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THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
THE FOREMAN AND
HISJOB
A HANDBOOK FOR FOREMEN
AND FOR LEADERS OF FOREMEN'S
CONFERENCES
A COMPANION BOOK TO
•THE INSTRUCTOR, THE MAN AND THE JOB"
BY
CHARLES R. ALLEN
SOMSTIUB AQENT FOB THE INDUSTBIAL TBAINmO OF BOTS AND HEN, UAB8ACBU8ETTS BOARD OF
EDUCATION, BVPERINTENDENT OF ZNSTBUCTOB TRAININQ, U. S. B. B. EMEBGENCY
FLEET COBPOBATION, SPECIAL AGENT, FEDERAL BOARD FOB VOCATIONAL EDU-
CATION, AND IN CHABGE OF FOREMAN CONFEBENCES, EUFLOTUENT
UANAOBBS SECTION, CHAMBER OF COMUERCS, HIAOABA FALLS
NEW TORE
PHILADELPHU AND LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
COPYKIGBT,.I933i BT J. U. Z.IPPINCOTT CQUPAST.
PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOXT COMPANY
AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
PHILADELPHIA, V. S. A.
PREFACE
The last few years have witnessed a greatly increased
interest in the improvement of foremanizing and in the work
of other minor executives in both industrial and commercial
organizations. This interest has led to the development of
a number of different plans for accomjilishing this purpose.
Among these plans had been the development of what has
come to be known as foremans conferences, in which foremen
or other minor executives are brought together under the
direction of a "conference leader" for the discussion of mat-
ters affecting the factors entering into the efficiency of
their work and the methods whereby those elements could
be worked out to the best advantage under their own special
working conditions.
It has been my good fortune to be connected with work
of this special type to a considerable degree, either as a
conference leader, as an adviser to various industrial plants
where such work was conducted, or in carrying on work
whose purpose was to train both plant representatives and
representatives of public educational departments to organ-
ize and to carry on this work.
As this work has developed it has become evident that,
while the program for each plant should be specially based
upon the particular organization of that plant, the special
character of its product, and the special procedure or
standard practice, the different subjects taJcen up for dis-
cussion must be projected against some sort of a classified
lay-out of the job of a minor executive or foreman.
It has also appeared that there is a need for bringing
together material drawn from the results of such con-
ference discussions and conclusions to serve as a suggestive
guide to anyone having the responsibility for conducting
VI PBEFACE
such conferences. It has further appeared that under many
conditions, suggestive "notes " and other " instruction ma-
terial " could be used to advantage, if used in the right way.
The material in this book therefore consists essentially
of points raised and discussed in foremen's conferences organ-
ized around a fairly comprehensive, but by no means com-
plete analysis of the foremans job and is intended to be of
service to the conference leader in carrying on the work,
to the members of the conference group, and to aid in the
making up of programs for a series of conferences.
While not intended for a "reading book" it is hoped that
it may be of service to foremen and other minor executives
who may be interested in getting a " bird's-eye view " of their
jobs and who are interested in ways and means whereby their
work may be carried on to better advantage.
Since it is not expected that the different chapters will
be, of necessity, taken up in the order in which they are
given, a certain amount of repetition has been necessary. An
endeavor has, however, been made to hold such repetitions
down to the necessary minimum.
It may be noted here that while this book deals more
directly with the problems of a foreman in an industrial
plant, the questions raised and the suggestions made apply
almost exactly as well to any one who has supervisory, mana-
gerial and instructing responsibilities whether in the plant
or in the office or even in commercial establishments, and
that the discussions deal in general with the problems that
come into the field of any executive. This is true, of course,
because the problems with which any executive or super-
visor has to deal are largely independent of the particular
kind of work that he has under his direction.
NiAGAKA Falls, N. Y.
Nov. 1, 1921.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PARTI
THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT
CHAPTEB PAGS
I. — The Foreman and the Plant 3
II. — ^Thb Foreman's Jobs . lo
PARTI I
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS
ni. — The Departmental and the Job Analysis . . . 31
IV. — Maeinq the Analysis op a Supervisory Job ... Si
V. — Making the Supervisory Lay-out for the Job of a
Given Foreman 77
VI. — ^Making the Analysis op a Managerial Job ... 86
Vn. — The Further Extension op the Analysis ... 97
PART III
PUTTING OVER THE SUPERVISORY JOB
Vni. — Tying Up Procedure a^jd Responsibilities . . . Ill
IX. — The Conditions of Effective Supervision . . . 116
X. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on Supervision 123
PART IV
THE ANALYSIS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING
FORCE BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED
RESPONSIBILITIES
' XI. — Detailed and Specific Responsibilities on the Distri-
bution op the Working Force 137
XII. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Dis-
tribution of the Working Force 145
PART V
THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFORMATION BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC
AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES
XIII. — Specific and Detailed Responsibilities on the Hand-
ling OF Information 179
XrV. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on the Hand-
ling op Information 190
VII
Pin TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART VI
THE ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK INTO
DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES
XV. — Specific and Detailed RjESPONSiBiLiTiBa as to the Phy-
sical Condition op the Woeking Force . . . 229
XVI. — Cost Elejvients and Managebial PsoBLEMa on the Phy-
sical Condition of the Working Force . . . 243
PART VII
THE HUMAN FACTORS (CONTINUED)
XVII. — Specific and Detailed RBspoNsrBUjTiEa as to the
Mental Attitude of the Working Force (Morale) 296
XVIII. — ^Thb Human Factor Block. Cost Elements and Mana-
gerial Problems on the Mental Attitude of the
Working Force. Leadership and Interest . . 303
XIX. — The Human Factor Block. Cost Elements and
Managerial Problems on the Mental Attitude of
THE Working Force. (Continued) Satisfaction . 328
XX. — The Human Factorb. Cost Elements and Managerial
Problems on the Mental Attitude of the Working
Force. (Continued) 349
XXI. — Cost Elements and Managerial Problems on Orders,
Directions and Suggestions as Human Factor
Elements 362
PART VIII
THE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE TEAM RELATIONS
BLOCK (COOPERATION)
XXII. — Specific and Detailed Responsibilities on Co-opera-
tion 383
XXIII. — Cost Elements and MANAGEHLiL Problems on Co-
operation 391
PART IX
XXIV. — An Illustration of the Application op the Method
of Analysis to a Human Factor Managerial Prob-
lem. Carelessness on the Job .... 439
PART X
THE INSTRUCTING JOB
XXV. — The Instructing Job 461
XXVI. — EynciENT Instruction 468
XXVII. — The Instructing Process 475
TABLE OF CONTENTS ix
XXVIII. — ^Thb Insthuctob's Tooia . 486
XXIX. — Picking Out the Best Methods and Lines op Approach
FOR A Given Instructing Job 498
APPENDIX A
The Use op This Material in Foremen's Conferences. 509
APPENDIX B
A Classified Lay-out op Sobib Possible Supebvisort Respon-
sibilities in a Foreuan'b Job. 517
PART I
THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT
CHAPTER I
THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT
This book does not undertake to tell foremen how to dis-
charge their duty ; it does take up a number of points affect-
ing the foreman's job that a large number of foremen have
thought worth careful consideration and discussion in con-
ferences. It therefore deals with three of the most im-
portant factors in production, supervision, cost control
and instruction.
Since a foreman has to do all three of these this book
deals with the foreman and his job — the foreman because so
much depends upon the way in which he puts over his job
and the job because the more that a man thinks about his
responsibilities and how best to discharge them, the better
work he wiU do. To avoid any misunderstanding at the
start it should be stated here that this book does not deal
in any way with the methods by which trade processes and
operations are carried on ; that is, with ways of doing pro-
duction jobs. It assumes that all foremen possess the neces-
sary "job knowledge" as to the different jobs under their
supervision. In matters relating to the foreman's job how-
ever it is hoped that the questions raised, the suggestions
made and the conclusions reached in a large number of fore-
mens conferences may be of value to other foremen in assist-
ing them in thinking about their jobs and trying to find
ways and means to put those jobs across in the best way.
The Foreman's Job. — As far back as we have any knowl-
edge of the history of the human race, men have taken
materials, done something to this material with the aid of
tools or some sort of equipment, and so have turned out a
product. They made something out of something. How-
ever crudely this was done, it was, in fact, just as much
4 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
manufacturing as the production work carried on in our
modem plants, and whenever the job called for several
people to work together, there was a group of workers all
working for the final thing that was to come out of the
work of the group. That is, this group constituted a pro-
duction team just as much as the operating force in a depart-
ment in a modern plant makes a production tekm.
When such a production team got together to put over a
job, it was.natural to select some one man as the "leader,"
so that the work could be carried on to better advantage,
because, under such an arrangement, each man could be put
on the part of the "team job" that he could do best, or some
one man could do the planning for the team, or all members
of the team could look to one man for orders or directions.
Possibly, if the leaders was especially skilled on the different
team jobs, he could also show team members who were not
up in their work how to do it better, or could teach some job
to some green member of the team.
This group leader, even in those days, it will be noted,
had to plan, direct and sometimes instruct, so that he was,
in all essentials, the foreman of that team, although, of
course, he did not go by that name, so that the job of a
foreman is as old as the human race.
Conditions have changed. Where in those days only a
few crude tools were used, now we have complicated machines ;
we have delicate processes ; instead of small groups, we have
large numbers of people brought together in manufacturing
plants or other business concerns; but through all these
changes and developments the foreman has kept his job.
There has always been a group leader, and a leader's job;
the job has been there no matter what particular name it
was known by.
The Foreman. — ^Although the job of a foreman has
always existed, the name "foreman" is, itself, a very old
one. In the days of the old trade guilds in Europe, when
groups of workers wanted a representative to speak for
THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT 5
them, they chose one of the number — ^usually one of the older
or better workmen — to " come to the fore " ; that is, to
be the foreman. In descriptions of ceremonies in connection
with these old trade guilds, there is mention of the different
groups of workers, "led by their foremen," taking part.
Not only did foremen represent different working groups, but
on some occasions groups of foremen got together, each fore-
man representing his own group, to discuss matters on
which the different working groups had interests in common,
so that the foremen's conference is as old as the word
foreman itself.
The Foreman in the Plant. — ^In the old days of small
shops, where the employer ran the "business end" and the
foreman "ran the shop," when matters for discussion came
up, the foreman was the natural representative of the men ;
he often "spoke for the shop" to the employer, and the
employer often "spoke for the business" to the men through
the foreman — ^that is, the foreman stood between the "Man-
agement" and the "Force."
As industry has grown so that one foreman could not
handle all the jobs, instead of running the whole shop, he
has charge of a part of the shop ; his team only forms a part
of the "big team," so that in a plant of any size one foreman
has charge of transportation, another of maintenance, others
of the different production departments ; but in spite of this
"splitting up" the foreman's job is still practically the
same — ^he has the same kind of responsibilities, although he
does not have to spread himself over so much ground. To
the management he still represents the men; to the men he
still represents the management; and he still has responsi-
bilities both ways, and all foremen recognize this double re-
sponsibility in cal'rying on their work.
The Term "Foreman." — The man or woman holding a
position carrying the sort of leadership responsibilities
described in the last paragraph — that is, a foreman or fore-
woman— ^is known by different titles in different industries, so.
6 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
to avoid confusion, so far as this book is concerned, he is
always referred to as a foreman. The term "foreman"
therefore, as used all through the book should be understood
to mean any individual man or woman who stands next to the
working force, and so has the double set of responsibilities
described above — ^to the men on the one hand and to the
management on the other.
"Superiors." — Of course, in most plants there are other
men who stand between the foreman and the management,
and who have, in a general way, the same sort of responsi-
bilities, such as supervisors, assistant superintendents,
superintendents and so on.
Such individuals will be referred to as superiors, and who-
ever comes immediately above the foreman, as the term will
be used, wiU be referred to as the immediate superior.
The Foreman a Manufacturer. — ^Within the limits of his
job any foreman is, in the real sense of the word, a manu-
facturer, because he is responsible for taking stock (or other
things) and seeing that something is done to it, so that it is
different from what it was before, and doing this with the
aid of tools, equipment and men. The fact that this
changed material may go to another department for further
work, or that if: is not the final product of the plant, makes
no difference. This statement would even hold for a shipping
department or a maintenance department, because when a
machine is repaired it is changed with the aid of equipment
and men ; when a piece of stock is moved it has been changed
as to its location ; when a finished product has been boxed up
and marked, ready for shipment, something has been done
to it with the aid of tools and men.
In order to get out his product, or to get his jobs done,
whatever those special jobs may be, a foreman, so far as the
doing side goes, has the same responsibilities and problems as
any manufacturer. He must deal with material, operations
and processes, tools and equipment, and, last but not least,
he must deal with men. Within the limits of his particular
THE FOREMAN AND THE PLANT 7
job, as determined by the special organization of the plant
in which he is eipployed, he has, in a sense, the problems of a
general manager — that is, he has delegated to him that part
of the responsibilities and problems of the management that
go with his own special job.
In this connection a foreman is in a particularly im-
portant position on the team, because he is what is sometimes
called a "key" man. The idea of a key man comes, of
course, from the notion of the keystone of an arch. If the
keystone is poor, the arch will eventually fall. A key man is,
therefore, a man who, on account of his position, holds the
same place in a team that the keystone holds in an arch, and
a foreman is a key man largely on account of the fact already
pointed out, that he stands between the management and the
working force just as the keystone stands between the two
sides of the arch. A key man can, by virtue of his position,
particularly affect the success or failure of any team job by
his attitude toward that job; he can do more than anyone
else to make it a success or a failure.
The Foreman as a Key Man on the Team. — ^As just
stated, the foreman is a "key man" because, by virtue of his
position, he can obstruct or assist the effectiveness of the
work in many ways more than any other one individual in
the organization. For example, it is desired by the manage-
ment to promote an interest in safety devices and their use
among the working force. The foreman's attitude will go
far towards "making" or "breaking" the proposition. He
can even outwardly "be for it," and yet, by his remarks
made to the men (or made to others in the hearing of the
men), kill the proposition. !
If he says that "it is all foolishness," the men will think
that it is all foolishness. If he thinks that it is a good thing,
and in his talk "boosts" the proposition, the men wiU think
as he does and boost it, too. By whole-hearted cooperation
with other departments, say the service department, he can
help that work along; if he "knocks" it, he can almost put
8 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
it out of business so far as his men are concerned. Many
foremen and forewomen have much more influence in this
respect than they realize, and so often fail to help things
along as much as they might, not so much because they intend
to block things, as because they do not always take the time
and trouble in the pressure of their work to fully inform
themselves as to such matters and do not realize how much
their attitude towards them affects the attitude of the mem-
bers of the working force, especially where it is a matter in
which their cooperation is necessary to make the proposition
a success.
The Foreman in American Industry. — ^Many people
believe that if our industries are to compete successfully in
the future with foreign manufacturers, we must turn more
and more to higher grades of manufacturing, while, in the
past, American industries have been largely devoted to turn-
ing out partly finished products — steel, lumber, and so on —
leaving it to other countries to take our product and work
it up into high-grade articles.
' This change is going on now, and more and more we are
turning ou,t higher-grade products. Less steel billets and
more steel ball-bearings ; Jess baled cotton and more high-
grade cloth ; less hides and more shoes are coming out of our
factories, and in the development of this higher and higher
grade of production skill the foreman, by his efficiency and
skill on his leadership job, will become a more and more
important "success factor," and any man who has a fore-
man's job can, with truth, feel that he has an important place
on the "firing line" in American industries, and that what-
ever he does to help himself to do a better foreman's job helps
not only himself and the partidular plant in which he happens
to be located, but helps the whole of American industry as
well. We must perfect processes, but it must be the foreman
who sees that they are correctly carried out; we must have
first-class men on the job, .but it is the foreman who must
see that the conditions are such that these men can do a first-
THE E'OREMAN AND THE PLANT 9
class job. We must invent new types of equipment, but the
foreman is the man who must see that it is operated effectively
and not abused. We must cut down turnover and save the
cost of continually changing our force, and the foreman can
do more than any other one man to bring this about. For
all these reasons and for many others the American foreman
in the American plant can do as much, if not more, than
anybody else to enable our industries to make good under
the new conditions.
CHAPTER II
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS
Preliminary. — The last chapter dealt with the foreman
in the plant and pointed out some of the responsibilities and
opportunities that go with his job. Like anybody else
in a "team" a foreman has, in his particular position, cer-
tain kinds of responsibilities that go with that particular
job, and this chapter, in a general way, deals with these
responsibilities and with what has to be done to discharge
them efficiently.
What is a "Job"? — ^As used in this book the word job,
in a general way, means anything that a man is paid to do.
In this sense, everyone connected with the plant has a "job,"
from the head of the organization down. The general man-
ager has a "job," the office help have "jobs"; workmen and
hdpers have "jobs"; foremen, supervisors and tool- room
attendants have "jobs," and so all along the line.
Work Jobs, Service Jobs and Production Jobs. — ^A work
job, as the term is used in this book, is any job that is car-
ried on by a member of the working force. It may be an
operator's job, a laborer's job, a skilled job. In any plant
however there are many work jobs that do not deal directly
with the product, such as maintenance jobs, and other jobs
that do deal directly with the product.
For convenience in discussion it will be found desirable
to distinguish between these two kinds of work jobs by call-
ing those jobs that deal directly with the product, that get
the product one step further along in the manufacturing
process, production jobs, and to call all other kinds of jobs
service jobs. Production jobs are carried on to get the
product; if the production job fails, the product is not
10
THE POEEMAN'S JOBS 11
obtained. Service jobs make the product come out easier,
but do not change the stock. Examples of such service
jobs would be transportation jobs, store-room jobs, main-
tenance jobs, crane operating jobs.
We have therefore:
WorkjobsP^^^'=^J°^«-
[^Production ji
Production jobs.
The Working Force. — People who are paid to carry on
work jobs may be called workmen or members of the
working force to distinguish them from people who are paid
to discharge other kindsi of responsibilities.
Responsibility Jobs and Work Jobs. — In general, in any
concern, there are two kinds of jobs which may, for conveni-
ence, be called responsibility jobs and doing jobs, or work
jobs. Doing jobs, or work jobs (both words means the same
thing), are, of course, jobs carried on by the members of the
operating or working force. As described in some detail
later, these doing jobs are made up of operations, and, as a
result of these operations, the stock or whatever is worked
upon is changed in some way and a product obtained.
Responsibility jobs, however, are not made up of opera-
tions, but of responsibilities. Where, in laying out a work
job, we would list out the operations, in laying out a respon-
sibility job, we would list out the responsibilities. By re-
sponsibilities we mean that the man on that job is paid to see
that something is done — ^but not to do it himself.
The Foreman's Job Not a Work Job. — ^Like every-
one else who works for a living, the foreman has a job — that
is, he is paid for doing something; but his job differs from
that of the members of the working force because he does no
direct work jobs himself. His job as a foreman does
not require that he touch a tool or operate a machine himself,
except, as pointed out later, in the special case where he acts
as an instructor.
A Foreman Has a Responsibility Job, Not a Work
18 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Job. — ^From the preceding statement it is evident that a fore-
man has a responsibility job, not a work job, as the terms
are used here. He is paid for discharging responsibilities
and for the skill with which he discharges them just as a
man on a work job is paid for carrying on the operations
or processes that go with his job in a workmanlike manner.
Wherever the word job is used in connection with the duties
of a foreman it should be understood that it refers to the
discharge of some sort of responsibility, and not to the
carrying on of a work job.
The Foreman's Possible Jobs. — A foreman may have any
or all of three responsibility jobs as follows :
1. He may be responsible for seeing that work jobs are
carried on correctly — that is, for getting the product of
those jobs of standard or required quality. To put it in
another way, he may be responsible for "spotting" any
conditions that may prevent work jobs from being carried
on in the best way or for noting the fact that these j obs are
being carried on in the proper way. This sort of responsi-
bility will be called supervisor^/ responsibility, and a responsi-
bility job that is made up of these sort of responsibilities
will be called a supervisory job.*
2. He may be responsible for discharging his supervisory
responsibilities in such a way that, while these jobs are cor-
rectly carried out, the cost will be made as low as possible.
This cost-reducing responsibility will be called managetial
responsibility, and any job that is made up of cost-control
responsibilities will be called a managerial job^
3. He may be responsible for putting over to others job
knowledge, or training them so that they get job skill; that
is, he may have to imstruct. This sort of responsibility will be
called instructing responsibility, and a job that is made
* The term supervisor as used in this book should not be confused
with the position of supervisor as it is sometimes found in the organiza-
tion of plants, especially in chemical plants. As the term is used here a
supervisor would be a swperior, with regard to a foreman.
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 13
up of these sorts of responsibilities will be called an
instructing job,
A "bikd's-eye view" of the foreman's job
Knowing his supervisory job
The
Job
Supervision
Management
Instruction
Putting over his supervisory job
Knowing his managerial job
Putting over his managerial job
Knowing his instructing job
Putting over his instructing job
Knowing the Job and "Putting the Job Across." — ^If a
man has any one of the three kinds of jobs given in the last
paragraph, he has to be able to do two things :
1. He must know the job; that is, he must know exactly
what his responsibilities are.
2. He must know how to "put the job across."
If he does not know what his job is, he cannot properly
discharge all of his responsibilities, because he does not know
what they are. If he knows his responsibilities, but "does not ,
know what to do with them after he has got them," he is just
as badly off. If he is to handle any responsibility proposition
effectively, he must first get, in some way, a list of his respon-
sibilities, or SL'responsibility lay-out, and then he must have
the necessary knowledge and the ability to apply that knowl-
edge so that the job will be put across properly.
The sort of knowledge that a man needs to enable him to
put a responsibility job across properly will be called
Auxiliary Information.
The "bird's-eye view" of the foreman's job given above
indicates the possibilities, and the three possible jobs as
shown there are discussed in the following paragraphs.
14 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Supervision vs. Management. — It is sometimes hard to
get the distinction between supervision and management
because in practice any foreman usually carries on the two
sorts of jobs together. When the distinction is once clear
however, it is easy to apply in any given case. The super-
visor " spots " things, the manager does something about
those things. Whenever there is need for improvement, for
example, a foreman, as a supervisor, "spots" the fact that
a certain machine is wearing out. If he failed to do this he
would have fallen down on his job as a supervisor. In "spot-
ting" the condition of the machine he has discharged his
supervisory duty. But having done this he still has the
responsibility, as a manager for not allowing that condi-
tion to go on, but for doing something about it. If he gets
the machine out of commission in such a way that his produc-
tion is held up as little as possible, if he gets out his work
order at the right time, so that the machine is repaired at
just the right stage of depreciation, so that the whole job
is carried out at the least cost, he has done a good managerial
job. If, on the other hand, he does not do these things at
all, or if he does them in such a way that the cost is greater
than need be, he has done a poor managerial job.
Again, a foreman "spots" the fact that some of his men
are getting dissatisfied; he does this in the discharge of his
duty as a supervisor. He " dopes out " some way of fixing
up this situation so that this dissatisfaction is reduced or
cut out entirely. He does this in the discharge of his duty
as a manager.
Again, he is responsible for certain stock that may be
damaged by water. He " spots " the fact that, as it is
stored, it is in danger. He does this as a_ part of his- super-
visory job. If he did not see that the stock was in
danger he would have fallen down as a supervisor. He
plans out a way to save that stock from damage; he does
this as a manager.
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 15
As a supervisor a foreman therefore sees things; he is
a "see man" ; as a manager he is a planner. As a supervisor
he is an "observer" ; as a manager he plans to deal with the
things that he observes so that cost can be held down to
a minimum.
Of course, in carrying on his supervisory duties a man
is as responsible for noting conditions that are right as for
spotting conditions that can be improved. Where super-
vision showed that everything was exactly right there would
be, of course, nothing further to be done and so good manage-
ment would be to do nothing. Management for improvement
therefore comes in only where supervision shows that there
is a chance for improvement.
The Supervisory Job. — Supervision means "looking
over," seeing the whole thing in all its parts, and so being able
to keep things going right, so that the job can be done at all.
For example, if a foreman in a machine shop was respon-
sible, as a part of his job as a foreman, for the quality of the
steel required for the different jobs, and, through his mis-
take, the wrong kind of steel was used, so that the required
product could not be obtained — that is, the job fell down
entirely — that foreman would have fallen down as a super-
visor. Again, if in a machine shop a foreman were respon-
sible for the accuracy of the products of different operations,
as, for example, where a job called for shaping, milling,
planing and grinding, and, through his failure to properly
inspect, the products of these operations were of the wrong
size and had to be junked, he would have failed on his super-
visory job. Again, if a foreman were responsible for the
number of men in his team, and he failed to provide men
enough to keep all the jobs going, he would have failed
as a supervisor.
A man fails as a supervisor, therefore, whenever, through
his neglect or slip, any of the jobs for which he is responsible
fail to deliver the required product; that is, where those jobs
do not get done at all, not of necessity because somebody
16 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
did not do something to some sort of stock, but because,
so far as getting the required result is concerned, they might
just as well have done nothing. Whatever was done was a
dead loss.
Putting Over the Supervisory Job. — ^If the foremen in
the illustrations given above fell down because they did not
know that they were responsible, the dead loss referred to
was due to the fact that they did not know their jobs; but
if they knew that those particular responsibilities belonged
to their jobs and forgot them, or did not think of the matter
in time, or actually did not know enough to tell that the
quality of the steel was wrong, or that the machined parts
were outside of the accuracy limits, or that there were not
men enough to man all the necessary jobs, then they fell
down, not because they did not know enough about their jobs,
but because, for some reason, they failed to put their jobs
across properly, and so got the dead loss already referred to.
The Different Kinds of Supervisory Responsibilities. —
While it is true that aU supervisory responsibilities are the
same in the sense that they all relate to getting the job done
it is also true that these supervisory responsibilities relate
to different things, and so vary in the kind of supervision
called for. In a general way these different kinds of responsi-
bilities may be stated as follows :
1. Supervisory responsibilities on stock. Such responsi-
bilities might include the duty of protecting stock from
damage or loss, seeing that the necessary amounts were
available as needed to keep the jobs going, seeing that the
quality was right and so on.
2. Supervisory responsibilities on operations and proc-
esses. Such responsibilities might include seeing that the
product was according to specifications, authorizing the
starting or stopping of an operation, or seeing that the
operations used were the proper ones.
3. Supervisory responsibilities on tools and equipment.
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 17
These might include the prevention of breakdown or of
damage that will prevent securing the required product.
4. Supervisory responsibilities as to the kind and num-
ber of workers necessary to get out the product. These
might be, for example, seeing that all workers had sufficient
knowledge or skill to properly carry on their jobs, or that
there were enough workers to keep all jobs going.
6. Supervisory responsibilities on the handling of
information. These might include for illustration, the fur-
nishing of certain reports, or of making certain records, or
of giving or transmitting orders or directions.
6. Supervisory responsibilities on the human factors.
These might include such responsibilities as seeing that
workers are interested in doing a good job, that they are
satisfied to stay with the plant and that they are not suffer-
ing from disease or illness.
7. Supervisory responsibilities as to instruction. These
might include seeing that all green men are instructed in
their duties, that men who are more or less experienced are
given pointers on jobs that are a little different from these
that they are used to and so on.
Possible and Actual Supervisory Responsibilities. — By
combining the supervisory responsibilities of foremen in a
number of plants that have different organizations it is
possible to get what may be called a lay-out of possible
supervisory responsibilities from which a foreman in a given
plant can pick out the particular responsibilities that go
with his particular job. We may have therefore possible
responsibilities that any foreman may have and actual
responsibilities that he does have under the special organiza-
tion and procedure of the plant in which he is employed. A
number of these possible responsibilities are suggested in the
charts given in Appendix B.
2
18 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
The Managerial Job. — ^As has already been pointed out,
while supervision deals with responsibilities for getting the
job done at all, management deals with the question of get-
ting it done as cheaply as possible, provided it is done as it
should be done; that is, as the term is used in this book,
management has for/ its purpose getting the job done at
minimum, cost. A supervisor thinks of the job, a manager
thinks of the cost of the job. For example, a foreman in a
pattern shop is responsible for the stock on which the men
draw. He allows this stock to be exposed to the weather, so
that some of it gets warped or checked, so that it cannot
be used. Unless it was all spoiled, and he could not get any
more in time to prevent a shut-down, the jobs would not stop,
but the cost to the concern would have been run up, because
that part of the stock that could not be used cost money and
had to be paid for whether it was used or not. This failure
to properly protect the stock would be, as the terms are used
here, poor manageToent, not poor supervision. In the illus-
tration as to men in the preceding paragraph, if there were
enough men, but they were so distributed that there were too
many men on some jobs, so that they were loafing, and not
enough men on others, so that they were overworked, such
a situation would be due to poor management, because the
cost of getting out the product would be increased. Again,
in the case of the machine parts, if the foreman was "lost"
when the time came to inspect a finished intermediate product
before it could go on to the next operation, and the workman
had to stop and wait for the foreman to turn up, that would
be poor management on the foreman's part, because "time is
money," and the cost of the finished product would be in-
increased, although the job would have been done and
, done right.
Management, therefore, means, as the term is used in
this book, discharging a supervisory responsibility in such
a way that cost is reduced to a minimv/tn, although the job
is stUl properly done.
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 19
Putting the Managerial Job Across. — Just as in the caSe
of supervision, a foreman may slip up in management, either
because he does not know his managerial responsibilities (or
more often because he does not realize them), or because he
does not put his managerial job across as well as he might.
For example, in matters relating to the discharge of men,
many foremen have not realized that every time that a man
quits for any cause, there must be a replacement cost for train-
ing another man to take his place (unless it is a case of per-
manently reducing the force), and that that replacement
cost goes into the overhead, and so have not handled cases
that resulted in quitting or discharge in such a way that the
cost to the plant was kept down to the minimum. Again,
many foremen have not realized the cost-reducing value of
legible records and reports, or in seeing that all tools and
equipment are in good condition, so far as was possible within
the fields of their responsibilities. To the extent to which any
foreman fails to discharge his managerial responsibilities, so
as to get the best results as to cost reduction under the con-
ditions under which he has to work, he can be said to have
fallen down to a greater or less extent in putting his man-
agerial job across.
One Difference Betv^een Supervision and Management. —
It must be evident from the preceding discussions that super-
vision is a definite thing — either the job gets done or else
it doesn't get done. There is no half-way business about it,
whereas management is always a case of doing the best that
you can. Supervision must be either good or bad ; manage-
ment may be of aU degrees of effectiveness. In management
a man must often guess at how to put the job across, acting
on all the information that he has and using his experience
to the best advantage. In supervision he practically always
knows what ought to be done, though he may not always do it.
As a supervisor, therefore, a foreman is concerned with
making his supervision "100 per cent" ; as a manager he is
concerned with making his management as good as he can
20 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
make it, but he never expects to discharge all his managerial
responsibilities on a 100 per cent, basis.
"Czar Reed," who was for a long time the Speaker of the
House of Representatives, once was asked what made a good
Speaker, and he is said to have replied that a good presiding
officer was one who made 51 per cent, of his decisions cor-
rectly. A foreman as a manager can do better than that,
but there is no need of feeling discouraged if there is a failure
in handling all managerial problems as effectively as ther
could be handled, or if, in looking back, he can see where ht
"made a fluke" on some managerial case. We all learn from
experience, and it is always a case of "better luck next time."
What is Meant by Cost Elements. — The word cost ele-
ment as used here, means anythvng that will cause cost to
go up or down, according to the way it is managed, or
" handled. " For example, carrying more stock than is
required makes cost go up, because it ties up capital ; carry-
ing too little stock, so that the production is slowed up
because some machines cannot get stock to work on, also
makes cost go up. These two things are cost elements on
stored departmental stock.
Having more men than can be used to advantage, or
putting high priced men on low priced jobs, or putting
a low skilled man on a high skilled job, increases cost. These
things are cost elements on men. Again, not running
machines on full duty, or using the wrong m{|,chine for a
given operation, or carrying a high idle load, makes for
cost increase; they are cost elements on equipment
or operations.
It should be understood that some of these things may
happen either when the foreman cannot help it, or when
he is doing the best he can under the circumstances, but never-
theless, the cost is affected according to the degree to which
they are done, and if they are done, as a rule, somebody's
management is not as good as it might be.
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 21
The Foreman's Managerial Problem. — ^Managerial prob-
lems vary, according to the kind of jobs ; " managing " a
boat would mean one set of problems ; " managing " a politi-
cal campaign, another set, but in production work, all
managerial problems finally head up into cost, because it
is the business of any concern not only to turn out a good
product, but turn out that product at minimum cost.
Sometimes, it is hard to see that certain things do actually
affect cost; for example, it is only recently that turnover
has been regarded seriously as a cost element, or that the con-
dition of the buildings as to light, air, etc., actually affects
cost of production, but it is becoming recognized generally,
now, that they do. All these points are fully discussed in
later chapters and it is enough to point out here, that when
a foreman studies out his managerial problems, he will always
find, that if he " chases them down to the end " they all relate
to cost, though sometimes, he has to do some "chasing,"
before the fact is clear.
Supervisory Responsibilities, Managerial Responsibili-
ties, Cost Elements and Managerial Problems. — ^It is evi-
dent that, for every supervisory responsibility, if cost is to
be considered, there is a corresponding managerial responsi-
bility for carrying out that particular kind of supervision in
such a way that cost is kept as low as possible and still the
job is done right. This means that if the supervisory
responsibilities are known, the corresponding managerial
responsibilities are also known. One makes the other. Mana-
gerial responsibilities in turn make it necessary to work out
ways and means for discharging those responsibilities as
effectively as possible, that is, they set up managerial prob-
lems in each case. These managerial problems can only be
dealt with effectively if the particular cost elements that affect
cost in that case are known and it is clear as to just how they
affect cost, and unless all of these things are cleared up
the results will not be satisfactory.
22 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Of course, whether the same man has to deal with both
supervisory and mailagerial responsibiUties is a question of
organization but, under any ordinary conditions, somebody
has to take care of both, so the statement as made above
appHes whether both are handled by the same man or by
different men, or whatever the particular arrangement
happens to be.
"The Managerial Formula." — As a sort of summary
of the statements made above we might indicate the rela-
tion of supervisory responsibilities, managerial responsi-
bilities, cost elements, managerial problems, and ways and
means as follows:
Whenever the discharge of a supervisory responsibility
shows that anything should be done to improve things this
at once sets up a managerial responsibility to do something
to improve matters, this at once sets up a managerial prob-
lem to first determine the cost elements and then to work
out ways and means for reducing the effect of these cost
elements to a minimum or, when possible, to cut them out
entirely, or, as a sort of a formula,
Supervisory responsibility = managerial responsi-
bility = cost elements = a managerial problem =
ways and means.
The Instructing Job. — ^Under most conditions a foreman
has, in addition to supervisory and managerial responsibil-
ities, some sort of instructing responsibilities, though quite
often he does not think of himself as an instructor. For
example, he may have to give special instructions to workmen
where the job is in some way out of the regular run, or he may
have the responsibility of "breaking in green help," or of
instructing apprentices. On another side, he may feel some
responsibility for advising men who wish to secure additional
training as to how they can get it the best and the cheapest.
Where he has any responsibilities of this sort, they are
neither managerial nor supervisory, as the terms are used
in this book, but are teaching or Instructional responsibilities,
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 23
and whatever these instructing responsibilities are they make
up his instructional job.
Most foremen feei that because they are not called
"teachers" and do not teach in a "school," that they have
nothing to do with the teaching game, but there are practi-
cally no foremen who are not doing some sort of instructing
right straight along, for it must be remembered that an
instructor, or teacher, is merely somebody who has the job
of putting over what he knows or can do to somebody else
who does not know or who cannot do.
Putting Over the Instructing Job.* — ^As in the two other
cases, a foreman needs not only to know his instructing re-
sponsibilities but also how to discharge them in such a way
that the instruction, whatever may be its special nature, will
be>^carried on as effectively as possible. In order to do this,
a foreman needs to be able to know some of the "tricks of the
teaching trade" — that is, some things that teachers have
learned in order to do a good teaching job. The extent to
which a foreman who has any instructing responsibilities will
succeed in putting across his instructing job effectively wiU
depend, therefore, on the amount of knowledge that he pos-
sesses of the "teaching tools" and the skill with which he can
use them in discharging his instructing responsibilities.
The Foreman's Department. — For convenience, when-
ever reference is made to the group of jobs and workmen for
which a foreman is responsible, the term department will be
used in just the same sense in which it is used in many plants,
even though the particular group of jobs that he has charge
of does not go by that name in his particular case, as when
the term "shop" or "shed" or "room" is used, or where his
department is named from its special product, as "alum de-
partment," "acid department," etc., as is common in many
chemical plants, or by operations, as "weave room," "spin-
* For a complete discussion of ways and means for putting across
the instructing job anyone especially interested is referred to the com-
panion book " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."
24 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
ning room" in many textile mills, or "slip room" or "clay
house" in potteries. Sometimes the foreman's department, as
the term wiU be used, is called a "shop," as "the carpenter's
shop," "the boat shop," "the boiler shop," and so on, as is
common in navy yards and in railroad shops.
Just as the term foreman is used in this book to cover all
the different names by which a foreman's job is known in
different lines, so the term department will be used to cover
the group of materials, operations, tools and equipment and
men that make up his team, and for whom he is responsible.
How Foremen's Jobs are Alike. — ^At first thought, any-
one would think that two foremen having in their departments
entirely different work jobs, different kinds of equipment and*'
different operations and processes would have totally differ^
ent supervisory, managerial and instructing jobs. In view of
the statements made in this chapter, a little consideration will
§how, however, that these responsibilities are practically the
same, regardless of the particular sort of work carried on in
the foreman's department. It follows from this fact that
foremen from different departments can get together and
discuss their supervisory, managerial and instructional prob-
lems and "pool experiences" in working out ways and means
for handling their jobs to better advantage. Since this is
sometimes a somewhat difficult point to see, the following
illustrations may be of help :
Why all Foremen's Jobs are Alike. — ^The statement that
"all foremen's jobs are alike" means that while the different
work jobs in different departments are different and the job
knowledge required in order to know whether or not these
work jobs are being done right wiU, of course, be different for
each department, so that from the standpoiut of job knowl-
edge each foreman must have a different "brand," they all
have some kind of supervisory responsibilities, some kind of
managerial responsibilities and generally some kind of in-
structing responsibilities.
In many cases, at least, the ways and means for lining up
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 25
the responsibility job, or the managerial job, are the same,
and the problems as to how to put managerial or supervisory
jobs across effectively are quite independent of the nature of
the special work j obs in this foreman's department or in that
foreman's department. For example, if there is a managerial
problem on how to deal with absenteeism, it makes little or
no difference what particular job the man was absent from.
This would be equally true for a supervisory responsibility
on the quality of product — if a number of foremen all had
that particular kind of responsibility, the way in which that
responsibility could be effectively discharged would have very
little to do with the particular tests that would be used in
inspecting. This would be also true of instructing.
If a number of foremen all had instructing responsibil-
ities, the teaching "tricks" that they would need to use would
be the same, whatever the particular jobs that they wanted
to teach.
In a general way it is, therefore, true that any group of
people who have supervisory responsibilities, or managerial
responsibilities, or instructing responsibilities, have the same
sort of jobs, although the particular work jobs that they
have under their charge may be entirely different.
How Foremen's Jobs do Differ. — ^Although, as just
stated, all foremen have, in general, the same kind of jobs, it
is also true that foremen in different plants and even some-
times foremen in different departments in the same plant do
not have the same number of responsibilities, nor are the
responsibilities that they have all of the same kind, because
of the different ways in which different plants are organized.
It is even true that in some cases all the supervising respon-
sibilities go to one man, all the managerial to another and
quite often a large number of the instructing responsibilities
are turned over to a special training department.
In general, however, all the foremen in a given plant will
have about the same responsibilities ; that is, they have about
the same supervising, managerial and instructing jobs, but
26 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
their range of responsibilities might be considerably diiFerent
from those belonging to the foreman from another plant. On
this account, foremen from one plant can "get together"
closer in discussing their foreman's jobs than can foremen
from plants where the organization is very different in the
different plants.
The way in which responsibilities may be discharged, or
the procedure, very often varies in different plants. For
example, in some plants a foreman may, according to the
procedure in that plant, hire men directly — "at the gate."
In other plants, according to the procedure, he may draw a
requisition on an Employment Department. As in the case
of responsibilities, the procedure is likely to be the same in
the same plant for all foremen.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PARTI
1. What is the essential difference between a workman's
job and a foreman's job?
2. A foreman directs a man to load up a truck with
cans of paint and take the load to a certain address. Does
he do this as a supervisor or as a manager?
3. Would a foreman put in a requisition for more raw
materials as a supervisor or as a manager? How would it
be if he timed his requisition so that it would be filled before
he ran out of material?
4. If a foreman failed to secure a product of the right
quality could he be criticised as a supervisor or as a
manager? Why?
5. A man loads a truck in such a poor way so that a
part of the load falls off and is damaged. The foreman gets
him transferred to another job. Does he do this as a super-
visor or as a manager? Why?
6. A department is running on sixty per cent, capacity
and all equipment units are running on less than full
capacity. The foreman cuts out certain units and gets
THE FOREMAN'S JOBS 27
the same output on the remaining units at full capacity.
Did he do this as a supervisor or as a manager? Why?
7. A foreman notices that a man seems to be falling
off in his work. He has always been a good man up to
this time. In noting this is the foreman acting as a super-
visor or as a manager?
8. In the case just given the foreman takes pains to
find out what the matter is and sees that the man being ill
goes to the doctor. Does he do this as a supervisor or
as a manager? Why?
9. A foreman tells a competent man to do a certain
job. Is he instructing the man? Why?
10. He finds that the man is not familiar with certain
parts of the job and "wises him up." Is he instructing the
man in this case? Why?
11. A foreman finds that one of his men is doing poor
work because he is sleepy. Does he note this fact as a
supervisor or as a manager? Why?
12. In the case just given the foreman looks into the
matter and finds out that the man is doing a lot of
outside work. Does he do this as a supervisor or as
a manager? Why-
13. He talks with the man and gets him to give up the
outside work. Does he do this as a supervisor or as a
manager ? Why ?
14. A foreman finds that owing to his being a poor
writer a number of his orders are not read correctly and so
he takes to using a typewriter. Does he do this as a super-
visor or as a manager? Why?
PART n
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK
JOB ANALYSIS
CHAPTER III
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB
ANALYSIS
SECTION I. THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS
Preliminary. — The general method of analysis is of such
great service to all persons who are charged with supervisory,
managerial or instructing responsibilities, and the use of the
analysis method is of such great value in dealing with super-
visory and managerial problems, that every foreman should
understand it and get in the habit of using it in his work. In
general, the method of analysis stands against the "guess
method" to which reference is made in a number of places in
this book, because it substitutes exact knowledge for guess-
ing, and gives a base on which action can be taken with a
much greater certainty, that it is the best action that can be
taken under the circumstances. The following chapters,
therefore, take up the method of analysis as applied to those
sort of jobs with which a foreman has to deal, this chapter
dealing with the departmental and the work job analysis,
other chapters taking up the analyses of managerial and
supervisory jobs.
What is an Analysis? — ^An analysis simply means deter-
mining what anything is made of. When a chemist makes an
analysis of a substance, he merely finds out what is in it by
the use of the different tests which he knows how to use ; in
the same way the principle of analysis can be used in finding
out what other things besides substances are made of. For
example, the analysis of a trade is made by "taking account
of stock" as to what a person must be able to do and what
he must know to be a first-class man at that trade. Of course,
nobody can furnish this information except a first-class
31
82 THE FOREMAN AND THIS JOB
workman at that trade, and an analysis adds nothing to
what such a man knows — ^it merely lists it out. If the trade
were that of a carpenter, the person making the analysis,
who is usually the carpenter himself, but who may be some-
body else sitting in with the carpenter, notes down all the
jobs that a carpenter has to know how to do. If it were
plumbing, or book-binding, or machine-shop work, the same
listing of jobs would be carried out. If, in addition to the
jobs themselves, there were certain trade terms that he must
know, oi; names of operations of which nobody would know the
meaning except a man in the trade, or special methods of
figuring out that belonged to the trade in question, or any
other special auxiliary information, these would also be listed.
In the same way any job can be analyzed — for example, the
job of lighting a safety match on the box, or opening a door,
or making a batch of biscuits or setting a stick of type. Again,
a managerial problem can be analyzed into its cost elements,
or a department analyzed for the different work jobs that
it carries on.
The Classified Analysis. — ^A properly made analysis gives
us all that goes with the "job" (trade, problem, work job,
responsibility job, etc.), but, if the information is of more
than one kind, the different kinds would be all mixed up if we
stopped there, so, in most analyses it is necessary to list out
these different kinds of information under classification head-
ings and so get a classified analysis.
What is a Classified Analysis?— As just stated, a classi-
fied analysis is simply a list where the contents of that list
are arranged under some sort of headings. For instance,
suppose it was desired to make a list of the jobs in the
plumbers' trade and these jobs were listed as soil-pipe jobs,
terra-cotta jobs, flexible-pipe jobs, rigid-pipe jobs, installing
jobs, and so on, we would have a classified analysis of that
trade so far as jobs go. In the same way, responsibility jobs
can be classified as supervisory responsibility jobs, man-
agerial responsibility jobs and instructional jobs, supervi-
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 33
sion, management and instruction being, in this case, the
classification headings used. Of course, different classifica-
tion headings can be used according to the special sort of an
analysis that is required.
What are Classification Headings? — Classification head-
ings are, therefore, merely the labels or "pigeon holes" that
we use in making a classified analysis, and they serve the same
purpose as the different bins or sacks into which a mail clerk
throws letters for different places.
The Necessity for Making an Analysis Complete. — ^Like
ainy other "half-baked" job an incomplete analysis is worse
than none at all, because you think that you have got some-
thing that you can depend on when you can't; hence, when
any analysis is made, it is very necessary that it should "tell
the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth," and
this is often a very difficult thing to do, especially if the per-
son who makes the analysis knows the thing to be analyzed
thoroughly. For example, the better a man is on his j ob, or
at his trade, the more trouble he will have in making a com-
plete analysis.
The Difficulties in Making a Complete Analysis. — The
fact that "the more a man knows about his job the harder
it is for him to make a complete analysis" seems very strange
until it is explained, but the reason is very simple. It is one
thing to know and quite another thing to "know what you
know." A man who has learned how to do things by doing
them, as a rule, "just goes ahead and does them" without
thinking much about how he does them or just what he does.
He is not in the habit of "taking stock" of his job or of any-
body else's job. On the job he uses his knowledge and skill
so unconsciously that he hardly gives a thought as to how
he does it or why he does it that way. He works, so^to speak,
automatically, and the more experience he has had on the job
the more automatically he works and the more he is
"stumped" when he tries to analyze out what he does. This
is true of everybody: in proportion as we have got so that
3
34 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
we do a job unconsciously we can't tell off-hand how we do it.
How do you tie a four-in-hand tie ? How do you put on your
collar? Just what do you do when you start an automobile?
What do you do when' you take a pocket-knife and shatpen
a pencil? Questions like these "sprung" on anybody will
"phase" them for a moment and sometimes stick them en-
tirely. The fact that a man has trouble in making an
analysis of his job does not mean that he does not know the
job, but only means that, on the job, he has been thinking
of getting it done and not about what he did to get it done.
A green man who has done a new job for the first time has
thought about what he did ; an experienced man has thought
about getting his j ob done.
The fact that most men have trouble in making analyses
at the start simply means that they have to learn to look at
the job from a new angle. They must, so to speak, "take the
job out of themselves," and stand off and look at it, and this
takes practice. While the "analysis habit" is sometimes hard
to get, and it takes time and patience to get it, when a man
has once got it, he will find that it is a "life-saver" in many
ways, a number of which are suggested in different parts
of this book.
SECTION II. THE DEPARTMENTAI, ANALYSIS
Preliminary. — The object of a departmental analysis is to
get a classified list of all work jobs in a foreman's department.
Since, according to the nature of the product and the organ-
ization of the plant, one department may turn out only one
product or more than one, we must first get the departmental
production job, or jobs, then find out what payroll jobs go
with each departmental production job and, if one payroll
job covers more than one work job, we must find the work
jobs in the payroll jobs.
This relation of departmental production jobs, payroll
jobs and work jobs is indicated in the chart on page 40. The
making a departmental analysis are, therefore, as given in
the following paragraph.
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 35
Steps in the Departmental Analysis. — The departmental
analysis is carried out according to the following steps :
First. If the department handles more than one product,
the entire work of the department is divided into de-
partmental products, giving the analysis for depart-
mental production jobs.
Second. A list is made of all the payroll jobs that are
carried on in the department in order to get each depart-
mental production job, giving the payroll job analysis.
Third. Wherever a payroll job consists of more than one
work job, a list is made of these work jobs under each payroll
job, giving the work job analysis.
The classification headings here are :
(1) Departmental production jobs.
(2) Payroll jobs.
(3) Work jobs.
Departmental Production Jobs. — ^Every department in a
plant is operated to get one or more distinct products ; that
is, it has one or more distinct departmental production jobs.
Therefore, a departmental production job may be defined as
the job of getting out one distinct departmental product, as
distinguished from other products that may be turned out ir;
the same department. For example, a machine-shop depart-
ment might turn out only one departmental product, say
gears, or one type, of sensitive drills or gas engines, or one
type of automobile bodies, in which case, the department
would have only one departmental production job, because
all the work jobs in that department were carried on for the
purpose of turning out one kind of product. On the other
hand, if a department were turning out six distinct types of
automobile bodies, each type requiring a different kind of
work job, or if it were turning out gears, connecting rods,
pistons and crank-shafts, or 2-, 6-, 8- and 12-H.P. gas
engines, then there would be six departmental production jobs
in the first case and four in the second and third, since, for
36 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
example, making crank-shafts calls for totally different work
jobs from making gears, and making pistons calls for still
another set of work jobs as compared with those required to
make either of the other departmental products.
For another example, an acid department in a chemical
plant may turn out only sulphuric acid, in which case it
has only one departmental product and so only one depart-
mental production job, but, on the other hand, it might turn
out sulphuric acid, nitric acid, muriatic acid and acetic
acid, in which case there would be four distinct departmental
products and so four departmental production jobs.
In the case of a job shop, of course, each special order
for a complete job would be a departmental production job.
Therefore, it is evident that, according to the character
of the product and the degree of specialization, a foreman
may have from one to a large number of departmental pro-
duction jobs, and some of the more probable cases are dis-
cussed in the following paragraphs :
Conditions Affecting the Number of Departmental r*ro-
duction Jobs. — ^According to the conditions, departmental
production jobs are determined in different ways, but in gen-
eral we have one of the following situations :
There is only one departmental production job. This
situation is generally true in cases of continuous produc-
tion, as in a department in a cotton mill. Usually a weaving
department turns out cloth, a spinning department yarn,
and so on. This would be true in a platemill, or in different
departments in a pottery, or in most cases in an assembling
department. It should be noted here that the amount of
product does not affect the number of departmental jobs, nor
the different grades of product so long as the kind of
product remains the same.
There are several different kinds of departmental
production jobs. For example, suppose a weave room were
turning out twelve kinds of cloth (varying pattern, quality,
grade, etc.) ; this department would have twelve depart-
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 37
mental production jobs, regardless of the quantity turned
out from day to day. In the same way, a department in a
paint factory might turn out red lead, white lead by the
Carter process, white lead by the Dutch process, and in this
case would have three departmental jobs. That is, we get
a different departmental production job:
(1) If the product is different.
(2) If the product is the same, but is turned out by a
different prpcess, or a different set of work jobs.
Departmental Production — Varying Jobs. — This condi-
tion would come up in a job or repair shop, and would go
with what may be called Elastic Equipment. Such a
condition would occur in an automobile repair shop or
in a job machine shop. Under these circumstances, it is
evident that there can be no such thing as standard depart-
mental production jobs, and they cannot be listed because
there are none; but payroll jobs and work jobs that can be
done can be listed in general terms; that is, a list can be made
of the sort of jobs that the department is prepared to do
under some sort of classified headings as discussed in the
paragraph on work jobs. Under the conditions that exist in
a job shop, it is evident that no list of departmental produc-
tion j obs can be made, and under such circumstances this step
can be omitted in making the departmental analysis.
Payroll Jobs. — The term "payroll job," as used here,
means simply the name by which any worker is carried on the
payroll. Examples of payroll jobs might be, in a cotton mill,
loom fixer, bale-breaker tender, spinner, helper, etc. In a
pottery, payroll jobs might be jigger man, modeler, slip
mixer. In an electrical power house, water tender, fireman,
switchboard attendant, oUer. In a machine shop, payroll
jobs might be lathe hand, tool maker, grinder hand, tool-
room boy, and so on.
Of course, the special names of payroll jobs will vary
with the particular plant, but for any plant there are names
38 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
covering all that each man is paid to do that are carried on
the payroll, and so, of course, are readily obtainable.
