar,gum,and extractive matter

4-20

20-73

2-eQ

31-17

Oil, wax, aud chlorophyll, Ac...
Digestive fibre

6-53

100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00 100-00

100-00

100-00

100-00

♦Containing nitrogen

tContaining nitrogen ,

0-116
0-755
0-910
S-760

0-149
1-120
1-260
7-970

0-256
0-221
0-476
3-010

0-336
0-226
0-662
3-557

0-149
1-020
1-169
7-400

0-186
1-490
1-676
10-63

0-992
0-860
1-862
11-73

0-990
0-665

Total percentage of nitrogen ...
Equal to total protein compounds

1-665
10-471

Lord Walsinghmn' s Experiments. 127

I take it that the satisfactory nature of these results is plain to the
meanest capacity. But Mr. Sutton has rendered us, and I may say the
whole agricultural community, essential service by appending a singularly
lucid and able report to his analyses. The importance of his conclusions,
in their probable bearing upon the ensilage controversy, could scarcely be
over-rated. As to what those scientists who have formed hasty and dog-
matic opinions upon confessedly insufficient data may have to say to it,
and how far they may hereafter be constrained, by the hard logic of facts,
to modify their views, we have nothing to do. They are matters into
which it is not needful, nor would it be profitable, for us to enter now.
In giving publicity to this report, all I would venture to observe, by way
of note or comment, is that my practical experience in the management of
live stock, extending beyond a generation of time, thoroughly confirms
what Mr. Sutton has so intelligently expressed.

" Report on the Analyses of Hat and Ensilage.

" County Analyst's Office, Eastern Counties Laboratory,
London-street, Norwich, Jan. 17, 1883.

" The two samples of hay consisted of a variety of grasses, many of
them of a coarse description and of poor quality, and were destitute of the
sweet smell and taste which always accompanies well-made meadow hay of
good quality.

" The texture of No. 2 was, however, preferable to No. 1, and the grass
of a somewhat finer description.

" Both specimens of ensilage were, on the contrary, highly odoriferous
from the development of the essential oils peculiar to the various grasses,
and had also a vinous smell accompanied with a slight but pleasant
acidity.

" The smeU of essential oils was so persistent that after handling the
ensilage for some time it became very difficult to remove the smell by
washing. On distilling some of the material with water, these essential
flavours were carried over into the distUlate, but, though powerful, the
quantity of actual oil was too small to be separated.

" The hay treated in precisely the same manner gave no trace of
essential oUs, or any flavour whatever except that of decaying grass.

" In addition to the detailed analyses recorded in the tables, the
ensilages Nos. 1 and 2 were both examined for the amount of acidity ; this
was found to be very much the same in both samples, and, taking it as
acetic acid, the proportion was found to be respectively 0-34 and 0-36, or
about one-third of a per cent.

" The alcohol was estimated in No. 2 ensilage, and amounted to 0.055
per cent, by weight, or about one-tenth of a per cent, of proof spirit.

" These proportions are very small, and they arise, of course, from the
conversion of a small proportion of saccharine matter in the original grass,
but their development is open to no objection when kept within moderate

128 Appendix.

limits ; on the contrary, they add to the fragraney and taste of the sub-
stance, and undoubtedly render it more acceptable and probably more
digestible as a food.

" If the effects of the silo were only to render what would otherwise be
a tastleless, dry forage into a fragrant, appetising, and succulent food, it
would be a decided step in advance ; but the analyses wiU show that much
greater changes of a beneficial nature occur during the process. These
changes are especially shown in the large, proportions of soluble flesh-
formers and fat-producers as compared with the hay.

" For instance, in the case of No. 1 ensilage, the soluble albumenoids
(or flesh -formers) are increased, more than six times, and in No. 2 more
than five times ; while, in the case of sugar, gum, and extractive matters,
the proportion is nearly doubled in both instances.

" The digestible fibre is also increased fully 20 per cent, in both samples
of ensilage.

" These facts are of great importance, and well worth the attention of
all stock-feeders, as it is evident that the occurrence of these nutritious
constituents in a really soluble form is so much labour of mastication and
digestion saved to the animals who are fed on such food, as compared with
dry hay.

" The change induced by the silo is, in fact, a partial digestion or
limited fermentation ; and imdoubtedly such food will prove much easier
of digestion and assimilation than crude hay.

" There are apparently two anomalies in the figures of analysis which it
may be proper to notice. The first is the apparent increase in fatty
matters in the ensilages as against the hays ; this probably arises from
matters hke chlorophyll, &c., which are converted into a less soluble form
in the process of drying through which the hay has passed.

" The second is the amount of nitrogen in No. 1 ensilage as compared
with its hay.

" The total protein compounds (flesh-formers) are recorded as being 4
per cent, higher. This can hardly be the fact, as, of course, the silo has
no power to originate nitrogenous constituents ; it can only modify them.
The difference probably arises from one of two things — either that the
sample of ensilage taken for analysis contained rather more of the seed
vessels or other richer nitrogenous portions of the plant than the corre-
sponding sample of hay, or it may be due entirely to the different periods
of growth.

" In conclusion, it is abundantly evident, so far as these analyses can
show, that the silo has produced a succulent, easily-digestible food, fuU of
aroma and nutrition, from a very poor quality of grass.

" Feancis Sutton,
" Chemist to the Norfolk Chamber of Agriculture."

Experiments at Glasnevin. 129

IRISH EXPERIMENTS WITH ENSILAGE.

(The Field, Jan. 13, 1883.)

Peofbssor Oaeeoll lias issued his official report on some
experiments carried out on the model farm of the Albert Insti-
tution, Glasnevin, in accordance with the desire of the Lord
Lieutenant of Ireland (Earl Spencer), who frequently visited
the farm while the experiments were in progress. The full
report was published in the Irish Farmers' Gazette, from
which we make a few extracts. After referring to certain
adverse opinions on the subject of ensilage. Professor Carroll

I am of opinion that the successes of the Continental and American
farmers are sufficient to warrant our trying it on an extensive scale in
these countries, and the measure of success of our experiments at the
Albert Farm strengthens my opinion on this point.

Referring to the opinions adverse to its adoption here, I would suggest,
First, as regards our cultivated plants not being suited for ensilage. There
can be no doubt that grasses of various kinds are well adapted to the pro-
cess, and on a large range of soils — especially peat — Italian rye-grass
yields a large produce. Rye, too — a crop which may be profitably
cultivated on our poor, cold soils — is well suited to the system. I believe
that many of the indigenous grasses — notably florin (Agrostis stolonifera)
— ^will be found to yield a large quantity of suitable fodder, and that if the-
system were adopted much green fodder now lost would find its way into
the silo, to be profitably consumed by cattle. Doubtless, too, we should
find that if the silo became an institution a large introduction of forage
plants would take place — many varieties of the sorghum being particularly
suited to the system — and more attention might also be given to the
cultivation of maize in the districts suited by climate for its growth.

Again, it may be found by future experiment that the costly system of
root-growing may give way before a less expensive system of growing
other provender for ensilage, and that the produce of grass or other
ensUaged fodders may exceed in nutritive matter a much heavier crop of
roots. These are matters for future experiment, to be carried out under
the direction of practical and scientific men.

Respecting the opinion that the chemical changes which take place
during the slight fermentatioii of the fodder are injurious to it as food, I
cannot help thinking that this opinion has been arrived at in too summary
a manner.

130 Appendix.

I may say that I consider the matter has the largest interest for the
dairy farmer, foreign experience having shown that ensilage has increased
the yield of millf in dairy cows very considerably, and that the objection-
able flavouring of milk and butter which results from the consumption of
roots is avoided where ensilage is substituted.

The information as to the modus ojoerandi, given below, is
not so complete as is desirable. There is nothing to show
what, if any, weight was put on the fodder ; yet it is difficult
to see how the silo could otherwise be made air-tight. The
experiments were as follows :

On the 25th of July the fodder was cut.

No. 1. Lucerne and straw chaffed and put into a silo about five feet
deep, and lined with boards, so as to make it air-tight and water-tight.

2. Comfrey and lucerne chaffed, with a very small proportion of oat
straw, and put into a similar silo.

3. Itaham rye-grass, not chaffed, packed tightly into a sUo.

4. Italian rye-grass, not chaffed, packed tightly into a silo which was
simply a pit dug in the ground, without any protecting casing or lining.

5. Italian rye-grass packed tightly on the surface of the ground, and
covered with about eighteen inches of earth in a manner similar to a
" potato pit."

On the 9th of October the silos were opened, and the following was
the result :

In numbers 1, 3, and 4 the fodder had a temperature of about 75°
Fahr. ; it was apparently in good condition, having a smeU somewhat like
fresh brewer's grains. The cows on pasture, as well as those which were
being house-fed, ate this food with avidity.

In number 2 the comfrey and lucerne were quite spoiled ; the colour
had not been much altered, but the smell was most offensive, and the mass
appeared to be quite putrid.

No. 5, the Italian rye-grass, was quite dry, but mouldy, and perfectly
unfit for food.

The particulars of the analyses are not so clear as could be
wished, the two specimens of ensilage not being identified
with the experiments to which they belong. Thus, ensilage
No. 1 and No. 2 cannot have come from silos No. 1 and 2,
and would appear to be samples of the Italian rye-grass from
silos 3 and 4. The difference between them as regards water
and other ingredients probably arises from the one having
been kept in a water-tight silo, and the other in an unlined

Irish Experiments. 131

hole dug in the ground but there is no evidence to show
which is which. Dr. Cameron says :

The specimens of ensilage were in a state of fermentation when they
were brought for analysis. The specimens were at once subjected to a
temperature of 212°, and kept thereat tiU dried, which prevented further
fermentation.

It is noticeable, first, that the albumenoids are less in the ensilage than
in the original grass ; that the water is much the same in quantity in all
the samples ; that the amount of soluble non-nitrogenous matter is greater
in the ensilage than in the grass from jjrhich they had been prepared ; that
the amount of ash is greater in the ensilage than in the grass.

Composition op Ensilasb and op the Grass pkom which it was made.

... J , . Gtrasa Ensilage Ensilage

lUO parts contain — when out. No.l. No. 2.

Water 68-20 66-50 68-10

Altmnenoids (nitrogenous substances) 2-83 2-76 2-60

Non-nitrogenous substances, soluble ■) 10.40 is-ao 1/1-89

in acids and alkaline solutions ... J

Insoluble in ditto 11-73 11-37 1013

Pats 0-76 0-77 0-75

Mineral matter (ash) 3-06 3-40 3-60

100-00 100-00 100:00

As it may interest some of our readers to compare these
analyses with those which appear in other pages^ we have
recalculated the percentage on the d/ry substance only, when
the variation in the solid matter will be more readily seen
than when the differing quantities of water are included.

-.r^n ^ c 3 1. i J. • *3^™^^ Ensilage EnsUage

100 parts 01 dry substance oontam — when cjit. No. 1. No. 2.

Albumenoids 8-90 8-24 8-15

Non-nitrogenous substances:

Soluble 42-20 45-37 46-46

Insoluble 36-89 33-94 31-76

Pats 2-39 2-30 2-35

Ash 9-62 10-15 11-28

It will be observed that there is a decrease in the albu-
menoids j and a decrease also in the insoluble carbo-hydrates,
which are frequently designated " indigestible fibre." Here
a portion has evidently been rendered digestible, as the
ensilage contains a larger percentage of soluble carbo-hydrates
than the grass did when cut. Unfortunately, in these as in

K 2

132 Appendix.

the general run of agricultural analyses, tliere is no informa-
tion as to the nature of the changes that have taken place,
as all the soluble non-nitrogenous substances are lumped
together in one batch. Whether, and to what extent, starchy-
matters have been changed into sugars, sugars into alcohol,
and alcohol into acetic acid, cannot be seen; and yet it is
most probably owing to these changes that the forage is
rendered, to the animals which feed on it, so palatable as it
evidently is.

A SCOTCH EXPERIMENT WITH VETCHES, &c.

{Glasgow Herald, Feb. 19, 1883.)

On Saturday about thirty members of the Glasgow Agricultural Society
met in the offices of Messrs. Inglis and Todd, the Secretaries, in St.
Vincent-street, and drove to the farm of WhitehQl, near Maryhill, tenanted
by Mr. Imrie, where a silo was to be opened. The experiment at White-
hill is, we believe, the first that has been made in Scotland. Like many
other farmers Mr. Imrie had seen various references to ensilage, and the
benefits it was fitted to confer on the farmer, and being of an experimental
turn of mind, he thought he would try what he could do in a rough way.
He had previously arranged to bmld a pit to hold draff for the use of the cattle
during the winter months, and this he determined to utilise for a trial of
the ensilage process. The silo is about lift, long, 9ft. broad, and 10ft.
deep, and is partly under ground. It is built of brick and lime and
pointed with cement, and at the bottom there is a drain with a sort of
trap. Mr. Imrie had read that wet grain could be utilised in the manner
proposed, and on a rainy day at the end of September or beginning of
October he cut down a quantity of fully half-ripe vetches, com, and
beans, put them through the chaff-cutter, and converted them into what is
known as "mashlam." Dripping wet, he put the material into the pit,
and tramped it all down firmly. This operation was continued next day,
and the same tramping process was resorted to in order to bind the
material together. As the "mashlam" was not sufficient to fill the silo,
Mr. Imrie placed on the top a layer of beans and corn, which were fuUy ripe,
and had been dried and stacked before being put through the chaff-cutter.
He also mixed about half a hundredweight of salt with the forage. After
the mixture had undergone a thorough tramping, a covering of about two
feet of heavy clay was put on, and the silo closed. Whether from insuffi-
cient weight or from some other cause, the ensilage became depressed all
round the sides of the pit, leaving a slight cone in the centre. In this
condition the silo was allowed to remain tai Saturday— Mr. Imrie taking
care, of course, that any cracking or opening of the clay was at once closed.

A Scotch Experiment. 133

The opening took place on Saturday, and the strong flavour that was
emitted as the process of turning off the clay went on told that a change of
some sort had come over the forage stored therein. The top layer, which
was that of ripe corn and beans cut up by the chaff-cutter, had a strong
sour odour, but after that was removed, and the layers of half ripe
mashlam were reached, there was a perceptible diminution in the strength
of the odour, and it was admitted that the ensilage was pretty fresh.
Some of the farmers present thought the flavour was that of English hay,
while others thought it was rather stronger, and more resembled draff. It
had evidently undergone a slight fermentation, and at one of the sides
there were signs of heating, and that somehow or other moisture had
managed to find its way through the clay into the pit. Of course, Mr.
Imrie explained that the material was placed in the pit in the worst
possible condition. The best test, howeverj was to see whether the cows
would eat it. Unfortunately, through inadvertence, the servants had been
allowed to give the cows their midday meal, and in these circumstances it
was just a question whether any of them would look at it. A portion was
placed before several cows, and though one or two did not seem to relish it
others ate it at once, and seemed to like it.

Though not so successful as could have been wished, the experiment was
sufficient to show that the process could be carried out even in this
country. It was admitted that Mr. Imrie had placed iasufficient weight
on the sUo, and the drain in the bottom of the pit was deemed to be an
evil, as through it air may have reached the stored material. Another
thing against the ensilage was that the vetches, beans, and corn were half
ripe before being cut, and that an experiment in which the pit was made
completely air and water tight, the crop green and not damped by rain,
would be most successful. Under the circumstances in which Mr. Imrie
made his attempt, the result was considered very satisfactory, and likely
to lead to other experiments being made next year.

ENSILAGE OF GREEN EYE IN ESSEX.

{Agricultural Gazette, Nov. 20, 1882.)

A COVERED yard, in itself one of the best agricultural economies of recent
adoption, is, in the instance, to which we are about to refer (as an example
of a stiU more recently advocated economy) enclosed on two adjoining sides
by a cow byre ; and immediately adjoining this, along one side of the
square which we are describing, there are a succession of five cubic tanks,
made of concrete, each of them 12ft. by 14ft., and 12ft. deep. They cost
150Z. altogether. The concrete, some 6in. thick, provides a ceiling as weU
as walls and floor, and there is a manhole in the centre over each. These
tanks are so many silos.

A crop of rye, just coming into ear last June, about eighly tons in all,

134 Appendix.

was cut into chaff (about fin. stuff) in the field, bagged and brought to
these tanks, there filled in as rapidly as possible, and trampled down by
man and boy as the work was going on. The whole took seven days to do,
and the manholes were well covered up with puddled clay, one after the
other, after as much as possible had been crammed into the silo to which
each belonged.

When we visited the farm, last Tuesday, one of the sUos had been
already emptied. Twenty-four cows had been having a bushel a day apiece
of the ensilage, along with a couple of cartloads of white turnips, spread on
the pasture where they were daily turned, and a truss of hay to every four
in the covered yard where they lay at night. The cows looked weU, and
were doing well, yielding various quantities of milk, from fifty-two pints a
day (?) just newly calved, to little more than a gallon as they were drying
off, after being nine months at the pail. The second silo — there is a door-
way in the separating waU of concrete — was then being used, each being
gradually emptied over its whole surface from the top downward.

The day's portion had been taken out, and was lying on the floor of silo
No. 1, as we could see by the light through its manhole, which had been
opened. It looked like chop of rather heated hay : it handled as straw-
chaff which had been damped, and got nearly dry again, might handle : it
smelt not disagreeably of the sMght fermentation it had undergone ; and it
tasted — well! — the cattle had just had their feed, but they were still
standing before their well-cleaned troughs, and a skep of the stuff being
placed before them they readily, after an experimental sniff, and greedily
attacked it. The whole contents of the tank, except about 6in. of the top
layer, when first opened is good fodder. That and some 2in. or Sin. round
the wall was mouldy : the rest was wholesome, palatable fodder. There
was no heat in the mass, though any quantity of it loosely thrown together
heated readily enough.

Here, then, was an unquestionable example of success in ensilage. A
crop of rye grown for spring fodder was got off in time for the intended
turnip crop to follow it. The last unused portion, which would have had
to stand as grain, and upset the system of cultivation on the farm, was
retained for its intended use by this means ; and provided, five months
after date, uncommonly good cow food without any anxiety about
harvesting or haymaking. Mr. Edmund Gibson, of Saffron Walden, to
whose farm we are referring, is strongly of opinion that only green stuff of
the kind of this almost strawy rye is available for use in this way. We
confess we had expected, on opening a silo some six months after it had
been filled, to find a mess not very pleasant either to handle or to smell ;
and probably green clover, comfrey leaf, lucerne, and other succulent
growths, treated in this way, would end in a rather unpleasant mess to
handle, whether palatable or not to live stock ; but rye cut in the stage
just before the ear is fully formed has already a quantity of woody fibre,
and would dry almost as straw, certainly as very coarse hay ; and trampled
together without being dried, in a pit afterwards hermetically sealed, it

Ensilage of Green Bye in Essex. 135

comes out looking, smelling, tasting, handlirig as we have just described —
very good stuff indeed, according to the verdict vhich the cattle give, and
they are the only jury whose verdict need be sought.

Dr. Voelcker's analysis of the ensilage in this case shows thfl,t there is
rather more than 72 per cent, of water still present in the stuff, and only
2'13 per cent, of ash ; thus indicating that no great loss had taken place
since the month of June, when the pits were filled. The presence of 8 per
cent. (? 0-8) of lactic acid was, we presume, the most noteworthy illustration
of the change of composition that had been experienced . There was 2 per
cent of albuminous compounds containing 0'3 of nitrogen, and there was
12-8 per cent, of mucilage and digestible fibre, and 9-7 per cent, of woody
fibre.

ENSILAGE OF TRIFOLIUM IN KENT.

Messes. Caetee and Co. of High Holbom, writing to the Agricultural
Gazette of Jan. 29, 1883, as follows : " A few days since we visited Mr.
Hoare's silo at Pagehurst Farm, Staplehurst, and had some interesting
conversation with Mr. Austen, the bailiff, a thoroughly practical and well-
informed man. The capacity of the silo may be described as two 10ft.
cubes, separated by a wall of the same material as the surroundings walls,
the contents being about 50 tons of trifolium, the produce of three acres
The crop was carted straight to the chaff-cutter, and, being chaffed, was
trodden well down in the sUo, no interval being allowed. There is a drain
from the silo, but Mr. Austen has never seen anything come from it, nor
has he observed any sign of heating. The ensilage is cut out with a hay
knife, and cuts like a good solid hayrick. It comes out nice and moist, and
no cattle have yet refused it, although if fed upon it exclusively for a
considerable time, they are apt to tire of it, so that it is mixed with chaffed
hay, and makes very good feed. Mr. Austen thinks there is certainly more
fodder in the ensilage than in the same crop made into hay. If such a
succulent plant as Trifolium incarnatum can be made into good ensilage,
there seems but little reason for doubting that any of our forage crops may
be as successfully treated."

ENSILAGE OF GREEN OATS AT ORWELL PARK.

Me. Henet Woods, in his Norfolk lecture, gives the following particulars
of Colonel Tomline's silo: " One other case nearer home; from Colonel
Tomline's model farm, Orwell Park, in the neighbouring county of Suffolk.
In the early part of last year a silo, 26ft. in length, and 12ft. in width
and height, was built under the side of a hOl, with an opening at each end ;
one for fllUng, which was on the ground level, and the other for extracting
the fodder. The walls and floor were of concrete (the former a foot or
more in thickness). In July, the produce of eleven acres of oats, in the

136 Appendix.

green state, was passed through the chaff-cutter, and stored in the silo ;
eight men being engaged upon the work, which was carried on in showery
weather, and completed on August 12. The covering consisted of three
loads of grass and one load of straw, and planks weighted with boxes flUed
with stones, bricks, and shingle — about 15 tons altogether. On the 1st of
December the silo was opened. The outer coating of the ensilage was
mouldy and rotten, but beneath it was bright, cool, and moist, and gave
off a strong alcoholic odour. It, was mixed with about an equal quantity
of chaff j and given to the stock. Some took to it at once , others, more
fastidious, at first touched it daintily, but they soon acquired a taste for it,
and ate it with avidity. With regard to the effects of the food upon the
cows, Mr. Henry Stevenson, the farm bailiff, reports as follows : ' The
milk which the cows gave was vastly improved, the cream was thicker,
and the butter came out a beautiful rich, natural colour, and of very fine
flavour, rivalling in sweetness that which is produced from cows fed on the
finest pastures in the early spring.' "

EXPERIENCES OF A TYRO IN WALES,

(The Field, July 22, 1882.)

My attention was first called to the subject by reading accounts of its
successful practice in the United States, as described by various correspon-
dents of the Farmers' Review, a capital little paper published at Chicago,
and sent to ine by a friend in Illinois. Accordingly, while waiting for the
weather to clear up for haymaking last summer, the men were set to work
to dig a large and deep pit in the stackyard, near the edge of a bank which
dipped abruptly down to a stream below. The subsoil here appeared to
be a stiff clay, and this, in addition to the favourable situation for
drainage, constituted one of the chief reasons for selecting the spot as the
site of my silo, as it is called.

I hoped that the clay might prove sufiiciently firm and cohesive to enable
me to dispense with a lining of stone or brickwork. Such, however, was
not the case ; for, after getting down to a depth of eight or nine feet, the
sides, owing probably to the heavy and continued fall of rain, commenced
to slip in here and there. A faciag of brick or stone work was absolutely
necessary, and accordingly two or three truck-loads of common red bricks
were procured, and masons engaged to lay them in cement and sand, mixed
to a proper consistency with water. The facing was only one brick thick
on two sides and part of the third, but where the sides showed the greatest
inclination to cave in, two courses of bricks were laid. Great care was
taken to form the pit perfectly rectangular, and to carry the walls up
plumb, in order that the lid, to be described presently, might not be
prevented from moving evenly downward as the contents subsided. At
each of the four corners the brickwork was continued upwards in the form
of pillars, to support a light roof. When completed, the dimensions of the

Welsh Experiences. 137

silo or vault (inside measurement) were as follows : Length, lift. 9in. ;
width, 10ft. ; and depth, lift.

I ought to mention that, a little water having been met with near the
bottom of the pit, the foundations of the four walls were made to do duty
as drains likewise, by the expedient of placing the bricks of the lowest
courses on their edges, so as to leave a space of about 2^in. between
them. The next course being laid over, and at right angles to them,
formed a cover to the narrow gutter or drain thus created, and on this the
brick wall or facing was built. An outlet for the water was made by
cutting a short drain (afterwards tiled and refilled) from the stream
already mentioned to the lowest corner of the foundation. Slate flags
laid on mortar, and joined together with cement, formed a good floor to
the pit, which by these means was kept quite free from water, without
allowing any air to leak ia from the drain— a most important matter;
indeed, my excuse for entering so minutely and at suck length on the
construction of the silo, is the paramount necessity of making it thoroughly
air-tight ; in fact, this is the main condition of success.

At last, on the 24th of September, 1881, after many interruptions to the
work by reason of the very unsettled weather, which caused the hay harvest
to " drag its slow length along" from the beginning of July to the end of
September, all was ready, and we commenced to fill the large tank-Kke
receptacle with cut grass from some four or five acres of good meadow,
which had been reserved for the purpose, and which, from being shut up so
long, was a very heavy crop. The grass was mostly cut by a two-horse
mowing machine, and at once collected into heaps or cocks and carted
home. Here it was cut up by a Bentall's chaff-cutter, geared to one inch
cut and driven by water power, as fast as three or four men could feed and
clear away from it. Other men, provided with large baskets or hampers,
carried the cut stuff away to the sUo, where it was spread evenly about and .
well trampled down by a woman and three or four boys, with now and then
the assistance of an extra man or two when the grass was being thrown in
very rapidly. In this manner about nineteen cartloads of grass were
stored away. The lid or cover was then put on. This is constructed of
1 Jin. planks, and made in sections of about 3ft. lOin. in width ; the planks
ploughed and grooved and strongly battened, with the battens projecting,
so as to overlap and cause all the sections, under equally distributed
weight, to move downward together. A quantity of spare bricks were
deposited equally over the surface of the Hd, and the whole left to settle
down. In a couple of days the green stuff had subsided considerably, and
by fixing up a sort of movable frame of planks around the top of, and
flush with, the brickwork, we were able to cram in seven loads more grass.
The lid was then finally put on, and brickbats and stones heaped on top to
a considerable depth — probably three tons weight. When the mass had
settled down below the level of the pit mouth, the temporary frame was
removed. Thus, twenty-six cartloads of grass, estimated to weigh from
twenty to twenty-four tons, were pitted by Oct. 4.

\

138 Appendix.

Although most of my friends took a kindly and even enthusiastic-
interest in the experiment, such an unusual method of preserving grass for
■winter consumption was looked upon by many of my less educated
neighbours as the height of folly, and their remarks on the whole proceeding
were far from flattering or encouraging. It was not without some display
of firmness even, that my own men could be induced to commence digging
the pit — partly, no doubt, from a laudable desire to save their master's
credit, and partly, perhaps, from fear of themselves sharing in the ridicule
which the project would be likely to excite. Curiously enough, though the
prophets of evil all predicted the certain failure of the experimsnt, they
were by no means so unanimous as to the cause of failure ; for while some
maintained that the grass would be sure to heat and take fire, others as
confidently asserted that it would be sure to rot and turn to manure. One '
of the extra hands, who was assisting to throw in the cut stuff, remarked
to the foreman that " he was not very well off, but he dare bet the master
all the money he had that the grass would all be found perfectly rotten
when the pit was opened in winter ! "

As it was so late in autumn when the silo was filled, we did not open it
until Feb. 6, an interval of rather more than four months, in order to give
, the plan a thorough trial. At last the eventful moment arrived, and as thfe
men commenced to raise a section of the cover, we noticed some dark
mouldy-looking stuff round the edges ; whereupon my honest Welsh foreman,
who had hold of one corner of the hd, ceased lifting, and at once began to
bring to my remembrance how he had always warned me that the grass
would be sure to " spooU." " It certainly does not look very encouraging,
so far," I said ; " but lift the lid right off, and then we shall see what has
happened to it.'' In a few moments the heavy section was completely
removed, and then a loud exclamation of "Well, diawk!" from the man
expressively announced his astonishment at perceiving the true state of
affairs. Except for a little distance round the sides and about the edges, at
top, the grass was perfectly preserved, and little change in appearance from
what it was when pitted. On being handled it gave out a strong though
not impleasant odour, reminding one of the smeU of steamed hay, only
more pungent. Cattle quickly took to it, and, as they became more
accustomed to its peculiar flavour and smell, appeared to relish it greatly.

Although no trial was made of the feeding value of ensilage in comparison
with hay or other fodder, we were satisfied that it was a wholesome and
useful kind of food for cattle of any age. A lot of yearling calves were
particularly fond of it, and seemed to thrive well on the preserved grass.
Milk cows were found to require a little cotton cake, bean meal, or other
concentrated food in addition, to keep up the quality of the milk and
make rich cream. On the other hand, the butter had more of the colour,
if not flavour, of that from grass-fed cows, than was the case before using
ensilage.

There was one drawback to the complete success of the experiment ; the
edges of the mass of cut grass were mouldy and unfit for food, for a

Welsh Experiences. 139

thickness of several inches from top to bottom of the pit. In some parts
not more than an inch or so next the brickwork was spoilt, while in other
places the damage extended to a foot in width. There are two theories
which might perhaps be advanced to account for this state of things.
First, that the pit is in too damp a situation ; and, secondly, that the
brickwork, beiag only pointed and not covered with Portland cement, may
not possess a sufficiently smooth surface to insure the regular settlement of
the contents. I incline to the latter as the most plausible conjecture, and
it is borne out by a statement of M. H. Cottu's (of Indre-et-Loire, France)
in the Agricultural Gazette last year. , He says, in describing his pit, " the
sides are perfectly vertical, the four corners being slightly rounded ; the
whole is coated with Portland cement, thus insuring a perfect settlement
of the contents, upon which depends the preservation of the fodder."
Probably, however, it is the two defects above-mentioned, conjointly, that
cause the mischief in this case. To remedy one of them, at all events, I
purpose having the brickwork coated with cement before proceeding to
refill the pit. Unless a perfectly dry gravel or sand bank is to be found in
a convenient situation for the proposed sUo, I am convinced that it would
be better, in a comparatively damp climate like ours, to construct it
entirely above-ground ; of course, taking care to make the walls sufficiently
strong- by means of buttresses or other contrivances, to prevent any danger
of their being forced outward by the pressure from within. I wiU only
remark, in conclusion, that, as the process becomes better understood, it
must prove of considerable advantage to owners of stock in Great Britain,
as it has already done elsewhere. Wlien it is considered that, by such a
simple process, the heaviest grass or other forage crops can be preserved
for winter use in the wettest of seasons, its value is plainly perceived.

BrynUwydwyn, Machynlleth. C. R. Kenyon.

FEEDING- EXPERIMENTS IN FRANCE.

(Agricultural Gazette, Sept. 5, 1881.)

Seeing that the question of "ensilage " is being discussed, I take the
liberty of sending you the results of a constant and exclusive use of this
mode of using food during the past six years. I have preserved in silos,
with perfect success, all kinds of forage plants, both separately and mixed
with cereals, maize, &c., cut green. I give further on the analysis made at
an agricultural laboratory, with regard to its nutritive character. In my
opinion, the principal advantage of this method is to enable you to regu-
late the feeding of animals in a perfectly systematic manner, and in
accordance with, the scientific and physiological rules.

Before using the contents of the sUo, a sample of the material is taken
and analysed, and the ordinary allowance is made up with concentrated

140 Appendix.

food (meal, oilcake, grain) in such a manner as to meet and obviate the
inevitable differences in the value of the same fodder for one year to
another, and also so as to make the ration up to that degree of strength
necessary for its intended purpose. Thus there is no waste, and only so
much added food used as is necessary. My pits are three metres deep,
two metres wide, and ten metres long (=: 10ft. by 6|ft. by 33ft.) ; the
sides are perfectly vertical, the four corners being slightly rounded ; the
whole is coated with Portland cement, thus ensuring a perfect settlement
of the contents, upon which depends the preservation of the fodder. The
forage, wet or dry, is brought from the field where it has been cut with
the mowing machine, and it is cut up as soon as possible, and
gradually trodden down by the women who are in the pit to spread
it out evenly.

The pit, when once filled, is covered with a layer of chaff or straw some
Sin. or din. thick ; over all you place planks cut to the size of the pit,
which are covered with stones to the weight of 500 kilogrammes a square
metre (1001b. per square foot). For the working of the pit, you uncover
and empty its contents according to the rate of consumption. During the
chaffcutting a little salt is added — not to preserve it, but to provide food
ready salted to the animals, and to avoid the trouble of renewing the piece
of rock salt otherwise given.

I have thus pitted rye, oats mixed with vetches, sainfoin, lucerne, maize,
beetroot, and, lastly, Jerusalem artichokes, leaves and tuber's separately.
I do not doubt the success of a pit of red clover ; and as to the statement
that maize wiU not grow in England, I think that my latitude (47° 20') is
not so very far from yours, and I get maize measuring from 9ft. to 10ft.
high ; I have seen it the same height in Normandy (48° 30'), at M. le
Comte Rcederer's, where I went to see the practice of ensilage. I sow
towards June 15, when there is no fear of frost, and I cut at the beginning
of October each year, and I have previously had upon the same ground a
cut of rye, oats, or vetches, cut and pitted green about May 20, the manure
being put on at the time the cereal is sown, one hectare of seed thus pro-
ducing in a year as much as 140,000 kilogrammes of green fodder (= nearly
56 tons per acre).

If maize cannot be grown successfully in England, certainly Jerusalem
artichoke would succeed. Its culture is of little expense, and its yield
considerable ; and preserving it at the end of October, as soon as the
flowers appear and the leaves, you have an excellent food which cattle
like, and which is equal to maize in the value of its nutritive richness. In
December the tubers are taken out, washed, cut up oyer the pit, and
mixed with a small quantity of straw, and chopped up so as to absorb the
juice.