Of course, where a man follows a skilled trade, the payroll
job is the name of his trade, as pattern maker, carpenter,
pressmdn, plumber, etc., and where a worker is employed only
on one specialized job, the payroll job is often the name of his
work job, as discussed in the next paragraph.
Work Jobs. — ^As the term is used here, a work job means
any one distinct job that a man is paid to do.- For example,
in getting out a sensitive drill, some of the work jobs might be
planing bases, turning columns, cutting gear racks, as-
sembling, etc.
Any payroll job may, or may not, consist of more than
one work job, as discussed in the following paragraph.
Work Jobs and Payroll Jobs. — In many cases a worker
employed for a given payroll job actually does a number of
work jobs. For exaniple, a tool maker (the payroll job)
does a distinct production job, or work job, for every tool or
jig or fixture that he gets out. In considering the matter
of work jobs in payroll jobs, it is possible to strike any one
of the following :
(1) The payroll job is the same as the work job.
(2) The payroll job covers two or more definite
work j obs.
(3) The payroll job covers any number of work jobs.
Case one would be illustrated by a weaver in a plain-goods
cotton mill. He is carried on the payroll as a weaver, and he
has just one job — ^weaving on a plain loom.
Case two would be illustrated by a decorator in a pottery,
who, under that name on the payroll, might stripe, put on
decals and stipple, or by a meter-clock assembler, who as-
sembles several different kinds of meter clocks, each kind being
a different work job.
Case three would be true for any skilled trade, as, for
example, machinist, carpenter, plumber, etc., who are carried
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WOBK JOB ANALYSIS 39
on the payroll by the name of the trade, and who may have
any work job that belongs in that trade.
Analyzing the Payroll Jobs into Work Jobs. — Evidently
for case one no analysis is necessary, since the payroll job
is the same as the work job, and, in such cases, this step
is not required, and the payroll job can be analyzed into
operations and operating points, as described in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
For case two all the work jobs that belong in that payroll
job should be listed out.
Case three puts up a very long and difficult problem
because the pay roll jobs cover all possible jobs in that
trade, calling for what is called a complete trade analysis.
However, fortunately for any purposes for which the use
of the job analysis is suggested for the use of a foreman,
such a complete trade analysis is practically unnecessary,
though, it is necessary for a trade instructor. *
For any suggested uses of the j ob analysis for the skilled
trades, as suggested later, it will be sufficient to list out
sample typical jobs, such as, for example, in lathe work, turn-
ing with face plate and dog, chucked jobs, back-gear jobs,
hand-feed jobs, power- feed jobs, and corresponding general
jobs on the other machines, on bench work, etc., and to
analyze a typical standard job of each kind.
Such analyses are sufficient to serve for such matters as
distribution of supervision, safety, determining job require-
ments and so on, as discussed later.f
As a result of these th fee steps,, there is obtained a classi-
fied list of all the work jobs in the department, as indicated in
the diagram below — that is, a departmental analysis.
* For a full discussion and description of the methods for making
such a complete trade analysis, see " The Instructor, The Man and The
Job," Chapter VII.
fFor a very complete sample trade analysis, see Federal Board
Bulletin No. 52. Theory and Practice of the Machinist's Trade. Copies
can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington,
D. C. Price ten cents.
40
^'
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
SUG&ESTIVE LAY-OUT FOR A DEPAB.TMKNTAI. ANALYSIS
This illustration shows a lay-out for a department turn-
ing out three distinct kinds of product, the first with three
The De-
partment
Departmental
Production Job
No. 1. (Three dif-
ferent kinds of
payroll jobs.)
Departmental
Production Job
No. 2. (Three dif-
ferent kinds of
payroll jobs.)
Payroll job A.-f
(Six work jobs.)
job
job
job
Payroll job B,
(T h re e work
jobs.)
Work
No. 1.*
Work
No. 2.»
Work
No. 8.»
As many as
there are in
payroll job
A — ^say 4.
ob
o b
Work j
No. 1.J
Work J
No. 2.t
As many as
there are in
payroll job
B — say 3.
Payroll job C.
(Two work
jobs.)
job
Work
No. 1.*
Work job
No. 2.*
Payroll job D.
^^eTaSeifth^iWorkjob.^
work job.)
Payroll job E.
(Two work
jobs.)
Payroll job F.
(Three work
)
Work job
No. 1*
Work job
No. 2*
Work job
No. 1.*
Work job
No. 2*
Work job
No. 3."
Payroll
(One
job.)
job G.
work
Work job."
Departmental!
Production J o b I
No. 3. (Only one]
kind of payroll job.) I
* Note that this refers to the different kinds of jobs without paying
any attention to the number of jobs of each kind.
•f Note that this refers to the different kinds of payroll jobs.
j The department turns out three distinct kinds of products.
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 41
different kinds of payroll jobs, the second with three and the
third with one. The first payroll job has four work jobs,
the second has three and the third has two.
For the second product the first payroll job is the same
as the work j ob, the second has two and the third has three.
The third product has one kind only.
SECTION ni. JOB ANALYSIS
Preliminary. — ^Just as the ability to make and use a de-
partmental analysis is of service to a foreman in connection
with planning his work, so he will find it equally desirable to
be able to analyze work jobs.
According to the special purpose for which the analysis
is made, there, are a number of possibilities, among which are
the following, as discussed in other chapters :
(1) The Safety Analysis.
(2) The Supervisory Analysis.
(3) The Instruction Analysis.
(4) The Job Requirement Analysis.
All of these analyses are based on what may be called
a Job Analysis, and this section describes a method of making
such an analysis.
Making the Job Analysis. — ^As in aU other cases, making
an analysis means merely "taking an account of stock," or
listing out what has to be done, and this particular analysis
is carried out by the following steps :
First, dividing the work job into operations.
Second, dividing each operation into operating points.
Third, dividing the operating points into two kinds,
machine operating points and human operating points.
These steps are described and discussed in the follow-
ing paragraphs :
42
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
A SUGGESTIVE FORM FOR LAYING OUT THE ANALY-
SIS OF THE OPERATIONS IN A JOB
Operations
Operating points
Machine
Human
Operation Number 1
Point No. 1
Point No. 4
Point No. 5
Point No. 7
Point No. 2
Point No. 3
Point No. 6
Point No. 8
Operation Number 2
Point No. 1
Point No. 2
Point No. 4
Point No. 3
Point No. 5
This represents a two-operation job, having eight oper-
ating points in t!he first operation, of which four are machine-
operating points and four are human-operating points. In
the same way, operation number two has, out of a total of
five, three machine- and two human-operating points.
In an actual lay-out of a definite job, each operation and
operating point would be named sufficiently to identify it.
Thus, in operation number one, point three might be "Pulling
release lever" and point four, "Discharging onto apron."
Points seven and eight in operation one are indicated as simul-
taneous operating points — one machine, the other human.
The Departmental Analysis and the Job Analysis. — ^It
will be readily seen that making the departmental analysis
and making the job analysis are two distinct pieces of work.
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 43
The departmental analysis can be made without analyzing
the jobs and any given job could be analyzed without making
a departmental analysis.
For the purposes for which the analysis methods are used
in this book, it is usually necessary that both the depart-
mental and the job analyses be made, though, as will be dis-
cussed in later chapters, it is not always necessary to deter-
mine the operating points on all jobs.
Operations in Work Jobs. — ^An operation is a part of a
work job that carries the job along one step, and most work
jobs consist of more than one operation. As a rule, when one
operation is completed and another one started, the character
of the work shifts. Successive operations call usually for the
use of different tools, or a different kind of skill, or sometimes
iboth. For example, in a machine shop, on a planer job,
setting up the work on the table would be one operation,
adjusting the tool or the tools another, adjusting length of
stroke another, setting feed another, operating the machine
another, and so on. (Again, in a chemical plant, in making
white lead by the Carter process, we might have for opera-
tions: (1) burning, (2) carbonating, (3) grinding, (4)
washing, (5) pressing; so that in this case we might have a
five-operation job.)
Illustrations of an Analysis of a "Work Job." — ^Assuming
that the job to be analyzed is operating a typewriter, the,
successive operations might be as follows :
1. Inserting paper.
2. Adjusting paper.
3. Typing.
4. Removing finished job.
And the above list of operations would constitute an operation
analysis of that job. <.
For another illustration take telling timp by an "open
face" watch, which analyzes as follows :
1. Taking hold.
2. Taking out of pocket.
44 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
3. Getting into reading position.
4. Reading the time.
6. Returning to pocket.
Which would be the operation analysis for that job.
It should be noted that where operations are repeated, as
in the case of typing, the operations are only listed
once, though , they may be repeated a great many times
before the job is finished.
Distinguishing Between Operations. — ^As stated above,
when new tools or a different kind of skill comes into play,
this indicates the end of one operation and the beginning of
another. For example, on the tjfping job, different parts of
the machine are used for each operation as listed, and in the
case of the watch operation one calls for one kind of manipu-
lation ; operation two for use of the hands ; operation three
for eyes, and operation four for a different use of the fingers
from operation one.
Frequently it is also true that each operation in a work
job calls for a different sort of auxiliary information. A
man might know how to tell time, but might not know how to
get the watch out of his pocket.
For example, in typewriting, inserting the paper calls for
one sort of knowledge and one kind of manipulation, and is
carried out for one purpose, resetting the carriage for the
next line is done for another purpose, requires different man-
ipulation and calls for a different sort of knowledge.
Number of Operations in Work Jobs. — The number of
operations in most work jobs rarely exceeds eight or ten, but
is rarely only one. An example of a one-operation job would
be pushing a push button, or a wall switch, but such cases are
rare in industrial work jobs.
Kinds of Jobs that can be Analyzed. — ^Any job can be
analyzed into operations whether it be a production job, or
some other kind of a job, such as reading a blue-print, figur-
ing out a problem, or washing dishes, or, as taken up later, a
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 45
supervisory job, or managerial job, although the special use
of the analysis method as described here is in connection with
production jobs.
The Operation Analysis. — The list of operations in the
job listed in order makes the operation analysis for that. job.
Operating Points. — Just as any one work job can be di-
vided into operations, so any operation can be divided into
operating points.
For example, in cutting on a planer, we might have for
operating points :
(1) Forward cutting.
(2) Lift of tool.
(3) Back motion.
(4) Feed.
that is, the one operation consists of four operating points.
Again, in the typing j ob already referred to for operation
No. 1, we might have :
(a.) Picking up paper.
(b.) Feeding onto apron.
(c.) Catching paper on platen.
(d.) Turning up.
and for the second operation,
(e.) Throwing release lever.
(f.) Taking hold of paper.
(g.) Squaring up paper.
(h.) Throwing off release lever.
( i. ) Setting to first line.
In this way each operation may be divided into the
operating points of which it is made up.
In a similar way, the other operations can be divided into
operating points, and the same thing can be done with opera-
tions on any job giving an operating point analysis.
Human vs. Machine Operating Points. — ^After having di-
vided the operations into operating points, it is sometimes
desirable to divide these operating points into two kinds :
46 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
( 1 ) Machine, or tool, operating points.
(2) Human operating points.
Practically any job is done by a "team" composed of
machines or tools and men, and the operating points are car-
ried on either by the machine or tools or by men. Those
operating points that the machine or tool takes care of may
be called machine operating points; those that the worker
takes care of may be called human operating points. In some
jobs, as in an automatic gear cutter, the human operating
points are very few ; in other j obs, as in wood carving, most
of the operating points are human operating points ; and all
operating points on jobs can be classified under one heading
or the other, with very few exceptions.
Human Operating Points. — ^Wherever human knowledge,
strength or skill is required to carry on an operation we have
a human operating point as distinguished from a machine
operating point, as taken up in the following paragraphs. A
human operating point is merely an operation or a point in
the progress of the job where somebody has to do something
to keep the job going. Whatever that "somebody" has to do
is that human operating point. Operating the control lever
and the brake valve on an electric car are human operating
points ; moving the car is a machine operating point, the
motors do that without any help.
An Illustration of Human Operating Points. — ^In the job
analysis of a typewriting job, as just given, some of
the human operating points would be inserting paper, turning
up roller, resetting carriage for next line, and, when neces-
sary, using the back spacer.
Machine Operating Points.— As just described, a machine
operating point is one that is entirely taken care of by the
tool or the machine without any call upon human knowledge
or skill. It gften happens that the same operation can be
made a machine or a human operating point, as in the case
of the hand or automatic feed on a drill press, or in locating
holes for drilling either by measurement and construction
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 47
(laying out) or by the use of a templet. The job of operating
a linotype shows many more machine operating points than
the same job when done with the stick and the case.
A machine operating point is, therefore, one where the
machine covers that special part of the job unaided, so far as
that particular operating point is concerned.
An Illustration of a Machine Operating Point. — ^In the
case of the typewriting job already used for illustration, the
moving of the ribbon, the moving of the carriage and the
striking of the type are all machine operating points. A
watch, so far as running is concerned, is all machine operating
points, except for winding. So far as running goes, a steam
engine covers all operating points (admission of steam, let-
ting out exhaust steam) without any outside help, although
originally the valve motions were human operating points and
workers were hired to cover them.
In making a job analysis for a number of purposes, it
may be desirable to distinguish between human and machine
operating points ; for example, this is important in connection
with instruction, because machine operating points do not
have to be taught; the machine is already thoroughly "in-
structed" and "knows" its part of the job.
Simultaneous Operating Points. — Operating points may
come one at a time as the job goes along or two or more may
come at the same time, in which case we have what may be
called simultaneous operating points.
Under such conditions an electrician would say that they
were in parallel instead of in series. An example of a case
of simultaneous operating points would be where a man,
driving an automobile, gives a traffic signal with one arm
and turns his steering wheel at the same time with the other,
oi- when he throws out his clutch with his foot and at the same
time closes his throttle, or where, on a drill press job with
hand feed, the operator Avatches his drill and at the same
time " feels " his feed.
Sometimes, as in the illustrations just given, a man can
48 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
cover two or more simultaneous operating points if they are
not too far apart, but in many cases they are so far apart
that more than one operator is required to cover them, some-
times calling for as many men as there are operating points
that must be covered at the same time.
It is also evident that it would be more difficult to learn
to cover several operating points at once than it would be to
learn them if they came one at a time, and this becomes an
important matter in connection with instruction.
While the fact that operating points may or may not
come together does not affect the making of the analysis
itself, it does have a bearing on the assignment of workers to
jobs and hence should be noted when it occurs, with hum,an
operating points. Of course, with machine operating points
it makes no difference — ^the machine takes care of itself.
Making the Job Analysis. — ^There are two ways of mak-
ing the j ob analysis : The first is to do the j ob, or, if one is
sufficiently familiar with it, go through it in the mind, as the
expression goes- — visualize it.
This is a very difficult thing, however, for most people to
do without a good deal of practice, and usually the better
they are on the job the more difficult they find it, especially
at first.
The second way is to watch a first-class worker on the
job and note the various operations in their order. This is
the easier way for most people.
In either case it is evident that the necessary information
can only come from somebody who knows how the job should
be done and can do it that way. This means, of course, a
"shop man." '^
In making such job analyses as have been described it has
been found convenient to use some sort of forms, and those
given below have been found convenient for that purpose.
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 49
DEPARTMENTAL PRODUCTION JOB ANALYSIS
Name: Position:
Department:
Note: A departmental production job being defined as an
operation or process, or a group of operations or processes, giv-
ing a definite departmental product, either intermediate or
finished, list out the various departmental production jobs in
your department.
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Remarks:
50
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
WORK JOBS IN DEPARTMENTAL PRODUCTION JOBS
Name: Position:
Department:
Departmental Production Job
Names of Work Jobs as part of Departmental Production Job.
WORK
JOBS
THE DEPARTMENTAL AND THE WORK JOB ANALYSIS 51
Name:.
OPERATIONS IN WORK JOBS
Position:
III
ent:
PTital ProHiirtion JoV> .
-»
OPERA-
TIONS
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
\
No. 7
A
If desired, one column may be used for mechanical, the
other for human operating points.
CHAPTER IV
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB
SECTION I. GENEEAIi PEELIMINARY
Preliminary. — The supervisory job of any foreman is
made up of supervisory responsibilities, just as a work job
is made up of operations and operation points. Whatever
the supervisory responsibilities that go with a given fore-
man's job, he holds himself responsible for their proper
discharge, and is held responsible by his superiors for putting
across all of his responsibilities completely and effectively.
In order that he may do this, it is plain that he must know
two things :
i. He must know aU. of his responsibilities, not only a part
of them, and
2. He must know the most effective way of discharg-
ing them. *
In order to know all of his responsibilities, he must, in
some way, list them out ; that is, he must do the same thing
with his supervisory job that is done in making a job analysis
as described in the last chapter.
This chapter, therefore, deals with making a classified
analysis of a supervisory job, and shows how the method of
analysis can be applied to determining the supervisory re-
sponsibilities that belong in the supervisory job of any
one foreman.
What is a Responsibility? — In the sense in which the term
is used here, a responsibility means something for which a
foreman could be properly called down should he fail to
attend to it, or attend to it properly. For example, if it
were a part of the job (the duty) for a foreman to know the
quantities of material in his department, and he did not know,
he could properly be called down for not having discharged
52
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 53
that responsibility. If it were a part of his duty to know,
each day, the number of men in his department, he would have
another responsibility, if it were up to him to know that all
the equipment units in his department were in running condi-
tion, still another, and so on. We can, therefore, define a
responsibility as any definite part of a foreman's duty, and
a supervisory responsibility as any definite part of a fore-
man's supervisory duty.
The Need for Analyzing and Classif jdng Supervisory Re-
sponsibilities.— Before a foreman can give attention as to how
he can best discharge his responsibilities, he must evidently
know just what he has got to discharge; that is, he must
divide up his duty into the definite responsibilities of which
it is composed. He must "unscramble the omelette," so to
speak, and separate the different eggs, so that he can look at
them and see what they are before he can do anything about
them. This simply means that, in some way, he must make
a classified analysis of his job, so that he can "stand off and
look at it."
The Need for a Complete Analysis. — ^As already pointed
out, a foreman cannot do a good supervisory job unless he
does a complete job, and in order to be able to do that he must
know all his supervisory responsibilities, or he is in the same
class with a "half-baked mechanic," who only knows a part
of his trade or his job. Any analysis that is any good must
be a complete analysis ; that is, it must include aU of the
supervisory responsibilities that go with that foreman's
supervisory job.
As a matter of fact, many foremen have never made such
an analysis. They think that they know all of their responsi-
bilities and have always supposed that they were looking out
for the whole of their job, but, in many cases, when they
came to make an analysis they were surprised in two ways:
First, to find that they were taking care of responsibilities
that they never knew that they had, and second, that they
had respojvsihUities that they had never taken care of.
54 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
although when the facts as to responsibilities "came out in
the wash" they at once agreed that those responsibilities
were a part of their duty and should be attended to.
Sometimes a foreman will find, after making his complete
analysis, that he and his superiors do not fully agree as to
their understanding as to who is responsible as to certain
points, and again the fact may be brought out that certain
points have been "lost in the shuffle and that nobody has been
made responsible for them — they are "orphans." Sometimes
such a complete analysis brings out points where there is
danger of "crossed wires" between different foremen, or
between foremen and their superiors, which never have made
trouble, and so have never been uncovered, but which were
liable to make trouble any time. Sometimes it brings out
cases where two people have both been given the same respon-
sibility, which, of course, is always liable to make trouble.
A complete supervisory responsibility analysis is, there-
fore, of great value in a number of ways, because it may serve
at least the following purposes :
1. It defines the supervisory job.
2. It may uncover points as to which supervisory respon-
sibilities have not been clearly defined.
3. It may uncover "lost" points that might become the
cause of difficulties and misunderstandings.
4. It may bring to light responsibilities that belong in the
job that have not been thought of as being a part of ths
supervisory job.
The Need for a Complete Classified Analysis of the
Supervisory Job. — For all of these reasons and for a num-
ber of others that will come out of discussion and thought on
the matter, a complete classified analysis of the supervisory
job is the first necessity for a basis for working out the vari-
ous problems in supervision and management that must be
handled carefully and intelligently by all foremen.
Two Ways of Making the Complete Supervisory
Analysis. — ^There are two ways of making such a complete
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 55
classified analysis which may be called for convenience the
checking method and the listing out method, of which the
checking method is usually the easier when it can be worked.
Since both methods may be used they are described in follow-
ing sections, and since both require the use of a classification
system, the system used in this book is briefly described first.
The Classification System. — The particular classification
used in this book as a basis for making classified analyses of
both supervisory and managerial jobs is set up to provide a
means for progressive classification of supervisory responsi-
bilities by starting with large groups of responsibilities, divid-
ing those groups into smaller groups, again dividing into
smaller groups and so on, so that any given supervisory
responsibility can be "picked out of the job" as exactly as
is necessary.
This system of classification is described and the
different classification headings are explained in the fol-
lowing section.
A COMPARISON BETWEEN A PKODTJCTION LAY-OUT AND A EE-
SPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOB, A FOREMAN'S JOB
1. The Field Lay-out.
A concern operating one to A foreman's job, including
three plants, each plant one to three fields of re-
turning out a different sponsibility. 1. Supervis-
product. ory responsibilities. 2.
Managerial responsibili-
ties. 3. Instructing re-
sponsibilities.
2. The Block Lay-out.
Each plant has one or more Each field of responsibility
departments. covers one or more blocks.
3. The General Responsibility Lay-out.
Different departments in Each block contains different
each plant turn out prod- general responsibilities of
ucts of the same general the same general kind,
kind.
66 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
4. The Specific Responsibility Lay-out.
There are one or more jobs There are one or more spe-
f or each departmental cific responsibilities in each
product. general responsibility.
5. The Detailed Responsibility Lay-out.
There are one or more opera- There are one or more de-
tions in each job. tailed responsibDities in
each detailed responsi-
bility.
6. The Responsibility Point Lay-out.
There are one or more oper- There are one or more re-
ating points in each opera- sponsibility points in each
tion in a job. specific responsibility.
SECTION n. CLASSIFICATION HEADINGS FOE A GENEEAL EESPON-
SIBIUTY LAY-OUT OF A SUPEEVISOEY JOB
Preliminary. — ^Thi* section gives the classification head-
ings used in making out a general responsibility lay-out for a
supervisory job. The next section describes how such a
general responsibility lay-out can be further developed into
a detailed responsibility lay-out.
The General Responsibility Lay-out. — The following
diagram shows the classification headings and their relation
to each other. They are :
1. Fields.
2. Blocks in fields.
3. Greneral responsibilities in the different blocks.
each classification heading carrying the meaning as given
below.
Fields. — ^As the term is used here, field means either one
of the three groups into which a foreman's responsibilities
can be divided, supervision, including all responsibilities for
getting the jobs done; management, including all responsi-
bilities for getting the jobs done at the least cost, depending,
of course, upon the way in which the managerial responsibil-
ities are discharged; and instruction, which includes all re-
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB
67
sponsibilities in connection with putting over any kind of
knowledge or skill, or bo(th.
We have, therefore, the three fields :
1. The supervisory field.
2. The managerial field.
3. The instructional field.
THE KELATIONS OF THE CLASSIEICATIGN HEADINGS USED IN
MAKING A GENERAL KESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOE
A SUPEEVISOEY JOB
Field
Block
Block
Block
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
General Responsibility
Blocks in the Different Fields. — ^If we take all the respon-
sibilities in any one field and consider what a man has to think
about when he discharges them we find that he does not al-
ways think of the same things. For example, a foreman in a
foundry making brittle hollow castings, in seeing that those
58 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
castings are not broken in handling, is thinking about cast-
ings, while if he is seeing that there are enough men on the
job of moving those castings, he does not think of castings,
but of men, while a foreman in a machine shop, looking over
the set-up of a planer job before it is started, is thinking
about neither castings, nor men, but of an operation in a job.
A foreman in seeing that all danger points are guarded
is thinking of danger from accidents, while when he gives
orders he is thinking of making the person to whom he gives
the orders understand exactly what he is to do. The respon-
sibilities in the supervisory field can, therefore, be "bunched,"
according to what a man is thinking about when he discharges
those responsibilities and these "bunches" of supervisory
responsibilities may be called blocks.
Block Defined. — ^A block can be defined, therefore, as a
group of supervisory responsibilities, all of which require a
Tnan to think of the same sort of thing when he dis-
charges them.
Evidently, if in listing out his supervisory responsibilities
in one field, a foreman finds two that will make him think of
the same sort of thing when he discharges them, they belong
in the same block ; but if he finds that, in discharging them,
he must think of different sorts of things, he knows that they
belong in different blocks. For example, if a man had respon-
sibilities for storing finished material from his department
until it was turned over to the transportation department
and also had responsibility for checking material when it
came into his department, in discharging both responsibil-
ities he would be thinking of the same thing, stock, and not
thinking of other things, such as men, operations or reports ;
so we would say that those two supervisory responsibilities
were in the same block, which tells the same story in
fewer words.
The Block Base. — The things that a man thinks about in
discharging all the supervisory responsibilities that belong
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 69
in one block is called the block base, and, of course, different
blocks have different block bases.
Block Bases. — The block bases into which all supervisory
responsibilities can be checked up, and the names of the
blocks are as follows :
1. Stock.
2. Operations and Processes.
3. Tools and Equipment.
4. The Working Force.
5. Information.
7. Human Factors.
And all responsibilities in the supervisory field can be placed
in one of these blocks.
The Block Lay-out. — If, in the case of the supervisory
job of any given foreman, we list out all the blocks in which
he has any supervisory responsibilities we have what may be
called a block lay-out of that particular foreman's super-
visory job. "■
Dividing up the Responsibilities in a Block. — Just as it
was possible to divide all the responsibilities in a given field
among the different blocks in that field, so it is possible to
divide all the responsibilities in a given block into groups that
are called General Responsibilities, so that one block may be
broken up into any necessary number of general responsi-
bilities, according to the general responsibility base, or, as it
is more commonly called, the classification base.
General Responsibilities. — The basis selected here for the
general responsibility base is the fact that, if we consider the
different possible supervisory responsibilities in a block we
find that they differ as to the condition of material or as to
the purpose for which the supervision is necessary. For ex-
ample, if a foreman has supervisory responsibilities in the
stock block, they may be with stock in any or all of three
conditions, as it comes into the department, while it is going
through the department and after it is finished, so far as the
department is concerned. Again, if a foreman had responsi-
68 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
bilities as to the repairing of broken tools, or, in a machine
shop, the redressing of tools, and was also responsible for
ordering new tools, the two sorts of supervisory responsi-
bilities would concern themselves with equipment in a different
condition, new and already in service, although both would
be in the equipment block. Again, in the information block
a foreman might have responsibilities for checking material
as it came in and for checking it when it went out of the
department, and his checks would deal with material in a
different condition.
In the working force block, if a foreman had responsi-
bilities for seeing that all jobs were covered and also that
the right man was on the right job, he would not be dealing
with responsibilities relating to material in different condi-
tions, but with responsibilities having a different purpose,
one to get men enough on the jobs to keep the jobs going,
the other to get enough knowledge and skill on those jobs to
keep them going.
A general responsibility can, therefore, be called a group
of responsibilities in a block that either deal with ma-
terial in some particular condition or that have the
same general purpose.
General Responsibilities in Blocks. — ^According to the
system of classification used in this book, the general respon-
sibilities in the different blocks are as follows :
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB
61
Block.
Stock
Tools and Equip-
ment
Operations and
Processes
Greneral Responsibility. Base.
Raw departmenta,! Condition of
stock stock
Stock in process
Finished stock
Condition and
Equipment in service
New equipment
of
The Wo rkingf Keeping up
Force 1 Distributing
amount
equipment
Operation control Getting the
Changing operations ^^^^^^^
Securing the
New operations
The Information
Block
The Human Fac-
tor Block
Recording
GiAdng and trans-
mitting
Reporting
Ordering, directing,
suggesting
Relations set up by
the organization
Cooperation
The physical condi-
tion of the work-
ing force
The mental attitude
of the working
force
necessary
strength, knowl-
edge and skill
Handling the
necessary infor-
mation between
one member of
the team and
another member
To secure fixed
responsibilities
The mental atti-
tude and the
physical condi-
tion of the mem-
bers of the team.
The Instructing
Field
Instruction
Cooperating with
other training
agencies
Putting over job
knowledge or
skill
62 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Any responsibility can be placed under one of these gen-
eral responsibility headings. As some explanation may be
needed to make the meaning of these headings plain, they are
taken up in the following paragraphs :
The Term "General Responsibility." — ^When we speak of
a man as "having general responsibility for soiliething," we
tell what that "something" is, but do not go into any further
details as to just what kinds of responsibilities he has. The
"something" is, of course, what is called here the base. We
would say, for example, that the steward in a hotel had a
general supervisory responsibility for seeing that all neces-
sary food was provided and that the chef had general super-
visory responsibilities for seeing that it was cooked. The
foreman of a section gang on a railroad would have a general
responsibility as to the condition of the track in his section.
The foreman of a maintenance gang "is generally respon-
sible" for all repairs, and so on.
Of course, with regard to all general responsibilities, we
could go on and specify what responsibilities go with that
general responsibility, as is taken up in later chapters. The
following paragraphs only deal with general responsibilities
as such.
The 'General Responsibility for Stock in Process. — ^The
main point here is to bear in mind that this general responsi-
bility only refers to responsibilities for the stock itself and
does not refer to responsibilities for seeing that something is
done to the stock — that is, responsibilities for operations or
processes. If this distinction is kept clearly in mind, there
should be little trouble in "spotting" the two kinds of respon-
sibilities. For example, where there are several serial opera-
tions carried on in one department, something must be done
with intermediate products between operations and such
"sumpage" would be stock in process. There might, for
example, be a responsibility for seeing that such sumpage
was protected from damage, or, in a silverware factory, from
theft, and so on. The point here is that all supervisory re-
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 03
sponsibilities that would belong in the general responsibility
for stock in process require the supervisor to think of the
stock, not of operations carried out on that stock, or proc-
esses through which it is put.
The General Responsibility for Finished Stock. — Such a
general responsibility includes any responsibilities for ma-
terial after it has left the last operation, or machine, and
before it is actually turned over to somebody else. In a
maintenance department it may mean a machine that has
been repaired and is standing waiting to be trucked over to
the department where it belongs. In house carpentry it might
be a completed house not yet turned over to the owner. Any
responsibilities that have to do with the finished departmental
product, up to the time that it is actually turned over to
somebody else, belongs in this group, and if a foreman has any
responsibilities of this kind we would say that he had a general
responsibility for finished stock as a part of his super-
visory job.
General Responsibilities for Equipment in Service. — ^AU
foremen understand the sort of supervisory responsibilities
that go with a general responsibility for equipment in service.
The only difficulty is to avoid not getting mixed up between
equipment responsibilities and responsibilities for seeing that
jobs are done with the aid of that equipment, since these last
would belong under operations and processes. In general,
whenever a man has supervisory responsibilities for equip-
ment in service, he thinks about getting something done, so
that the equipment of his department will do what is expected
of it ; that is, he thinks of its condition.
It should be noted that this general responsibility covers
all supervisory responsibilities of any kind that relate to
departmental equipment so long as no changes are in ques-
tion ; as soon as a man begins to think about changes in his
equipment in connection with any responsibilities that he may
have, he has got over into responsibilities in connection with
new equipment as discussed in the following paragraph.
64 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
General Responsibilities for New Equipment. — ^With the
exception of small tools and attachments, a foreman is likely
to be mostly concerned with supervisory responsibilities in
connection with equipment "as is" ; stiU it is possible that he
may have responsibilities that will make him think about
additions or changes in his equipment, and this is quite likely
to happen in the case of small tools and attachments. Under
these conditions he would have some sort of responsibilities
in the general supervisory responsibility for new equipment.
For example, he might have something to do with replacing,
qhanging or enlarging equipment, either by recommendation
or suggestion, and it is, of course, possible that he may have
the responsibility for direct buying, though this is improbable
except possibly in very small plants. For illustration, he
might be responsible for recommending the replacement of a
given type of unit by some other type, or the junking of
worn-out machines. He might be consulted in regard to a
new installation of equipment when a chemical plant took up
the production of a new product. He might have a "say"
with regard to the installation of safety devices. It is not at
all unlikely that he would be responsible for requisitioning for
new small tools or for new parts of machines.
Still, on the whole, his responsibility points under this
head are likely to be fewer than with regard to equipment in
service, but whatever he has would belong under this general
job classification.
The General Responsibility for Operation Control. — This
is really the general responsibility that most foremen think is
the main part of their supervisory job, because it takes in
those responsibilities with which a foreman is most concerned
on "the run of his job," but, as a rule, they are also the ones
that bother him the least, because he knows the most about
them, and has had the most experience in discharging them.
While this is true, there are some things about this general
responsibility that are worth mentioning, among which are the
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 65
sense in which the terms operations and processes, are
used here.
The terms operation and process, while they really mean
about the same thing, often have slightly different meanings
to foremen in different lines of work, and so both terms are
used to avoid any possible confusion. Operation, to some
men, means changing the stock by some mechanical means, as
in a machine shop we might speak of rough turning, grinding,
thread cutting as different operations. Used in this sense, it
implies that there is some sort of a change in the stock, a
time during which the stock is unchanged, then another
change, and so on ; that is, the product is got out by a series
of "jumps" or "little jobs" inside the whole job, the stock
being changed in some way on each little job, but its nature
is not changed.
The term process is often used to indicate a production
job that changes the nature of the material, as in making
steel, or acid ; and that goes on steadily from start to finish,
as in most chemical plants. A foreman in a chemical plant
would be more likely to talk of processes, and a foreman in
a machine plant of operations, but the distinction, if any, is
not important from the standpoint of the responsi-
bility analysis.
In discharging any responsibilities that belong in this
general responsibility, a foreman thinks about the results; he
thinks about getting the job done right. It would include
such responsibilities as seeing that the right operations were
used, or that the right tools were used, or that these tools
were in the right condition to be used. It would include
responsibility for saying when a process was completed or had
been carried to a point where something had to be done — say,
a test made, or a heat changed. In general, then, if a fore-
man has any responsibilities for the way in which his product
comes out he has a general responsibility for operations
and processes.
The General Responsibility for Changing Operations. —
5
66 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
By changing operations is meant having some sort of respon-
sibility for changing the regular methods for doing a job.
This is most likely to come either in an emergency or as a
recommending or suggesting responsibility. For instance, a
foreman, as the man best acquainted with the working of a
process in practice might be called into consultation with
regard to some proposed changes that were under considera-
tion, or might himself be expected to suggest such changes
as the thing worked out in the department.* If a foreman
has any responsibilities in this connection, either acting, sug-
gesting or recommending, it would be properly said that
he had a general responsibility for changing operations
and processes.
The General Responsibility for New Operations. — The
conditions here are just the same as in the case of changing
operations and processes, and the same discussion would
apply. In this case, a foreman having such general responsi-
bilities would be thinking of devising entirely new operations
or processes rather than of modifying those already in use.
The General Responsibility for Keeping up the Working
Force. — ^If any given job is to be done at all, the worker on
that job must have at least enough job knowledge and skill, or
physical strength, or both, to do that job. That is, there is a
certain minimum for each job below which the foreman cannot
go in assigning and still get out his product. One general re-
sponsibility may, therefore, be due to the necessity of provid-
ing workers who possess such a minimum amount of knowledge
and skill for each job in his department. For example, sup-
pose that on dne particular job it is necessary for the operator
to read a pressure gauge ; if he does not know how to do it, the
* In many plants there are regular conferences with the production
control experts as to the way that the production is coming out. Where
this is the case the foremen have, of course, responsibilities in this general
responsibility when they take part in such conferences just as much as
if they acted directly in their own departments. This fact is mentioned
because many foremen in laying out their supervisory jobs do not include
such " conference responsibilities " in their lay-outs.
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 67
job cannot be done. Again, it is necessary to put a man on
a milling machine ; if he does not know enough about running
the machine to do whatever his job on that machine calls for,
the getting out of the product is stopped — it cannot be
turned out at all under these conditions.
In discharging supervisory responsibilities under this
general responsibility a foreman thinks about getting at least
workers enough to keep all jobs in his department going, or,
at least, to keep going all jobs that he is expected to keep in
operation. Jobs cannot be carried on without workers, so,
if the required departmental product is to be got out, there
must be at least enough workers to cover the necessary human
operating points. With less than that number the depart-
ment could not run. In order to provide this number, it is
necessary to keep up the working force, and a foreman may
have responsibility points in this connection. For example,
he may have to act in some way to secure new men, or to pro-
vide a reserve, or to transfer or discharge men, or to "double
up," or in some other way may have responsibilities in con-
nection with the "manning" job.
A foreman may, therefore, have a general responsibility
for the distribution of the working force if, in discharging
these responsibilities he has to think of the qualifications of
the worker with regard to the requirements of the j ob, as to
strength, job ability or job knowledge, rather than thinking
of the job as being "killed" simply because there was nobody
to take care of it. There might be somebody on the job, and
yet the job be killed because that somebody did not know
enough to hold it down. It is the sort of supervisory responsi-
bility for seeing that this does not happen that is meant when
we speak of a general responsibility for the distribution of
the working force.
The General Responsibility for Reporting. — ^A report is
some information that is intended to be sent out of the depart-
ment for the use of somebody else, usually some superior.
Most foremen have some sort of reports to make and so have
68 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
this general responsibiKty. As in the case of infqrmation, the
only point of difficulty is in remembering that the form in
which the information is sent out has nothing to do with the
responsibility for seeing that it is sent. For example, when a
defective piece comes into a department and is sent back with
a "rework order," that order is a report to the foreman from
whose department it came. When a requisition is drawn on
the supply department, that is a report to the head of that
department that certain materials or tools are lacking and
must be supplied if the work of that department is not to
be killed.
Another point that often causes confusion in discussing
this particular general responsibility is that a spoken report
is just as much a report as a written one. When a foreman
says to his superior, "Mr. Jones, we are going to run out of
castings for No. 6 to-morrow, if we can't get some more out
of the foundry by that time," he has made a report exactly
as much as if he had sat down and dictated it to a perfectly
good stenographer, who had in turn written it on a perfectly
good typewriter, and he had carefully read it over and signed
it. In many cases the spoken report is the quicker way, but
it is a report just the same, and because a foreman does not
have to hand in written reports this does not mean that he
dpes not have a general responsibility for reporting. As a
matter of fact, this is one general responsibility that all fore-
men have. As a supervisor, any foreman has a general respon-
sibility for seeing that all reports are made that must be made
in order to get the work done.
The General Responsibility for Recording Information.—
In practically all cases a foreman has a general responsibility
for keeping some sort of records. In dischar^ng this respon-
sibility he thinks about seeing that such records can be used
effectively at any time after they are made, either by himself
or by somebody else; that is, he thinks of the purpose for
which the records are kept. He does not "keep records for
the fun of keeping them."
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 69
It should be remembered that, whatever its form, whenever
any sort of information is put down for the purpose of
enabling anybody to secure that information later, even if it
is only to avoid trusting to memory, we have a record, but
in the sense in which the term record is used here, it refers
only to such cases where the information as recorded remains
in the foreman's department. If it goes out of his depart-
ment to anybody else, it becomes a report and belongs in a
general reporting responsibility, as discussed later. A gen-
eral recording responsibility in the supervisory field, there-
fore, means a responsibility for putting down in some form
information for future use in the department.
The General Responsibility for Giving and Transmitting
Information. — This is one of the most important and uni-
versal general responsibilities that a foreman has. If he were
deaf and dumb and could not write, he would be in a bad fix
so far as discharging this particular general responsibility
is concerned. In discharging this particular general respon-
sibility, whether he gives the information himself or whether
somebody else gives it to the person to whom it is given, a
supervisor thinks of putting the information in question
"across" correctly or of seeing that it is put across correctly.
That is his supervisory job, because if the information is
necessary to get the job done at all, if it is not put over, or
put over to the right person, the job stops, and, as in all
similar situations, if the job stops, the supervisor has fallen
d6wn on his job as a supervisor.
The chief difficulty here is in remembering that, so far as
the supervisory responsibility is concerned, the special form
in which the information is given makes no difference. Thus,
for example, a direction or an order is information. A posted
notice is information, passing out a pamphlet on safety pre-
cautions is transmitting information. The point is to think
of why the responsibility has to be discharged and not about
what it is discharged with — ^the tools used in discharging it,
so to speak — and if this is done there is not likely to be con-
70 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
fusion in thinking about this particular general responsibility
or in discussing cases in connection with it. It is not a
question as to whether the information was written or spoken,
whether it was written on a shingle or printed, or whether a
foreman gives it himself or somebody else gives it at his direc-
tion, the general responsibility is there just the same. So far
as the supervisory responsibility goes, it makes no difference
whether a foreman says, "Bill, do so and so," or "Bill, tell
Jim to do so and so," he has the same general responsibility ,
for seeing that the job is not killed, because that information
was not put across as it should have been. Two samples of
information might be "You're fired" for spoken information,
and "Any employee defacing the walls of this room will be
immediately discharged" for written information, and if a
foreman made the first statement acting on his own authority,
he gave the information, and if he got the second notice from
the general manager and posted it up, he transmitted it.
The 'General Responsibility Due to Direct Relations Set
up by the Organization. — ^Any foreman has certain responsi-
bilities for seeing that some things are done that reach out-
side of his department. He is "at one end of the wire," and
the fellow at the other end is somewhere "outside." These
responsibilities are of two kinds : the first can be defined and
often can be discharged according to a known procedure;
that is, they are responsibilities set up by the organization,
and come out of the fact that a foreman is not playing a lone
hand, but is a member of a team. Because a failure to dis-
charge these supervisory responsibilities in such a way that
jobs are not killed is often due to a failure to take into
account the human factors, these general responsibilities are
included in the human factor block, but are distinguished
from straight cooperative responsibilities as discussed in the
next paragraph. For example, a foreman is expected to turn
in a report at a certain date, and this report, combined with
similar reports from other foremen, is to determine a matter
of policy, say as to the taking on of certain contracts. He
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 71
forgets to turn it in, although he knew what it was to contain
and when it was due. As a result, the job of estimating on
that contract is held up and, to assume an extreme case, the
concern is unable to get in its bid in time and loses its chance
to make a try for that job. Now, there are two things worth
considering in this case: First, he forgot; forgetting is a
human factor, because machines and material do not forget.
That foreman forgot because he was a man and not a lump
of steel, or a ton of sugar, or a machine. Second, his slip-up,
due to his being alive and not "dead," did not directly affect
his job (of course, it might indirectly), but did directly kill
somebody else's job; in this case the job of the man who had
to figure on the contract. One member of the team knocked
out the job of another member of the team. This was due to
the fact that he failed to discharge a supervisory responsibil-
ity in connection with a relation set up by the organization.
If the organization had not been such that the contract
estimator had to wait for that foreman's report before he
could go ahead with his job, the foreman's "human" slip
would not have made any difference to the estimator's job.
We may, therefore, say that where there are supervisory
responsibilities whose discharge affects the jobs as carried
on in other departments, where the responsibility is clear and
the way of discharging it is set up, we have what may be called
one form of "team responsibilities" as set up by the organiza-
tion, and a general responsibility under that heading in the
human factor block.
The General Responsibility for Cooperation. — Coopera-
tion may be defined as " going out of your way to
help the other fellow when you don't have to," and aU fore-
men have this general responsibility with regard to the other
members of the team.
In the case of responsibilities set up by the organization,
as discussed in the last paragraph, a man can be definitely
and specifically "called down" for not discharging them, but
in the case of general cooperative responsibilities this is often
72 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
not the case. In the old days of the tandem bicycle anybody
who ever rode on one of those things with somebody else
knows how easy it was for the fellow on the back saddle to
fail to cooperate and yet prove all the time that he was. In
the same way in many cases a man may fail to cooperate and
even "throw aU sorts, of monkey wrenches into the gears," if
he lacks a sense of responsibility for cooperating with other
team members, and he can prove all the time that he is work-
ing as hard to cooperate with everybody as a dog works when
he tries to run up a moving stairway that is running down.
A man cannot be forced to cooperate; this is because in so
many cases cooperation depends on the spirit and the sense
of responsibility for cooperating, and not on the letter of
the law. Wherever a failure to cooperate will kill the job,
there has been a failure in the supervision, and it is usually
a failure i/n the way that a man supervises himself. Suppose,
in the case put up in the last paragraph, the foreman had not
forgotten, but knowing that the estimating job was a big one
and a hurry-up job, had got in his report ahead of time, and
so had helped the estimator out, he would have cooperated.
He never could have been called down for not doing it; he
didn't have to do it ; he was neglecting no relation set up by
the organization in not doing it ; yet he did it. Under the
circumstances as assumed, he felt that he had a general co-
operative responsibility, which he discharged.
The General Responsibility for the Physical Condition
of the Working Force. — ^AU foremen include in their super-
visory responsibilities some that would properly be included
in the general responsibility for the physical condition of the
working force, and, as an ordinary thing these responsibilities
as they think of them almost always have to do with accident
prevention, because this is the one responsibility of this kind
to which the attention of foremen has been strongly directed
in recent years. There are, however, other possible super-
visory responsibilities that, if they are included in the fore-
man's job, come into this special general responsibility, suck
MAKING TBE ANALYSIS OP A SUPERVISORY JOB 7S
as looking out for the physical condition of the members of
the force as affected by disease or illness, so far as these set
up supervisory problems. Since, as in the case of coopera-
tion, attention has been given more to the managerial side of
this matter, and since most of the cases with which a foreman
has to deal involve managerial rather than supervisory re-
sponsibilities, foremen, eis a rule, have given little attention
to the supervisory side, except possibly in the case of acci-
dent prevention.
If a little consideration is given to the matter, it will
appear that a foreman has more supervisory responsibilities
in this general responsibility than appears at first sight.
For example, as a supervisor he has responsibilities for seeing
that danger points are spotted, that special precautions are
taken when needed, as in the case of wearing goggles, or masks
on certain jobs. As a supervisor it may be a part of his
supervisory duty to be posted as to the existence of con-
tagious diseases among any members of his force. He may
be responsible for knowing where a man suffering from a
progressive, chronic disease, like "T. B.," has reached a
point where he has become a safety menace or cannot be
trusted to deliver the required quality of product.
In all such cases, and in many others, a foreman may have
supervisory responsibilities, whose discharge makes him think
about the physical condition of the working force, so that it
is very rare to find a foreman's job that does not include a
general responsibility under this classification heading.
The great difiiculty here is to distinguish clearly between
supervisory and managerial responsibilities in this connec- >
tion, because in so many practical cases the two merge into
each other.
The following test should help in making this distinction.
Any responsibility whose discharge makes a foreman think
about the physical condition as such is supervisory. Any
responsibility whose discharge makes him think what he can
da about it to improve conditions: is managerial. If, in conr
74 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sidering any responsibility about which he is in doubt, a fore-
man will ask himself the question, "Do I think about the con-
dition or about how to change the condition?" he wiU not go
far wrong. In case of sudden iUness, is he responsible for
knowing about it? What can he do about it? Is he respon-
sible for knowing that a certain belt is dangerous ? What can
he do about it to reduce that danger to a minimum or to
cut it out entirely? If the question is put in this way, it
is not difficult to distinguish between managerial and super-
visory responsibilities.
The General Responsibility for the Mental Attitude of
the Working Force. — ^As already explained, this means super-
visory responsibilities for morale. This question of morale is
taken up in a later chapter, but for aU purposes here may be
defined as the state of mind of the members of the team with
regard to the success or failure of the team job. The great
difficulty here is the same as in the case discussed in the last
paragraph, and it must be thought of in the same way. Has
a foreman a general responsibility for morale? Has he
responsibilities whose discharge makes him think of morale
as it is? Is he in any way responsible for the condition of
morale? Should he know where individual workers have a
poor morale? Is it a part of his duty to know the "high"
and the "low" morale "points" in his force? If he has re-
sponsibilities of this kind, he has some sort of general respon-
sibility for the mental attitude, or morale, of the working
force for which he is responsible.
Of course, there is no question that all foremen do have
responsibilities of this kind and that they do give them the
most serious consideration ; in fact, these two general respon-
sibilities taken from both the managerial and the supervisory
side probably disturb most foremen more than all the rest
of their job.
The General Responsibility for Instruction. — This gen-
eral responsibility includes any responsibility for seeing that
any instruction that ought to be given is given. It might
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A SUPERVISORY JOB 75
include giving definitely planned instruction or seeing that
such instruction was given. It might cover responsibilities
for organizing instruction, as where it was up to a foreman
to lay out a shop course for apprentices. In general any
responsibilities whose discharge makes a man think about
organized instruction, if they were included in the foreman's
job, would mean that he had this general responsibility. *
It has already been pointed out that it is quite possible that a
foreman may not have this general responsibility at all; in
such cases this is true because there is no responsibility for
any sort of instruction included in the foreman's job.
The General Responsibility for Cooperating with other
Training Agencies. — This general responsibility is one that
all foremen include in their duty without thinking much about
it. Any foreman, for example, will advise an ambitious man
where he may get special training, if he knows anything about
it himself, but how many do? How many foremen have
taken the time and trouble to really find out what are the
educational and training opportunities in the community that
are worth anything, and how they may be taken advantage
of, so that they can help their men to advantage? Where a
training scheme has been set up in a plant, in how many cases
have the foremen neglected no chance to throw it down
instead of helping it to succeed, when they really knew nothing
about it? Some vocational schools do give good trade train-
ing, yet there are many cases where foremen who never had
been in such a school and knew nothing about it would refuse
to employ a young fellow who had had some training there
just because he was "one of those no-good vocational
school dummies."
If a foreman feels that it is any part of his job to help
his men to get ahead or to help outside agencies to do a good
job, he has a general responsibility under this heading; if
he does not feel that way, he has no responsibility here. Since
*Since the question of instruction is taken up in Part IX, it is un-
necessary to go into the matter here.
76 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
this is a cooperative responsibility, the matter is in his
own hands.*
Conclusion and Summary. — This chapter has explained
the classification system adopted in this book for analyzing
a supervisory j ob as far as the division of supervisory respon-
sibilities into general responsibilities.
As described in a later chapter, the analysis can be carried
to a much finer point, and, where time permits, this is often
advisable. Before going into that matter, however, it seems
advisable to show how a given foreman can use this method as
developed to this extent in making a general responsibility
lay-out for his own particular supervisory job, which is done
in the next chapter. Following chapters then take up the
further development of the classification scheme and show
how it can be used in making a much more finely worked-out
analysis for the job of any particular foreman.
* Since this matter is also discussed in some detail in Fart IX, it is
not carried further here.
CHAPTER V
MAKING THE SUPERVISORY LAY-OUT FOR THE
JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN
SECTION I. PREIilMINAEY
Preliminary. — The last chapter explained and discussed
the way in which supervisory responsibilities could be clas-
sified, and gave the analysis scheme down to general responsi-
bilities, without regard to the application of this analysis
scheme to the job of any given foreman. This chapter points
out how a foreman can use this scheme in making a general
supervisory lay-out of his own particular job in his own
special department, according to the organization in the par-
ticular plant in which he is employed.
The Object of the Analysis. — It has already been pointed
out that one of the first things that any supervisor who wishes
to study his job must do is to get his supervisory job "lined
up," and that, in order to do that he must "take account of
stock" or "take an inventory" of the different responsibilities
that make up his job. Since the jobs of different foremen
vary as to their general responsibilities, each foreman must
take account of stock for his own special job. He cannot go
by anybody else's job, although it is generally true that, so
far as general responsibilities go, foremen in the same plant
will have about the same lay-out for general responsibilities,
the main differences coming when the analysis is carried down
to a finer point, as is taken up in later chapters.
It is only by working on the basis of such a general re-
sponsibility lay-out that a foreman can carefully consider
what his special problems are and how to deal with them
effectively. The object of this chapter is, therefore, to de-
scribe the method of securing such a general supervisory
lay-out for a given foreman's supervisory job by pick-
ing out from all the possible general supervisory re-
77
78 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sponsibilities those that belong in the particular supervisory
job under consideration.
The General Method of Carrying on the Analysis. — ^The
analysis is carried out by getting answers to the three follow-
ing questions in the order in which they are given here :
1. What fields are included in the supervisory job?
2. What blocks are included in the fields that are repre-
sented in the supervisory j ob ?
3. What general responsibilities are included in the blocks
that go with the different fields that are represented on
the job?
That is, first "spot" fields, then blocks in fields, then gen-
eral responsibilities in blocks.
The Two Methods. — There are, in general, two methods
of carrying out any analysis which may, for convenience, be
called the "cafeteria method" and the "special order method,"
as we use them in getting a meal in a restaurant, and, since
both methods may be used, they are described more fully in
the following paragraphs.
The "Cafeteria Method." — ^When we go into a cafeteria
we find a posted bill-of-fare that somebody has worked out
on a classified basis — soup, fish, entrees, roasts, pastry, etc.
That is, we find a classified list of possibilities, and we pick
out what we happen to fancy, or what we can aiford, from
that list of possibilities. If the cafeteria is a large one, we
can find in this list of possibilities practically anything that
anybody would want. Of course, sometimes the list is incom-
plete, and we will ask if they have something that is not on
the posted bUl, but, as a rule, we can find what we want some-
where on the bill-of-fare. No one customer "eats through"
the whole possible lay-out.
The principle of the "cafeteria" method is, therefore,
based upon selecting from a given list of possibilities, and so
making up a "special meal." Its success evidently depends
upon the fact that somebody has done part of the thinking
for the customers.
LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OP A GIVEN FOREMAN 79
The "Special Order Method."— There is another way in
which a meal may be made up. Where there is no bill-of-f are
to select from, and we do all the thinking ourselves. We
don't look at the "card," even if there is one, but we consider
what we feel like eating and order it. A man says, "I feel
like beefsteak, fried potatoes, coffee and mince pie," and
gives his order accordingly. Here there is no list of pos-
sibilities for him to select from, but he unconsciously runs
over in his mind all the possibilities, accepting some and re-
jecting others, his mind working something like this : "I sup-
pose that they have got soup. Soup .'' Don't want soup !
Fish.? Nix on the fish! Chops.'' They ought to have 'em.
No, guess not to-day! Next.-' Let's see, don't want roast
beef. By George, what I want is a good thick steak! Any-
thing else.'' Let's see! Guess I want fried potatoes to go with
that steak. Coffee? Milk.'' Suppose I can get either here.
Coffee for me to-day."
In this way he "builds up" a special order, according to
his own special "eating job," and in that way gets his meal,
making the complete analysis himself, working from "the way
that he happens to feel," and not hy selecting from any classi-
fied list of possibilities.
The Two Methods Applied to Job Analysis. — In making
any sort of a responsibility analysis it is always possible to
use either of these two methods, provided there is a classified
analysis of possibilities available to work out the "cafeteria
method." If no such "biU-of-fare" is available, the "special
order method" must be used, of course, just as the original
explorer had to find his own way through new country, because
he could not ask his way if nobody had ever been there before.
Where such a list of possibilities is available that puts up
all possible cases, a man can evidently select what goes with
his job and in that way get his job lay-out. Where such an
80 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
analysis is not available, he must list out all the parts of his
job and then classify them.*
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages. — The "cafe-
teria method" evidently has the advantage of saving time and
effort, because it is always easier to pick out than it is to
think out, and this fact is the whole base of the business suc-
cess of the cafeteria — a man can get his meal quicker and with
less thinking. Hence, where the purpose is to get the lay-out
as quickly and easily as possible, the cafeteria method is the
better one. On the other hand, where no general classified
analysis is avaUaHe, or where each man must handle his job
under all sort of conditions, or where he wants to think hard
about his job, the "special order" method is the better, and
should be used, whenever there is time to use it. It wiU be
noted that in the first case a man works from the top down,
considering the most general classification headings first, and,
in the second case, he works from the bottom up, starting with
some detail, as coffee or pie.
The Combination Method. — ^There is a third method,
which is really a combination of the other two, which uses
what may be called the "Suggestive Incomplete Analysis" as
a starter and works on from that. The use of this method
wUl sometimes be seen in a cafeteria where a man, in addition
to picking out what he wants from the posted bill-of-f are, will
say, "Got any shredded wheat?" when that particular item
does not appear on the bill. In such a case his meal is made
up partly on the selective basis and partly on the "special
order basis."
The Method Used In This Book. — To aid any foreman
who may wish to make a supervisory responsibility lay-out
of his job the straight " cafeteria " method is used up to the
laying out of general responsibilities and the method is
described in the following section. For the further carrying
* This second method as applied to Trade Analysis is fully described
in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job," Chapter VII.
LAY-OUT FOE THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN 81
on of the analysis, into detailed, and specific responsibilities,
the method is described in Chapter VII and the way in which
it can be applied to the job of a given foreman is illustrated
in Chapter XI, on the distribution of the working force
and Chapter XIII on the handling of information, and in a
number of succeeding chapters.
Any foreman who may wish to carry this work farther
wiU find that he can use the suggestive charts of possible
responsibilities given in the appendix as starting points from
which he can work out his own special lay-out by the " combi-
nation method, " checking off the detailed and specific
responsibilities that he has and adding any additional ones
that he may have that do not appear on the charts.
The following section describes the application of the
selective method in making a general supervisory lay-out for
the job of a given foreman.
SECTION n. MAKING THE GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT POE
A SUPERVISORY JOB
Preliminary. — This section describes the method of get-
ting a supervisory responsibility lay-out for a given fore-
man's job by the "cafeteria" or selection method, and is
carried out by working through three operations as follows :
1. Determining the fields.
2! Determining the blocks in the fields.
3. Determining the general responsibilities in the blocks.
Each operation is carried through with regard to the
special supervisory job under consideration.
The First Operation — Determining the Fields. — ^This
operation is carried out by determining whether the job in-
cludes aU three of the possible fields, only one of them or any
two of them. Under most ordinary conditions a foreman
has responsibilities in all three fields, but, as already stated,
some plants have assigned supervision to one foreman and
management to another, and, in some cases, instruction to
6
82 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
another foreman or even to a distinct training department,
though, as pointed out later, a supervising or a managing
foreman is rarely, if ever, entirely relieved of all general
responsibilities for unorganized instruction. The possibilities
are, therefore, that job of a given foreman is, or is not, in
the supervisory field. If it is not, he has nothing to do with
anything in this field, and the rest of this section, with the
corresponding chapters on the further detailed analysis of
a supervisory job have no interest to him.
In most cases, however, a foreman does have supervisory
Responsibilities, and where this is the case, having settled
that fact, he passes on to the next operation, the determina-
tion of the supervisory blocks that go with his particular
supervisory job.
The Second Operation — ^The Determination of Blocks. —
This question is not always so easy to determine as the matter
of fields, because very often a foreman has implied supervisory
responsibilities that he has never thought of as responsibilities
and which, in many cases, his superiors have never thought of
as supervisory responsibilities either. For example, where a
transportation department brings material to the department
and takes it away, many foreman will say that they have no
responsibilities in the stock block, and will leave it out of their
responsibility lay-out for supervision, and their superiors
will often say the same thing. When, however, they are asked
if, In case somebody stole that material while it was in the
department the foreman would be called down, they will both
say "Yes," and admit that, by a sort of common' understand-
ing, a foreman is responsible for looking out for stock while it
is in his department, although nobody ever told him so m so
many words. That is, there was an implied responsibility
there, as the term was used above. In deciding on the blocks
that go with a supervisory job, a foreman must, therefore,
be very careful to include any blocks in which he has implied
responsibilities, as well as stated responsibilities, and this is
LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OP A GIVEN FOREMAN 83
where his chief difficulty is liable to come. The best way to
test this out is to ask the questionj "If anything happened in
connection with this block, could I be properly called down
for it, or could I claim that it was none of my supervisory
business, and make good on that claim ; could I successfully
and honestly 'pass the buck'?" If his answer is "Yes," he can
leave that block out of his lay-out ; if "No," he must put it in.
Working in this way, by selection from all the possible
blocks, a foreman gets his list of blocks for his special super-
visory job, or his block lay-out, and having done this he passes
on to the third operation, the making of the general responsi-
bility lay-out as described in the next paragraph.
The Third Operation — Making the Classified General
Responsibility Lay-out. — The general supervisory lay-out
already given shows the possible general responsibilities
in each block. This operation is carried out by selecting from
that list those general responsibilities that belong in the
supervisory job under consideration. Here, as in the previous
case, the chief difficulty is likely to be due to the omission of
implied responsibilities, and the same test should be applied
in each case. As a result there is secured a classified list of
actual supervisory general responsibilities, or a general re-
sponsibility lay-out for tl]iat particular supervisory job.
The Necessity for Getting a Correct General Supervisory
Lay-out. — ^As will appear later, a correct general supervisory
lay-out is the key to all the rest of the work. It is used to get
the general managerial lay-out as described in the next
chapter; it is used as the base for getting the specific and
detailed lay-outs for all responsibilities, as explained later.
If it is incomplete, or incorrect, all the rest of the analysis
work is equally incorrect.
While the job of making a general supervisory lay-out
appears to be very easy, it is so important to get it right that
a foreman will find that it pays to work it out very carefully.
84
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
A Sample of a General Supervisory Lay-out for a Given
Foreman. — The following sample will indicate what a prop-
erly worked out general supervisory lay-out will look like
when it is completed.
Stock
Raw departmental
In process
Finished
Tools and
Equipment
In service
Operations
and Processes
Operation control
The Working!
_ fDistnbutmg
Information
Human
Factors
Giving and transmitting
Reporting
Physical condition
Mental attitude
This sample lay-out is, of course, for a purely imagin-
ative supervisory job, and in no way indicates what a given
foreman might get in laying out his own special job.
A Convenient Lay-out Form. — The following form is
convenient for making a general responsibility lay-out for a
supervisory job.
LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN 85
GENEEAL RESPONSIBILITY LAY-OUT FOR
A SUPERVISORY JOB
Name: Department:
Plant:
The above job has the general supervisory responsibilities indi-
cated below.
STOCK
TOOLS AND
EQUIPMENT
OPERATIONS
AND PROCESSES
THE
WORKING FORCE
-
INFORMATION
THE
HUMAN FACTORS
CHAPTER VI
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OE A MANAGERIAL JOB
Preliminary. — The last two chapters dealt with the ques-
tion of making the analysis of a supervisory job for general
supervisory responsibilities and of making a general
responsibility lay-out for the supervisory job of a given
foreman. In the same way this chapter deals with the method
of analyzing a managerial job and the application of fhis
method of analysis to a given managerial job.
In the following discussion it must be remembered that,
so far as the analysis is concerned, it makes no difference
whether managerial and supervisory responsibilities are dis-
charged by the same person or by two different people, the
two jobs are treated as distinct jobs. If, as is usually the
case, a foreman's job includes responsibilities for both super-
vision and management, he first gets his general supervisory
lay-out. If he has only managerial responsibilities, he must
use the general supervisory lay-out for the corresponding
supervisory job.
If he cannot get it, he must make it before he can lay out
his own managerial job, even though he himself has no super-
visory responsibilities. This case is so rare that it is only
mentioned in case a functional organization has been estab-
lished between supervision and management.
■ Different Kinds of Managerial Jobs. — ^While, of course,
any managerial job means doping out ways and means for
discharging a supervisory responsibility in such a way that
cost is reduced to a minimum, there are several different
kinds of managerial jobs, among the more important of
which are :
1. Management jobs corresponding to routine supervi-
se
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OF A MANAGERIAL JOB 87
sory jobs. An illustration of such a managerial job would
be to handle any responsibilities in connection with the pro-
tection of stock, or with the keeping up of the working force,
so that cost was held down to a minimum.
2. Management jobs dealing with the human factors, as
where the probleni is to handle matters in connection with
discharge, or transfers so that interest will be kept up, or
dissatisfaction will be kept down to the least possible amount.
3. Management jobs dealing with the running down of
production difficulties, as where the product of a certain
operation or process comes out wrong, or the quantity falls
off, and the managerial problem is to find the cause and apply
the remedy.
4. Management jobs dealing with emergencies, as where
the power must be shut off in a few minutes and the mana-
gerial problem is to make the most of those few minutes,
so that the cost will be reduced as much as possible.
For each of these cases it is possible to make a lay-out
that will show all the points that should be taken into
consideration in dealing most effectively with the problem.
For example, in case 4 the supervisory responsibility would
have been discharged when the necessity for the shut
down (say a defect in the main steam line, or a transformer
that was overheating), had been spotted before damage had
occurred. The managerial problem would then be to deter-
mine such things as who should be notified, in what order the
notifications could best be given, what steps could be taken
to get the trouble repaired as fast as possible, what tempo-
rary arrangements might be made to carry the plant while
these repairs were made if that were possible, at what stage
the job should be turned over to a superior, etc.
In the case of production trouble all the possible known
causes can be laid off with the best order in which these causes
can be checked up in order to save as much material and
time as possible. Where such information is furnished by
88 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
all who are concerned with the work and their experience is
" pooled " and made a matter of record for everybody, such
lay-outs of managerial jobs may be of the greatest value
to a plant, especially where the plant is run on a double or
triple shift and different shift foremen have charge at
different times.
SECTION n. THE ANAliTSIS OF THE MANAGERIAIi JOB
Management vs. Supervision. — ^Management has already
been defined as distinguished from supervision so these defini-
tions are not repeated here.* It is worth while, however, to
again draw attention to the fact that while, as the terms are
used in this book, a supervisor is always thinking of getting
the job done, a manager is always thinking about things that
finally head up into the cost of those jobs, and this distinc-
tion must always be borne in mind in connection with any
analysis work on managerial jobs.
The Analysis Scheme for a Managerial Job. — ^The
analysis scheme as given here is based on the fact that for
every supervisory responsibility there is a corresponding
managerial responsibility which must be discharged by some-
body, if cost is to be given any consideration. The scheme of
analysis for a managerial job, corresponding to the analysis
for general supervisory responsibilities as already described,
is as follows, it being understood that it applies to the
case where a foreman either has all managerial responsi-
bilities or managerial responsibilities in addition to super-
visory responsibilities.
The General Responsibility Lay-out Determines the
General Managerial Lay-out. — In view of the statement just
made, it is evident that the general supervisory lay-out deter-
mines the general managerial lay-out, so that when we have
the first, we also have the second. The problem taken up in
this chapter is, therefore :
• Chapter II.
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 89
Given a general managerial lay-out as obtained from a
general supervisory lay-out, to analyze a managerial job.
As in the case of the supervisory analysis, a series
of operations are carried out, as described in the
following paragraphs :
Operations in Making Managerial Analysis. — The opera-
tions worked through in making the analysis of a man-
agerial job for general managerial responsibilities are
as follows :
1. Determining for each general managerial respon-
sibility the cost elements that affect the discharge of
that responsibility.
2. In view of these cost elements defining the man-
agerial problem.
Although not strictly a part of the analysis, there would
be no use in making it if there were not added another step.
3. The determination of ways and means for dealing with
that managerial problem as effectively as possible — ^that is,
reducing cost. As a sample of what may be called a "blank"
analysis scheme we have the lay-out as given below.
The Generaij The GenebaIj
SnPEBvisoRT Re* . . Managebial .
BFONSIBILITT ResfONSIBILXIT
Cost element No. 1
Cost element No. 2
Cost element No. S
Cost element No. 4
Cost element No. 5
Cost element No. 6
And so on.
The Deauho with
..Managerial.. the
Pqobleu Fboblebi,
The way in which this scheme for analysis can be applied
to the particular managerial job of a given foreman is de-
scribed in the following section.
SECTION m. MAKING THE GENERAL MANAGERIAL RESPONSIBIL-
ITY LAY-OUT FOR THE JOB OF A GIVEN FOREMAN
IN A GIVEN DEPARTMENT IN A
GIVEN PLANT
Laying Out the Job. — Since the managerial responsibil-
ity can always be obtained from the general supervisory re-
sponsibility, the procedure here is self-evident and needs no
90 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
explanation. The diiBculties begin to come up when the at-
tempt is made to determine the cost elements that affect its
discharge. This is partly because in many casds these cost
elements seem to overlap, they come in on more than one man-
agerial responsibility and also because, in many cases, a man
has never thought of many of them at all, or as cost elements
in connection with that ,special managerial problem. It may
be helpful in this connection to point out some of the
more important general cost elements that may come into
play on any given job, but not of necessity aU of them on
any one job. '
These general cost elements are briefly discussed in the
following paragraphs not because aU foremen do not know
them, but because, as they come up in practice they are often
so concealed that it takes some careful thinking to recog-
nize them.
General Cost Elements. — ^As has already been stated, any
general managerial responsibility can be discharged with
varying degrees of cost, according to the particular way in
which that managerial problem is dealt with: one man does
this better than another, because he may have had more
experience, or has made a better analysis of the cost elements
involved, or because he is a better "guesser" in working out
ways and means. However that may be, it is true that two
different foremen may have the same responsibilities on the
same kind of supervisory jobs; both may get out the same
satisfactory product, yet one foreman may get out that
product at less cost than the other, because he has managed
with regard to his cost elements to better advantage than
the other foreman. For example, In storing departmental
stock of various kinds, one foreman may so arrange the dif-
ferent kinds that each kind is put by itself and so labeled that
the chance of any mix-up is practically cut out; while an-
other foreman may "pile it in anyhow" so long as he gets it
under cover. The first foreman has in mind the cost in time
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 91
for whoever has to get any particular kind of stock out of
storage, and takes steps to reduce it to a minimum by
arranging and labeling the different kinds .of stock in some
effective manner. The second foreman fails to recognize that
cost element and raises his cost on that responsibility higher
than he should.
Again, one foreman may be careful to see that all equip-
ment units that are in service are running at full duty ; they
are either doing a full job or are shut down. Another fore-
man, under the same conditions, runs his whole equipment at
half or two-thirds capacity. The first foreman has man-
aged his power cost elements on that particular part of his
job better than the second foreman.
Again, of two foremen, one is careful not to put a "high
priced man" on a "low priced job," so saving on the excess
knowledge and skill that is not required on the low priced
job, while the second foreman distributes his men any way
so long as each man "knows enough for the job." Number
one has managed better than number two, because he has
recognized the elements of labor cost and has cut out the
unnecessary cost of the unused knowledge and skiU that is of
no value on the low skilled job, yet must be paid for.
In these illustrations it is evident that the first foreman
recognized, in connection with his responsibility points some
cost elements that the second foreman did not. We can call
these things cost factors or cost elements, and it is evident
that successful or unsuccessful management will depend to a
large extent on the degree to which the analysis took into
account all of the cost elements that came in to the man-
agerial problem.
The Value of a Complete Analysis. — ^While it must be
admitted that in many cases, especially in dealing with human
factors in the more detailed way that is discussed in later
chapters working out a complete analysis is extremely difS-
92 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
cult, still the fact remains that the more complete the
analysis the better the chance of doing a good managerial
job. In carrying the analysis as far as possible for general
managerial responsibilities there are certain cost elements of
which any or all may come into any managerial problem, and
which are therefore given in the following paragraph.
General Cost Monents. — Among the more important
cost elements that need to be watched out for are :
1. The cost of material.
2. The cost of power.
3. The cost of equipment and of depreciation.
4. The cost of knowledge, skill and strength as provided
by the members of the working force.
5. The cost of handling information.
6. The cost of injury or poor physical condition on the
part of the members of the working force.
7. The cost of low morale.
8. The cost of poor instruction.
Of course, these are not all, but they are enough to sug-
gest others, and the degree to which such general cost ele-
ments are properly taken into consideration in dealing with
general managerial problems will determine, to a large
extent, the effectiveness of the managerial work.
Determining Cost Elements. — ^Knowing the general man-
agerial responsibilities, the next step in making the analysis
of a given managerial job is to determine the general cost
elements that go with each general managerial responsibility,
and this listing should be worked out with great care to make
it as complete as possible. When this has been done we have a
cost element lay-out for each general managerial respon-
sibility. When this has been done the next operation is
to define the managerial problem for each general man-
agerial responsibility.
Difficulties in Locating Cost Elements. — ^In carrying out
the process of locating and assigning cost elements, usually
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB 93
a foreman will find it difficult to locate them all. This is due
to several reasons, among which are:
(1) He has been working to reduce certain cost elements
so long that he is doing it unconsciously, and finds it difficult
to lay them out, just as any good workman will find it difficult
at first to set down what he does when he does a job.
(2) Many cost elements have not occurred to him as
cost elements. For example, many foremen have never given
serious consideration to the cost of training a new man to
replace one who has quit ; that is, discharge cost, or the cost
elements involved in decent sanitary conditions, or modern
surroundings, as discussed in later chapters.
(3) Many cost elements that he recognizes, he thinks at
first, have nothing to do zoith his job, such, for example, as
the cost elements of accidents around the plant, but not in
his department.
As he studies into the matter, he will find usually a num-
ber of cost elements to which he had not been giving consid-
eration and in proportion as he does uncover such elements
he is able to improve his work on the managerial side of
his job.
The Necessity of Knowing all Cost Elements for Good
Management. — Just as it was pointed out in Section II that
a good supervisor will know all his supervisory jobs, so a
good manager will know all the cost elements that affect each
of his special responsibility points, and in the long run his
management will be good in proportion as he is able to do
this. His problem, as a manager, therefore, is to know,
first, the cost elements on each of his responsibility points,
and second, to figure out how he can handle each situation so
as to reduce his cost to the minimum.
Management on Cost Elements — Balancing Cost Ele-
ments.— ^Rarely will it be found that only one cost element
goes with any one responsibility point. Usually there are
04 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
several. In managing, the foreman should take them all
into consideration, determine what he can do under his
working conditions, and "balance up" according to his
best judgment.
The lay-out of responsibilities and the corresponding
cost elements will help him to define his managerial job, but
nothing can take the place of judgment in handling the mat-
ter so as to get the best results.
No fixed set of rules can be followed, because, as a rule,
no managerial situation ever comes up exactly the same
twice in succession. However, one of the common causes of
less than the best judgment is due to not knowing, and so not
taking into consideration, all the cost elements.
Defining the Managerial Problem. — This operation
merely consists in stating in as definite and simple words as
possible exactly what should be done to the particular cost
elements in order to secure the best possible managerial
results. When this has been done the general managerial
problem has been defined.
Dealing with the General Managerial Problem. — The
last operation in making the lay-out is to consider ways and
means for dealing with the problem. This last operation is
not really a part of the analysis, that is, of "lining up the
job," but practically it is always the final outcome of the
problem, because the only reason that a man would have for
making such a lay-out would be because he wanted to see how
he could handle the job in the best way or how he could handle
it better than he had been doing it. The way that such a lay-
out would look is indicated in the following sample :
MAKING THE ANALYSIS OP A MANAGERIAL JOB
05
A SAMPLE OF A GENEEAL MANAGERIAL LAY-OUT*
The cost elements that
come into this man-
agerial problem are:
1. Loss of stock.
2. Loss of time in hand-
ling stock.
3. Using too much or
too expensive
power in taking
care of raw de-
partmental stock,
etc.
General Supervi-
s o r y Respon-
sibility for
raw depart-
mental stock
General man-
a g e r i a 1 re-
sponsibility as
to cost in
handling
raw depart-
mental stock.
The managerial problem is:
To reduce to a minimum
losses in handling raw de-
partmental stock due to
any form of loss, time lost
in handling and failure
to use the most effective
methods in looking oiit
Means of dealmg with the
problem are:
Since this calls for '"job
knowledge," it is not at-
tempted to fill it out, but
the particular means
adopted would be indi-
cated here.
for it.
Ways of Laying out a General Managerial Job. — There
are a number of ways of laying out a general managerial job,
among which perhaps the most convenient is some such form
as is suggested below :
* It must be understood that this sample makes no pretentions to be
correct for the job.
96 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
LAY-OUT FOR A GENERAL MANAGERIAL JOB
GENERAL
MANAGERIAL
RESPONSIBILITY
COST
ELEMENTS
MANAGERIAL
PROBLEM
DEALING WITH
THE PROBLEM
2.
4.
CHAPTER VII
THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS
SECTION I. INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED E.ESPONSIBILITIES
Preliminary. — ^The preceding chapters gave the scheme of
analysis and dealt with the application of the principles of
job analysis to the different foreman's fields, down to the
point of general managerial, supervisory and instructional
responsibilities. In many cases, however, the careful consid-
eration and discussion of foremen's responsibilities and prob-
lems require that either all of a foreman's job or some block
or general responsibility be further analyzed. These further
analyses are developed in a number of the following chapters,
and this chapter describes how general responsibilities can be
subdivided according to the further extension of the classified
scheme whenever such finer subdivisions may be desirable.
The Further Development of the Analysis. — The further
development of the analysis of general supervisory responsi-
bilities is carried, on by working through the following addi-
tional operations :
1. The general responsibility under consideration is di-
vided into specific responsibilities.
2. The specific responsibilities are in turn divided into
detailed responsibilities.
3. If desirable, any given detailed responsibility can be
analyzed into responsibility points, and these can be classi-
fied as human or machine responsibility points.
The following sections describe each of these opera-
tions in turn, together with their application to the fur-
ther analysis of general supervisory, managerial and in-
structional responsibilities.
^ 7 97
98 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
SECTION n. ANALYZING A GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY INTO SPE-
CIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES
Specific Responsibilities — The Fourth Operation in the
Analysis. — ^If we consider all the diiferent responsibilities
that may come into any given general responsibility, we find
that while they all are alike in a general way they vary in the
purpose for which the responsibility is discharged and also
that they are carried out in a number of dijGFerent ways and
their proper discharge calls for the use of diiferent kinds of
auxiliary information. Responsibilities in any given general
responsibility can, therefore, be "bunched" or classified ac-
cording to their different purpose and the sort of auxiliary
information that goes with them. For example, in the case
of a general responsibility for raw departmental stock one
kind of responsibility included in that particular general
responsibility might be to inspect previous to acceptance and
another might be to store so as to protect from damage.
These two supervisory responsibilities would evidently be at-
tended to for different purposes and would call for a different
brand of "job knowledge." In fact, a man might know how
to attend to storage very well and not know how to attend to
inspection at all, because he might not know how to make the
inspection test. In the same way, in the general responsi-
bility for reporting, two different responsibilities might be
reporting to immediate superiors and to a special depart-
ment, and evidently the purpose for which a report is made
to an immediate superior and to a special department would
not be the same, and the sort of information required to dis-
charge these two specific responsibilities would be different.*
A specific responsibility can, therefore, be defined, as in the
following paragraph;
*It should be clear that the different information referred to is not
information contained in the reports, but information about to whom
they were to go to, when they were due, etc. Two reports might con-
tain the same identical information and still seeing that they were
attended to might be specific responsibilities that would belong in two
different groups.
THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS
Specific Responsibility Defined. — As the term is used
here, a given specific responsibility would include all responsi-
bilities in any given general responsibility which are dis-
charged for the same general purpose, but have different ob-
jects and therefore are discharged in different ways, calling
for a different kind of auxiliary information.
The Relation of Specific Responsibilities to General
Responsibilities. — The relation of a general responsibility in
any block to the specific responsibilities in that general re-
sponsibility is shown in the diagram given below:
BLOCK.
GENERAL RES'P. SPECIFIC REST.
Block
No. I
No. II
No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
Etc.
fNo. 1
No. 2
Etc.
SECTION in. ANALYZING A SPECIFIC SESPONSIBILITY INTO DE-
TAILED RESPONSIBILITIES
Detailed Responsibilities. — ^The Fifth Operation in the
Analysis. — Just as general responsibilities can be divided into
specific responsibilities, so the analysis method can be applied
to any specific responsibility to divide it into detailed respon-
sibilities. If, as in previous cases, we study the "bunch" of
responsibilities that belong In one specific responsibility, we
wiU. find that they, In turn, are not all the same, because, if
we regard them as "responsibility jobs," all of them do not
have the same "specifications" ; that is, each responsibility re-
quires, for Its discharge, a different way of going at It, owing
to the particular results that must be obtained. For example,
one specific responsibility might be (In the general responsi-
bility for the distribution of the working force) transferring.
100 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
and this specific responsibility might include the follpwing:
1. Promoting.
2. Demoting.
3. Shifting from one job to another of the same grade,
which would be three of the detailed responsibilities in the
specific responsibility for transferring.
Again, if one specific responsibility were for protecting
finished departmental stock while in storage, we might have
any of the following "responsibility jobs" or detailed respon-
sibilities, according to the nature of the stock in question.
1. Protecting from light, as in the finished film depart-
ment of a plant making photographic supplies.
2. Protection from rats and mice, as in a flouring miU.
3. Protection from fire, as in a powder null, or an oil
refinery.
4. Protection from theft, as in the case of whiskey in a
bonded warehouse, or stock in a silverware factory, or gold
in a mint.
5. Protection from moisture or water, as in the case of
armature coils or sugar.
It is evident that, as stated above, each of these detailed
responsibility "jobs" calls for a different kind of auxiliary
information, as to the nature of the precautions that must be
taken, and while all are carried on (the detailed responsibility
is discharged) for protection (the specific responsibility),
the sort of protection is different in each case, and the stock
that has to be protected is different in each case.
Detailed Responsibility Defined. — ^A detailed responsi-
bility, or a "responsibility job," can be defined as follows:
A detailed responsibility is one of the responsibilities in a spe-
cific responsibility.
The Complete Analysis. — ^As explained up to the present
time, the complete analysis scheme is as f oUows :
1. The fields are determined. (The first operation.)
2. Fields are divided into blocks. (The second operation.)
THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 101
3. Blocks are divided into general responsibilities, (The
third operation.)
4!. General responsibilities are divided into specific re-
sponsibilities. (The fourth operation.)
5. Specific responsibilities are divided into detailed re-
sponsibilities, or "responsibility jobs." (The fifth operation.)
Responsibility Jobs. — ^Any foreman's job can, therefore,
be analyzed into a set of classified responsibility jobs just as
the production work of a plant can be analyzed into a set of
classified work jobs, and when a foreman knows all his respon-
sibility "jobs" he has a detailed or specific lay-out of his job,
according to whether he stopped the analysis at specific re-
sponsibilities or carried it through to detailed jobs.
SECTION IV. THE ANALYSIS OF A DETAILED KESPONSIBILITY
INTO EESPONSIBILITY POINTS
The method of laying out a work job into human and
machine operating points has already been described. In
the same way it is possible to divide any given detailed
responsibility into what may be called " responsibility
points." A responsibility point may be defined as some one
thing that must be looked out for in discharging a detailed
responsibility. While this further extension of the analysis
is seldom necessary the following illustration will show how
it may be done.
The Analysis.of a Detailed Responsibility Into Responsi-
bility Points. — ^As an example of how such an analysis can
be made the -following wiU serve as an illustration. In a
chemical plant alum was made by " attacking " " ore " ( a
sort ofl clay) with acid, the action being carried on in lead-
lined tanks. This " ore " was stored in bins located some
two hundred feet from the attacking tanks and a work job
for that department was getting this ore in the right quan-
tity from the bins to the tanks, where it was dumped on the
102 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
flooi- as close to the tank as possible, so that the men on the
attacking job could readily get at it in charging the tanks.
The foreman in charge had a responsibility job to see
that this transporting job was properly done. Among the
responsibility points into which that foreman's job might
analyze are:
Point 1. Seeing that men used full shovels.
Point 2. Seeing that ore was not spilled on the floor in
filling the wheelbarrows.
Point 3. Seeing that wheelbarrows were full before men
started to wheel them.
Point 4). Seeing that material was not spilled while
wheeling it.
Point 5. Seeing that each barrow and load was weighed.
Point 6. Seeing that ore was dumped in the right place.
Point 7. Seeing that men did not loaf on the job.
Point 8. Seeing that the equipment was in good condition.
While a careful analysis might show other responsibility
points, the above are enough to illustrate how such an
analysis can be carried out.
Job Operations and Responsibility Points. — ^It will be
noted that many of the responsibility points as given above
covered seeing that some work job operation was properly
carried out, but this is not true for all of them, for example,
point 7. In making such an analysis of a responsibility job,
which the foreman does, care must be used not to get
"switched" onto the analysis of the work job which the man
does. It will also be of interest to note that nearly all of the
responsibility points, but not all, bear upon human rather
than machine operating points in the work job.
The Work Job Analysis and the Responsibility Job
Anals^is. — ^In analyzing a responsibility job that runs par-
allel to a work job, one of the best starting points is the
analysis of the work job.
THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS
103
SECTION V. THE APPLICATION OF THE METHODS OF THE EX-
TENDED ANALYSIS TO THE JOBS OF A GIVEN POKEMAN IN
A GIVEN DEPARTMENT IN A GIVEN PLANT
Making the Specific and Detailed Lay-out. — The start-
ing point is, of course, the general responsibility lay-out for
the jobs of that particular foreman. He first determines the
specific responsibilities in each general responsibility as it
appears on his general lay-out and so gets a specific respon-
sibility lay-out. Sometimes this is as far as he needs to go
to get his jobs laid out as closely as is necessary for his pur-
pose. In most cases, however, he must take the next step and
determine the detailed responsibilities in his specific responsi-
bilities, thus securing his detailed supervisory lay-out.
In general, it is not necessary to analyze all of a fore-
man's "responsibility jobs" (detailed responsibilities) into
responsibility points, but it is frequently necessary to do this
for certain responsibility jobs. For example, this might be
true in making a safety analysis on some work jobs in
a department.
The Detailed Supervisory Lay-out. — The detailed super-
idsory lay-out is, of course, made as just described, by work-
ing from the general responsibility lay-out for supervisory
responsibilities and needs no further explanation. A sample
of a part of such a lay-out may make the matter a little
clearer and so is given below, for the general responsibility
for equipment in service.
Adjusting
Repairing
Condemning
Inspecting
Carrying Reserve
Equipment I Protection [Protecting from Damage
in Service. | Protecting from Abuse
Controlling Output
Assigning to Jobs
Balancing Assigned Units
Making Special Lay-outs
Maintenance
Use
104 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
The Detailed Managerial Lay-out. — ^The detailed man-
agerial lay-out is made in exactly the same way from the
detailed supervisory lay-out, as the general managerial lay-
out was made from the general supervisory lay-out. For each
detailed supervisory responsibility there is a corresponding
detailed managerial responsibility, a corresponding set of
detailed cost elements, a corresponding detailed managerial
problem and corresponding ways and means for dealing with
that detailed managerial problem.
In the same way for each specific responsibility there are
corresponding specific cost elements, a corresponding specific
managerial problem, specific ways and means for dealing
with that problem, all coming out of the specific managerial
responsibility that goes with the specific supervisory responsi-
bility. The method of mating the detailed! and specific
managerial lay-outs is so plain that it is not further de-
scribed here.
The Specific and Detailed Managerial Lay-out. — ^If it is
desired to go beyond the general managerial stage of the
analysis, while it is, of course, quite possible to stop with the
specific managerial lay-out, experience has shown that it
rarely pays to do so. The practical method is to work di-
rectly from the list of general supervisory responsibilities
and make up a detailed managerial lay-out directly without
working through the specific responsibility stage. For real
practical discussion it almost always happens that practical
ways and means for dealing with cases on the managerial
side have to be based on detailed rather than specific man-
agerial problems and responsibilities. The specific stage
of the analysis does not get sufficiently "down to
brass tacks."
The Specific and Detailed Instructional Lay-out. — ^Just
as in the fields of supervision and management the analysis
can be extended through general, specific and detailed
responsibilities, so a corresponding specific and detailed
THE FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 105
analysis can be worked out for instructing responsibilities.
This can be readily done by using the chart in Appendix B
as a starting point and following the same general methods
as have just been described for the other two fields.
Methods of Making the Analysis. — ^It has already been
pointed out that in making the detailed and specific analysis
there were two methods of doing it — ^what was called, for
convenience, the "cafeteria method," or the method of selec-
tion, and the "special order method." It was also pointed
out that there might be a combination of the tvfo methods by
using a classified analysis of possibilities, selecting from that
list all that belonged in the particular foreman's job that
was under consideration (the cafeteria method) and then
adding any further responsibilities that went with the job.
(The special order method.)
Evidently the "cafeteria" method is the easiest when it can
be used, but the difficulty with it is that it is practically
impossible to secure a complete detailed analysis, because
nobody can make such an analysis except the man who is on
that particular job. It is, however, often possible to secure
a fairly complete analysis of the more probable and common
responsibilities made up from the responsibilities reported by
various foremen in analyzing their own jobs.
It is a comparatively easy matter for the job of any
foreman to be analyzed as far as general responsibilities, but
for the further extension of the analysis the use of the
straight "special order" method is a long and difficult piece
of business, and if a partial list of possibilities can be used
for a "starter," the work is made much easier.
The method adopted in this book is, therefore, that de-
scribed in the next paragraph.
The Method Used in this Book. — Having in mind the
facts just stated and also that foremen have little spare
time at their disposal, the work in this book has been laid
out as follows :
It has been assumed that any foreman using this book
106 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
■will make his own general responsibility lay-out for his spe-
cial jobs by following the directions as given. So far he will
use the "special order method." For the further extension of
the analysis, however, the book has been written so that for
all general responsibilities that appear on the general respon-
sibility lay-out for any one foreman's job the "combination
method" can be used by providing a fairly complete list of de-
tailed and specific responsibilities for each possible general
responsibility in the form of charts which are given in the
appendix. These detailed analysis of responsibilities arc
undoubtedly incomplete and possibly in some cases not accu-
rate, they were made up, however, from information fur-
nished by a number of foremen in connection with con-
ferences and discussions, and should, at least, get a foreman
started right on the detailed analysis of his own particular
jobs. That is all that they are intended to do.
In making such detailed analyses of general responsibil-
ities it is, therefore, assumed that a foreman will first check
off all the specific and detailed responsibilities that he has
from the charts and will then add such others as may go with
his particular job, thus saving time and energy.
SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR USING THE METHOD
OF ANALYSIS
PART II
1. Make a departmental analysis for your department.
2. Make a list of the payroll jobs or of the work jobs
that go with one of your departmental production jobs.
3. Make operation analyses of several simple, everyday
"jobs" such as opening a pocket knife, opening a door,
unlocking a door, tying a four-in-hand tie.
4. Make operation analyses of several jobs in your
department.
5. Make an analysis of any of the following managerial
THE FURTHEK EXTENSION OF THE ANALYSIS 107
jobs that may apply to your department, or of some similar
jobs that these may suggest. ,
a. An emergency shut down.
b. A case of excessive breakage in trucking inside
of the department.
c. A case of a man being seriously injured in the
yard where quick action is needed.
d. A case where the product of a given job in your
department is not coming out of the right quality.
e. A case where a man should or should not be dis-
charged for failure to obey orders or directions.
f. A case where stock must be protected.
6. Make a general responsibility lay-out for your own
supervisory job.
7. Using the " combination method " and the " sugges-
tive list of possible supervisory responsibilities " given in
Appendix B, make a detailed and specific responsibility lay-
out (analysis) for one of your general responsibilities.
PART ni
PUTTING OVER THE SUPERVISORY JOB
CHAPTER VIII
TYING UP PROCEDURE/ AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Preliminaiy. — Almost all plants prescribe some method
by which at least certain detailed responsibilities are to be dis-
charged. Certain reports are to be made on certain forms :
records are kept on cards or by some standard device; job
tickets are made out in a certain way. As will be discussed
more in detail later, some detailed responsibilities are to be
discharged by reporting to somebody, others by making sug-
gestions, others by direct action. This means that while in
the case of many detailed responsibilities a foreman dis-
charges them in any way that he sees fit, according to the
conditions that may happen to prevail at that time ; in other
cases there is prescribed a procedure, that is, there is a stand-
ard way of doing things that everybody is expected to follow.
In many cases in connection with the laying out of supervisory
and managerial jobs, it is desirable to add to some or all of
the responsibility jobs as they appear on the classified list,
or the analysis, the special form of procedure prescribed for
their discharge. This section, therefore, takes up the matter
of tying up the detailed responsibilities with the procedure.
Information as to Procedure. — In general there are cer-
taip kinds of information that may be taken into considera-
tion in making such an addition to a job lay-out. Among
the more important of these might be for each detailed
responsibility :
1. Whether there is or is not any fixed method of pro-
cedure. If so,
2. The method prescribed for its discharge.
3. The special material to be used, if any.
What is Meant by Procedure.^-The term procedure, or
standard practice, as used here, means whatever "regu-
lar" method is set up in the organization which all are
111
112 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
expected to follow whenever a given detailed responsibility is
to be discharged.
For illustration, when making reports on stock on hand
to inunediate superiors, the proper method, according to the
special procedure in that particular plant might be to make
all reports in writing, which would be one possible form of
procedure, or to make reports "by word of mouth" (verbal
reports) , which would be another form of procedure. Again,
in connection with keeping up the working force, in securing
additional men, one form of procedure might be to hire di-
rectly at the gate, another to draw a requisition on an em-
ployment department. For all the different responsibilities
that may appe'ar on the responsibility lay-out of a foreman's
job there are always corresponding procedures of some kind
by which those responsibilities are discharged.
Standard Practice. — In most well organized plants for
each responsibility there is a uniform procedure provided for
the discharge of each responsibility ; that is, the same respon-
sibility is always supposed to be discharged in the same way
whenever it comes up, no matter who has it in charge.
In other words, any given responsibility is always to be dis-
charged by the same procedure throughout the whole organ-
ization. Under such conditions we have what may be called
uniform procedure, or standard practice. In many cases
however, it happens that while the responsibility is clearly
defined the particular method of discharging it has not been
set up as standard practice and each foreman discharges
that responsibility according to his own idea as to how it
can best be carried out, that is, no standard practice has
been established.
The Advantage of Including Procedure in the Lay-out.—
Of course, it is evident that this auxiliary information has
nothing to do with the supervisory "lay-out" itself, and the
lay-out can be cofnplete without it. Among some advantages
in considering proper procedure in connection with the super-
visory lay-out might be the following :
' TYING UP PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES 113
(1) It gives a check up on the degree to which the pro-
cedure for all responsibilities is definitely laid out.
(2) It will be of service in connection with recording
and reporting.
(3) It may bring out points where the procedure is not
fully provided for or where no standard procedure has been
established and should be established.
Possibilities as to Procedure. — In considering the relation
of procedure to detailed responsibilities, in general, there are
three possible methods by which any given responsibility can
be discharged: action, recommendation and suggestion, and,
according to the practice, a foreman may discharge different
responsibilities in any of these three ways. It has already
been pointed out that a recommending or suggesting respon-
sibility is just as important as an acting responsibility, and
that where a foreman is expected to suggest or recommend,
such responsibilities should be included in the lay-out.
Special Material. — In addition to setting up a standard
procedure most plants provide special material in the form
of forms, blanks and so on each of which is designed to be
Tised in connection with the discharge of some specific respon-
sibility. Here again tl^ere are generally three possibilities.
(1) A standard -material for all departments.
(2) Different standard material for different de-
partments.
(3) Each foreman makes up his own material.
As an example of these three possible cases, take the case
of making a daily production report. Under the first set of
conditions, a form is provided for all departments ; under the
second set of conditions, each department uses a different
form ; in the third case, a foreman writes out the information
according to his own special ideas, or, perhaps, some foreman
writes out the information and others go to the office and tell
a clerk what the day's production has been.
Tying Up. — ^Whatever the special procedure may be.
Since each responsibility that appears on the lay-out must be
114 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
discharged somehow, and any foreman knows either his owp
special procedure or the standard practice, it is an easy
matter to note, against each item on the lay-out, the particu-
lar procedure by which that responsibility is discharged by
that particular foreman, and when this has been done the
responsibilities have been "tied up" with the procedure
and the detailed responsibility lay-out has become, in fact,
an operating sheet for the foreman's job.
An Illustration. — ^Let it be assumed that one detailed
supervisory responsibility in a given foreman's job is to in-
spect the condition of all stock that comes into the depart-
ment and report the results of that inspection to his imme-
diate superior by ten o'clock each morning, the inspection to
be for breakage. Assume further that this foreman, in mak-
ing out his responsibility lay-out, has used cards and has
made a card catalogue of his detailed responsibility jobs.
The information might appear on such a card as shown below.
SUPERVISION
No._ilL
TqU Report on stock coming in.
Nature. As to breakage.
Report to ^■•- ^'°'*'^-
Material Form No. 153-a
Specifirati"ns "^^ ^ *" ^^ *'^° o'clock each day imtil fur-
ther notice.
Remarks To be attended to personally.
Block. M G. n Reporting.
gp JJ To Immediate Superior.
TYING UP PROCEDURE AND RESPONSIBILITIES 115
Responsibility and Procedure. — In making a responsi-
bility lay-out foremen are often confused between responsi-
bilities and methods by which those responsibilities are
discharged according to the special procedure called for in
the particular plant in question. For example, in many
plants where a foreman does not have an acting responsibility
he does have a recommending or a suggesting responsibility,
but he is apt to think that because he does not have full acting
power he has no responsibility at all. As an illustration,
many foremen have a recommending responsibility for the
employment or the transfer of men where the actual action is
taken by the Employment Department, but in such cases
there is just as much responsibility on the foreman to dis-
charge this recommending responsibility as there would be
if he acted directly.
In making out a responsibility lay-out, responsibilities
should, therefore, be included whether they are acting respon-
sibilities, recommending responsibilities or even suggesting
responsibilities. There are even cases where a foreman has
responsibilities that he has always discharged without think-
ing of them as responsibilities at all. For example, all fore-
men have a deep sense of responsibility for the reduction of
accidents, yet in many cases they will not include these re-
sponsibilities in their lay-out, because they have never been
specifically told that accident prevention was something for
which they were responsible; they have accepted the re-
sponsibility and discharged it without thinking anything
about it.
In making a responsibility lay-out a foreman should,
therefore, be careful to include all points, regardless of the
particular way in which the responsibility is discharged or
whether he has or has not been definitely told that the par-
ticular point under consideration is a part of his job.
CHAPTER IX
THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION
SECTION I. PEELIMINAKY
Preliminary. — ^A foreman may have his supervisory jobs
fuUy defined; he may have listed out aU the responsibilities
that he considers go with his job, under his special condi-
tions ; he may have tied up his different responsibilities
with the standard practice, but he still has to consider how
he can put his various supervisory jobs "across" to the
best advantage.
This chapter takes up the question of the putting over
of supervisory responsibilities without regard to the special
field in which they may lie whether the supervision be direct
supervision or human factor supervision as these terms are
explained below.
What is Meant by Human Factor Supervision. — ^As is
discussed in later chapters a part of the duty of any fore-
man is to observe conditions as to such things as the interest,
the physical condition of the members of his operating force,
or their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with their jobs or
with the working conditions. In noting these conditions he
acts as a supervisor just as much as he does when he checks
up a process or operation, or notes the cohdition of a
machine. Since however in doing this he is noting conditions
that are due to human and not mechanical factors, this sort
of supervision may be called human factor supervision to
distinguish it from direct supervision as taken up in the
next paragraph.
What is Meant by Direct Supervision. — ^As indic£<ted in
the last paragraph, a foreman's responsibilities may be con-
sidered as of two kinds, those relating to securing production
by taking material, doing something to it through operations
and processes, with the aid of tools, equipment, knowledge,
skill and strength, and so turning out a required or standard
lie
THE CONDITIONS OP EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION 117
product and dealing with such information as may be re-
quired in connection with that work— that is, dealing with
things that are not alive. The second kind of responsibilities
are in connection with what has been called "the human fac-
tor," involving such things as satisfaction and interest. As
the term is used here, direct supervision refers to those re-
sponsibilities that do not deal with the human factor, but do
deal with the five blocks, material, tools and equipment,
operations and processes, the distribution of the working
force, and the handling of information.
Kinds of Direct Supervision. — In general, direct super-
vision can be divided into two kinds, as follows :
(1) Regular, or routine, supervision.
(2) Emergency supervision.
Regular or Routine Direct Supervision. — In any depart-
ment, according to the responsibility lay-out, there will be '
certain regular responsibilities that go with the job. As long
as the character of the work is the same, these responsibil-
ities remain the same. For example, a "regular" responsi-
bility might be to inspect twice a day, the condition of smoke-
less powder in storage. This would be a regular or routine
supervisory job. Another regular supervisory job might
be to order the starting or stopping of certain processes in a
chemical plant, as in crystallizing out a product (say, alum),
or in roughing off a casting in a machine shop.
In all such cases a foreman can determine by his respon-
sibility lay-out what these regular responsibilities are, and
his problem is to cover them so as not to miss any of them
and to cover them effectively, but "he knows what is coming
to him" in all cases of this kind of supervisory responsibility.
Emergency Supervision. — ^In addition to the regular
supervision described in the last paragraph unexpected mat-
ters, or emergencies are continually coming up that require
a foreman's attention. This sort of supervision differs from
the regular supervision because nobody can tell in advance
when it will' be called for and, in the great majority of cases.
118 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
whatever calls for such emergency supervision happens with-
out warning and calls for quick action.
A complete responsibility lay-out would show all the dif-
ferent sorts of regular supervision that went with a given
foreman's job, but would not show the emergency supervision
because nobody can tell what it might be. It is true that a
foreman who knows his department can often teU what are
the more probable emergencies that are likely to come up,
because he has had so much experience in dealing with them,
but even then he can never tell when some new one
may come about for the first time or when any of them are
sure to happen.
Supervisory Responsibilities.— A foreman has certaio re-
sponsibilities of both kinds, regular and emergency, and this
chapter takes up some of the more important points as they
apply to supervision of the five blocks already mentioned.
These Responsibilities Independent of What is Super-
vised.— ^It should be noted that the points taken up in this
chapter have nothing to do with the particular character of
what is supervised, as, for example, the particular nature of
operations or processes in any given department, or the
special kind of work jobs, or the particular kind of units of
which the departmental equipment may be made up. They
apply regardless of these matters, and so affect all foremen
regardless of the special job of their department. For ex-
ample, they would apply equally to the head of the shipping
department, the foreman in charge of a maintenance de-
partment or an engineering department, or to the supervisor
in charge of any sort of a production department.
SECTION n. KEGULAB, SUPERVISION
Two Important Points on Regular Supervision. — ^No
matter what sort of work is supervised, there are two import-
ant points that any supervisor should observe in connection
with his regular supervision :
1. His supervision should be complete.
2. His supervision should be balanced.
THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION 119
And supervision will be efficient if these two points, or super-
visory elements are observed.
Complete Supervision. — In connection with the carrying
on of any piece of work, such as a work job in a department,
there are certain points where the foreman must do something
if the work is to continue to go on at aU or to go on right.
To put it the other way, if, at those points, the foreman does
not do something, the job either stops or goes wrong. Such
a point will be called, for convenience, a supervisory responsi-
bility point. Such a supervisory responsibility point might
be the necessity of seeing that a certain product was up to
specifications^ it might mean giving certain orders or direc-
tions, it might mean seeing that stock was renewed in time to
prevent the necessity for shutting down the job; but whatever
it happens to be it calls for some action on the part of
the foreman.
Now there are, in any given supervisory job, a certain
number of these points that call for some action on the fore-
man's part, and if they are not all "covered" the supervision
is not complete. If, in a given foreman's department, there
are, say, one hundred of these acting points, and he only
covers eighty of them, he has done a poor supervising job
from the standpoint of completeness, because he has left
twenty points uncovered.
Complete supervision, therefore, means that all super^
msory responsibilities are discharged. Incomplete super-
vision means that all responsibilities are not discharged, no
matter why. For example, if a foreman had some supervisory
responsibilities in his supervisory job that he never knew that
he had, and so had never discharged them, nevertheless his
supervision would be incomplete.
A plan for getting all the responsibilities in a supervisory
job is described in other chapters, but however it may be
got at, any foreman can properly be held responsible by Ms
superiors for making his supervision complete.
Balanced Supervision. — Jobs or processes, whatever they
120 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
may be, are carried on by people of different degrees of skill,
intelligence, reliability, vary greatly in their simplicity or
difficulty, are carried on under widely varying working condi-
tions and so call for different amounts of supervision. There
may be certain points on a work job where any slip wiU mean
a considerable loss or possibly loss of the whole job, there
may be points on other jobs where "the job can't go wrong
if it tries." The time to find the captain of a steamer on the
bridge is when there is danger of trouble, and the time to find
him off duty is when there is no trouble in sight, and the same
principle applies to a foreman. His supervision should be
properly distributed. He has only a certain amount of time
that he can give to supervision, and it is up to him to dis-
tribute this supervision, or this time, to the best advantage,
especially with regard to what may be called high and low
supervisory points.
High and Low Supervisory Points. — ^All points calling
for supervision can be classified into what were just referred
to as high or low supervisory points, with regard to the care-
ful supervision and the amount of supervision required to
properly take care of them.
For example, in a paint mill, a drawing off job might
include opening and shutting a gate on a paint mixer. If
the man in charge of this work did not open the gate entirely,
the results would be merely a slight time loss, not, of course,
desirable, but not very serious, but if he failed to fully close
the gate after he had fiUed a container with paint and, while
he took that can away and got another, more or less paint
ran on the floor, the resulting loss might be considerable.
The responsibility for seeing that the gate was shut would be
a higher supervising point than that of seeing that it was
fully open.
In the same way, in a machine shop, the operation of
taking a rough cut on a lithe might call for less careful super-
vision than the final cut to accurate dimensions.
In building a house, nailing on covering boards might be
a low supervisory point, but building the front stairs a high
one. The second point for which any foreman can properly
THE CONDITIONS OF EFFECTIVE SUPERVISION
121
be held responsible is, therefore, how he distributes his super-
vision with regard to high and low operating points, that is,
the degree to which his supervision is balanced.