Here, then, are the analyses of different pits, all having perfectly
succeeded in preservation, and all being consumed with the same eagerness
by the animals. The calculation is made upon a hundredth part of the
■analysed matter :

Feeding Experiment in France.

141

Oats and
Vetches.

Maize.
1877.

Beetroot.

1877.

Eye and

Vetches.

1878.

Water

Ash

Nitrogenous matter

Fat

Uon-nitrogenous matter . . .
Cellnloae

69-000
4-540
2-330
1-300

13-690
9-140

83-000
1-335
1-187
0-476
9-616
4-386

76-340
2-050
1-900
0-450

13-270
4-500

70-966

3-000

3-125

1-260

10-999

10-650

Nitrogenous matter

Non-nitrogenous matter ...

2-330 1
16-940 7-2

1-187 1
10-806 9-0

1-900 1
14-395 7-5

3-125 1
14-299 4-5

Sainfoin
1878.

Artichoke

leaves.

1879.

Artichoke
tubers.
1879.

Maize
1880.

Water

74-490
2-870
4-570
0-610

11-390
6-070

65-100
3-980
2-380
0-430

20-780
7-330

78-500
2-610
1-620
0-230

14-780
2-260

77-750

Ash

Nitrogenous matter

Fat

Cellulose

1-760
0-980
0-380
13-900
5-230

Nitrogenous matter

Non-nitrogenous matter ...

4-570 1
12-950 2-8

2-380 1
21-855 9-18

1-620 1
15-355 94

0-980 1
14-340 14-9

Here is the case of a ration made up -with concentrated food to the
desired strength for a fnll-gtown beast, the value of the fodder being
calculated after the tables of Gohren : —

kilo.
Ensilage of Eye 40

Malt 3

Pahn-nutcake 6-500-

"Touraillon" (?)... 2

Straw 3

kilo.

Nitrogenous matter = 2-023 1

Non-nitrogenous matter = 8-19 4-1

Fat = 0-732 1

Nitrogenous matter = 2-023 2-8

^ Total dry matter =17-123

The cost of the ration is 49o. ( = 4Jd.) a head per diem.

Irilo. kilo.

Nitrogenous matter = 1-846 1

Ensilage of maize (1880) 45

Malt 2

Palm-nut cake 1 -

"Touraillon" (P) 3

Non-nitrogenous matter = 9-550 5-1

Fat = 560 1

Nitrogenous matter = 1-846 3-01

^Total dry matter =16-798

Straw 2

Bran 1

The cost of this ration is 63o. (= 6d,.) a head per diem.

142 Appendix.

All the rations of concentrated food are weiglied at each meal. Finally,
to proTe the excellence of this regime here are the successive weights for
«ight days of two sorts of beast brought up on this preserved food.

A.— Heifer calved March 22, 1880 ; weighed at birth 43 kilos. (951b.) ;
weaned at two months (May 80), she weighed 136 kilos. (2991b.). Here
are the weekly weights from that time : 139, 144, 155, 160, 167, 173, 187,
197, 206, 218, 230, 242, 250, 260, 266, 281, 296, 295, 304 (Oct. 24), 309,
513, 314, 319, 330, 335, 340, 349, 350, 360 kilos. (January 9, 1881). To-
day the beast weighs 528 kilos. (11621b.), aged 16 months.

B.— Bull calved June 27, 1880 ; weighed at birth 66 kilos. (1451b.) ;
weaned at two months (Aug. 29), he weighed 143 kilos. (3151b.) His
weights are as follows : 152, 162, 170, 176, 184, 200, 205, 216, 225, 232,
240, 243, 251, 258, 270, 275, 281, 284, 298 kilos. (Jan. 9). He was not
weighed January 16 or 23, 1881. Again on January 30 : 305, 324, 327,
334, 341, 351, 363, 381, 389, 405, 410, 430, 448, 447, 455, 465, 470 kilos.
(May 29, 1881). The animal is sold now at a show ; I get 600fr. (24Z.)
for it.

Upon the whole, " ensilage " is, in my opinion, the most economical, the
most scientific, and the most remunerative way of keeping animals ; it
lessens the labour, one man being sufficient to attend to twenty-eight
cattle. It gives the animals a uniform food, and consequently they are in
perfect health ; I have never for six years had any Ulness in my stalls.
Finally, with regard to the preservation of fodder, it is mvaluable.

H. COTTU.
Au Chateaux de la Touche, par Azay-le-Kideau,
Indre-et-Loire, August 20, 1881.

[The metre is = 39f inches, hectare = 2-47 acres, kilogramme = 2-21b. ;
2500 kUos per hectare are almost exactly 1 ton per hectare, so that, by
multiplying the number of kilos by 4, and striking off four O's the number
of tons per acre is readily estimated.]

EXPERIMENT ON THE FEEDING PROPERTIES OF
ENSILAGE.

(From the Field of Feb. 10, 1883.)

The following particulars of an experiment carried out by Professor W. A.
Henry, of the Agricultural Department of the State University of Wis-
consin, are quoted from the American Cultivator and Country Gentleman —
except that for the sake of more easy comparison, we have set out the
figures in tabular fashion, and have calculated the percentages appended
below :

" To-day (Jan. 10) Professor Henry spoke on ensilage. Beginninghis
experiments last year with a prejudice agaitist the new system of securing

Feeding ^Experiment in Wisconsin. 143

fodder crops, he has been converted to its favour by the logic of facts.
During the past season an experiment was made with a wooden silo buUt
in a side hiU at a cost of |18, being buUt of old lumber, of which no
account was made. Thirteen rows of maize were cut on Sept. 6, and put
into the sUo, making 21,0001b. of ensilage. The same number of rows of
maize were cut and shocked. In November and December four new milch
cows were selected ; two of them were fed on ensilage for twenty-one
days, and the other two were fed on the dried fodder, which had been
under cover ever since it was well cured. At the end of twenty-one days
the cows were changed, and those fed on ensilage before were now fed on
fodder, and vice versa.

" During this test each cow, whether on ensilage or dried fodder,
received lib. of Indian corn meal, lib. of wheat bran, and l|lb. of oil
meal at each feed, morning and evening. Each cow had all the ensilage or
dried fodder she would eat up clean. The cows were fed, watered and
milked at the same hour each day, and every means was used to make the
test complete and fair. The results in milk, and in butter churned there-
from, were :

Milk. Butter,

lb. oz. lb. oz.

Ensilage (plus meal) produced , 1456 8 59 8J

Dried fodder (jjjiis meal) produced 1322 15 53 3i

Increased produce from ensilage 133 9 6 5

"The test continued forty-two days. At the rate the food was con-
sumed, the thirteen rows of maize cut into fodder would have lasted forty-
eight days, while the thirteen rows made into ensilage would have lasted
67i days."

Thus, the ensUage increased the produce of milk by 10 per cent. ; and
the butter-making quality of the milk was also enhanced, the total quantity
of butter from the ensilage being nearly 12 per cent, more than from the
dried fodder, or about 2 per cent, increase on equal quantities of milk.
And it appears that the proportion of maize eaten in the form of ensilage
was 29 per cent, less than that consumed in the dried condition.

ENSILAGE— A TRIAL WITH EWES.

{T%e Field, March 24, 1883.)

SiE, — WOl you kindly allow me to make known through the medium of
The Field the result of feeding in-lamb ewes on ensilage ?

In the lecture which I delivered on Feb. 5, before the Wayland Agricul-
tural Association, I gave a carefully, tabulated statement of the effects of
a supply of ensilage food to five of Lord Walsingham's shorthorn
cows, showing that, in the course of a month's trial, the daily milk

144 Appendix.

return increased by fourteen quarts, while the proportion of cream,
registered by lactometer, showed the astonishing increase of 4°, being 16°
as against 12°.

Desiring that the independent opinion of some reliable person should be
obtained as to the effect of the ensilage on in-lamb ewes, I induced Mr.
Thomas Gayford, of Wretham, near Thetford, who is widely known as a
thorough man of business and as an eminently practical flockmaster, to
undertake a trial on ten ewes, which were, with one exception, taken
indiscriminately from a lot which had been selected from the general
flock because they were low in condition. The ewe which formed the
exception referred to was a notoriously bad milker, and it was desired to
see what effect the ensilage would have on this particular ewe.

I am glad to be able to report that the result of the trial has been most
satisfactory ; and I venture to think that it would be almost impossible,
judging by the facts elicited by Mr. Gayford's experiment, to over-estimate
the importance of ensilage to flockmasters, and particularly in a severe
winter, or iu a late sterile spring, when ewes urgently need a succulent,
palatable food. Writing one day last week, Mr Gayford says :

" The eifect of the ensilage food on the mflkof the ewes is most decided.
The two which first lambed were (to use the shepherd's own words)
' smothered with mUk ' ; and another, which I examined just after she had
lambed, had a famous bag ; and the milk was as golden in colour and as
rich looking as if it came from the udder of a fresh-calved Alderney cow.
The remainder of the ewes under trial all did well, and it is particularly
noteworthy that the ewe which had always given so little milk on her
previous lambings improved so much under the ensilage food, as to give as
much milk as any ewe in the general flock fed in the usual way.

" The extremely satisfactory result of feeding the ten trial ewes on
ensilage, as regards their milking condition, has made me, as a flockmaster
of thirty years' standing, to feel what a boon this new food will undoubtedly
prove to be to flocks of breeding ewes on large tracts of light land iu the
eastern counties, and doubtless in other counties also. The large quantity
and rich quality of the milk of the ewes under trial, after the past excep-
tionally mild winter, surely indicates how great will be the value of
ensilage in a severe winter, when we are at our wits' end to procure a
minimum supply of succulent food for our ewes. I have known many
winters and springs when there has been unavoidably heavy loss and
expense incurred from the impossibility of providing any succulent food,
and until now nothing has been found to supply this indispensable
requirement for nursing ewes. It appears to me that this introduction of
ensilage comes most opportunely, for never, during the present century,
has the success of hght-land farming depended so much upon sheep as
now, nor have sheep ever been of more, if of so great, value."

With regard to the financial side of the question, my practical corre-
spondent writes : " When the fact is generally understood that ensilage
can be secured at about two-thirds of the cost of hay, that its production

^Experiment in Sheep Feeding. 145

is almost wholly independent of the weather, and that the grass on the
parts of the fields near the fences may be converted into ensilage, leaving
the better drying portions and centre for hay, surely it will be true
wisdom for flookmasters at least to give the matter a fair trial during
the coming season." On the cost of silos Mr. Gayford adds : "I was
talking yesterday at Bury St. Edmunds market with a very practical
man, who held, like many others, the erroneous idea that silos must be
made either underground, or with very strong thick walls to withstand
the swelling from the supposed fermentation. This is one of the errors
that lead farmers to suppose that sUos are extremely costly in their con-
struction, and the more widely your pamphlet is read and this nonsense
dispelled, the better.''

Seeing that breeding sheep are the sheet anchor of the Ught-land
farmers, that it is only on these they can rely with any hope of success
in these most disastrous times for agriculture, the foregoing testimony of-
such an experienced flockmaster to the merits of ensilage as a succulent
food for sheep seems to me to be of great importance.

Merton, Thetford, Norfolk, March 20. Henet Woods.

SOUR-KRODT.

In articles, lectures, and books about ensilage, one almost invariably finds
the remark, that this is only " sour-krout." The same thing has been said
again and again by writers and speakers in other countries as well as our
own, and here is M. GofEart's rejoinder, made years ago :

"People never fail to say, more or- less benevolently, 'It is only sour-
krout you are making : others did that long before you !'

"If I do make ' sour-krout,' or something resembling it, I make, it
without cabbages and without brine, and with all kinds of forage ; and it
costs but a tenth part of a farthing per pound. It is sour-krout brought
within reach of animals that are very grateful for it. This sour-krout is an
agricultural revolution.

" But, be it observed, it is unfermented sour-krout. It is chopped fodder
kept in its natural state, and in which fermentation is not developed till
the very moment of consumption. I do for fodders what is done in good
sUos where beetroots are preserved. In the North they do not wish their
roots or pulp to ferment : they would lose their good qualities. In my
silos the maize and other fodders do not ferment ; they only enter into
fermentation, when exposed to the air, a few hours before being given to
the beasts."

146 Appendix.

DR. VOBLOKBR ON ENSILAGE.

The opinions of Dr. Voelcker, E.R.S., on all matters connected
with tlie cliemistry of agriculture, are so highly deserving of
respect, that we should scarcely fulfil our duty if we omitted
from these pages his remarks about ensilage. We do not
quote his original letter to the Times on this subject, because
his later expressions go more fully into the matter, and are
the result of further experience and deliberation. At a
general meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,
Dec. 7, 1882, the subject of ensilage was brought up, and we
quote from the Agricultural Gazette the report of what was said :

Sir J. H. Maxwell inquired if the council had entertained the desirability
of promoting ensilage.

The Secretary replied that Dr. Voelcker would refer to the subject in his
report, to appear in the next issue of the journal.

The Chairman (the Duke of Richmond) said they should be happy to
hear any remarks Dr. Voelcker could give them on the present occasion.

Dr. Voelcker said he should be most happy to state briefly his opinions,
as he considered the whole question lay in a nutshell. They must first
have a suitable material for ensilage, to ensure good quality. On the
Contuient maize was the principal substance placed in silos. Ensilage was
pretty much the same thing as the sauer-kraut of Germany — a very old
material indeed. The material for the silo had to be cut into small bits
and tightly trodden down, when a fermentation ensued, occasioning the
generation of lactic acid. The -loss sustained in nutritive value by the
process depended on the original substance and how the process was
conducted. There must be a certain proportion of dry substance in it, or
the ensilage might be bad. Some had recommended that with succulent
foods chopped straw could be mixed ; but probably no large quantities of
straw could be spared in this country for the purpose. Fvirther, the
question resolved itself very much into the relative costs of preserving
food in this way and that of ordinary harvesting, and it was a doubtful
matter whether meadow grass would be available for the silo, unless,
by overstanding, the stalks were sticky. Green rye, if not out too young,
was an available article ; but he considered that in all cases there must be
twenty per cent, of dry matter. He would observe, also, that ensilage was
not so necessary in this country as on the Continent, because they had
abundant root crops here for winter food. He had only one other remark
to make, which would show that he had no prejudice against ensilage. In

Dr. Voelcher on Ensilage. 147

some parts of Scotland which did not ripen grain crops thoroughly, he
thought oats might be profitably cut ere being quite ripe, and, after being
passed through a chaff-cutter, would form an admirable material for
ensilage. In some cases it had been found profitable to convert oat crops
into hay, and he certainly thought their conversion into ensilage might be
stUl more conducive to benefit.

Sir J. H. Maxwell begged to thank the learned professor for his observa-
tions, and said he had land in Dumfriesshire which often failed to ripen
the oat crops, and he had such great hopes that they might derive benefit
in converting them to ensilage, that perhaps he should be one of the first
to make trial of the silo system.

At a meeting of tlie Society of Arts^ on Jan. 31, 1883, Dr.
Voelcker went more fully into the subject, after a paper
on " Ensilage in the United States " had been read by Mr.
J.. B. Thorold Rogers, M.P. A full report of the paper and
the discussion thereon is given in the Journal of the Society of
Arts of Feb. 2, 1883, from which we quote Dr. Voelcker's
remarks, with such of the observations of others as led to
further replies :

Dr. Voelcker said the paper would no doubt lead to experiments with
this process, which he quite agreed was very valuable for Americans, also
in France, and in parts of Germany, where it had been in practice for a
considerable time. He had lately analysed various kinds of ensilage —
clover and rye, and, quite recently, some ensilaged maize stalks from
Canada. It was this last which was always meant by ensilage in America,
some qualifying term being used if any other material were referred to.
He had with him a sample of maize stalks which was put into the silo last
October, taken out the_ middle of last month, and sent to him direct from
Canada. It was perfectly sound, though it had a peculiar flavour, by no
means unpleasant. It smelt strongly of acid, and the acid was principally
acetic and butyric ; there was no alcohol present, because the sugar which
had given rise to these organic changes had entirely disappeared. This
production of acid was an essential element in the process ; if sufficient
acid were not produced, it would not keep, but turn mouldy like any other
food put into a pickle jar with insufiicient or poor vinegar. In this
Canadian ensilage he had found as much as X\ per cent acid, about ^ per
cent, being lactic. The proportion of water varied considerably — ^in the
maize from Canada it was 85| per cent. ; and no doubt, if other food not so
rich ia sugar, and containing much moisture, were put into a silo, it would
spoil altogether. Hence it was recommended by M. Goffart that a certain
proportion of cut straw should be mixed with the green food.* In ensilaged

* Dr. Voelcker is misinformed as to wliat M. Goffart has said on this subieot,
as -will be seen by reference to his reijiarks quoted on pp. 66-68.

1 2

148 Appendix.

clover he only found 79 per cent, of water, and in rye ensilage as little as
72^- per cent. This showed that no certain rule could be laid down that
the product must contain such and such a quantity of water, for it depended
on what the other constituents were. The more sugar there was present
the less need to put anything with it ; but if it were poor in sugar, some dry
food must be added if you wished to preserve it. Disregard of these
conditions had sometimes led to faUure. He was sorry to seem in any way
to oppose this method, but the circumstances of England were different
from those of America. This was the only way of preserving maize stalks ;
you could not make them into hay economically, but in the form of ensilage
they formed a very valuable food, especially for milch cows. They all
knew how valuable acid food was for this purpose ; every dairy farmer
availed himself of brewers' grains when he could get them, but he
did not feed his cows entirely upon them, because he knew that by
so doing the milk would become watery and the cows poor ; he gave
them with the grains some cake, or Indian corn, or pea meal; and it
appeared that the American farmers also gave some dry food. He had
never known of cattle being kept profitably on green food alone. However
valuable ensilaged maize and other green food might be to Americans, he
questioned whether it was of the same importance to the English farmer ;
nay, he questioned whether, in average seasons, with the expense of erecting
silos and the occasional use which we could make of them, food preserved
in this way would be as remunerative as in America. He could not sub-
scribe to the doctrine that green food put into sUos underwent no change ;
nor did it seem possible that the albuminous matters should increase with-
out the destruction of some part of the substance itself, because it must
come from something ; and, unfortunately, neither white of egg nor any
other flesh-forming substance could be produced artificially. If the albu-
minous matter in the ensilaged food increased, it could only be in a similar
manner to that in which the ammonia salts in rotten dung increased in pro-
portion to the amount in fresh manure. One ton of fresh manure became
enormously reduced in bulk in becoming rotten, but at the same time the
proportion of ammonia increased, simply because other substances in the
shape of gaseous products went away into the air. With regard to the
fermentation, he was quite agreed that the quantity of carbonic acid which
went away was not perceptible to an ordinary observer ; but at the same
time if it were true that the albuminous matter increased, and also the
mineral matter, as appeared m most of the analyses, it was pretty clear
that something in an invisible form went away ; probably more or less of
the material itself was dissipated in the form of gaseous product during the
process of acid fermentation. This would not be altogether a disadvantage,
if it could be shown, as perhaps it might, that the amount of digestible
matter increased. The woody fibre in green food, especially when over
ripe, certainly became more digestible in the ensilaged mass. This would
be a great advantage in the use of the food, and probably explained the
success which had attended its use. The loss of substance would be

Dr. Voelcker on Ensilage. 149

counterbalanced by the greater digestibility of food. This pointed to the
propriety of instituting experiments with the view of thoroughly explain-
ing the changes which the green food underwent. If green food could be
preserved, at all seasons, in a fickle climate like the EngUsh, it would be an
immense advantage to the farmer. He had some photographs representing
the sUos on the estate of the Count Arthur de Chezelles, at Boulleaume,
Oise, of a most elaborate construction, and he must say he did not see how
such silos could ever pay. A silo need not be such an expensive affair, and
if experiments were to be made, it was important that the expense of the
erection should be kept as low as possible.

Mr. George Fry said he had been astonished at Dr. Voelcker's analysis
of the Canadian maize, and thought it would have been different had he
analysed it fresh. He believed the quantity of acetic acid would not
have been so great had fresh ensilage been analysed.

Dr. Voelcker did not think the proportion of acid would be increased
by keeping ; besides, he considered it a useful feature. In ensilaged rye
he only found 72| per cent, of water ; but it would depend very ihuch
on the conditions of the green nye. If there were more sugar, greater
maturity in the plant, there would be more acid formed ; if the maize were
not so mature, not so sweet, there would be less acetic acid formed. He
had grown maize in England, and also sorghum, but the crop depended
very much on the season ; one year it was a beautiful plant, 7ft. high ; amd
next it was only about three feet, and cattle would not look at it. Two
years ago he grew maize on the experimental farm, but it came to nothing ;
it was too uncertain a crop for this cUmate.

Mr. Darby said he should like to ask Dr. Voelcker about Mr. Gibson's rye,
which he believed he had analysed, and declared to be equal to green rye.

Mr. Pearce asked if he understood Dr. Voelcker aright, that the whole of
the sugar in these substances was dissipated or destroyed. He thought he
had seen analyses, in which the quantity of sugar was stated, especially of
glucose.

Dr. Voelcker said the ensilaged rye, as he had mentioned, contained
about 72| per cent, of moisture ; he did not know what it contained in its
original state, but it was quite possible it might get even better, and yet
lose something. If he knew what quantity was put in to begin with, he
could tell what was lost. You may put in a certain quantity, some of
vrhich would disappear, and what you took out might be better in quality.
He had compared it with the average quality of green rye, and found it
just as usual. With regard to the sugar, he did not conceive it possible
that a material, which had passed through alcoholic fermentation, and,
subsequently, acetic fermentation, should retain any glucose, which was
liable to undergo change. There was probably about as little sugar in
ensilage as in sour beer.

Mr. Peaice asked if the sugar really underwent the alcoholic fermenta-
tion in this process ; because it seemed to him the conditions necessary to
alcoholic fermentation, heat, and the presence of air, were absent.

150

Appendix.

Dr. Voelcker said the presence of acetic acid -was not conceivable
■without a previous alcoholic fermentation. In a certain stage you could
absolutely smell the alcohol. The temperature was quite as high as -was
necessary.

ANALYSES OF RYE AND MAIZE ENSILAGE.
{The Times, March 21, 1883.)

Sir, — I have lately received from Boston, United States, t-wo parcels
of ensilsige, consisting of rye and maize respectively, which were pro-
duced last summer, and which have been analysed for me by Dr. Voelcker.
They were shipped on Jan. 24. Both were in good condition, but the
maize ensilage keeps better than the rye, because, in Dr. Voelcker's
opinion, the maize when cut contains more sugar, and, therefore, when
fermented, more organic acid.

The results of the analysis are as follows :

Eye.

Maize.

■Water '.

75-19

82-40

Percentage of dry substance aolnMe in water

4-08
0-86'^
0-11
0-02
1-10
1-01
0-98
20-73
0-751

5-75
1-59-]
0-22
0-26
2-58
0-50
0-60
11-85
0-76"!

Bntyrio and other volatile organic aoida

Lactic acid

Soluble extractive matters

r"

Soluble mineral matters

Percentage of dry substance insoluble in water

Digestible cellular fibre

8-41 1

11-08 f

0-49,

5-43

Indigestible fibre

5-14'"

0-52,

* Containing nitrogen

'I' Containing nitrogen

100-00
0-16
0-12

100-00
0-08
0-12

Dr. Voelcker thinks the rye ensilage was cut' a little too late, and
dwells on the importance of cutting the green food when it contains the
maximum amount of sugar.

The ensilage not required for analysis was used at Woburn, and the
manager reports that the cattle liked it much, and seemed to do well upon
it. Dr. Voelcker thinks that the ensilage -will prove " specially useful "
to milking cows in winter.

I regret that space does not allow me to insert the whole of his remarks.

I remain, yours faithfully.

House of Commons. W. Fowler.

Facts about Fodder. 151

THE CHEMISTRY OF ENSILAGE.

CTndee tlie title of " Pacts about Fodder/' some articles by
Mr. F. Woodland Toms, F.C.S., bave been published in The
Field, andj wben the series is completed, it will probably be
reproduced in book form. Certain of these articles have
treated on the chemical effects and deterioration produced by
rain during hay -making, by fermentation in the stack, &c. ;
and others have had reference to effects arising from the
storage of green fodder in pits, both with regard to the
increased digestibility of the fodder resulting from the pro-
cess, and the waste that may take place if the process is
carried out in a slovenly way. From the last-mentioned
articles we here make a selection, giving chiefly those por-
tions which have not been anticipated by information already
included ia the foregoing chapters of this book.

{The Field, Feb. 27, 1883.)

History acquaints us witli the fact that, in times of famine, conta^ous
diseases spring up readily and spread with unusual rapidity ; and if we be
now, as scoffers suggest, suffering from " ensilage fever," our susceptibility
to its attack may fairly be traced to the unhealthy and impoverished state
that has been brought about by repeated failures of the food-getting
processes upon which we have hitherto relied. There can be little doubt, I
think, that the majority of the experiments made, or about to be made, in this
country with respect to ensilage, have had their origin in a painful experience
of the shortcomings of the ordinary process of haymaking, rather than in any
prior conviction of the innate merits of the silo. And to persons who axe
thus influenced there undoubtedly comes a very appropriate warning in the
cautions of those respected authorities, Sir J. B. Lawes and Dr. Voeleker.

What we need is not merely a change, but an . improvement — a relief
from ever-impending mischief ; and now, in the lull between last year's
tentative experiments and the coming season's more active operations, it is
fitting to sum up and review what we have learnt. It seems , to me that
some such summing-up is especially desirable, because, from a want of a
standard of comparison, some persons have styled their experiments " a
success," whereas their products, when passed through my hands, have
proved distinctly inferior to others which have been described in no more
glowing terms. Moreover, there have been statements made public which
I either know to be wrong from my own observations, or I judge to be so
from the teachings of authorities of experience abroad

152 Appendix.

No one, I think, who has paid any attention to facts recently brought
forward -vrill deny that, by burying in pits, green fodder may be main-
tained in a remarkably good state of preservation for months together.
The preservation is never absolute or perpetual ; but to obtain the best
results it is necessary to tightly pack the green fodder into large smooth -
walled sUos, and to maintain the mass under a continued pressure.

[Various details of M. Goffart's practice were here alluded to, but they
are set forth more fuUy in the early chapters of this book.]

A very acid product is not the ideal to be worked up to in making
ensilage. In the product that has undergone least change, alcohol and
acids are only found in very minute quantities. To obtain the best result,
the expulsion of air is necessary, and this is secured by heavy weight-
ing. The " sour fodder " of the Germans and Hungarians, obtained by
burying green food in pits with small precautions, is, there is reason
to believe, very wasteful, from the fermentation being carried to excess.
M. Goffart has " civilised " the primitive " sour fodder" process, and made
it worthy of the recognition of modern agriculturists by pointing out the
advantage of weights (and wellrconstructed silos to permit the weights
to have full effect) in reducing fermentation to a minimum, and thus pre-
serving the food in a condition most approaching its natural state when
freshly cut. Its distinctive marks are, that the temperature is kept low,
and the proportion of acid and alcohol remains exceedingly small.

During the last few months I have seen some eight or nine specimens of
ensilage, and noticed very considerable difference between them. The
difference, was certainly only of degree, but I believe that degree was
sufficiently wide to constitute the difference between a success and a com-
parative failure, economically speaking, though all were eatable and free
from mould. The most successful specimens — i.e. , those that most resemble
the freshly-cut plant — had been subjected to considerable pressure ; the
others were faulty in this respect.

It seems generally admitted that, other things being equals a crop well
supplied with sugar is better adapted for ensilage than one less richly fur-
nished. And it is even more certain that, working with the same material,
vast differences may exist in quality of ensilage according to the care
. expended in expelling and keeping out the atmosphere. By the use of weights
M. Goffart has now, he says, no difliculty in preserving for eight months or
more crops which previously' he was unable to keep many weeks when he
sought to hermetically seal the silo by a covering of clay. He says, too,
that the waste by heating or fermentation is very greatly reduced.

It has been a matter of surprise to men of science, quite as much as to
farmers, that vegetation can, by such simple means as pitting, be preserved
to so great an extent from the decay common to dead organised substances.
Among the many more or less satisfactory explanations which have been
given, that of Professor Lechartier appears to merit most attention, from
the suggestiveness of his experiments, and his high position as an authority
on fermentation.

The Chemistry of Ensilage. 153

By a very long series of researches on fruit, seeds, roots, and leaves, this
investigator has shown that, when these substances are detached from the
plants that bear them, life is not extinct in the cells of which they are
composed ; and that, if maintaiued out of contact with the air, this life
will go on for a considerable period consuming sugar, and giving rise to
alcohol and carbonic acid gas. The evolution of gas slackens after a time,
and finally ceases altogether. This kind of fermentation is a proof of
vitality in the plant, and is distinguished from the fermentation of decay
by the fact that none of the germs that favour putrefaction are found when
examining the pulp microscopically. When, however, the evolution of gas
stops, the cells are really dead, and, being so, are liable to very rapid
destruction when in contact with the atmosphere. So long, however, as
the air is excluded, and no fermenting germs penetrate to the interior, the
fruit remains dormant, and subject to no further change. Thus, Leohartier
has kept pears suspended in closed jars for eight or nine months, and
shown at the end of that time that they maintained their colour, and tasted
merely like mellow fruit; but, on being exposed to the air, they very
quickly became "sleepy" and rotten, and the leaves soon acquired the
normal appearance of dead leaves.

Now, Lechartier considers that the facts he has proved to hold good with
regard to fruit, seeds, and leaves kept out of contact with the oxygen of the
air, find their analogy in green fodder placed under pressure in pits. He has
made miniature sUos with glass bell-jars containing fodder pressed down by
a wooden disc weighted with lead, and so arranged that he could, from time
to time, extract the gas for analysis ; and he has also sealed up fodders in
flasks, and compared their composition before and after fermentation.

He shows that the first action that takes place is the complete absorption
of the oxygen in the residual air of the pit — which doubtless is the cause of
the brief heating observed when a silo is being filled. During the first
week or two (a period varying somewhat according to the composition of
the crop, atmospheric conditions, and mode of pitting) there occurs a free
evolution of carbonic acid gas, which is succeeded by a greatly diminished
outflow lasting over several months. So long as this continues, the fodder
remains in a state of good preservation ; and, with liberal weighting, a^
very small evolution of gas is capable of resisting the pernicious tendency
of the atmosphere to penetrate into the interior.

The rate of disengagement of this gas, and therefore its efliciency as a
preservative, may be gathered from the following figures, obtained with
Lechartier's miniature silo. It will be evident that heavy weights are even
more requisite at the end of the experiment than at the beginning :

Hourly per kilogramme.

12tli of Novemter — Gas discharged 37'7 cuMo centimetres.

22nd „ „ 14-1

25th „ ., 5"4

6th of Deoemher „ 5'2

28tli „ „ 2'7

From Feb. 21 to March 1 „ 0-25

154 Appendix.

On the 1st of March there was no gas ; the cells had lost aU activity,
and mould may therefore be afterwards expected to appear on the surface,
and decay begin to prey upon the ensilage.

• If I understand Lechartier aright, he contends that, while the vegetable
cells are still alive, they wiU not grow mouldy and decay. That, when
severed from the living plant, each constituent cell possesses a certain
vitality in itself, or power of doing work ; and that it cannot be considered
dead till it has expended that power. That, in the presence of air, the
cells live and act with considerable energy, and exhaust their powers early.
Out of contact with air, however, they live more sluggishly, and take a far
longer time to consume the same amount of sugar ; indeed, the process
becomes so slow that the sugar is not aU consumed when the silo is
opened. This is proved by the analyses of Barral, Lechartier, and myself,
and by the heating and formation of alcohol that takes place on exposure
to air. The vital energy being longer in expending itself, the time is
postponed when the moulds and other parasites can begin to prey on the
dead residue, and set up their characteristic and generally offensive
fermentations. The above, though it sounds somewhat theoretical, is not
without experimental proof, for Lechartier has found that the vital action,
which wiU go on for months in a properly-weighted sUo, does actually
cease in a very few days if air be drawn through the ensUage.

Perfect fruit and undamaged leaves, kept out of contact with air,
furnish us, one would think, with "ensilage'' under theoretically perfect
conditions ; yet even here some loss of substance and considerable modifi-
cations in the constituents of the fruit occur ; , and loss of substance is in
the same way inevitable to ensilage, even when made in the best con-
structed silo. It is the price one must pay for the vitality that enables
the ehsUage to resist putrefaction.

How slight this loss may be reduced to we do not know with precision,
for no experiments have been made contrasting the weight and composi-
tion of that put into a sUo vidth the weight and the composition of that
which was taken out.

This is to be regretted, for it deprives us of the best way of ascertaining
the economic value of the method. We do possess, however, compara-
tive analyses of ensilage, made by wasteful methods, and these I wiU
produce in the next article. They teach a useful lesson to those who
adopt such methods, and show, on a magnified scale, the changes that
go on. The losses that occur are due to fermentation, which may vary
very greatly in extent in the same substance according to the way in
which it is pitted ; and, as the fermentation varies, the loss will naturally
vary in a corresponding degree. M. Barral, who is a chemist as well
as permanent secretary of the National Agricultural Society of France,
mentions that maize ensilage, differing in the silos employed, possessed
temperalfures respectively of 46°, 16°, and 10° C. (115°, 60?, and 60°
Fahr.), and the degree of acidity was respectively equivalent to -792,
•544, and -099 per cent, of sulphuric acid. He says, " It is the maize-

The Chemistry of Ensilage. 166

that has been maintained in the sUo at the lowest temperature that
contains by far the least acid. It is that one which, in my opinion, has
been preserved in a state most resembling maize at the time it was
cut." Deductions that are true of one specimen of ensilage, made in
one kind of sUo, are, however, not necessarily true with respect to that
which is made in a different way ; but at several of the agricultural
colleges in America the professors are working at this subject experi-
mentally, and we may hope shortly to obtain some statistical results .