Balanced Supervision. — ^Balanced supervision, as dis-
cussed in the last paragraph, therefore, simply means dis-
charging each supervisory responsibility with regard to the
time and careful attention that are required to look out
properly for that special part of the supervisory job, and is
evidently quite a distinct matter from completeness, as al-
12 3456 7a
ready discussed. A foreman might make his supervision
entirely complete, and yet it might be very badly balanced,
as illustrated in the figure above:
Assuming that there are eight supervisory responsibil-
ities, of different "heights," and three foremen: Foreman A
distributes his supervision equally on all responsibilities ; his
supervision line would appear as in A, giving too much
supervision to responsibilities 2, 4 and 7, and not enough to
1, 3, 5 and 8, only hitting it right on 6.
Foreman B distributes his supervision with regard to high
and low points, and his supervision line shows that he has hit
things about right. Foreman C, taking things as they come,
might have a supervising line which, as shown, fails to give to
any of his supervisory responsibilities the proper value.
Summary — Regular Supervision. — The two points for
which any foreman can be properly held responsible are,
therefore, for supervision that is complete and balanced, and
122 THE FOEJEMAN AND HIS JOB
if his supervision is either iacomplete or badly unbalanced,
he can properly be held responsible by his superiors.
Emergency Supervision. — Section I pointed out that, in
addition to routine supervision, where the responsibilities
were aU known, there were always responsibilities for what is
called emergency supervision.
In many cases, such emergencies cannot be foreseen, but,
when an emergency arises, it is evidently the duty of a fore-
man to act at once, so that it is necessary that while he is on
the job, a foreman should never be "lost," that is, it should
always be possible for him to be reached at once by anyone
in his department. In proportion as he takes measures to see
that this is possible at all times, he is doing a good super-
vision job from the standpoint of emergency supervision.
As an example of this, it is a standing rule in aU well
administered organizatiops that "the ofBce is never vacant."
If, for illustration, the Chief of Division in a Government de-
partment is away from the office some one else is always dele-
gated to be the Acting Head, so that some one is always on the
job with authority to act in case of emergency.
A foreman can, therefore, be properly expected to always
see to it that he is not "lost" in the sense that if he is not
where he can act in an emergency some arrangement has
been made for some one to act at once. The job should not
be left "vacant."
A Foreman's Supervisory Responsibilities. — In carrying
on his supervision, a foreman can, therefore, be held respon-
sible for three things :
1. Balanced supervision.
2. Complete supervision.
3. Being always on the job, either directly or by deputy.
These three points may be called the elements of proper
supervision without regard to the special lines of work that
are to be supervised. The question as to cost elements, man-
agerial problems and suggestion for dealing with these prob-
lems so as to secure balance, completeness and availability
in case of an emergency are taken up in the next chapter as
belonging in the managerial field.
CHAPTER X
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON SUPERVISION
Preliminary. — The last chapter pointed out the condi-
tions for effective supervision : completeness, distribution, ac-
cessibility to the supervisor at all times, and stated that all
foremen could properly be held responsible for so carrying
on their supervisory work that these three points were taken
care of in some way.
In the chapter on making the managerial lay-out* it was
pointed out that for each supervisory responsibility there was
a corresponding managerial responsibility, that this man-
agerial responsibility was to get the supervisory job done as
efficiently as possible, thus setting up a managerial problem,
and that the managerial problem could only be dealt with
by taking into consideration the cost elements that came
into play.
This chapter, therefore, takes up the question of the cost
elements and managerial problems on completeness and dis-
tribution of regular supervision as well as that of avoiding
excess cost due to absence in an emergency, and makes some
suggestion as to ways and means that may be of assistance
to foremen in working out their own managerial problems in
this special part of their job.
Cost Elements — Completeness of Supervision. — ^Among
the more common cost elements that should be taken into
consideration are:
1. Damage or loss due to failure to cover all super-
visory points.
2. "Rowing" as to why the thing went wrong or as to
whose fault it was.
* Chapter IX, Part II.
123
124 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
3. Additional cost due to repairing the damage or loss.
4. Time lost because the worker knew that he needed
supervision and hesitated to go ahead without it.
And a number of others that wiU readily suggest themselves.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is simply to cover all points so that excess cost due to any or
all of the cost elements will either be cut out entirely or, since
one cannot expect 100 per cent, in real life, reduced to the
smallest possible amount, that is, to a minimum.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^It is evident that any method
that aims at dealing effectively with this problem must be
based upon the fact that all responsibilities are known, since
responsibilities that are included in the supervisory job, but
that are not known to exist, of course, will not be discharged.
The first step then is to know all responsibilities that go with
the job as completely as possible.
In doing this there are practically two methods that may
be called for convenience the "guess and pick up method" and
the method by analysis, as already described.*
The "Guess and Pick Up Method."— According to this
method a foreman first guesses that he knows all his responsi-
bilities and, if his guess is not complete he figures that any
uncovered points wiU make trouble and as fast as they do
make trouble he can "pick them up," and add them to the list
of responsibilities that he consciously or unconsciously car-
ries in his head. Working in this way as time goes on he
gradually builds up a fairly complete list 'of the responsi-
bilities that go with his job, at the expense of the job. The
longer he is on the job the more experience he has had, the
more likely he is to come somewhere near finally knowing
what his responsibilities are.
The Method of Analysis. — ^The second method makes use
of the methods of analysis as described in Part II. By using
such a classified list as is given there and working through the
method as described, a supervisory lay-out can be worked out
•Chapters III and IV, Part II.
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 125
to any desired degree of detail, can be checked up with other
foremen, with superiors and with any others who may have
something to do with the job, so that a fairly accurate lay-
out or inventory of responsibilities can be obtained.
The Analysis Method the Better. — The only reaUy effec-
tive managerial "tool" fdr securing complete supervision is
to use the method of analysis. If this is done, supervision
can, if desired, be checked up against a supervision schedule
so as to be sure that practically all points are covered.
Disadvantages of the "Guess" Method. — The great dis-
advantage of the "guess" method for handling balance and
completeness is that the foreman has no guarantee either
that he has completely covered his job or that he has dis-
tributed his supervision according to the different require-
ments of different operating points. He has only his past
experience and his general notions to go by. He "guesses"
that Bin Jones is "safe" for a while and that he has "to see
what Sam is doing." He is liable not to "cover" points that
especially need "covering" and put time on points that do
not need covering. For example, in a pressroom it might be
up to the foreman to O. K. the make-up on the press before
the run was started. This might require careful supervision
as the quality of the whole job is involved. After the run is
started but little supervision is needed, and the pressman
knows when the job is finished without any supervision.
Working by "guess" the foreman might let passing on the
make-up "get by" in the pressure of other work, then might
remember just enough to tell him when the run was finished.
In a nitric-acid plant it might be very important to super-
vise the gravity of the acid run into the retort because using
acid of the wrong gravity might spoil the whole operation.
This might be a "high" supervisory point, while the operation
of the retort after the operation was started might be a "low"
point ; that is, might require only occasional supervision. A
foreman running by "guess" with a number of other jobs to
supervise might well fail to give this particular high point
proper supervision.
126 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
A good deal of the danger of the "guess" method lies in
the fact that a man looking out for a number of j obs is very
liable to lose his sense of relative values on supervisory points.
Some men are liable to get into the habit of making their
rounds and "picking things up as they come" instead of plan-
ning their supervision according to "high" and "low" super-
visory points as discussed in the last chapter.
Another difficulty lies in the fact that foremen who are
thoroughly familiar with their jobs may have dropped into a
certain routine based upon convenience, lay-out of the plant,
etc., and which was not originally based on any definite study
of the supervisory requirements of the job.
Still another form of the "guess" method is "living from
hand to mouth." A foreman has no plan for supervision. He
takes up points as they happen to come to his attention or
are brought to his attention by his men.
The "guess" method has all the disadvantages of the old
method of building a ship by whittling out a model, as com-
pared with the present methods of naval construction. A
man may do a good shipbuilding job, but he does not know
how he did it or why he got a good job.
Of course, many intelligent and experienced foremen do
do a good supervising job by the "guess" method, but, in
general, they have to work harder and are always in danger
of letting points get by, especially when the character of the
work changes.
Another danger of the "guess" method is that it is liable
to lead to a situation where "the work runs the foreman
instead of the foreman ruiming the work." He loses his
control of the job.
The First Analysis not Always Perfect. — ^While it is true
that an analysis of a supervisory job as first made cannot
always be expected to catch all points, it will come much
nearer doing it because it is worked out carefully and all
points are "naUed down." If some points are not included
they can be, in turn, "nailed" the first time that they show up
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 127
and need never be lost again, so that a practically 100 per
cent, lay-out can be built up in a relatively short time.
Use of the Lay-out to Secure Complete Supervision. —
Having once secured a supervisory lay-out, it is easy to see
if, in practice, any points that appear on the lay-out are not
being covered, and to cover them from that time on. Some
other advantages that came out of the use of a lay-out have
already been taken up in preceding chapters and so are not
given here.
Checking Responsibility Points Against the Job
Analysis. — The job analysis shows all operations in all jobs
in all departmental jobs. The supervisory lay-out shows
aU responsibility points, as far as they have been "spotted."
If each operation, as shown on the departmental job analysis,
is considered with regard to whether it does or does not
call for direct supervision, some of the following situations
may appear :
(1) Some operations calling for supervision may have
been left out on the supervisory lay-out.
(2) Some points that appear on the supervisory lay-out
may not be supervisory points after all.
For example, under many conditions, say in a small job
machine shop or in tool making, a j ob is turned over entirely
to a skilled man. While the foreman, of course, is responsible
for the product, as a matter of trade custow,, when he- has
once said, "BUI, get that out," the skilled workmen would be
responsible for doing that job. The foreman would not
"butt in" while the job was going on, but might (and prob-
ably would) inspect the product.
Under such conditions, the foreman would assume no di-
rect responsibility for the way in which the work was done,
but would assume direct responsibility only for the product.
Of course, this condition of things is less likely to happen
in a highly organized plant, or on highly specialized work in
large plants, and is much more likely to happen in small
plants employing highly skilled workers, but it is a condition
128 THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB
that may occur and often does occur, and where it does, may
aifect the supervisory lay-out as originally planned.
An effective managerial device for back checking on the
completeness and correctness of the supervisory lay-out as
originally prepared, therefore, is to check the lay-out against
a departmental job analysis.
The Method of Analysis not Conxmonly Used. — The
method of analysis as applied to supervisory jobs is not com-
monly used by foremen to secure complete and balanced
supervision. There are a number of reasons for this, of
which the most common is the simple fact that the value of
this method has never been brought to their attention or
they have had no experience in using it and so do not appreci-
ate its value. Some other reasons why many foremen have
not used an analysis are:
(1) It is a difficult thing to make an accurate and careful
analysis, and the more experience a man has had on his super-
visory job the more difficult he finds analysis work.
(This because the more familiar a man is with his work
the more difficult it is for him to "stand off and look at him-
self" and see what he actually does.)
(2) Many foremen think that the trouble will not pay
in cost saving, which is not the case.
(3) Because the other way is the easiest and a foreman
is often so hard pressed for time that he naturally takes the
easier method.
In spite of all of these difficulties, wherever foremen have
learned to make supervisory analyses and to use them in their
work their almost universal testimony has been that they
have been well repaid for their time and trouble. The remain-
ing chapters in this book are intended to aid foremen in using
the methods of analysis in connection with their work, in
making and using analyses in the ways in which they can
be used to help in carrying on a foreman's various jobs to
better advantage.
Cost Elements — Balance of Supervision. — ^Among the
cost elements that may come up here are:
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 129
(1) Loss or damage due to failure to give sufficient at-
tention to "high" superAdsory points.
(2) Loss of time through giving more attention than is
necessary to "low" supervisory points.
(3) Time spent on things that do not require supervision
instead of on points that do need it ; that is, wasting super-
visory time. Where a supervisor spends time on something
that does not need supervision, even if he thinks that it does,
he is doing the same thing that a workman does when he "sol-
diers on.the job." It looks as though he were doing something
when really he is doing nothing that counts on the job. This
might be called imitation supervision.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is to reduce cost by getting the best possible balance of super-
vision, that is, by making the most of supervisory time.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^As in the case of complete-
ness of supervision, the "guess method" or the method of
analysis can be used, and, as in the other case, is far more
effective. Where there is a good supervisory lay-out and a
good departmental and job analysis is available it is a com-
paratively easy matter to determine the relative "supervis-
ory value" of all supervisory responsibilities and locate all
the "high" and "low" supervisory points. This usually calls
for at least a detailed responsibility lay-out and, in certain
cases, may require analyzing some detailed responsibilities
into responsibility points by the method already described.
Once worked out, however, it gives a permanent control sheet
on the distribution of routine supervision that wUl always
be of service in keeping the job much better balanced than
it is likely to be where the " guess " method Is relied upon.
Cost Elements— "Getting Lost."— The cost elements here
are so numerous when one considers what may happen in an
emergency that no attempt is made to suggest any special
ones. This is a case where such cost elements should simply
be cut out.
The<Managerial Problem.— The managerial problem here
130 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
is to plan in some way so that the department is never left
so that the foreman cannot be quickly reached, or so that
some one in the department has authority to act in
an emergency during his absence.
Dealing with the Problem. — As just indicated, the only
eifective way of dealing with this problem is, first, to avoid
getting "lost," that is, never to allow a situation to come
about where nobody in the department knows how to reach the
foreman in an emergency, and second, if that is not possible,
to have some one in the department designated to act in his
absence and have everybody Tcnow who that indimdual is. Of
course conditions vary, but in general the two methods sug-
gested are at least worth consideration under any conditions.
It should be clearly understood that the chief reason for the
precautions suggested is not what does happen, but what
may happen. Many departments can run along for a good
while without needing any special supervision, but the range
of what may happen is what makes it necessary to consider
the problem of emergency supervision as so important.
The Value of Anticipating and Planning. — ^Another valu-
able managerial device in connection with emergency super-
vision is, so far as it can be anticipated, planning in advance
to deal with the emergency if it happens. This is why
steamers carry boats which everybody hopes will never have
to be used. First aid kits are provided with the same idea.
While, as already stated, a supervisory lay-out would not
include emergencies, it might be an excellent idea to also list
out probable emergencies and to plan for dealing with them
if they happen ; if they don't, no harm has been done ; if they
do happen, advance planning may not only greatly reduce
cost but, in some cases, may save life. A number of sugges-
tions as to such advance planning to meet emergencies will
be found in the following chapters and it is hoped will be of
value as suggestions.
From the standpoint of emergency supervision, any fore-
man will do a better supervising job in proportion as he sees
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 131
that he is always where he can be reached, and so far as he
can anticipate possible emergencies and plans his action in
advance. A good example of planning, or not planning, in
advance would be in the case of fire.
It may never happen, but sometimes it does happen, and
if it does, we know that certain things are likely to occur,
panic, for example, unless steps have been taken to prevent
it. One foreman, we will say, has done nothing ; another fore-
man has seen to it that his force have had fire drill and that
all fire escapes are known and, in general, has done all that
he can to prevent damage and loss of life, if a fire occurs.
The second foreman has evidently discharged his responsi-
bility for emergency supervision for this particular emer-
gency better than the first and will be more than repaid for
his time and trouble if, as a result of his planning, when a
fire does come, there is no panic, no loss of life, and, as a
secondary consideration, minimum damage.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PART III
1. The following is the lay-out for a job in a
chemical plant.
a. FiU with liquor.
b. Boil out.
c. Drain.
d. Fill with water.
e. Test gravity of liquor.
If under a certain gravity drain to one set of tanks, if
over, drain, to another tank.
Which of these operations would you consider as high
and which as low supervisory points?
2. In making alum the following are the essen-
tial operations.
132 THE FOREMAN A>fD HIS JOB
1. Mix the ore, the acid and water in the attack-
ing tanks.
2. Heat with steam coils.
3. Allow to settle.
4. Draw off clear liquor.
6. Let liquor cool and crystalize out the alum, in
lead lined ^tanks.
6. Draw off the mother liquor.
7. Break up the crystalized alum with picks.
Which of these operations would you consider as high
and which as low supervisory points ?
3. In a machine shop which would you consider the
higher supervisory point, seeing that a planer job was set
up right or seeing that the job was got out within the limits
of tolerance.''
4. In a pressman's job on a job press which would be
the higher supervisory point, seeing that the make ready was
right or the feeding.''
6. Which would you consider the higher supervisory
point, seeing that there were workers enough to hold all jobs
or that all machines were in good condition?
6. Taking an analysis of a job in your own department
spot the high supervisory points. The low supervisory points.
7. What do you consider some of the high supervisory
points on the different jobs in your department.'' Why?
8. Which do you consider the more important, well-
balanced supervision or emergency supervision?
9. Which would you consider the higher supervisory
point, looking out for any cases where men are overfatigued
or looking out for cases where they fail to follow instruc-
tions? Why?
10. As between the human elements and the mechanical
elements on the jobs in your department which do you think
have the greater nmnber of high supervisory points? Why?
11. In your opinion what might be some of the cost ele-
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON SUPERVISION 133
ments that might come up if supervision was incomplete on
routine work?
12. In a certain plant the finished product of one depart-
ment was taken out of that department and placed on a
loading platform outside of the shop where transportation
came and got it at certain times. Between these times the
material accumulated on the loading platform. One day,
while material was on the platform but before it was time
for the truck to come around, a rain squall came up and the
material was wet down and damaged.
Investigation showed that neither the foreman in charge
of the shop where the material was made nor the foreman in
charge of transportation considered that they were responsi-
ble. What does this case indicate as to completeness of
somebody's supervision? Whose's?
13. How would you designate a failure to take steps
to quickly put out a fire if it got started?
14. In a certain plant it was found that, in some cases,
fire extinguishers were used and then were put back without
reporting the fact that they had been used. Would you
say this was due to incomplete supervision or to unbalanced
supervision? Why?
15. Using a work job analysis as a starting point note
on it the high and low supervisory points. Give reasons why
you rate the different points as you do.
16. A certain job calls for weighing different quantities
to make up a mixture and then for mixing these quantities
in a mechanical mixer. Which of these operations would you
say had the higher supervisory value? Why?
PART'IV
THE ANALYSIS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF
THE WORKING FORCE BLOCK INTO SPE-
CIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES
CHAPTER XI
DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES ON
THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE WORKING FORCE
SECTION I. PKELIMINAEY
Preliminary.— The preceding chapters have described
the methods by which the supervisory and managerial jobs
of a foreman can be laid out up ta the determination of the
general responsibilities. It was moreover, pointed out that
the lay-out could be extended further in detail by laying out
the general responsibilities into detailed responsibilities and
then laying out the specific responsibilities that go with each
detailed responsibility. For each detailed responsibility
there can also be determined the detailed cost elements, the
detailed managerial problem and the detailed ways and
means for dealing with that problem to the best advantage.
As an illustration of how this further extension of the lay-
out can be made the following chapters take up such an
extension of the lay-out for a number of general responsi-
bilities, including those on the distribution of the working
force and on the handling of information.
With the aid of the charts the other general responsibili-
ties can be laid out for specific and detailed responsi-
bilities in the same way wherever that further extension of
the lay-out seems desirable, for either supervision, manage-
ment or for both. The general responsibility lay-out on page
61 showed one block on the working force and two general
responsibilities: (1) for keeping up the working force, and
(2) for the distribution of the working force. This chapter
deals with some of the more probable specific and detailed
responsibilities that may come into these general responsi-
bilities, as a suggestion to foremen who may wish to carry
the analysis of their jobs beyond the point of the general
responsibilities as given in Part II.
1S7
138
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
SOME DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSIBILITIES IN
THE WORKING FORCE BLOCK
Keeping up the
Working Force
Dealing with Per-
manent Labor '
Loss
Dealing with Tem-
porary Labor
Loss
Hiring '
Discharging '
Securing transfers of
workers from other
departments *
Transferring workers to
other departments *
" Doubling up "
Making temporary trans-
fers
Covering all Jobs I As to number of workers
Distributing the De-
partmental Work-
ing Force
Covering all jobs
(Qualifications of
■workers)
As to necessary strength
As to necessary job
knowledge
As to necessary job skill
On highly skilled jobs
On medium skilled jobs
On specialized jobs
On machine tending jobs
On laborers jobs
Making transfers
from one grade
of job to an-
other
Promoting +
Demoting +
Shifting from one job
to another of the same
grade
* By recommendation, direct action or suggestion, as the case may be.
+ By recommendation, direct action or suggestion, as the case may be.
Labor Loss. — In any concern there is always some
amount of labor loss due to various causes, but whatever the
cause there is always a responsibility on somebody to see that
this loss is made up in some way, and this responsibility for
dealing with labor loss may be a part of the foreman's job.
The Two Kinds of Labor Loss. — There are two kinds of
labor loss, that is, the department may be "shy" on labor in
two ways :
1. The department may actually lack a sufficient number
of workers to cover all jobs on account of what may be
called permanent loss. In this case the loss is due to the fact
that somebody has gone off the departmental payroll for
good. He has been fired, has quit, or for some other cause
DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKII^G FORCE ISO
has gone for good so far as the departmental operating force
is concerned.
Evidently loss of this kind must be made good by bring-
ing new workers into the department from somewhere : by hir-
ing, by transferring from some other department, or in some
other way.
One specific responsibility, as indicated on the chart,
might therefore he in connection with dealing with permanent
labor loss. This form of labor loss is discussed in Section II.
2. A different case would be where somebody is still on
the payroll but is not on the job : Although he is still theoreti-
cally employed, as a matter of fact his place is empty. He
may have "taken a day oif," he may be sick, he may be laid
up on account of accident, but, whatever the cause, there is a
temporary hole to "plug" in some way, but not by per-
manently taking on new workers. This sort of loss may be
called temporary loss.
Distribution of the Working Force.— The general re-
sponsibility for the distribution of the working force as given
above can be subdivided into three specific responsibilities,
as indicated.
1. Covering all jobs. That is, a responsibility for seeing
that no job in the department stops because there is nobody
on it. This possible responsibility is taken up in Section IV.
2. Providing the necessary minimum strength, knowledge
or skill on all jobs. Any job requires a certain kind and
degree of "job" knowledge or skill and often requires a cer-
tain amount of physical strength. If the worker on that job
does not possess these qualifications sufficiently to meet the
minimum requirements, the job cannot go on — it stops.
Somebody must be responsible for seeing that no job stops
because the worker assigned to it cannot put over the job
at aU, and this responsibility may be a part of the foreman's
job, to be put across either through action, recommendation,
or suggestion, according to the procedure. This possible
responsibility and some possible detailed responsibilities in
this connection are discussed in Section V.
140 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
3. Making transfers from one grade to another. One
possible way of adjusting the working force to meet labor loss
is by transferring from one j ob to another.
SECTION n. KEEPING UP THE WORKING FORCE PERMANENT
U\.BOS LOSS
Preliminary. — ^This section discusses some of the possible
detailed responsibilities that may come out of the specific
responsibility for dealing with permanent labor loss. Some
of the more probable of these that may come into a foreman's
job are, as indicated on the chart:
1. Hiring;
2. Discharging.
3. Securing transfers from other departments.
4. Getting workers transferred to other departments.
These possible responsibilities are so evident that they need
little discussion and are only noted very briefly in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
Hiring. — The only point worth drawing attention to in
connection with this special possible detailed responsibility
is that there is a responsibility here whenever a foreman's
job includes anything to do with the securing of help.
Whether he is expected to get his men himself, or even to "hire
at the gate," or whether a part of his job is to suggest desir-
able employees to an employment department, or where he
sends in requisitions for new workers, he has responsibilities
under this heading.
Discharging. — The same general statement applies here
as in the case of hiring.
Securing Transfers. — ^As in the other cases there is a
responsibility here if the foreman's job includes any action as
to transfers, whether it is by direct action with other fore-
men or through an employment department, or in any
other way.
In all the three cases noted above the only question is
whether the job of the particular foreman under considera-
tion does or does not include detailed responsibilities with
DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKING FORCE 141
regard to hiring, firing and transferring. In considering this
point many foremen are liable to think that they have no
responsibilities in this connection, because they do not act
directly, but, as has been repeatedly stated, if there is any
recommending or even suggesting responsibility it should be
included in the specific and detailed responsibility lay-out for
that particular foreman's job. So far as the department
is concerned it must be remembered that loss by discharge,
by quitting, by transfer to other departments or by promo-
tion out of the department means permanent labor loss to the
department, if not always to the plant as a whole, so that
any responsibilities that affect any of these points should be
listed under one of the detailed responsibilities given. Thus,
for example, a foreman may have the responsibility for rec-
ommending for promotion out of the department, although
the actual action may come from "higher up," or he may
have the responsibility for finding out why a worker quit, or
he may be expected to "scout around" for additional help,
even if the actual formal responsibility is on an employment
department. In all such cases there would be responsibilities
under the headings given, though, at, first, a man would be
likely to say that matters of that kind were outside of his
job and leave them out of his lay-out.
SECTION m. KEEPING UP THE WOEKING FOECE TEMPOEAEY
LABOE LOSS
Preliminary. — ^As pointed out in the preliminary section,
another set of detailed responsibilities may come into the job
of a foreman in connection with temporary labor loss. These
are taken up so far as they are suggested on the chart, in
the following paragraphs.
"Doubling Up." — In cases of temporary absence it is
sometimes necessary to put one worker on all or a part of the
job of the absentee in addition to his own job in order to keep
all the work going. This is, of course, an inefficient device,
but it may be the only thing that can be done. Where a fore-
142 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
man has the responsibility of deciding when such "doubling
up" is necessary, he has some form of responsibility under
this heading, whether he acts directly or by recommendation.
Temporary Transfers. — ^In the same way as in "doubling
up," it may be necessary to take somebody away from a less
important job in order to deal with temporary absence on a
more important job. Where the responsibility of doing this,
or recommending that it be done, is up to the foreman, he
has a detailed responsibility under this heading.
SECTION rv. DISTKIBUTING THE WORKING FORCE COVERING
ALL JOBS
Prelirtjinary. — This section discusses some possible de-
tailed responsibilities in connection with covering all jobs as
noted in Section I.
Skill, Knowledge and Strength on the Job. — ^Practically
all jobs are carried on partly by the worker and partly by
the machine or the tools, in fact, it might be said that the
worker does whatever the machine or the tools cannot do in
helping the worker to do the job. The machine or the tools
may aid the worker to a greater or to a less extent, but in
practically all cases the machine cannot entirely supply all
the strength, may supply a part of the "skill" and can supply
no knowledge. For practically all jobs, therefore, there must
be provided workers who can supply the necessary strength,
knowledge and skill, and in assigning workers to jobs it is
evident that these "job requirements" must be known and
taken into consideration to the extent of seeing that whoever
is put on the job possesses the necessary strength, the special
knowledge and the special skill to "hold down the job." If
this is not done the work will not be done. Under the detailed
responsibility for covering all jobs there may, therefore, be
possible detailed responsibilities, as indicated on the
chart for :
1. Covering all jobs as to necessary strength.
DISTRIBUTION OP THE WORKING FORCE • 143
2. Covering all jobs as to necessary special knowledge.
(Job knowledge.)
3. Covering aU. jobs as to necessary special skill.
Where a foreman finds that he has a specific responsi-
bility for covering jobs he probably has all three of these
detailed responsibilities.
Different Grades of Jobs. — ^Different jobs vary in the
relative amounts of strength, knowledge and skill, and this
fact is commonly indicated by the use of the terms "skilled,"
"specialized" and "unskilled." The terms as used on the
chart are somewhat more specific and are used here in thfe
sense given below.
Highly Skilled Jobs. — Jobs designated by this term are
those that belong to what are commonly called skilled trades,
such as "all around" machinists, pattern makers, etc.,
where both the amount and the degree of knowledge and skill
are high.
Medium Skilled Jobs. — Jobs designated by this term are
those that belong to what are commonly called "semi-skilled"
trades. These jobs often require a high degree of skill but
do not require as wide a range of knowledge.
Specialized Jobs. — Jobs designated here by this term are
jobs or operations that belong to a skilled or semi-skilled
trade, such as operating one machine in the machine shop
(lathe hand, miller hand, planer hand) or other similar jobs.
Machine Tending Jobs. — ^As used here, this term refers
to jobs where the machine does nearly all the work, as in the
case of tending an automatic screw machine or gear cutter,
or a ring spinning frame in a cotton mill.
Laborers' Jobs. — ^As used here, this term refers to jobs
that require only the use of the simplest tools and machines,
if any. The term is used in its ordinary sense and needs no
special explanation.
Why it is Worth While to Distinguish Between Grades
of Jobs in Making the Lay-out of Specific Responsibilities. —
The distinction between the different grades of jobs is worth
making in the detailed responsibility lay-out because the
144 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
grade of the jobs for whose covering the foreman may be
responsible "cuts considerable ice" in connection with the
managerial side of the job, and often affects the conditions
under which the responsibilities must be discharged. This
matter is taken up in the discussion on managerial responsi-
bilities and so is not considered further here.
SECTION V. DISTEIBUTION OF THE WOEKJNG FORCE MAKING
TRANSFERS FROM ONE GRADE TO ANOTHER
Preliminary. — One possible method of dealing with the
question of the distribution of the working force is to transfer
either from one job to another or to transfer from jobs of one
grade to those of another grade. Some possible detailed
responsibilities that may come into the foreman's job in this
connection are discussed in this section as suggested on
the chart.
Promoting and Demoting. — ^If a foreman has any respon-
sibilities in this connection, either by direct action, by recom-
mendation or by suggestion, he should include these items in
his detailed responsibility lay-out. This matter should be
given careful attention, because many foremen feel, at first
thought, that unless they have direct acting authority in the
matter they have no responsibility, which is, of course, not
the case. This is especially important, because, as is dis-
cussed in the chapters on the human factor, the manner in
which these responsibilities are discharged sets up some of
the most difficult managerial problems, so that any foreman
should be very sure that he has no responsibilities under these
headings before he omits them from his responsibility lay-out.
Shifting Jobs. — This is often a very important responsi-
bility in connection with the distribution of the working force
and, in some form, comes into the job of almost all foremen.
It is important for much the same reasons as were given for
promoting and demoting, and, according to the way that it
is handled, may greatly affect the cost of labor in the depart-
ment, as is fuUy discussed in the chapter on the human factor.
A foreman should be very sure that he has neither acting,
recommending or suggesting responsibilities before he omits
this detailed responsibility from his lay-out.
CHAPTER Xn
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE
WORKING FORCE
SECTION I. PaEUiaNABY
Preliminary. — ^It has already been pointed out that
a foreman's supervisory job might include a number of de-
tailed and specific responsibilities in connection with the
distribution of the working force. This chapter suggests a
number of corresponding possible cost elements and manage-
rial problems in this part of the foreman's job.
As in other cases, these managerial problems are not fuUy
considered nor would all of those mentioned probably come
into the managerial job of any one foreman. It is also true
that there are probably cost elements and corresponding
managerial problems that are not included. As in all other
cases, each foreman must make up his own set of cost ele-
ments, and the corresponding managerial problems from his
own supervisory lay-out.
This Chapter Deals With Worker Distribution Only. —
It should be noted that this chapter deals with "worker dis-
tribution" only, that is, with the cost elements and man-
agerial problems that come up in connection with "covering"
aU human operating points in the department with workers
possessing the necessary strength, knowledge and skill. The
questions relating to dealing with workers as men or women
are taken up in the chapters on " The Human Factors."*
SECTION n. cbvEUING AIL JOBS
It was pointed out in the last chapter that one possible
specific responsibility in the case of any given foreman might
be to see that all human operating points on all the jobs in
•Chapters XV, XVII and XXII.
10 145
146 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
his department were properly covered, and this responsibility
was taken up under "The Distribution of the Working
Force," and the term is used in that sense here.
This section therefore, suggests some of the possible
cost elements and managerial problems in connection with
the distribution of the working force.
Cost Elements on the Distribution of the Working
Force. — ^Among the more important cost elements in connec-
tion with the distribution of the working force are :
1. The number of workers employed.
2. The necessary knowledge, strength or skill required
to cover the human operating points in the department.
3. The number of human operating points that must be
covered in the department.
4. The number and kind of reserve workers carried,
if any.
The cost will, therefore, be increased or reduced in pro-
portion as :
1. The degree to which the number of workers employed
is what may be called the economic number, the cost going
up whenever that number is exceeded or when less than that
number are employed, that is, a foreman can increase his cost
by employing too many workers or by not employing enough.
2. The degree to which each human operating point is
covered with the minimum Tiecessary job knowledge or skill,-.
or even, in some cases, the least necessary physical strength.
That is, a foreman can increase his cost by putting too high
grade a worker on a given job or by putting on a man that is
of too low a grade.
3. In general, it costs less to cover machine operating
points than it does to cover human operating points, since
human knowledge or skill is usually more expensive than
machine work, so that whenever a foreman can choose between
making a given operation a human or a machine operating
point and makes it a human operating point as a general
proposition he increases his cost, although there are many
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 147
exceptions to this rule, and, in many cases there is no choice,
in the matter so far as the foreman is concerned.
3. It is evident that the greater the number of human
operating points in the work jobs in the department the
greater the cost as a general proposition, since this means
doing more work with men and less with maciiines.
4. On account of absenteeism and other causes, it is often
necessary to carry more workers than are required to handle
the work of the department at any one time. Evidently, in
this case, if this "reserve" is too small and jobs have to stop
on account of lack of workers the cost goes up, and if too
many reserve workers are employed the cost also goes up, so
that, where this matter comes into the job of a foreman he
will hold down his cast in hitting what may be called again
the "economic point on reserve operating force."
Since these matters may be of considerable importance
in some cases, they are taken up in some detail in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
A. THE NUMBER OF WORKERS EMPLOYED IN A DEPARTMENT
The Number of Employees. — Since all employees are
paid, the greater the number of men employed on any given
job the greater the cost on that job, so that, all other things
being equal, the fewer the men employed on the job, provided
they are not overworked, the less the cost of production.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem, so
far as the number of men employed is concerned, is to hold
the size of the force down to the point where all human oper-
ating points can be covered to the best advantage.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^It is evident that the man-
agerial problem here is a very complicated one, because so
many of the human factors come in, such as fatigue. Interest,
satisfaction and so on, as discussed in other chapters. So
far as the matter is taken up here, it is only considered from
the "non-human factor" standpoint, leaving the other side
of the matter to be discussed later.
Serial and Simultaneous Operating Points. — In any job
148 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
analysis the human operating points may come along one
after the other, or there may be cases where we find at the
same time more than one point at which a man's services are
required. That is, we may or may not have simultaneous
operating points. In such a case cost is evidently increased
if only one man is put on the job, because either the job
cannot be done, or two operating points that should be
covered at the same time must be covered one after the- other.
If this number of absolute requirements is' exceeded, the cost
naturally is increased. For example, in a case of excavating
for a ditch, there may be three human operating points :
(1) Throwing the dirt out of the ditch.
(2) Loading into the cart.
( 3) Dumping from the cart.
If the conditions are such that only one man can suc-
cessfully be used at each point and an attempt is made to
put a second man on that point, not only is cost increased in
point of money expended, but the time is increased because
the men get in one another's way. If, on the other hand, one
man was expected to cover all the points, one by one, it would
take him longer, which would probably increase the cost, on
account of the increased time required.
The Economic Point for the Number of Men on the
Job. — The degree to which exactly the right number of men
are used and the degree to which each man is assigned to a
point where a man can most effectively work, will keep costs
at a minimum. It may be possible to have the correct number
of men on a job and have them so distributed that at some
points a greater number than are required will be working,
while at others a not sufficient number might be used ; that is,
the distribution of even the correct number can very often
cause costs to be increased.
The Use of the Job Analysis. — As in a number of cases
already discussed, while the special means adopted for deal-
ing with cost elements due to the number of workers employed
will va»y according to the special conditions, the problem
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 149
will, in general, be better handled if the necessary number of
workers is determined for any given set of conditions from a
study of the actual facts rather than as a result of mere
"guessing." This means that the necessary information must
be collected by somebody if the job is to be handled in good
shape. As in a number of cases already noted, one of the
most effective managerial "tricks" is the use of the job
analysis as a starting point. With a good lay-out of jobs,
operations and operating points worked out as described in
Chapter III, it is possible to accurately determine the vari-
ous human operating points and their requirements, whether
they are serial or simultaneous and so on, and so determine
just how many men will be required and where they are re-
quired. While, as everybody knows, this sort of thing can-
not be worked out to a mathematical point, such a "dis-
tribution lay-out" as suggested is a great help in dealing
with this problem from the managerial standpoint and will
enable any foreman who has responsibilities of this sort to
distribute his working force at all times so as to cover his
operating points on his departmental work jobs with the
least waste of knowledge and skill. That is, with the fewest
cases of workers standing around with nothing to do, and
with all human operating points covered at all times.
SECTION in. KEEPING DP THE WORKING EOKCE IN THE DEPAET-
MENT TEMPORARY LOSS
Preliminary. — The last section took up the distribution
of the working force as if the make-up of this force always
remained the same and the managerial problem was merely to
properly distribute all workers with regard to the human
operating points on the different work jobs in the depart-
ment. In practice, of course, this condition rarely if ever
exists. There is always more or less change in the force, a
greater or less amount of turnover. For various reasons the
operating force always tends to become smaller; workers
leave, are transferred or are discharged; men are laid off
150 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
when work . is slack and are taken on when work comes
up again.
All of this means that in addition to the matter of proper
distribution of the working force there is always the responsi-
bility of keeping up the force and, either by direct action,
by recommendation or by suggestion this responsibility often
comes into the foreman's job.
This section, therefore, discusses some of the cost elements
and managerial problems that come out of the necessity for
keeping up the working force in which, as wiU be pointed out,
a foreman, if he has any responsibility in the matter, can do
much to increase or cut down costs, according to the care
that he gives to the way in which these responsibilities
are discharged.'
Keeping up the Working Force. — Since for any depart-
ment there must be a certain number of workers to "man" all
operating points, this number must be kept up, and if, due to
any cause, discharge, quitting, absence and so on, the force
drops below this point some part of the work must stop.
That is, if all the work is to be kept going the number of
workers must be somehow kept up to the necessary working
minimum. Whatever the special cause for the operating
force falling below the minimum necessary to carry on the
work, practically all causes can be "headed up" into one of
two cases :
1. Permanent loss of workers.
2. Temporary loss of workers.
These two kinds of loss are taken up in the following para-
graphs. Although these terms have already been explained,
they are repeated here for convenience.
What is Meant by Permanent Loss. — ^As the term is used-
here, permanent loss means that the worker is gone for good,
has quit, been transferred or has been discharged.
What is Meant by Temporary Loss. — ^As the term is used
here, temporary loss means that the worker is out, but, so
far as anybody knows, is coming back ; he has taken a day off,
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 161
is ill, or for some other reason is temporarily out of the de-
partment and therefore off the job.
Cost Elements. — The general cost elements here may be
as follows :
For temporary loss, the temporary replacement cost.
For permanent loss, the permanent replacement cost.
Cost Elements — ^Temporary Loss. — ^Among the more
common cost elements on temporary labor loss are :
1. Production loss on operating equipment while some-
body else is put on the j ob.
2. The cost of carrying extra workers.
3. Possible falling off in quality or quantity of produc-
tion due to the necessity of putting less experienced workers
on the job.
4. Increased possibility of accidents and damage to tools
or equipment due to the putting on of workers who are less
used to the job.
5. Possible dissatisfaction on the part of workers
who are transferred or who have to "double up" to meet
the emergency.
6. In case of serial jobs, as in a shoe factory or a gar-
ment factory, loss of production on several jobs that depend
on the job of the absentee.
7. Time lost in arguments and discussion as to whether
the absence was really necessary.
These, of course, are general possibilities, all of which
might not come up in any one case and, for any given case,
there would probably be others not given here, which will
readily occur to any foreman, but those given are enough to
form a basis for the following suggestions as to dealing with
the problem.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problems
here are really of two kinds :
(a) To reduce loss due to absenteeism to a minimqm.
(b) To plan in advance, so that loss due to necessary
absence is made as small as possible.
152 THE FOREMAN AND EOS JOB
Dealing with the Problem — Reducing Absenteeism. — ^In
general, absenteeism is either necessary or unnecessary.
Necessary absenteeism might be due to such causes as sick-
ness, either of the worker himself or in his family, accident,
really important personal matters that must be attended to
during working hours, and, of course, when really necessary,
cannot be reduced.
Unnecessary absence, of course, in theory, can be entirely
cut out, but in practice can only be held down. Some workers
wiU always stay out for unnecessary reasons, and the best
that can be done is to reduce this sort of thing as much
as possible.
Among the managerial devices for doing this are those
suggested in the following paragraphs :
, Unnecessary Absenteeism. — ^Unnecessary absence is al-
most always due to mental attitude, as discussed in Part
VII and, of course, if the mental attitude of all workers
was right on this point there would be no unnecessary ab-
sences. Unfortunately, however, this condition of mind rarely
exists in all members of the working force and so the matter
of unnecessary absenteeism becomes an important managerial
problem for most foremen.
Some of the causes of unnecessary absence are;
(a) Ignorance.
(b) Lack of sense of responsibility.
(c) Laziness.
Unnecessary Absence Dpe to Ignorance. — ^In many cases,
especially with young workers, unnecessary absence is due to
the fact that they really have no idea that absence makes any
difference to anybody but themselves. For example, a girl
employed on a serial operation in a garment factory and
working on piecework often thinks, "If I stay out I lose
my money and that is nobody's business except my own."
She may be perfectly honest in this belief, because she is
entirely ignorant of the fact that her absence not only costs
the concern money, but may cost some of her fellow-workers
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCHE 153
money, by tying up their operations as well as her own.
Under these conditions, if she knew, in some cases, at least,
she would be less likely to "take a day off," whenever she felt
like it. Therefore, absence due to ignorance can be sometimes
reduced by seeing that each worker understands the relation
of his job to other jobs and the effect of unnecessary absence
on the work of the "team." While, of course, this will not
work in all cases, it will never do any harm to see that all
workers are informed as to such matters and in many cases
it will do good. This may well become a part of the fore-
man's instruction responsibilities.
Unnecessary Absence Due to Lack of Sense of Responsi-
bility.— This is largely a matter of interest, especially as
regards job and plant pride. Of course, it is affected by such
things as general intelligence and maturity. Many cases that
are assumed off-hand to be due to lack of any sense of respon^
sibUity, and which are often handled on that basis, are really
due to ignorance.
In considering such cases here, it will be assumed that the
possibility of ignorance has been cut out, since in many cases
apparent lack of sense of responsibility has been removed
by proper instruction.
Where there is actual lack of sense of responsibility in
connection with unnecessary absenteeism, it is probably due
to lack of interest or dissatisfaction, as discussed in Part
VII, and the methods for promoting interest and satis-
faction suggested there can be used here to advantage.
Unnecessary Absence Due to Laziness. — ^As an example
of this, a number of cases are known where workers can earn
enough money in two or three days to last them through the
week, and as soon as they have enough to go on, they
"knock off until they are broke." In other words, "they only
work as much as they have to." Of course, this situation is
most likely to come up with certain classes of workers, who
are, as a whole, ignorant and immature. For example, it is
said to be true of certain kinds of Negro help in the South.
154 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Of course, such a condition is hard to handle and, in theory,
the obvious way of dealing with it is not to employ such
people, but sometimes this cannot be avoided, and a foreman
may have to deal with the problem of reducing absences due
to laziness by other means.
Among the most effective means of dealing with such a
situation are the qualities of personal leadership. As a rule,
ignorant and immature workers are very responsive to good
leadership. They wiU work for a man that they like and
admire, and a foreman who can do it, can improve the situa-
tion greatly if he knows how to "get" this class of workers.
For example, in one large concern in the South, employing
many workers of this type, the majority of them worked
hard and steadily during the war because the management
was made up of men whom they trusted and believed in. They
would not work for themselves, but they would work for the
men who were responsible for the success of the plant. It was
a personal matter.
Handling Cases. — ^The preceding statements indicate cer-
tain things that a foreman can take into consideration in
dealing with absenteeism. In the first place he can study
the case and make sure that it is or is not a case of ignorance.
If it is, the first thing to do is to see that the worker under-
stands the results of absenteeism on the work of the depart-
ment or on the work of other workers. If, after a reasonable
attempt to make this clear, unnecessary absenteeism con-
tinues, the case can be classed as either due to lack of
sense of responsibility or to laziaess, and must be handled
along Kuman factor lines as discussed in the chapters on
those subjects.
The underlying principle, however, is that replacement
cost always comes into consideration, and if absenteeism can
be reduced without losing the worker, a good managerial job
has been done. Of course, when it becomes evident that un-
necessary absenteeism is persistent and that the absentee can-
not be reached by the use of managerial methods, the problem
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 156
merely becomes one of replacing that worker with another
who is more reliable and standing the replacement cost.
The great danger is that the case will be handled off-hand,
and the plant will be put to unnecessary replacement cost
where careful study of the case and good management would
save the experienced worker to the concern, and so reduce cost.
Dealing with the Problem — Necessary Absence. — ^As al-
ready pointed out, necessary absence cannot be avoided, but
can be anticipated and planned for so as to reduce the neces-
sary cost elements to a minimum. Among the managerial de-
vices for doing this are, as is well known to all foremen :
1. The organization of a "flying squadron" or a "swing-
in gang."
2. The training of "understudies."
3. "Doubling up."
Since all of these devices are well known to all foremen,
they are only suggested for the purpose of pointing out cer-
tain facts in connection with their use that may be of value
in using them. Of course, with a properly balanced and dis-
tributed working force, any absenteeism means an excess cost
and the use of any of these schemes is only a means of reduc-
ing this cost ; not cutting it out, so that, in a way, it is always
a "choice between evils," and each special case must be con-
sidered with regard to the special conditions, the particular
job, etc. It may be that the cheapest thing to do is to do
nothing; this might be true, for example, where the job was
on piecework and the only loss was the loss of production on
that special job; whereas, in another case, the job might be
a "key job" that must be covered if a considerable excess cost
is to be prevented. In deciding on ways and means, each case
must be worked out with regard to all such points.
The "Swing-in Gang." — ^Where there are a number of
jobs in the department, as in the case of serial operations, in
a garment factory, or a series of assembling jobs, as in a
shipyard, one managerial device for dealing with absenteeism
is to have, in the departmental operating force, a certain
156 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
number of workers who can do a number of different jobs and
"swing them in" to take care of jobs where the regular
workers are absent. Of course, this plan works the best
where the work jobs in the department are specialized.
Where such a plan is tried it means, of course, an excess
cost, if the members of this "swing-in gang" are regularly
carried on the payroll* and the question is to consider the
excess cost against the cost of absenteeism that shuts down
certain jobs entirely.
The value of such a deAace to meet the cost elements due
to absenteeism depends on the degree to which the make-up
of the gang and the different jobs that they can do is based
upon a careful study of the special nature of the work jobs
in the department, the amount of absence and the character
of the operations and processes, and any foreman who is
interested in this device must determine for himself whether
or not it would work well in his special case. It is mentioned
here because it is a not uncommon plan in certain cases with
certain lines of production.
"Understudies." — ^Another managerial device that may
sometimes be of service in reducing cost due to absence of
certain workers is to provide "understudies" for workers on
what may be called "key" jobs. By a "key job" is meant
a job that will hold up one or more other jobs if it stops.
This might be true, for example, in the case of an inspector
or possibly a cutter in a garment factory or a shoe factory,
or in the case of a special pattern maker or tool maker on
special hurry up work.
Since with a properly balanced operating force there is
no excess of workers, at least in theory, when an understudy
is put on a job, he must evidently be pulled off some other
job, so that the cost saving comes in keeping the key job
going at the expense of some job that is less important.
Whether this plan will, or will not work to advantage in the
• Where this plan is used it is customaiy to pay such " all around "
workers some additional rate.
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 167
case of any given foreman that may have this special respon-
sibility included in his job is a question of the nature of the
product and the special organization. It is evident, how-
ever, that the least cost increase will be involved where the
understudy is taken from a group of workers where the "hole"
made by the temporary transfer can be filled by "doubling
up" or by some other managerial device.
The General Advantage of Understudies. — In the sense
in which the term is used here, "understudy" means somebody
regularly employed on some other job who is sufficiently up
on another job to be able to keep it going when the regular
individual on that job is absent. The value of having such
"understudies" for every job in the department is evident
since the necessity is avoided of putting on an untrained
worker when a "swing-in worker" is not available or when
such a gang is not a part of the organization.
The great difficulty in developing understudies for the
different work jobs in the department is that the regular
worker usually gets the notion that the understudy is "in
line" for his job and naturally resents it and sometimes
"lays" for him in various ways well known to shop workers.
The handling of this problem calls for very careful man-
agement on the part of the foreman if he undertakes to
include this managerial device in his organization. Its suc-
cess or failure depends almost entirely on the degree to which
he has the reputation of being "square" and of telling the
truth as discussed in Part VII. If he has not that repu-
tation, he would better not undertake the job; if he has, he
can get the regular worker, under most conditions, to see what
the purpose of the arrangement is, and to stand for it. Of
course, in some cases, he cannot allay the suspicions of the
regular worker, and in that case he may have to hold off till
there is a change, but the attempt to put the thing over by
the mere arbitrary exercise of authority is not likely to work
well. The question as to whether this particular device
158 THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB
should be tried in any given department is a question to be
worked out by each foreman on the basis of careful considera-
tion of the special conditions as to the character of the jobs,
the relations that exist between himself and the working
force and other conditions that count.
Doubling Up. — As used here, this term means giving a
worker who, under proper conditions, has all that he should be
expected to do, additional operating points to cover so that
the absentee's job can be kept going. Of course, this can
only be done at a production loss and is merely choosing the
lesser of two evils, crippling two jobs or stopping one en-
tirely. Such a managerial device to deal with temporary loss
may, or may not, greatly increase cost, according to the
degree to which the worker who doubles knows the second
job or requires little instruction on it to enable him to carry
it well enough to meet the emergency.
• In doubling up, the more the additional job is like the
"original" job the less the excess cost. For example, in a
textile mill, a weaver can double up on sets of looms, and
the only loss would be on idle looms waiting to be pieced up,
but if he were asked to cover spinning frames as well as
looms (practically an impossible combination) and Jaquards
as weU as plain looms, trouble would be much more likely
to ensue.
Where this device has to be resorted to, there are some
points that, if taken into consideration, will reduce the in-
evitable excess cost on operation. Among the more import-
ant of these is the fact that among all the jobs in the depart-
ment, especially in the case of machine tending jobs or of
specialized jobs, some have many more similar or common
operations than others, so that, in doubling up, if the extra
job is partly like the regular job the cost is less than where
the worker is entirely green on the additional job.
As in a ^jumber of other cases, the job analysis vill show
such "overlaps" on different jobs and is the best aid in work-
ing out doubling up problems to the best advantage.
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 159
SECTION IV. KEEPING IIP THE WOEKING FORCE IN THE DEPAKT-
MENT PERMANENT LOSS
Preliminary. — The last section dealt with cost elements
and managerial problems on temporary loss where the prob-
lem is to keep the work going, but not to add to the working
force because the absentee has not quit, and so the working
force has not been permanently reduced. As pointed out in
Section I, the second class of loss is where this loss is per-
manent: the worker has quit, been transferred, or has
been discharged.
This condition sets up a totally different set of cost ele-
ments and corresponding managerial problems for a foreman
to deal with where he has any responsibilities in this connec-
tion, and some considerations relating to the effective dis-
charge of these possible responsibilities are therefore pre-
sented in this section.
Cost Elements — Replacement Cost. — ^The essential final
cost element here is what is known as replacement cost, and
it is only recently that much attention has been given to its
cost producing effect.
The idea involved in the use of this term may be stated
as follows: "Whenever a worker quits for any cause what-
ever, if his job must still be carried on in the same way, that
person carries with him a certain amount of plant knowledge,
job knowledge and job skill that it costs money to replace
unless he can be replaced at once by an equally competent and
equally well informed worker."
This is true, because under practically all circumstances,
a new worker on that job must be trained somehow, and that
training costs money, no matter how it is done. Of course,
the amount of this replacement cost depends upon the nature
of the job, but it always exists, and recent studies have shown
that, in many cases, it is much larger than has been supposed,
especially on specialized jobs.* _^
* For a fuller discussion of replacement cost, see " The Instructor,
The Man and The Job."
160 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Cost Elements— Permanent Loss. — ^Among the more
common cost elements that may come into the matter of
keeping up the working force when it is reduced below oper-
ating needs through permanent loss are :
(1) The promptness with which a new worker is put on
the job.
(2) The degree to which the new worker can do the job
without instruction, that is, he already knows that job.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem,
therefore, is to fiU immediately any vacancies with competent
workers, at the least cost for finding the worker and getting
him on the job at once.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^WhUe the problem, as just
stated, is simple enough, dealing with it sets up one of the
most difBcult managerial problems that come up in connec-
tion with keeping up the working force, and one, which, in
many plants, is handled at unnecessary cost, owing to a num-
ber of reasons, some of which are considered in the following
paragraphs. Among these reasons, or specific cost ele-
ments, are:
(1) Where there is an employment department, lack of
cooperation between foremen and that department, sometimes
going so far as to become actual antagonism.
(2) Lack of advance planning to reduce replacement cost
to a minimum.
Since these specific cost elements may be of great import-
ance, they are discussed in some detail in the following para-
graphs, with regard to the specific managerial problems, the
detailed cost elements, and questions of dealing with
these problems.
Lack of Cooperation. — ^Where there is an Employment
Department that has the direct responsibility of securing
workers it is not uncommon to find that there is more or less
lack of cooperation between this department and the fore-
men who take these workers into their departments to hold
down the work jobs. In some cases this is especially true
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 161
where a foreman has the responsibility of requisitioning on
the Employment Department for help or is expected, under
the procedure, to advise that department as to the require-
ments of the job for which the additional workers are needed.
This lack of cooperation between the Employment Depart-
ment and the foreman is often an important cost element in
keeping up the working force and so is discussed here in
some detail.
While the general principles of cooperation, as discussed
in Chapter XXII, apply here as well as anywhere else, and
cost wUl go up or down in proportion as the cooperation is
good or bad, there are some causes that are worth mention-
ing and discussing here because the special conditions often
prevent the matter from being looked at in its true light.
Some Reasons. — ^Among the reasons for this lack of
cooperation or effective discharge of "team responsibilities"
are the following :
1. Some foremen feel that the Employment Department
does not act promptly enough in securing men when they are
needed and holds up production by leaving them with uncov-
ered jobs for a greater or less time, thus hampering them in
getting out the work.
2. In some cases foremen feel that they could get addi-
tional workers quicker and better than any other agency
could because they are closer to the situation.
3. In other cases foremen feel that an Employment De-
partment is "butting into their job" and so are not inclined
to cooperate as they should.
Of course, the following discussion has no application if
the foreman, under the standard procedure, hires directly,
but since in most large plants his responsibility is a recom-
mending one rather than an acting one, in many cases the
points raised here will have some application and are
worth consideration.
The first case suggested in the last paragraph really
turns upon the fact that the business starts mth the foreman
11
168 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
and the degree to which he can anticipate any need for taking
on additional workers and get his requisitions in promptly,
even in advance if possible, makes a great deal of difference in
the time required for the Employment Department to "fill
the order." If a foreman waits until the job is standing
vacant and then shoots in a requisition he cannot fairly
blame the Employment Department if the necessary help is
not produced in ten minutes.* Where delay is due to this
cause a foreman had better consider ways and means for dis-
charging his responsibilities in better shape before he "bawls
out" the Employment Department for being "dead on the
job." Of course, in many cases a foreman does the best he
can and the delay may be straight up to the Employment De-
partment; they may have really fallen down on the job, but
wherever a foreman feels that he is all right and the other
fellow is all wrong in this matter, he will do well to be sure
that his skirts are clear before he blames the whole matter on
the other fellow.
The second case is often due more to a failure to under-
stand why the job of hunting up additional workers is turned
over to somebody else instead of being left to the foreman
as in the old days and even sometimes now in the case of small
shops or plants that are less highly organized. It is, of
course, perfectly natural for a man to think, "I need a man
right away; there is BiU Jones, just the man that I want
and I can get him without any trouble; he is looking for a
job, why in thunder need I go through the red tape of putting
in a requisition and waiting for the 'machinery to revolve'
instead of attending to the job myself." Now it is quite pos-
sible that, in that particviar case, the job might be done
cheaper by the "direct" method, but multiply that case by
any number, and how is a foreman to attend to his regular
job and also run around looking up Bill Joneses. If he has
*It should be noted that the discussion as it is put up here, does not
include the question of providing the necessary job Icnowledge, job skill
or other special qualifications, as this part of the matter is taken Up in
a following section. This section deals only with the matter of securing
additional workers, without regard to special job requirements.
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 163
a real job as a foreman, he can't do it, and, if he has really
studied his responsibilities and knows what his job really is,
he knows that he can't do it, and is glad to have the detailed
work of keeping up his working force attended to by some-
body else, provided he can get good service in that way. In
fact, an Employment Department is reaUy only a service de-
partment for the foreman just as much as a maintenance de-
partment or a transportation department ; it relieves him of
some details so that he can attend to his real job easier and
more efficiently, but in order that this service can be rendered
effectively, the two must puU together, and not pull apart.
SECTION V, PKOVIDING THE NECESSARY KNOWLEDGE AND SKILI.
ON ALL WOKK JOBS IN THE DEPARTMENT
Preliminary. — ^In discussing possible responsibilities in
Chapter XI it was pointed out that one specific responsibility
might be to cover all operating points with workers who
have the necessary minimum strength, knowledge or job
skill and that, since if this was not done, the job must stop:
such responsibilities, if they came into the job of any given
foreman, would constitute supervisory responsibilities. This
section considers some of the possible cost elements that may
come up in connection with the discharge of such supervisory
responsibilities, and the corresponding managerial problems
that come out of them. As in all other cases, the discussion
is not complete nor are all possibilities, either as to the man-
agerial problems themselves or as to the possible ways and
means of dealing with the problem completely considered.
Each foreman whose responsibility lay-out includes such re-
sponsibilities must work out his own problems, according to
his special conditions, and the discussion is intended to help
him to handle his own special problem rather than to tell him
exactly what to do.
"Richard's Formula." — In the chapter on job analysis it
was pointed out that in doing any job we really had to deal
with a "team" made up of the worker and the tools or the
164 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
machine and that, in analyzing the job of this team, the opera-
tions could be divided into two kinds of operating points,
human and machine. The lay-out of human operating points
can be conveniently expressed by what is known as Richards'
formula,* which is as follows :
E=:M-|-T+I
where E stands for the ability to do the job, whatever it may
be, in first-class shape, JM stands for the necessary j^b skiU
with the hands (manual skill) , T stands for the necessary spe-
cial "job" knowledge (technical knowledge), and I stands for
the necessary ability to use one's "head on the job" (trade
intelligence). In discussing matter in connection with job
analysis, it is customary, for brevity, to speak of the "M,"
"T" and "I" "values" on the j ob, using these terms in the sense
in which they are discussed in the following paragraphs.f
Job Skill or the "M" Values on the Job. — ^Any given job
requires some sort of special skill that goes with that par-
ticular job and any worker who can properly cover the human
operating points on that job must possess that special skill.
This job skill is, of course, different for different jobs, but is
always present to some extent. For example, in a machine
shop, when a piece of work is to be scraped to a surface,
scraping skill is required. A carpenter, putting in a window
casing, possesses the special skiU necessary for setting up and
fitting. In a boiler shop cutting a sheet of steel with an
acetylene torch calls for a high degree of skill in handling the
torch, regulating the fliow of gases, etc. Even a "pick and
shovel job" calls for a special skiU. in handling the tools to
the best advantage.
When we speak of the "M values" on the job we, there-
fore, simply mean whatever special "hand skill" goes with
the human operating points on that job. If that special
* So ceilled because it was first developed by Professor Charles R.
Richards, of Cooper Union, New York.
f Foremen who may be interested to follow this matter further will
find it taken up quite fully in Bulletin 52, Federal Board for Vocational
Education, Washington, and in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 165
skill is not possessed by a worker who is assigned to that job,
the result is an increased cost due to less work being turned
out, or to poorer quality of work, or to a total loss on the
job according to luck and the special conditions.
Job Knowledge or the "T" Values on tihe Job. — ^In addi-
tion to the "M values," as described in the last paragraph,
on all operating points, some particular knowledge must be
possessed by the person who has to cover them. Different
jobs in the same trade and different trades call for entirely
different kinds and degrees of this trade or job knowledge.
For example, in hanging wall paper, the kind of knowledge
used by a paper hanger in allowing for the lapping of courses,
in matching designs, and in figuHng the number of rolls re-
quired, goes with his job but with nobody else's job. A
machinist, in operating a lathe, knows how to read his gear
table, how to tell when he is getting the right cut, how to read
micrometers or vernier calipers, etc., which are examples of
the special kind of job knowledge that goes with that job.
Trade or job knowledge might, therefore, be called the
"know how" or the "T values" that go with any given trade
or job, and which are only required in that trade or on that
job, but without which the trade cannot be followed or the
job cannot be done. If this "T value" is not possessed by
whoever is assigned to a given job, cost goes up just as in
the case of the "M values," and if it is absolutely lacking,
the job cannot be done at all.
Trade or Job Intelligence— The "I" Values on the Job. —
In addition to the M and T values as just discussed, the "I"
in Richard's formula stands for the ability to '*use one's head
on the job," that is, for trade or job intelligence. On any
given job this "I" value may be large or small, but it is rarely
entirely lacking. It is the possession of this "I" value that
gives an experienced man an advantage over an inexperienced
man, even when the job is a very simple one or one that is
mainly machine in its operating points.
Indexing Jobs. — ^A convenient means of indicating the
166 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
various degrees to which different jobs require M, T and I
values is by using what is called an index figure for any given
job or occupation. In considering any given trade or job,
in proportion as these M, T and I values are high, the index
figure would be high ; in proportion as they are low, the index
figure would be low. For example, in operating an automatic
gear cutter the M, T and I values are much smaller than in
getting out the same gear on a universal miller, and this fact
could be indicated by giving the miller job a higher
index figure.
It will be noted that the use of the index figure is merely
a device for expressing more quickly and somewhat more
^ accurately what we mean when we talk about "skilled jobs,"
"semi-skilled jobs" and "unskilled jobs."
Use of the Index Figure. — ^The device of the index figure
can be used both to indicate the M, T and I values in trades
and in jobs. As a matter of convenience, it is customary to
index on a scale of 100, although any other base, say 10 or
1000, might be used as well. In general, where there is a
great deal of skiU (high M) and a great deal of technical
or job knowledge (T and I) the index figure is high; under
the reverse conditions, low. For example, as between jobs,
tending a ring spinning frame or an automatic screw machine
would be indexed lower than cutting a spiral gear on a uni-
versal miller or doing a fine piece of jointry work. In the
same way what are commonly known as skilled trades would
be indexed higher than "semi-skilled" occupations, and these,
in turn, indexed higher than "unskilled" occupations. An
occupation requiring the ability to do a great many jobs
calling for much skill and knowledge would be indexed higher
than one calling for a command of only a few jobs demanding
less skill and less knowledge, although, within those limits, the
skill might be as great and the knowledge as important.
It should be clearly understood that this index figure is
not a mathematical value or a percentage, but merely a con-
venient device for roughly indicating, in a general way, cer-
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 167
tain facts as to the M, T and I values in the job or trade or
occupation under consideration and merely enables one to
put over quickly what would otherwise require a considerable
statement. For such use, in discussion, it has proved useful
and so is described briefly here as of possible use in fore-
men's conferences in connection with such matters as train-
ing, job requirements and so on.
General Qualifications. — In addition to the M, T and I
values in Richard's formula, which stand for what the worker
can do and what he knows about doing the j ob, it is a matter
of common knowledge that most jobs also call for certain
general qualifications, as, for example, the sense of accuracy,
the ability to read or write, reliability, quickness in an emer-
gency and so on. Certain jobs, such as those of pilot on a
steamer or engineer on a locomotive cannot be safely given
to men who are color blind and so cannot distinguish red
from green signal lights. The following list of possible gen-
eral qualifications is merely intended to be suggestive of a
similar list that might be made up to indicate the general
requirements of the jobs in any given department in any
particular plant, and does not pretend to be either complete
or correct for any one set of working conditions. It will be
noted that these general qualifications are classified under two
headings. Physical requirements and Mental requirements.
Physical. Mental.
Heavy Ability to read
Light Ability to write
Short Ability to speak a foreign
Tall language
Quick Abiljty to use arithmetic
Slow Mental quickness
Eyesight (keen) Reliability
Hearing (keen) Nerves
Physical Handicaps (handi- Disposition
caps that prevent a man Adaptability
from being able to hold Personality
that job) Nationality
168 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
As stated above these are merely suggestive and, for pur-
poses of illustration, a few of them are considered in the
following paragraphs.
Physical Qualifications. — On most jobs a man has to use
some physical equipment ; he must see, or hear, or in general
perform some physical actions in covering the human operat-
ing points. The special demands made in any given case
vary with the nature of the operating points and cost is
affected by the degree to which any given person possesses
the necessary physical qualifications required in that special
case. A blacksmith's striker must have the physical strength
to strike a solid blow and endurance to keep up the job dur-
ing the working day. A man operating a linotype must have
quick fingers and good eyesight. A truck driver must be able
to think quickly in an emergency if he is to prevent ^ smash-
up. A man with only one hand would evidently be at a great
disadvantage in attempting to handle a job that called for
the use of two hands at the same time, say in operating a car
with change gear levers, but might be all right on a Ford.
On some operating points a man who is slow and "heavy"
but sure may be just what is wanted, while, on another job,
a man who is "quick as a cat" is the fellow to fill the bill, say
as catcher on a baseball team. Of course, such facts as are
given above are well known to aU foremen and are only men-
tioned here for illustration as distinguishing such physical
qualifications from mental qualifications as discussed in the
next paragraph.
Mental Qualifications. — ^In assigning workers to jobs, the
matter of mental qualifications is likely to receive less con-
sideration than that of physical qualifications, because this
side of the matter has only recently been given much atten-
tion, although, as a matter of fact, it is possibly the more
important of the two.
On some jobs, or operating points, the best person to
cover them may be somebody who thinks slowly, does not get
rattled, and who can be depended upon to always follow
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 169
routine exactly. Such a case might be that of taking samples
for chemical testing in a chemical plant where the amount
taken is standardized, the procedure is prescribed and no
variation from that procedure is wanted. The same might
be true in tending looms in a cotton miU or in operating
automatic gear cutters. On the other hand, in the engine
room the chances of sudden emergencies coming up that may
call for quick action to prevent serious damage requires
that the man on the job can do some things on the " mental
jump " and do them right.
Again, in some cases, nationality counts, especially where
certain jobs have been taken over by certain nationalities or
where the job is a "team job" as in riveting or in piling pots
for making white lead by the Dutch process, or in any other
case where a crew is required. Under such conditions the
introduction of a worker of a different nationality into the
gang will often seriously break up the work.
Physical Strength. — In addition to the M, T and I values
on the job, it is also true that practically all human operating,
points on jobs call for some exercise of physical strength,
sometimes very little, but sometimes considerable. Wherever
this matter of physical strength comes in it also becomes a
job requirement, although, of course, in the case of most pro-
duction j obs it is not important because anybody who would
be employed on the job would possess the necessary strength,
as, for example, on operating looms in a cotton mill or in
running a linotype or a monotype, or an automatic
gear cutter.
Job Requirements. — ^It is evident that for any given job
there are certain requirements as to M, T and I and as to
physical make-up and mental qualifications that must be met
if the job is to be properly done or done at all and that who-
ever is put on that job must be able to meet those special
job requirements, that is, must be able to "hold down the
job," because he does possess them.
Cost Elements. — In connection with the distribution of
the working force from the standpoint of the elements of
170 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Richard's formula, and with regard to general qualifications
and strength, where this comes in as an important factor,
some of the more important cost elements may be :
1. The degree to which the right kind of special M, T
and I values and general qualifications are secured for
that job.
2. The degree to which they are completely secured,
3. The degree to which no excess vcHues are used on
the' j ob.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem,
therefore, is to secure as nearly as possible on each depart-
mental job aU the necessary general qualifications and M, T
and I values, and the necessary physical strength but not to
put on any job a worker who possesses excess values of M,
T and I for that job.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^In dealing with this prob-
lem, whether by direct action, recommendation or suggestion,
it is evident that a foreman must take into consideration, for
each job in his department :
1. The trade or job skill required (M).
2. The trade or job knowledge required (T) .
3. The trade or job intelligence required (I).
4. The physical requirements necessary (if required).
5. The general qualifications necessary.
And make his assignments as nearly as working conditions
will admit so as to get fuU values of the right kind but not to
pay for wrong value or excess values.
Since assignments are in practice by jobs and not by
operating points the aim of a foreman would be to cover the
job as a whole by making assignments to the best of his
ability so as to meet the requirements of aU the operating
points on the job, basing his action on the actual job require-
ments and doing the best that he can with the qualifications
of the workers available ; that is, in practice, he is confronted
"by a condition and not a theory."
As in other cases that have been considered, this prob-
lem can be handled by guess or by definite study. For ex-
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 171
ample, it is quite possible to use the job analyses in this con-
nection by determining, from the lay-out of the human oper-
ating points on any given job, what the requirements are
and to assemble these requirements so as to get a fair state-
ment of the conditions that must be met if the job is to be
well done so that man qualifications can be matched against
job requirements and requisitions for workers can be based
on a definite knowledge of what is needed to get good results.
There is danger of carrying this thing too far, so far as a
foreman is concerned, but, if in the discharge of any responsi-
bilities that he may have in connection with the assigning of
workers to jobs he gives consideration to this matter he can
reduce cost very materially and, where there is an employ-
ment department, he can cooperate with it much more effec-
tively and intelligently if he reaUy knows what he wants and
why he wants it in asking for additions to his operating force.
Tests for Job Requirements. — ^Very many tests have been
devised for trying out prospective workers on given jobs which
are intended to indicate the degree to which a given person
possesses the desirable qualifications for a given job. Any
foreman who is interested in this matter wiU find ample de-
scriptions of such tests in trade publications. It is not
assumed in this discussion that a foreman would have the
responsibility of using such tests, if they were employed in
his plant, but, if any special tests of this character are used,
he might well inform himself as to what they were so that he
could cooperate more intelligently with the department that
was using them.
It is assumed, however, that where a foreman has any
responsibility for assigning men to jobs in his department
either by direct action, by requisition or otherwise, he will, as
a good manager, make an attempt to match man qualifica-
tions to job requirements as suggested in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
"Elxcess Values." — Knowledge, skill and job intelligence
cost monev and this cost varies with the amount of such
172 THE FOKEMAN AND HIS JOB
knowledge, skill and intelligence, as well as with the special
kind, so that, if an individual possesses more M, T or I than is
required on that job and this "excess value" could be used on
some other job, cost has evidently been increased, thus put-
ting a "higher index man" on a "lower index job." Thus it
would be poor economy to put an expert tool maker on an
automatic gear cutter, or a weaver who could run Jaquards
on plain looms on low counts, or a cabinet maker on shingling
a roof. It might be done, but it would be expensive, either to
the man who was not getting paid for aU. his trade knowledge
and skill or to the employer who was paying him for only
a part of what he knew — ^in either case a bad business deal.
As a manager, a foreman will do a good job in proportion
as he so assigns jobs that there is no "excess"; he will not
put an eighty-cent man on a forty-cent job, or if, under spe-
cial circumstances, he has to do it, he will see that that
condition only lasts until he can make a cheaper arrange-
ment by getting that worker back on work commensurate with
his ability.
Values Lacking. — On the reverse of the situation just
discussed, it is equally true that if any of the necessary re-
quirements are lacking the cost of the job goes up and we
have poor management. Since this is self-evident it calls for
no consideration and so is merely mentioned here as another
situation to be watched out for in assigning workers to jobs.
SECTION VI. THE XUMBEE AND KIND OF OPERATING POINTS IN
THE DEPAKTMENT
Preliminary. — Since it is evident that, all other things
being equal, the number of operating points in a department
and their character affects cost, so far as any responsibilities
in that connection come into a foreman's job, he has corre-
sponding managerial responsibilities and problems. Some
of the more probable of these are discussed in the follow-
ing paragraphs :
Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are :
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 178
( 1 ) The number of operating points or j obs.
(2) The relative number of human and machine oper-
ating points.
(3) The grade of the jobs (index value).
In general, the greater the number of human operating
points, the greater the cost, and the higher the grade of the
human operating points, the less the cost. This means that
it is cheaper to have few human operating points whose index
value is high than many human operating points with low
index values.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to reduce
to the minimum the number of operating points, either ma-
chine or human and to make the human operating points as
high index as possible under the working conditions.
Dealing with the Problem. — The first part of the prob-
lem isynot likely to fall within the field of the foreman's job,
as it is a matter for technical experts under most conditions,
but the question of the relative number of machine and human
operating points and the index values of the human points
may, in some cases, have a connection with the managerial
responsibilities on a foreman's job. Where such is the case,
the following may be suggestive:
Human vs. Machine Operating Points. — In general, it
may be said that human operating points whose index figure
is low represent some point in the operation, process or job,
where, up to this time human inventive power has not been
able to devise a way of doing the thing mechahically on a com-
mercial basis, or has not as yet done it at all, but that the cost
of such operating points is, in general, higher than if they
were machine operating points. In other words, on low index
operation points human operation costs more than machine
operation. On the other hand, where the index value of the
operation is high, it is on such points that human knowledge,
skill and intelligence can be concentrated to the best advan-
tage. This amounts to saying that a manufacturing process
that could be carried on with only high index operating points
174 TBE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
on the human side, all the rest of the operating points being
covered by machines, would, in general, be less expensive than
if a large number of low index jobs were carried on the pay-
roll. The statement "Never ask a man to do what a machine
can do" embodies a general principle that applies in general
to the matter under discussion.
THE NUMBEE OF EESERVE WOEKEKS CARKIED IN THE DE-
PARTMENT
Preliminary. — Among the managerial devices for keeping
up the working force already considered has been the carry-
ing of reserve workers. This section takes up some of the
cost elements and managerial problems in that connection.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the possible cost elements where
reserves are carried are :
1. Carrying too many.
2. Not carrying enough.
3. Carrying the wrong kind.
The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to carry
the necessary minimum of the right kind.
Dealing with the Problem. — The only effective method of
dealing with this problem is to make a careful study of the
way in which reserves are likely to be required and determine,
as nearly as possible, on the basis of the job analyses, the
probable extent and nature of the demands, both as to the
number of jobs and the kind of jobs, so that the cost of
carrying such reserves may be held down to a minimum, yet
the work wiU not be held up for lack of workers. Since this
is really a job for an expert and, where the problem is one
of any size, does not fall within the fields of a foreman's job,
except in a cooperative way, it is merely mentioned here and
is not discussed in detail.
COST PROBLEMS ON THE WORKING FORCE 175
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PART IV
1. In your department would it pay to carry a swing-
in gang?
2. Under the particular organization in the plant where
you are employed do you consider that you have any responsi-
bility as to hiring men? If so, what are they?
3. Would you rank the jobs in your department as
highly skilled, medium skilled or low skilled jobs? Why?
4. Form a list similar to that of job qualifications given
on page 167. Check off the qualifications that you consider
essential to one of the jobs in your department.
5. Would you consider that the fact that a man wore
glasses would make him undesirable for any of the fol-
lowing jobs in your department?
a. A crane operator. •
b. A laborer.
c. A time keeper.
d. Any given job in your own department.
6. For what jobs, if any, in your department would
you consider an extra heavy man desirable? Why?
7. Is it possible to double up in your department with-
out appreciable loss of production? Why?
8. In employing a man should consideration be given to
just the job that he is to be placed on first, or should con-
sideration be given to jobs to which he might be transferred?
9. In what ways can a foreman aid an employment
department in connection with the hiring of men?
10. In your opinion are there objections to training up
understudies? If so, what are they?
11. Under what conditions would it pay to employ a man
for a job for which he had "excess values"?
12. Under what conditions is it practically impossible to
secure men having satisfactory M, T and I for given jobs?
How does this work out in your department? Why?
PART V
THE ANALYSIS OF THE INFORMATION
BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DETAILED
RESPONSIBILITIES
CHAPTER XIII
SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES
FOR THE HANDLING OF INFORMATION
SECTION I. PRELIMINARY
Preliminary. — ^As has already been pointed out, a very
important part of any foreman's supervisory job is in con-
nection with the handling of information. This chapter takes
up the possible specific and detailed responsibilities that may
come into the supervisory job of a foreman, Section II taking
up the matter of recording responsibilities and Section III in
the same way dealing with the handling of information as be-
tween the different members of the team.
Recording Information. — ^While the matter of recording
was taken up in a general way in a previous chapter,
it is again brought up here for convenient reference. It is
evident that, in a general way, whenever there is a given
responsibility to be discharged in seeing that something is
dpne, or, whenever, as the result of the discharge of that re-
sponsibility something happens, such things can be made
matters of record, that is, they can be set down on paper for
future reference by a foreman himself or by anybody else who
may need that information later. In theory, anything that
is done or that happens can be made a matter of record, but
in practice only such matters are recorded as are considered
necessary for the efficient carrying on of the work of the team,
because, as pointed out in the next chapter-, records cost
money and are only justified where they save more than they
cost. These points are taken up in Section II.
Reporting Information. — It is often necessary that in-
formation should be furnished to somebody else who is not
on the spot but who has to use it in doing his own job. Wheref
this is done we have a report, and it may be noted here that
179
180 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
a report is a report, whether it is written or only spoken.
Whenever reporting is spoken of the understanding always
IS that the report is made to somebody outside of the depart-
ment: an immediate superior, the Greneral Management or
some one else besides the person who makes that report. In
the ordinary sense of the word, a foreman could not make a
report to himself. Some possible responsibilities in this con-
nection are taken up in Section III.
"Giving and Receiving Information." — Quite distinct
from recording and reporting is the matter of giving and
receiving information in the ordinary run of the work. In
the carrying on of any team job, there must be a continual
passing out of information as well as a receiving of informa-
tion with regard to the work. Since this sets up diiFerent
responsibilities in some ways, it is taken up in Section IV.
Methods of Giving and Receiving Information. — ^As has
already been pointed out, there are, in general, three methods
of giving and receiving information, orders, directions and
suggestions, and these are worth distinguishing from each
other because they set up different managerial problems as
is pointed out in the following chapter.
SECTION n. BECOKDING INFOBMATION
Preliminary. — ^In practically all plants there is some sys-
tem of recording, and the carrying on of this system almost
always brings some detailed responsibilities Into a foreman's
job. This section points out a nmnber of possible responsi-
bilities that may come under the general responsibility for
recording all the information block.
In a general way, it is evident that wherever a specific
responsibility comes into a foreman's job, there may be a cor-
responding responsibility for keeping a record. For example,
a foreman may have to keep a set of records on stock in
process, material on hand, or finished stock. He may have
certain forms to fill out and file in his office. He may have to
record the amount of product or of waste. He may have
HANDLING OF INFORMATION
181
Recording
Information
Stock
SOME POSSIBLE RESPONSIBILITIES AS TO RECORDING
INFORMATION
Amount on hand
Amount in process
Amount ready for delivery
Amount delivered up to a
certain date
Progress of production
Inspection records
Records as to condition
Records of stock orders
Records of rework tickets
Records of job tickets
Records of stock requisi-
tions
Special records
Records on operating waste
Records on operating time
Records on operating power
Records on results of rou-
tine tests
Records on results of special
tests
Conversion records
Records of yield
Special records
Inventories of equipment in
service
Requisitions for mainte-
nance work
for new tools
for tool repairs
for replacements
Inventories of complete
equipment
of tools and acces-
sories
Special records
Operations
Processes
and
Tools and Equip-
ment
The Working
Force
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number
Special
at work
taken on
discharged
that quit
of transfers
of absences
late
of accidents
records
the responsibility of recording the date of receiving material,
or when finished product was delivered to some other depart-
182 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
ment, or as to the condition of material at any stage as deter-
mined by inspection or test.
In any such cases, he has supervisory responsibilities that
should appear on his lay-out under the proper detailed classi-
fication headings and, as an aid to doing this, a number of
possibilities are suggested on the chart. It should be noted
that those possibilities are only given as suggesting the kind
of recording responsibilities that a given foreman might have.
The list is not complete, nor is it expected that all those re-
sponsibilities suggested wiU come into the job of any
one foreman.
Regular and Special Records. — ^It wiU be noted on the
chart that it is suggested that any records that a foreman
may be responsible for keeping, or for seeing that they are
kept, are given as either regular or special records. • Regular
records require no explanation, but special records may
sometimes be omitted from the lay-out because a foreman
does not think of them as belonging there as he does not keep
them all the time. If at any time he is liable to be called
upon to keep special records, and knows what they are, he
should include them in the lay-out. If he does not know what
they will be, he can include the note "special records as
called for." Most foremen know whether it is the custom of
the plant to call for special records from time to time and
so can deal with this question in a satisfactory way.
Records. — In whatever special form it may be kept, a
record is merely a memorandum intended to prevent any
chance of a memory slip. Records may be of two general
kinds, original and transferred.
An original record is one made by the person who got the
information: it is a first hand memorandum. A transferred
record is one that has been copied from the original record.
For example, some castings come into a department and
some one counts them and notes down the number; countiag
and recording'are done by the same person. This would be
an original record. If this original record were then given
fiANDLING OF INFORMATION 183
to some one else to be copied, say on a card for an inventory
card catalogue, the record on the card would be, not an orig-
inal, but a transcribed record, because the person who put the
figures did not make the count. It is very common to trans-
fer records into some sort of consolidated form, as when the
production records of a number of machines are added up to
make a total production record for a day.
Records on Stock. — ^Among the more probable specific
responsibilities under this heading are :
(1) Amount on hand.
(2) Amount in process.
(3) Amount finished.
(4) Amount ordered.
(5) Progression records or reports.
(6) Inspection records or reports.
(7) Records or reports as to condition of stock.
Numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are perfectly plain and call for
no discussion, as the special form or manner in which such
records are kept is a matter of special procedure. However,
a foreman should have no difficulty in determining whether
he has, or has not, responsibilities under these headings.
The question of progression records may be a little more
difficult to "spot." For example, in a department where a
series of operations were carried on, it might be necessary
to keep track of the stage of procedure in which any particu-
lar batch of stock was at any given time. In assembly work,
notably in shipbuilding, such progression records are com-
monly made to enable the percentage of completed work
to be figured at any time, and such records are often consoli-
dated into reports.
Records on Equipment. — ^A number of the more probable
are suggested on the chart. As a rule, such responsibilities
are easy to locate if it is borne in mind that records of sug-
gestions or recommendations might be included if necessary.
Records on Operations and Processes. — There should be
no difficulty here and no special explanations are called for.
184 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Records on Tools and Equipment. — ^Evidently the list of
records for any one foreman's job will vary so widely with the
nature of the product that very special lists of detailed re-
cording responsibilities will have to be made up in each case.
For this reason, the suggestions made on the chart are some-
what general in their character and are intended to suggest
some possible kinds of detailed responsibilities rather than
the detailed responsibilities themselves. Each foreman must
work out his own special lay-out.
Records on the Working Force. — ^There should be no spe-
cial difficulty here and so no explanations are necessary.
SECTION m. EEPOETING INFOEMATION
Preliminary. — ^It was pointed out in Section I that the
difference between recording and reporting is that in report-
ing the information goes to somebody who is away from the
department, usually, in the case of routine reports, to an
immediate superior. Since the fact that a person to whom
a report is sent must rely entirely on that report, and this
therefore, affects some of the managerial problems to some
extent, the matter of reporting as against recording is taken
up in this section.
Possible Responsibilities for Reporting. — ^Since any in-
formation that may be a matter of record may also be made
a matter for reporting the possibilities suggested on the chart
for recording will serve as well for suggestions as to reporting
responsibilities, and the same general considerations will
apply. Certain points that have sometimes caused some con-
fusion in working out a lay-out and in discussion are how-
ever touched upon in this section.
Reports. — As distinguished from recording, reporting, as
the term is used here, means transmitting, or "passing along"
information to somebody else. As far as a foreman is con-
cerned, any records that he may be responsible for keeping
stay in his department ; any reports the he may have to make
go out of his department. It is evident that records might
EtANDLING OP INFORMATION 18S
be kept and no reports called for (though this is unlikely),
but that, in general, any report must be based on some sort
of a record.
Recommendations and Suggestions. — ^It should be noted
that recommendations or suggestions are really forms of
reports, and where a foreman has any responsibility in
this connection, they should be included in the lay-out
under "Reporting."
Verbal and Written Reports. — Two kinds of reports are
possible, spoken, or verbal reports, and written reports, and
written reports may, or may not, be in some prescribed form.
Since in making the responsibility lay-out, confusion often
arises here, these possible forms are considered in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
Verbal Reports. — ^In many cases, information is passed
along merely by telling, that is, by verbal report, and in
making the lay-out, foremen often omit responsibilities for
making verbal reports, because they do not think of such
cases as making reports. As a matter of fact, however, the
form of the report makes no difference, and if a foreman is
responsible for giving the information as a part of his job,
it makes no difference, so far as the responsibility is con-
cerned, whether he writes it, or gives it by word of mouth.
Where yerbal reports are required, or are the custom
under the procedure, such items should be included in the re-
sponsibility lay-out.
Regular and Special Reports. — ^Under most conditions,
the job of a foreman includes responsibilities for making
certain reports that are a regular part of the job, and a
number of possibilities are indicated on the chart. Such
regular reporting responsibilities can be determined and
noted on the lay-out. In many cases, in addition to such
regular reports, a foreman may be called upon, from time to
time, to make special reports, such special reports lying out-
side of the regular responsibilities as just discussion. Since
such special reports cannot be anticipated, responsibilities
186 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
in this connection cannot be noted in detail in the lay-out, but
if it is customary for such reports to be called for from time
to time, the specific responsibility can be noted. As an ex-
ample of a case of special reports, suppose that a new process
was being tested out and while that test was going on, reports,
that were an addition to those regularly made, were asked
for, as in the case of a boiler test in a steam plant, or that
the rate of production of a new machine was to be determined,
and so special reports were kept of the hourly production.
Written Reports. — ^In making the responsibility lay-out,
foremen are liable to omit some responsibilities for written
reports, because they do not think of some things that they
do, as reports. It must be remembered that making a written
report ife merely passing some kind of information over to
somebody else in writing. If the information is partly
printed in advance, as in the case of forms, and only a part
of the information has to be written in, it is a report just
the same, and this is true, whatever may be the special name
given to any particular form of report. Thus, for example,
when a foreman makes out a requisition for small tools, what
he really does is to inform the purchasing department, or the
general stores, or whoever receives the requisition, that these
small tools are required.
The same would hold true for a requisition for repair
work on equipment, or for additions to the working force. In
making the responsibility lay-out, any form of written com-
munication, work orders, requisitions, etc., therefore should
be classified as reports and so included in the responsi-
bility lay-out.
Procedure and Responsibility. — ^In "tying up the pro-
cedure and responsibilities" in the case of responsibilities for
recording and reporting, the following cases, among others,
are likely to come up :
1. Checking records made by others.
2. Transmitting records to others.
3. Filing records.
HANDLING OP INFORMATION 187
and a foreman may discharge these and similar recording and
reporting responsibilities by prescribed or devised procedure.
Prescribed and Devised Procedure. — In most large con-
cerns, records and reports are made on special forms pro-
vided for the purpose, that is, the procedure is prescribed.
In many cases, however, the foreman has to get up his own
particular form for records and reports, and in such cases
he devises some way of doing it. This distinction is import-
ant, mainly, as affecting the management side of the work,
and is mentioned here with the suggestion that, where a
foreman has to devise his own procedure, he will note that fact
on his lay-out.
Making the Responsibility Lay-out. — ^In making that
part of his responsibility lay-out that deals with reporting, a
foreman should include any responsibilities, whether they are
(a) For verbal or written reports;
(b) For direct reports, suggestions, or recommendations ;
(c) For checking, receiving, or transmitting reports;
and should indicate the special form of the responsibility on
his lay-out.
SECTION IV. OaDERS, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Orders. — All foremen have responsibilities for giving
orders, and this point needs no explanation. An order, of
course, is the standard method for giving information to a
member of the working force as to jobs. While there is quite
a little managerial responsibility in the giving of orders as
taken up in the next chapter, the supervisory responsibility
is merely to give orders when necessary. It is, of course, evi-
dent that in making a supervisory lay-out no foreman would
undertake to list out all the possible orders that he might
have to give, and for any use that would be made of the
lay-out in connection with managerial problems tliis would
serve no useful purpose, even if it were possible, because it is
not the special thing for which the order is given that counts,
188 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
but the way in which it is given. Of course, as a matter of
fact, orders can be listed under :
1. Orders relating to stock.
2. Orders relating to operations and processes.
3. Orders relating to tools and equipment.
4. General orders, but this procedure is not advised, A
foreman should simply put down "giving orders" on his lay-
out and let it go at that.
Directions. — ^While a foreman is sure to have a responsi-
bility for giving orders he may hold that he has none for
giving directions : that he carries on all his work by ordering.
As is pointed out in the next chapter, however, if he really
does this he is a poor manager, and, as a matter of fact, prac-
tically all foremen do include a directing responsibility in
their jobs, although sometimes they do not think so.
The difference between an order and a direction is difficult
to define, and the distinction has already been pointed out,
but is briefly repeated here for convenience. A direction,
while it is assumed that it carries the force of an order, also
assumes a little more elasticity in the way that it is to be
carried out. It assumes that the person receiving the direc-
tion knows, in detail, what to do and will do it. A direction
also does not carry the " slap " that an order does, hence
most foremen, when they think that they are always giving
orders, in many cases give directions instead, without think-
ing anything about it, and so, at first, will say that they
have no responsibilities for directing as distinguished
from ordering.
As in the case of orders no attempt should be made to
list out responsibilities for directing in detail, and, as a mat-
ter of fact, under one set of conditions a foreman would use
orders and under another set of conditions he might use
directions on the same job.
If, after discussion, a foreman feels that he has directing
as well as ordering responsibilities, he can state that fact
HANDLING OF INFORMATION 189
on his lay-out, but he should make no attempt to work out
the details.
Suggestions. — The question as to responsibility for
making suggestions is often a cause of much discussion, and
it has already been pointed out that many foremen feel that
they have no responsibilities in that line. This is not in
general the case; a foreman has such responsibilities under
at least the following conditions :
1. Where it is understood to be the policy of the Man-
agement to desire to receive suggestions, even if no direct
orders have been given to that effect.
2. Where the same is true of the immediate superior.
3. Where the making of suggestions has been actually
asked for.
As these points are taken up in the chapter on coopera-
tion, they are not developed further here.
Another case where a foreman may feel that he has re-
sponsibilities for suggesting is in using suggestions in place
of orders or directions in giving information to the working
force under some conditions. Since this is also taken up in
the chapter on Morale (Chapter XXVII), the matter is not
followed up any further here.
CHAPTER XIV
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON THE HANDLING OF INFORMATION
SECTION I.
Preliiininary. — As discussed in Chapter XIII, under prac-
tically all conditions a foreman has some responsibilities in
connection with securing, transmitting and recording some
sort of information in the form of records, reports and so on,
and, in all cases, he has, as a part of his job, the giving of
orders and directions, and usually, in addition, his job in-
cludes some responsibility for making suggestions to his
superior or to workers or to both.
The proper carrying on of his duty in connection with
these matters, to the extent that they come into his job,
according to the procedure, sets up a number of important
majnagerial problems whose effective solution depends upon
a determination of the cost elements that come into play
and the working out of effective ways and means for
handling them.
This chapter takes up a number of possible cost elements
and managerial problems that come under these responsibil-
ities which wiU. appear to a greater or less extent on the re-
sponsibility lay-out of any given foreman.
As in all other cases, the discussion is not complete, and
each foreman must work out his own particular problem to
meet his own special conditions, but the points considered will
prove suggestive and, it is hoped, helpful in the matter.
"What is Meant by "Passing Along Information." — ^In
the sense in which the term "information" is used here it means
any method or form of procedure whose purpose is to "pass
along" information from somebody who has it to somebody
who needs it in his business. It includes written information,
such as reports, work orders, rework tickets, requisitions,
190
COST OP INFORMATION 191
time cards, job tickets, posted notices, and all other special
forms by which written information is passed along from one
member of the team to another. It also includes spoken in-
formation, such as orders, directions, spoken reports and
suggestions and, in general, any methods whereby informa-
tion is passed along "by word of mouth."
What is Meant by Recording. — ^As this term is used here,
it means any method used by any one who has obtained any
sort of information for putting that information down in
some form so that if he needs it later he will not have to
depend on his memory and also so that anybody else can get it
if he needs it.
The Two Steps. — From the above statements it is evident
that this chapter discusses two distinct j obs :
1. Setting down or recording information.
2. Passing out or transmitting information in the form
of reports, orders, directions, suggestions, etc.
Responsibilities as to recording may or may not come
into the job of any given foreman, according to the procedure
and the job analysis, but, in all cases, there are responsibil-
ities as to transmitting information that must be included
in the job of any foreman and which set up corresponding
managerial responsibilities and problems based on the cost
elements concerned.
This chapter, therefore, considers (1) Recording, (2)
Reporting and (3) Directions, Orders and Suggestions.
SECTION 11. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON
RECORDING INFORMATION
Preliminary. — As already stated, any responsibilities
that cover the setting down of information either for the use
of the person who makes the record {personal records), or
for the use of anybody who may need to use it {general
records), would come under this heading. Although
records vary greatly in the kind of information recorded,
since the cost elements and the managerial problems are the
192 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
same in all cases, this section discusses recording without
reference to the special nature of the information that is
set down.
The Two Steps in Recording. — ^In discharging any re-
cording responsibility there are two distinct steps:
1. Securing the information to be recorded :
2. Recording the information after it has been secured.
Each of these "jobs" sets up its own special cost ele-
ments and managerial problems as noted in the follow-
ing paragraphs:
The Two Cases.— In the matter of recording we may
have two cases:
1. Where the person who gets the information puts
it down.
2. Where one person gets the information and somebody
else puts it down in the final form.
The first case would be illustrated where a foreman makes
certain observations and notes them down on a scrap of
paper or in a notebook as the final record. The second case
would be where he had a clerk whose business was to enter
information, say the daily production in the department, on
some form of permanent records (cards, forms, etc.),
whether the information comes in "by word of mouth" or in
the form of paper records that have to be copied.
In either case it is up to the foreman to see that this work
is so carried out that cost elements are reduced to a minimum
whether he does the recording himself or it is done by some
one who is under liis authority.
Cost Elements — Securing Information. — ^This is really
a matter of reporting, since the information or the facts are
really secured either through a report made to a foreman by
somebody else in the department or, if a foreman gets the
facts by direct observation himself, he really "reports" to
himself. These points are taken up under reporting In the
section that follows this one.
f OST OF INFORMATION 193
Cost Elements on Recording Information Already Se-
cured.—^Among the more important cost elements on re-
cording are:
1. The accuracy with which the recording is carried
out, that is, the degree to which the records, as made,
are accurate.
2. The degree to which the records are complete, that
is, the record contains all the information or facts that it
is supposed to contain.
3. The legibility or illegibility of the records as made,
that is, the degree to which they are so plain that there can
be no possible mistake made in using them.
4. The degree to which the records are kept in stand-
ard forms and the same procedure is followed in making
them out.
5. The degree to which all records are kept up to date.
7. The degree to which the information can be easily se-
cured by anyone having occasion to- use it.
A. THE ACCURACY OF ALL DEPARTMENTAL RECORDS
What is Meant by the Accuracy of Records. — ^As the
term accuracy is used here, it means that all information, as
recorded, is correct; that, so far as it tells any story, the
story is true.
The Cost of Incorrect Records. — ^An mcorrect record,
like any other lie, is a dangerous proposition and is, of course,
worse than no record at all. If there is no record a^ all, at
the worst, nothing is known about the matter ( so far as any
record is concerned), which is bad enough, but if the record
is there, and is false, whoever depends upon that record and
properly thinks that it is correct, thinks that he knows cor"
rectly when he is really incorrect and has no means of know-
ing it. Hence no one can estimate the cost increasing dangers
that go with incorrect records, especially if they are liable
to be used by people who are not in direct contact with the
work and who, in making them a basis for action, must take
them at their face value, because they have no means of back-
13
194 THEPOREMAN AlSfD HIS JOB
checking and so possibly detecting any error until the mis-
chief is done.
For example, in a stock inventory, if it is not accurate, it
may easily happen that, if the record shows more of a certain
kind of material than is actually in stock, say, for a machine
shop, tool steel, the whole production may be held up later for
want of that special material which was supposed to be in
stock and which is found not to be there only when it is needed
and the discovery is made that the stock room is all out.
Again, in the case of time records, or records on piece-
work, errors in the record will lead to all sorts of possible
cost increasing situations, especially where they affect the
pay of men.
Holding up some part of the pay while the matter is
chased up and corrected may lead to all sorts of disputes and
dissatisfaction. The time spent in running down the case
and making the corrections itself costs money, the general
doubt cast on the reliability of the records by a case of this
sort at least does no good and in a number of other ways
that will readily suggest themselves to any foreman, cost
win be increased.
One difficulty in this matter of inaccuracy of records is
that the results of inaccurate records come out in so many
ways that cannot be anticipated and whose cost increasing
effects may be so far reaching that it is extremely important
that all inaccuracy should be prevented or, at least, reduced
to a minimum by the most careful management and the
adoption of the best possible means of dealing with it, so that,
so far as a foreman has acting, recommending or suggesting
responsibilities he will do well to give the matter careful
study and attention.
Cost Elements — Inaccurate Records. — Some of the pos-
sible cost elements on inaccurate records are as follows and
others will readily suggest themselves, some of them having
been, of course, suggested in the preceding discussion.
1. The cost of chasing up and correcting errors.
COST OF INFORMATION 195
2. Damage or loss due to depending on inaccurate
records.
3. The holding up of production due to the same cause.
4. Dissatisfaction and disputes due to inaccurate
records.
5. The time spent in doing the job.
6. The labor cost in doing the job.
And, as suggested above, a number of others. i
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is to reduce inaccuracy to a minimum, since, as long as human
operation points must be included in the jobs of keeping rec-
ords, absolute absence of slips cannot be hoped for.
Dealing with the Problem.— Among the managerial de-
vices that are of service are :
1. The use of simple methods.
2. Making accuracy easy.
3. Knowing the job requirements and getting the right
individual on the job.
4. Making the original record the permanent one.
5. Carrying duplicate records.
6. So far as possible, cutting out the human factor.
7. Not trusting to memory in securing the information
that is to be recorded.
Using Simple Methods. — Of course, the following discus-
sion only applies to cases where a foreman may keep records
in any way that he chooses. Where the records are according
to standard procedure, he has no managerial responsibilities
as to form, except possibly a suggestive or recommending
responsibility where he is expected to suggest or recommend
as to changes in procedure.
The simpler the method, the less chance there is of un-
necessary increased cost, provided the necessary information
is recorded in usable form, and the less bother and complica-
tion there is in connection with the job of recording, the less
chance there is for error.
Sometimes a man who is responsible for records will evolve
19« THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
such a complicated system that, whfle it looks well, it swamps
him, for it must not be forgotten that it is not so much
starting a set of records as it is the keeping of it up that
makes the trouble.
Such records as a foreman may have to keep, or has kept
in his department, therefore, will best serve their purpose
if the methods used are as simple as possible, easily under-
stood, and easily carried out.
Making Accuracy Easy.— A second consideration that
affects accuracy in fording is the degree to which accuracy
is made easy both for the recorder and for the persons using
the records. For example, the use of a standard form, so
that the same kind of information wiU always appear in the
same place, is of great advantage in this connection. Again,
it is much more difficult to either record, or use records ac-
curately, if the data is crowded together, or limited space
requires very fine writing. In considering this matter, it is an
interesting question whether the use of the typewriter does,
or does not, make accuracy easier. Certainly, it malces
records easier to read, but, for example, in recording num-
bers, the chances that the operator hit a wrong key and not
know it, may affect the first consideration.
It should also be noted that good working conditions
help : if the light is poor, for example, accurate work is more
difficult, and a number of other points of this sort would un-
doubtedly come up in discussion, according to the special
nature of the records and the working conditions.
The Job and the Individual. — This is merely a special
case of "Matching Man Qualifications to Job Requirements,"
and so needs no discussion here beyond pointing out that
where a foreman has the responsibility of putting some one
on the recording job, he should use the same care as in the
case of a production job, and this is particularly true, if,
as is sometimes the case, he gets some member of the working
force (generally a girl) to do the work, as an "extra."
Making the Original Record the Permanent One. — The
COST OF INFORMATION 197
habit of making records that have to be copied is one that is
liable to affect accuracy. For example, some foremen, as
they go about the department, wiU note information for rec-
ord on scraps of paper and when they get back to their
desks, turn these scraps of paper over to a clerk to record,
according to the regular form. Of course, this practice in-
troduces a number of additional chances of error. For ex-
ample, suppose that records are kept on cards carrying a
printed form: if a foreman carries these cards with him and
enters the information on them, so that the original record
is the final one, he is reducing chances of inaccuracy, and to
that extent cutting cost.
Duplicate Records. — A loss of records is a serious matter
and is liable to cause all sorts of trouble if it happens. One
way of guarding against this is to keep all important records
in duplicate, and sometimes keep the two sets in different
places. For example, this practice is common in the case of
Title Insurance Companies, complete duplicate records being
kept sometimes at a place outside of the city where the com-
pany is located. Of course, such extreme precautions would
be taken only in cases where the loss would be practically ir-
reparable, and probably would not be necessary in the case of
departmental records. Under ordinary conditions, however,
cards may be lost, sheets mislaid, etc., and the question of the
value of duplicate records may be worth considering where
records of any importance are kept permanently in the fore-
man's office, or on his desk.
Cutting Out the Human Factor. — It is generally recog-
nized that human beings are more likely to make mistakes
than machines.
Perhaps in the matter of recording, this point is of no
great importance, but may apply in certain cases. For ex-
ample, where adding is required, an adding machine is more
likely to be accurate than when the work is done by a clerk
"in his head"; and in the same way, in special cases, there
inight be other ways in which chances for errors might be
198 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
reduced bj using mechanical aids. It is enough here,
however, to merely draw attention to the principle, since
this discussion is carried somewhat further in connection
with reports.
Not Trusting to Memory. — One of the most common
causes of inaccurate records is the habit of determining a
fact for record and then "carrying it in the head," for a while
before recording it ; that is, depending upon memory. This is
particularly likely to happen where the place where the rec-
ords are kept is away from the "operating point" where the
data are secured. The "putting it down when I get back
to the desk" habit is a cost increasing one either for foremen
or for workers who have recording responsibilities. The good
managerial rule is "put it down as srfon as you get it," and if
this is enforced, costs will be reduced in the long run.
B. THE COMPLETENESS OF DEPAKTMENTAL KECOEDS
The Cost of Incomplete Records. — ^The general cost-
affecting elements on incomplete records are the same as for
inaccurate records, except that they are perhaps, of some-
what less value because an incomplete record is more likely
to be spotted before damage is done than is one that
is inaccurate.
In the same way the managerial problems are practically
the same and the ways and means for dealing with them essen-
tially similar, so that no special consideration is required
under this heading.
C. THE LEGIBLLITT OP DEPAETMENTAL EECOKDS
The Cost of Illegibility. — ^If records are to be of value,
they must be r6ad, and if they are not legible, they are liable
to be read incorrectly and so for all practical purposes they
become inaccurate records.
Among the causes of illegibility are "smooching" and
dirt, due to handling, "scribbling," due to haste, and some-
times poor handwriting.
"Smooching" is due, usually, to the use of improper pen-
COST OF INFORMATION 199
cils ; dirt is due to handling, cannot be always prevented, but
care can be used to keep records clean, or to have copies made
when the originals become too soiled. Sometimes, certain de-
vices on the market, such as celluloid covers, are of service,
and sometimes a coat of white shellac will give a surface that
can be wiped off when necessary.
Of course, all such suggestions are of value only, and
are, or are not, serviceable, according to the special condi-
tions, the particular kind of records and the conditions under
which they are used.
With regard to poor handwriting, it may be said that a
man's own records which he himself cannot read when they
are " cold " are bad enough, but when someone else has to
puzzle them out, the situation is worse, and the chance of
error is greatly increased.
n. THE FOEM IN WHICH DEPARTMENTAL KECOEDS AEE KEPT
AS A COST ELEMENT
Preliminary. — ^Under most working conditions, records
that are of importance or that are regular in their character,
are kept in some special form, usually printed on the card, or
sheet or whatever the special recording device may be. In the
hurry of "getting the job done" there is often a tendency to
disregard such prescribed forms and record the information
"any old way so as to get it down." Supplies of forms are
allowed to run out, or get lost, or the recorder "doesn't see
what diiference it makes so long as it is put down." The
question as to the cost value of following procedure is, there-
fore, worth considering.
The Cost of Records not Kept on the Prescribed
Forms. — Failure to use the prescribed forms in record
keeping brings into play a number of cost elements among
which are:
1. Increasing the chance of error in using records.
2. Requiring more time and energy than is necessary
from anyone who has to use the records.
As an illustration of the cost increasing value of the first
200 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
case, it may be pointed out that if a number of records are
to be looked over by some one, or have to be compared, or
consolidated into a report, when the same hind of information
always appears in the saine place on all record sheets or
cards, the chance of error is greatly reduced. In the second
case, if the same sort of information has to be picked out on
different parts of the record sheet, this not only "slows up"
the work but makes it very much more difficult and trying
on the nerves.