(The Field, March 3, 1883.)

The nutritious qualities of ensilage, like those of hay, must of course
mainly depend on the substance from which it is made ; but over and
above this, its value is modified by the mode of curing. Fermentation, in
a greater or less degree, is inseparable from ensilage ; and such fodder,,
therefore, is characterised by containing small quantities of alcohol, and
acetic and other organic acids. It does not appear that in small quanti-
ties they do any harm; indeed, they seem to be beneficial rather than
otherwise, and they prove so attractive that many animals will renounce
green grass, hay, meal, and other good foods, to feed on the ensilage.

It is not probable that any of our ordinary English fodder crops, even
if inefficiently stored, will develope as much acidity as beetroot and starch
refuse, or even so much as maize ensilage sometimes produces; and as
such food is tolerated by cattle, we need hardly disturb ourselves on the
score of acidity in our own specimens. Even if it should prove excessive,
it can always be neutralised by a little powdered chalk being mingled with
it after taking it out of the silo. Still, the acetic fermentation should be
resisted as much as possible, for such fermentation signifies the consump-
tion of material that is more useful than the resulting product; besides
which, the latter is the forerunner of an objectionable kind of fermenta-
tion called butyric. By this latter acid a very unpleasant odour is given
to the mass; and, although cattle can even put up with this in small
quantities, yet they recoil from it in the end, and fall off in their feed.
M. Goffart met with this objectionable kind of fermentation in some of
his earlier experiments. It arose when he attempted to store crops that
had been beaten down and become yellow and decayed at the foot. He
finally succeeded in rendering eatable even such crops as these, but he
had to double or treble the weights, and the product resembled the
" brown hay " of the G-ermans rather than that kind of ensilage in which
M. Goffart delights.

The Americans, who generally seemed to have followed GofCart's
directions very closely, appear to have been singularly fortunate in their
experiences ; for Commissioner Loring, of the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, sums up the results obtained by nearly one hundred farmers, who
have reported to him, in these words : " The condition of stock fed on
ensilage, both as to health and gain in weight, has been uniformly favour-

1 56 Appendix.

able." This refers not only to maize ensilage, but also to the many other
green crops they have experimented on. Considering that the Americans
are themselves only novices, this speaks much for the simplicity of the
process, and is an encouraging testimony of vrhat we may ourselves
expect.

I have read carefully through these 100 American reports and have
watched for some time past the opinions expressed in American, French,
and German periodicals ; and, considering the ordinary tendency of man-
kind to grumble, and the natural liability to fail when trying a new
process, I have been fairly astonished at the smaU amount of complaint
from those who have tried the process and can speak from their own
personal experience.

It seems to be taken for granted among users of ensilage that the
forage is improved, rather than deteriorated, by a slight alcoholic fermen-
tation ; and this is what M. GofEart aimed at when he first commenced
working. He soon found, l^owever, that, in the silo, the fermentation is
apt to overstep the mark and degenerate into acetic and lactic fermenta-
tion, which are to be avoided, because they are wasteful, and finally into
butyric fermentation and putrefaction, which is, of course, positively
objectionable. Consequently, as Goffart found it impossible to hit off the
happy mean in the silo, he now strives to stifle fermentation entirely,
so long as the fodder remains there. He finds he can readUy obtain the
desired amount of fermentation by a few hours' free exposure to the air
previous to feeding.

Fermentation always has, the result of producing new substances at
the expense of existing constituents; and as some of these new
substances are gaseous, fermentation always implies a certain loss in
weight.

If animals digested and converted to useful purposes the whole of the
food they receive into their system, then undoubtedly loss in weight
would be an unmixed evil ; and if, again, the loss fell on the easily -digested
parts, and left the other constituents untouched, then this would make
matters even worse. But luckily (and this is a most important matter)
we have evidence to prove that such is not the effect of fermentation on
weU-made ensilage. There the loss which occurs falls most markedly on
the substances that possess the smallest feeding value. Owing, as I
believe, to the action of the water present, fermentation does- not produce
precisely the same effect on ensilage as upon hay. Fermented hay shows
an increase of woody fibre over prime hay, whereas fermented ensilage has
commonly a much smaller percentage of fibre than the substance from
which it is made. Fermentation apparently acts in a very thorough
manner upon ensilage ; it not only converts sugar into alcohol, and acetic
and other acids, but it also converts the starchlike bodies into saccharine
substances, and reduces insoluble woody fibre into soluble bodies somewhat
allied to starch. Sugar, starch, digestible and indigestible fibre, have
ohemically all the same percentage composition ; but the last is of small

The Chemistry of Ensilage.

157

feeding value, and is even actively injurious, for it may encase round
substances that are in themselves very easy to assimilate, and thus
prevent their being acted on by the digestive powers of the animal.

Commissioner Loring says : " There are indications that some materials
have their value enhanced by the fermentation of the silo, while in
others there is a loss ;" and I think, when we shall have tested this
question more thoroughly, that the value will be found to be most
enhanced in substances containing a considerable amount of indigestible
matter.

The constituents of grain are naturally digested by the animal with
very considerable completeness. If, therefore, we attempt to ferment
them, we shall find — as Sir J. B. Lawes showed in the case of malted
barley — that the slight improvement in digestibility produced is more
than overbalanced by the loss in weight. Such results, however, are not on
the same footing with coarser foods, as grass for instance ; for here a very
considerable amount of indigestible and rejected matter exists, and a loss
of weight which would be wasteful with grain, might turn out a good
investment as regards grass, from the greater scope for improvement that
is possible. Prom the following table it will be seen that, with inferior
hay, the animal may not assimilate one half of what is given him. Could
we but manage to make one pound of this poor hay go as far as an
equivalent weight of young pasture grass, we could apparently submit to
any amount of loss short of one-fourth, and still obtain a balance of
profit.

Food.

Proportion of each constituent digested by the animal
out of 100 parts supplied.

Of ■
organic
matter as
a whole.

Of albu-
menoids.

Of Jat.

Of soluble

carbo-
hydrates.

Of fibre.

Pasture grass

Meadow hay (very good)
Meadow hay (ordinary)
Maize (soaked grain) ...

per cent.
62-1
51-7
46-3
90-9

per cent.
68-8
64-3
58-4
77-6

per cent.
13-4
28-5
18-8
68-0

per cent.
65-8
56-9
51-7
93-9

per cent.

57-0

42-6

37-3

100-0

The above are the results of actual experiments carried out on a horse
by Professor von WoM, the grass used being out at various times from
the same field. It will be seen that the animal never succeeded in
digesting the theoretical amount even of the soluble compounds present ;
and it would appear that the gTeat obstacle that prevented this was the
fibre. There was nearly double as much woody fibre in the oldest hay as
was contained in the younger specimen ; and it would, of course, be more
consolidated and resistant. When the animal was fed on soaked maize —
which contains scarce a tenth of the fibre contained in hay — the digestion
of the various constituents immediately became very complete indeed.

158 ■ Appendix.

In the same way I believe that if the woody fibre of grasses can be
Tendered soluble or disintegrated not only wiU a larger proportion of it be
digested, but other substances previously locked up will be more readily
acted on.

An experiment, which can only be explained on some such principle as
the above, is one by Professor Henry, of the Agricultural Department of
the Wisconsin State University, already referred to in The Field, of
Feb. 10 [reprinted here on page 142].

Another observation, equally difficult to explain away, is contributed by
Mr. O. B. Potter to the American Cultivator. A field of. pearl millet
had inadvertently been allowed to attain so large and hard a growth that
the cows wholly rejected the stalks, and would eat nothing but the leaves
when the millet was offered to them green. By way of experiment, one-
fourth of the crop was cut and put into a silo, the remainder of the field
being cured by drying in shocks in the ordinary way. This last was found
so nearly worthless for feeding dry that it was used for litter in the barn-
yards and for covering ice in an icehouse ; whereas that which was pre-
served in the pit was opened and fed in April. The cows ate it all, leaf
and stalk, eagerly, without any loss or waste, and, Mr. Potter says, it was
fully equal in value to the same quantity of the best maize fodder pre-
served in the pits.

The following experiment by Colonel Le Grand B. Cannon, of Burling-
ton, Vermont, U.S., is interesting, because maize ensilage is contrasted
with an approximately equal amount, reckoned dry, of ordinary hay and
also of hay and roots. I say " approximately," because the actual pro-
. portion of ensilage was rather under than over the mark ; for average hay
contains about 15 per cent, of water, so that 201b. of hay would have
about 171b. of dry matter, and the average proportion of water in maize
ensilage is said to be about 82 or 83 per cent., so that the quantity of dry
matter in the ensilage given to these beasts would probably weigh about
161b. Colonel Cannon says :

" I fed ninety three -year-old steers, divided into three lots ; cattle and
feed weighed Inonthly.

"First Lot. — Fed 201b. hay with 31b. grain daily, run in yard with
shelter.

"Second Lot. — ^Kept in warm stable and stanchions, fed 17|lb. hayj
one peck mangolds, and 31b. grain.

" Third Lot. — Fed 851b. ensilage, with 31b. grain. This lot gained Jib-
a day more than No. 2, and |lb. more than Lot 1. The cost was 5 per
cent, in favour of ensilage."

The feeding was kept up for five months and a half, and Colonel Cannon
adds : " The cattle fed as stated were in better health and condition than
others fed on the chopped hay and grain. I consider ensilage profitable,
and believe it entirely healthy, taking the place of roots. It is easily
digested, as is shown by the uniform temperature of the animals and the
condition of the skin and hair."

The Chemistry of Bnsilage. 159

[A very extensive series of experiments fey Professor McBryde, of
Tennessee University, was here referred to, but these are already quoted
from on page 97.]

Of the value of ensilage for dairy purposes the evidence is remarkably
strong. Oommissioner Loring sums up the hundred reports sent to him
him in the words : " There can be no doubt its greatest value will always
be found in this connection." But in illustration of this good efEect on
mUk-production it is not necessary to go so far as America, as a very
admirable example has recently been furnished us at home by Mr Henry
Woods, in his account of the experiment on Lord Walsingham's estate,
quoted at considerable length in The Field of Feb. 10. [Here followed
particulars summarised on page 101, and given more fully on p. 119
et seq."]

The above facts are quoted because they are statistical results obtained
by actual analysis, and therefore are of much greater value than any
indefiaite statement teeming with adjectives. They suggest, too, the kind
of experiments that may advantageously be carried out during the extended
trial which the system will probably undergo before long in this country.

{The Fieldi March 10, 1883.)

The main conditions for successfully making ensilage are, as we have
seen, simple and few. Nevertheless a feeling is abroad that if it be
already so simple, it might be made simpler stiU ; and many who, a few
months ago, would deny the possibility of preserving crops in the green
condition in any way whatever, are now developing a tendency to complain
of the labour of putting on weights, or of the necessity of making a
receptacle at all. The number who think thus are, it is to be devoutly
hoped, small, for they are dangerous disciples.

Ensilage, let us never forget, though new to us, is very old in itself, and
there is little which we are likely to devise during our noviciate that has
not been tried before ; so that it is scarcely too much to say that what is
not recommended may reasonably be presumed to have failed. At any
rate, it will be far wiser to fully avail ourselves of the experience of
workers on this process abroad, and to turn neither to the right nor the'
left in the conditions so simple yet so important that they lay down, than
it will be to venture on unknown paths in search of improvements. First
let us endeavour to do as well as our teachers are doing ; improvements
may be attempted afterwards.

To make good ensilage, it is necessary, not only to prevent air getting
in, but to drive out all air that is already inclosed in the mass. The only
practicable way of doing this on the large scale is energetic compression.
The e^rly experimenters started without weights, but, finding their
importance, have little by little increased them ; so that, if we begin with
small weights, we shall be simply retrograding, not advancing. In the
same way they began with holes in the earth, and now prefer well-built

160 Appendix.

silos. Silos of masonry or wood are useful, because they facilitate the
practical working of the process. They are easier to fill and to empty,
are cleaner and more permanent, and in short, more convenient. They
can also be made watertight, which doubtless is an advantage ; but, best
of all, they have smooth and regular sides, so that the mass slips down the
walls without much friction, and thus the mass becomes compressed with
little effort. So far as the preservation of the food is concerned, large
and smooth-waUed silos are, to my mind, mainly useful as economisers of
weight. One can make, it appears, as good ensilage in an earthen pit as
in the most expensive silo ; but far greater weights must be used to
produce the result, for the mass clings to the irregular sides with
obstinacy, and is difficult to compress. It is, under any circumstances*
necessary to put the heaviest weights round the edge of the silo ; the
centre will almost take care of itself.

Ensilage has been made, I am well aware, without any artificial weights
being placed on the top : but this does not rebut the advisability of having
recourse to weights — for in such cases the whole contents of the pit are
not well preserved, but only the lower parts that are compressed by the
mass above. The upper part and sides, which are not compressed, are
generally mouldy and of little value ; while even the preserved parts show,
by their high acidity, that they would have been much improved if weights
had been used. On the score of preservation, deep silos are obviously
more to be recommended than shallow ones, and, owing to the smaller
surface, less weight is necessary on the whole mass.

For the process to be economical, we must save the top and sides as
well as the kernel ; and it is to preserve these outer parts that weights are
required. Goffart now manages, it is said, to keep the top and sides of
his silos almost entirely free from mould, whereas formerly the loss used
to amount to 15 per cent, or more.

Mouldiness is a form of waste that every farmer can understand ; but
there is another variety of waste which also exists, but which it is most
difficult to make apparent, because it is not obvious to the eye. It does
not occur to him that solid matter can " evaporate " and pass ofE into the
air, even from those portions which he considers to be of good quality.
If freshly cut plants containing one ton of solid matter be buried in a pit,
under no circumstances is it possible that a ton would be taken out ; but
the more perfectly the air is excluded, the nearer to a ton the mass will
weigh.

An experiment conducted by Professor Moser, of the Agricultural
Experimental Station at Vienna, illustrates this fact in a very forcible
way. He buried bundles of maize No. 1, of known weight (6000
grammes) at depths of IVin. and 34in., in a " grube " or earthen silo
familiar to that country, also another lot of maize No. 2, and when the
siloes were opened he re-weighed these bundles and ascertained the loss
of each constituent of the fodder. The following give the absolute weight
in grammes obtained from each bundle :

The Chemistry of Ensilage.

161

Fresh
Maize
No. 1.

Ensilage
17in.
deep.

Ensilage
34in.
deep.

Freeh
Maize
No. 2.

Ensilage
No. 2.

Water

4761

54-0
45-6
649-2
400-2
37-8
52-2

1215-5

39-0
39-6
350-4
386-5
40-0
39-0

2846

36-5
39-0
273-5
379-0
37-0
44-0

4603-2

58-8
55-2
734-4
462-0
38-4
48-0

3886-4
38-6

Pat

53-5

Solutle oarbo-liydrates . . .
Fibre :....

326-8
404-0

Ash

■39-5

Sand

70-3

Total solid matter, dry . . .

1239-0

894-5

809-0

1396-8

932-7

In Hungary the method for preparing " sour fodder," as they call it,
is to dig a long trench in the ground, and fill in the fodder, not only up
to the level, but far above it, and then to cover the whole over with earth.
There is a constant tendency, under these circumstances, for the earth to
crack round the sides, and air gets iu accordingly. Considering, too,
that the French and Americans, with their more perfect silos and
heavier compression, still consider it necessary to cut up a large-stalked
plant like maize into half or quarter-inch lengths, it is not surprising
that Professor Moser met with such a wasteful result when using a
bundle of unchopped maize.

Another German experiment is that by Professor Weiske, on sainfoin.
The first half of this table shows the composition of the dry matter in
fresh sainfoin, as compared with an equal weight of dry matter in eusUage
made from the same sainfoin; and it might be assumed, from a hasty
glance at the two sets of figures, that there is a considerable increase in
some of the constituents; and, although some loss is obvious in others,
yet there is nothing to indicate that the total is any way dimiaished.
This is owing to the fact that, although you know the weight of the
ensilage as taken out of the pit, you do not know what the fodder
weighed when it was put in. The second half of the table supplies this
deficiency, for it shows the weight of the dry matter in the fresh fodder
on being put into the silo, and the weight of what remained, when it was
taken out in the form of ensilage.

Albumenoids

Pat

Soluble carbohydrates

Pibre .'

Ash ,

Oomposi
parts
matt

Fresh
sainfoin.

ion of 100
of dry ■
er in

Ensilage.

1001b. of

matter of

fodder

"When

put in

silo.

the dry

the fresh

yielded

As taken

out of

silo.

18-56

20-44

18-56

15-53

2-89

6-02

2-89

4-57

38-60

30-88

38-60

23-47

33-93

35-18

33-93

26-74

602

7-48

6-02

5-50

100-00

100-00

100-00

75-81

Gain

or
Loss.

303
1-68
15-13
7-19
0-52

M

162

Appendix.

Here it will be seen that, although the fat is increased, there is, on the
whole, a loss of 24 per cent, of dry matter in the ensilage ; and the right-
hand column will show in what way the loss is apportioned. This table
marks in a Tery instructive manner the importance of comparing ensilage
with its equivalent of the green stuff it was made from, instead of taking
equal weights of each, as is usually done.

From the consideration of analyses like the above, I am convinced of
GofEart's wisdom in insisting on heavy weights. If ensilage does prove a
failure, this is the direction in which its defects must be looked for. At
the same time, it must be borne in mind that none of the foregoing analyses
apply to well-made ensilage — at any rate, to the extent there set down —
since heavy weighting did not form a feature of the experiments quoted.
They therefore mainly apply to those who refuse to recognise the
importance of great pressure. M. Groffart asserts, and M. Barral, the
chemist, supports him, that the above is by no means a fair representation
of what takes place in well-made ensilage; and M. Grandeau, another
eminent French chemist, shows by the following comparative analyses of
fresh and siloed maize from M. Goffart's farm at Burtin, that the amount
of alteration is relatively small :

Maize,

"Water.

Sugar.

Albume-
noids.

Soluble
carbo-
hydrates.

Fat.

Fibre.

Ash.

Acid.

Natural

Ensilage

81-28
81-28

0-58
0-15

1-22
1-24

10-41
9-58

0-25
0-36

4-98
4-91

1-29 0-00
2-25 0-23

From a study of the above analyses it wUl be evident that, whether the
loss in ensilage be great or small, it always is in the same direction ; that
is to say, it always falls heaviest on the members of the closely-allied
group — the sugars, starches, and cellulose (fibre or cell-substance). As
much of the starch and a portion of the cellulose are destroyed to produce
successively sugar, alcohol, carbonic acid, and, if air be present, acetic
acid also, the nitrogenous substances, being more stable bodies, appear by
contrast to rise in amount. The ash receives a similar apparent increase,
as well as an actual increase, frequently, from dirt or added salt. The fat
is the only substance that really is in larger absolute amount after pitting ;
it appears to be formed, or something like it, by the changes undergone
during fermentation.

The tendency of fermentation to break down and render soluble the
fibre of the pitted food is a most valuable feature in ensilage. Com-
parative analyses by Grandeau and by Lechartier ; the results obtained by
Dr. Cameron, with the Irish rye grass experiments ; Mr. Sutton's analyses
of Lord Walsingham's ensilage — all show this property of prolonged
fermentation. The object of digestion is to convert food into a condition
that is soluble in the juices of the body ; and that portion of the
siibstance which cannot be so dissolved is not only useless but objection-

The Chemistry of Ensilage. 163

able, as having a tendency to exhaust the animal by labour in vain. It
further hinders the digestion of substances that are very nutritious in
themselves, by encasing them round, as is seen with seeds, which frequently
pass unaltered through the animal, whereas, if crushed or husked, they
would be very valuable food. The experiments of M. Grandeau and Mr.
Sutton indicate that there is more soluble matter in ensilage than there is
ia the dried or green fodder — ^reckoning, of course, pound for pound of
the dry matter in each. Whether it is always so, when we compare grass
or hay with the weight of ensilage that would have been produced if these
had been put in the pit, is the great unsettled question, around which
turns the whole economical value of the process.

The view, then, that I take of the ensilage process is this — That those
who feel inclined to shirk in any way the imposition of the weights
necessary to compression will be ill-advised in trying the process at all ;
for, economically, I do not think their endeavours will prove profitable in
the long run. They may see distiactly enough the mouldiness or putres-
cence that is upon the surface, and may estimate its amount as compared
with the mass of apparently sound food that is in the pit ; but it wiU be
well for them to bear ia mind that they only observe a portion of the
mischief, and this may represent but a minor part of the actual waste, if
regard be paid to the loss which has been going on in unseen parts of the
silo, in consequence of a defective mode of carrying out the process. If,
however, the fermentation be skilfully controlled, I see no reason why the
improvement in quality, brought about in the mechanical condition of the
food, may not more than compensate for the loss in quantity, considering
the very large margin of undigested matter which coarse fodders contain.

Ensilage, has, moreover, the advantage of saving labour, and of being
independent of the weather ; and these two are in themselves sufficient to
counterbalance a considerable amount of the loss that takes place in the
silo. Of the profitableness of ensilage in the United States, Commis-
sioner Loring's report says, " Not a doubt exists, certainly not a
dissenting opinion ;" but, of course, a large amount of this unanimity lies
in the fact that American farmers can grow a cheap crop like maize, and
store it up as they never could do before.

It is much to be hoped that those who make experiments on ensilage
this year wiU, for the benefit of their fellow agriculturists, keep records
of the cost and results of their trials ; and, if they do go so far as to have
analyses made, let them always endeavour to make them comparative,
either by sending hay made from forage cut at the same time, or by having
a sample of fresh grass analysed at the time when it is put in the silo.
Whether ensilage be for our good, or be harmful, it is alike needful that
we should quickly know its real nature ; and a deep debt of gratitude will
be owing to those pioneers who shortly propose to test it.

F. Woodland Toms, F.O.S.

7, Busby-place, Oamden-road, London, March 7, 1883.

M 2

I

€

J

1

.g

CQ

■43

^

A Yorkshire Silo. 165

SILO AT EAST COWTON, YORKSHIEB.

Me. Thos. Easdale, dating from the Pepper Arden Hall Estate
Office, East Cowton, Northallerton, wrote some letters on tliis
subject in The Field of December, 1882, and January, 1883,
the particulars of which we here bring together.

The preservation of green food for the use of cattle during winter having
engaged a considerable amount of pubKc attention for some time past, I
feel sure that many of your readers will be interested to learn that a most
successful experiment has been carried out close to this place by a neighbour
of mine, who cordially permits the leading facts to be stated. They are
as follows :

Some time in the early part of this present year, a copy of Mr. Bailey's
book on the subject came to hand, which, after a careful perusal, was
subjected to a searching discussion, in which it was my privilege to join.
After all the pros and cons were well thrashed out, it was decided that a
thorough trial should be given to the system so eloquently advocated by
Mr. Bailey. It was also resolved that to this trial all possible intelligence
should be applied, and that no reasonable trouble or expense should be
spared.

The sUo — ^the plan of which is a simple oblong, 12ft. in length, 7ft. wide,
and 8ft. deep — was built during the month of June and early part of July,
and was filled with grass during the latter part of August and beginning of
September.

After sufficient additions had been made to the contents and the arrange-
ments for compressing the grass were carefully adjusted, the whole thing
was closed up on the 14th of September.

It was the intention at that time that the sUo should not be opened until
Christmas ; but a friend, who was deeply interested in the experiment,
called on the 25th of November, and would hear of nothing else but that
the pit should be opened while he was here. My neighbour having
consented, the thing was done ; the result being — even to those of us who
were believers throughout — a most agreeable surprise. The whole mass of
ensilage was found to be in a perfect state of preservation, and gave forth
a most pleasant aroma not easily described.

The cattle, on the first day of being offered it, were, as was expected,
rather dainty, but on the second day took it eagerly, and by the end of the
first week they had become as fond of it as they are of the best oilcake — in
fact, they now eat it ravenously.

A test as to the production of mUk and butter cannot at the present time
be easily ascertained, owing to the fact that all the cows calve early in the
ensuing spring, and therefore would naturally now be drying off. Exact

166 Appendix.

accounts are, however, being kept, with the result that, even under the
circumstances just stated, both milk and butter have increased in quantity
during the short time the cows have been fed with ensilage ; while the
quality of milk, butter, and cream continues all that can be desired.

The quantity of ensilage given to each cow per day is about 451b. weight,
plus the ordinary rations of the usual feeding meals or cake.

Chopping of the grass was dispensed with. A man with a horse and cart
followed two scythes ; he forked the grass into the cart from the swath,
and from this cart the grass was again simply forked into the sUo.

My letter on this subject having brought forth very numerous inquiries
from all parts of the country, including Scotland and Ireland, I have
endeavoured as far as possible to cover the various questions put.

1. Kind of grass used. — Commenced with ordinary grass from roadside ;
then some of a stalky nature, and finished with strong aftermath.

2. State of grass when put in silo. — Some dry, other portions wet with
dew, and other portions partially wet with rain.

3. How put in f — Thrown in with a fork, then shaken out, in order as far
as possible to maintain a level surface ; and the grass well trodden down.

4. How much put in at each filling. — Two feet depth, when trodden soM.

5. Use of the weighting apparatus. — After each filling, the planks and
weights were put on with the greatest care.

6. Kind of weights. — The weights were the same throughout the whole
operation — ^viz., wooden boxes, 12ui. square and ISiu. high. They were
filled with puddled clay, and weighed 1001b. each. The boxes are placed
close together, and always so as to cover the junctions of planks, but
without any idea of their excluding air by overlapping or otherwise.

7. Covering boards — ^One inch and a quarter thick ; their length equals
the breadth of silo.

8. Straw between planks and grass. — No straw or any other material was
placed between the grass and the covering planks.

9. How long between each filling. — Three days, with the weights on.

10. Amount of sinkage.— Not yet exactly ascertained, but probably a
little more than one-half ; or, in other words, 14ft. was put in, and the
depth of the ensilage now is 6ft. 4in.

11. Foreign substances mixed with grass. — From 141b. to 161b. of common
salt was supplied to each filling, but no other substance of any kind was
added to the grass. Whether the salt is actually necessary remains to be
seen : and next year one silo wiU be filled without it.

12. If airtight, and how ? — No means other than the weighting apparatus
were used to make the sUo airtight ; nor was any attempt made in any way
to hermetically close it.

13. How is air excluded? — By compression only.

, 14. Heating. — Not the slightest appearance of heating has been at any
time observable in the mass.

A Yorkshire Silo. 167

15. Chopping of material. — This was dispensed with, because it wotdd
save labour and implements, and was considered unnecessary. We cannot
think that any loss of space is occasioned thereby.

16. How long closed? — The silo was closed for two months and eleven days.

17. Colour of ensilage. — The colour of ensilage when taken out of silo
was a " pale yellow green."

18. How much removed at once ? — Just sufficient for a day's consumption
is taken out of the silo at once, and no change of colour or smell has been
noticed, even after being exposed for three or four days.

19. How left after cutting? — The silo is cut into for each supply, and the
cut face left as you would that of a haystack.

20. Quantity of grass put in. — About fourteen cartloads — ^that is, two at
each filling.

21. What quality of grass should he used, and at what stage of^ growth
should it be cut? — From experience here, we say, "The better quality the
grass, the better the ensUage ; " and, as the aftermath portion has come
out as good as the other, it should follow that grass of any age may be
successfully used.

22. Other crops. — My neighbour intends to operate (in a second silo)
next year, on tares, oats, and prickly comfrey.

23. Material for building silo.— The walls (14in. thick) of sUo are built
with good bricks and mortar, and faced with a coating of cement. The
floor is made of bricks covered with cement.

24. Is the silo sunk or not? — The silo here is 8ft. deep, 7ft. of which are
below the surface of the ground. Our experience has, however, suggested
several important improvements, a description of which, to be clearly
understood, should be accompanied with plans to illustrate.

25. How drained? — The sUo was well drained aU round, and under, but
not "into."

26. Should floor be level? — Give it a fall of lin. for its whole length, and
at one corner of lowest end make a small shallow well, 9in. square by Sin.
deep, from the bottom of which take a small pipe to a tap outside.

27. How covered in .?— With a simple roof resting on the silo walls.

28. Cost of construction. — This can be easily ascertained, and would
depend to some extent on local circumstances. There would be so many
cubic yards of excavating, so many yards of brickwork and cement
plastering, and, lastly, a plain substantial roof of some kind. It has been
determined that the next silo erected here shall be roofed over, and an
arrangement made whereby the weights can be raised and lowered with a
block and pulley, so as to ease the manual labour. An improvement in the
weights is also contemplated.

29. Cost of filing. — This will depend very much on how far the land on
which the grass grows is from the silo. After this it is only a matter of
carting to the silo and filling in as mentioned under heads 2, 3, 4.

30. Ration for each cow. — From 351b. to 501b. per day, according to size
of beast and quantity of other food given.

168 * Appendix.

31. Quality of iutter and cream, and condition of cattle. — The butter and
cream continue of the very best quality, while the improvement in the
general appearance of cows is most decided.

32. Utility of silo. — It is obvious that silos virtually perform at once the
functions of the three existing operations — viz., iirst, hay-drying ; secondly,
stacking ; and, thirdly, that of a stacking bam. Moreover, they will,
when fairly well built, last fifty years or more ; so that, practically, no
future expense need be incurred beyond that of filling them annually.

33. Analysis. — This is beyond my province, but I shall be glad to
forward a sample to Professor Voelcker or any other analytical chemist for
analysis.

34. Weight of ensilage.— One cubic foot was put on scale, and it weighed
43^1b., thus showing that our silo contained, when opened, rather over
10 tons. Comparing this with head No. 20 shows that little or no loss of
weight can have taken place under the operation.

There can be no doubt of the great importance of this subject to every
agriculturist, more especially to grass farmers. One of my correspondents
in Ireland says that he and his father had 300 acres of meadow to save last
summer ; and, owing to the extraordinary wetness of the season, a great
portion was lost. To such gentlemen silos will be the greatest boon
imaginable. They can cart to them all the grass from shady and damp
places round woods, &c., leaving that on, the more open and upland places
to be made into hay.

Being urged by some friends to offer my services in connection with this
question as far as my duties here will permit, I shall be glad to arrange for
furnishing plans and particulars for silos, and also to give instructions and
personal superintendence when required. Thos. Easdale.

Estate Office, Pepper Arden HaU, East Cowton, Northallerton.

ANOTHER YORKSHIRE SILO.

{Agricultural Gazette, Feb. 12, 1883.)

The following is an account of an experiment made by my brother and
myseK last summer, hoping thus to help in deciding the real value of the
system, and aiding, if possible, by giving our experience, anyone thinking
of trying it themselves.

I have long looked for some discovery which should insure the farmer
against the heavy losses regularly sustained by the bad harvesting of
forage crops consequent on our uncertain climate, and often thought that
some method of preserving grass in its green state would best meet this
end ; and some ten or twelve years since I made some small experiments
by hermetically sealing grass pressed into tins, and should have carried the
trials further, but was discouraged by the condition in which it came
out, and the bad smell given off, though I now find that it had some
resemblance to ensUage. I was delighted, however, two years since, when

Another Yorkshire Silo. 169

I first heard of M. Goffart's trials and success in France, and those of his
followers in America, and I determined to try it at once.

Last year the Earl of Whamcliffe kindly offered to build us a silo, and
we came to the conclusion that the easiest and cheapest method would be
to make it in an existing stone barn. We, however, selected rather an
old one, and excavated the rock in the bottom to a depth of about 6ft., in
order to get sufficient depth for the pit. From the bottom of this excava-
tion we built thin inner walls — excepting in the front, which was very bad
and was rebuilt — ^filled with grout or thin mortar, our object being to get
solid air and waterproof wall, and also straight and perpendicular ones, as
the old ones were not so. We thus saved the expense of building an
entirely new barn and roof, and cattle shed or lean-to which is attached.
The walls are faced with cement, and the floor is constructed by laying a
thin cover of 2in. or Sin. of Ume concrete coated with cement, and the
whole whitewashed two or three times with cement without sand. This
is important, as it gives a very hard, smooth, waterproof surface! I am
building some liquid manure tanks on the same principle, and they seem to
answer admirably. Wells or water tanks are made in this way in America,
and will hold water any length of time.

The silo thus constructed would have been 29ft. long by 14ft. wide, but
we thought it best to divide it, for convenience in filling, by a partition
wall a foot wide — of course faced with cement on both sides. This gives
us two pits, each 14ft. square by 15ft. deep.

On Aug. 12 (a dry day) we put in as it was mown, unchopped, a very
heavy crop of natural meadow from about five acres of land. We had three
or four men inside tramping and spreading the grass evenly ; it, however,
flUed both pits to the top. On this we placed some bad hay, and then
weighted with about 30 ton of stone, equal to 12 or 13 cwt. per square
yard, without boards or planks. Next morning it had sunk about 6ft,; and
went on sinking for about a fortnight, and now stands about 5ft. 6in. high
from the bottom. In about a week after fiUiag it had begun to ferment,
and was slightly warm, but never attained a high temperature.

We opened it in the beginning of January, and, except a few inches on
the top, it is perfectly preserved quite to the waU sides and bottom, some
near the wall sides being nearly as green as when' put in. The bulk of it is
about the colour that slightly sweated hay would be if wetted. It has a
smeU peculiar to itself and aU other ensilage. It is perfectly clear of mould,
or any signs of putrefaction, and quite cold, but if lightened and exposed
long to the air wUl again begin to ferment and heat. Thus if the weight is
taken off the edge where it has been cut away from, it wiU begin to heat
and smell like sweating hay, and the cattle seem to Kke it well when warm,
but it wiU shortly begin to dry and mould.