Even where a foreman keeps records solely for his own
use, if he keeps them in some uniform way, he will save cost
for his own time and the decreased chance of error when he
uses these records, whereas, if he keeps them on old scraps of
paper, or in an old blank book, or chalked up on a board, or in
some other "irregular" way, his cost will go up.
All of the points just noted and a number of others that
will readily occur to any foreman justify the statement that,
whether he does the actual recording himself or has it done
by a clerk, it pays to keep all records in a uniform manner
on proper forms and to see that these forms are properly
filled out and are always used. By doing this not only is
departmental cost reduced but, outside of direct depart-
mental responsibilities, a foreman is giving better cooperation
to the Greneral Management, to his immediate superiors and
to anyone who has to use the records.
E. KEEPING KECORDS UP TO DATE
Preliminary. — Quite distinct from the question of keep-
ing records in proper form is the matter of keeping them up
to date. Very often the temptation to "let them run" and
then "make them up in a bunch" is one that, if it not fought,
is liable to cost money, and since it is so common it is worth
some consideration, especially where the permanent record is
not the original one.
The Cost of Letting Records Run Behind. — There are a
number of cost elements that may come into play here. In
the first place, records made in this way are much more liable
COST OF INFORMATION 201
to be incorrect or incomplete because of the time that elapses
between the making of the original record and the transfer,
with all the chances of loss, failure to spot errors when they
are first made and so on. Temporary memoranda get lost,
other matters force that particular incident out of the mind
of the original recorder, guessing is substituted for certainty,
all of which increases the chances of error and so of in-
creased cost.
Where records of this kind are kept, it is up to any fore-
man to see to it that they are always kept up to date, and
that, where the original record has to be transcribed, the time
between making the original record and the transcription is
always as small as possible. By doing this he will be taking
the least chance of increasing costs so far as these particular
points are concerned.
SECTION in. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEMAL PROBLEMS ON
H.EPOETING INFORMATION
Preliminary. — As already stated, a report differs from a
record because the information contained is for the use of
those to whom the report is- made and not for the use of the
person who makes it. As pointed out in the chapter on
possible responsibilities, reports may be made to various
people, such as immediate superiors, the General Manage-
ment, other foremen, etc., and they may be routine or special
in their nature, but so far as the points considered in this
section go, the special nature of the report and the particu-
lar person to whom it goes does not affect the cost elements
or the managerial problems, though, of course, in minor ways,
each foreman must make his own application to the special
conditions that go with his special procedure and the par-
ticular requirements of his own job.
Making and Receiving Reports. — Just as in the case of
recording we have two cases :
A. Making reports, where a foreman, as a part of his
duty, is required to forward reports to his superiors or to
other departments, or to other members of the team.
i802 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
B. Securing or receiving reports from others
The "job" in the first case is to furnish the information,
and in the second case, to get it. Since these two j obs bring
in different cost elements and corresponding managerial
problems, they are discussed separately.
A. MAKING EEPORTS TO OTHEKS
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements worth con-
sideration are:
( 1 ) The degree to which reports are correct.
(2) The degree to which they are complete.
(3) The degree to which they are made on time.
(4) The degree to which they are made in the prescribed
form, where one is laid down, or are always made in the same
way, where no form is prescribed.
(5) The degree to which they can be easily read.
(6) The degree to which they reach all persons that they
should reach.
(7) The degree to which they are written or spoken with
regard to the special conditions.
The Accuracy and Completeness of Reports. — ^All that
has been said with regard to the accuracy and completeness of
records will apply equally well to reports, and so no great
amount of discussion is required.
A few suggestions that apply especially to reports may
be of value. Among the possible cost increasing factors in
reporting are failure to include all the information required,
because the person making the report does not know what
the report is wanted for. This is more liable to be true in the
case of special reports than in the case of regular routine re-
ports and is more likely to apply to completeness than
to accuracy.
Another difficulty in connection with reports not made on
prescribed forms is a failure to make statements clear and
specific, that is, to word the information in such a way that
there is no doubt as to its meaning.
The Cost Value of Incomplete Reports. — The cost value
COST OP INFORMATION 203
of incomplete reports is nearly as great as for incorrect re-
ports. Possibly they are more dangerous because less likely
to be detected, as they may look right. As a matter of fact,
reports areworthless unless they tell the whole story that they
are supposed to tell. For example, a report is supposed to
be kept of the conditions under which a man was discharged,
is supposed to include length of service, nature of job, date
of discharge, and cause for discharge. Some time later, the
man claims that he was unjustly discharged, and on looking
up the report, it appears that in his particular case no
cause was given, and the foreman who secured his discharge
is at home ill, or has left the plant. The man's story goes.
An incomplete time sheet can, in the same way, cause all
sorts of cost troubles. It should be noted that no matter
how many reports may be complete, one that is incomplete
may start all sorts of trouble, and the fact that all others
are complete will not help in that particular case.
The making of complete reports, as called for, is a "high"
point in the cost values of reporting, and a foreman should
so regard it, taking all possible precautions to see that all
reports cover all facts that they are supposed to cover.
Making Reports Promptly.— While it is often a difficult
thing to do, the value of any report from the cost standpoint
is greatly affected by the degree to which it is turned in at
the time that it is due.
Promptness is implied when a certain time is set for the
turning in of reports, and when a foreman is called upon to
furnish information; if he is a good manager, he gets it in
on time by so planning his supervision and his time that all
necessary information is on hand in time to meet any expected
demands and to allow for compiling, if that be necessary. In
proportion as he is able to report promptly, he cuts down
cost in a number of ways which are so evident that they need
not be mentioned here.
Following Procedure. — ^Where a standard procedure is
called for in reporting, or a standard form is provided, any
204 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
departure from that procedure, or that form is liable to in-
crease cost. Much trouble in connection with reports may
come from- not doing this, and a little thought and planning
devoted to the development of ways and means for doing this
will enable a foreman to send in reports having a 100 per cent,
value from this special standpoint, because they contain in-
formation in the form in which it is expected by whoever is
going to use it.
Getting Reports to the Right People. — ^All reports are
asked for because some one needs the information in his busi-
ness, and if the report does not reach him but goes to some
one else who has no use for it, cost increasing elements im-
mediately get to work. The man who should get the report
is tied up on his job, the man who does get it and does not
want it must send it back, and be set back on his job. One
important managerial problem in connection with reporting,
therefore, is to see that all reports- actually reach all the
people whom they are supposed to reach. Of course, when
it can be done, one of the best ways of doing this is by some
sort of "back checking," in the form of a receipt, a state-
ment by phone, etc., the point being that merely sending a
report "on its way" is not the whole of the problem, but the
sender, in some way, should be sure that it is properly de-
livered. Only in this way can the chances of increased cost
be avoided.
Verbal vs. Written Reports. — Many foremen do not
think of spoken reports as reports at all, although whenever
there is a passing on of business information, a report is
really made. When a foreman says to his superior, "Mr.
Smith, we can get those castings out by twelve o'clock," or
"Mr. Jones, that man is no good on that job and I want you
to transfer him to another department," he' is making a re-
port, just as much as though he wrote it out on paper.
A subject that will bear much discussion is the relative
cost values of written or spoken reports under any given set
of conditions.
COST OF INFORMATION 205
Spoken reports are easier and quicker, written reports
are more trouble, but have several advantages, among which
are that they provide a permanent record and that they can
be carefully studied. The tendency is to make too great use
of spoken reports. As an example of a method of securing
written reports instead of spoken reports, some concerns have
substituted telautographs for telephones because the former
gives a written record and the latter does not.
B. SECUKING HEPORTS FKOM OTHEES IN THE DEPARTMENT
Preliminary. — ^It will often happen that in carrying on
the work of his department a foreman takes reports from
members of the operating force, such as reports on tests, or
on the condition of some part of the equipment or in regard
to some operation or process.
While all of the previous discussion with regard to cost
elements on reporting applies just as well here as to the case
where a foreman makes reports to others, the managerial
problems are somewhat different because, when a man reports
himself, his problem is to make the report and make it right,
whereas, when he gets a report from others, his problem is to
get them to make it right, that is, it is one thing to do the
job right yourself and another thing to get somebody else to
do the job right. On this account it has seemed worth while
to include some additional discussion with regard to this
special form of the reporting problem. Since the cost ele-
ments are the same they are not repeated here.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
may be stated as follows : To secure reports that are accurate,
timely, complete, prompt, legible and that do reach the
persons for whom they are intended.
Dealing with the Problem. — As already stated the difB-
culties here come from the fact that somebody else does the
work and is not, as a rule, checked up while doing it, for, if
that were done, a foreman might as well do the work himself.
Among the managerial devices that can be used to advantage
are the following that may be at least suggestive. \
206 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
Making Clear the Importance of Reliable Reports. — One
way in which this problem can sometimes be dealt with to
advantage is by making clear to the reporter the importance
and necessity for correct reports. If a member of the oper-
ating force has the responsibility of making certain observa-
tions or tests on which he reports and has no idea what it is
for or what use is made of it, or what may happen if it is not
correct, he is much more likely to be careless for two reasons,
first, because he does not see "that it makes any difference
anyway," and second, he will have less sense of responsibility.
A man who is simply told to "read that hydrometer once
an hour" without any further explanation is much more likely
to guess at a few degrees or hit the time somewhere near than
he will if he knows that the exact time is important or that a
diiference of a few degrees may make serious trouble, assum-
ing that to be the case. This is really saying that he is short
on the "I" value for Richards' formula on that job. In many
cases careful explanation as to the why wiU help in securing
proper reports from subordinates.
Making Accurate Reports Easy. — ^This has already been
considered in the previous section, but is again referred to
here for the special case where a report from a subordinate is
based on some sort of an observation. The accuracy with
which data on which such reports are based is often deter-
mined by the easy or difficult conditions under which they are
secured. For example, in a certain plant it was necessary to
read and record a pressure gauge at certain timesl This
gauge was set high up on a post in a dark comer and every
time a man had to read it he had to get a stepladder, climb
up on it and get his face close to the gauge in order to read
it. Under these conditions, the temptation was always to
stand on the floor, " take a squint," and " allow that he read
about so much." This is human nature. The remedy here
was to bring the gauge down, or, to use a large gauge with
a shaded light in front of it, so that »f would be as easy to he
accurate as to be inaccurate and so reduce possible costs.
COST OP INFORMATION 207
As a manager, in order to insure the greatest accuracy, a
foreman should plan so that it will be as easy to make accur-
ate records as to make inaccurate ones, and, in proportion
as he can do this, he can reduce costs due to inaccuracy. By
properly dealing with inaccurate reports, he can ■ make it
evident that the easiest way to make reports is to make
correct ones.
The Value of Forms. — The purpose for which any re-
ports are made will be advanced, so far as such things as
accuracy, legibility and so on are concerned, if well planned
forms are used for recording the information on which the
reports are based. Of course, where such forms are pro-
vided under the procedure, this matter is taken care of, but
where that is not the case and it is up to the foreman he can
greatly reduce the chance of trouble by working out suitable
forms and not leaving data to be set down on any sort of a
piece of paper "in any old way."
The Value of Simplicity. — As in the discussion in the last
section on this point, the simpler the form of the report the
better, and for the same reasons as are fully discussed there.
Cutting Out the Human Factor. — ^As has already been
mentioned in another connection, it is quite generally ac-
cepted that, whenever the human factor can be cut out,
accuracy in reporting is increased. That is, a recording
machine is less likely to make a slip than a human being. It
does not get tired, it is always on the job, and, if it goes out
of business, it stops, gives no report, and under many condi-
tions will not give a false report. The extensive use of adding
machines illustrates this point. In general, whenever a fore-
man has an opportunity to use, or to recommend the intro-
duction of automatic devices to advantage, it will be an
unusual case where their use won't help him as a manager in
cutting down the chance of getting inaccurate reports.
However, a quite complete analysis of any given situa-
tion should be made before requesting the use of automatic
devices whose cost might be greater than an effective
208 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
carrying out of the regular procedure without them. Auto-
matic reporters have a distinct value when correctly used, and
are positive evidence of performance. Where such things as
time, temperature pressure, weight, specific gravity, etc.,
form important parts of records, their registration by auto-
matic devices is generally advantageous.
SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEEIAI. FSOBI.EUS ON
OEDEB.S, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS TO THE
WORKING FORCE
Preliminary. — ^The terms orders, directions, suggestions
were defined in Chapter XIII and are used in the same sense
here. The discussion as to the way in which orders, direc-
tions and suggestions may affect interest, satisfaction, turn-
over, etc., and so become cost elements on the human factor
side is given in Part VII. This section only deals with
the question of orders, etc., so far as they may be considered
as one means of conveying information from one person to
another, in this case from the foreman to somebody else, usu-
ally some member of the operating force of the department,
though, in the case of suggestions, it may be to his superiors.
In the following discussion it is to be understood that
"orders" also cover directions and suggestions.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements that may be
worth discussion might be :
1. The completeness of orders.
2. The clearness of orders.
3. The brevity of orders.
4. The degree to which orders are known to be fully
understood.
5. The degree to which they are given to the right person
or reach the person that they should reach.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is to take as little time as possible in giving orders but to have
them fully understood and to know that they are fully
understood by the right person.
COST OF INFORMATION 209
SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON
OKDERS, DIEECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
Preliminary. — Since orders, directions and suggestions
all have the same purpose and are in reality only three dif-
ferent ways of doing the same thing, they are taken up
together, such minor differences as may come up being
pointed out as they come along.
Giving and Taking Orders. — By virtue of his position, a
foreman stands in two positions as regards orders, he takes
them from his superiors and he gives them to the members of
the operating force. Unless otherwise stated, it will be under-
stood that the points taken up here apply to giving orders
rather than to receiving them, although certain managerial
problems in connection with carrying out orders are taken up.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the more probable specific cost
elements that may come in in connection with the giving of
orders, directions and suggestions are :
1. The degree to which only necessary orders, directions
and suggestions are given.
2. The degree to which all orders and directions are fuUy
understood.
3. The degree to which they are obeyed or carried out.
4. The degree to which a proper choice is made between
written and spoken orders.
For receiving orders, directions and suggestions and for
making suggestions to superiors some of the more important
specific cost elements might be :
1. The degree to which orders are fully carried out,
as intended.
2. The degree to which suggestions are given proper
consideration.
3. The degree to which all directions are followed.
4. The degree to which all orders are fully under-
stood before they are acted upon. (Also true for directions
and suggestions.)
14
210 TEtE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Giving Only Necessary Orders, Etc. — ^It is quite possible
to increase cost by giving unnecessary orders, directions or
suggestions. Among the detailed cost elements that may
come in here may be :
1. Wasted time and energy that could be put in better
somewhere else.
2. Actual confusion on the part of the worker increasing
the chance of misunderstandings and mistakes.
3. Resentment on the part of a competent worker at the
implication that he does not know his job or "hasn't got
anything above his shoulders."
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem is to
give only necessary orders, directions or suggestions, as the
case may be.
Dealing With the Problem. — ^Any time that a foreman
spends in giving unnecessary orders is a waste of time, and
the same is true of directions and suggestions. The more
that any foreman can cut out uimecessary work of this kind
the better. No standard rule can be set up to determine when
orders are or are not necessary, but in general It may be
said that when a worker is attending to his job all right and
seems to know what he is about, the best thing to do Is to
let him alone.
Unfortunately, some people in supervisory positions are
so afraid that something will go wrong that they are continu-
ally "butting in" where there is no reason for doing so. This
habit is often due to the fact that such supervisors have no
idea of what constitutes proper instruction and so are never
sure that anybody knows how to do anything right.
One danger in this habit of continually "overordering" is
that the worker gets so that he loses aU confidence In his
ability to do the job anyhow, and this results in a poor men*
tal attitude as taken up in Part VII. In most cases,
after the order or direction has once been given so that it is
clearly understood. If the worker knows the job, he can be
COST OP INFORMATION 211
trained to know when he needs additional help and got so
that he knows enough to ask for it. The two main man-
agerial devices here are therefore, first, such instruction as
may be necessary to get competent workers and second, learn-
ing to ten when additional orders or directions are required,
and unless they are necessary, letting the man alone. A help
in this would be a high and low point supervisory lay-out as
described in Chapter IX.
The degree to which this can be accomplished will depend
to a considerable extent on the degree to which orders
are fully understood when given the first tvme.
Getting Orders, Directions and Suggestions Fully Un-
derstood.— One very serious point in connection with the
giving of orders, directions and suggestions is to get them
understood the first time. A considerable amount of informa-
tion that bears on this matter is given in the chapters on
instruction and is not repeated here, but, as pointed out in
the list of possible cost elements, if orders are not fully under-
stood a very serious cost element comes into play. Among
the detailed cost elements that may come in here are :
1. The work is done incorrectly, resulting in poor qual-
ity, reduction in quantity.
2. Damage to the equipment.
3. Accidents.
4. Time and temper lost in repeating orders that should
have "carried" the first time.
And many others that will suggest themselves.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is to get orders or directions understood the first time, or,
strictly speaking, to get the job done right as a result of the
first order or direction.
Dealing with the Problem.— The problem of getting
orders understood is generally regarded as a very difficult
one and rightly so, because of the difficulty of finding out
positively that they have been really "taken in." This is
especially true of new workers if they are scared, as many of
them are, especially if they are not English speaking people.
212 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Whatever the conditions, however, there are some things that
can be done in all cases, among which are :
1. Making orders or directions complete.
2. Making them clear.
3. Making them short.
4. Making sure that they are understood.
5. Giving them to the right person.
Making Orders Complete. — The "You know it and I know
it and so we won't talk about it" habit in giving orders is
liable to lead to increased costs in a number of ways, because
often when it is assumed that the other fellow knows it he
doesn't know it and sometimes he can't know it. This results
in lost time, disputes ( "Didn't I tell you ! ! !" "How in blazes
could I know what you wanted !" and so on) and sometimes
lost production because the other fellow went ahead and
"took a chance" when he was not sure, or thought he knew
when he didn't. An example of this is the following case;
A foreman was heard to say to a man, "Go up on that ship
and chip down the hatch combing six inches," and later found
the man loafing and "bawled him out" for not being on the
jpb. As a matter of fact, in this case there were three decks
on the ship and four or five hatchways on each deck. The
foreman assumed that the chij)per knew which deck and which
hatchway the order applied to, when he did not; was too
lazy or stupid to ask until after the foreman had gone, and
"loafed around" waiting for him to come back, possibly
thinking that he had a clear alibi anyway for a " vacation,"
which, in a way, he did. Another illustration of an incomplete
order is, "Some of you men do so and so," without indicating
the men to whom the order is given.
The Elements of a Good Order. — An order is not com-
plete unless it covers the following points which may be called
the elements of a complete order,
1. How the job is to be done.
2. When it is to be done.
3. Where it is to be done.
4. Who is to do it.
COST OF INFORMATION 213
This does not mean, of course, that in all cases a foreman
must tell a competent man exactly how a given job is to be
done in great detail which would, in many cases be foolish,
but it does mean that when he gives an order or makes a sug-
gestion to a worker, he must be sure that these four points
are covered between what he knows that the man knows about
the job and what he tells him. In the first case given above
the foreman slipped up in assuming that the chipper knew
the deck and the hatch when he did not, and the chipper
slipped up in not asking before the foreman got away. Of
course, both were to blame, but, as the responsible party,
it was up to the foreman to be sure that the order was
completely covered.
Failure to make orders complete is, of course, due to a
number of reasons, among which are "rush" and "taking a
chance" that the man knows it without making sure that he
does know it. This is especially the case where men have
never been properly instructed on the job as discussed in the
chapter on carelessness (Chapter XXIV).
It is good management, therefore, to be sure that all
orders are thoroughly "put across" on all four points, espe-
cially with men who are new to the job, or to the plant and
to know your man before "cutting corners" in the giving of
orders or making suggestions. Failure to do this will
unquestionably increase cost in a number of ways which will
readily occur to any foreman.
Making Orders Clear. — ^While this is not, under ordinary-
conditions, as important a matter as that just considered,
under some conditions it may have a considerable cost affect-
ing value, especially in the case of young workers or green
men. An order might cover all the points discussed in the
last paragraph and yet fail to be put across because the per-
son to whom the order was directed did not understand the
language that was used. As an extreme illustration, the
order, "Bill Jones, go aloft right away and splice in a new
main upper topsail starboard buntline" would be "Greek" to
a green hand on an old time ship, and to anybody except a
214 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sailor who was used to "square riggers," yet it covers all of
the four points necessary for a complete order. One common
case where this comes up is in the case of foreign speaking
workers who only know a little English. When an order
ife given that they do not understand are afraid to say so
and so get into trouble. This has been very noticeable, for
example, in instructing or directing the attention of new
workers to danger points in cotton mills.
The same difficulty is liable to arise in the case of young
workers, especially girls, and for the same reason, with the
additional difficulty that in such cases the young worker does
not know enough tq know that he has not "got it."
In all cases of the giving of orders and directions, but
especially in the cases just mentioned, it is especially desir-
able that, in covering the four points, each point should be
"cleaned up" before going to the" next, that there should be
no "back tracking."
In general, therefore, a foreman has managerial problems
to make all orders clear with regard to the special character
of the people to whom he gives them and to the degree to which
he succeeds in doing this he reduces cost.
Making Orders Brief. — If an order or suggestion is com-
plete and clear, the shorter it is the better, because :
1. Time is saved and
2. There is less chance for confusion. The order is more
easily taken in.
AU other things being equal, Finnigan's famous report,
"Off agin, on agin, gone agin" in reply to the order "Boil
'em down" from the Division Super was good business on both
sides. A famous naval writer once claimed that one of the
reasons that, during the wars between France and England
at the time of Napoleon, the English ships beat the French
ships was because it took considerably longer to give an order
in French than in English and that this fact counted in get-
ting "quick action" in battle.
At all events the motto, "The less you talk the better,
provided you say it all" is a good one to follow anywhere in
COST OF INFORMATION 215
business and is as good for a foreman as anybody else, and in
proportion as he puts it into practice he reduces the chances
of increasing cost. "Wind" is as expensive in giving orders
as it is in an aii* hoist, especially a leaky one.
Knov^ing that Orders are Understood. — ^This point has
already been discussed from one angle in a previous para-
graph, but, in the sense in which it is used here, it refers to
the necessity of being sure that orders are fully grasped
before going on to some other part of the job. While an
intelligent worker should know enough to say that he does
not understand when this happens, many cases have come up
where he did not get it, and a foreman cannot depend on the
other fellow in this matter. Of course he will use his judgment
as to how far to go when he knows his man, but, in the last
analysis it is his responsibility and not the worker's and,
according to the good or poor management with which this
matter is handled by a foreman, costs will be increased or
reduced. This point is worth careful consideration by all
foremen, especially with regard to the type of worker, the
length'of time that he has been on the job, the simplicity or
complexity of the order and all other points that count.
Reaching the Right Person. — This case is most likely to
come up in the question of written orders, such as work orders
or other cases of this sort. For example, in one plant, defects
in certain departmental products that only came to light
after the material had left the department made necessary
the returning of such defective material with rework orders,
each, of which applied to one particular piece. Serious loss
occurred because, in many cases, these rework orders were
not firmly attached to the pieces and so were lost in transit
and never reached the people who needed the information to
rework the job.*
* It might be an interesting point to mention in connection with this
case that a conference discussion brought out the fact that whereas
wire holders had been provided to attach the rework orders to the mate-
rial they were not used, but the rework orders were merely stuck into
some hole in the articles so that they often fell out or were blown out
in trucking.
216 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Since this case has been taken up in connection with re-
ports it is not considered further here.
The Degree to Which Orders are Carried Out. — ^Assum-
ing that only .necessary orders or directions have been given
and that they have been fully understood, the degree to which
they are carried out as intended is a cost element and so
gives rise to a managerial problem to get orders correctly
carried out.
Cost Elements. — The cost elements are so evident here
that they do not really need any suggesting, but one point
may be brought up, and that is that the cost comes .out, not
on account of defiance of authority but in a failure to secure
the purpose for which the order was given. If a man is
ordered or directed to make a box 8 x 12 inches square and
16 inches high, and he actually makes one of some other
dimensions the cost comes out of the fact that a box has
been made that nobody wants : so much time and labor wasted,
and not directly out of the fact that the workman "dis-
obeyed orders."
Dealing wit*h the Problem. — ^The main point in dealing
with this problem is to realize that a deliberate intention to
disobey orders is very rare under most ordinary conditions
and a case of apparent disobedience should be carefully
analyzed before treating it as such.
For illustration, it should be made certain at least that
the order was clear and was understood, that the worker knew
how to do the job, and that the conditions were such that he
could do it, and that if any of these cases were not true, he
was not too scared or unintelligent to report the fact.
This point is brought out here because anybody in a
position of authority naturally expects orders to be obeyed,
and rightly so, yet when orders fail to be carried out it is a
trait of human nature to make a personal matter of it. "The
dignity of the position must be kept up." This idea is well
illustrated by what is said to have been the procedure on some
ships in the old days when the duty of a second mate was al-
ways to hit a man before giving an order, "just to keep up
COST OP INFORMATION 217
the understanding that he was the mate." The point here is
that a good manager will always make sure first that what
seems like a case of disobedience is actual disobedience and
then will handle that case impersonally.
Since this sort of management depends largely on human
factors as taken up in another chapter, this point is not
followed up any further here.
Written or Spoken Orders. — Orders can be spoken or
written. When written they have the advantage of being
permanent and leaving a record as to just what the order
was. A man can refer to them over and over again, as in
the case of a stock order on general stores, and a written
order can be used for a checking list which cannot be done
with aji order that is spoken. Under ordinary conditions in
carrying on work it would, of course, be perfectly foolish to
use written orders and nobody in his senses would think of
going to such an absurdity.
It is true, however, that with spoken orders there is much
more chance for misunderstandings and the omission of some
important point, as well as a good deal of trusting to memory
with the corresponding chance of error.
Cost Ellements. — ^The cost elements as between written
and spoken orders might be stated, at least in part, as follows :
Spoken orders. Written orders.
Take less time. Take more time.
More chance of not being Can be made complete.
complete. Better chance of being un-
More chance of not being derstood.
understood. Leave a record.
Leave no record.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem is to
use written orders whenever necessary and not use them when
not necessary.
Dealing with, the Problem. — In general, the more im-
portant the matter, the greater the probability that it will
218 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
pay to use written instead of spoken orders or directions.
In practically all cases suggestions made to subordinates in
the ordinary run of the work can be spoken with safety.
In general, it may be said that where the matter is im-
portant, where a record is desirable or where the orders oi"
directions must go into great detail, written orders will pay.
Where these conditions do not prevail, spoken orders and
directions are plenty good enough.
Taking Orders. — The question as to management on
taking orders "from above" brings up about the same sets
of cost elements and questions of management except that
a man holding down a foreman's job can be naturally ex-
pected to take more initiative and deal with matters more
intelligently than can be required of a member of the work-
ing force. This fact brings up a number of considerations
that have not been considered up to this time in connection
with orders, directions and suggestions.
Special Cost Elements. — ^Among the special cost elements
that may be worth considering might be :
1. The cost of not carrying out orders so that the de-
sired results are obtained.
2. The cost of not using intelligence in carrying out
orders.
3. The cost of not asking for additional or modified
orders when necessary.
4. The cost of not "back checking" when necessary.
Ceurying Out Orders. — Of course, a failure to carry out
orders means increased cost and no special discussion is re-
quired. The more orders are carried out promptly, accu-
rately, and intelligently the lower the cost. One important
point in this coimection is that in any organization the whole
efficiency of the work depends on orders being carried out,
because an organization is a team, and in any team somebody
must give orders and somebody else must carry them out. Of
course, the above statement does not mean that the sub-
ordinate is to obey orders blindly, but that with due regard
COST OF INFORMATION 219
for the points discussed below there "can't be two captains
on one ship" and get anywhere.
Carrying Out Orders Intelligently.— The foreman is the
man directly responsible for carrying out the job. If the
job falls down he may share the responsibility, but he can
not "duck it." As the man nearest to the job, knowing de-
tails that no one "higher up" can know, he must take the
responsibility of carrying out orders intelligently. He can
not go on the principle of "obeying orders and breaking
owners," as used to be said in the days of the old sailing
clippers that ran between New York and Liverpool. This
means that he must know what the orders mean — ^just what
the superior wished to accomplish. In order to do this it
is often necessary to know when to ask for further or sup-
plementary orders.
Knowing When to Ask for Orders. — One of the most
important cost elements in connection with taking orders is
the degree to which a foreman knows when to ask for supple-
mentary orders or new orders. In almost any work, cases
wiU come up where the situation changes or some unforeseen
conditions crop up. If, under such conditions, foreman A
goes on according to his original orders and foreman B asks
for revised orders, foreman B has cut costs more than fore-
man A. Of course, in many cases a foreman handles the new
situation himself, and it is as important to know when to act
yourself as to know when to "send an S. O. S." Running
back to superiors for orders when it is unnecessary increases
cost ; not going back when necessary also increases cost.
Of course, in this nothing/ can take the place of "horse
sense," but it is merely desired to call attention here to the
cost elements involved in the exercise of judgment in
such matters.
An example of this situation would be in the case of
moving a house. The contractor tells the foreman in charge
to go down a certain street. Later the foreman discovers
that part way down the street there is a "soft spot" where a
2ieo THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sewer has been put in. If he obeys orders he is likely to have
the street settle on him and possibly put the job out of busi-
ness. If he is intelligently following orders he stops the
job and asks for further orders. It is a part of his job
to do so.
This, of course, illustrates a case where something un-
foreseen comes up that was not known when the orders were
issued. Another case might be where the superior had for-
gotten something which would call for "back' checking."
"Back Checking." — ^However carefully orders are drawn,
there is always the chance of errors or omissions. For ex-
ample, a foreman in a print shop gets an order for wedding
invitations to be printed on news stock, or a foreman in a
machine shop get§ an order to turn out a number of pairs
of bevel gears, one set 37° and the other 90°. In both cases
there is evidently an error, and it is up to the foreman to
"back check" and get the error corrected before starting
the job. Again, in the case of house moving, suppose careful
directions were given as to placing j acks under the main siUs,
but no directions as to an eU which, if directions were followed
as given, would be unsupported when the house was lifted.
It is up to the foreman to draw the attention of his superior
to that omission before he starts the job.
The foreman, therefore, has a responsibility for "back
checking" orders both to guard against errors and omissions
and to "pool" his definite detailed knowledge of the job
with that of the superior; if he is onto his job he can not
merely take orders and follow them blindly.
Of course, the intelligent following of orders in the jvay
it is done is largely a matter of cooperation, as discussed
in the notes under that heading, but the responsibility is on
the foreman to "use his head" in carrying out orders to what-
ever extent is possible under the working arrangements.
Reducing Time Spent in Giving Orders, Directions and
Suggestions to a Minimum. — ^The question of time which is
to be spent by a foreman in getting his orders, directions and
COST OF INFORMATION 221
suggestions to his working force can be best solved after a
good distribution of supervisory work has been laid out.
With well-planned supervision the plans and points at which
orders and directions are required suggest themselves, and by
giving the required orders and directions sufficient time when
they are issued, to make certain they "go over," time in going
over the same ground more than once will be saved.
In general, the fewer the number of orders and the per-
tinent nature of the directions and suggestions all help to
keep the time required down to a normal rate.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PARTY
1. A foreman in making his rounds notices that a man is
trying to handle a piece of stock that is too heavy to handle
alone and not have a chance of breakage. He says to the
man, " that piece is too heavy for you to handle alone,
get somebody to help you." Anything the matter with
that order?
2. A man right out of the Ford factory is employed in
a Ford service station which also takes other makes of
cars. A Dodge comes in with a broken drive shaft. The
foreman orders this man to take out the broken shaft. Is
that order all right?
3. A man has been employed as a helper on a job and is
promoted to a worker on that job. When he goes onto the
job for the first time the foreman simply tells him to " go
to it. " Is that foreman taking any chance?
4. What is the easiest way in which a foreman can fall
down in giving an order?
6. A man has been employed as a riveter in structural
steel work. He was a good man on the job. During the
war he was taken on by a shipyard. The first day that he
222 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
went to work the foreman ordered him to " rivet up those
intercostals." Anything the matter with that order?
6. A man has been employed in a cabinet-making shop
for several years. He is a fine workman. He is given a
very fine piece of cabinet work to do that calls for doing
a job that he never has happened to strike before and which
calls for a dovetail joint where the ordinary method would
be to use a half lap joint. The foreman knows this. Which
would be the better, to say, " BiQ, make that joint with a
dovetail " or " Bill, don't you think that joint had better
be made with a dovetail".'' As a matter of manage-
ment? Why?
7. What is liable to be the effect of a direct order on
a competent workman? Why?
8. Can directions be made as clear as direct orders? ^Vhy?
9. A foreman gives the following order. " One of you
men get that box out of that truck." If there is some delay
whose fault is it? '
10. A man is quite new on the job. The foreman sees
him handling a piece of stock in such a way that there is
danger of breakage. The foreman says, " Don't break
that "! What is the matter with that order? If the piece
was broken who would be to blame?
11. A truck load of material is properly marked for
delivery. The foreman orders the driver to deliver it as
marked. The driver fails to deliver it where it should be
delivered. Who is to blame?
12. When a foreman receives orders from his superior
how does his responsibility differ from that of a workman
when he receives orders from his foreman?
13. A foreman received a general order reading as fol-
lows : " There has been difficulty in keeping machines prop-
erly oiled by the men who operate them. Each operator
is required to keep his machine properly oiled. Please attend
COST OP INFORMATION 223
to this matter with the men in your department." He posts
this order on the bulletin board in his department.
a. Has he discharged his responsibility?
b. If not, has he failed as a manager or as
a supervisor?
c. What should he do in addition to posting
the order?
d. Any use in posting the order anyway? Why?
14. A communication comes down from above reading
as follows : "On way 26 the riveting work is reported by the
inspectors as unsatisfactory. Please attend to this matter."
a. What should a foreman do?
b. The foreman has had trouble with the number
of defective rivets that have had to be cut out. Should
he go ahead and assume that these poor rivets are what
the communication refers to?
15. A foreman In a chemical plant gets an order as
follows: "Too many leaky cranks are coming out of your
department. Please attend to this matter." His depart-
ment turns out gas in pressure tanks, and solid sulphur tri-
oxide in cans. What should he do?
16. In carrying on a standard operation according to
the regular procedure, in making sulphuric acid, a foreman
notices that he is not getting his regular product although
he is sure that all the proper materials have been used.
What should he do? Why?
17. If a foreman gets this order: " It is specifically for-
bidden to converse with the operators of the freight elevators
while said elevators are in operation." A number of his men
are foreign-speaking people, but aU, can speak fair English.
He posts this notice in each elevator and thinks " I've
done my duty."
a. Has he?
b. Why not?
c. What should he do? Why?
224 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
18. Orders are sent out to all foremen to see that all
the men in their departments, making white lead by the
Dutch process, wear masks while breaking down the pots.
He posts this order.
a. Has he discharged his responsibility?
b. If so, why?
c. If not, why?
d. If not, what should he do?
19. In how many different ways can a foreman fall
down in taking orders?
20. Is a foreman responsible for carrying out orders
as he gets them or is he responsible for carrying them out
as intended?
21. If the order is clear to him but has to be passed
along to his men what is his duty?
22. If the order is not clear to him what is his duty?
23. Should the principle followed be to "Obey orders and
break owners," or to know the purpose for which an order
is given and make sure that the order is so carried out that
the desired result is obtained?
24!. What are some cost elements on carrying out orders
that are not clear?
25. What are the cost elements on orders that have to
be transmitted to the men, that are clear to the foreman,
but as he gets them, would not be clear to the men?
26. In transmitting orders has a foreman a duty to
see that the men get the order as given so that they under-
stand the order so that they will carry it out correctly?
27. What is the difference between an order and
a direction?
28. Does a foreman lose any hold over his men by direct-
ing instead of ordering? Why?
29. In a machine shop an order came in for making a
tapered arbor 6 inches long and % inch in diameter. The
COST OF INFORMATION 225
foreman is quite sure that this should be 1%. What
should he do ; go ahead or back check? Why?
30. The foreman in a print shop got an order that
called for printing a set of circulars advertising the opening
of a millinery sale on common book stock which would be
contrary to all good practice in the trade. He knows that
the job should go in a good quality of calendered paper. It
is a hurry-up job. The man who knows about the original
order cannot be reached. What should that foreman do ?
31. The case of giving only necessary orders and direc-
tions. The foreman in a pattern shop gets an order for a
standard pattern and gives that job to a competent man.
He spends ten minutes telling that man just how that pat-
tern should be got out. Is this good or poor foremanship
from the cost standpoint? Why?
32. An order for a job that is different comes into a
machine shop and the superintendent talks the matter over
with the foreman. They agree that the job shall be done
in a certain way with certain machines. Is there any cost
increasing element in going at the matter this way?
What is it?
33. What are the advantages of spoken orders and
directions? When can they be safely used?
34. What are the advantages of written orders? When
should they be used?
35. When would a foreman be justified in asking for
written orders when he had received spoken orders?
36. What would be a good rule for determining how
far orders as given must be detailed?
37. What is a foreman's managerial problem on the giv-
ing of orders?
38. Provided the matter is fully understood, which is
the better, a short order or a long order? Why?
39. What is the danger in talking too much in giv-
ing orders?
15
226 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
40. What is meant by getting an order clearly
understood?
41. What may be the cause of an order not being
clearly understood?
42. How may a foreman know that an order has been
clearly understood?
43. What is the danger here?
44. What are the responsibilities of a foreman when he
gets orders from above that are to be passed along to the
members of his operating force?
PART VI
THE ANALYSIS OF THE HUMAN FACTOR
BLOCK INTO SPECIFIC AND DE-
TAILED RESPONSIBILITIES
CHAPTER XV
SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES AS
TO THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE MEM-
BERS OF THE WORKING FORCE
SECTION I. PREMMINABY
Preliminary. — It has been pointed out that a foreman's
job includes a general responsibility for the physical condi-
tion of the members of the departmental working force. This
section considers some of the specific and detailed responsi-
bilities that may be included in that general responsibility.
Among the more probable of these detailed responsibilities,
as given on the chart, are :
1. Responsibilities for preventing actual physical in-
jury to the members of the working force, commonly
known as "safety."
2. Responsibilities in connection with illness or sickness
among the members of the working force.
3. Responsibilities as to the general physical condition
of the members of the working force.
4. Responsibilities as to the general working conditions
so far as they affect the physical condition of the members
of the working force.
As in all other cases, it should be understood that the
specific and detailed responsibilities taken up here are only
some of those that may come into the foreman's job and that
some of those given may not come into the job of a given fore-
man. Each man must, of course, work out his own responsi-
bilities according to the requirements of his own par-
ticular job.
229
230
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
SOME POSSIBLE SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPON-
SIBILITIES IN THE GENERAL RESPONSIBILITY
FOR THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE
WORKING FORCE
Detailed
Specific
Actual Pliysical / Injuries to the worker
Injury: Safety \ Injuries to otiiers
Illness
The Physical Con-
dition of the
Working Force
Working Condi-
tions as to
General Physical
Conditions
Temporary illness
Incipient disease
Acute lUness
Chronic illness
Infectious disease
Contagious disease
' Physical handicap (V. R.,
I. R.)
Fatigue
Susceptibility to injury on
account of special weak-
ness
Concentrated attention
Over speeding
Personal habits outside the
plant that interfere with
work on the job
General outside conditions
General health
Retraining cases
Air
Light
Occupational dangers
Special job dangers
General surroundings
SECTION n. PHYSICAL INJURY ^ACCIDENTS
Safety. — This possible general responsibility is so gen-
erally accepted by foremen, and they give so much attention
to it that it needs but little further consideration. As given
on the chart, some of the possible detailed responsibilities
that may come in are:
1. Injuries to the worker, and
2. Injuries to others.
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 231
Among the supervisory responsibilities in connection with
safety might be suggested for consideration:
1. Knowing where the danger points are.
2. Seeing that accidents do not occur at those points.
3. Knowing danger points for others.
4. Seeing that "the innocent bystander" is protected.
5. In case of accident seeing that the results are as little
serious as possible.
Injury to the Worker. — This is the more common
form in which this responsibility comes in as a part of the
foreman's job.
Injury to Others. — This detailed responsibility is not
so commonly thought of, but there are a number of circum-
stances where the "innocent bystander" is the only one who
must be looked out for, or where -he needs protection as much
as the worker. A good example of such a case would be
where there was a case of "shooting the tool" in operating
a riveting "gun." If the trigger is pulled when the tool is
not held against something, the tool will be "shot" with great
force. In this case the operator is in no danger at all, and
if anybody is hurt it will be somebody else. Injuries of the
same kind have happened in handling heavy material with
cranes, and they might happen with the "snap back" on a
buzz saw in a wood mDl.
Both detailed responsibilities, of course, belong in the
responsibility lay-out where there is any possibility of either
form of accident happening in the department.
SECTION in. ILLNESS AND DISEASE
Illness and Disease. — Since the members of the working
force are human beings, they are liable to be attacked at any
time by temporary illness or to suffer from some form of
chronic disease. The question of the specific and detailed
responsibilities of a foreman in connection with such illness
or disease usually call for considerable discussion and
thought. As already stated, the question of safety has been
so thoroughly worked up in most plants that all foremen are
232 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
thoroughly alive in the matter, and it is not so much a case
of accepting safety responsibilities as of devising ways and
means to promote it and so cut accidents down to a minimum.
As a general thing, however, the question of a foreman's
responsibilities as to illness and disease have not been as thor-
oughly taken up and worked out in most plants for a number
of reasons and so a foreman is usually not so clear as to his
responsibilities along these lines as he is with regard to safety
work and accident prevention.
A part of this uncertainty comes out of the fact that
illness has, until quite recently, been largely considered as
a man's private affair not only by the plant but by the man
himself, and this has been especially true of chronic and
contagious diseases, and a foreman has felt a natural reluct-
ance to assume any responsibilities in connection with them
on that account.
A second reason has been that it is only recently that
matters of iUness and disease have been carefully studied
from the standpoint of their cost effects, and it has been
shown that, at least in many cases, responsibilities assumed by
somebody in the organization for taking some action is, as a
managerial proposition, good business.
A third reason for doubt on the part of many foremen as
to their having specific and detailed responsibilities in con-
nection with illness and disease, except possibly in cases of
acute illness, has been that they have felt that any responsi-
bilities along these lines were up to some other plant agency,
a medical department or a welfare department, because they
have thought of the matter from the medical side only, and,
since they were not doctors, have felt that they could do
nothing in the matter even if they wanted to.
Since, according to the newer view of these matters, a
worker who is ill or is suffering from some disease is, on the
one hand, unable to do first class work, and, on the other, if
he knows his job, is too good a man to lose, if that loss can
be prevented, a foreman, as a "key man," must assume and
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 2S3
discharge a number of responsibilities which, under the older
ideas would not have been considered as a part of his job,
and this section undertakes to suggest some of these possible
responsibilities for consideration and discussion.
Some Specific Possible Responsibilities. — ^Among these
possible specific responsibilities might be :
1. Responsibilities as to temporary illness.
2. Responsibilities as to chronic disease.
3. Responsibilities as to infectious or contagious disease.
4. Responsibilities as to physical handicap.
Each of these includes a number of detailed responsi-
bilities, some of which are suggested, and these supervisory
specific and detailed responsibilities in turn set up corre-
sponding managerial problems dealing with cost elements and
ways and means, which are taken up in the chapter following.
A. TEMPOEAKY OE ACUTE ILLNESS
Temporary Illness. — ^This might mean, for example, a
case where a man was coming down with an attack of the
grippe and was trying to keep on working when he was in no
shape to work, or where a man was suffering from a bad cold
and headache, or from some other form of illness not re-
garded as serious but which tends to prevent his doing
first class work. Under many of these conditions a man will
stick to his job, when the best thing for him and for the
plant is for him to go home and get straightened out. A
number of possible responsibilities will suggest themselves in
this connection which each foreman may decide do, or do not,
form a part of his job. Among these might be :
1. Knowing that the worker was ill.
2. Taking some steps to see that, as a result of his illness,
there was no drop in quality or quantity of production.
3. Taking steps to see that accident risk was not in-
creased under these conditions.
This amounts to saying that, when a man is iU, it is up to
the foreman to "spot the case" as a supervisor and then, as
a manager to see that cost is not increased as a result of that
234 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
case of temporary illness. The managerial side of this ques-
tion is taken up in the next chapter, but the supervisory
responsibility for "spotting" such cases belongs in the
foreman's supervisory lay-out.
Incipient Illness. — ^This might mean, for example, a case
where a man was in the first stages of "T. B." or typhoid, or
some other disease that, if unchecked at the beginning, was
bound to get worse and worse. As in the preceding case, a
number of possible responsibilities may come up under this
heading, but it is practically certain that some of them would
come into the job of any foreman.
Acute Illness. — This might mean, for example, a case
where a man was suddenly attacked with sunstroke or acute
indigestion or appendicitis, where the attack came suddenly
and quick action was needed. In such cases there are obvious
responsibilities on the foreman and no further discussion
is needed.
Incipient and Acute Illness.— As a supervisor, a foreman
has some responsibilities in connection with incipient or acute
illness on the part of members of the working force. Just
what they would be depends largely on the special circum-
stances and conditions, but it is evident that it is at least up
to the foreman to "spot" such cases as well as a man without
special medical knowledge can do it, and to do something to
minimize the results. >As in the case just taken up, what he
would do would be on the managerial side of the job, but
"keeping an eye out" for such cases would be at least one
part of his supervisory job, because, in practically all cases
of incipient temporary illness a man will tend to try and
stay on the job when many times he is a danger to the job.
For example, a locomotive engineer may be "able to go on the
run" when, on account of temporary illness he has no business
to be on the run, and his superiors, who are responsible for
the safety of the train and the lives of the passengers have no
business to let him go on the rim. That is, in cases of tem-
porary illness that do not actually incapacitate a worker.
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 235
it IS not what he thinks that counts but what the foreman
thinks, as the man responsible for getting the job done. If
the job is in danger, or if the danger to the man himself or
to others is increased by letting a man who says that he is
"all right" when he isn't stay on the job, it is up to the fore-
man to take some action.
The case of acute iUness is somewhat different because,
if the attack amounts to anything, there is no question of
staying on the j ob. The responsibilities here would come out
of the fact that, as the leader of the team, the members of the
team naturally look to the foreman to take the initiative and
direct whatever can be done to relieve the sufferer. This re-
sponsibility might be, for example, for seeing that an ambu-
lance was called, where a plant maintained a hospital. It
might mean a responsibility on a foreman to post himself
sufficiently to give effective first aid, as in the case of sun-
stroke, or it might mean a responsibility for being provided
with such medical supplies as could be used by a man who was
not a doctor, as was often the case in ships, where the captain
had the responsibility of giving such medical aid as was pos-
sible when no doctor was available.
The analysis of responsibilities for cases of acute illness
will, therefore, vary so much according to the chkracter of
the conditions, the organization of the plant, the conditions
under which the work is carried on that each case must be
worked out by itself, but it is quite certain that, on studying
the situation, practically all foremen will agree that they
have supervisory responsibilities of some kind in connection
with acute illness.
B. CHRONIC DISEASE
Chronic Disease. — This case offers more difficulties be-
cause the sjTiiptoms can often be noted only by a doctor.
There are, however, some possible detailed responsibilities
that may be considered in this connection. Among these
might be :
1. Responsibilities in connection with looking out for
such cases.
236 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
2. Responsibilities for seeing that such cases receive
proper medical attention.
These responsibilities would again come out of the fact
that a foreman has the general responsibility of looking out
for his men and, on account of his position can be reasonably
expected to have more sense and intelligence in such matters
than the members of the working force can be expected to
show. For example, certain types of workers don't know
enough to know when they are suffering from the earlier
stages of some chronic disease or are afraid of a doctor. In
other cases they are exploited by quacks.
Of course, each foreman must decide for himself just what
his supervisory responsibilities are, according to the particu-
lar sort of workers in his department, the plant organization,
etc. In general, the more ignorant the workers and the less
provision made by the plant along medical service lines, the
more it is up to the foreman to assume supervisory responsi-
bilities and discharge them as weU as he can. Some points in
this connection are taken up in the next chapter.
Infectious and Contagious Disease. — ^The question of a
foreman's supervisory responsibihties for contagious or in-
fectious disease is one that requires a good deal of considera-
tion, especially in the case of the so-called "social diseases,"
tuberculosis and other diseases of that character that are not
always regarded as serious and which in many cases people
tend to conceal. This much can be said. Wherever a mem-
ber of the team is a menace to the health of other members
of the team, it is a supervisory responsibility of the foreman
to "spot" such cases so far as he can and take some action.
He must protect his men. That is a part of his job as a
leader of the team. Just what should be the action taken will,
as in other cases discussed, depend largely on the special con-
ditions, and the subject will not be developed further here as
a supervisory question, but it is quite certain that on giving
the subject careful consideration any foreman will find de-
tailed responsibilities that should go into his lay-out in con-
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 237
nection with infectious and contagious diseases that menace
the health of all the members of the operating force. Some
suggestions from the managerial standpoint are, however,
made in the following chapter.
SECTION IV. GENERAL PHYSICAL CONDITION
Physical Condition. — As suggested on the chart there are
a number of possible specific responsibilities that may come
under the general responsibility for the general physical con-
dition of the members of the working force, including, of
course, a number of possibilities that are not mentioned.
Those given on the chart are:
1. Overfatigue.
2. Susceptibility to special injury due to some special
weakness.
3. Jobs requiring especially concentrated attention on
the -part of the worker and so causing mental overstrain.
4. Cases of overspeeding.
5. Personal habits on the part of a member of the work-
ing force that interfere with doing his work properly.
6. Physical handicap.
These specific possible responsibilities are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
Overfatigue. — Under some conditions it may be a part of
the duties of a foreman to assume responsibilities for watch-
ing out for cases of overfatigue on account of the resulting
danger for accidents, slow production or for some other
reason. Where the conditions are such, as in the case of most
foremen in charge of production <^epartments, where this
responsibility comes into the job, it should be included in
the lay-out.
Susceptibility to Special Injury.— As discussed later, this
specific responsibility comes into the foreman's job whenever
he has any responsibilities as to the assigning of workers
to jobs.
An example of such a case would be where a man was
suffering from a rupture or where he had an artificial limb.
238 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
In such cases the foreman's responsibility would center
around seeing that the working conditions for that man on
whatever job he was assigned to would not expose him to
special dangers of injury. Because of the number of injured
men now being employed on account of the war and the
" cripples in industry " legislation, responsibilities of this
nature are likely to be given more attention in the future
than they have been given in the past.
Concentrated Attention. — ^As is well known, some jobs
require concentrated attention, as in the case of train dis-
patchers or telephone switchboard operators during rush
hours. Under some conditions, it may become a part of the
duty pf the foreman to see that concentration is not carried
so long that it breaks down with the accompanying danger
of resulting trouble. Of course, only where such "concen-
tration" jobs come under the foreman's supervision would
this specific responsibility come into the lay-out of any one
foreman's job.
Overspeeding. — In some cases, especially where operators
are on piecework, some of them are likely to overspeed with
the accompanying dangers of spoiled work and damage to
machines. Under these conditions, a foreman may have spe-
cific responsibilities under this heading. These conditions
can, of course, only come about when operators can control
the speed of their machines.
Personal Habits. — ^An example of a case where a foreman
might have responsibilities under this heading would be where
a man was in the habit of sitting up nearly all night playing
cards and so was in no shape to work the next day, or where
in some other way he did things in his own time that pre-
vented him from doing a good job in the plant time. A num-
ber of possible responsibilities will suggest themselves under
this heading that can be worked out and included in the
specific responsibility lay-out for any given foreman, accord-
ing to the special conditions.
General Outside Conditions. — This term refers to the
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 239
possibility that a worker may be living under such poor
conditions that his value to the job is seriously impaired or
he is in some way a menace to the rest of the team. For
example, suppose that he has a case of smallpox in his home
and, as is often the case, especially with some nationalities,
will not observe quarantine regulations, and so is liable to
bring the disease into the plant, although he has not got it
himself. Has a foreman any responsibilities here, and if
so, what are they? Again this question must be worked out
according to the special conditions, but evidently he has some
responsibilities because, as the team leader, it is up to him to
protect his men.
It is, therefore, quite certain that on studying and dis-
cussing the matter all foremen will decide that they have
supervisory responsibilities in connection with outside con-
ditions. Just what they would be must be left to each indi-
vidual foreman to decide, but the point already brought up
before comes up here again as to how far such matters are
the private affairs of the man and how far they affect the
well-being of the other members of the team and the general
effectiveness of the plant, as well as of the department.
Phjrsical Handicap. — The retraining program of the
Federal Government for disabled ex-soldiers, sailors and ma-
rines has placed many ex-service men in plants for training
to enable them to "get back" to a good earning power in spite
of some handicap incurred in the service. Any foreman is
likely to have such men in his operating force.
It is also true that the Federal Government and the dif-
ferent states have recently united on what is called Industrial
Rehabilitation work, or, for short, "I. R. work". The purpose
of this legislation is to take care of people who may be dis-
abled in some way so that they cannot continue to carry on
their old jobs at all, or cannot carry them on as well as they
could, by training them so that they can do good work on
their old jobs in spite of their handicap, or to train them for
some other job where the handicap will not interfere.
240 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
Since most of this retraining will be done in plants, and
m many cases with employees who incurred the handicap or
the disability in the plant, any foreman is likely to have
such men and women in his department, and, where this is
the case they wiU have certain supervisory responsibilities
just as in the case of the ex-service men.* i
These responsibilities will probably be mostly along in-
structing lines and so would not differ from instructing re-
sponsibilities as given in later chapters, but, in addition,
there may be set up certain supervisory responsibilities in
connection with V. R. and I. R. members of the operating
force that a foreman would want to include in his lay-out.
These would be mainly as follows :
1. Seeing to it that the V. R. or I. R. individual was
trained according to the understanding with the State Office
and the Management.
2. Notifying the Management when the training was
completed.
3. Seeing to it that the person under training got a fair
show while in training.
SECTION V. WORKING CONDITIONS
Working Conditions. — Since the ability of people to do
good work is affected by the conditions under which they work
some responsibilities in this connection may come into the
foreman's job. Some of the more probable are indicated in
the chart as follows :
1. Responsibilities as to air, ventillation, etc.
2. Responsibilities as to illumination. (Lighting.)
3. Responsibilities as to occupational dangers.
4. Responsibilities as to general surroundings.
* Space will not allow any extended description of the work for
training men and women who have incurred disabilities in thg service
that is, the Vocational Rehabilitation Program of the Government (V. R.
Work for short) or for the I. R. work. Foremen who are interested in
this matter wiU find full information in bulletins published by the Federal
Board for Vocational Education, Washington, and in other bulletins
published by the different State Offices that have charge of the I. R.
work in the different States that have undertaken to handle it.
PHYSICAL RESPONSIBILITIES 241
These possible specific responsibilities are taken up in the
following paragraphs.
Air. — Since poor air affects the working ability of men
working under cover, responsibilities for seeing that the con-
ditions as to ventilation are made as good as possible may
come into the foreman's job either by direct action, recom-
mendation or suggestion. Of course, plants vary so much
in this respect that attention can only be drawn to this pos-
sible specific responsibility and to the fact that, in many
cases, it may be a part of the foreman's job to assume and
discharge certain responsibilities in this connection.
Illumination — Light. — The same statements can be made
as to light as were just made to air. The special conditions
would determine the particular responsibilities in the case of
any given foreman.
Occupational Dangers. — There are certain occupations
that carry with them definite dangers to the workers, such
as making black powder or in working in quicksilver mines.
These occupational dangers go with the job: they cannot be
entirely avoided, but they can be reduced to a minimum by
taking certain precautions. Where such occupational dan-
gers exist in the work of a department it is one of the respon-
sibilities of the foreman to see that all possible precautions
are provided and used. The particular nature of these re-
sponsibilities would, of course, depend on the special occu-
pational dangers, and would have to be worked out by each
foreman, but they would be there and should be included in
the lay-out of the job.
In this connection care should be taken to distinguish
between occupational dangers and possibility of accidents.
An accident always means a slip: at least in theory it need
not happen at all. An occupational danger goes with the
job: it cannot be avoided, but it can be minimized.
Special Job Dangers. — The same statements will apply to
the case of some jobs that carry "job" dangers where the
occupation, as a whole, carries no special danger, but certain
16
242 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
jobs in that occupation do carry special danger. An example
of such a case in the shipwright's trade would be knocking
out the keel blocks in launching a ship.
General Surroundings. — ^Under some conditions the gen-
eral surroundings may have an effect on the physical condi-
tion of the working force, where there is no special occupa-
tional danger and outside of the working conditions. This
might be true, for example, where the building was not safe
or where the sanitary conditions were so bad that there was
danger of communication of disease or the starting of an
epidemic, as during the "flu" a few years ago, masks were
required in many plants. Supervisory responsibilities along
these lines might be, in part :
1. Seeing that any special precautions were observed.
2. Improving conditions either by action, recommenda-
tion or suggestion to superiors.
CHAPTER XVI
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE
WORKING FORCE
SECTION I. PEELIMINAEY
Preliminary. — Chapter XV discussed some possible
supervisory responsibilities that might come into the fore-
man's job from the standpoint of " the human factors,"
that is, those things that count in affecting the physical con-
dition and mental attitude of the members of the working
force. As pointed out there, these human factors lie outside
of the questions of the M, T, I values and the general job
qualifications and are concerned entirely with those elements
that come out of the fact that workers are not merely "car-
riers" of certain knowledge, skill, strength, etc., but are
human beings with bodies that can be injured, impaired by
illness, that are affected by the conditions under which they
work, and who possess minds that think.
For example, a worker might possess all necessary knowl-
edge, skill and so on required to put a job across in first class
shape, yet, if he were sick, he could not use that skill and
knowledge as effectively as if he were well ; if his mental atti-
tude is such that he does not care whether he does the job
well or badly, or dislikes the job, or is dissatisfied, or does
not want to work at all, the quality or quantity of his work
will be affected and so his physical condition or his mental
attitude wiR become a very important cost element.
This chapter takes up some of the managerial problems
and cost elements that come out of a foreman's responsi-
bilities, in connection with the physical condition of the
working force. The following chapter discusses the corre-
sponding questions that come out of the corresponding
responsibilities as to mental attitude.
243
244 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
The Two General Human Factor Elements. — ^It has been
pointed out that all production costs finally "head up" into
material-time-power-labor cost, although the specific cost
elements might vary widely, so, in the case of the human fac-
tors, the different cost elements aU "head up" into two.
1. Physical condition.
2. Mental attitude, or, as it is often called, morale.
Cost Elements. — The two cost elements, in general, are:
1. The degree to which any member of the working force
is, or is not, in good physical condition, including sickness
or injury.
2. The degree to which the mental attitude of all mem-
bers of the force is, or is not, good.
The General Managerial Problem. — The general man-
agerial problem for any foreman is to promote, by all means
in his power, within the limits of his responsibilities, the de-
velopment and maintenance of good morale and to protect
the working force from injury and poor physical condition.
In the following chapters it is assumed that all foremen
include these responsibilities in their jobs, which is a fact, and
that they are always anxious to discharge these responsibil-
ities as fuUy as they can, which is also a fact. The following
paragraphs are therefore only intended to suggest points
which may be profitably discussed in conferences and which,
it is hoped, may be of suggestive value.
The Importance of the Physical Condition of the Work-
ing Force. — Some of the most important managerial prob-
lems that may confront a foreman on the human factor side
of his managerial work are those connected with the physical
condition of the members of the working force. He may have
to deal with these problems both directly or by cooperating
with other departments, such as the safety department or the
medical service, but even where such departments are a part
of the organization there are many cases where the degree to
which a foreman senses his responsibilities in this connection
and discharges them intelligently makes a great difference
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 24S
in the final production cost. It is only in recent years that
the importance of this matter has come to be appreciated and
to begin to receive serious attention and the cost elements
connected with it to be studied out carefully. What may be
called the "old biethod" of dealing managerially with matters
of physical condition was to employ a man and then hold that
his physical condition Was "nobody's business but his own."
If he became ill or run down, he was either fired or "carried,"
according to the sympathy of the foreman or of the employer
or the difficulty in fiUing his place. If he had to quit on
account of sickness and was a "good man" or an old employee
the matter was' simply treated as a piece of "hard luck all
around" but something about which nothing could have been
done. The man lost his job: the concern lost a good man,
but nobody thought of handling the matter any other way.
Sometimes a sort of attempt was made to hold an extra
good man by holding his job open for him while he got well or
during acute sickness, but this was about as far as anybody
got in those days.
The newer ideas that are now coming into practice are
based upon a totally different way of looking at the matter
of the effect of the physical condition of the members of the
working force on the welfare of the employing concern and
are based upon the notion that something can be done and
should be done to reduce the cost elements that were dis-
regarded under the older methods of handling such cases. It
is now held, at least in many of the more progressive con-
cerns, that it is up to anyone having any say in the matter
to "get busy" and see what they can do to reduce these cost
elements to a minimum. Since a foreman, by virtue of his
position, can do some of these things better than anybody
else, it is a part of his job to do them: that is, he has super-
visory responsibilities as to the physical condition of the
members of his own departmental force and therefore has
corresponding managerial problems to reduce the cost ele-
*ments due to this cause to a mvnimum.
246 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele-
ments are :
1. Decreased quantity of production.
2. Decreased quality of production.
3. Increased danger of accidents to the worker himself.
4. Increased danger of injury to others.
5. Temporary labor loss due to accidents.
6. Permanent labor loss due to accidents.
7. Increased damage to tools and equipment.
All these things and a number of others mean increased
or decreased cost, according to the way they are managed
and the foreman's managerial problem, as already stated in
general terms is to reduce them to a minimum.
The Foreman's Responsibility for Himself. — ^In the fol-
lowing discussions it may be as well to state here that they
refer as much to the foreman himself as to the members of
the working force. If a sick worker cannot do a good job
neither can a sick foreman do a good job. If a worker is
injured, and so loses time, the same is true of a foreman who
is forced to lay off on account of an injury. While the
discussions are carried on in terms of the working force, they
all apply equally well to the foreman and, in many cases
apply even more strongly, because, as pointed out earlier, the
foreman is a key man and any drop in his ability to do his
job affects the whole plant.
The Detailed Discussion. — On account of their import-
ance, each of the above cost elements is taken up separately
in the following paragraphs.
Poor Physical Condition and Production. — ^As gen-
eral propositions the following statements are worth
consideration :
1. If a worker is sick he cannot do a first class job.
2. If a worker is physically "run down," even if he is not
actually sick, he cannot attend to his job in first class shape.
3. Whether sick or "in bad shape" a man on a job will
not only work to poor advantage but in addition is likely to
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 247
make more "slips" that may result in damage to tools and
equipment or injury to himself or to others,
4. If a worker becomes afflicted with a chronic or pro-
gressive disease (as in the case of "T. B.," for example) where
he will, if the case is not attended to, grow gradually worse,
the falling off in his working ability and the danger of "slip"
wLU go on steadily increasing until something happens: the
man is discharged, goes home sick at increasing intervals,
"hangs on" until he has to quit because he cannot work any
longer or meets with an accident due to lack of care or other
cause due to his condition.
5. If a worker is absent on account of illness we have
absenteeism (temporary labor loss), or if he is lost to the
plant through sickness or even death, we have permanent
Islbor loss with the accompanying replacement cost in
either case.
These facts being true, it is evident that illness, accident
or disease affect production cost, so, from the managerial
standpoint of management become very important matters
for the foreman's careful consideration and study.
Poor Physical Condition and Quality. — ^AU that has just
been said will apply to quality of production as well as to
quantity, and so, in the following paragraphs the two are
discussed together.
Illness and Injury. — ^As the term is used here, poor physi-
cal condition means^anything that prevents a man from being
in normal or first class shape and therefore refers both to
illness or injury.
For the purposes of the following discussions a man that
has lost an eye or a leg or a hand, or who is ruptured is just
as much in poor physical condition as one that is suffering
from tuberculosis or a bad cold, or Bright's disease or any
other form of illness.
Since, however, the questions of dealing managerially with
illness, whether temporary, that is, acute illness, or perma-
nent, that is, chronic disease, are very different from the cor-
248 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
responding problems in the case of injury, the two are dis-
cussed separately in this chapter.
SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON
PHYSICAL INJURY TO MEMBERS OF THE WORKING
FORCE SAFETY
Preliminary. — ^This section presents some of the more
important cost elements and managerial problems that may
come up in connection with dangers of physical injury to
members of the working force in the department, and deal, in
general, with the corresponding responsibilities discussed
in Chapter XV, that is, what is commonly referred to
as "Safety."
As pointed out in that chapter, even if there is some
special part of the organization that is particularly charged
with the responsibility of promoting safety, that does not
"let the foreman out" so far as doing his part is concerned,
and, in many cases, he is the only person who can put over the
job effectively : nobody else can do it. As a rule, foreman are
keenly interested in this matter: they give much time and
thought to it, and in the following paragraphs no attempt is
made to go into the subject from the standpoint of safety
engineering, but only to suggest some points that may be
worth considering in discussion or conferences.
The Foreman and Injuries.— An "accident" means in-
jury or death to another human being and in thinking about
the problems of accident prevention, of course, the first
thought on the part of anyone is from what may be called
the "human" side, especially if they are in a position of
responsibility with regard to the matter. Any foreman, and
anybody else in the plant would rather see any amount of
production loss or spend any amount of money rather than
have people in their employ seriously injured or killed: there
is, of course, no question as to that. For the purposes of
discussion here it has seemed better to disregard the "human"
side of the question, not because it is not the important side,
but because one goes with the other, so that the improvement
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 249
and control of safety conditions is not only good "humanity"
but good business as well and can, perhaps, be better dis-
cussed and thought out from the angle of cost control, al-
though the double responsibility is always there, and any
foreman would do as much to prevent accidents if there
were no cost involved as he would if the cost were tremendous.
Cost Elements on Safety, — ^WhUe, as pointed out, the
final cost of poor safety conditions comes out in the form of
temporary or permanent labor loss there are a number of
more direct cost elements that may be considered, among
which are:
1. Direct compensation cost.
2. Reputation cost.
3. Fear cost.
4. The attitude of the working force.
5. The attitude of the foreman himself.
All of which affect the cost due to poor working conditions
and will be increased or decreased in proportion as their
causes are reduced or removed or are allowed to exist, that is,
according to the degree to which safety precautions are
actually taken and are effective in the working conditions of
the department.
Direct Compensation Cost. — ^By this is meant a direct
charge against operating cost for damage due to injury in-
curred while working in the plant. The general tendency
of modem legislation has been to establish some form of com-
pensation at the expense of the employing concern usually
taking the form of what is often known as a "Workman's
Compensation Act." At present some such form of legisla-
tion has been enacted and is in force in some thirty states
and is a coming thing, that seems likely to extend all over the
country. Where such a law is in force it is evident that
the cost of such compensation must come into the cost of
miming the plant, and that this cost will be greater oV less
according to the frequency and seriousness of any damage
or injury that may occur. The fewer the accidents and the
250 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
less serious they are when they do happen, the less the cost ;
the more accidents and the more serious they are, the greater
the cost.
Reputation Cost. — ^Another way in which occupational
dangers and accidents affect cost is in the effect of the repu-
tation of the plant upon the employment of men, or upon the
stability of the working force. If a plant has a reputation
for being "safe," good men are much more likely to seek em-
ployment and to remain in the plant than in the case of a
concern with a reputation of being "unsafe," or where it is
thought that there is no particular interest shown in accident
prevention. This particular cost element is often not taken
sufficiently into consideration by foremen, but it does affect
to a very appreciable extent the interest and the satisfaction
of the working force and, therefore, amounts to permanent
labor loss.
Fear Cost. — Still another cost factor, not often suffi-
ciently taken into consideration, is the effect of safe or unsafe
working conditions on the mental attitude of the men. When
a man working on a job is thinking aU the time about the
chances of his being injured, he is not going to put the same
amount of intelligence, time and energy on the job as he would
if he were using the whole of his mind on it. This effect of
safety on cost has often been given too little consideration.
This point is of great importance in instructing as a cost
cutting proposition.
The Attitude of the Working Force. — ^Probably this is
one of the most serious cost elements in the majority of plants
and one that is the most difficult to deal with.
For example, it is a well known fact that many workers
will not protect themselves and sometimes seem to take a sort
of pride in not taking precautions. This is particularly true
of old and experienced workmen who not only will not pro-
tect themselves but wiU tell new workers that "it's all fool-
ishness anyway." In many cases the worker feels that
taking precautions wiU interfere with doing the job as
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 2fil
quickly as he wants to do it, as in the case of the use of
guards on a number of wood working machines.
Whatever the cause, such a "state of mind" increases
cost, because it makes for increased accidents and so must
be reckoned with as a cost factor. It leads to "taking
chances" and, in many cases, to apparent carelessness as
discussed in the chapter on that subject, and so sets up a
managerial problem as discussed later in this section.
The Attitude of the Foreman.— The attitude of the fore-
man with regard to safety is as important as that of the
working force, and it is not so much what he says as what he
does that counts. Under the pressure of getting out the
work a good many foremen who think right will neglect the
same precautions that they are trying to get the men to
take and so, often quite unconsciously, will make matters
worse, because, as pointed out in another chapter, a foreman
cannot get away from the fact that he is, to a greater or less
extent, the leader, and men look to him "to set the example."
For example, suppose that work is carried on under such
conditions that a respirator should be worn by everybody
in the room. The foreman comes in for just a few moments
and, being in a hurry, thinks "I'm only going to be in that
room for a minute and I won't be hurt in that time, too much
bother to put that thing on," and so does not put "that
thing on." So far as he is concerned, he may be right, but
the men who are working in the room all the time tenll not
think of that; they will only see that the "boss didn't bother
with the thing," so they will attach still less importance to
the matter than they did before.
Direct Production Loss Due to Accidents. — A cost ele-
ment of less importance than the others that have been men-
tioned, but nevertheless of importance, is due to the fact that
where temporary labor loss is due to accident it may be that
the worker who is injured cannot be replaced, especially if he
is especially skilled on some particular job or process, and so
that job has to be shut down while he is laid up. If this job
252 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
happens to be one that ties up the whole production work in
the department because it is what may be called a "key"
job, the cost may be considerable. The same thing is true
to a lesser extent when temporary absence makes it neces-
sary to "double up" on work for the time being though, of
course, this depends on the reserve help that may be available
on that particular job and the degree to which doubling up
slows down production.
There are a number of other ways in which unsafe condi-
tions aflfect absenteeism and turnover, which will readily
occur to any foreman, and which he should work out accord-
ing to his particular working conditions, but those given
above are some of the more important and include several to
which, as a rule, too little attention is often given in con-
sidering problems of safety control.
The Managerial Problem on Safety. — ^As the leader of
the team, or the "boss," a foreman has responsibilities as to
safety and so must have managerial problems corresponding
to these responsibilities within the field of his responsibilities,
so that the managerial problem as to safety can, in general,
be stated as follows:
The foreman's managerial problem as to accident pre-
vention is to reduce accidents to a minimum by all means in
his power, by action, recommendation, suggestion and co-
operation with other agencies where such other agencies
exist, such as safety departments, hospital service, emergency
medical service and so on.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^Among the ways and means
for dealing with safety problems might be :
1. Knowing the danger points and "red flagging them."
2. Guarding danger points, seeing that guards are used
and that they are in good condition.
3. Picking men for jobs with regard to the number and
kind of danger poifits.
4. Choosing wisely between automatic and non-auto-
matic safety devices.
5. Giving first aid in case of accident.
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 253
6. In case of occupational dangers seeing that all pro-
tective devices are used as they should be used.
As a preliminary to the following discussion it should
be pointed out that the selection of ways and means in deal-
ing with safety is largely determined by the cause of the
injury, and that the first step is to decide whether a so-called
accident that has happened or that may happen is really an
accident at all. This means distinguishing between true acci-
dents and injuries as considered in the following paragraph.
Injuries and Accidents. — Every time that anybody is in-
jured it is commonly spoken of as "an accident," but this is
not actually true, because an accident really means injury
due to some cause that could not have been foreseen or due to
failure to take known precautions. For example, when a man
on a buzz saw loses a finger because he did not use the guard
and the guard was of such a nature that its use would have
prevented the injury, this should not be called an accident
in the proper sense of the word. It is an injury, but not an
accident. On the other hand, suppose that a tested chain
breaks and as a result a sheet of steel falls from a crane and
some one is injured, that is, all possible precautions within
the scope of human power have been taken, we have what may
be called a "true" accident. Again there are certain known
precautions that make a given job safe so far as any human
beiag can see, but the operator is ignorant of these precau-
tions and is injured or killed, this is an injury but not an
"accident" in the sense in which the word is used here.
The first step in dealing with the managerial problems of
safety is to determine the causes of injuries and decide which
of these causes will lead to true accidents and which to pre-
ventable injuries and then to decide who will he to blame if
an injury or an accident occurs.
When these points have been established the questions
as to dealing with the problems of safety can be worked out
much more effectively.
Causes of Injuries and Accidents. — ^Among the more com-
mon causes of injury and accident are:
254 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
1. Ignorance due to lack of proper instruction and train-
ing in the special precautions that should be taken.
2. Failure to provide adequate safety devices.
3. Failure to provide automatic safety devices wherever
such devices are possible and will work.
4t. Putting! the wrong man on the job.
In general, such causes of injury as given above may be
said to be due to the plant and not the fault of the person
injured. On the other hand, such causes of injury as the
following :
1. Taking a chance.
2. Failure to use safety devices when provided. ,
3. Being in too much of a hurry, when not required.
May, in general, be considered as due to a " slip " on the part
of the person who is injured.
Straight Accidents. — ^After all sources of danger have
been guarded against so far as human foresight can go and
after all precautions have been observed, there will always
be the "unexpected," the injury due to causes that no one
has foreseen or possibly could foresee, that is, accidents
pure and simple.
Injuries Due to Ignorance. — Evidently if it appears that
an injury was due to failure to properly instruct, the respon-
sibility is squarely up to somebody in the organization and
not to the person injured, and this is a much more common
cause of injuries than is often assumed, because, as taken up
in the chapters on the instructing job, showing and telling
is not instructing, and where a worker has been simply told
or shown, it is often assumed that he bias been "instructed"
when, as a matter of fact, he has not been instructed at all.
The statement, "I told that fellow to keep his fingers out of
the gears and he went and stuck them in " or some other
corresponding statement is not uncommon in cases of in-
juries, and is often assumed to "put the responsibility on the
man and let the foreman or other responsible party out"
when, as a matter of fact, it is "up to them" just the same.
As a matter of fact, where the cause of an accident is
COST ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL CONDITION 235
found to be due to the fact that the person injured had never
been properly instructed as to safety precautions, the injury
should not be classed as an "accident" at all :
Such cases are really due to the fact that somebody fell
down on his job, but that "somebody" was not the individual
who was injured, but the "somebody" whose business it was
to see to it that the worker was actually instructed in the
necessary precautions and that the instruction "took." For
example, in diluting sulphuric acid the acid should be run into
the water, not the water into the acid. A person unac-
quainted with the facts would never suppose that it made
any difference which way the job was done. A new man is put
on this job and for some reason the necessity of strictly fol-
lowing this procedure is not actually put over to him, so
that he knows why lone way is safe and the other way is not.
He does it the wrong way and an explosion results. Is he to
blame or is the somebody who put him on that job without
making sure that he understood how to do it right and would
do it that way?
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is to cut out all injuries due to ignorance since they are due
to a cause that need not exist at all, at least in theory.
Dealing with the Problem of Injuries Due to Ignor-
ance.— Evidently the only remedy for injuries due to ignor-
ance is to cut them out as thoroughly as possible by seeing
that all safety instruction is so effective that accidents due to
this cause do not occur. In order to make such instruction
effective, the methods of good teaching as discussed in Part
9 on the instructing job must be used and since they are
fully presented there, no further discussion of them is given
here, but it is worth while to draw attention to the necessity
of traiming in habits of safety as distinguished from merely
telling or showing.
When a man is new on a job and has been properly in-
structed as to safety precautions, he will, while he is "scared"
of the job, observe those precautions, but as soon as he gets
over his "scare" he is liable to get over looking out for safety
266 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
unless he has been given the safety habit. As a rule, after
men have got used to working under conditions that involve
danger, they will only take precautions in proportion as
taking those precautions has become an unconscious habit.
For example, it is sometimes said that a man who is used
to working with high tension currents can always be "spot-
ted" because he always has one hand in his pocket. A man
used to city traffic will unconsciously look both ways before
he swings off a street or starts across the street, while a
"rube" who is not trained in safety habits does not look both
ways without thinking and so something very often happens.
It is not that both the "city feUer" and the "rube" may
not both know what to do, they may both know, but that the
city man looks out for himself without thinking because he
has been trained and the other fellow has only been told.
It is much more difficult to get these unconscious habits
after one is used to a job than when one is learning the job,
so that the effective promotion of "safety first" depends
largely on the degree to which men can be trained in safety
habits when they first come on a new job. After the job has
become routine, that is, in the case of experienced men, the
formation of safety habits on that job is a much more dif-
ficult matter and the matter of the promotion of safety must
often be dealt with through other means, some of which are
discussed later in this chapter.
Trusting Another Man, — One point worth mentioning in
connection with injuries due to ignorance is that the common
practice of putting a new man on a job with a man who has
been doing that work for a long time, with the idea that the
experienced man wiU post the new man, does not mean that
protection against accidents has been really secured through
instruction, because there is no guarantee that the "old
hand" knows the dangers of the job himself with any degree
of accuracy or completeness, or if he does know them, that
he wiU be able "to put them over" to the new man, that is,
that he can do a good teaching job. In many cases, his own
attitude may be one of "contempt" for the dangers on the
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 257
job and he may actually encourage or even instruct the
"green" man not to take the proper precautions.
This method for cutting down accidents due to ignorance
cannot be depended upon.
Injuries Due to Failure to Provide Adequate Safety
Devices. — ^The second cause of injuries that cannot be prop-
erly charged up to real accidents is failure tO provide ade-
quate safety devices where such devices can be used. If, for
example, a man were injured on a machine, say a lathe, by
getting his fingers jammed in the gears, and the gears were
ndt guarded, this is evidently due to a managerial slip some-
where, not necessarily, of course, on the part of the foreman,
but unquestionably on the part of somebody on the man-
agement side.
The question of the special character of various safety
devices and the degree to which they are efficient in actually
preventing injuries is a matter of expert knowledge and so
is not taken up here : that is a matter for any given foreman
to deal with according to his responsibilities (his acting,
recommending or suggesting responsibilities), or his special
interest in the subject, but certain general principles may
properly be made a basis for consideration or conference dis-
cussion, and some of the more important of these are given
in the following paragraphs. Among the more important of
these are the relative values of automatic and non-automatic
safety devices, and the conditions under which each form of
device can be used to the best advantage, both on definite jobs
and in the general working conditions in the plant. For
example^ a department may have carefully guarded all ma-
chines and yet have accidents due to poorly lighted stairways,
or insufficiently guarded elevators or other things of
that kind. The following discussion deals as much with gen-
eral safety precautions and devices as it does with special
devices that are intended to prevent or lessen the chances
of damage to the worker on equipment units.
The Managerial Problem on Safety Devices. — ^The man-
agerial problem here is to secure the use of the most effective
17
258 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
safety devices wherever such devices will be of service and to
choose between automatic and non-automatic devices with
regard to their actual value for accident prevention.
Where safety precautions are required by law or by the
insurance conditions, these requirements would, of course, be
given first consideration but not the only consideration.
Dealing with the Problem — General Safety Devices. —
By general safety devices is meant any special provision to
promote safe general working conditions, such a fire exits,
lighted stairways, protected elevators, etc.
Special Safety Devices. — This term refers to safety de-
vices provided to prevent injuries on machines or other equip-
ment units, such as guards, goggles, respirators and so on.
In either case the devices may be automatic or non-automatic.
Special Safety Devices — Automatic and Non-Auto-
matic.— One common method of reducing accidents is the use
of safety devices, both automatic and non-automatic. An
automatic safety device is supposed to prevent injury by
making it much more difficult or impossible — ^its function is
to relieve the man from "wa,tching out." Guards, raUirigs on
stairways, automatic elevator gates, interlocking switches,
automatic signals, etc., are types of automatic safety devices.
Non-automatic safety devices are those that require a
man to set or adjust them if they are to be of value and to
know how to do it. Common type of guards on buzz saws
or jointer goggles, respirators, gas masks, etc., are examples
of non-automatic devices requiring correct adjustment to
be of service.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Two Types. — ^The
great advantage of the automatic device when it is to be de-
pended upon, is that it does away with the danger of injuries
due to familiarity or absent-mindedness and reduces danger
of injury due to ignorance. The surest way to cut down in-
juries is to make working conditions such that they can-
not occur.
The great difficulty with non-automatic devices is that
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 269
they are of no value unless they are used and in many cases
the majority of experienced workers will not use them.
Unless trained at the start a man employed where there
is danger goes through three stages: first he is scared, and
while in that state is overcautious ; as he learns his job, he
gets over his first scare and becomes cautious ; when familiar
with the work he becomes contemptuous of danger, so that
usually the more experienced the man, the greater the danger
of injury due to " carelessness."
Automatic Devices. — ^As just pointed out, automatic de-
vices are designed to be "always on the job" and so to cut
out the human factor by making impossible injuries due to
negligence in taking precautions, or injuries due to igno: ance.
The idea is to remove the cause of danger, and, so far as
such automatic devices actually do what they are supposed
to do with 100 per cent, efficiency, they settle the question:
in such cases there is no danger. As a matter of fact, how-
ever, the device that is 100 per cent, effective does not always
exist, but in many cases the device contributes a considerable
part of the protection and the man must contribute the rest.
For example, an automatic stop on an elevator, assuming
that it is in good condition, wiU hold the elevator if the cable
breaks without any help from anybody, but a life preserver
only works if it is put on properly. In many cases we have,
therefore, a sort of partnership set up between the so-called
automatic device and the man and, in such cases, the more
the device does and the less required of the man, the more
effective the protection.
The Managerial Problem on Automatic Devices. — ^The
managerial problem for a foreman in this case is to recom-
mend, suggest or secure and install, according to his particu-
lar responsibilities, the most nearly 100 per cent, effective
devices that can be obtained on aU danger points: this is,
in general, the best that he can do.
Dealing with the Problem.— This is a question of "job
knowledge" and so cannot be taken up here. A foreman
should acquaint himself with the actual protection values
260 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
of the different devices obtainable and use his judgment
and experience in determining which of them will give the
nearest to 100 per cent, protection under the special
working conditions.
NON-AUTOMATIC DEVICES
Non-Automatic Devices. — The non-automatic device
differs from the automatic device in that, unless it is adjusted
or "set" it gives no protection at all or, in other words, it
becomes an automatic device of a certain percentage of effec-
tiveness only after it has been set. This fact changes the
character of the managerial problem as considered in the
following paragraph.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem in
connection with non-automatic devices is, first, to secure and
install the best devices obtainable and second, to get men
to use them, and the second problem is much the more difficult
of the two.
Dealing virith the Problem. — ^The determination of what
sort of devices should be used is a matter of expert knowledge
as to the special dangers under the particular working con-
ditions. Such knowledge must be possessed by a foreman or
by some other part of the organization, say a safety depart-
ment, if one is a part of the organization, but when such
devices have been installed, the job of the foreman is to get
them used.
Using Non-Automatic Devices. — ^In getting experienced
men to use non-automatic devices, the foreman must depend
mainly on careful supervision and on fighting the effects of
familiarity. Bringing cases of injuries, due to refusal to use
safety devices, to the attention of the men may have some
value, provided it "jars" them and while the effects of the
"jar" last, this plan may be of some value.
Some concerns regularly post or print for distribution
accounts of all accidents, pointing out just how the injury
occurred, why it occurred, whose fault it was and how it
might have been avoided. Provided these reach the right men,
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 261
they probably have "jarring" value. Stuck up as permanent
notices, they really have little value. Moving pictures show-
ing an accident, the story of the results of the accident as
carried into the family or even to the hospital and the cem-
etery, have been used to advantage as methods of "jar-
ring" men.
The point here is that whatever is effective in getting men
to use "foresight*' instead of "hiadsight" must provide for
continued "jarring." Permanent notices that "any man
failing to use the guard on this machine will be discharged"
or exhorting poster, such as one showing a man's hand with
three fingers cut oif and reading, "This man thought he could
run this machine without the guard. He did." are of value
only so long as they do not become an old story,
" Red Flagging " Danger Points. — A common man-
agerial device for reducing the chances for injuries is "red
flagging" danger points. For example, all danger points on
machine tools are sometimes painted yellow. Undoubtedly,
such devices have a "jarring value" when first put on, and
with new men, but they soon become a matter of course and
then lose most of their effectiveness, thus ceasing to act as
automatic safety devices.
It is not uncommon to see shops where some time in the
past danger points were located and most elaborately
marked, but where it is now evident that for a long time
nobody has been interested enough to keep them up. This
again illustrates the principle that permanent, unchanged
notices, etc., gradually lose their punch.
The "Jarring" Value of Discharge. — One common method
of attempting to insure the use of non-automatic safety de-
vices is to discharge a man for not using them on the theory
that the rest may be "jarred" into doing it. They may: for
about half a day. In many cases, it is doubtful if the loss of
an otherwise good man is worth the temporary "jar" value
of this method. Of course, a case of persistent carelessness
is an6ther story.
Probably in no field of the foreman's work has he a more
262 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
difficult problem than in getting men of experience to use
non-automatic devices, but in proportion as he succeeds, he
does a better job in accident prevention.
A second valuable means of reducing physical injury
to members of the working force is through developing a
greater interest in the prevention of injuries. After all pre-
cautions have been taken in instructing as to danger points
and guarding against injuries liable to occur in connection
with them, the fact still remains that if a man is not inter-
ested in taking care of himself, no one else can take care of
him, hence the greater the degree to which a foreman can
arouse and maintain the interest of his men in the reduction
of accidents due to carelessness, the greater the cost reduc-
tion and the better he can discharge his responsibility as
the group leader.
Perhaps one of the best ways of promoting this is for the
foreman to be careful himself, taking all the precautions that
he expects his men to take ; if he is careless, he cannot blame
his men for being so. Aside from "setting a good example,"
the question of how interest can be best promoted is based
upon the skillful use of the interest factors.
In many concerns, safety committees have been of great
value in arousing and maintaining interest in accident reduc-
tion and departmental committees undoubtedly wovdd be of
value in aiding a foreman in this matter.
.. Preventing . Injury Through Selection , of Men. — ^A
foreman can do much to reduce chances for injury by con-
sidering special danger points in his selection of men for
the jobs in which these special danger points lie. For ex-
ample, a stiff, "logy" man does not belong on a job where
things are likely to happen quickly. A "rattle-headed" young
fellow is not a good one to put on a job where continual fore-
sight is required.
By the method of comparing " man analysis " with " job
requirements, " as discussed in another chapter, much
can be done to select the best men with regard to
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 263
danger points, especially for those points that cannot be
covered automatically.
First Aid. — Of course, the main reason for providing and
giving first aid is because one man will and should do any-
thing that he can to aid an injured fellow human being.
Aside from the purely human side of the question, the rapidity
and effectiveness of first aid has a cost-affecting value. A
man has a bad cut. Foreman A lets him tie a dirty rag
around it, with all the chances of infection, but Foreman B
sees that it is disinfected and properly bandaged. Foreman
B runs less chance than Foreman A of losing the services of
that man for a period of time due to absenteeism because of
illness. In cases of bad accidents, even life or death may
hang on what is done "till the doctor gets there." A man
cuts an artery in his leg : one foreman knows how to put on
a tourniquet and saves the man; another foreman does not
know how to do it and the man bleeds to death ( or is so weak-
ened from loss of blood that he is a long time getting over
it) before the doctor arrives.
As a purely cost proposition and, of course, in this case,
more important considerations of common humanity, the
degree to which a foreman knows how to render effective first
aid affects 'cost because it affects labor loss and turnover.
The Use of Trade Literature. — The interest in accident
prevention that has developed in recent years has brought
out much information that a foreman will find of service in
safety work. This information is continually appearing in
the various trade publications and one important part of the
managerial problem of a foreman who feels responsible for
safety in his department is to keep posted on new devices and
methods as they come up.
General Cooperation on Safety.— In addition to his man-
agerial job on safety in his own department, any foreman has
a general cooperative responsibility for promoting safety
anywhere in the plant by noting danger points and acting,
recommending or suggesting as the case may be. This is
264 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
merely an extension of the work that he does in his own de-
partment and calls for no special consideration.
SECTION m. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON
ILLNESS AND DISEASE
Preliminary. — The questions taken up in the following
section must be only discussed in a somewhat general and
suggestive way, ovdng to the wide field of possible discussion
and the degree to which the various cases as they come up
under working conditions will offer special situations. In
many cases only the use of great tact and sympathy wiU
enable the situation to be dealt with effectively and probably
in no part of his job wiU a foreman who has established the
right relations with his men draw more "interest on his in-
vestment" than in this field, and it may be worth pointing out
here that, to be of real service, this tact must be real and
the sympathy genuine.
Acute Illness. — ^Any man is liable to have an attack of
acute LUness at any time, ranging from a cold in the head to
pneumonia, and he is liable to come to work while suffering
from such an acute iUness or, in some cases, the attack may
come on while he is at work, as in the case of acute indigestion
or coUapse.
Chronic Disease. — ^It is equally true that members of the
working force may develop some form of chronic disease or
may be employed while suffering from some complaint of that
character, and where this happens it also calls for manage-
ment on the part of the foreman, but the managerial prob-
lems and the ways and means differ from those that come up
in the case of acute illness.
Chronic vs. Acute Illness. — ^The essential difference be-
tween these two types of illness is that, in acute cases, if a
man recovers,, he is just as good as he was before while in
the case of chronic disease the condition tends to become
steadily worse and worse, it is progressive. It may be checked
by proper treatment, so that a man suffering from such a
complaint may possibly die of old age or from something else
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 266
before the chronic complaint finally "gets him," and the less
care he takes of himself, the more rapidly he gets worse, but
in few cases of chronic disease is there such a thing as an
absolute recovery unless, as is true in some cases, the disease
can be caught in its earlier stages. This is said to be true,
for example, in T. B.
A Foreman not a Doctor. — ^In the following discussion it
should be understood that a foreman cannot be expected to
be a doctor, that is not his job; he cannot undertake to have
expert medical knowledge, but if he knows something about
such matters and has some knowledge of what can be done
"before the doctor comes" and can give "first aid" in acute
cases he can materially help.
The Foreman's Responsibility. — The question of ^the
foreman's responsibility in this connection was discussed in a
former chapter and so is not repeated here, but it may be
pointed out that as the leader of the departmental team he
must assume the responsibility of knowing more about such
matters, of "taking charge" when necessary, and, in general,
of knowing more about what to do and how to do it than can
be expected of the members of the working force.
Since the cost elements for chronic disease and for acute
illness are somewhat different although the general man-
agerial problem is the same, the two sets of conditions are
discussed separately, first for acute illness and second for
chronic disease.
The Memagerial Job Largely Cooperative. — Except in
the case of first aid, the managerial job of a foreman in con-
nection with any form of sickness must be largely a coopera-
tive one in which he cooperates with expert medical service
of some kind. He can, for example, advise or urge a sick
man to see a doctor, but he cannot himself prescribe medical
treatment. If there is medical service available in the plant
he can cooperate with that service in "spotting" what looks
like cases of illness and "tipping off" the medical service.
He can plan so that, in case of need, medical service can be
secured quickly, but, as stated above, he is not himself a
266 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
doctor, although he should be able to render such emergency
services as anybody can render if he knows how, and which,
if they are rendered promptly, may save serious effects or,
in some cases, even save life.
Cost Elements on Acute Illness. — These are practically
the same as those already given and so are not repeated here.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to re-
duce the cost of acute illness in all possible ways.
Dealing with the Problem. — Of course, a number of cases
of acute illness are self evident. If a man has "sunstroke,"
or acute indigestion or any other "attack" that "puts him
out" there is no question as to what to do, and about all that
can be done is to send for the doctor or get the man home
and give what temporary relief can be given before the doctor
comes. Probably the most effective means that a foreman
can take to deal with such cases from the managerial point
of view is to post himself as to what to do and what not to do
in the way of temporary treatment by finding out what to
do and how to do it. If there is a medical service this in-
formation can always be obtained from that source, and if
there is no medical service any doctor will usually be glad
to give the information.
Whether a foreman does or does not secure this informa-
tion is mainly a question of his sense of responsibility and
the degree to which he is willing to give some time and effort
to the matter.
The case of a man who is suffering from an acute sick-
ness that is not severe enough to put him out of busiaess is
a different matter, and perhaps, in some ways, one that calls
for more managerial skill.
For example, a man is coming down with the grippe:
he is unwilling to knock off or possibly is on a job where, if
he does knock off, the work of the department wiU be badly
set back. Now any doctor wiU say that the quicker a man
in this condition knocks off, goes home and takes care of him-
self, the quicker he is likely to be back on the job, and the
easier time he will have of it while he is laid up. In man-
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 267
aging such cases a foreman has two managerial jobs, first,
to be able to tell as well as a man who is not a doctor can
teU when a member of his force is sick, and second, when a
man is really sick to get him to take care of himself.
In some cases it may be possible to get a representative
of the medical department or a local physician to put up a
good plain sensible talk to the man at the noon hour, or at
some other time.
This is one of the cases where if the foreman feels that
he has responsibilities along this line he must often, as the
leader of the team, help his workers to help themselves: he
knows more than they do, and this is particularly true where
the workers are comparatively ignorant or uneducated.
It is hardly necessary to point out that the success of
the foreman who wants to assume responsibility for man-
aging this special form of the physical condition of the work-
ing force will depend almost entirely on the degree to which
he has the confidence of the men and the extent to which they
are working in cooperating with him. The establishing of
such relations is, in itself, a managerial job as discussed
elsewhere, but it is important in this connection. Without it,
even with the best intentions, a foreman can do but little.
Chronic Illness. — ^As already pointed out, the character-
istic of a chronic disease is that it is progressive; if left alone
it grows steadily worse often by slow degrees, until the suf-
ferer is finally unable to keep on working any longer. It was
also pointed out that, at least in many cases, such chronic
diseases, if caught in time, could be checked or even cured.
If a foreman feels responsibilities in this matter he has
at least two managerial jobs, first, to learn what he can as
to the symptoms of the more chronic diseases, so that he can
spot them in their earlier stages and either tip off the medi-
cal service or advise the man to see a doctor, and see him
right away. Information can be obtained as in the case of
acute illness as just suggested.
In case of chronic illness this is about all that a foreman
can do in the matter except to help the doctor by possibly
268 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
"favoring" the man while he is under treatment or transfer-
ring him to a job that is better for him.
It is evident that, as a pure matter of business, a man
who is growing steadily worse and worse with a chronic dis-
ease, say T. B. or Bright's disease, must become a poorer
and poorer worker as time goes on, especially if the disease
is allowed to go on unchecked, and that it is good business to
make every effort to head it off in the beginning if that can
be done, and this is quite aside from the fact that any man
will do anything that he can to help another man that is
in trouble.
The General Question of Disease and Illness. — ^There is
one other point in which a foreman, if he cares to do so, can
help managerially in the matter of illness and disease, espe-
cially when the workers are more or less ignorant. If he has
a hold on them so that they have confidence in him, he can
sometimes advise them so that they will get real medical
treatment instead of quack treatment or treatment based
on tradition or superstition. When there is no medical de-
partment in the plant there is often a free dispensary in the
community and a foreman can inform himself as to where
it is, what it can do, when it is open and so on.
If his influence over the men is good he can sometimes
counteract the fear that many ignorant people have of a
doctor or a hospital, which often prevents their taking ad-
vantage of free service or refusing to see a doctor at all.
Susceptibility to Personal Injury. — ^It will sometimes
happen that a man has some special difficulty, such as a rup-
ture, which would make it dangerous for him to attempt cer-
tain jobs, although he may be all right on the job that he is
on. Of course, in a well organized plant such matters are a
matter of record in the Employment or the Personnel
Department, but in many plants such departments may
not exist.
Whenever a foreman can secure information of this kind
from any source, from the Employment or the Personnel
Department, from the man himself, or in some other legiti-
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 269
mate way, it is a good plan to do so and bear the fact in mind
if a case comes up where the man is to be changed to another
job, especially under emergency conditions.
It may be argued in this connection that a man ought
to know enough to take care of himself under such conditions,
but as a matter of fact many men do not, they are careless or
sometimes, in the case of ignorant men, they are scared to
say anything about it for fear that they will lose their jobs,
so that this is merely , another case where a foreman must
think for his men.
Of course, it is evident that when a man is on a job that
he can hold down all right, if, through shifting him on another
job he is injured in the way under discussion here, costs have
been increased and somebody has done a poor managerial job.
SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON
THE GENERAL PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE
WORKING FORCE
Preliminary. — The corresponding section in the last
chapter drew attention to some possible supervisory respon-
sibilities in connection with the general physical condition of
the working force.
These responsibilities whenever they are included in the
job of any foreman set up managerial problems, some of
which are suggested in this section.
The general principle to be borne in mind in considering
cost elements and managerial problems under this heading is
that if anyone undertakes to do a job when he is not in first
class condition, the cost of doing that job is almost certain
to go up for a number of reasons, among which are decreased
production, increased chance of errors which lower the qual-
ity of the job, damage to equipment and sometimes injury to
the worker or to others. In order to deal effectively with the
various managerial problems in connection with the general
physical condition of the members of the working force it is
necessary to know at least some of the more common causes,
or cost elements that must be given consideration. Some of
270 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
these are given in the following paragraph as suggestions.
Some Points Affecting General Physical Conditions. —
Among the points that may need to be given consider-
ation are :
1. Overfatigue.
2. Excessive mental strain.
3. Special susceptibility to injury.
4. Personal habits.
5. General outside conditions.
6. Retraining cases, both V. R. and I. R.
It should be noted that the above points are not given
as cost elements, but as possible causes for the physical con-
dition of a member of the working force being "off" in some
way, or, as a doctor would say, "abnormal." As a result
of any of these points bringing about an abnormal condition
the various possible cost elements come into play as they are
suggested in this section.
Corresponding to the supervisory responsibilities for
noting such abnormal physical conditions are, of course, the
corresponding managerial responsibilities for doing some-
thing about them, and, if something must be done, doing the
things that will give the best results both from the stand-
point of the plant and of the men themselves.
The Foreman's Responsibility for His Men.— .The state-
ment made above again brings up the matter already referred
to in a previous chapter as to the responsibility of a fore-
man as the leader of the working group, and the degree to
which, as a leader, he is called upon to represent them, to
some extent think for them, advise them and in general "look
out for them" in ways outside of straight supervision and
management from the standpoint of getting out the product.
The action of a foreman in many of the cases that come up in
connection with the human factor as considered in the follow-
ing chapters will be largely determined by the extent to which
he senses and accepts this sort of "protective" responsibility.
Overfatigue. — ^Among the causes of increased cost that
are now recognized as requiring consideration is plain over-
COST ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL CONDITION 271
fatigue: workers who are too tired are expensive. It makes
no difference whether "the man drives the job or the job
drives the man" the results are the same in the long run. Of
course, under emergency conditions, men always have and al-
ways win work far beyond the limits of ordinary fatigue and
put over the job, but, in the long run of regular work, this
sort of thing is not economy.
For example, during the war, under the pressure that
existed for getting out tonnage and where different ship-
lyards were competing with each other, certain ships were
[turned out in a wonderfully short space of time and this was
.undoubtedly of value, under the special conditions, as a stimu-
lus, and so was worth while, but it was generally understood
that, on a year's tonnage production, a spurt of this kind
actually set the yard back. Again certain men who made the
records on certain jobs "burned themselves out" and there-
after, for at least a long time, were unable to turn out the
standard amount of work, and, in some cases, were reported
to have been obliged to quit altogether.
Cost Elements on Overfatigue. — ^Among the cost ele-
ments on overfatigue may be the following:
(1) Increased "carelessness on the job."
(2) Decreased production.
(3) Increased chance of accidents.
(4) Increased temporary labor loss.
(5) Increased permanent labor loss.
The 'Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is to prevent overfatigue or, in cases of emergency, reduce
its cost increasing effects to a minimum.
Dealing with the Problem — Recognizing the Condi-
tion.— The first step in dealing with this managerial problem
is to be able to recognize overfatigue, and this cannot be
done by merely asking a man if he is too tired, because, very
often, the worker does not know when he has reached a con-
dition of (Jangerous overfatigue himself and will go on when
he is really a danger to the plant.
One indication of such dangerous overfatigue is increased
«72 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB
temporary carelessness, another is a falling off in accuracy,
where accuracy is inquired, a third may be increasing ab-
senteeism, a fourth an increasing "slipping" on the part of an
ordinarily reliable worker, a fifth, an apparently unaccount-
able degree of stupidity in carrying out directions or orders,
or an unexpected irritability. Of course, in taking such
things into consideration, various conditions, such as the
weather, personal make-up, etc., must be taken into consid-
eration, but, in general, tired men tend to be cross, apparently
stupid, careless and poor on the job, and the appearance of
such symptoms in general will indicate an approach to a
dangerous condition of overfatigue in the case of workers
who are, under ordinary conditions, all right in this respect,
and should lead a foreman to give careful attention to the
matter if he wants to avoid increased cost due to this cause.
In this connection it may be well to give some considera-
tion to some of the more common causes of overfatigue under
ordinary working conditions.
Among the elements that may call for consideration are:
1. Too long a working period.
2. Absence of rest intervals during the working period,
3. Bad working conditions.
4. The degree to which the effect of monotony of work is
not taken into consideration.
Length of the Working Period. — ^Under ordinary condi-
tions the regular length of the working day is fixed and a fore-
man has nothing to do with it, so far as any questions of
management go, but in some special cases, such as overtime
work, he may have a chance to exercise some managerial con-
trol as to individuals, at least. For example, if he is watching
out he may note that a certain worker is in a dangerou^ con-
dition of overfatigue owing to the length of the working
period, and in such a case good managerial procedure may be
to lay that worker off. If, however, it should happen that
the length of the working day were under discussion and a
foreman was asked to make recommendations or suggestions,
the following might be of interest.
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 273
With regard to the relation of the length of the working
day to production, a numher of studies have been made that
are javailable to anybody that is interested. The general re-
sult of these studies may be summed up in the statement that,
in generial, for any given job under given working conditions
there is a certain length of working day that will enable an
average worker to turn out the maximum daily production,
though in many cases that length of working day is, as yet
not known.
The only point of interest here is that, under any given
set of conditions there is a limit on the length of the working
day beyond which it does not pay to go. Of course, under
emergency conditions, this period can be exceeded and the job
dpne, but at an excess cost that may be justified by the emer-
gency, but is, nevertheless, the price paid for the emer-
gency job.
Since this matter of excessive length of the working day
only affects a foreman under emergency conditions, and so
gives him little managerial responsibility, it is not con-
sidered in any further detail here. The matter of continuous
work during the working day is quite another matter, is one
in which a foreman can use a considerable amount of man-
agerial ability and so is taken up in more detail in the fol-
Ipiisfing paragraph.
Mental Strain.^Some jobs require continuous concen-
trated attention, while others only require attention at inter-
vals, and we know that where continuous attention is required
after a certain period the worker "breaks down" and after
that may make any sort of a mistake. For example, compare
the job pf a locomotive engineer and that of doing a job on
a machine t;opl. The engineer is constantly "on his nerve"
from the beginning to the end of each run between stops:
his attention cannot drop for a moment without danger. The
machinist, while he must watch the machine, has intervals
during which his attention can drop without danger to the
job. The machinist, therefore, can safely carry a longer
working day than the engineer because he gets rest intervals
18
274 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
from concentrated attention. Different jobs vary in the
chance that they give for rest intervals ; in most cases the
matter will take care of itself, but in some Cases, unless some
managerial action is taken, there is danger of running up
costs on account of too long working periods. This has
been found to be true, for example, in the case of operators on
telephone switchboards, especially under rush conditions.
The operator must be laid off for a short time at frequent
intervals or she "goes to pieces" under the strain of con-
tinuous attention.
Physical Strain. — ^The last paragraph considered rest in-
tervals where the strain was mental. It is also true that
experience has shown that on jobs requiring hard physical
work, properly spaced rest intervals actually enable more
work to be accomplished. This is true, for example, in mak-
ing forced marches, as military men know.
Applying the Principle. — So far as dealing with fatigue
is concerned, with regard to length \of the working period,
a foreman cannot undertake to be an expert in these matters.
However, he can bear these principles in mind and to a cer-
tain extent, apply them in the work of his department, espe-
cially in cases of emergency or drive. In order to do this,
he needs to bear in mind the general fact that continuous
work does not mean always getting the job done at minimum
cost, and he should have a general notion of how this prin-
ciple works out in the jobs in his department. Among the
points that he should take into consideration are the facts
that mental and physical overfatigue do not go together and
that mental fatigue is more dangerous.
A man may be tired mentally and yet not be physically
"used up," through giving concentrated attention and this
condition is more difficult to detect than plain physical fa-
tigue because often the man himself does not know it until
something "breaks" and the damage is done.
As a rule, hand or machine jobs give more chance for
rest intervals than "head" jobs. For example, a man en-
gaged in making a long calculation is more likely to make a
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 275
mistake than one working on the ordinary run of pro-
duction job.