We are feeding it to seven cows which calve early in the spring, and
are therefore naturally fast losing their milk ; yet they improved consider-
ably for three weeks after coming from hay. The milk has a slightly
altered flavour from that of hay, but the butter is very good in flavour and

170 Appendix.

colour, mucli better than hay butter. The cattle are extremely fond of it,
and this is a good test of its quality. They all ate it without hesitation
from the first. Horses will generally eat it at once, and sheep after a short
time. I think it at any rate equal to' if not better than the best hay, though
I should certainly hesitate to say that it is as good as green grass.

Now Dr. Voelcker in a letter to the Times states that grass of fair average
quality cannot be preserved in silos without the admixture of chopped
straw; and without the admixture of chopped straw or similar diy
material, grass placed in sUos, according to his experience, derived from th&
examination of samples, turns into a sodden mass of repulsive smell and
taste, more resembling rotten farmyard manure than feeding material. Dr.
Voelcker can never have seen any real ensilage, or I cannot conceive how
he could make such a statement as this. Sir John B. Lawes is even more
emphatic in his denunciation of the system than Dr. Voelcker. How men
of such well merited and high scientific reputation can lend the weight of
their names to try to put down the scheme before it has been fairly tried is
past comprehension.

I could certainly show Dr. Voelcker a sample of grass ensilage without
straw — and being grass off old meadow land it is very succulent — which can
neither be described as a sodden mass, nor has the slightest resemblance to
rotten farmyard manure, nor any semblance of putrefaction.

The statement that it must contain a certain percentage of dry matter
seems to me absurd, since the success of the process depends upon getting
as much of the air excluded as possible by pressing the grass solid. And
the more succulent it is the more solid it wiU go, and the more effectually
the air wiU be excluded. And dry matter must contain air in its empty
pores, and if much dry straw were mixed with it, it would certainly heat and
go mouldy. The less air and the sooner fermentation will stop. That
fermentation is stopped by want of air, is proved by the fact that it at once
starts up again as soon as the air is readmitted.

Dr. Voelcker quotes Professor Giisman, of Massachusetts, as stating
most decidedly that in his judgment there has been no improvement over
the old plan of making hay when the sun shines. If it is no improvement
on the plan of making hay when the sun shines, it is certainly an improve-
ment on making it when it does not shine : and this, sad experience has
taught us, we are oftener trying to do than the other.

With our ordinary hands, horses, and machinery, we put in sUos about
five acres of heavy grass, and did some haymaking as well in a day. The
rest of our hay, about 100 acres, took us five weeks, and a lot of it got
spoiled into the bargain, though last hay harvest time was considered better
than an average. At the rate of ensilage we should have done in less than
three weeks, as most of our land had much lighter crops. Other things
equal, the saving of labour, and loss by bad weather would certainly be a
very great saving in favour of ensilage.

Your correspondent, Mr. W. A. Gibbs, gives some estimates of the cost
of silos, but they seem to me to be far too high. We have not yet made a

Another Yorkshire Silo. 171

statement of the cost of ours, but I think it will be much below Mr. Gibbs'
estimates. I do not think it all necessary for the silos to be entirely sunk
in the ground, and they would be quite as effective if entirely out of it if
strongly built and cemented. Nor is any concrete necessary, and I should
say that nothing would make a better floor than bricks paved in mortar and
coated with cement ; stone or flags would also do. A great advantage may
be gained for filling them by building them in hiU sides, so as to bring the
top level with the ground at the back side, and it also affords fall for
drainage of the walls. I believe that many existing stone bams can be
converted into silos by simply cementing the walls and laying down floors.
A better mode of pressing wants devising. We shall try a much heavier
pressure next year.

It is also quite unnecessary to chop grass for ensilage ; a little more
pressure will do just as well. The object of chopping is only to make it
pack closer, or, in the case of maize, to make it more eatable.

Hawes, North Yorkshire. Geo. Brodeeick.

COST OF SILOS IN DURHAM.

{The Field, Feb. 3, 1883.)

The American estimates for building a sUo are not of much use in guiding
us as to the cost in this country. This must vary, to a certain extent, in
every locality, and must depend on the cheapness or dearness of materials..
The land in this neighbourhood consists principally of strong clay, and
ironworks exist where slag can be generally obtained gratis. I have
obtained estimates which I think may be useful to those situated, as I am,
within reach of such material ; and, as an experiment, I have determined
to build one a little larger than the one at Cowton, but in such a manner
as to be able easily to double it if necessary.

The size I have fixed upon is 15ft. in length, 7ft. in width, and 8ft. in
depth. The contract price is as follows :

1. If Built of Rubble Slao, Sand, and Cement. £ s. d.

55^ cubic yards excavating, Isr per yard 2 15 6

49 snperficial yards of slag rubble, mortar composed of fine cement

and ground slag provided by contractor, 2s. 6d!. per yard 6 2ft

llf floor, lOin. thick, 2s. p6r yard 13 4

50i yards of skimming to walls and floor, with cement plaster, 8d. ... 113 5

105 square feet 2iQ. battens, to cover ensilage 1 15 0-

Eoof, including wall plates, 187 square feet, 6(J. per foot 4 13 6

Concrete blocks for weighting ensEage, bolt and eye to each block,

12 tons weight 11 0'

Patent block and sheave running on iron rail 5

I of materials 6

40 3 3

If excavating and carting be done by owner, less 8 15

Total 431 8 3-

172 Appendix.

2. If Built op Concbetb Walls 15in. Thick, and Floor

12iN. Thick. £ s. d.

Concrete walls and floor 9 2 6

(The other charges the same)

Total cost in concrete £Si 4 11

3. If Built in Bkick.

ExcaTating less quantity owing to thinner walls 2 3

62f yards 9in. 'briokwork inside course, waUed in cement, at 4s. 6d.

per yard, including bricks 14 2

50 yards in cement plastering, at 6(J 15

Boards to cover ensilage, carrying weights 1 15

Eoof 4 13 6

Concrete tlocks 11

Sheave, patent block, and iron rail 5

Cartage 4

43 18 6

Less excavating and cartage 6 3

Total ^637 15 6

That these prices are not imaginary, I may mention that the contractor
whom I shall employ will build a silo for anyone at the price given above.

Having studied the difficulties of weighting, and the expense thereof, I
have determined to make my weights of concrete. At the ironworks you
can always get what are known here as " runners" — ^that is, where there
is a large mixture of iron in the slag. These lumps are very heavy. I
intend to put one or two of these into each square of concrete. I shall
have each weight made about 5cwt. They will have an eye let in below
the surface of concrete block so as not to protrude. Over the centre of
the sUo, say 6ft. high, I shall fix a common railway rail double the length
of pit, on which will run a sheave, to which wiU be attached a patent
block. Each weight, when raised above bank, will be run along iron
plate on sheave clear of sUo, and packed one on the top of another out of
the way. The roof wiU rest on brick wall on the top of one side of sUo,
raised say 3ft., and will incline like a cucumber frame, so as to keep its
water at a safe distance from sUo. Your experienced correspondent, Mr.
Easdale, from whom I have learned the little I know of ensilage, thinks
that I am wrong in not cutting a drain to carry off the water from the
bottom of silo. In my case it would be a very serious expense, and I
cannot but think that a concrete wall 15in. thick, and floor 12in., should
and would turn any water at the back or bottom of silo — at any rate, I
mean to try it without a drain. I hope to secure Mr Easdale's services to
give a lecture, and answer questions and give information on some
Stockton market day, in order that this new system may be thoroughly
ventilated. It ought to be generally known that this gentleman's services
can be secured to draw plans, specifications, and to advise generally on
the building of silos. Chas. Henet Foed.

Bishopston Vicarage, Ferry HUI, co. Durham, Jan. 27, 1883.

A Scmij'pshire Silo.

173

BXPBEIENOES OF ENSILAGE IN HAMPSHIEE.

Me. a. Grant, a gentleman living in Hampshire, having
written in the Field a brief account of his experiments with
ensilage, received so many letters asking for further informa-
tion that he found it impossible to reply to them all. He
therefore sent for publication the following particulars, which
we have much pleasure in laying before our readers. We
may add that the ensilage, an analysis of which is given in the
article, is by far the best sample of grass ensilage that we
have seen :

Having read of the ensilage system as practised in France and America, I
thought that, as gooseberries are preserved in bottles of water, so grass
under pressure in cemented tanks would practically be under water, on
account of the quantity of fluid ipressed out of it, and filling the space
between each blade. This, I believe, is really what occurs in ensilage.

In the autumn of 1881 1 ensilaged 4^ acres of hop clover and Italian rye
grass (a miserable crop), and it made capital fodder in a small experi-
mental sUo 6ft. by 6ift. by ejft.

Encouraged by this experiment, I ensilaged in the summer of 1882 about
70 tons of meadow grass with perfect success ; 5 acres were cut and
carried in heavy rain. This portion cuts out much darker in colour than
that carried in fine weather ; but it is equally good fodder.

I likewise pitted a few loads of Trifolium incarnatum. Some of this also
was cut and carried in rain. The cattle (mine are mostly pure-bred
Channel Island) ate it all, but it was put in a very small pit, and with
insufScient weight upon it, and it was not as good as other samples of
ensilage which I have seen.

My pits are built as follows :

15ft. long.

15ft. long.

10ft. deep.

The outside walls are 4Jin. brickwork, run over with cement ; the
cross wall 9in. work. The roof is corrugated iron, built as a lean-to to the
cow-house wall. A door leads from the feeding passage into the ensilage
shed. I have also a small experimental pit.

174 Appendix.

My weights are concrete, 9in. by Qin. by 18m., made of gravel dug in
excavating the pits. They weigh from 1001b. to 1201b. each. Before
fillin g the pit, some of these blocks are stacked on the top of the walls of
the pit, so that I get a temporary wall aU round, say 3ft. high, practically
giving that extra depth to the pit, and costing merely the trouble of stack-
ing the blocks.

I then fill the grass to the top of this temporary wall as fast as possible,
trampling it well in, and as soon as it is quite full I lay on a few planks, in
any direction, and place on them a few tons of blocks. The grass has now
a depth of 18ft. Next morning it will have sunk to 9ft. The pit is then
refilled to the top of the temporary wall, thus securing another 4ft.
in depth of grass — altogether, say, 17ft.

I now place about Sin. of hedge trimming, fern, straw, &c., on the grass ;
the top Bin. are sure to rot, so you may as well lose rubbish as good grass.
Thereon I place the boards, each one as long as the pit is broad, and 2in.
thick by Qin. wide ; their use is merely to give the weights a level bear-
ing. I then place a row of weights all round the outside of the boards,
and throw on earth, heavy stones, old iron, anything to make weight.
The mass immediately begins to sink, and, as fast as the surface of the
weights sinks below a tier of blocks, I roU that tier on as additional
weight, and so keep adding weight, till I have about 3cwt. to the super-
ficial foot. The 17ft. of grass wiU gradually sink to about 6ft. or 7ft.
Then, if I have another meadow or a second-cut clover, &c., in about two
months later I take off the weights, boards, and rubbish, and proceed as
before, gfetting in as much as possible.

In cutting out the fodder, I remove 2ft. only of weights, boards, and
rubbish, and proceed as with a hay rick, shaking the grass well with a
pitchfork after removal. After the first cut of 2ft., which will give the
labourer room to work in, I cut the stuff in breadths of only 1ft., so as
not to expose the same surface longer than is necessary.

The surface of a cut will keep sound about a fortnight, but this
depends somewhat on the amount of weight there is upon the ensilage.
If the weight is not sufficient, the air will penetrate into the face of the cut.

With Mr. Easdale's permission, I wUl copy his convenient arrangement
of question and answer on various points connected with the subject :

1. Kind of grass. — I have used hop clover and rye grass, meadow grass,
Trifolium incarnatum. I prefer " seeds;" but anything green wiU make
ensilage.

2. State of grass when put in. — Mostly dry, but some very, wet. I should
prefer it dry, but the wet does not seem to injure it in the least.

3 and 4. Boiv put in, and how much at once f — As much as you possibly
can ; the more the better. I tip the carts, and let the grass fall into the
pits.

5. Use of the loeights. — ^Put some weight on whenever you stop work ;
and when the pit is full, put on as much as possible. You cannot put on
too much.

Experiynents in Hampshire. 175

6. Kind of weight. — Concrete blocks 9iii. by 9m. by ISin., earth, iron,
paving stones, &c,

7. Covering boards. — 2in. thick, length equals the breadth of the pit.

8. Straw between grass and boards. — I think Sin. of this saves Sin. of good

9. How long between each fUing ? — Immaterial, if the weights are on.

10. Amount of sinTcage. — Nearly two-thirds.

11. Foreign substances mixed in. — I have tried bran, but it is useless ; it
came out apparently the same as it went in, though of course wet. I now
use nothing at all with the grass.

12 and 13. If air-tight, and how is air excluded? — There is nothing to
make the pit air-tight except the compression by the weights.

14. Heating. — None observable ; but there must be a httle at first, as
there undoubtedly is fermentation — probably before the compression is
•complete.

15. Chopping of material. — This may be necessary with maize and other
woody foods, but is certainly a useless labour and expense with grasses and
■clover.

16. How long closed? — ^Various times ; from two to eight months.

17. Colour. — Pale yellow green; that carried in rain is dark greenish
brown. The flowers of the hop clover are still bright yellow ; the red of
the Trifolium incarnatum turns purple. The smeU is something like that
of a brewhouse.

18. How much removed at once ? — Enough for three days' use. No change
takes place under a week's exposure. I should make a sUo according to the
number of cows ; thus, one 10ft. deep and 15ft. broad would give a slice
1ft. broad, containing 150 cubic feet — three days' allowance for fifty cows.

19. How left after cutting ? — Just Kke a hayrick.

20. Quantity of grass put in. — With a small one-horse machine cutting, a
one-horse rake sometimes raking, and two horses in the carts, I cut and
<;arry about five acres per day.

21. Quality of grass. — I always for ensilage or hay cut very early.

22. Other crops. — Next year I hope to pit winter vetches and rye, spring
vetches and oats, " seeds " and meadow grass.

2S. Material of buildings. — 4|in. brickwork run over with cement ; the
floor ought to be very strong, at least 9in. thick, as it had to stand the
downward pressure of an immense weight, and also, if there is any present,
an upward pressure of water in the soU. This broke up the floor of one
of my sUos.

24. Is the silo sunk ? — ^Mine are altogether beneath the level of the ground,
for convenience in tipping the grass out of the cart. You might throw
the excavated soil up all round and build the walls more strongly ; you
would then require a broad ramp for the carts, and in some situations
a higher roof.

25. How drained? — I should drain into a dead well, if the nature of the
soil permitted.

176 Appendix.

26. Should the floor he level? — Just enough run to take away the slight
ooze from the grass ; but the drain into the dead -well should be stopped up
when the pit is about to be filled, and only opened when you cut the fodder
out. You should, therefore, begin to cut at the deeper end, so that the
labourer may work without the inconvenience of the ooze.

27. How covered in ? — With Ught corrugated iron. I shall try WiUesden
paper another year.

28. Cost of construction. — This depends on the local cost of labour, the
nature of the soU, and the thickness of wall necessary to retain the soil.

29. Cost of fiUing. — ^I cut and carried this summer five acres at 7s. 2rf.
per acre ; in such a season this would have cost 1^ to make into hay. ,1
thus saved nearly a rent on this poor land. This was the only field in
which I noted the expense.

30. Rations per cow. — ^About 501b.

31. Quality of butter. — ^Very good. I tried three cows feeding on
crushed oats, linseed cake, and very good hay. When placed on ensUage,
with a little crushed oats, they gave 25 per cent, more butter.

32. Utility. — As Mr. Easdale says, silos perform three operations —
making hay, stacking it, and thatching. I find them very useful, whether
empty or full, for storing straw, chaff, &c.

33. Analysis. — Mr. F. Woodland Toms sends me the following analysis
and notes :

Volatile Matters :

Waterl 70'37 per cent.

Acetic acid (free) , 0'20 „

Alcohol 0-08 „

Solid Matters :

Albumenoida* 4'14 ,,

Pattymatter O'SO „

Soluble Carbo-hydrates :

Sugars 0'55 „

Starchy matters 3'58

Peotous compounds, (gum, mucilage, &o.) 8'56 „

Insoluble carbo-hydrates (fibre) 9'49 „

Ash ,. 2-23 „

100-00
* Equal nitrogen (all- calculated as albumenoids), 'BSi per cent.

He remarks that this Komsey ensilage "is, like the French, a very
valuable feeding stuff. In composition, its dry matter closely resembles
that of hay of good quaUty; indeed, the albumenoids, or flesh-formers,
are considerably higher than in Dr. Voelcker's averaged analyses of hays —
doubtless owing to the fact that it was cut so young."

In the following table, furnished by Mr. Woodland Toms, he gives Dr.
Voelcker's statement of the average opposition of (absolutely dry) hay
deduced from twenty-five analyses, and places it in comparison with

Experiments in Hampshire.

177

ensilage, the three columns showing the composition of the dry substance
in each. Where no figures are given to sugar, starch, gum, &c., in the hay
column, these ingredients were not separately estimated in Dr. Voelcker's
analyses, but were grouped together as one item, which is here given as
" non-nitrogenous extractive matter ; " and, in the analyses of 'the samples
of ensilage, it will be seen that the separate items are totalised and stated
in parentheses, for the sake of comparison.

Hay,
average of
25 samples.

Grass ensilage,
grown at
Eomsey.

French ensilage,

(clover and

grass).

Albiimenoids

9-88
48-09

81-80
2-99

7-24

13-97

(43-77)

18-35

Ammonia

0-12

Non - nitrogenous extractive
matter

(37-22)

viz.. Acetic Acid

0-671

0-27

1-86

12-08

28-89

-

2-411
3-62
5-92
4-'49
20-78

_

Grum, mucilage, &o

Fibre

32-03
2-70
7-53

28-87

Fatty matter .

4-15

Ash

11-29

100-00 s

10000

100-00

In Dr. Voelcker's conversation at the last half-yearly general meeting of
the Koyal Agricultural Society, he is reported by the Agricultural Gazette
(Dec. 25, 1882) to have said, "I do not think ordinary meadow grass at
all suited for ensilage, as it does not contain a sufficient quantity of dry
matter. . . . You must have at least 20 per cent, of dry matter. ... In
the case of ordinary grass thus preserved, you must leave them in the land
until they become woody, but then you lose the best part of the grass."
Without presuming to criticise such an authority as Dr. Voelcker, I would
point out that, according to the above analyses, my ensilage (which was
ordinary meadow grass, cut young) and that grovm in France (which was
chiefly clover, -with a little grass), are both said to be superior to the
ordinary run of hay ; and there is no doubt that it is cheaper to pit grass
than it is to make hay.

Dr. Voelcker went on to suggest oats, cut when the grain had formed
but was stiU quite milky ; and Sir John Maxwell thought he might try
them. Last summer I grew a field of oats expressly for the purpose ; but
I did not pit them, on account of the enormous quantity of charlock
which came up among the oats, and which I was afraid would give a taste
perhaps to the butter.

I would also point out the advantage of ensilage in securing late second
cuts of various green foods, such as lucerne, giant sainfoin, seeds, &c., at
a season when there is little chance of successful haymaking. Mangold

N "^

178 Appendix.

wurzel is always said to be a poor food till the middle of February at the
earliest. Next year in May I am going to pulp a few tons and store them
in a pit, as the French do with the pulp of the sugar beet. I shall then
feed them to the stock when the cattle commence to lie in at night —
perhaps in November. I tried a little maize last yeai^tbut it did not grow
sufficiently to make it worth while to pit it ; some grew about 8ft. high,
but the chief part, though in garden soil and abundantly manured,
only reached about 3ft. My pigs ate most of it, and the cows had the rest.

Ensilage is by no means the new dispensation that some American
writers allege it to be ; but it is a useful help to many farms, and it will
add to, not supersede, better known ways of preserving forage.

Cattle generally take to it at once ; but I think a certain amount of
other food, such as crushed oats, ought to be given to cows when kept
almost entirely on it.

Working horses generally appear to like it, but I have never tried to
keep one even partially on it. It is said in America to be good food for
ewes.

CLOVER ENSILAGE v. CLOVER HAY.
{TM Field, Jan. 20, 1888.)

SlE, — I inclose you the analyses made by Dr. Voelcker, F.R.S., of the
produce of the same field of clover and rye grass;

The hay was made in the beginning of July from the first cut, the
ensilage in the beginning of September from the second cut. The hay
was got up in showery weather, and was consequently not of first-class
quality. The ensilage was cut and pitted the same day without being
chopped, and I have been feeding it to cattle for a month. They eat it
greedily.

Composition of a Sample of Clover Hay
made Jtily, 1882 (first out)

Moisture 18-01

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-
forming matters) IS'Ol

Acetic acid '. -60

Mucilage, extractive matters,

digestible fibre, &o 40'25

Indigestible woody fibre (cel-
lulose) 22-01

Mineral matter (ash) 6-12

100-00
•Containing nitrogen 2-08

Composition of a Sample of Ensilage,
made September, 1882, from same
field as clover hay (second out)

Moisture 79-05

*Albuminous compounds (flesh-

forming matters) 2-21

Lactic acid 1-20

Mucilage, extractive matter,

digestible fibre, &o 9-33

Indigestible woody fibre (cel-
lulose) 6-35

Mineral matter (ash) 1-86

100-00
*Containing nitrogen -36

Eoughly speaking, one ton hay equals four tons of ensUage. A. Toelokbe,

Clover Ensilage v. Clover Say.

179

I have now been trying experiments witli ensilage for seven yeaxs, and I
"believe it to be a good fodder when made of the proper materials.

If your correspondent makes ensilage of mangold or turnip pulp by
simply pitting the pulped roots, I should advise the inhabitants of the
adjoining parishes, if residing to leeward of the pits, to clear out for a few
days when the pits are opened. The odour will astonish the neighbour-
hood. Aethur J. Scott.

Kotherfield Park, Alton, Hants, Jan. 16, 1883.

[To compare analyses of fodders, as above, where one contains about
80 per cent, of moisture, and the other less than 20 per pent., is not
very easy. We therefore recalculate the results, after omitting the
water. The percentages then stand as follows :

Hat.

*Allramenoida IS-SV

Aoetio acid 0'73

Mucilage, digestitle fibre, &o. 4910

Indigestible fibre 26'84

Ash 7-46

100-00
*Coiitainiiig nitrogen 254

Ensilage.

*Albnmenoids lO'SS

Lactic acid 5'73

Mncilage, digestible fibre, &c. 44"53

Indigestible fibre 30-31

Ash 8-88

100-00
*Containing nitrogen 1-69

[We shaH be glad to know what amount of weight was put upon the
fodder in the sUo. Of course, a fair comparison cannot be made between
clover cut ia September and that cut in July ; but, beyond this, it looks
as it a considerable amoimt of fermentation had been going on in the
ensilage. This can only be prevented by the expulsion of the air which
is in the fodder at the time it is put in the pit. It does not suffice to
prevent the external air getting in ; that which is already in must be
driven out, and without heavy weights this cannot be done. — Ed.]

Sir, — ^Your note in The Field of Jan. 20, on the probable cause of the
inferiority of the clover ensilage analysed by Dr. Voelcker for me, as com-
pared with the hay, is probably correct in attributing it to insufficient
weighting. The weight was applied by means of the plan figured in the
illustration of the letter of "Aquarius" viz., a weight at the end of a
lever (see p. 195) ; when the fodder had sunk in the pit beyond the
action of the lever, the weight ceased to act, as it rested on the ground.

Certainly a continuously acting weight is desirable, but I would not
advocate expensive permanent weights, such as cast iron or blocks of con-
crete as suggested in yourcolumns. I should be iaclined to use weights
■that could be utilised in other ways, such as bags of com or coals, man-
gold or swede turnip roots, billets of wood, or any other material that
•could be made use of for other purposes. A. J. Scott.

Kotherfield Park, Alton, Hants.

N 2

180

Appendix.

COST OF HAMPSHIRE SILOS IN CHALK.

In page 35, in reference to building in concrete, we advised that persons
intending to attempt that work themselTes should first obtain a book
treating on the subject. One of the books mentioned was written by
Mr. T. Potter, clerk of works to Lord Ashburton. Since making that
remark, we have seen in the Hampshire Chronicle of March 10, a letter
by Mr. T. Potter commenting on a paper on ensilage read before the
Botley Farmers' Club by Mr. WiUan. We have not seen Mr. WiUan's
paper, but sOme information contained in Mr. Potter's letter is worth '
quoting.

" The cost of sUo construction must in a measure depend, as Mr WiUan
says, upon the nature of the soil to be excavated and the price of materials
and labour, but by far the most important factor in the calculation is the
size of the silo', and when we get a range of capacity from the one owned
by the Vicomte de ChezeUes, measuring 215ft. long and 19ft. broad, to
those used in Holland 12ft. by 12ft. and 9ft. deep, all comparison as to
cost, for practical purposes, must be at an end.

" Assuming, for instance, that two silos are about to be built, the lesser
10ft. square and 10ft. deep, and the larger 20ft. square and 10ft. deep, also
that the walls are to be of concrete 9ui. thick, the bottom of concrete 6in.
thick, costing 14s. per cubic yard, the walls faced internally with
Portland cement at Is. per superficial yard (and the excavation is in chalk
son costing 9d per cubic yard and these figures should be a close approxi-
mation for Hampshire silos in chalk soil), we should get the follow-
ing result :

OoBt.

Capacity in
OuMo feet.

Cost per
Cable foot.

Eemarks.

Large silo 429

SmaUsilo 414

4000
1000

If d. nearly
SJd. nearly

Exclusive of roof or compression
appliances.

" With regard to roofs nothing could be more suitable than galvanized
iron, but, instead of the ordinary ' principals,' or main rafters, curved ribs
formed of three thicknesses of 9in. by fin. board nailed together are the best
in every way. This kind of roof principal was adopted for the annexes and
other portions of the South Kensington Museum previous to the permanent
buildings being erected. A waggon load of timber would construct a roof
of this kind 60ft. by 30ft., and the total cost of wood, iron, and labour
need not exceed 2Z. per square of 100 superficial feet, whUe single spans up
to 30ft. or 35ft. are as easy of construction as smaller ones.

" Instead of rivets, which are usually employed to fasten these plates
together, what are known as ' galvanized gutter bolts and screws ' are far
preferable, as they enable the roofing to be removed without damage ; and
this is an advantage with buildings of a somewhat experimental character.

Silos in Chalk Soil. 181

" It is also suggested by Mr. WiUan, in his paper, that the walls of silos
should lean somewhat outwards, or, as is technically described, ' batter.'
For an economic distribution of materials, having regard to strength, this
is a proper form of construction ; but its disadvantages are, that planks of
a light length to fit the first or bottom deposit of ensilage materials, are
considerably too short for the top, and that the materials, not being able
to sink straight down, have to shift towards the centre ; in fact, during
a settlement, they are undergoing two different motions, and become
entangled or bound — the result of which is, that a great deal of the
compressive power is lost, and the friction of the side waUs is increased
■the more the ensilage sinks."

SLATE FOE, SILOS.
(The Field, Feb. 24, 1883.)

Sir, — We beg to call your attention to the use of slate for covering
■ensilage and lining sides of silos.

Slate is far cleaner, sweeter, cheaper, and more durable than any other
similar material; is not friable, and is quite unaffected by atmospheric
influences.

The slabs for covering ensilage should be about two inches thick, in
sizes that can be conveniently moved by workmen ; and can be made with
galvanised iron rings for more convenient handling. Two-inch slabs give
a pressure of 301b. to 401b. per square foot. Should more weight be
required, a second layer can be added, or the pressure may be augmented
with stones or other heavy substance.

For lining silos a much lighter slab can be used ; and the smoothness
of the slate allows the cover to fit closer, and sint more regularly, than
when a concrete or other rough surface is used.

Joseph Beindlet and Co. (Limited).

61, King WiUiam-street, City.

[No doubt, in some respects slate would be admirable. For smoothness
of surface, it would be preferable to concrete for lining the walls ; but,
although it is not friable, would it not be rather liable to fracture P And
as regards its being cheaper, that necessarily remains to be proved. — Ed.]

SiE, — I have noticed, with interest, in The Field of Feb. 24, a letter
from Messrs. J. Brindley and Co., on the use of slate for sUos, and your
comments thereon. From experience in the use of slate for cattle feeding
and drinking troughs, I am of opinion that slate is not liable to fracture,
and that it stands rough usage admirably.

The suggestions to use slate slabs for silos seems excellent, and if the
cost compares favourably with other methods, I shall feel inclined to avaU
myseU of it. James Dai.zii;l.

Grove Hill, ThomhiQ, N.B., March 5.

182 Appendix.

mFLUENCE OF SILOS UPON MEAT PRODUCTION.

{The Field, March 10, 1883.)

The system so long practised abroad of storing green fodder in pits, ha&
evidently now taken some hold on the British agricultural mind. This fact
was publicly shown by the great interest taken in the question when it was
discussed last week by the practical members of the Croydon Farmers'
Club, to whom the subject was almost entirely new, as well as in the local
inquiry and investigation that followed Lord Walsingham's valuable
experiments, as carried out and expounded by his agent, Mr. Henry
Woods. I candidly confess that I with many others, thought some time
since that the subject was a topic of the day more celebrated for its.
novelty than for its promise of ultimate practical utiUty. But now I as
willingly admit that the pioneers who have so freely placed their views
before the public are worthy of every consideration and encouragement by
practical men.

Let us, then, see how we have stood in past years, and how we may
stand in future years, if this system of pitting fodder turns out as success-
fully as it now promises to do. In almost every year there is a dearth of
green food for farm stock, either in spring or autumn, and not imfre-
quently in both seasons. In the iirst season this is due to the roots having
become exhausted before rye and tares, clover and grasses, have sufficiently
grown ; and, in the second, the summer produce has been eaten or dried up
before crops of rape, buckwheat, and early turnips axe mature enough to
be eaten with economy and profit. Now, if any heavy green crop grown
in the spring can be inexpensively stored and held over till the autumn,
and then, if not wanted, further held over till the ensuing winter or spring,
why the command of the farmer over the management of his live stock in
adverse seasons will be such that a new power will be created in regard
to the production of animal food, and aU the products yielded by live
stock.

Much has been said about the climate of this country not being so
suitable for producing crops for silos as is the climate on the Continent of
Europe and in the United States ; but it seems to me that our climate and
BoU are as suitable as any for producing an abundance of nutritious green
food. Take rye for example, as our earhest crop ; then take the mixed
crop of winter tares and winter oats ; then the second or " catch " crop of
spring tares and oats after the early crop of rye. Rye-grass again is a
vigorous plant that may be cut more than once or twice a year. All these
plants if the land be suitably cultivated for them, and a judicious kind
and quantity of fertilisers be applied to the soil, will produce a great
weight of green food that is known to be of the most digestible and
nutritious kind.

The stalks of maize or Indian com (which seems to run in the head of
some critics and prejudiced persons as the only plant suitable for this

Silos and Meat Production. 183

purpose) are, weight for weight, much less nutritious than the crops above-
mentioned, although they may produce heavier crops per acre, where
climate and soil are both suited to them. Maize, to be grown, profitably,
ought to be in a climate where an absence of frosts at night is a certainty.
In England, therefore, it can only be sown with safety at the beginning of
June. This being so, however, any one who may have been persuaded in
favour of maize may readily try a crop of it after the first crop of rye, as
the soil which has been so cropped can be speedily made as good a seed-
bed for maize as any one need to wish for.

But in England three heavy crops of our weU-known and well-tried
plants as above mentioned may be grown in an ordinarily proUfic year.
Two out of the three of them may certainly be calculated upon as pro-
ducing a heavy yield in a year that may not be altogether favourable as
regards rain and sunshine. As this is undoubtedly so, the question about
putting land down to permanent pasture is settled, for many times the
value of grass per acre, even on old pastures, may thus be grown at a
trifling extra cost for seeds, tUlage, and extraneous manure. Thus, too, the
truism that more value of meat can be made on arable farms by the crops
intervening the crops of cereals, may in this way be more than verified ;
for, while arable farms cannot now be profitably cropped with cereals and
roots alternately, they may be made to yield live stock abundantly by the
adoption of this promising system of sUos and ensilage ; and the extra
manure that will be thus made wUl cause the occasional crops of roots and
cereals to be correspondingly increased.

This discovery, or coming innovation, if it be not already established,
really looks something like a godsend for the owners and occupiers of heavy
land farms ; for while they have been great losers by wet seasons, and the
low price of cereals from foreign competition, the prices of beef and
mutton have greatly increased, and the present high prices are likely to be
maintained, if not exceeded. Under this system, too, sheep may always
have a firm and clean bed to lie upon, which seldom the case when they
are exposed to the difliculties attending the consumption of roots. With
an abundance of the crops mentioned, both sheep and cattle may be kept
sleek and growing whUe the crops are green, and in the event of a few
weeks drought, either in summer or autumn there wUl be an adequate
supply of ensilage in store to preserve their sleekness, and maintain their
growth unchecked.

Now, which is the shorter or quicker plan for testing this system, so that
farmers generally may have full faith and confidence in it ? British farmers
are still distinguished for acting up to the expressive, if not elegant,
axiom, " Never buy a pig in a poke." Well, there are two ways of doing
this. One is for landowners to build or construct silos on their estates,
which can be done to begin with for less than lOOZ. ; and the other is for
each farmer to make a small pit for experimenting with, which can be done
for less than a 61. note. In the former case tenants and neighbours would
of course be incited to watch proceedings and listen to explanations ; while

184 Appendix.

in the latter case the tenant-farmer would be simply making an experiment
for himself, but of which, no doubt, a few neighbours would avail them-
selves, if they did not imitate their more enterprising friend.

For landowners and large farmers a number of suggestions have
appeared in these columns. These particulars will no doubt be further
discussed, and in a few weeks (in due time for the next crops of rye,
rye and tares, winter oats and tares, spring tares and oats, and so on)
some trustworthy plan wiU be settled upon. Any way, the whole thiog
may be reduced to the cost of a few pounds more or less. This system is
not like the costly practice of steam cultivation and ploughing, which
requires a large first outlay, and then the continuous wages of men, and
the cost of coal and wear and tear. Here we have merely to construct a
pit, and the cost of the first step in the system is done with ; while aU the
advocates of the system agree in saying that the storage of the vegetable
will cost less to deposit in and take out of the silo than it would to make
the same value of produce into hay.

Some authorities say that the cost of treating green produce in a sUo is
only half what it is if made into hay, while the risk of damage in the
former case is far less than in the latter. But these are mere details that
may be left out of our present considerations. We may view this subject
as a broad question. That question is, Can the superabundance of green
food which may be produced in May and June be preserved for use in the
time of an autumn's or winter's dearth? That is all we want to have
proved ; everything else wUl follow. As advocates and experienced
experts say this can be done, it certainly behoves landowners generally to
imitate Lord Walsingham, with a view to convince themselves and their
tenants and neighbours, of the practicability of this modern system, as
proposed, for increasing the number of domestic animals and the quantities
of their products.

As to experiments by individual farmers, this may of course be done, as
I have intimated, at a small cost. If a barn or other building of the
homestead cannot be utilised, a hole may be dug in a dry corner of a field
or pasture, and the inside lined with slates, the joinings thereof being
made air and water tight by an inside plastering with Portland cement.
Then, after the fodder has been placed in it, trodden down in the way that
has been frequently explained, and covered over with soil or boards,
weighted with stones, chalk, or some such heavy substances, trusses of
straw or loose straw may be placed over it and lightly thatched, when the
whole thing will be done. Space for two or three cartloads wUl suffice for
these isolated experiments, as the object, of coiu-se, will only be for indi-
vidual farmers to convince themselves as to whether it will be worth their
while to at once invest in the construction of sUos of an adequate size for
increasing the produce of live animals on their farms.

Another plan for carrying out these tests on a more extensive scale
would be for farmers' clubs and agricultural societies (county and local) to
institute experiments under the supervision of a committee of management.

Silos and Meat Production. 185

A few weeks ago a paper was read before the Croydon Farmers' Club on
the advisability of trying experiments with manures and new kinds of
cereals, roots, and potatoes, with a view to test what or which was best for
the climate and soils within the range of the members of the club. Many
of the suggestions made were worthy of being carried out ; but they were
of minor importance as compared with this great question — for the best
result of those suggestions could only make a difference of a few pence in
*he poimd. But, if this silo system can be satisfactorily established, it will
increase the profit on all farms very largely, and on many farms cent, per
cent, win not be the outside of the increase.

Agricultural societies may advisedly in many cases divert their funds
with a view to help to test a promising system like this ; for what is
wanted is improved means for increasing and maturing the animals we can
•already breed, and make of the finest quality for market and consumption,
providing we can secure a constant supply of succulent and nutritious food
for them. It is useless or profitless to have to resort to or depend on the
■supplies of the cheap foreign cereals, corn, and pulse, which are now
generally obtainable. If these have to be largely depended on, the animals
produced for market are sure to make a return that will be a great loss to
the feeder of them. Animals that have to be tested by scales and weights
when they enter into consumption as animal food, must have had a large
amount of home-grown green food or roots to end in a profit to their
breeder and feeder. And if in "hard times," as in the cases of long
winters and droughts and cold springs, there is not so much green food for
them as may be called a good salad, then a large loss to the breeder and
feeder must be the result. Silos and ensilage promise to provide against
this common eventuality as the result of adverse months and seasons.

There is no mistake about the importance of this subject. Every stock-
owner will remember that almost every year there has been a pinch for a
greater or less length of time. I myself remember buying some hoggets
(yearling sheep) at 17s. 6d. each in April, the same animals having cost
more money as lambs when food was plentiful in the previous November.
In the autumn of 1868 or 1869 I saw ewes bought in Lincolnshire and
elsewhere at high figures, and in the following May the ewes with their
lambs were worth no more than the ewes cost. Lambs that year were
sent to London by thousands, simply because there was not the ghost of a
bit of salad for them to eat in the autumn. The cookshops in London had
their windows placarded that year with " lamb and mint sauce " down to
the middle of November. That year was the beginning of our present ■
scarcity of sheep. W. W. G.

(The Field, March 17, 1883.)

SlE, — ^Allow me to supplement my letter of last week by saying it is
advisable for landlords or farmers who contemplate building silos to sow
at once a few acres with special crops for filling them.

The best crops to be now sown are undoubtedly spring tares mixed

186 Appendix.

with oats of a vigorous habit of growth ; black Tartarian are well suited,
for this purpose. The more suitable quantities would no doubt be one
bushel of tares and two bushels of oats. This would leave room enough
for oats to grow with strong and succulent stems, while the tares will
grow well up them, and not get lodged and sour at the bottom. Maize
stalks, wherever grown, would not be equal in digestibility or nutrition to
such English food as may be thus produced. Wheat and tares, or wheat
and peas, would produce an equally valuable mass of nutritious and
palatable vegetation.

This method of " catch " cropping has a great advantage for farmers
of light and heavy land, apart from the ensilage contemplated. It is a
great mistake to suppose that the old-fashioned plan of ploughing light
land again and again in the spring for a crop of turnips increases or
developes the resources of the soil; so it is to think that long or " dead"
fallows, with frequent ploughings, form the best system for increasing
the fertility of clay soils. Ploughing and cultivating these soils add
nothing as food for plants to them. They are deficient in organic or
vegetable substances ; they, therefore, do not need the oxygenation
which is beneficial to soils containing much humus, and which is, of
course, promoted by lightening up the soil by the plough and cultivator.
But what these soils do need is an addition of vegetable substances, to
ferment and decompose in them, and subsequently supply following crops
with food that otherwise would be absent. The fermentation thus induced
will do far more to develope the crude compounds of these soils than a
season's sun and air will effect. The " catch " crops above mentioned
are admirably adapted for this purpose, so that really, while crops for
ensilage are being grown, the land occupied by them is being made
more fertile. Growing crops on these soils, too, is in itself cheaper
than the cost of ploughing and cultivating bare fallows in the old-
fashioned way.

A word on these crops as I have seen them grown around London,
where green crops are valuable for town horses and cows. Autumn-sown
rye is the first crop, for which a heavy dressing of manure is put on to
force an early yield and save delay afterwards. No more manure is
required for the next crop. As the rye is mowed off, the land is ploughed
with a five or six inch furrow, and spring tares and one or other of the
above-named cereals are drilled in. This second crop wiU be in good
order for cutting in June or July, according to the character of the soil.
As this second crop is cut off, white turnips or swedes are drilled in, a
little artificial manure being placed under the rows to give them a start.
Excellent crops of the latter may be thus grown in ordinary seasons for
winter and spring feeding. As will be seen, the large amount of roots and
green stumps of the rye and oats and tares that will be thus deposited
cannot fail to produce a large amount of food for the future crop of
cereals, potatoes or whatever it may be advisable, according to the soU, to
sow after them. W. W. G.

Appendix. 187

ENSILAGE CONGRESS AT NEW YORK.

(From the New York Tribune, Jan. 25 and 26, 1883.)

About sixty gentlemen, most of wliom are practical farmers, organised
the Second Ensilage Congress, by electing as President Francis Morris, of
Baltimore, the first man who built a silo, or fodder pit, in America. Mr.
J. B. Brown was elected secretary. Mr. Brown, after a brief address —
in which he eulogised the merits of the ensilage system — which he declared
was destined to prove the salvation of Eastern farmers — unveUed a bust of
Auguste GofEart, the French iaventor of the system, which was greeted
with loud applause.

Scattered on tables near the platform were specimens of ensUage and of
butter made from the cream of the cows fed on it ; and the farmers
examined the samples closely, testing them by the sense of taste as well as
smell, although the odour sent forth by the preserved fodder reminded the
untutored nose of sour-kraut and whisky combined.

The first person who addressed the congress was Mr Alfred A. Reid, al
farmer, who lives near Providence, Rhode Island. He said that his cows,
calves, steers, and working oxen had steadily improved while feeding upon
ensilage. He had siloed clover, rye, and grasses, as well as maize, but his
experience was that maize made the best ensilage.

The Rev. William Ormiston gave his experience in constructing a silO'
and producing ensilage on his farm at Whitby, on Lake Ontario, near
Toronto. He bmlt a silo fifty feet long and twenty feet wide, .and walled
the sides with stone twenty inches thick, and put in it maize, clover, and
even weeds, and the ensilage, when the silo was opened on June 1, was
found to be as sweet and green as when the fodder was first packed. The
horses, cows, and hogs ate it greedily. Cattle prefer it to turnips or dry
fodder, and the milk of the cows seems to be improved by it.

The question as to whether wooden silos were as good as stone or
concrete occupied a good deal of attention. Mr. Moore, of Rockwell
County, and Mr. Percy, of Chatham, New York, related their experiences
with wooden silos, and pronounced in favour of them, declaring that
they had succeeded in producing excellent ensilage in them, and that the
fodder was almost as thoroughly protected against frost as that inclosed in
masonry.

Mr. W. A. Strong, of Golden's Springs, said that it was a mistaken
notion that the sUo must be air-tight in order to preserve the fodder. The
only thing required was to have sufiicient pressure. It costs him only 2^
cents a day to feed a cow on ensilage, and with this he mixed a little
brewers' grains.

The question of the amount of pressure necessary to preserve the fodder
was discussed for some time. Mi". Smith, of Syracuse, who is a large
importer of Holstein cattle, and feeds these valuable animals almost
entirely on ensilage, said that the first sQo that he constructed was of

188 Appendix.

Isrick, and that he used a pressure of 3001b. to the square foot. The result
was that the walls of the silo burst.

Dr. Ormiston said that he had used 1001b. to the square foot, but he
thought that was too much weight,' and he was going to try less.

Mr. Reid, of Providence, said that on one of his sUos he used four
screws to obtain the proper pressure, and on the other 15,9501b. of stone,
which was equal to about 66|lb. to the square foot, and he found this
pressure to be about what was required to secure good ensilage.

Mr J. W. Waleott, Boston, who owns a large farm near Boston, and a
hotel in that city, said that the entire cost of his ensilage, with which he
ied 104 cows, was little over $2 per ton. He sold 10001b. of ensilage
butter a week, and received 65 cents a pound for it. In the matter of
silos, it makes no difference whether they cost $25 or $25,000. One will
preserve your ensilage as well as the other. The only thing required is
continuous pressure. "I believe," he said, "that a pile of corn in the
open air can be perfectly preserved if weight enough is placed on the top
to expel the oxygen. I use about 1301b. of weight to the square foot, and
I never uncover any part of my silo until I want to use the ensilage."

Mr. Morris, the President of the Congress, said that he had always used
earth silos, and any farmer could make them by simply digging a pit, filling
it with fodder, and covering it with two or three feet of earth. This was
the best sUo, because it was the least expensive.

The cost of producing ensilage was the subject of much discussion, and
the figures given differed widely. Mr. J. M. Brugler, of New Brunswick,
N.J., found that 353 tons cost him $6.25 per ton ; Mr. C. E. Benedict, of
Holyoaie, Mass., said that his ensilage cost him a trifle less than |5 a ton,
and Mr. W. H. Gilbert, of Eichland, N.Y., declared that he raised and
packed 415 tons at an average cost of $1.40 per ton.

On the second day of the Congress there was a free discussion of the
value of ensilage, the best method .of growing the crops and filling the
bUos, the cost of the preserved fodder, and the best crops for the purpose.

Mr. Legrand B. Cannon, of the City, said that his experience with
.ensilage was very limited, and confined almost exclusively to its effect in
fattening cattle. He purchased ninety shorthorn cattle and experimented
with them on his farm in Vermont last winter, treating some as the New-
England farmer treats his stock, and feeding others on ensilage. It cost
him lOJ cents per day for each animal fed on hay, and 8 cents per day for
each animal fed on ensilage. The economy of ensilage over hay was thus
$480 during a period of six months. The gain in weight of the cattle fed
on hay was 5 per cent., and the gain of those fed on ensilage was ]1-| per
cent., the gain in condition of the ensUage-f ed cattle being fuUy 20 per cent.

Mr. Orlando B. Potter said that his experience of last year had been
repeated this year on his farm at Sing Sing, and he had made no change
in his experiments except to increase the quantity of ensilage and decrease
the amount of grain fed to his cattle. He had also added hay to the
-contents of his silos, mixing it with his ensilage, and he found that if he

Ensilage Congress at New York. 189

mixed more than 10 per cent, of hay it injured the ensilage. He considered
that sUos under ground were superior to those built above ground; and the
best covering for them was eight or ten inches of earth. His ensilage was
slightly acid, but there was nothing offensive about it, and he frequently
placed it 'va. his mouth and chewed it. The fermentation which takes place
is about equal to the first process of digestion.

Mr. Potter asked if any person present had fed ensilage to hogs with
success.

President Morris answered that he had given ensilage to hogs, and that
they grew fat on it. He wanted no better food for them.

Mr. George T. Powell-, of Ghent, N.Y., said that he had had two years'
experience of feeding ensilage to sheep and hogs. Three years ago he fed
sheep on the best clover hay, and the gain in weight was 23Jlb. per head
when he shipped them to New York. He fed a number of merinos on
ensilage a year ago. Their average weight in the faE was 751b., and their
average weight in the market in March was 921b.

Mr. Benedict, of Holyoke, Mass., testified to the adaptability of ensilage
as food for hogs. He is feeding sixty-five hogs on this preserved fodder,
and they relish it and are rapidly growing fat on it.

Mx. Powell, in answer to a question as to the effect of ensilage on horses,
said that he had fed his five horses on maize ensilage with grain and hay.
With one exception they all like it ; and the horse that does not seem to
like it particularly well manages to eat his ration all up during the day.
" My horses," he said, " never looked better than they have since I have
fed them from the sUo."

Mr. W. W. Merriam, of Somerville, N.J., said that Prof. Cooke, of the
New Jersey Agricultural College, claimed that dry stalks properly treated
prove as good fodder as ensilage ; but he did not agree with the Professor.
He (Mr Merriam) owns the largest eighteen months old New Jersey heifer
that he has ever seen, and she has been raised entirely upon ensilage.

Mr. linsley, of Morris County, N.J., exhibited a specimen of butter
made from cream taken from the milk of cows which were fed entirely on
ensilage. The millr increased from 15 to 20 per cent, in quantity, and
very materially in quality, within one week.

Mr. W. H. Truslow believed that maize was the best material for making
ensilage. He had tried sorghum on the farm of the late Samuel Remington
at Cazenovia, but he found that the rind was tough and sharp, and cattle
do not like it. He thought clover contained too much nitrogen to make
good ensilage. Hungarian grass, he said, makes excellent ensilage.

Mr. Brown offered the following resolution, which was unanimously
adopted: "The Ensilage Congress, assembled in New York, Jan. 25,
1883, desire to express to M. Auguste Goffart, of France, their appreciation
of the great value of the system of ensilage discovered, and introduced by
him. They recommend to the farmers of the United States its universal
adoption as the cheapest and best method of preserving fodder crops."

A vote of thanks was then passed to Mr. Brown for his labour n

190 Appendix.

presenting the advantages of ensilage to the public, and the Congress
adjourned sine die, after authorising the president and secretary to take
steps to effect a permanent organisation for the future.

VISIT TO AN AMERICAN SILO.
(The Field, July 22, 1882.)
Last year, when in America, I made a special expedition to the centre of
the dairy district of the State of New York, namely, to Little Falls, in
Herkimer County, some three or four hours' journey west of Albany — ^the
State capital. I went, fortunately, armed with letters of introduction to
Mr. X. A. WiUard, who contributes the dairy portion of the Country
Gentleman, and who on this subject is one of the greatest authorities in
the States, and also to Messrs. Whitman and Burrell, who are not only
manufacturers of dairying implements, but who have taken up so warmly
the subjects of "ensUage" and "lard" cheese, both of which have been
publicly alluded to, quite recently.

Messrs. Whitman and Burrell pitted Indian corn, which they cut in
September quite green and hauled to the sUo. It was then cut up by a
machine like a chaff-cutter into pieces about a quarter of an inch long, and
evenly distributed through the silo and trodden down. These silos were
20ft. deep by 27ft. by 16ft., and were built of stone, and made thoroughly
watertight with Portland cement, and, of course, well roofed in. Upon
the ensilage are placed wide planks, say, three of llin. wide by 2in. thick,
and braced together, then a layer of earth, and upon this heavy stones to
about 2001b. to each square foot of surface. This wiU sink under the
pressure to a depth of three-quarters of the original bulk. After three or
four weeks' time has elapsed, the ensilage is ready for use. The covers are
removed piecemeal, and the fodder is cut out with a hay knife, and fed to
the cows as it is wanted ; in fact, the farmers cut out their sUos at Little
Falls in the same way that our farmers manipulate their hay ricks.

Now for a few statistics to show the result. Messrs. Whitman and
Burrell pitted 212 tons of green corn produced on 7 acres of land, and
upon this they kept thirty-five cows for six months, showing that they gave
them 671b. apiece of this food per day, for we must recollect that the
American ton is 20001b. Now a cubic foot of ensilage, weU-pressed,
weighs 471b. to 501b., provided that the prescribed weight of stone is
applied ; and as it requires 6 tons (5 tons 7owt. of our weight) to keep one
cow for six months, it is only required to multiply the number of cows you
have by six, in order to give you the number of tons capacity needed for a
silo. For example, if a sUo is 24ft. long, 16ft. wide, and 20ft. deep, its
capacity is 7680 cubic feet ; multiply by 47 (as 1ft. cube of ensilage
weighs 471b.) and you have S60,9601b. or 162 tons, which wiU amply feed
thirty cows, giving each 17^cwt. a month. Indian corn, by reason of its
luxuriant growth, is especially suited for ensilage. I do not think that
ensilage alone would be a perfect food for cows in milk ; cake or bran
should be given as well. H. Penry Powell.

Appendix. 191

SILOS AMONG THE ANCIENTS.

(The Field, Jan. 20, 1883).

The Wo words " silo " and " ensilage " kave recently come into prominence
in connection with a particular mode of storing farm produce. It will
interest some to learn that the practice they refer to has long been followed
in various parts of the world.

Ensilage is a French form, and may mean either what is stored in a silo
or the act of storing it ; therefore no more need be said of it.

The word sih, which is found in some of our dictionaries, also occurs in
French, Italian, and Spanish, and denotes a kind of cave, well, or pit sunk
in the ground for the storing of grain, &c. The Spanish also have the verb
ensilar, which signifies the putting of corn in a sUo to preserve it. In the
Latin, the word sirus or syrus is to be found ; and in Greek we meet with
siros, both being the same in sense as sUo, and only older forms of that
word. Where the term origmated we cannot say ; but possibly one of the
Latin writers is correct in ascribing it to what he calls " the barbarians."

Phny, in his Natural History, book xviii., chap. 30, after describing
mowing machine^ worked by cattle, and other processes during and after
harvest, mentions that corn is well preserved in trenches which they call
siri, as in Cappadocia and in Thrace. In Spain and Africa, he says, they
axe specially careful to have these in a dry soil, and spread chaff or stubble
underneath, and the grain is laid up with the ear. Thus protected it will
sufier no harm ; and Varro observes that corn thus stored will keep for
fifty years, and millet for a hundred. Pliny is indebted to Columella and
Varro for most of his information. Vitruvius, who refers to the same kind
of thing, calls the silo a vault. Quintus Curtius alludes to the custom as
prevalent in the Caucasus. To the foregoing. Nonius and other ancient
Latin authors might be added, especially Tacitus, of whom more anon.

Among the Greeks who speak of the silo or siros are Euripides,
Theophrastus, Hesychius, and Suidas. In the Greek language there was
also a curious word, siromastes — a kind of instrument with an iron point or
prong, for probing the corn pits or silos to see if contraband or other
improper goods were secreted in them. This was also used in time of war
— for instance, to find out whether hidden pits existed to catch unwary
horsemen, apd so forth. It seems to have often proved a serviceable
weapon as a lance or javelin ; and in this way it is spoken of in the Greek
version of the Old Testament. Thus, in 2 Kings xi., 10, Jehoiada is
represented as giving the centurions the siromastx of 'David. The same
use of the word appears in Numbers xxv., 7 ; Judges v., 8 (in some copies) ;
1 Kings xviii., 28 ; and Joel iii., 10. Even if the Greek translators were
wrong in their rendering of the Hebrew, it is evident that they were
f amili ar with the name of the instrument, the etymology of which is so
clear and suggestive.

192 Appendicb.

That the ancient Hebrews did bury or cover their com is evident from
Jeremiah xli., 8, where we read that certain men saved their lives by-
saying, " Slay us not, for we have treasures in the field, of wheat, and of
barley, and of honey." Possibly some other text points to the same thing ;
but it may be well to quote a short passage from the article " Bam," in
CaSseU's Bible Dictionary. The writer says : "In ancient times it (the
bam) was almost always underground ; and from numerous specimens of
such repositories yet to be seen in Syria, we find that it consisted of an
opening above, which gradually became larger as the excavation deepened.
"When it was not in use the aperture was closed and covered with earth,
but when it was empty it was left open."

It may be here observed that the foregoing description naturally reminds
us of the ancient pits in our own country, as in Kent and Essex, which
some, like Camden in his " Britannia," have thought were intended for a
similar use by our remote ancestors. Camden illustrates his idea by
referring to a passage in the " Germania " of Tacitus, where we are told
that the Germans had underground pits, which they covered with dung,,
and which served both for a refuge in winter and as a receptacle for crops
(chap. 16).

That the practice was ancient and wide spread we have seen, and that it
is no novelty in modem times will be made apparent. The silo is said to
be stUl in use in Sicily ; and as regards eastern lands the evidence is
abundant. In Cobbin's Condensed Commentary on Jer. xli., 8, the follow-
ing occurs: "In Barbary, when the grain is winnowed, it is lodged m
subterraneous repositories, two or three hundred of which are sometimes
ogether, the smallest holding 400 bushels (Shaw). They are in great'
nimibers near Aleppo (Russell). There are deep pits at Kama in the Holy
Land, designed for holding corn (Le Bruyn). Three large vaults at Joppa
were used for the laying up of grain (RanwolfE.)" In Conder's "Tent
Work in Palestine," in the chapter on the Fellahin we read, "The com is
stored in underground granaries, which are carefully concealed, and form
traps for the unwary horseman. These granaries (Metamlr) are often
under the protection of the Mukam, and are therefore excavated near that
building. They are circular wells some four or five feet deep, and the
mouths are closed with clay like that used for the house roofs." Tyrwhitt
Drake and Burton also mention sUo-like holes found in Syria. We under-
stand that the practice is followed much further east, at Merv and in
Turkestan, for example; Mr. W. G. Browne, who travelled in Egypt, &c.,
in the years 1792-1798, when describing harvest operations in Darfur,
gives the following interesting details : '' When threshed, which is
awkwardly and incompletely performed, they expose the grain to the sun
till it bec9mes quite dry. After this a hole in the earth is prepared, the
bottom and sides of which are covered with chaff, to exclude the vermin.
This cavity or magazine is filled with grain, which is then covered with
chaff, and afterwards with earth. In this way the maize is preserved
tolerably well." (2nd edit, 1806, p. 321.) This carries us further into the

Silos among the Ancients. 193

S.E. of the African continent, and nearer to the equator than any other
example I have found. Nearer home we are told that in some parts of
Ireland oats are stored in a similar fashion; and we have all become
familiar with the laying-up of potatoes, turnips, and other roots in this
country by covering them over with earth.

The earliest date at which I have yet found the actual word " silo " is
1569, when it occurs in the margin of a Spanish Bible, at Jer. xli., 8.
Here, while rendering the matmonim. by tJiesoros, i.e., " treasures," the
margin reads " sUos escondidos," or " hidden silos."

The Hebrew matmonim is represented in the Chaldee Targum of
Jer. xli., 8, by the word matmorin, from a verb meaning to hide or lay up.
This is to aU intents and purposes our own "matamore," the Oriental
equivalent for silo. This matamore occurs in several European languages,
as well as in Arabic, &c. In searching for examples of ensilage, a large
addition to their number may be made from travellers in the East, if the
matamore is not lost sight of.

Further inquiry would no doubt lead to the discovery of many other
cases, as well ancient as modern ; but the above may serve as a fair sample
of the practice, aM the extent to which it has prevailed, and stiU exists.
The subject is interesting, and probably will be investigated more
thoroughly by those who have the inclination, the leisure, and the books.
B. H. C.

ENSILAGE OF SPROUTED OATS.
The Agricultural Gazette of March 26, 1883, gives the following
particulars from Mr. C. A. Kemble of East Harptree, near Bristol,
relative to the pitting of oat-sheaves damaged by wet. The first portion
is quoted from a letter sent by Mr. Kemble to friends invited to be
present at the opening of the silo ; and to this is appended a statement
of the condition of the fodder when the silo was opened :

" On Sept. 9, 1882, I commenced cutting twenty-five acres of oats
(Black Tartars). Owing to the wet season which followed, I was unable
to harvest this crop in the usual manner ; I determined, therefore, by way
of experiment, to adapt and fill a silo pit with oat-sheaf chafE. I sent
my teams to the field on Nov. 6, and on that date began to fiU the pit,
cutting the straw to chafi about lin. in length. By this time the oat
sheaves were in a thoroughly sodden condition, and the corn in them had
so generally ' sprouted,' that apparently all was worthless except as
manure. We continued cutting and filling at intervals, and trod in the
final chop on Nov. 11. Nine loads were cut up in this way, which I
estimate at 13^ tons.

" While filling the pit I carefuUy mixed with this wet chafE 3 cwt. of
salt and 1001b. of ' Simpson's spice.' Having filled the pit, I had a layer
of dry straw laid on the chaff, then boards fitted over the straw ; again
over this I spread layers of sawdust and oat cavings — all this to exclude
the air — ^then, by way of pressure, I placed several tons of freestone on

194 Appendix.

the top. Tlie silo pit in which I have made this experiment is a stone
and brick-walled room with concrete floor, measuring 16ft. by 9ft. by 10ft.
At the present time there is a depth of about 7ft. of ensilage.

" 0. A. Kbmblb."

This pit was opened on March 14, in the presence of a large number of
the leading agriculturists of the district and other distinguished visitors.
Amongst those we noticed Sir John Heron-Maxwell, Bart., of Springkell,
N.B., who it may be remembered brought this subject prominently forward
at the general meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society last December.
After the covering boards, &c., had been removed, it was found that a very
little of the preserved fodder was fusty, and this only so slightly that it
need not be wasted. Breaking further into the pit, a fragrant odour soon
pervaded the homestead in which the experiment was tested, for a cloud
of hot vapour escaped from the ensilage, and reminded one, by its smell,
of a newly heated hayrick. An ordinary thermometer was plunged as far
as a man's arm could reach towards the centre of the mass, and registered
110°. Some of the ensilage was immediately carried to cattle and horses,
and was readily eaten by them.

[This may be regarded as a highly satisfactory experiment in utilising
almost worthless oat-sheaves ; but the result would probably have been
still better had the sawdust and oat-cavings been dispensed with, and two
or three times as much stone piled on the boards. The former served to
shut in air, which might have been advantageously driven out by the
latter. This imprisoned air will doubtless account for the high tem-
perature, which indicates an excessive amount of fermentation, and a
corresponding waste of material. See ante, pp. 80 and 81.]

CEMENTING INSIDE OP SILOS.

Sib, — On reading Mr^ O. R. Kenyon's letter in the Field [reprinted on
p. 139], I notice he says that he found his grass mouldy and unfit for food
for some inches round the edges of the mass, and he surmises that this
was caused either by the brick sides not being coated with cement or by
the damp. I certainly -think if he had coated his tank with cement he
would have found the grass keep better. It seems to me a mistake to
build the silos of brick, which is porous, and admits not only moisture
but air also from the adjacent soil, and these combined would cause the
grass to get mouldy at the edges. I would suggest to any of your readers
who may be inclined to try the plan that they build their silos of cement
concrete, faced up on the inside with almost neat cement, and let the
bottom be of the same material. They will then have a silo perfectly
impervious to either moisture or air, and they can build it at any con-
venient place, no matter what the nature of the surrounding soU. Six
parts of gravel or broken stone to one part of cement will be best for the
concrete, the facing to be made of half cement and half clean sand.

Little Island, Cork. EoaAB Hail.

Appendix. 195

ADVERSE VIEWS.

TJndek the head of " The Ensilage Fever," Mr. T. Duckham, M.P. for
Herefordshire, has published in the Sereford Times a letter, which has
been copied into various other journals, and which runs as follows :

" The great interest which has been excited throughout England
respecting ensilage induced me to write to a friend in America, on whose
judgment I can with confidence rely, to inquire the result of his expe-
rience with it, as I knew he had resolved to give it a fair trial. The
following is a verbatim copy of his reply : ' The ensilage fever, and I can
teU it by no other name, is confined to the theoretical farmers mostly,
although there are those who have gone into it merely to thoroughly test
its value as a forage feed. We have fed ensilage in greater or less
quantities for three seasons as a substitute for roots. But the cost is too
great for the nutritive value it contains. In the first place, the fodder
must be entirely free from dew or wet when cut and put into the silos, or
it will be worthless. With the facilities the British farmer possesses for
raising and feeding roots, I can see no advantage by ensilaging green
food.' My friend lives in the State of Maine, and was desirous of
obtaining a substitute for roots if possible."

It is not to be supposed that any process will be carried out by every-
body with an equal amount of success ; and it is possible that Mr.
Duckham's friend has been less successful than others. If he has found
that " the fodder must be entirely free from dew or wet when cut and put
into the silos, or it will be worthless," it looks as if his arrangements
were defective, because other persons have found that under similar
circumstances their ensilage has been perfectly good. If some men can
pit wet fodder, and get good results (see pages 68 and 114), it shows that
the wet alone will not make it worthless ; and if others pit wet fodder
and it is spoilt, it does not prove that the wet was the cause of failure —
the result may be merely due to bad management, which will also damage
fodder that is not wet.

From America we get an objection to ensilage that is amusing from its
intensity of dislike. A correspondent (W.) of the American Cultivator
says : " It not only ruins the vitality of everything fed on it, but leaves
the calves of cows in such a state that they cannot live on new milk after
they are bom. It not only scours the cows most of the time, but also the
calves. I have seen cows made so drunk on ensilage that they could not
stand up, and still people will say that there is no alcohol in it."

This letter produced a number of replies in the same journal in opposi-
tion to W.'s assertions, and one writer quaintly remarked : " I have
never detected any signs of intoxication in any of my cows. It is true they
do wink at me and roll out their tongues in a peculiar manner, but I have
attributed these actions as a desire for more ensilage, not as a result of

196 Appendix.

overfeeding. The only animals I have that get drunk are the negroes ; but
as they do not eat ensilage, I cannot give ensilage credit for it."

But, assuming W.'s facts to be true, and that his cows have been made
drunk by the great quantity of alcohol in his ensilage, it shows how badly
tihe silos were managed. To produce a large quantity of alcohol in the
silo, there must be excessive fermentation and waste, the nutritious
properties in the fodder being in great measure destroyed.

In connection with the difference of quality in ensilage, it may not be
amiss to quote the following remarks by M. Goffart :

" I said on this subject on Jan. 12, 1876, at a meeting of agriculturists :
' Don't lose sight of the fact, that in the preservation of materials in the-
silo, there are numberless grades corresponding with the most different
nutritive values ; the state of division of these materials, and the chemical
modifications they have undergone, may make a difference of half of
their nutritive value.' I take this opportunity of reproducing these words
because they reply to the too numerous communications which I daily
receive. One says : ' I can't use more than half ensilage in my rations,
or my beasts would perish.' Another says : ' A third is the utmost that
my beasts can take in their food.' Another asserts that they will scarcely
take a quarter. ' Good heavens, gentlemen,' I reply, ' make good ensilage,
and all that would be changed, as it has been with me. My first attempts
at ensilage were no better than yours ; little by little I have made better
ensilage, and have fed my stock better with it. In that lies the whole
question.' "

FEEDING HORSES OK" ENSILAGE.

With regard to the feeding of horses on ensilage, it will be well for
beginners to proceed cautiously, as various statements have been made in
America as to these animals being injured by it. On referring to page 99'
■ it will be seen that the subject is alluded to in the report of the United
States Department of Agriculture ; and here is an extract from a letter
in the American Culiivaior and Country Gentleman :

" Ensilage is becoming quite popular, and may be profitable under some
circumstances ; but, from the experience of three of the four dairymen who
have recently fed it in this vicinity, I should be unwilling to feed it to
horses. One gentleman lost three horses last year of a strange disorder,
and, after consulting veterinary surgeons, and experimenting, after much
deliberation, he could account for it in no other way but as the result of
feeding ensilage. This wii^ter two farmers who have taken the sUo fever,
and expressed themselves well satisfied with it, have each lost two horses,
and a post-mortem examination of one of the horses, by a veterinary
surgeon, developed a very diseased condition of the stomach and bowels.
The veterinarian was called to treat one, and from the symptoms began
the treatment for cerebro-spiual meningitis, and ordered the ensilage to be
discontinued and other food substituted. The horse improved, and was

Feeding Horses on Ensilage. 197

thought to be so nearly well that he was put upon his former feed ; but
two or three days after the renewal of the ensilage feed, the horse
sickened and died. Perhaps these cases are not sufficient to be entirely
convincing, but they are, to say the least, very suspicious."

In some samples of ensilage, where an undue amount of fermentation
has gone on, a very large quantity of acid has been formed ; and it is
possible that in such cases the fodder may not be so well suited to the
digestive organs of horses as to those of cows, and that the differences of
opinion expressed as to the suitability of ensilage for the former animals
may be accounted for by the fact of the process having been carried out
more perfectly by some experimenters than by others. Certain it is
that many persons have fed horses on ensilage without experiencing iU
results. The Yieomte de Chezelles is in the habit of doing so, as wiU be
seen by reference to pages 108 and 116 ; and, in page 122, a quotation
from Mr. Woods' lecture gives an account of a small experiment on Lord
Walsingham's estate. But, as in many other cases, the fullest information
is from America. The official report, already alluded to, contains several
favourable records ; but the most complete is the following, from Capt.
A. H. Sweny, of West Troy, New York :

" Fed all my brood mares and colts last season with perfect success ;
never gave a particle of hay as long as the ensilage lasted — three months.
Grave horses 401b. of ensilage and 41b. fine feed, which is more than
enough. Some I gave nothing but ensilage, 501b. daily ; they did well,
but did better with 401b. ensilage and 41b. fine feed. They were too fat,
if anything, but in splendid condition and very healthy. As to profitable-
ness, the profit is very large. I consider my two silos (which cost |500)
are worth $10,000. I would rather pay interest on that than give
them up."

Captain Sweney is evidently an enthusiast — which, however, he is not
Kkely to have been if ensilage always gave bad results with horses. His
ensilage is evidently good; but, as we before remarked, it is well for
beginners to proceed cautiously, and make sure of the goodness of their
product. There is some sound sense in the following passage from a
letter written by Mr. Gr. W. Farlee to the American Cultivator .■

" I think the advocates of ensilage make a mistake here, in claiming
too much for it. Many are strong believers in the value and economy of
com ensilage for feeding cattle during the winter months, and I am
among that number. Now, if we are right in the conviction, let us labour
to get the idea and practice adopted by the farmers in the country in
connection with feeding cattle and sheep. If it is good for horses and
pigs, time will show it ; but in the meantime I do not want anyone to
experiment on my horses. I cannot see that the slightly fermented
condition of ensilage can do any harm to cows and sheep, but it may to
horses. . . . My suggestion is that we confine ourselves to solving the
problem as it applies to cows for the present. Let the horses, munch their
hay, and the pigs sup their slops ; they will receive attention later on."

198 Appendix.

SUBSTITUTES FOE WEIGHTS IN COMPEESSING

ENSILAGE.

Vaeious suggestions on this subject having been madej
we reprint most of what has been said in The Field, though
we cannot state that we have as yet seen anything that we
should rely on as an improvement on the concrete blocks,
stones, and other heavy matters used for the purpose.

SiK, — Would it not be easy and a great improvement to substitute
some form of mechanical pressure to the covers of the silo ? As recom-
mended by your correspondents, weights are placed on boards, which
seems to me a clumsy way of proceeding. My idea would be something
of the foUowiug. Let the green stuff in the sUo be covered in the usual
manner, but have iron rods coming up from the bottom of the silo at
intervals, the top end of which will be tapped for screw nuts. When
the silo is as full as it can be trampled down, place other boards across
those covering the contents at right angles, catching the ends of, say,
half a dozen boards a foot wide. Any reasonable amount of pressure can
thus be applied. Alter a few days, when more fodder is wished to be
placed in the silo, the screws can be slackened, the boards removed, and,
when filled up, more pressure applied.

Of course the iron rods must be well fastened to the bottom of the silo
in flags or heavy stones. This is merely a rough suggestion. There are
many ways of doing this, perhaps, better ; but I think some plan of the
sort would be better than merely pressing down with soil or barrels filled
with stones. A Soldibb.

[This method has been tried in America, but does not appear to find
many advocates. The report of the U;S. Department of Agriculture
says : " Screws are used by some instead of weights. The objection to
them is that they are not self-acting, like gravity."]

SlE, — " A Soldier's " idea of compression by nut and screw is theoreti-
cally good, doing away, as it would, with much expense and trouble in
moving the necessary weights ; but I think in practice he would £Lud his
idea would not suit. He could screw down his boards, in the first
instance, as far as material in sUo would allow ; but then he has made no
provision for the " ensilage " sinking. The pressure which with weights
would be continuous with the nut screw would cease as the " ensilage "
sank. If, however, a strong spiral spring was adjusted, with the neces-
sary " washers " between the nut and the boards, a continuous pressure
(at least as long as the compression of spring lasted) would exist.

OOESAIE.

Substitutes for Weights.

199

Sir, — I am maikmg preparations for two silos, each 40ft. long and 12ft.
wide, and am therefore much interested in the amount of weight required
to compress my grass, and the most simple way of managing it. The
idea of leverage therefore suggested itself, and I think can be applied
without much trouble or expense.

My earliest idea, suggested by Mr Easdale's first letter, was to make
use of petroleum barrels (which are to he got for two or three shillings
each), cut in half and filled with earth weU puddled. This I soon saw
would be inconvenient ; but I then thought of another way of utilising
them, which was to fill the barrels as they stood with earth or gravel, and
laying down one, two, or three " tramways," of two beams or planks each,
across the covering bands of the silo, and so apply as much weight as
might be required. By using stones packed with earth in the shape
of mortar, each barrel would weigh nearly half a ton. Their form would
make them easily movable, either in the sUo when in use, or when it
required to be emptied.

Finally, the idea of leverage suggested itself, which may, I think,
be simply carried out in the way shown on the sketch of transverse
section sent herewith. In this A represents the lever, made of a larch
pole, fixed to the wall, B, by an iron rod, which would be turned into the
masonwork so low down as to give the counterpoise required for the
weight, 0. D, a beam, say five feet long, is laid transversely to the floor

■of planks, and B is an iron upright passing through a mortise in A, with
holes for a pin, which would regulate the height. It is clear that any .
amount of pressure which the flooring would bear without curling up at
the ends could be applied in this way. The beams, D, which would
follow one another along the length of the flooring, would be made of any
rough timber sawn down the middle, and, being ui short lengths, easily
removed as a fresh cut was I'equired.

200

Appendix.

The absence of pressure after the grass had got fairly settled into
" cake " would, I think, not make any ditference. Should the concentra-
tion of pressure on a single beam he thought objectionable, it would be
easily modified by laying down two, four or Ato feet apart, with a cross-
bar for the fulcrum to rest, on. Aqtjabitjs.

[" Aquarius " does not say how many levers he proposes to use, A silo
of the dimensions stated would have a surface of 480 sq. ft., and, at
Icwt. per sq. ft. the weight required would amount to 24 tons. Supposing
the lever to be 24ft. long, and the force applied in the middle of the silo,
as shown in the figure, 8 tons would have to be suspended at the end, to
give the required pressure. It would be applied, too, where least service-
able, viz., in the jcentre— the pressure being most wanted close to the
walls. The absence of pressure after settlement does make a difference ;
and the unsatisfactory result in Mr. Scott's experiment {see p. 179), appears
to be due to this very cause. — Ed.]

SlE, — As there has been a great deal of discussion lately upon the best
methods of weighting ensilage in the pit, I have sent you the drawings
and description of an invention patented by Dr. Bailey, for utUisiug the
weight of the ensilage itself to compress the mass in the pit.

The plan adopted is to compress a layer of the ensilage four or more
feet thick on the top of the mass by means of bolts having threads and
nuts at the top ; on the lower end of the bolts are heads and washers.

"Whenjthe silos are filled to within about four feet as high as is proposed
to fill them, plank is placed crosswise in the silo, with holes through which
the bolts pass, having the heads and washers on the under side. Across

Substitutes for Weights.

201

this plank are placed short pieces of plank crosswise of the planks COO,
two of which, having holes in the centre, are placed so that the bolts
D D D pass through them. One or more short pieces are placed across
the planks between the two bolts. At equal distances bolts with
planks COO and B B B are placed as described above, at such distances
apart that each bolt will compress about twenty-five to thirty-six square
feet area. When the bolts, with the planks and B B B, are in
position, the filling of the silo is resumed. When it is full to the tops of
the bolts the plank cover E E E, is laid crosswise in the silo, provided
with holes or notches, so that the screw ends of the bolts can stick up
through it. Short pieces of joists, G Gr G, and about two feet longer
than the distances between the bolts, are placed on each end of the plank

:e

Jf

Z2

E

C^m :^o

covering, also one piece in the centre of the silo. Equidistant between
the bolts, these joists lap about two feet, so that they form a continuous
stringer on each side of the silo and lengthwise through the centre.
A plank, H H H, with holes through it of sufficient thickness to
make a stifE spring, is then placed crosswise, resting at each end and in
the centre upon the sticks or joists, G G G, so that the bolts wUl pass up
through the holes. Upon the top of the plank are washers. Nuts III
are screwed down on the bolts D D D. By turning the nuts down, a
layer of the ensilage, lying between the plank covering, E E E, and the
planks, and B B B, is compressed to any desired degree of solidity.
This layer wiU weigh from 501b. to 601b. to the cubic foot ; therefore a
layer of 4ft. in thickness will press upon the mass below with the pressure
of at least 2001b. to the square foot, and be sufficient to exclude the air
and prevent fermentation.

The advantages of this method are that there are no bolts in the way at
filling, all labour of handling heavy weights is avoided, the side walls are
relieved of pressure, and therefore need not be built so strongly as for
ordinary weights, and the bottom part of the ensilage is not compressed
too much (as sometimes at present takes place, squeezing out some of the

P

202 Appendix.

juices). The pressure brought to bear upon the top 4ft. of ensilage by-
compression of the bolts, is suflB.cient for its preservation, and should any
of the juices be pressed out they are taken up by the mass below, so that
nothing is lost. A. B. R.

[The idea of compressing the topmost layer of fodder as a means for
weighting the rest of the mass, is ingenious, but we doubt whether it
would answer in practice. It seems to us that when the screws are set to
work, the fodder, on being compressed between the planks, will swell out
where there are no planks, viz., in the interyening spaces and at the sides.
If the compression were great, the fodder at the sides might be driven so
forcibly against the walls as to resist any descent. If the bolted mass did
sink down, its base would not have the regularity of form shown in the
sketch, but would rather resemble the surface of a couch or easy chair,
where the stuffing is compressed under the buttons and is puffed out in
the iutervening spaces. Under such circumstances there would be a
succession of hoUow places in the silo, which would be reservoirs of air
and centres of decomposition. The effect of placing heavy weights on
the top should be, first, to drive out the air abounding in the fodder when
put in the silo, and afterwards to prevent any new supply from coming in.
The bolted mass would probably serve the latter purpose very effectually,
but it would also prevent the escape required in the first instance, and
thus would shut in the great agent of destruction. If, instead of
attempting to make the whole surface into a single block, a number of
smaller independent blocks were made, with the boards underneath as
complete as on the top, and each block trimmed smooth round the edge
by a hay knife, they could be packed together aU over the surface, and
could be unscrewed one by one as the mass of ensilage underneath was
required to be uncovered. We think this would remove the objections
above indicated; but whether there would be any saving in the trouble
and expense of lifting ordinary weights remains to be proved. — Ed.]

Sib, — Regarding the pressing of ensilage, the following plan seems to
me an easy and efficient way of doing so. Say the sUo is 12ft. by 30ft.,
then have thirty galvanised tanks, each 6ft. long by 2ft. broad and
4ft. Sin. high, with large rings at each end, to pass a pole through for
lifting. When the silo is full, place on boards, and on them the empty
tank ; two tanks placed across the silo would cover the 12ft. Let the
-tanks be connected with catches, to keep them aU in place during the
sinking of the ensilage, then fill the tanks with water from a hose or
pump. When the ensilage is required for use, draw off the water with a
syphon or pump from one or both of the tanks, at the end you wish to
begin at, disconnect the empty tank, and lift it off. The pressure per
square foot would be about 2S01b. ; the empty tanks would weigh about
2241b. each.

Of course, the above plan would be of no use where water was not at

Substitutes for Weights. 203

hand ; but on many farms silos could be built in such a situation as to
utilise any water power arailable for the purpose. The tanks ought to
hare the rivet heads inside, for close packing. W. T. M.

UfEculm, Devon.

SiEj — I quite agree with your correspondents who think that some
means may be adopted for applying the needful pressure to ensilage,
without resorting to the clumsy and laborious method of lifting on or
off many tons of stones, &c., whenever the silo is filled or emptied.

If I were about to construct a sUo, I would try the effect of some-
thing of this kind. Along the top of each of the two longer walls I
would place a wooden or iron beam (disused rails from a railway would
serve the purpose, if obtainable), secured so as to withstand an upward
pressure, and raised just enough from the coping to admit of the inser-
tion, between wall and beam, of the ends of a stout plank, stretching
across the silo from wall to waU. This cross-plank I would use as a
fulcrum (if I may so term it) from which to apply pressure to the-
boards covering the ensilage — the force being applied by means of a
portable " jack-screw " or " lifting jack," standing on the boards, and
worked up to the cross-plank, thereby driving down the board and the
fodder below.

The side walls of the silo I would previously provide with sets of
holes to admit stout pins, so that, on the jack forcing down one of
the boards, pins could be inserted at each end to prevent its rising
again. This could be done in the course of a few minutes, and then
the jack could be removed to the next board, the cross-plank shifted
over it, and the process repeated, till at length aU the boards would
be pressed and pinned down.

I would not, however, attempt to give the full amount of compression
at one time, because there is at first a certain amount of natural elasticity
in the fodder which would increase the labour ; and the work would, I
think, be more easily and effectually done by commencing with a moder-
ately good pressure, and giving further compression at intervals of a day
or two, as the fodder loses its elasticity, forcing the boards down each
time an inch or two to a lower set of holes, and then shifting the pegs.

This could be repeated from time to time, untU the mass of ensUage
showed no signs of further coUapsion.

I . should work the jack close alongside the walls, and not in the centre
of the cross-plank j for, in the first place, it is at the edges, that most
pressure is requisite, seeing that mouldiness always begins at the outside,
and the greater the pressure there the less the amount of damage;
secondly, if the force were applied in the centre, the boards would cer-
tainly bend upwards at the ends, and not only would the pressure be
unequal, bui it would be greatest where least wanted and fail where most
required. I should be disposed to slip one end of the board under pegs
placed in readiness in one of the walls, and then press down the opposite

204 Appendix.

end of the board, by means of the jack, until the other pins could be
inserted ; or else (and this probably would be a better arrangement) have
two jacks, one at each end of the board, and tighten them alternately,
until it was brought down to the required level.

I am inclined to think that such a mode of compression would be more
beneficial than covering up the entire surface of the ensilage evenly from
the first. The advantage of the covering is obtained, not merely by pre-
venting any entrance of air, but (more important stiU) by ejecting that
already in it — which is the most fertile source of mischief. It does not
suffice to exclude air by hermetically sealing the surface of the sUo, for
that would imprison what is within, and a kind of slow combustion, detri-
mental to the nutritious qualities of the fodder, would continually go on ;
but by beginning the compression at one end of the silo, and extending it
to the other, the air would be gradually driven out as the work proceeds.

It is essential to keep tightening up as long as there is any collapsibility
in the mass, or a new supply of air will get in ; and a continued pressure is-
desirable to the last, it being very advantageous when the silo is opened,
as the exposure of a loose mass to the atmosphere produces rapid decom-
position, which does not occur with that which is closely compacted. The
pegs should be drawn from only one board at a time, as the ensilage is
required to be cut out : and if the pressure were still so great as to pre-
vent the ready removal of the pins, the jack could be re-applied, so as to
give the necessary relief. T.

(Prom the HanvpsMre Chronicle.)
Some suggestions have been made as to the use of screws, levers,- and
similar contrivances, but dead weights appear to find most favour,
possibly from the very simplicity of the arrangement, while any pro-
position as to mechanical appliances seems to imply both outlay of capital
and skilled labour.

Although, however, the application of so many pounds per superficial
foot or yard sounds like a trifling affair, it is quite a different matter-
when a silo of considerable size has to be weighted. Mr. Willan says : " I
fancy that the weight required to make good ensilage is between 2001b. and
2401b. per superficial foot, or thereabouts," and taking the small sized
silos of Mr. Gibson, of Saffron "Walden, simply as an illustration, which
measure 13ft. long, 13ft. broad, and 12ft. deep, and hold 40 tons of
ensilage, we shall find that the superficial area is 169ft., and at 2001b.
per foot the compressive weight needed for this one silo is 33,8001b., or
over 16 tons. This would not be such a very serious item after all, if,
when the weights were once deposited in place they could remain there
till the ensilage was needed for use, but those who have had experience
in these matters state that the pressure should be first placed on 3ft. in
depth of ensilage materials, then -removed and another 3ft. materials-
added, and so on to completion.

Of course ropes and pullies may be employed to lessen the labour, but

Substitutes for Weights. 205

the fact must remain that the primitive principle of obtaining compression
by applying stones, old iron, casks filled with earth, &c., is a serious item
in the labour cost.

Articles of this description are naturally more difficult to handle than
if square shaped and of. uniform size and gravity, and therefore concrete
blocks are, it is stated, often used ; but concrete blocks, with the materials
at moderate cost and each block having an iron ring or hook attached to
haul in and out of the silo by, cannot be made for less than 12s. per cubic
yard, or 8s. to 9s. per ton, and in most cases more, and the sum of 6Z. to
11. at least is therefore incurred for weights for every 40 tons of ensilage,,
exclusive of puUies, ropes, and other apparatus for hoisting and lowering
them.

It is strange that no one has suggested the use of hydraulic pressure to
economise the labour of compression. An "hydraulic jack" capable of
exerting a strain at any one point of sis tons costs hi., weighs but 681b.,
is portable, the pressure can be applied in a few seconds by one man, and
at as many different places as provision has been made for the thrust of
the jack, which, of necessity, must be equal to the strain exercised.

A rough beam or two thrown across the silo and fixed down, or better
stUl, iron uprights built in the walls with projecting feet for the head or
claw of the jack to rest against, would answer the purpose, but cost more ;
in fact, the first would, no doubt, equal tjiat of the dead weight principle,
but the gain would be in the time saved when the silo was required to be-
opened, or when the pressure was needed, and also in the immense
•pressure available. T. Pottee.

Northington, March 5, 1883.

Numberless plans to obtain compression by mechanism' are already put
forth. Every friend you meet (who is endowed with a mechanical turn of
mind) at once buttonholes you with a whispered confidence to the effect
that he can beat you all to nothing in the matter, and it is quite affecting
to notice his look of compassion on your evident scarcity of brains. It i&
best to let such run on to the full length of their tether, and then intro-
duce some factor which they had never dreamt of, and which experience
has shown to be essential ; when, lo ! their castle of cards is at once demo-
lished. Seriously, Sir, as far as I can see, nothing, so far, can supersede
the separate weights ; they are automatic, certain, and safe, with the
minimum of attention required.

Our boxes of puddled clay are to be superseded by something more,
compact and easier to handle. We think of using pig-iron, as run from
the blast furnace, we supplying them with a model from which to make a
mould. The area of each will still be one foot super ; but the length and
breadth of the new weights will conform to the width of the covering
planks, so that the removal of one row of weights shaU set free either one
or to planks as desired. Two sunk handles (like that in a square 561b.
weight) would be cast in the upper side of each. Thos. Easdale.

206 Appendix.

PORTABLE SILOS.

Sib, — In The Field of March 3, you give an account of the meeting at
the Croydon Farmers' Club, where you mention that I exhibited a new
system of silo building, which was faTOurably received. It has been
suggested to me that if I would make the details of my system public
it would be as well, and I now proceed to do so.

I would make all silos portable, so that they can be shifted or enlarged,
or converted to other uses, if desired.

The construction should be so simple that any agricultural labourer of
average intelligence can erect them or take them down.

No part should be heavier than one man can lift ; and the various parts
should be of such a nature that they can be sent by rail, or carted on an
ordinary farmer's cart, and should be stowed away untU wanted, in the
least available space.

Now, my method of erection is as follows : Having decided where to
erect the silo, level the ground, or if already level, place on it a raised
platform of earth not less than 12 or 18 inches high, so as to keep the
bottom out of the wet. Then lay down plates of ordinary 4ft. by 3ft.
quartering, with mortices throughout 3ft. apart, centre to centre. Insert
uprights all one size — say for example 8ft. long — with a tenon each end
in the plate. Drive a head plate in the top of the same length as the
bottom plate, and the framing is complete. The walls are now formed by
screwing slabs of concrete 3ft. long, 2ft. high, and IJin. thick, with a
hole in each comer, to the wood uprights. The screws can be galvanised
if desired. The joints can be formed by a piece of tarred cord laid in as
the work proceeds, or a rush as used by coopers will do as well. These
slabs can be procured from W. H. LasceUes and Co., 121, BunhDl-row, at
4d. per superficial foot, as advertised. They weigh about f cwt. each, can
be sent by rail or road any distance without packing, and can be stacked
outdoors. They are water, fire, and frost proof.

If the foundation is soft, a row of these slabs can be put under the
plate, or the entire bottom can be paved with them ; although I do not
think this would be found any advantage.

For weighting, the slabs can be laid flat on the ensilage, and earth,
stones, or any other material at the farmer's disposal, can be placed on
the top.

Tor roofing I would use hurdles thatched, having a fixed ridge on each
of the plates to lay them on ; any part can then be uncovered, and the silo
can be roofed in like a rick when it is filled.

To prevent the walls bulging, I would have a haM-inch hole bored
through the centre of each mortise and tenon, and I propose to buy bolt
ends with nuts at a cost of 3d. each, to which any country smith could
weld a half -inch rod, making a bolt the length of the width of the silo,
with a nut each end.

Portable Silos. 207

These bolts can be put either 3ft., 6ft., or 9ft. apart, as found necessary,
and will do for the top plate or the bottom plate; they also tie the
uprights to the head and siU plates.

The concrete slabs should be inside, the quartering showing outside ;
the tarred cord or rush in the joints makes the whole affair air and water
tight ; and the wood does not come into contact with the wet grass.

The wood can be whitewashed or tarred, and the appearance of the
structure would be unobjectionable.

Now the materials required are — the plates from the saw, mortised 3ft.
Apart ; uprights same size as plates, or stifler if desired, tennoned each
end to fit upright ; tie rods, with a bolt and nut at each end, to keep sides
from pushing out ; and slabs of concrete, 3ft. by 2ft. by l^in. thick, to
form floor if found necessary (which would be laid on solid earth), to form
walls by screwing to woodwork, and to form weights by putting a layer on
the ensilage. Ajiy man who can use a hammer and saw can put it up ;
any part can be carried on a man's shoulder any reasonable distance. It
is a tenant's fixture, and can be used for other purposes as well as for
stowing green food.

These structures I would put up in the winter time, when the men have
little to do. If the ground is frozen, so much the better for the carting
and getting across the country ; and I would suggest that, as carting is
very expensive during the hay -making season, it would be a good plan to
make several silos, each close to the crops, so as to save carting the heavy
wet food at the most busy season, for this might be done when there is
little else to do, and the food is much drier and lighter.

W. H. Lascelles.

[If sketches of such silos could be given, with estimates of cost, we
have no doubt they would be of interest to many of our readers. — ^Ed.]

SlE, — ^Acting on your suggestion in The Field of March 17th, that I
should give sketches of my proposed sUos, with estimates of their cost, I
now propose to follow up my letter of that date by supplying your readers
with the information yon suggest.

I rem.ember, when a boy, being told that the country people in Devon-
shire had a method of preserving gooseberries green for a long time, by
burying them in tightly -corked bottles at the foot of a tree. Now, the
bottle is the silo, the cork is the cover, and the ground being drier at the
root of a tree than elsewhere, would be about the best place to put them.

The difficulty in giving estimates for sUos consists in the fact that no
one seems to know exactly what he wants ; and the larger the sUo the
lower the price- per cubic foot.

I will therefore take an experimental silo, and give first a sketch and
price for it, and will make it 15ft. long and 12ft. wide. As regards the
height, I fancy 10ft., will be found convenient for filling and emptying,

208 Appendix.

although if it is made higher it will he cheaper ia proportion in the first
cost ; yet we must be careful this saving is not more than counterbalanced
by the extra cost afterwards.

The general appearance will be something like the sketch opposite
(Fig. 1) ; and you will see I have indicated thatch for the roof, which
might be reed, heather, straw, or whatever is cheapest and handiest.
Boards, tiles, or slates will do where thatching material cannot be
obtained. I may add that the sUo is supposed to be standing on a raised
platform of earth, 12in. or ISin. high, as stated in my previous letter,
instead of a sharply-defined slab, as shown in the engraving.

OONSTBUOTION.

The wood framework, before the concrete slabs are screwed on, will
have an appearance something like that shown in Fig. 2. It consists
of deal, all of one size (^Jin X 3in.), the horizontal plates all mortised
3ft. apart, centre to centre, each mortice being Sin. by liu., and quite
through the plate.

By this arrangement the plate can be bought aU ready with the mortices
made ; any length will come in ; it can be kept in stock and cut ofE as it
may be wanted. Fig. 3 is a sketch of this plate. The vertical pieces are
the exact height of the silo side, whatever may be found most convenient.
I have taken them at 10ft., and they have a tenon each end 4^m. long, ijia.
wide, and lin. thick, as shown by Fig. 4. These uprights or vertical
pieces should be all alike, so that they, too, like the plates, could be kept
in stock ; and the putting up the wood framework of a silo would become
as simple a matter as putting up the shutters of a shop.

The corners I would arrange as shown by Fig. 5. By this contrivance,
the necessity of having special comer pieces is avoided. It will be
noticed that I have shown an iron square at the corner. I would have
three of these at each comer, about 12in. each way, of wrought iron, say
2in. by Jin., with four Sin. by Jin. coach screws in each square. The
centre one might be somewhat shorter.

The sUl-plate I would keep up from the ground by putting blocks of
stone or broken slabs under it, to protect it from the wet ; and the lower
edge of the bottom slab should be rather below the bottom edge of siU
plate, as shown in Fig. 6.

A more simple, but less neat-looking plan to form the walls of silos
win be to use the quartering without mortising and tenoning, simply
bolting or nailing the joint, as in Fig. 7. I have shown a 6in. | bolt,
cost about id., but two Sin. wrought naUs might be used instead.
Although this plan is not so neat-looking as the one first described, it
is really more scientific, and it has the groat advantage of saving one
portion of the process necessary, and thereby reducing the cost, and at
the same time increasing the strength of the structure.

To tie the structure together, I have bored holes through the plate
and tenon, through which oak pins should be driven; and, about 6ft.

3A.

FIG. 4.

210

Appendix.

or 9ft. apart, bolts should be carried across the silo as tie-rods, both at
the top and bottorti, with a nut at each end.

Although I have specified the uprights as 4iin. by 3in., the size can
be increased if found necessary. A 9in. by Sin. deal, with the edge,
towards the slab, for great sUos, or where much pressure is expected,
would be better ; or iron might be used instead of wood, without affecting
in any way the principle of construction.

-E

3-

f tC.9.

A corner-tie, formed by a piece of quartering (Pig. 8) halfened down
on the top and bottom plates, would stiffen the structure, and could be
used in many oases instead of the iron squares ; and an additional tie-rod
with plates could be added to the centre of the silo walls (Pig. 9).

Weighting the Ensilage.

This is an item of expense, indispensable I fear, but most difficult to
meet. We are told of earth being piled up to a weight of 5001b. to the
foot. Now, as a cubic foot of dry mould weighs about three-quarters of
a hundredweight, that means a heap 5ft. or 6ft. high. Then we hear
of cement casks, filled with mould, hoisted into position, blocks of stone,
with puUies and lines for lifting, and all sorts of schemes and dodges to
get over the difficulty. The problem, I take it, is this. When the wet
grass or other green food parts with its water through contact with the
air, plants of a fungous nature are formed and produce decay ; but if the
air is forced out by the compression of the material, and the continued
action of the weights prevents the formation of new air-spaces, the
fungus cannot grow and the material is preserved.

The actual weight required wiU vary according to the material com-
pressed, but the results of American experiments would seem to show that
it varies from about Icwt. to 5cwt. for every square foot.

Now, the concrete slabs I propose to use for the walls weigh just about
lowt. to the cubic foot, so if they are packed close together to a height of
3ft., they will give 3ewt. to the foot pressure; and as each slab weighs
about fcwt., they can be carried up a ladder and put in position without
difficulty by one man ; in fact, I have already used them in this way for
testing the strength of concrete floors.

Portable Silos.

211

Hainng, therefore, filled the silo to the eaves plate, and haYing bolted a
fillet to the uprights to lean the slabs against, cover the ensUage with
slabs — ^broken ones will do — ^form a floor, and commence the weighting as
in Fig. 10. Stand the sla^js on edge against the fiUet, working from the
centre towards the outside on either side to equalise the pressure untU the
whole is covered, then lay strips of wood on the top edge of the slabs, and
pUe again untU the requisite pressure is attained.

The object of putting the slabs on their edge instead of on the flat, is
to prevent damage or breakage, as, if they are laid flat, the bottom slab
has to sustain the weight of all the others, whilst, if placed on edge, the
weight to be carried wiU be much less. ■ The fillets placed on the top
edges are to prevent the risk of slipping ; and it makes the whole affair
much safer. To calculate the weights, reckon thirty slabs to a ton, and it
will not be far wrong.

FlC.iQ.

To keep the rain off, the top can be thatched; or the slabs might be so
placed as to throw the water off without any other covering.

As the ensUage wiU shrink considerably, it is of course highly necessary
that the weight of slabs should follow it, and therefore the bolts which
are used for cross-ties must have no slabs on them ; they must come inside
the head plates as well, unless the ensilage is piled well above the eaves
plate, which in practice will, I think, be found the best plan.

Although 1 recommend the slabs to be placed on edge, it must not be
supposed they are easily broken. They are now being used in the West
Indies for Coolie barracks, put up by native labourers; and I have a
letter from a cocoa planter in Trinidad, in which he informs me they
were landed on his plantation with a breakage of less than 5 per cent.,
although sent from London quite loose, being carried as ballast at a very
cheap rate.

312 Appendix.

Strength of Silos.

How strong should the walls of a silo be? is a question that has
not, I think, been subjected to the test of experiment. We read of
walls 2ft. thick; I have seen engravings of model silos where they are
shown much thicker ; then we are told of 18in. as a fair or proper
thickness.

Now, as the slabs I am proposing are only IJin. thick, either the sUos
already made are a great deal too thick, or mine are a great deal too thin.
The question is, which is right ?

Although we talk about silo and ensilage, which are very grand terms,
the silo is simply a barn and the ensilage potted green stuff ; and a silo
charged with ensilage is just a tank filled with green food with a
weight on the top to keep the air out. If the contents were grain,
a pressure on the top would cause pressure on the sides, and strength
to counteract it would be wanted. If you put a heavy weight on a sack
of corn, and the sack is rotten, you may burst your sack and waste
your com.

With grass the case is different ; the fibres which cross and recross in
every direction tie the whole mass together, and no amount of pressure
would cause a truss of hay to bulge. The shrinkage would take place not
only vertically, but laterally, and I very much question whether, after the
first day or two, there is any pressure whatever on the sides. Indeed, I
should not be at all surprised to hear of a lath of wood being pushed
down at any part of the structure between the sides and ends, and its
contents.

If my reasoning is sound, the thick walls are more than useless ; they
are extravagant and wasteful, and tend to prevent a most promising
experiment from being generally put into practice.

But it must be understood that these remarks apply to oases where
grass, clover, and similar crops are potted whole, and not to those which
are cut up so small that they more resemble the corn in the sack above
mentioned.

Cost op Silos.

We will now see what the cost of the structure I have been describing
will amount to, and to make the matter quite clear, I will take the silo I
have drawn (Fig. 1), and see what it contains.

There are in the side six posts, and in the end five, eleven in all ; as
there are eleven on the other side and end, this makes twenty- two ; and as
each is 10ft. long, this gives 220ft. of post. There are 27ft. of siU pkte,
and the same quantity of head plate on one side and end, or 54ft. in all ;
add 54ft. for the other side and end, we have 108ft. of plate. The side
contains twenty-five slabs, and the end twenty, or forty-five in all ; add
forty-five for other side and end, and we have ninety slabs in silo. The
price will be then somewhat as follows :

Portable Silos.

213

£ s. d.

220ft. of post at « 3 13 4

108ft. of plate at 4(J 1 16

90 slabs each 36m. by 24m 9

Screws for ditto 3

12 iron squares for corners, bolts, cross ties, and

tarred cord for joints 1 15

.£16 7 4

And the cubical contents would be found by multiplying tbe length
15ft. by the width 12ft. which gives 180ft., then by the depth, which
gives 1800ft. as the contents of the sHo when quite fuU. If we
divide this by 27, the number of feet in a cubic yard, it gives a
little over 66| cubic yards as the contents of this silo ; and as an
ordinary builder's cart contains a yard, it would take 66^ loads of that
size to fill it.

FIG.IJ.

But for farm purposes much larger silos would be found desirable, and
we -vsiU therefore see what a silo 60ft. long, 24ft. wide, and 12ft. high
would cost. Now, such a building would contain 17,280 cubic feet, or
640 yards, or one-horse loads, of fodder.

Here (Fig. 11) is the sketch of such a structure, the details are the same
as the small building. There are sixty posts, each 12ft. long or 720ft. of
posts, and 168ft. of plate or 888ft. run of quartering in all, and it would
cost as f oUows :

888ft. run 4iin. ^ 3in. morticed and tenoned M s. d.

plate and post at 4d 14 16

336 slabs, each 36ni. X 24in., at 2s 33 12

Screws 15

12 iron squares for comers, bolts, cross ties, and

tarred cord for joints 5 15

£5i 18

214 Appendix.

If the plates are not mortised, and posts not tenoned, a reduction of
26s. can be made from the first estimate, and from the second in
proportion.

If we now compare this price, 54?. 18s., for the slabs and quartering
of the walls of a silo to contain 640 yards, with the previous estimate,
16Z. 7s. 4d. for the slabs and quartering of a silo to contain 665 yards, we
shall find that the cost for the large silo is equal to Is. 8(£. per yard, and
the small silo about hs-. per yard, showing that the larger the silo the
cheaper the cost.

The railway rate, cartage to the ground, making the platform, and
putting up the structure, must be all added j but as they are matters
which will vary very much, I have left them to be added according to
circumstances. I might, however, mention that I have succeeded in
obtaining special low rates for the conveyance of these slabs -by the
railway companies, which, however, vary, so that no fised rate can be here
quoted.

Now we come to the weighting. It would take 729 slabs to put a
pressure of 3 cwt. to the foot on the small silo, because there are 180ft.
superficial contents, and three times that gives 540ft. cube, which is
equal to 729 slabs ; now, as these would cost 72Z. 18s., and might be used
any number of times, I think, if we put 7i per cent, of their cost or
hi. 10s., it would be fair. In any calculation you may make, don't leave
■out this weighting, for hitherto it has, so far as I know, been found
indispensable, and any calculation which ignores it is false and delusive.
So we may say, in round numbers, 23Z. for our small silo, which is equal to
about 6s. a yard, or a one horse cartload.

This cost can be reduced if any cheap weighting materials, such as
stones, bricks, earth, &c., are at hand, and can be used instead of the

I have now given all the information in my power, and I hope I have
succeeded in conforming to the request you appended to my letter in
The Field of March 17. W. H. Lascelles.

[On the principle already laid down (page 45), the capacity of the small
silo above mentioned would be 36 tons, and the cost (taking only the sum
of 16Z. 7s. 4(£., without carriage or weighting) would be a fraction over
^s. per ton. The capacity of the larger sUo would be 356 tons, and the
cost (542. 18s.) would be 3s. per ton. — Ed.]

INDEX.

Acetic acid, caused by fermentation,
29, 91, 149 ; advantages and dis-
advantages, 155 ; excess of, affects
qaality of milk and butter, 91 ;
amount of, in samples of ensilage,
111, 127, 176

Acidity, if excessive, may be counter-
acted by powdered cbalk, 155

Acids formed in ensilage. See Acetic,
Butyric, and Lactic

Adverse views on ensilage, 195

Africa, silos in, 191

Aftermaths, ensilage of, 10, 17, 167 ;
not good for covering contents of
pit, 80

Agricultural Department of the United
States,— report on ensilage, 17, 24,
46, 48, 64, 96, 155, 163

Air, causes heating in ensilage, 80 ;
necessity of expelling from silo, 79 ;
should be excluded by weight, not
by clay, 81

Air-tight, top of silo need not be made,
80, 87

Albert Model Farm, Glasnevin, experi-
ments at, 129

Alcoholic fermentation, 29, 91, 155 ;
when beneficial, 90, 156, 162

Alcohol, flavour attractive to cattle,
155 ; when strong, it is indicative of
waste, 89, 196 ; amount in samples
of ensilage. 111, 127, 176

America, Ensilage Congress in, 187 ;
visit to a silo in, 190 ; report on
silos and ensilage, see Department
of Agriculture

American silos, 32 ; often built by the
farmers, 35 ; cost of, 34, 46, 59 ;
great depth of, 83

Ammonia, apparent increase in ensi-
lage, due to decrease of other con-
stituents, 148, 162

Analyses, of clover ensilage (Vioomte
de Chezelles'), 111 ; of clover ensi-
lage and clover hay (Mr. Scott's),

179 ; of grass ensilage and hay
(Lord Walsingham's), 120 ; of
grass ensilage (Mr. A. Grant's),
176 ; of rye-grass and ensilage
(Glasnevin), 131 ; of rye and maize
ensilage from America, 150 ; of
fresh maize and inferior ensilage
(Austria), 161 ; of fresh maize and
good ensilage (M. Goffart's), 162 ;
of fresh sainfoin and eusUage
(Germany)^ 161 ; of milk from
cows fed with and without ensilage,
125 ; of pasture grasses after under-
going digestion, 157
Ancients, silos among the, 190
Angles in silos obstruct the settle-
ment of the contents, 28, 30
Apple refuse, stored in silos, 17
Artichokes, Jerusalem, ensilage of, 16,
17^ analyses, 141

Bailey's American silos, 33, 34

Barn silos, 22, 23, 24 ; Lord Walsing-
ham's, 120 ; the Earl of Wham-
cliffe's, 169

Barral, M., on fermentation in ensilage,
154, 162

Barrels of earth, &c., used as weights,
63, 104, 199, 210

Beans, ensilage of, 132

Beetroot, ensilage of, 17 ; pulp, 18, 19 ;
when very acid, produces poor nulk
and butter, 91 ; analyses of, 141

Bible, reference to silos in the, 191

Boards for covering, 75, 166, 175 ; laid
on pitted fodder, 79 ; need not fit
close, 105

Books on ensilage, viii. ; on oouerete
buildings, 35

Bricks, closing doors with, 31 ; suit-
able as weights, 63 ; silos made of,
39, 51, 56, 167, 172, 175 ; cost, 51,
172

Broderiok's, Mr. George, silo at Hawes,
Yorkshire, 169

216

Index.

"Brown hay," 5, 16; produced from

damaged fodder, 85
Buckwheat, ensilage of, 17
Butter, effect of ensilage in improving,

86, 101, 123, 138, 143, 165, 176 ;

quality of, a test of quality of

ensilage, 86.
Butyric fermentation, 16, 85, 147, 150 ;

when excessive, it renders fodder

uneatable, 85, 155

Cameron, Dr., analyses of rye grass
and ensilage, 131

Cannon's, Colonel, experiments in
cattle feeding, 158

Capacity of sUo, estimation of, 44, 60

Catch crops for silos, 182

Cattle attracted by flavour of ensilage,
122, 139 ; do not drink much when
fed on ensilage, 89 ; feeding experi-
ments, 97 ; M. Goffart feeds more
than 100 on ensilage, 5 ; Colonel
Cannon fed 90 steers, 158

Cementing inside of brick silos, 194

Chaff, dry, not necessary to absorb
moisture in ensilage, 65, 103

Chalk, silos in, cost of, 180

ChezeUes, Tioomte de, description and
illustration of silo, 107; cost, 57,
112; analysis of ensUage, 111;
pitting of clover in wet weather,
116 --''-'

Chopping up fodder before pitting,
69 ; when economical, 70 ;" not
necessary with grass, 69, 103, 166,
171, 175

Clay, unsuited for excluding air from
sUo, 81 ; boxes of, for weighting,
166, 205

Clovers, ensilage of, 12, 109, 114, 116,
135, 173; analyses of. 111, 178;
feeding experiments with, 97 ; pit-
ting of in wet weather, 114 ; stored
in earthen pits, 116

Combustion, slow, of material produced
by fermentation, 29, 87. See also
Waste.

Comfrey, prickly, not well suited for
ensilage, 16 ; experiment with in
Ireland, 132

Concrete, silos of, 88, 39, 48, 59 ;
portable slabs for silos, 206 ; blocks
for weights, 172, 175, 205 ; state-
ments of cost, 49, 172, 213

Conference at Blois, 22, 26

Congress at New York, 187

Corvisart's, Baron, earthen silos, 25

Cost of silos, 35, 43, 46, 59, 171, 213

Cottu's, M., feeding experiments in
Prance, 139

Covering up the silo, 79, 166, 175
'Cows, feeding experiments with, at
Merton, 123 ; three hundred are
fed on ensilage by West Point
Butter Association, 46 ; the herd
of Ticomte de ChezeUes, 109

Cowton, silo at, description and plan
of, 165

Cream, increase of, from feeding on
ensilage, 98, 101, 125

Crops for the sUo, 7 ; should be cut
young, 103 ; should be put in silo-
as soon as cut, 103 ; are damaged
by drying, 65

Cutting out the ensilage, 77 ; weights
important during the cutting, 105 ;
cutting up fodder, 85 ; unnecessary
with grass, 69, 103, 166, 171, 175

Department of Agriculture, American,
report on ensilage, 11, 24, 46, 48,
64, 96, 155, 163, 197

Digestibility of vegetable fibre in-
creased by ensilage process, 94,.
128, 131, 148, 162 ; proportion of
grasses, &c., digested, 157

Door, should be at ■ the end of th0
silo, 31 ; jnodes of closing, 31, 76

Dry material, mixture of with green
fodder, needless for preservation,
65 ; may do harm, 66 ; useful for
rendering dry fodder eatable, 67

Drying of crops before ensilage is
deleterious, 65

Dutchbarn, preservation of grass in, 1 1 S

Earth silos, 23, 24, 25 ; thickness of
covering, 26, 104, 210

Basdale, Mr. T., account of experi-
ment at Cowton, with plan of silo,.
165 ; capacity of silo, 37

Elliptical silos, 27, 30, 78

English silos, 37, 119, 133, 135, 165,
169, 173 ; cost of, 59, 121, 171, 213

Ensilage, may be made when hay-
making is impossible, 94 ; maize
kept four years in a pit, 25 ; mix-
ture with chaff before feeding, 90 ;
French phraseology with respect
to, 4. See also Clover, Grass, &o.

Ensilage fever, 151, 195

Excavation, cost of, in America, 50,
51 ; in France, 55 ; in England,
171, 180

Ewes, feeding experiments' with, 124,
143

Index.

217

Feeding experiments, M. Cottn's, with
yarions kinds of ensilage, 141 ;
Professor Henry's, with ensilage and
dry fodder, 97, 142 ; M. Goffart's,
99 ; Professor MoBryde's, with
clover ensilage and other foods,
97 ; at New Jersey Experimental
Station, with turnips and ensilage,
95 ; Report of TJ. S. Department of
Agrionlture on, 99 ; Lord Walsing-
ham's, 101

Fermentation, when henefioial, 90, 94,
163 ; when destructive, 29, 87, 160,
161 ; resulting from insufficient
pressure, 84 ; checked by heavy
weights, 89 ; produced hy exposure
of ensilage to air after removal
from the pit, 89, 90, 105, 169 j
waste of material by, in defective
processes, 156, 196 ; compensation
in well-made ensilage, 94, 128, 162.
See also Acetic, Alcoholic, Butyric,
Lactic, and Putrid.

Filberts, preserving, 19

Filling the silo, 65, 71, 73, 105.

Fodders used for the silo, 7 ; should be
cut young, 103 ; should be evenly
spread in pit, 104; effect of ensilage
on, 86. See also Clovers, Grasses,
&o.

Ford, Key. C. H., estimates of silo,
172 ; capacity, 38

French silos, 55, 107 ; cost of 55, 112

Fruit, effect of fermentation on, 153

Gibbs, Mr., on the cost of silos, 58
Gibson's, Mr. B., silos at Saffron
Walden, 134 ; capacity and cost, 38.
Goffart's triple silo, 27, 30, 78 ; cost
of, 56. For his general advice, see
Chapters I. to X.
Grooseberries, potted, 173, 207
Gorse useful for covering silo, 80, 104
Grain, storage of, in ancient silos, 191
Grains, brewers^, ensilage of, 17, 19
Grandeau's, Professor, analyses of

fresh maize and ensilage, 162
Grrant, Mr. A., experiments in Hamp-
shire, 173 ; capacity of silos, 37 ;
analysis of ensilage, 176
Grass, ensilage of, 10, 166, 169, 173 ;
need not be chopped before pitting,
69, 103, 166, 171, 175 ; digestibUity
- of, 157 ; analyses of, 126, 131, ^76
Greeks, silos among the, 191

Hampshire, experiments in, 173, 178 ;
chalk sUos, 180

Hay and ensilage, comparative feeding

value of, 96, 101, 123
Hay-barns and silos, relative capacity

of, 60 ; Dutch barn, 118
Heather for covering silos, 80, 104
Heating of ensilage when exposed to

air, 89, 90, 105, 169 ; long exposure

causes waste, 90
Henry, Professor, feeding experi-
ments with ensilage and dry

fodder, 142
Hoare's, Mr., experiment at Pagehurst,

135 ; capacity and cost of silo, 37
Horses, feeding on ensilage, 99, 108,

116, 122, 196
Hot weather, effect of, on ensilage, 26,

103

Icehouses turned into silos, 35
Imrie's, Mr., experiment at Whitehill,

132
Ireland, experiments in, 129
Iron weights for silos, 63, 205

Jackson, Mr. Kains, on the Vioomte
de Chezelles' silo, 107 ; its speci-
fication and cost, 112 ; the Kentish
silo, 38 ; ensilage without a sUo,
117

Juice, when pressed out of maize, 82 ;
not likely to occur with grasses,
&c., 82

Kemble's, Mr. C. A., experiment with

sprouted oats, 193
Eehyon's, Mr. C. E., experiment in

Wales, 139 ; capacity of silo, 38
Klappmeyer's brown hay, 5, 16, 85
Kentish silo, 38 ; plan of, 40

Lactic acid, production of, 87, 126,
127, 135 ; quantity of, in samples
of ensilage, 135, 150; 179

Landowners, construction of experi-
mental silos by, 183

LasceUes, Mr., on portable concrete
silos, 60, 206 ; estimate of cost, 213

Lawes, Sir J., on feeding qualities of
ensilage, 95 ; on losses produced
by fermentation, 91

Lechartier's, Professor, experiments
on fermentation in ensilage, 153

Leoouteux, M., on ensilage of clover
in wet seasons, 114 ; on ensilage of
root crops, 117 ; on earthen silos,
24, 26 ; book on ensilage, viii.

Levers, used instead of weights, 199 ;
bad effect of, 179

218

Index.

Loring's, CommisBioner, report of U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 17, 24,
46, 48, 64, 96, 98, 155, 163, 197

Lucerne, ensilage of, 14 ; analyses of,
111

Maize, advantages of, 8 ; not rich
food, 9 ; analyses of, 141, 150, 160 ;
liability to excessive fermentation
when pitted whole, 84; kept four
years in a pit, 25

Mangold, sliced, ensilage of, 18, 117

Manure, increase of, from stock kept
on ensilage, 101

Meat, influence of silos upon production
of, 183

Merton, experiments at, 119

Milk production, hy cows fed on
ensilage, 123, 143 ; analysis, 125 ;
decrease of when ensilage stopped,
101, 126

Mixed materials, silos made of, 53

Moisture required in crops for en-
silage, 65

Morris's, Mr. !P., experiments in
America, 2, 24

Moser, Professor, experiments with
pitted maize, 161

NewTork, ensilage congress at, 187
Nitrogenous matters, apparent increase
in ensilage, caused by decrease of
other constituents, 148, 162

Oats, green, ensilage of, 15, 17, 135,
182, 186 ; analyses of oats and
vetches, 141 ; ensilage of sprouted
sheaves, 193

Opening the pit, precautions in, 77

Paper, waterproof for roofing, 57, 62,

176 ; with wooden walls, 47, 53,
■ 54, 55
Peas, ensilage of, 17, 186
Pine-needles, use of, for covering

silo, 79, 104
Potatoes, storage of, in siloes, 16
Potter, Mr. T., on cost of silos, 60 ;

book on concrete building, 35
Pressure, see Weighting.
Putrid fermentations, when produced,

29, 84, 87

Rain, effect of, on ensUage, 68, 114,
116, 166, 173 ; need not stop filling
of silo, 103

Rape, ensilage of, 17

Eeeds for covering silo, 80

Eidge on surface of silo objeotionable,79
Hoofs, permanent, 57, 62 ; of corru-
gated iron, 176 ; of waterproof
paper, 62, 176 ; of thatch, 208
Eoots, sliced, ensilage of, 18, 70, 117
Eye-grass, ensilage of, 11, 182 ; expe-
riments with, in Ireland, 130 ;
analyses, 131
Eye, green, richer than maize, 9, 22 ;
ensilage of, in Essex, 14, 133 1
analysis of American rye ensilage,
150; analysis of rye and vetches,
141 ; Dr. Voelcker on, 146, 149, 150

Sainfoin, ensilage of, 107 ; analyses of,

141, 161
Salt, not necessary for preserving ensi-
lage, 74, 103, 166; useful for
cattle, 74 ; bad result with large
quantity, 75, 120
Sand should not be placed on ensilage,

73, 104
Scotland, an experiment in, 132
Scott, Mr. A. J., on clover ensilage and

hay, 178
Screws as substitutes for weights, 198
SUo, bad kind of, 21 ; beat kind, 26 ;
simple forms of, 22 ; situation of,
31 ; making the, 20 ; elliptical, 27,
30, 78 ; half-underground, 27, 78 ;
above ground level, 26, 208 ; large
better than small, 29 ; brick, 15,
39, 51, 56, 167, 172, 175 ; concrete,
33, 39, 48, 59 ; wooden, 37, 46 ; in
chalk, 180 ; portable, 60, 206 ; cost
of, 35, 43, 171, 180, 213 ; storage
of grain in ancient times, 4, 191 ;
origin of name, 4
Slate for silos, 181
Slow filling advantageous, 71
Sorghum, ensilage of, 16, 17
Sour fodder, made in Germany and

Hungary, 5, 152, 160
Sour-krout, 17, 187; M. Goffart on,

145 ; Dr. Voelcker on, 146
Spain, sUos in, 191
Spring crops suitable for ensilagOj 182,

186 •
Stone, silos, 51 ; weights, 63
Straw, layer of under boards, 74, 104 ;
use of in earthen pits, 23 ; un-
necessary to absorb moisture in
ensilage, 65 ; is rendered digestible
by mixing, 67
Summer, liability of ensilage to in-
creased fermentation in, 26, 103 ;
well-made ensilage has kept during
the, 89

Index.

219

Sutton, Mr. Francis, F.C.S.,

of grass ensilage and hay, 120 ; of
mUk from cows fed on ensilage, 125

Tares for the sUo, 182, 186

Tomline'a, Colonel, experiment at Or-
well Park, Suffolk, 135 ; capacity
of silo, 37

Toms, Mr. F. Woodland, F.C.S., on
the chemistry of ensilage, 151 ;
analysis of oloTer ensilage from
France, 111 ; of grass ensilage
from Hampshire, 176

Treading down fodder insufficient with-
out weight, 88 ; most necessary
close to the waHs, 79, 104

Trenches used as silos, 25

Trifolium incamatum, suited for ensi-
lage in wet seasons, 115 ; Mr.
Hoare's experiment, 185 ; Mr.
Grant's, 173

Turnips, said to be better than ensi-
lage, 95 ; are turnips better than
hay ? 96 ; storage in sUoa, 16, 17

Uniled. States. Bee America

Vetches, experiment with in Scotland,
132 ; analyses of vetches with oats
and rye, 151

Voelcker, Dr., on ensilage, 146, 170 ;
analyses of clover ensilage and hay,
179 ; of green rye, 135 ; of rye and
maize, 150

Wales, experiences of a tyro in, 137
Walls, deterioration of ensilage near,
28 ; should be smooth and upright.

28, 103 ; strength necessary, 28, 31.
See also Brick, Concrete, Stone,
and Wood.

Walnuts, preserving underground, 19

Walsingham's, Lord,experiments of , 119

Waste, produced by bad processes, 29,
84, 87, 160 ; often unobserved, 93,
160 ; in well-made ensilage is com-
pensated by greater digestibility,
93, 128, 162 ; causes an apparent
increase in nitrogenous matters,
148, 162

Water, should be kept out of silo, 56,
102 ; pressure of, breaking through
floor of silo, 175

Weighting the silo, 81 ; necessary for
perfect preservation, 83, 104 ; most
requisite close to walls, 28, 105 ;
materials used for, 63, 166, 171,
175 ; removal of weights, 77 ; me-
chanical substitutes for, 64, 194 ;
concrete blocks, 172, 175, 205

Weiske's, Professor, experiments with
fresh sainfoin and ensilage, 161

Wet weather, storing fodder in, 68,
114, 116, 166, 173

Wharncliffe, Farl of, silo on estate of,
169

Willesden paper for roofing, 62, 176

Wolff, Professor Von, experiments in
digestion of fodders, 157

Wooden walls for sUos, 32, 46 ; cost
of, 47

Woods, Mr. H., lecture on ensUage,
119 ; feeding experiments with
cows, 123 ; with ewes, 124, 143

Yorkshire sHos, 165, 168

ILLUSTEATIONS.

Bailey's, Mr., concrete sHos, 33, 34
ChezeUes', Vicomte de, 106, 113
Dutch bam, for ensilage without a

sUo, 118
East Cowton silo, Mr. Easdale's, 165
GofPart's, M., triple silo, 27, 30, 78
Ice-house bUos, 36

Kentish silo, Mr. Kains-Jackson's,
41

Lascelles', Mr., portable silos of con-
crete slabs, 209, 211, 213

Lever for compressing ensilage, 199

Weights, mechanical substitutes for,
194, 200, 201

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Rules.

VIII. — Centre-board Boats.

This chapter includes designs for Centre-board
Boats for Rowing and Sailing, and the best varieties
of Sails, with working drawings.

IX. — Sails for Centre-board Boats.

This chapter discusses the merits of the various
lug sails and spritsails used, including the Balance

Lug, Chinese Lug, Gunter_Sprit . Rig, ""' "-

Luggers, Lowestoft " - .. . .

Sail, &c.

^ _. _ _. . .^, Falmouth
Lateen Sail, Algoa Bay Lateen

Chap.

XII.— The PoUywog.,
XIII.— Lough Erne Yachts',
XIV.— Una Boats.
XV. — The American Centre-board

Sloop Parole.
XVI.— The Sharpie and Sneak Boat.
XVII.— New Brighton Sailing Boats.
XVIII.— Lake Windermere Yachts.
XIX.— Yachts of the Norfolk Broads.
XX.— Itchen Boats — Itphen Sailing

Punts.
XXI.— Clyde Sailing Boats.
XX-II. — Kingstown Boats. ,

XXIII.— Yachts of Three, Five, and

Ten Tons.
XXIV. — Penzance Luggers, Coble,
Galway Hooker and Pook-
haun, Norwegian Pilot
Boats, &c.
XXV.— The Jullanar.
XXVI.— Double Boats.
This chapter includes a full description of the
American Catamaran.

■ XXVII.— Steam Yachting.
XXVIII.— Ice Yachting;

XXIX.— Canoeing. ,
Appendix — Contains complete instruc-
tions as to Practical Boat Building.
This section is arranged alphabetically in the form
of a dictionary, and embodies a variety of informa-
tion connected with Yachts, Boats, &c.

X. — Brighton Beach Boats.
XI. — Centre-board Sloop.

Pull instruction is given as to the Building and Management of every

Boat described.

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THE

CATTLE OF GEEAT BRITAIN:

A SERIES OF ARTICLES

ON THE

VARIOUS BREEDS OP CATTLE OP THE UHITED KINGDOM,
THEIR HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, &c.

Edited by J. COLEMAN,

Editor of the Farm Department of " The Field," and formerly Professor of Agriculture at the Roya!
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

CONTENTS.

The General Management of Cattle.

Chap.

I. — Introductory.

II. — Bleeding and General Manage-
ment.
III. —Principles of Feeding — Nature
and Value of Different Kinds
of Food.
IV,— Buildings, and the Manufacture

of Manure.
V. — Dairy Management, the Milk
Trade, &c.

The Various Breeds of Cattle.

ENGLISH GROUP.
Chap.

VI. — Shorthorns. By John Thornton.
VII. — Herefords. By Thomas Duck-
ham.
VIII. — Devons. By Capt. Tanner
Davey.
IX. — The Longhorns. By Gilbert

Murray and the Editor.
X. — Sussex Cattle. By A. Heasman.
XI.— Norfolk and Suffolk Red Polled
Cattle. By Thomas Fulcher.

Chap.

XII

SCOTCH GROUP.

By

Polled Galloway Cattle.
Gilbert Murray.
„ Polled Angus or Aberdeenshire
Cattle. By " Scotus."
XIII.— The Ayrshire Breed of Cattle.

By Gilbert Murray.
XIV.— West Highlafld Cattle. By
John Robertson.

WELSH AND IRISH GROUP.
Chap.
XV.— The Glamorgan Breed of Cattle.

By Morgan Evans.
XVI. — Pembrokeshire or Castlemartin

Cattle. By Morgan Evans.
XVIL— The Anglesea Cattle. By Mor-
gan Evans.
XVIII.— The Kerry Breed of Cattle. By
R. O. Pringle.

CHANNEL ISLANDS GROUP.
Chap.
XIX.— The Alderney Breed of Cattle.

By " An Amateur Breeder."
XX.— The Breton Breed of Cattle.
By J. C. W. Douglas and
Others.
XXI.— The Guernsey Breed of Cattle.
By " A Native."

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THE

SHEEP AND PIGS OF GREAT BBITAIN

A SERIES OF ARTICLES

ON THE VARIOUS

BREEDS OF SHEEP AND PIGS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM,
THEIR HISTORY, MANAGEMENT, &c.

Edited by J. COLEMAN,

Editor of tiie Farm Department of " The Field," and formerly Professor pf Agriculture at the Royal
Agricultural College, Cirencester.

CONTENTS.

SHEOEI'.

The General Management of Sheep.

Chap,

I.-

II.-

■Introductory.

Mamagement of Ewes up to
Lambing.
III. — Preparations for and Attention

during Lambing.
IV. — Management from Birth to

Weaning,
v.— ^From Weaning to Market.
VI.— On Wool.

THf Breeds of Sheep.

Chap. _ ,.

I. — Leicester Sheep. By the Editor.
II. — Border Leicesters. By John

Usher.
III.— Cotswold Sheep. By the Editor.
IV. — Long-Wooled Lincoln Sheep.
V. — The Devon Long-Wools. By

Joseph Darby.
VI. — Romney Marsh Sheep. By the

Editor.

VII.— Southdown Sheep. Bythe Editor.

VIII. — The Hampshire, or West Country

Down Sheep. ByE. P. Squarey.

IX.— Shropshire Sheep. By the Editor.

X.— Oxfordshire Down Sheep. By

Messrs. Druce and C. Hobbs.

Chap.
XI. — The Roscommon Sheep. By
R. O. Pringle.
XII. — Negrette Merino Sheep.
XIII. — Exmoor Sheep.
XIV.— The Blackfaced or Scotch

Mountain Sheep.
XV.— Cheviot Sheep. By John Usher.
XVL— Dorset Horned Sheep. By'

John Darby. '

XVII.— Welsh Mountain Sheep. By

Morgan Evans.
XVIII.— The Radnor Sheep. By Morgan
Evans.
XIX.— Herdwick Sheep. By. H. A.
Spedding.

XX. — Sheep Farm/.ig in Queensland.
By John Sidney.

:fic3-s.

Chap.
I. — General Management of Pigs.
II.— The Berkshire Pig. By the Editor. ■
III.— Black Suffolk Pigs.
IV.— Large White Pigs. By the Editor,
v.— Small White Pigs. By the Editor.
VI.— Middle-bred White Pigs. By the

Editor.
VII.— The Black Dorset Pig. By A.
Benjafield.

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BEING

A SERIES OF ARTICLES

ON

THE POINTS OF THEIR VARIOUS BREEDS,

THE TREATMENT OF THE DISEASES TO WHICH
THEY ARE SUBJECT.

REPRINTED FROM "THE FIELD" NEWSPAPER.

BY J. H. WALSH,

" Stonehenge," Editor of " The Field."
(WITH THE AID OF SEVERAL EXPERIENCED BREEDERS.)

CONTENTS.

Book

I. — Management of Dogs in Health.
II.— Drugs Commonly Used for the

Diseases of Dogs, and their Modes

of Administration.

Book

III. — The Ordinary Diseases of the Dog

and their Treatment.
IV. — Judging at Dog Shows and Field

Trials.

S:E>OE,TIIsrO 3DOC3-S.

Book
I. — Dogs Used with the Gun.

Book
H.' — :Hounds and their Allies.

Book
I.— Watch Dogs.
II.— Sheep and Cattle Dogs.

i>roisr-si=oiaa?xisra- x)oa-s.

Book

III. — Terriers (other than Fox and Toy)/
IV.— Toy Dogs.

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Shifts and Expedients

OF

Camp Life, Travel, and Exploration.

W. B. LORD and T. BAINES.

{Royal Artillery) (F.S.G.S.)

Chap.

s.

Introduction.

Chap.

I. — Outfit to take abroad.
II. — Boats, Rafts.and Makeshift Floats.
III.— Working in Metal.
IV. — Huts and Houses.
V. — Extempore Bridges and Make-
■ shifts for Crossing Rivers and
Ravines.
VI.— Timber and its Utilisation.
VII. — Sledges and Sledge Travelling.
VIII. — Boots, Shoes, and Sandals.
IX. — Waggons and other Wheeled

Vehicles.
X. — Harness and Pack Animals.
XI. — Camels.
XII.— Cattle Marking.
XIII.— Water, and the Sap of Plants.
XIV. — Camp Cookery.

XV. — Fish and Amphibious Animals.
XVI. — Poisoned Weapons, Arrows,
Spears, &c.

Tracking, Hunting, and Trap-
ping.

Palanqums, Stretchers, Ambu-
lances, &c.

■On Sketching and Painting
under the Ordinary Difficulties
of Travel.

The Estimation of Distances

and Hints on Field Observing.

XXI. — Hints to Explorers on Collect.

ing and Preserving Objects of

Natural History.

Ropes and Twines.

Bush Veterinary Surgery and
Medicine.

XVII.-
XVIII.-

XIX.-

XX.— 1

XXII.-
XXIII.

Extract from the Introduction.
Like two voyagers' returned from a long cruise in far-off seas, we throw together
our joint gleanings in many lands. These do not consist of jewels, gems, gold, or
furs ; no piles of costly merchandise do we lay at the reader's feet as offerings from
distant climes, but simply the experiences of two roving Englishmen who have
" roughed it." By those who have to pass through a canvpaign, travel wild countries,
or explore little known regions, shifts must be made, and expedients of many kinds
had recourse to, of which the inexperienced in such matters would but little dream.
.... In our travels and adventures we have not been associated, the paths trodden
by us being widely separated. Whilst one was exploring the wilds of North Australia,
the other was dwelling in a canvas-covered hole in the earth before Sebastopol. The
scenes change ; Southern and Tropical Africa is visited by the late Australian traveller,
whilst the Crimea, with its rugged hills and wild ravines, is exchanged for the jungles
of Central Ipdia by the other.

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THE

MODERN SPORTSMAN'S
GUN AND RIFLE,

INCLUDING

GAME AND WILDFOWL GUNS, SPOETING AND
MATCH EIFLES, AND REVOLVERS.

Vol. I.— GAME AND ^VILDFO^A^L GUNS.

By J. H. Walsh,

" Stonehenge," Editor of " Tije Field,"

Author of "' Dogs of the British Islands," "The Greyhound," "British Rural

Sports," &c.

" A perusal of Mr. Walsh's book has forced upon us the conclusion, one that will
be shared by nearly every reader, that it is indisputably the standard work on the
subject, and is likely long to remain so — a position it richly merits. Sportsmen will
anxiously look forward to the second volume; of the work, for there is every reason to
anticipate that the same high standard will be maintained, and that the rifle will
receive as complete an exposition as the ' Game and Wildfowl Guns.' We are only
fulfilling a duty to the public when we say that no man connected in any way with
guns and gunnery should be without a copy of Mr. Walsh's masterly volume." — The
Birmingham Daily Gazette, Nov. 2i, 1882.

" It will be seen that the work contains a variety of hints which may be useful to
intending purchasers of guns, so that we can confidently recommend an intelligent
glance through it as likely to save money and prevent disappointment." — Saturday
Review.

" Taking the work as a whole, the sportsman will find in it much information on
guns, shot, and kindred topics." — Pall Mall Gazette.

" The most complete work that has yet been written on sporting guns." — St.
Jameses Gazette.

" For breadth of view and completeness this treatise could hardly be excelled. It
has, moreover, the advantage of reporting authoritatively on the very latest improve-
ments, both as regards weapons and powder and shot, all which objects of a sports-
man's consideration seem to be susceptible of indefinite progress." — Daily News.

" With such a guide as this, all who appreciate sport will be able to enjoy it fully,
and what is of importance, will be able to avoid much of the danger attending the use
of imperfect weapons."^ — The Era.

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PEN AND PENCIL.

FRANCIS FRANCIS and A. W. COOPER.

CONTENTS

The First of September.

A Day in a Punt.

Mark Cock !

Trouting.

Long Tails and Short Ones.

Paying the Pike,

Rabbit Shooting,
Roaching.
Grouse Shooting.
Salmon Fishing.
Snipe Shooting.
Grayling Fishing.

Crown 4io., printed on toned paper, price 2$s., by post 26s.

THE

ANNALS OF TENNIS.

BY

This work will be found very complete, and, it is thought, justly entitled to take its
place as the standard work on Tennis. It has cost its author much laborious research;
and, independently of its great value to tennis players and all lovers of the game, it is
trusted, from the vast amount of curious lore it contains, the volume will be found not
unworthy of a place on the shelves of the scholar. The author, himself a well-known
amateur, is fully competent to speak with authority on the game, having had the
opportunity of studying the play of the best Continental, in addition to that of the
best English, masters, and, therefore, may be taken as a safe guide by learners.

I. — Tennis Abroad.
II. — Tennis in England.
III. — The Court and Imple
ments.

CONTENTS.

IV. — ^The Laws

History.
V. — The Game.
VI. — Appendix.

and their

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THE

English Game of Cricket :

COMPRISING A DIGEST OF ITS

ORIGIN, CHARACTER, HISTORY, AND PROCRESS,

TOGETHER WITH

AN EXPOSITION OF ITS LAWS AND LANGUAGE.

BY

CHARLES BOX,

Author of " The Cricketers' Manual," " Reminiscences of Celebrated Players," Essays on the Game,
" Songs and Poems," " Theory and Practice of Cricket," &c.

CONTENTS.

Chap.

I.
TO

VI

p.

Introductory.

GLANCES AT THE PAST AND PRESENT STATE
OF COUNTr CRICKET.
VII.— Middlesex.
VIII.— Public School Matches.
IX.— Kent.
X. — Hampshire.
XI.— Surrey.
XII. — Sussex.
XIII . — Nottinghamshire.
XIV.— Yorkshire.

Chap.

XV. — ^Warwickshire and Derbyshire.
XVI. — Gloucestershire.
XVII. — Lancashire and Leicestershire.
XVIII.— The Eastern Counties.

■vv [ Intercolonial Matches.

XXI. — School and Village Matches.
XXII. — Curiosities of Cricket.
XXIII. — Cricket Grounds.
XXIV. — Laws of the Game.
XXV. — Poems, Songs, and Ballads.
XXVI. — Glossary of Words and Phrases.
Postscript. — Shakespeare and Cricket
— An Enforced Dissertation.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

" The most complete and interesting work on cricket ever published. No expense
has been spared in making that which is really useful a very handsome volume." —
Bell's Life. ,

" We welcome with heartiness a writer like Mr. Charles Box, who has so pleasantly
united in the splendid volume before us the old order (of cricket) with the new." —
Sporting and Dramatic News.

" This work will prove interesting to all lovers of cricket." — Times.

" The volume is a very handsome one indeed, destined, doubtless, to become an
authority on the essentially ' English Game of Cricket.' " — Morning Post.

" The best work on cricket that has yet come under our notice." — Nottingham
journal.

" A handsome and well got-up volume, the author being the man of all others
qualified and in a position for compiling such a work." — Kent Herald.

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-A. nsr C3- Xj I 3sr G- .

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Preface.

Chap.
I. — The Art of Angling,
n. — Mid- Water Fishing.
III. — Surface or Fly Fishing.
IV. — The Gudgeon, the Pope or Ruff,
the Bleak, the Roach, the Rudd,
the Dace, the Chub, the Barbel,
the Bream, the Carp, the
Tench, the Perch.

Chap.

v.— The Pike.
VI. — Trout Fishing with Bait.
VII.— Fly Fishing for Trout.
VIII.— Trout Flies.
IX. — Grayling Fishing.
X. — Salmon Fishing.
XI. — Salmon Flies.
XII.— On Tackle Making.
Addenda.

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MODERN
V^^ILDFOAVLING

BY

LEWIS CLEMENT,

" WiLDFOWLER."

' back

lil

CONTENTS.

. • Shoulder Guns.

. — Flapper Shocfting.

. — Inland Duck Shooting.

. — Sailing to Fowl.

>■ Decoying to the Gun.

, — Decoying in America.

— American Blinds.

. — American Canvas
Shooting.

. — Shore Shooting.

, — Flighting.

Curious Wildfowl and Sea-
fowl Shooting Expedients.
■Close Time and Wildfowl
and Sea-fowl Acts.

,— " Wildfowler's " Table of
Loads.

. — Netting Plovers and Snipe
Snaring.

, — Snaring and Hooking Sea-
fowl on the Continent.

. — Decoying into the "Pipes."

.^Flight Ponds and Rock
Fowling. '

. — Concluding Remarks.

OPINIONS OF THE PRESS.

"An excellent work indeed, and full of capital illustrations, is ' Modern Wildfowling ;' to recommend
it aright I should have, if I were clever enough, and it did not already exist, to invent the famous phrase,
' a book no gentleman's library should be without.' "—Truth, March 17, 1881.

" This bobk deals not only with the various modes of ajjproaching, or decoying, and killing wildfowl
of all kinds, but enters into minute details upon the construction of punts, both single and double handed ;
sails; punt guns, muzzle-loading as well asbreechloading; recoil apparatus; and shoulder guns of all
patterns, with the varying loads required for diilerent bores. In addition to this are-several chapters devoted
to a narration of the adventures of the author while in pursuit of wildfowl, both at home" and abroad— which

are very pleasant reading With_ the addition of a good index, sportsmen will have in this work a

capital -vade mecum on the art of wildfowhng. '— T'/w Zoologist for November, 1880.

PUNTINC

}. — Introduction.

Chap.

Chap.

XXVII.

L^

Muzzle-loading Punt Guns

XXVIII.

H.

(Flint, Percussion and Copper

XXIX.

III.;

Tube Ignition.

XXX

IV.-)

•XXXI

v-l

Breechloading Punt Guns.

XXXII

VI.;

XXXIII.

VII.-

-Loading Punt Guns.

XXXIV.

VIII.-

-Aiming and Firing Punt Guns.

XXXV.

X.-

-The Setting of Punt Guns.

XXXVI.

XI.-

-Recoil and After-recoil Appa-
ratuses.

XXXVII

XII.1

XXXVIII

XIII.

XXXIX

XIV.
XV.

• Punts.

XL

XLI

XVI.

XLII

XVII.

XVIII.-

-Launching Punts and Canoes.

XLIII

XIX.-

-Punting Accessories.

XX.-

1

XLIV

XXI.
XXII.

t

r Punting.

XLV

XXIII..

)

XXIV.-

-My First Single-handed Punting

XLVI

Trip.

XLVII

XXV.-

Amateur and Professional Punts-

XXVI.

men.

XLVIII

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II.-

III.-

IV.-

V.-

VI.-

VII.-

VIII.-

IX.-

X.-

XI.-

XII.-

XIII.-

XIV.-

XV.—:

Chap.

-Agfricultural Labourers.

-The Rough Rider.

■The First of May.

-" Strictly Confidential."

•Shooting Dress.

■Some Old Portraits.

-Dens and Sanctums.

The Rat-catcher.

■Early Morning in London.

■The Earthstopper.

■The Shooting Pony;

Whistle and Whip.

Old Traps and Spring-guns.

■Tom Frere the Hard-riding

Farmer.
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Xyi. — Brown in the Country.
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XVIII.— The White Snipe.
XIX. — Swans and Eagles.
XX. — The Philosophy of Missing.
XXI. — Shooting in Alderney.
XXII.— Shirkers.
XXIII.— Our Black Heath.
XXIV.— Traps and Calls.
XXV.— Northward.
XXVI.— A Bright October.
XXVII.— Varied Shooting.
XXVIII.— The End of the Season.
XXIX.— On Beating for Game.
XXX. — Land Valuers and Stewards.
XXXI.— Snipe Shooting.

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THE

HUNTING COUNTRIES

ENGLAND,

THEIR FACILITIES, CHARACTER, AND REQUIREMENTS.

A GUIDE TO HUNTING MEN.

By "BROOKSBY."

Introduction.
The Belvoir.
The South Wold.

The North Warwickshire.

The Pytchley.

The Woodland Pytchley.

The Atherstone.

The Billesdon or South Quorn.

The Meynell. [Hunt.

The Bicester and Warden Hill

The Dulverton.

The Stars of the West.

Mr. Luttrell's.

Lord Portsmouth's.

The Essex and the Essex Union,

The Hertfordshire.

The Whaddon Chase.

PAST I.

The Brocklesby.

The Burton and The Blankney.

The Fitzwilliam.

The Quorn.

PAjaT II.

The Heythrop.

The Old Berkshire.
The South Oxfordshire.
The SQuth Nottinghamshire.
The East Kent.
The Tickham.
The Vine.

PART III.

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shire.
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The Cambridgeshire.
The Duke of Grafton's.
The Holderness.

The Cottesmore.
The Puckeridge,
The Old Berkeley.

The South Berkshire.
Mr. Garth's.
The H. H.
The Tedworth.
Lord Ferrers'.
The Warwickshire.

The Oakley.

The North Herefordshire.

The Duke of Buccleuch's.

The Tynedale.

Lord Percy's.

The Morpeth.

The RufEord.

Also now ready (VOLUME II.).

The Badsworth.
The Southdown.
The East Essex.
The Bramham Moor.
The East Sussex.
' The Essex and Suffolk.
The York and Ainsty.

The Old Surrey.

Mr. Richard Combe's.

The Burstow.

The Hurworth.

The Cattistock.

The Suffolk.

The Shropshire.

PART IV,

Lord Fitzwilliam's.

The Crawley and Horsham,

The West Kent.

Sir Watkin Wynn's.

The Hursley. .

The Hambledon.

Lord Coventry's.

PART V.

The Earl of Radnor's. .
Capt. Hon. F. Johnstone's.
The South Durham.
The Worcestershire.
The Ledbury.
The South Herefordshire.
The South Staffordshire.

The Grove.

The West Norfolk.
The Bedale.
Lord Zetland's,
The Craven.
The Surrey Union.

The North Staffordshire,
The Duke of Beaufort's,
The Cotswold.
The Dumfriesshire.
The Albrighton.
The North Cotswold,

Each part is published separately^ price 2s. 6d,

In One Map, hound in red cloih^ mounted on canvas^ size 2^in. by 2^in., price 4s. 6d.f

by post 4s. 8d.

. THE "FIELD" HUNTING MAP

{PRINTED IN COLOURS),

GIYING THE NAMES AND DISTRICTS OP EACH PACK OP HOUNDS PEOM
CARLISLE TO LAND'S END.

'THE field" office, 346, STRAMD, W.C.

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Now ready, royal ^o, price los. 6d., by post lis.

HORSE BREEDING RECOLLECTIONS.

BY

COUNT G, LEHNDORFF,

Containing Notes on the Breeding of Thoroughbreds — In-breeding and Out-crossing

— Pedigrees of all the Principal Sires — and Genealogical Tables of

Celebrated Thoroughbreds.

Post 8vo., price js. 6d., by post Bs.

Jlt0ss ft0m a Ecrllmg SAmt :

OR,

MOORISH WANDERINGS AND RAMBLING
REMINISCENCES.

CHARLES A. PAYTON,

"Sarcelle" of "The Field," Author of "The Diamond Diggings of South

Africa." &c.

Price 5^. cloth, by post $s. 4^.

i Year of Liberty ; or, Salmon Angling in Ireland.

BY

"W". IPZE-A-iaX), 3V/i:.3D., IjIj.E.
In One Volume, large post 8vo., with Maps, price 6s., by post 6s. 4d.

Cjje ©tamottii JBiggmgs of Soutfj Mxiu.

A PERSONAL AND PRACTICAL ACCOUNT.

BY

CHARLES A. PAYTON,

"Sarcelle" of "The Field," Author of "Moss pom a Rolling Stone," &c.

Part
I. — General Account of the Fields.
II. — Routes to the Fields.

III. — Sketches of Life and Character on the Fields.

Part

IV. — My Diary at the Diggings,
v.— The Gold Fields.

"THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX.

Third Edition. Large post 8iio., price ys. 6d. cloth, by post js. lod.

FACTS AND USEFUL HINTS

RELATING TO

FISHING AND SHOOTING

TO WHICH IS ADDED

A List of Recipes for the Management and Cure of Dogs
IN Disease.

Edited by I. E. B. C,

Editor of " The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary," &c.

FISHING.

Baits — Fish — Fish Hatching — Flies and Fly Making — Flights — Floats— ^Gut — Lines
— Miscellaneous — Nets — Ponds and Streams — Rods — Wading Boots — Wax.

SHOOTING.

Birds and Beasts — Breeding — Coverts — Deer — Dogs — Ferrets — Foxes — Guns —
Kennel — Miscellaneous — Nets — Preserving — Rabbits — Rifles — •

Traps — Vermin. . (

Appendix. — Diseases of Dogs.
■ In post 8vo., with Illustrations, price 3s. 6d.

The Fraotioal Management of Pishepieg.

A BOOK FOR PROPRIETORS AND KEEPERS.
By FRANCIS FRANCIS.

Author of "Fish Culture," "A Book on Angling," "Reports on Salmon Ladders," &c.

coisrTEisrTS.

Chap.
I.— Fish and Fish Food.
II. — How to Grow Fish Food and how

to Make Fishes' Homes.
III. — On the Management of Weeds and

the Economy of Fishing,
ly. — The Enemies of Trout and how to

Circumvent them.
V. — The Artificial Incubation of Qva..

Chap.

VI. — On the Rearing of Fry and
the Conduct of Ponds, Stews,
&c.
VII. — Some Hatcheries.
VIII.— Coarse Fish.
IX. — On Salmon and Trout Ladders
and Passes.
Appendix. — Notes, &c.

"THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Now ready, quarto, price $s., by post 5s. 6d.
THE

GAMEKEEPER'S AND GAME PRESERVER'S

aa0unt B00ft anir JBiatg.

By I. E. B. C,

Editor of " Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and Shooting," " The Angler's Diary," &c.

Its Sections comprise—

The Shooting and Its Guardians.
Memorandum of Agreement.
Receipts and Payments.

Vermin Diary —

General Summary,

Poultry Diary —

Receipts and Payments.
General Balance Sheet.

Pheasant Diary —

Receipts and Expenses.
General Balance Sheet.

Dog Diary —

Kennel Names, Ages, Value, &c.

Kennel Occupants at 'the beginning of each

Quarter of the Year.
Produce Register — Bitches,
Stud Register.
Pedi^ees.

Receipts and Expenses.
General Balance Sheet. ^

Game Diary —

Total Summary of the Season.
Produce of the Beats or Coverts,
Tenants, &c., to whom game should be given.
Inventory of Appliances, &c.

Stock Valuation.

Greneral Balance Sheet for the Year.

In handy pocket siee, price is. 6d.j by post is. yd,
THE

Gamekeeper's Shooting Memopandum Book

FOR THE

Registering of Game Shot, Memoranda of Sale, &c.

By I. E. B. C.;

Editor of " Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and Shooting," " The Gamekeeper's and Game
Preserver's Account Book and Diary. &c.

Crown Svo., price is. 6d., by post 25. gd.

- PUBLIC SHOOTING QUARTERS

IN

ENGLAND, WALES, SCOTLAND, IRELAND, AND ON

THE CONTINENT.

■B-sr "wiXiiD:FO.-wx.Eie."

Author of " Shooting and Fishing Trips," " Modern Wildfowling," "Table of Loads," &c.
"THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

\^ PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX. 21 <^

Third Edition, Enlarged and Revised. Large post 8;vo., ■with Illustrations,
price f,s. cloth, by post <,s. ^d.

THE COUNTRY HOUSE:

A Collection of Useful Information and Recipes,

Adapted to the Country Gentleman and his household, and of the greatest
utility to the housekeeper generally.

BY I. E. B. C ,

Editor of " Facts and Useful Hints relating to Fishing and Shooting," and " The Gamekeeper's and
Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary."

Published Annually. In post Svo., price is. 6d., by post is. 8d.

THE ANGLER'S DIARY

AND

TOURIST FISHERMAN'S GAZETTEER

CONTAINS

A Record of the Rivers and Lakes of the World, to which are added a List of Rivers
of Great Britain, with their nearest Railway Stations.

Also Forms tor Registering the Fish taken during the year ; as well as the
Time of the Close Seasons and Angling Licences.

BY I. E. B. C,

Editor of "The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary," &c.
Fourth Edition. Infcap. ^vo.^ price u., hy post \s. id.

GROUND GAME ACT, 1880,

WITH EXPLANATORY NOTES,

Indicating the various periods at which the law comes into force under different
conditions, its effect on existing contracts between owners and occupiers of land, and
the lessees of sporting rights, the limitations placed upon the killing and selling of
ground game, and other matters included in the Act.

" Will be a great convenience to magistrates, and to all persons affected by the
Act." — Saturday Review.

Third Edition. Infcap. 8vo., price is., by post is. id.

WILD BIRDS' PEOTECTION ACT, 1880,

WITH COMMENTS ON THE RESPECTIVE SECTIONS

Explanatory of their bearing as regards owners and occupiers of land, sportsmen, bird
catchers, bird dealers, &c. ; together with Notes on the Birds named in the Schedule,
their provincial names, &c.

" An accurate exposition of and commentary on the recent measure, and will dispel
many misconceptions of its scope." — Quarterly Review.

" A capital annotated edition of the Act." — Saturday Review.

" THE FIELD " OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Second Edition. In demy Svo., price los. 6cl., by post i is.

Estate Management:

% Practical f^anUftooft for ILantdortrs, Stciwartrs, antr pupils,

WITH A

LEGAL SUPPLEMENT BY A BARRISTER,

ALSO

Tenant Right from a Landlord's Point of View.
BY CHARLES E. CURTIS.

Extract from Preface. — " He who intends to qualify himself for such interesting and
responsible work as the care and oversight of landed .property must, in these days of
keen competition, give up the idea that he need only abandon himself to the pleasures
of a country life, and that all needful information will be picked up by the way."

CO^^TZElsTTS.

Chap.
I. — Letting and Leases.
IL — Farm Valuations,
in. — Forestry.
IV. — Underwood.
V. — Fences.
VI.- — Grasses suitable for Woods and

Plantations.
VII.— The Home Farm.

Chap.

j-v' { Repairs and Materials.

X.— The Blights of Wheat and other

Cereals.
XI. — Accounts.
XII. — Useful Rules of Arithmetic and
Mensuration.

In crown ?fDO., price is.

CATECHISM OF ESTATE MANAaEMENT.

SECTION I.

LETTING AND LEASES.

By CHAS. E. CURTIS, F.S.I.,

Professor of Estate Management at the College of Agriculture, Principal of the School of Estate
Management, Author of " Estate Management, &c.

Price 6d., by post jd. ; or 2s. 6d. the half-dozen.

"THE FIELD"
DUPLICATE JUDGING BOOK

Facilitates the work of the Judges at Poultry and other Shows, by a very simple
method of entering and preserving a duplicate judging list.

" THE FIELD " OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX.

Just published, 228 pp., demy %vo., price 4J., by post s,s. \d.

SILOS

FOR

PRESERVING BRITISH FODDER CROPS STORED
IN A GREEN STATE.

NOTES ON THE ENSILAGE OF GRASSES, CLOVERS, VETCHES, &G.

Compiled from Various Sources

BY THE

SUB-EDITOE OF "THE FIELD."

CHAP. CONTENTS.

I. — Introductory.
II. — Crops for the Silo. — Grasses, clovers, lucerne, vetches, green rye and

oats, roots and miscellaneous crops.
III. — Making the Silo. — Earthen pits and other simple forms 'of silo ; best

kinds ; American silos of concrete, wood, &c. ; English silos.
IV. — Cost of Silos. — Estimation of capacity and cost of American silos built of
wood, concrete, brick, stone, and mixed materials ; French and English
silos; relative capacity of silos and hay-barns ; roofs, weights, and planks.
V. — Filling and Emptying the Silo. — Mixture of dry material with green
fodder ; influence of wet weather ; chopping up fodder ; slow ■». quick
filling ; the use of salt ; the covering boards ; -closing the doorway ; opening
the pit.
VI. — Covering up the Silo. — Straw and other materials.

VII. — Weighting the Silo. — Amount of weight to put on ; consequences of
insufficient pressure.
VIII. — Effect of Ensilage on Fodders. — Quality of ensilage shown by quality
of butter ; fermentation in the pit ; advantages and- losses produced by
fermentation.
IX. — Feeding Qualities of Ensilage. — Sir John Lawes on ensilage and turnips ;
American and English experiments in feeding and milk production.
X. — Summary of Practice.
Appendix.

Now ready, price 6d.

Harvesting Crops Independently of Weather:

PRACTICAL NOTES on the NEILSON SYSTEM of HAEVESTINQ.

By "AGRICOLA,"

And other Contributors to "The Field."

COITTBK'TS:

Losses from Wet Seasons— How to Build Stacks on the Neilson System— The Underground Air-passages—
The Exhaust Fan— Regulating Rick Temperature— Treatment of Hay Crops before Stackmg— Expe-
riences of Mr. Neilson's Disciples— Grain and Seed Crops— The Cost of adopting the Neilson Process-
Quality of Hay and Corn Crops cured by this System— Mr. Neilson's Early Experiments— Previous
Inventions for Drying Crops — Concluding Remarks.

-Sj,

"THE field" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Illustrated with numerous Woodcuts, post 8vo., price $s., by post '^s. 2d.
/

THE

INTERNAL PARASITES OF OUR DOMESTICATED

ANIMALS;

A MANUAL OF THE ENTOZOA OF THE OX, SHEEP,
DOG, HORSE, PIG, AND CAT.

By T. SPENCBB COBBOLD, M.D., F.E.S., P.L.S.

In crown 8vo., price is. 6d., by post 2s. 8d.

M ANU RKS :

Theip Respective Merits from an Economical Point of View.

By A. W. CREWS,

Author of " Guano ; its Origin, History, and Virtues," " The Potato and its Cultivation," &c.

CONTENTS.

PART I. — Definition of the Word " Manure " — Nature's Modes of Applying
Fertilisers — History — Classification.

PART II. — The Value of Ploughing Down Green Crops — Weeds — Sea-weed —
Straw — Sawdust — Tanners' Bark — Wood Ashes — Peat — Rape Cake — Hemp — Poppy,
Cotton, and Cocoa-nut Cakes — Bran — Malt Dust — Brewers' Grains — Coal — Soot —
Charcoal.

PART in. — Dead Animals — Fish — Blood — Animalised Charcoal — Bones — Horn
— Woollen Rags, Hairs, Feathers, &c. — Night-soil — Farm-yard Manure — Guano.

PART IV.— Salts of Ammonia— Salts of Magnesia— Salts of Potash— Salts of
Soda — Common Salt — Lime and its Compounds — " Ooze."

In crown 8110., price 2i., by post 2s. 2d.

THE POTATO AND ITS CULTIVATION.

By A. W. CREWS,

Author of " Guano : its Origin, History, and Virtues," " Manures ; their Respective IWerits/* &c.

CONTENTS.

Derivation — History — Constituents — Varieties — Sprouting — Soils — Planting —
Manures — Earthing up — Disease — Scab — Storing — Forcing — Producing New
Varieties — Substitutes for the " Potato" — Miscellaneous Information.

"THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

-fe^

PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX.

25

Demy 8«io., price 3s. 6d,, by post y. Qd., Illustrated with several Diagrams. .

THE

PRACTICAL SURVEYOR:

A TREATISE UPON SURVEYING.

SPECIALLY ARRANGED FOR THE GUIDANCE OF PUPILS,

STEWARDS, THE SCHOLASTIC PROFESSION, AND

INTENDING EMIGRANTS.

By THOMAS HOLLO^VAY.

COliTTEITTS.

CHAP,

I.— The Man and his Outfit.
H. — The Chain — Cautions to Beginners — Best

Figure for Chain Surveying.
III. — Boundaries.
IV.— Setting-out Lines by the Eye and passing

Obstructions.
V. — Division of the Circle and Use of Box
Sextant— Chain Angles Condemned — Cross
Staff Condemned— The Optical Square-
Measuring Inaccessible Distances.
VI,— The Theodolite— Setting-out Lines with the

Theodolite.
VII. — Reduction of the Measure of Undulating
Ground to Horizontal Measures and Table
of Vertical Angles,
VI 11.— Measuring Lines — The Offset Staff and
taking Offsets.
IX.— To Prove the Correctness of Observations
taken with the Sextant — Single Fields
Measured with the Chain and Optical
Square, so that the Areas can be directly
Calculated.
X. — To Set-out a Right Angle with the Chain —
Figures of the Lines of Measurement best
adapted to Irregular Fields.
XL — Equalising Boundaries, and Drawing a

Triangle equal to a given Figure.
XII. — Computation of Arrearsof Irregular Fields.

Example of a Survey of several Fields
"-ild" ■

CHAP.
XIII.-

together, and the Field Book.
XIV.— Reference Numbers to Maps — To put
Detached Buildings in correct Positions
on- a Plan bv Means of Unmeasured'
Lines— Lines Measured on the Work-
Making Stations.
XV. — Plotting — Selection and Management of
Paper — Inking In.
XVI.— Surveys made tor the purijose of Dividing

Land into Stated Quantities.
XVI L— Setting-out Allotments and Building Plots.
XVIIL— Angles and Bearings, and Use and Adjust-
ment of Circular Protractor,
XIX.— Traverse Surveys.
XX. — Trespass.

XXL— Quality Lines— Superstructures and Works

Underground — Harvest and Coppice

Work— Reducing Plans from a Large

Plan to a Small One.

XXIL— To Copy a Map— Colouring, Penmanship,

&c.
XXIII.— Commencement of a Parish Survey— Sur-

veyin|r to a Scale of Feet.
XXIV.— 'Town Surveying.
XXV.— Testing the Accuracy of a Survey— General

Remarks.
XXVL— In Memory of the Past-

In crown &vo., with Thirteen full-page Plates, price 2$. 6d., by post 2s, gd.

The Swimming Instructor :

A TREATISE ON THE ARTS OF SWIMMING

AND DIVING.

^

By W^ILLIAM WILSON,

Author of " Swimming, Diving, and How to Save Life," " The Bather's Manual,"
, ~ " Hints on Swimming."

" THE FIELD " OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

d9i^3^

-•^^^

^M

26

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Second Edition. In Three Parts, large post 8vo., price 5s., by post S«. 4^. each.

THE

Farm, Garden, and Stable.

By I. E. B. C;,

Editor of "The Gamekeeper's and Game Preserver's Account Book and Diary."

Part I.— Tlie Farm.

Cattle — Crops — Dairy — Diseases— Fencing — Food for Stock — Manures —
Miscellaneous — Pigs — Sheep — Soils — Weeds — Woods.

Part II —The Garden.

Flowers — Fruit — Houses — Lawns — Manures — Miscellaneous — Seeds — Trees and
Shrubs — Vegetables — Vermin — Weeds.

Part III.— The Stable.

Carriages — Diseases — Feeding — Harness, &c. — Miscellaneous — Stable Management.
Published Annually. Demy 4^0., price \s., by post \s. 2\d.

SPORTSMAN'S ILLUSTRATED CALENDAR FOR 1883.

coasTTEinsri'S,

ANGLING. — Some Important Legal Decisions
affecting Fisheries— Abstract of Principal Bye-
Laws under the Salmon Acts— Fishery Districts
in England and Wales, their Coast Limits, fee-
Close Seasons for Salmon, Trout, and other Fish
— Cost of Rod Licences for Salmon and Trout.

ATHLETICS.— Summary of the Season of 1882.

CATTLE.— Cattle Values in 1882; Notes on Sales,
fee. — Portraits of Aberdeen Foiled and Jersey
Cattle— List of Herd Books and Stud Books-
List of Fairs, showing where the different Breeds
of Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs may be purchased.

COACHING.— A Retrospective Medley.

CRICKET.— Australian Cricketers in England-
English Cricket in 1S82.

DOGS.— A Twelve Months' Canine Doings— Field
Trials in 1882— Portraits of Clumber and Sussex
Spaniels, Bedlington anO Airedale Terriersi—
I^nnel Notes, &c.

FAIRS AND MARKETS. — List of Fairs and
Markets, showing where the different Breeds
of Horses and Ponies, Cattle, Sheep, and Figs
may be Purchased.

HORSES.— Horse Shows in 1882— List of Stud
Books, &c. — Longest Jump on Record — List of
' Fairs, showing'where the different Breeds of
Horses and Ponies may be purchased.

HUNTING.— The Empress of Austria at Home:
Meet in the Park at GodoUd— Changes and
Prospects in Hunting Countries — Packs of
Hounds; vheir Masters, Huntsmen, Whips,
Kennels, &c. — Hints for Hunting Men.

LAWN TENNIS.— Notes on the Tournaments of
1882, with Lists of Winners of the Various
Championships.

RACQUETS AND TENNIS. — Results of the
Oxford and Cambridge Matches^ and the Public
Schools Racquets Challenge Cup, from their
Commencement to ihe Present Time.

ROWING.— Boat Racing in 18S2.

Results of the Oxford and Camhridge Matches
from, the Commencement to the Present Time.

SHOOTING.— the Legal SeasonsforKillingGame,
Wildfowl, fee- Mems for Shooting Men.

THE TURF.— Notes on Racing in 1882— The Past
and Future of Steeplechasing— A Retrospective
Medley— Race and Steeplechase Fixtures of 1883.

YACHTING.— Yacht Racing in 1882— List of
Winners, with amount of Prizes, fec^- Notes on
the Tide Tables.

MISCELLANEOUS.— Rookeries and How to form
them— Sleighs or Snow Ploughs— Hints on Rat-
catching— Insect Pests at Home and A broad-
Calendar of the Month, fee, &c.

THE FIELD " OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

^^n^^

^ PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX.

I- —

Published Half- Yearly. Fcap. 8vo., price los. 6d., by post los. lod.

THE

COURSING CALENDAR.

IT CONTAINS

RETURNS OF ALL THE PUBLIC COURSES RUN IN GREAT
BRITAIN AND IRELAND,

REVISED LIST OF ADDRESSES OF COURSING SECRETARIES,
JUDGES, SLIPPERS, AND TRAINERS ;

LIST OF MEMBERS OP THE NATIONAL CLUB, REPORTS OP THE MEETINGS,

AND

A COMPLETE LIST OF WATERLOO CUP WINNERS.
EDITED BY " STONEHENGE,"

EDITOR OF " THE FIELD,"

Author of "The Dogs of the British Islands,'' "The Modern Sportsman's
Gun and Rifle," &c.

Published Annually. In large post Bvo.
THE

KENNEL CLUB STUD BOOK:

CONTAINING A COMPLETE

RECORD OF DOG SHOWS AND FIELD TRIALS,

WITH

PEDIGEEES OF SPOETING AND NON-SPOETm& DOGS.

Vol. I., from 1859 to 1873, price 12s. 6d., by post 13s.

Price IDs. 6d.., by post IDs. lOd. each—

VoL IL, 1874; Vol III.,' 1875; VoL IV., 1876; Vol V., 1877;

Vol VI., 1878; VoL VII., 1879; VoL VIII., 1880;

VoL IX., 1 88 1.

Vols. vm. to X. are also published in Four Farts, as follows :

PART I.— Containing the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees of the following Dogs :
Bloodhounds, Deerhounds, Greyhounds, Foxhounds, Otterhounds, Harriers, Beagles, Mastiffs, St. Bernards, •
Newfoundlands, Dalmatians, and CoUeys. Price +1.

PART II.— Containing the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees of Fox Terriers, Wire-
haired Terriers, and Dachshunds. Price 41.

PART III.— Containing the Field Trial Rules, Reports of Shows, Reports of Field Trials, and Pedigrees
of Pointers, Setters, Retrievers, and Spaniels. Price +1.

PART I v.— Containing the Dog Show Rules, Reports of Shows, and Pedigrees qf Bulldogs, Bull Terriers,
Black and Tan Terriers, Dandie Dmmont Terriers, Bedlington Terriers^ Skye Terriers, English and Smooth-
coated Terriers, Broken-haired Terriers, Pomeranians, Maltese, Italian Greyhounds, Pugs, Blenheim Spaniels,
King Charles Spaniels, Poodles, Smooth and Rough-coated Toy Terriers, Irish Terriers, and Foreign. Price 4J.

"THE field" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

A CATALOGUE OF BOOKS

Third Edition. Price js. 6d., by past js. lod.

FIGURE SKATING;

BEING

The Theopj and Practice of the Art as Developed in England,

WITH

A GLANCE AT ITS ORIGIN AND HISTORY.
By H. C. VANDERVELL and T. MAXWELL WITHAM

(members of the LONDON SKATING CLUB).

There are thousands of skaters who attain a small amount of skill in Figure
Skating, and there stop, because they neither know what to do or how to do it. A
reference to this, the acknowledge Text Book of Figure Skating will solve any
difficulty that may have stopped progress for years.

Fourth Edition. In post 8«o., limp cloth, gilt, price zs. 6d., by post 2s. 8d.

THE ART OF SKATING;

ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS, AND PLAIN DIRECTiONS FOR THE

ACQUIREMENT OF THE MOST DIFFICULT AND GRACEFUL

MOVEMENTS.

By GEORGE ANDERSON ("Cycles"),

Vice-President of the Crystal Palace Skating Club, and for many years President of the
Glasgow Skating Cluh.

y^usi Published, price 55., by post <,s, 2d.

"COMBINED FIGURE SKATING;"

being

A COLLECTION OF 300 COMBINED FIGURES, AS SKATED BY THE SKATING CLUB,
LONDON, THE WIMBLEDON SKATING CLUB, ic.

Illustrated by 130 scaled diagrams, showing the correct direction of every curve
executed by the skater, and the recognised amount of circling round the centre:
together with a progressive series of alternate " calls."

The figures are named in accordance with the revised system of nomenclature
and rules of combined figure skating^ compiled by the Skating Club, London, Sept. 11,
1882.

Diagrams of the combined figures in the first and second class tests of the
National Skating Association are included.

By Montagu S. F. monier-Williams and Stanley F. WIonier-Williams

C Membe-.s of the Wimbledon Skating Club).
"THE FIELD" OFFICE, 346, STRAND, W.C.

PUBLISHED BY HORACE COX.

In crown %vo., price ^s., by post 5s. 4d.

BOAT-RACING;

OR,

The ARTS of ROAVING and TRAINING.

BY

EDWIN DAMPIER BRICKWOOD.

(ex-amateur champion of the THAMES.)

COITI'ElSrTS.

ROWING.

CHAP.

1. — Introduction : Past and Present Condition of

Boatracing.
n.— Racing Boats : Their History and Fittings.
III.— The Sliding Seat: Its Invention, Adoption,

and Theory.
IV. — How to Use an Oar, and Sculls.

v.— Faults and Errors : What to avoid.
VI.— Steering : Coxswain and Non-coxswain.
VII. — Teaching Beginners.

VIII. — Coaching for Races^ and Selection of Crews.
IX. — ^The Varieties and Conduct of Boatraces.
X. — The Laws of Boatracing.

CHAP.

XI. — The Qualifications of Amateurs.
XII. — Boat Clubs : Their Organisation and
Administration.
-XIII.— Historical Records, a.d. 1715 to 1838,
XIV. „ „ A.D. 1839 to 1855.

XV. „ „ A.D. 1856 to 1875.

TRAINING.

XVI.— Its Principles.
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IV.-
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-Training.

■Walkin!?.

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