The Foreman and Overfatigue. — Since much of a fore-
man's work is "head work," he is particularly liable to "run
too long," with corresponding danger of a "break," and if
he is a good manager, he will look out for himself as well as
for his people for if he "makes a break," the cost results may
be serious.
Special Susceptibility to Injury. — ^As pointed out in the
last chapter, this refers to cases where if a man is put on
certain jobs he is all right, but on account of some special
weakness if he is put on others he will be injured. This might
be true, for example, of a man just out of the hospital after
an operation for appendicities, or in the case of a man suf-
fering from a rupture, or in certain cases where women and
girls are concerned.
Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are essentially
the same as in other similar cases, temporary or permanent
labor loss, poor work, a falling off in production, etc., as the
special case may be.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is, so far as possible, to avoid putting anybody on a job where
they are liable to suffer on account of some special weakness.
Dealing with the Problem. — The degree to which a fore-
man can deal with this problem depends almost entirely on
his sympathy and tact. If he has succeeded in establishing
the right relations with the members of his operating force
he can if he wants to do it, almost always find out about such
special cases and take them into consideration in distributing
the working force. One point here is worth bringing up.
Once more it is a case where it is up to the foreman to protect
his men, not to assume that "a man ought to have sense
enough to look out for himself." In many cases they won't.
Sometimes a worker will be afraid to protest for fear that
he will lose his job, sometimes it is a matter of pride with
a man not to seem to duck any job to which he may be as-
signed, sometimes the worker does not know that the job is
276 THE iX)REMAN AND HIS JOB
"too much for him." Whatever the cause of the reluctance
of many workers to tell about any special weakness if the
foreman is a good manager he wiU, so far as he can,
"spot" such cases and look out for them as a cost
cutting proposition.
In many plants with weE organized employment depart-
ments information of such cases can be secured there and
can be transmitted to the foreman, which makes the man-
agerial job very much easier, but in the ordinary run of
plants a foreman must get this information as weU as he can,
and will be able to get it in proportion as he has the confi-
dence of his operating force and they believe that he wants
to help them in any way that he properly can.
Excessive Mental Strain. — ^It is a well known fact that
some jobs are liable to call for such concentrated attention
for so long a time that the operator begins to "slip" or
otherwise drop off in ability to carry the job in first class
shape. This sort of a job often calls for little physical
exertion, as in the case of a locomotive engineer or a tele-
phone switchboard operator in a large exchange. While this
mental fatigue is quite a distinct thing from physical fatigue,
it results in doing things wrong, not in thinking wrong. An
engineer who has been on the run too long runs by a signal
not because he meant to run by it but because he "sayr
wrong"; the telephone girl who, under the same conditions,
plugs in the wrong number, or goes into hysterics, as has
sometimes happened, before these facts were well understood,
doesn't think wrong, she does wrong.
Wherever jobs require concentrated attention without
any let up there is always danger of this continuous mental
strain bringing about a dangerous condition, not on account
of physical fatigue but on account of excessive mental strain.
Cost Elements. — ^The cost elements are, in general, the
same as those already given and so are not repeated here.
The Managerial Problem.— The managerial problem here
is to cut out increased cost due to excessive mental strain.
Dealing with the Problem. — In dealing with this prob-
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 277
lem it is first necessary to "spot" such jobs. In many in-
dustrial departments there are no jobs of this character
so that this problem would not come up at all. It should be
remembered that the sort of a job under consideration here
is not one that requires close attention but one that calls for
continuous close attention without any let up.
The managerial devices here would be, in general, those
already referred to, rest intervals, shifting to other jobs,
etc., so they are not repeated here.
One other point worth mentioning is that people of differ-
ent "make ups" will vary considerably in their ability to
stand up under the strain of continuous close attention and
this fact can be taken advantage of in distributing the
working force.
The main managerial point, however is to be able to
recognize jobs of this character when they are included in the
work jobs in a department and then take the necessary steps
to prevent excess cost from keeping workers too long on
such jobs without let up.
Personal Habits and Physical Condition. — ^A man's per-
sonal habits both on the job and outside the plant may seri-
ously affect his physical condition and so affect costs, setting
up a managerial problem for the foreman. For example, on
a construction job in the summer a man may have the habit of
working in the sun without any hat with the result that he
gets through the day but is off the next day, or gets sun-
stroke during the day. If a man's personal habits are such
that he does not get sleep enough, or in some other way keeps
himself in bad physical condition, say by going on a "spree"
after each pay day ( as is often the case with colored workers
in the South) it affects labor loss and so affects cost.
Dealing with the Problem.— What a foreman can do in
such cases outside of firing a man if the case gets too bad,
and standing the replacement cost, is a question that is open
to considerable debate. Where an attempt is made to deal
with the matter managerially, so much depends on the per-
sonal relations between a foreman and the man in question.
278 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
so much depends on the special conditions, and so much de-
pends on the make-up of the foreman himself, that this par-
ticular matter is only suggested here.
Cost Elements, — ^No new cost elements are introduced
here and so none are suggested.
General Outside Conditions. — In the corresponding sec-
tion in the last chapter it was pointed out that the condi-
tions under which workers live may affect the cost of
operation, in various ways, and that as a result some super-
visory responsibilities might come into a foreman's job.
Cost Elements. — The cost elements are, in general, the
same as those already suggested and so are not repeated here.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
would be to reduce costs due to general outside conditions in
any way that was possible.
Dealing with the Problem. — The conditions wonld vary
so much under the various situations that might come up
that but little can be suggested.
In some cases education will serve as a managerial de-
vice when the trouble is due to ignorance, as is sometimes the
case with contagious diseases in the home. In other cases it
will do no good. It is doubtful if in many cases a foreman
can do much of anything in the matter except to cooperate in
any way that he can with other agencies such as a medical or
a welfare department by the methods suggested in the chapter
on cooperation. At all events there may be a managerial
problem here that under some conditions would be worth con-
sidering. One point is certain, if the situation can be handled
without discharging good men it is good management to
handle it that way.
Retraining Cases. — This special case was explained in the
last chapter. In these cases no cost elements are involved in
the sense in which that term has been used in this book. The
cost elements are of a different kind and some of them might
be stated as follows :
1. The degree to which the individual was actually
retrained.
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 279
2. The degree to which the retraining was carried out
in the least time.
3. The degree to which morale was kept up during the
retraining period.
Each of these points sets up a sort of a managerial prob-
lem and so are explained somewhat further below.
The Individual is Actually Retrained. — The purpose of
retraining both for V. E. and for I. R. people is either to
make them able to hold down their old job as well as they
could before they incurred their disability or to train them so
that they can hold down some other job in first class shape.
If a man is told that he is going to be "put back on his feet"
it is up to everybody connected with that work to see that he
is put back. If he is to be trained for a certain job he must
be so well trained that there will be no question of his being
able to do as good a job as anybody else. This puts a man-
agerial job up to any foreman who has to deal with retraining
cases, not only in looking out for the efficiency of that train-
ing from the instructing side, as taken up elsewhere, but to
be sure that the man or woman is thoroughly competent be-
fore reporting them as "O. K."
Retraining in the Least Time. — ^V. R. cases are taken
care of by the Government as long as the training lasts, but
most I. R. cases get no support while in retraining. la either
case it is desirable that the training should be no longer than
is necessary to do a good job. This is again largely a case
for instructional management, but it is up to any foreman
having such cases under his charge to do all that he can to
see that a man has a chance to advance as fast as is possible,
and not regard him as somebody to be merely put on one
job and then kept there as long as he will stay without mak-
ing too much of a kick.
Morale. — ^According to those who have had experience in
the retraining of disabled men and women the great danger
is that people tend to make special cases out of them: in a
sense, they show too much sympathy. According to these
experts the best way to deal with a retraining (5ase is to treat
280 THE FOREMAN AND.HIS JOB
it just like any other case and if any special allowances have
to be made, do them as a matter of course and say nothing
about it. This practically amounts to saying that the less
a man has his attention drawn to his troubles and the less
he is made to feel that he is a special case who is not to be
treated as if he were a normal person, the better he wiU keep
up his spirits and the less he will worry as to whether he can
ever get back.
The managerial problem here isj therefore, to be sym-
pathetic but not to show sympathy in a way that will tend
to discourage the man.
SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON
THE GENERAL WORKING CONDITIONS
Preliminary. — One other element that may aiFect the
physical condition of the working force is the working condi-
tions, which set up cost elements and managerial problems
that are different from those already considered in the
previous sections.
This section deals only with working conditions so far
as they affect the physical condition of the working force:
the effect of good or poor working conditions as they affect
the mental attitude of the members of the operating force
being taken up in the following chapter.
As in the last chapter these points are taken up under
two headings :
1. General working conditions.
2. Occupational dangers.
General Working Conditions. — ^The sense in which this
term is used here was given in the last chapter and so is not
repeated here.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements may be:
1. A necessary falling off in production ability due to the
special working conditions, as in the fire room of an ocean
liner where the temperature is unavoidably high.
2. Dissatisfaction and loss of interest as taken up in the
chapters on those matters.
3. Where the working conditions are particularly trying
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 281
an excessive turnover and a high replacement cost on account
of the difficulty of securing men who wiU stay on the job.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is to reduce excess costs due to poor working conditions.
dealing v^ith the Problem. — Probably no more difficult
managerial problem can be up to a foreman than that of
dealiijg effectively with excess costs due to poor working
conditions. In many cases the matter is one that it is out of
his power to deal with effectively, as where the working condi-
tions go with the job. If he cannot act he can, in many cases,
reconunend changes that will improve matters. Since many
points in connection with this managerial problem are taken
up in the chapters on satisfaction and interest, they are not
given here.
With regard to such matters as illumination or ventila-
tion he can often do a good deal to help matters. In the first
place he can be on the lookout for cases where poor light
or bad air are affecting the work and can often improve such
matters within the scope of his authority, either by action or
recommendation backed by sxfch facts that something is
authorized. Where he recognizes that the conditions are
bad he can allow for them and not drive so hard.
It should be remembered that bad working conditions are
often the cause of fatigue to a much greater extent than
would be the case where the working conditions good, and this
fact is recognized in some cases by shortening the length of
the shift. Sometimes this pays as a cost reducing man-
agerial device.
Of course, the conditions will vary so much that only the
most general suggestions can be made, but if a foreman gives
some time and study to such cases of poor working conditions
as may occur in his department he will almost always find
that there are possible ways of reducing the excess cost,
although such excess costs can never be entirely cut out. Ex-
perience has shown that wherever bad working conditions can
possibly be improved or entirely cut out it is good business
to do it, although, as already stated, the doing of it may lie
282 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
outside of a foreman's job and become a matter of plant
policy which lies outside of any matters that are taken up
in t}as book.
Occupational vs. Working Dangers. — ^When the danger
does not absolutely "go with the job," but is due to the fact
that people will "slip up" in taking all the necessary pre-
cautions, we have what may be called working dangers. The
general idea of a working danger is that any injury due to
this sort of danger is, at least in theory, preventable, and in
practice is preventable except where it can be shown that aU
known precautions were taken.
This distinction between occupational and working dan-
gers is important because many workers and foremen regard
many forms of working dangers as occupational dangers and
so take more or less of a "what's the use" attitude in dealing
with them, when as a matter of fact, they are working dan-
gers and so can be cut down to a minimum or entirely cut
out by studying out their causes and giving careful consid-
eration as to ways and means for removing them and so
removing the corresponding working dangers.
Cost Elements on Occupational Dangers. — ^Among the
possible cost elements may be :
1. Temporary labor loss due to occupational dangers,
accidents, etc.
Such loss may be due to Olness or to poor physical con-
dition due to the special occupational danger of a given occu-
pation, as in the case of lead or mercury poisoning, or as
in the effects of the "dope" in covering aeroplane wings, or
to accident.
2. Permanent labor loss due to permanent disability
caused by occupational danger or by accident.
3. Permanent labor loss due to workers leaving to seek
employment in other occupations due to fear of an
occupational danger, of injury due to lack of safety pro-
tection, or to general or definite dissatisfaction with the
working conditions.
The Managerial Problem. — The general problem here is
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 283
to reduce temporary and permanent labor loss due to occu-
pational dangers to a minimum and, if possible, remove any
given occupational danger, so far as it may affect the mem-
bers of the working force.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^The degree to which a fore-
man can deal effectively with this problem depends largely
upon:
1. His own attitude toward the whole question of occu-
pational dangers and protection against them.
2. The extent to which he takes pains to inform himself
fully and correctly as to the facts about any given occupa-
tional danger and the best methods for securing protection
against it.
3. The degree to which he sees that all possible precau-
tions are taken to protect the working force (and himself)
from any special occupational dangers to which they may be
exposed, and see that they are trained to always take all
possible precautions and to use intelligently any special pro-
tecting devices that may be required and should be used.
The Foreman's Own Attitude. — ^A foreman's own atti-
tude towards the question of dealing with protection from oc-
cupational dangers is an important factor in the success or
failure of any methods for minimizing its dangers. If he
takes the attitude that "it is all foolishness anyway," his
men will tend to take a similar attitude. If he is careless
about observing precautions himself, his men will be equally
careless. If he does not make use of special protecting de-
vices when they ought to be used, he will find it hard to make
his men use them. In other words, if the foreman as the
"gang leader" sets the right example, he will find it much
easier to get the working force to follow than if he tries to get
them to do what he does not do himself. In the matter of
precautions, he should "beat the gang to it" if he wants to
deal effectively with his managerial problems on occu-
pational dangers.
Securing Exact Knowledge. — A foreman should have
284 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
exact knowledge of the character of any occupational dan-
gers in his department.
There are many trade and shop traditions as to the dan-
gers of working with certain materials that are not always
based upon fact. If a foreman goes by these, he is likely to
miss both ways-r-taking precautions against occupational
dangers that do not actually exist and not looking out for
some that do exist. Where there exists a real occupational
danger, the fact can always be confirmed and exact informa-
tion secured by reference to competent medical authority.
This can be done easily if the plant has a safety or medical
service, but should be done anyhow.
The assumption that a certain danger is occupational
when it is not gives an indifferent foreman an easy chance to
get out of giving care and attention to the prevention of pre-
ventable accidents. While the number of actual occupational
dangers is smaller than is sometimes thought, they do exist
and where that is the case they should be classed as such.
Taking All Possible Precautions. — ^Under all conditions,
the special managerial problem here is to get men to protect
themselves, because if they do not want to do this, no-amount
of supervlsitin can make them do it all the time. Because the
occupational danger does not show itself immediately or
visibly, the tendency is to ignore it, especially if any special
precautions interfere in any way with comfort or getting
the job done.
The chief difficulty in this case, as in the case of experi-
enced machine workers, often is that the more accustomed
men are to working in occupational dangers, the less they
are inclined to take care of themselves. This is another case
of the job becoming routine.
Another reason why workers wiU not protect themselves
from special occupational dangers is that they do not underr
stand the relation of the special protection to the special
danger. For example, during the war it required careful
training in the use and value of masks before many men would
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 286
wear them unless they were compelled to, imtil the gas came;
then it was too late.
Where a foreman undertakes to deal with this attitude,
which resembles in a sense, "carelessness on the job" but with
results affecting the worker instead of the equipment or the
stock, he is faced with a most difficult piece of work. It seems
to be agreed at the present time much more than in the past,
that the most effective agency to combat this situation is
education and training in the use of safety devices and in
taking precautions combined with supervision.
As an example, during the war, an occupational danger
for anyone crossing to France was the sinking of the ship
by torpedoing. Supervision, which in this case meant in part
seeing that boats were in good condition and that life pre-
servers were in good shape and sufficient in numbers, under
ordinary conditions had been considered sufficient precau-
tions against the usual chances of shipwreck in peace times.
With the greatly increased danger during the war, it was
quite generally held thalt supervision was not enough, but that
passengers must be informed as to the danger and carefully
instructed how to use life preservers, how to get to their
assigned places in designated boats and, in many cases, to
drill them so that they would do the right thing almost with-
out thinking. That is, when the danger of wreck became
what was regarded as a serious "occupational" risk, supervi-
sion was found to be not enough but had to be supplemented
by education and training.
In general, supervision alone will not result in getting
workers to take care of themselves, because, for one reason,
if they do not understand, they will not cooperate. While
there will always be individuals who will take a chance or
who will be careless (and careful supervision is needed to
catch such cases) in most cases, the main reliance must be
in getting workers to really see why precautions are neces-
sary for their own protection, and to see that they really
do understand.
Since this brings in a number of points considered under
286 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Safety and under Instruction, the discussion is not carried
any further here.
"Giving Away Occupational Dangers." — ^The statements
just made implied that when there are occupational dangers
they should be brought to the attention of the working force.
There are, however, two theories with regard to the desir-
ability of doing this : the first, that men should be kept in ig-
norance, that is, that if there are occupational dangers they
should not be "given away," the second that when there are
occupational dangers the working force should be given the
straight facts. The argument for the first theory is, in
essence, that if they don't know that there is any danger they
won't "get scared and quit," and that drawing their atten-
tion to the danger will scare them and make them quit. The
second theory, telling the truth, is, in the long run, the better
one to go by. In the first place, if there is danger men wiU
find it out anyway, but may not get things straight, and so
be worse scared than if they had the "straight dope." Im
the second place, if they are to be trained to take care of
themselves, they must know what the danger is, how it is liable
to come and the necessity and value of special precautions or
protecting devices. In the third place telling the truth is the
best policy anyhow.
The best managerial handling of the problems of occu-
pational dangers is to teU the truth and then instruct, edu-
cate and supervise, being sure that any instruction has been
effectively put over by the methods described on the in-
structing job.
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 287
SAFETY
Location of Possible Danger Points
Name Position — __
Department-
Departmental Job as part of Department
Job as part of Departmental Job
Oppratinn
_as part of Job
Dpsf>riptii")n nf Operator
Nature of Injury
Is injury apt to be caused by:
Ignorance ? Carelessness ?-
xWhy? Why? .
When injury occurs who may suffer physical injury?
Workmen? Other men?
Why? Why?
Will equipment be damaged? .
Why? ^-:;
When accident occurs who will suffer money loss?-
Workmen ?
Why?
Other men?
The Company ?-
Why?
288 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PART VI
1. In an aeroplane factory the " dope " for the wings
contains a liquid which is liable to cause dizziness when
there is not a good current of air. Instructions are that
at the first signs of being affected the worker is to get out
into the open air. They tend to take a chance and stay on
the job so as to make more money on piece work. The
fumes will work no permanent damage under any ordinary
circumstances. How should such a case be handled?
2. In a certain stage of the manufacture of white lead
there is danger of lead poisoning unless men wash their ,
hands and clean their finger nails before eating. They are
a rather ignorant lot. How should a case be handled?
Lead (white) is a cumulative poison.
3. Where there is an occupationaj, danger as above
should the workmen have the danger emphasized to them
or should it be minimized so as not to scare them off the job?
4. In the yard of a certain factory the switchmen make
a practice of getting on and off switch engines "flying."
Is this a safe practice? If not, how would you break it
up? Would you work differently with experienced and
with green men? Why?
5. Why do more auto collisions happen out on the road
than in congested traffic?
6. What is the value of making discharge the penalty
for failure to properly observe safety precautions? What
is the cost?
7. Which IS probably the greater source of danger, the
job itself or dangerous surroundings?
8. An elevator that had been regularly inspected by the
insurance company's men, dropped one story with no seri-
ous damage. On investigation it was found that the auto-
matic stops were installed to work the wrong way and had
probably been in that condition ever since the elevator had
COST ELEMENTS OP PHYSICAL CONDITION 289
been installed. Was the foreman to blame? Why? This
condition could not be discovered on any casual inspection.
9. Where there is a safety department continually at
work on the job what responsibilities has a foreman as
to safety?
10. Under what conditions is a foreman responsible in
case of an injury?
11. An accident happens when nobody had thought it
possible for an accident to happen under those condi-
tions. Never had happened before. Anybody responsible?
If so, who?
12. A man is grinding a tool on a wheel running at
high speed. The wheel bursts, the man is not hurt but another
man at work on a machine near is struck by a piece of the
wheel and is injured. Who is to blame? Why?
13. Is it possible to entirely cut out injuries due to the
breakdown of the human factor? Why?
14. What are the most effective steps that can be taken
to cut down injuries :
a. Occupational.
b. Due to lapse of attention.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
THE PHYSICAL CONDITION OF THE WORKING
FORCE
1. How far can a foreman be expected to go in equiping
himself to spot incipient disease?
2. How can a foreman cooperate with a medical depart-
ment to the best advantage?
3. By virtue of his relations to his men what can a fore-
man do in connection with the physical condition of his
men that nobody else can do?
4. A good worker is known to be in the habit of sitting
up till three o'clock two or three nights a week playing
poker. This is interfering with his work because he has
19
290 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
not got enough sleep. As a result he is careless and his
work falls off. Is this any business of a foreman or is it
the mans own business? Can anything be done in such a
case except discharge or lay off?
5. In the case just given the foreman takes the matter
up with the man in a decent way and the man feels that
as it is on his own time it is nobodys business except his own.
If the man is a good man and he is to be saved to the plant,
how could such a case be handled?
6. A man shows evidence of being " under the weather "
and is advised to see the plant physician. He says that
he is "all right and knows how to take care of himself."
Would you go any further in such a case and if so what
would you do?
7. A man who is a good worker begins to fall off in his
work but insists that he is "all right, just a little tired."
The foreman is afraid that this man is suffering from some
sort of incipient disease. How should he handle such a
case? How would it work to tell the man that he must
see the Doctor if he wanted to hold his job? Could the
matter be handled in some better way? How? Would the
nationality make any difference? How?
8. How would you deal with a case where an ignorant
foreigner was afraid of the doctor and you knew that he
needed treatment? Any better way than scaring him into
it? What is the objection to simply ordering him to see
the doctor under penalty of discharge?
9. You have reason to believe that one of your men is
suffering from incipient kidney trouble. You know that he
should have his urine examined. He is afraid to have the
examination made for fear that he will find that he has
Brights Disease. He insists that he is all right. How
handle such a case and get him to see the doctor?
10. A man cuts his finger and ties a dirty rag around
it : says that it is "all right." You are afraid that he may
COST ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL CONDITION 291
get an infected hand. How would you get him to see
the doctor?
11. A foreign worker has a sore throat. He claims that
his wife is taking care of it with a receipt that they use in
the old country that is a sure cure. You find that this cure
is goose grease on red flannel. How would you get him
to see the doctor and have his throat examined?
12. Certain races believe that everybody must have the
smallpox and will take no steps to avoid giving it to some-
body else. A workman of this nationality has smallpox in
the neighborhood where he lives. You are afraid that he
will expose himself and bring the disease into the plant.
How are you going to handle the case?
13. What, in your opinion, is the value of posted notices
regarding seeing the plant doctor instead of some quack
in cases of iUness?
14. How far should a foreman go in equipping himself
to give treatment in the following cases :
I 1. Slight bums,
2. Slight cuts,
3. Particles in the eye,
4. Heat prostration ;
or should he make it a rule to send all cases, no matter
how trivial they may seem, to the doctor at once, even if
the men themselves protest?
15. How far should a foreman go in dealing with cases
of poor physical condition that are due to habits of living
at home?
16. A man brings his lunch and the foreman can see that
it is not suitable and that the man is not able to do a good
job in the afternoon, on account of the character of his
lunch. How can such a case be handled?
17. Which is the better in case a man is suffering from
an incipient disease, say T. B., and has a job that is dusty,
to transfer him to a different job where the working condi-
298 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
tions are better or to report him at once to the doctor? Why?
18. Is a foireman's job to educate his men to look out
for themselves and make fuU use of the medical service or
to watch them and see that they do? Why?
19. Many ignorant workers are afraid of a doctor and
win try and use remedies that are based on superstition.
How can such cases be handled? What can a foreman do
in the matter if the men feel that it is their own per-
sonal business ?
20. Has a foreman any business to butt in on a man's
private habits outside of the plant? If so, how could such
a case be handled so that the men would not resent it?
21. May a medical service become a source of dissatis-
faction in a plant? How? What can a foreman do better
than anyone else to prevent such w situation from starting?
How can he do it?
PART vn
HUMAN FACTORS (CONTINUED)
CHAPTER XVII
SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES AS
TO THE MENTAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORK-
ING FORCE. (MORALE.)
SECTION I. PEELIMINAftY
Preliminary. — ^Among the general responsibilities that
were given in Chapter jy was that for the general mental
attitude of the members of the working force, or, as it is often
called, the morale of the team. This chapter takes up a num-
ber of possible specific and detailed responsibilities that
might come into a foreman's job under that heading.
The cases taken up in this chapter are somewhat different
from those already gone over in preceding chapters, because
when it comes to the matter of what men and women are
thinking about we have a very different sort of a problem
from that of dealing with material, equipment, knowledge and
skill or even physical condition. In those cases there
is something definite to go on and so responsibilities can be
much more definitely determined than in the case of men-
tal attitudes.
When we begin to consider responsibilities for knowing
what somebody else thinks about some matter, and further
take to do something that wiU affect that thinking in a defi-
nite way, we can only make the best guess that we can
on the basis of whatever experience we have had in similar
cases, or experiences obtained by other people in dealing with
the same sort of cases. Responsibilities must, therefore, be
considered as obligations to do the best possible with regard
to matters that depend on morale, using our best judgment
as to what to do and how to do it, recognizing the fact that
no two cases will be exactly alike and that there can be
no one way of going at it that will fit all cases.
In spite of what has just been said, however, we know
295
206
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
that some people have been much more successful than others
in dealing witti morale, and by studying their methods, what
they did and how they did it, we can use this knowledge in
dealing with our own morale problems to better advantage.
The chart suggests some of the possible obligations or re-
sponsibilities that may go with a foreman's job, but are only
intended to be suggestive of the sort of things that he must
try to do if he intends to deal effectively with morale.
The Three Specific Responsibilities. — ^It will be seen from
the chart that it is possible for a foreman's duty as to morale
to head up into what would correspond to three specific re-
sponsibilities : leadership, the promotion and maintenance of
interest and the promotion and maintenance of satisfaction.
This means that in proportion as men are satisfied and inter-
ested and are well led, morale is high, and that it is a part
of the duty of any foreman to endeavor to the best of his
ability to be a good leader of an interested and satisfied team.
SOMB POSSIBLE ££SFONSIBIIJTI£S AS TO THE MENTAI. ATTITUDE
OF THE WORKING FOKCE
Planning ahead.
Getting the right men on the right job.
Keeping up the organization.
Fixing responsibility.
Not trying to be "it."
Looking out for the " team."
Leadership
Interest
Noting the mental attitude as to:
Interest in the work job.
Interest in the departmental job.
Interest in the plant job.
Satisfaction
Noting the mental attitude as to:
Satisfaction with working conditions.
Satisfaction as to general surroundings.
Satisfaction as to the plant.
MENTAL ATTITUDE OF WORKING FORCE 297
What he can actually do along these lines depends upon
himself but the statement just made states, in a few words,
what he should aim at, and what he should feel under obliga-
tion to attempt.
These three sorts of obligations are taken up in the
foregoing sections in the order given above, the follow-
ing chapter, in turn, dealing with cost elements and man-
agerial problems.
SECTION n. LEADEESHIP
What is Leadership? — ^In its simplest sense, leadership
means the ability of the head of a team "to get the team
behind him." It implies that, in the case of a good leader,
his men will go with him because they want to, not because
they have to. It means that a good leader can get things
done that no direct exercise of authority could get done, in
fact, a man might have all the authority in the world, and
yet be a very poor leader because all that he could get done
was through the exercise of direct authority. A leader may
exercise authority to any extent, in fact some noted leaders
have been "martinets" but that seemed to have little to do
with their power of leadership.
Therefore, we may say that a leader is a man in charge
of a team who knows where he wants to go and gets the team
to go there with him.
The Elements of Leadership. — ^A foreman, as a leader,
must assume certain obligations as a part of his duty, some
of which are suggested on the chart and so are not repeated
here but are briefly taken up in the following paragraphs.
Planning Ahead. — One detailed responsibility that any
leader must assume is planning ahead. He must see things
coming and be ready for them when they come, especially
as regards matters that affect the well-being of his men.
Thus, for example, planning in advance to reduce accidents
is a characteristic of leadership in any team leader.
Getting the Right Men on the Job.— This is often called
"building up an organization." It means assuming the re-
298 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sponsibility for building up a team that is so made up that
while each member is a first class man on his particular job,
they can all "pull together" to put the team job across, and,
as a team, will pull with the leader.
Keeping up the Organization. — ^Another responsibility
that a leader must assume is that of keeping up his organiza-
tion after he has built it up. Having got the right people he
must hold them except where the best interests of all con-
cerned require that there should be a change, as in the case
of promoting out of the team to some other place in the "big
team," where the man will be of more value in putting over
the "big team job."* In such cases a leader wiB- endeavor,
by all means in his power, to secure as good a man as possible
to fit into the team in place of the team member who leaves.
Fixing Responsibility. — ^Another responsibility that a
leader must assume is that of fixing responsibility among the
members of the team. This means that wherever he gives a
man a job he holds him responsible for doing that job and
sees that the man knows exactly what he is responsible for.
Not Being "It." — This responsibility comes out of the
case just stated. Many men have failed as leaders because
they tried to carry all the responsibilities themselves under
conditions where they could not do it and also lead. "They
tried to be "It," and so failed to be leaders. A man who tries
to be "It" will never willingly let anybody go ahead and do a
job: he will never, if he can possibly help it, delegate any
authority to anybody else. He will try to attend to every
last detail himself. If a man wishes to be a leader he must
give up the idea of being "It" and must assume the responsibil-
ity of deciding where and how he can safely delegate author-
ity, what details he can turn over to others, and what are the
duties that he must reserve for himself.
Looking Out For the Men. — One other responsibility
that goes with leadership is that of looking out for the
* The question that is likely to be raised here as to a case where a
member of the team can better himself by leaving the organization en-
tirely, and what should be the attitude of the leader in such cases is
really a managerial problem, and is taken up in the following chapter.
MENTAL ATTITUDE OP WORKING FORCE 299
men. This comes up in so many ways that it is only possi-
ble here to draw attention to the general proposition that
a foreman has supervisory responsibilities for spotting
chances to look out for his men in various ways and that
his supervision will be good or bad in proportion as he does
note such opportunities. As in the other cases, what he can
do when he sees such chances is a managerial matter that is
taken up in the next chapter.
SECTION in. INTEREST
What is Interest?* — In its simplest sense, interest means
anything that causes a desire to do a good job, whatever that
job may happen to be, and, in proportion as people are in-
terested they will try and do "the right thing," whereas
people who are not interested care little or nothing as to
whether the job is well' done, badly done, or even not done
at all. Since the whole matter of labor loss, quality of work
and quantity of production depends largely on the interest
of the members of the working force of any department, it is
evident that any foreman has responsibilities for noting the
state of mind of his men as regards their interest or lack
of interest, and where the interest is poor, taking steps to
improve it. Methods for doing this are taken up in Chapter
XVIII, since this is a matter of management, but since lack
of interest must be determined from things that can be noted
a few of these " interest indications " are given here for
illustration. Among the " interest indications " that a fore-
man might note might be unnecessary absenteeism, a falling
oif in quality or quantity of production, carelessness on the
job and unsteady work on the job. Of course, there are
a number of others and these are merely given by way of
illustration. Whatever they may be a foreman must hold
himself responsible for noting them and from what he
• For a much more complete discussion of interest and interest fac-
tors than can be given in this book see " The Instructor, The Man and The
Job," Chapter XXXVII.
300 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
observes determining the extent to which each of his men
is interested or uninterested in his work.
Some Interest Responsibilities. — ^A number of responsi-
bilities that must be assumed by any leader who undertakes
to promote interest in the members of his team are suggested
on the chart and are briefly taken up below.
The Reputation of the Plant. — ^In any plant, but espe-
cially one doing business on its quality reputation, if the
members of the working force have no interest in the reputa-
tion of the plant that concern is in a bad way and, in prac-
tically all cases, a foreman should include in his lay-out a
specific responsibiUty for doing all in his power to promote
interest in the reputation of the plant.
Job Pride. — ^A man who "believes in his job" takes more
interest in doing good work than one who has no pride in his
job. A foreman, therefore, has responsibilities for doing
whatever he can to develop and keep up job pride on the part
of the working force in his department.
Interest in Doing a Good Job. — One responsibility that
a foreman must assume in connection with the promotion of
interest is for getting men interested in their jobs. How he
can do this is a managerial matter to be taken up in the next
chapter, but seeing to it that men have a job interest is, in
a way, a supervisory responsibility so far as we can speak
of supervision in connection with morale.
Interest in the Departmental Job. — ^In addition to seeing
to it that men are interested in their own individual jobs a
foreman also may find it to be a part of his duty to see that
all the members of his departmental force are interested
in the doing of a good departmental job, and this may
constitute another supervisory responsibility in connection
with interest.
Interest in the Plant Job. — Still another responsibility in
connection with interest may be that of seeing to it that the
members of the departmental force are interested in the sue-
MENTAL ATTITUDE OF WORKING FORCE 301
cess of the plant as a whole and this responsibility may, also
come into a foreman's job.
Keeping Up Interest. — ^Not only may it become a part
of the duty of a foreman to develop interest as described
above, but it may also be a part of his supervisory job to see
that this interest is kept up : to spot and head off anything
that would tend to reduce it.
As in all other cases, taken up in this chapter, the inten-
tion here has been only to draw attention to the possibility
of the responsibility: the question of how to discharge it
most effectively being taken up in the next chapter.
SECTION IV. SATISFACTION
Responsibilities as to Satisfaction. — ^A foreman must not
only assume responsibilities for interest but he must also
discharge some sort of responsibilities with regard to noting
conditions as to satisfaction or dissatisfaction in the minds
of the members of his working force. Several of these possi-
ble "satisfaction responsibilities" are suggested in the chart
and are taken up in the following paragraphs.
Interest vs. Satisfaction. — ^Interest is not the same thing
as satisfaction. An interested man wiU. want to do the
best work that he can ; a satisfied man will be willing to stay
on his job or, at least, will not " kick " about his job. He
may be ambitious to secure some other job, say a better
one, but while he is on a given job he does not feel dissatis-
fied with it.
Just as in the case of interest a foreman must determine
the mental attitude of his men as to satisfaction or dissatis-
faction from different things that he can note, and, in many
cases he will find it difficult to determine whether these things
indicate lack of interest or dissatisfaction. Among these
"satisfaction indications," may be unnecessary absentee-
ism, quiting, a desire on the part of the man to get trans-
ferred to some other job that is no better than the one that
302 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
he is on, " grouchiness " for no apparent reason and some-
times deliberate failure to follow directions or orders.
Satisfaction as to Working Conditions. — It may become
a part of the duty of a foreman to note the degree to which
members of the operating force are satisfied with the working
conditions, at least so far as he has any power to do anything
by action, recommendation or suggestion.
The extent to which this particular responsibility would
come into the job of any given foreman would depend on the
special conditions, but since he can almost always do some-
thing supervisory, this responsibility in some form is quite
certain to come into his job in some way.
Satisfaction as to General Surrovindings. — ^A foreman
not only has the responsibility for noting the state of mind
of his men as to the working conditions on their jobs, but
he may also be responsible for spotting their mental atti-
tude as to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with regard to such
general surroundings as the character of the washing facili-
ties, the provision or lack of provision for locker space, the
lighting conditions and so on. In this, as»in the case of
working conditions he must be guided by such " satisfaction
indications " as he may be able to note, in the case of
different men.
Plant Satisfaction. — Satisfaction may be also affected by
different things that go with the plant as a whole and that
lie outside of the working conditions or the general surround-
ings in the department, and it may be a part of the duty
of a foreman to note indications of satisfaction or dissatis-
faction with regard to such matters. For example, such a
case might come up in connection with some matter of plant
policies, say the way in which men were paid (cash or
check), or with regard to who should be laid off in a slack
time. As in the other cases already taken up, any super-
visory responsibilities here would be discharged by noting
" satisfaction indications " as already described.
CHAPTER XVIII
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK. COST ELEMENTS
AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MEN-
TAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE.
LEADERSHIP AND INTEREST.
SECTION I. PRELIMINARY
Preliminary. — ^It has already been pointed out that the
two main human factor elements are :
1. The physical condition of the working force.
2. The mental attitude or "state of mind" of the
working force.
Just as some of the cost elements and managerial prob-
lems on physical condition have already been taken up, so
this chapter deals with some of the possible cost elements and
managerial problems that may face a foreman in connection
with mental attitude, or morale.
Before this question of state of mind, or mental attitude,
or morale, as it may happen to be called, can be discussed
form the standpoint of cost elements or managerial prob-
lems, it is necessary to point out and discuss a little some
things that affect morale, because, without a clear under-
standing of these "morale elements," as they may be called, a
foreman cannot deal successfully with the managerial side of
his job in discharging his general responsibilities in this part
of the human factor block.
The following section deals with morale and some of its
important elements, following sections taking up the matters
of cost elements, managerial problems and ways and means.
SECTION n. MORALE AND ITS ELEMENTS
Preliminary. — One of the most difficult managerial jobs
that any group leader has to face is the successful handling
of morale, not only on account of its importance, but since
303
804 THF FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
it depends not on what men do, or what they say, but on
what they think. The success of the leader must often depend
on the degree to which he can "dope out" the real mental
attitude of the members of his "team " from what they do or
from what they do or do not say, and this is often a very
difficult thing to do, with a liability of disastrous results if
the "dope" is wrong.
For example, in one case, a man who was a good worker
came in one morning in what seemed to be a very ugly state
of mind. He was careless, failed to pay attention to direc-
tions and did not f oUow them. Finally, on beiag reprimanded
by the foreman, he turned on him and after the usual "cuss-
ing match" that often results from such conditions, was
fired, or fired himself. It subsequently appeared that for
three nights that man had been sitting up all night with a
child who was very ill, had had no sleep for that time,
that he had left the child dead when he came to work that
morning and had come to work because of loyalty to the
plant and to his foreman. It was perhaps a human mistake
for the foreman to "dope out" this case as one of "pure
cussedness," or the effect of some sort of a "spree," but as a
fact, his dope was wrong, and he not only lost a good man
and caused dissatisfaction all through his department when
the story got out, but what was worse, when he found out
the truth of the matter, of course, he was all broken up over
it, tried to find the man and straighten things out, and could
not get any trace of him. The foreman was honest, but his
"dope" on that particular situation was wrong, and this
story is, of course, only told to illustrate the difficulty of
dealing with these "mental conditions" or morale problems.
What is Morale? — ^The term morale has recently come
into use as indicating the "state of mind" or mental attitude
of the members of a "team" both as regards the job of the
team and as regards dependability in an emergency, or
under special strain. This "team" might be an army, the
crew of a ship, the employees of a railroad, the operating
force of a production plant, or, in general, any group of men
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 306
whose various jobs were all a part of a big job. In the case
of industrial teams, the term morale has, perhaps, come to
be used more especially with reference to the interest of the
members of the operating force in the success of the con-
cern and their reliability, although the term, as originally
taken from the French carried a military rather than an in-
dustrial significance.
Good and Poor Morale.— If the "state of mind" of the
members of a "team" is such as to make for the success of the
job of the team this condition of things is expressed by say-
ing that the "morale" is good; if the reverse conditions are
true we say that the "morale" is poor or "low," and so, al-
though a definite statement of all the conditions is sometimes
rather difficult to make, the use of the terms "good morale"
or "high morale" and "poor morale" or "low morale," enable
us to refer to conditions we understand very well and that
might take a long explanation to make clear if this "techni-
cal term" were not used. The general sense in which the term
is used may be made plainer by the following illustrations.
It should be understood that the term morale can be used
to express the mental condition of any team. For example,
when a baseball team "blows up" in the ninth inning and
goes to pieces, it might be said that their morale broke down.
On the other hand, where a team plays the best game that
they can, even when they are outclassed and know that they
cannot win, it might be said that they kept their morale up
to the finish of the game, even though they lost. A team with
poor morale is "licked before it starts," a team with good
morale is never "licked" until the end of the game. A team
with poor morale "can't stand punishment," a team with
good morale can. A team with poor morale is liable to go
back on the leader any time, one with good morale will "stand
behind him" to the finish. For example, when the Cumber-
land, a wooden ship, fought the ironclad "Merrimack" (the
Virginia) to a finish, and went down with her flag flying,
saving the wounded, and firing her last shot as the gun went
under, a Naval man would express the behavior of the ofiicers
20
306 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
and crew by saying that it showed good morale. At the
Battle of "Bull Run," on the other hand, when the Federal
troops broke and ran, for no special reason, a Military man
might express their "state of mind" that made the break
possible, by saying that, being inexperienced, their morale
was poor. In the first battle of the Marne it is said that the
French kept their morale while that of the Grermans had
been impaired by forced marches, looting and other reasons,
and that one reason that they were driven back was that the
morale of the French was better than that of the Germans.
"Working Conditions" and Morale. — ^While it is true
that working conditions and surroundings do affect morale,
they do not seem to be the chief factor, and mistakes have
often been made in assuming that good working conditions, in
themselves, insured good morale.
Conditions may be poor and yet the morale may be good :
they may be good and yet the morale may be poor or break
down in an emergency. For example, in the case of the Cum-
berland the conditions were poor, her guns had no effect on
the ironclad, her wooden sides were no protection against the
heavy guns of the Confederates, "she was licked before she
started to fight" but that did not make any difference. On
the other hand, at Bull Run, the Federal troops were well
armed, well fed and clothed, as well or better than the Con-
federates, yet they lost their morale, and it was said that
many of them "ran all the way to Washington without stop-
ping," yet they fought well up to the time that their morale
let go. Again, in the "Great War" the "Lost Battalion"
kept their morale to the finish and "staid on the job" in spite
of lack of food, water, shelter and sufficient ammunition
and equipment.
While good working conditions may help morale, they
do not make it, because morale is really the spirit of the team
and that is, after all, independent of the surroundings, and
we have all seen cases in our own experience that prove it.
If a team leader has the responsibility of promoting morale
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 307
he must do more than see that the working conditions and
surroundings are good and if he banks on them alone he will
fail in his management and is liable to get a disagreeable sur-
prise some time.
The Recognition of Good or Poor Morale. — Since there
is no way of "opening people's heads" to find out their state
of mind as to morale, and, as a matter of fact, they do not
often know themselves until the strain comes ; good or poor
morale can only be recognized by the way that it "comes out
in the wash," that is, by the way things go, as indicated by
little matters in the ordinary run of the daily j ob, and a good
supervisor will keep himself on the alert to spot conditions as
he goes along. The more interested he is in this matter of
morale, the more he knows about the underlying causes in the
case of his own particular team, and the wider his experience,
the more successful he will be in this part of his job. The
condition of a team as to morale can be recognized in a hun-
dred ways by an experienced supervisor, especially in propor-
tion as he knows his men. If, for example, the members of
the team are "jumpy," they cannot be depended upon, they
are liable to "break" at any time, and the leader notes this, he
knows that the morale is poor. If he knows that they can be
depended upon, he knows that the morale is good. If the
ability of a plant to do successful business depends upon the
quality of its product, as in the case of an automobile factory
or a shipyard, and nobody in the working force or none of the
supervisors and managers care whether the autos give good
or poor service, or whether the ships hold together or go to
pieces in the first gale of wind, the morale in that plant is
poor. If, on the other hand, the whole team intends to build
good autos, or ships, the morale is good, and where this is the
case it is always due to what may be called good morale man-
agement on the part of the leaders.
For example, one of tHe test shipyards in the country is
the Newport News Ship Building Company: for years they
have turned out good ships and, under all the difficulties of
308 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
war work they kept on doing it. On a bronze tablet near the
main gate is the inscription,
"Here we will build good ships,
X At a profit if we can, at a loss if
we must, but, good ships."
and this inscription indicates the spirit of the morale in that
yard, from rivet boy to the General Manager, and anybody
who was in contact with that yard could sense that spirit even
if he knew nothing about ship building.
The Foreman and Morale. — ^The question of morale is, of
course, of interest and a matter of responsibility for every
supervisor and manager, from the General Manager down,
but it is of special concern to a foreman because, he is the man
who is in direct contact with the working force, is in the best
position to know them, to cooperate with them on the one
hand and with the Management on the other, and so to know
the situation at first hand. He can do more than anybody
else to promote or to kiU morale and has a corresponding
responsibility, so that the problems of the promotion of
morale, as management problems are well worth the careful
attention of any foreman.
On account of their importance, these problems are dis-
cussed somewhat fuUy in the following section, but any super-
visor will be able to deal with them effectively, no matter how
much he may know about morale elements, only in proportion
as he realizes that the members of the working force are more
than "hands," that they are human beings, men and women,
boys and girls, and so their attitude of mind, or their morale,
is affected by many things that a foreman, by virtue of his
position, can control to a greater extent than anyone else.
SECTION m. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEKIAIi' FSOBI.EMS ON
THE PROMOTION OF MORALE
The Elements of Morale. — ^While, as already pointed out,
the things that affect morale are often difficult to get at in
any given specific case, we do know, in general, that there are
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 809
certain elements that always enter into the problem. Among
the most important of these are :
1. Leadership.
2. Interest.
3. Satisfaction.
And these may be called, for convenience in discussion,
morale elements.
In any team, if the leadership is poor, if there is lack of
interest and dissatisfaction, the morale is sure to be poor.
With good leadership, interest and satisfaction, men wiLL
"take a dredger across the Atlantic."
These questions of leadership, interest and satisfaction
are so important that they are taken up in the following
paragraphs in considerable detail.
A. LEADERSHIP
Leadership. — The term "leadership" has recently come
into use as indicating a managerial quality that everybody
knows when they see it, but that is hard to define. It seems
to be largely independent of the personal make-up, or even
the desire to be a good leader on the part of any one indi-
vidual, although, in the absence of these qualities, good lead-
ership cannot be established or maintained. Nevertheless, it
is a fact that men have been sincerely anxious to lead, have
worked hard to that end, and yet have failed to make good
on the leadership job, while others, without apparent effort,
have succeeded.
The following discussion is not an attempt not to tell what
leadership is, but to suggest some points worth thinking about
and discussing.
If any man is interested in the question as to what makes
a good leader, that is, a man who could get the team behind
him, one of the best things that he can do is to study the
characteristics, or the "make up" of recognized leaders and
try to find out "how they do it." If he does this, the follow-
ing paragraphs may be suggestive as to "where to look and
what to look for."
310 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
What Constitutes Leadership. — ^If the suggestion just
made is followed, it will be found that, whatever else these
leaders possessed, there are always three points that
stand out.
1. They could plan ahead.
2. They could get the right men to work for them, and
could keep them.
3. They could get the team with them.
Evidently the first two are not of much use without
the third.
Pleinning Ahead. — The ability to plan ahead depends
upon the degree to which a man can see what is coming "down
the road, and how it is coming" and plans in advance to take
care of it when it does come. He does not wait until things
happen before he does anything about them. For example,
in the case of safety protection, one foreman notices a danger
point, say a belt that is possibly not sufBciently guarded, but
where no accident has ever happened. He says to himself,
"Oh, well, nothing has happened there, and probably nothing
ever will," and does nothing about it. At a later time some-
body does get hurt there and then that foreman "gets busy"
and fixes the thing up. Another foreman, imder the same
conditions, says to himself, "That thing is, dangerous, some-
body is Uable to get hurt even if nobody ever has been hurt,"
and fixes it up at once. The second foreman is a better leader
than the first. It must always be remembered in such cases
that the foreman has one of the three possible means of deal-
ing with the matter, action, recommendation and suggestion.
Again a piece of incorrect gossip gets started in the plant
and comes to the attention of the foreman: one man thinks
that it is harmless and pays no attention to it until it
"breaks," the other foreman sees that as it grows, like all
gossip will, it may make a lot of trouble and cause a great
deal of demoralization, and he heads it off in the beginning.
The second man is the better leader.
Again, a foreman sees that, as tHe work is going, he is
going to run short of work and must redistribute his work-
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 311
ing force; possibly lay off some of his workers or get them
transferred to other departments. He makes his plans in
advance, finds out where he can transfer and determines whom
he wUl get transferred. If he has to lay off some men, he
makes up his mind who they will be, and even perhaps tells
them that there is a chance that they may have to be laid off
and that if that comes about he wiQ let them know as soon
as he can and will try and help them to get another job.
Another foreman does not see what is coming so that, when
the "pinch" comes, he has no plan, "gets all fussed up," and
being in a hurry with no plan, fires the wrong men, can't get
transfers and generally does a poor leadership job.
"Taking Care of the Men." — One special form of plan-
ning that seems to go with good leadership is "taking care
of the men." This is well illustrated by the story of "Theo-
dore Roosevelt and the Beans." In the Spanish War his regi-
ment was on the firing line and the Commissary failed to get
up the food. As the story was told at the time, he decided
that his men should not have to fight on empty stomachs, stole
some pack mules, went down to the base, broke into some
freight cars and got the hearts. Probably no one quality of
successful leaders stands out more strongly than the fact
that they "took care of their men" and as a result the men
were behind them all the time, in whatever was attempted.
Of course, all foremen do look out for their men, but many
do not realize to what an extent such a reputation increases
the morale of the team, and the value of such a reputation in
securing cooperation from the working force. They think
of it more as a "duty" and not as a leadership element.
Getting the Right Men and Keeping Them. — ^Andrew
Carnegie has been quoted as having said that his success was
not due to his having any special knowledge of the steel busi-
ness, but to the fact that he knew how to find and keep men
who did know that business. General Grant is said to have
claimed that his success as a military man was not so much
due to any special ability that he possessed as to the fact that
he knew how to pick out the right men for his generals.
312 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
This ability to get the right men on the right jobs and
hold them in the team (though not necessarily on the same
jobs) is what is often called "building up an organization,"
and is one of the marked points that most recognized leaders
have possessed.
While a foreman has a more limited field than a General
Manager or a Lieutenant Creneral, still, within that field,
he can build up his departmental organization along the same
lines, and in proportion as he does this, he shows one of the
qualities of good leadership.
"Getting the Team with Them." — The last and the most
important quality shown by all recognized leaders has been
their ability "to keep the team mth them." While this in-
cludes the idea of cooperation, as already discussed, it means
more than that. It means that the "team" will follow the
leader wherever he will go. They wiU "back him to the
limit," as the expression goes. When he says, "Come on,
boys," they come, and, it may be said in passing, that a good
leader always says, "Come on," and not "Go on." He is a
leader and not a driver. A straight driver may get out the
work, but he can never be a let^der as the term is used here.
Perhaps two of the men who have shown this quality in a re-
markable degree are Roosevelt and Hoover; both could get
their team to "work their heads off" on any job that they
tackled, and keep at it until the job was finished.
Cost Elements on Leadership. — ^The cost elements that
may come into play in connection with good or poor leader-
ship may include almost any of the human factors, as they
are discussed in different parts of this book, and they vary
so much according to circumstances that only a few can be
suggested here. Among the cost elements due to poor leader-
ship, or lack of leadership, might be :
1. Indifference, or lack of interest, on the part of the
members of the team, resulting in such things as reduced pro-
duction, poor quality, carelessness, absenteeism and so on.
2. Disorganization, due to lack of planning in advance,
especially in emergencies, resulting in "crossed wires," dis^
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 813
satisfaction, unnecessary "rows," and waste of time
and material.
3. Demoralization, especially in emergencies, due to lack
of confidence in the leader.
The Managerial Problem. — ^While, in the sense in which
this term has heen used, there can hardly be said to be a
"managerial problem" in connection with leadership, except
so far as a man may "manage himself," in this sense, anyone
having supervisory and managerial responsibilities has the
problem of becoming as good a leader as he can, and this is
his job: nobody can do it for him.
Dealing with the Problem. — The preceding discussion
has indicated some of the "ways and means" that a foreman
or other executive might employ in working out his own "man-
agerial problem on leadership." In this connection the fol-
lowing may be suggestive, if nothing more.
Reference has already been made to the value of studying
the way in which recognized leaders have worked, and while
no man could become a leader by copying the work of another
man, he can sometimes get pointers that may be of value to
him on his leadership "managerial job." If we take a look
at the "working methods" of such men we wiU almost always
find that they did certain things, among which were :
1. When they put a man on a job they made sure that
he knew what the job was and knew how to do it, and then
did not interfere except to help by suggestion. That is, they
did not oversupervise. They made the man feel that the job
was his job and not their job. They made the man feel that
he had "the goods" and could deliver them.
2. They saw to it that every member of the team saw
how his job was necessary to the job of the team, and just
how it fitted into the "team job."
3. They were human and considerate in dealing with sub-
ordinates but were not "slack."
4. They were willing to listen to subordinates and take
advice and suggestions even if they did not follow them.
5. They knew their men.
314 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
How far any of these leadership points might fit the case
of any one foreman under his special conditions is, of course, a
matter for study and discussion, they are only put up as sug-
gestions, but they are some of the things that have gone with
leadership, and it is certain that within the limits of his job
a foreman can, if he has it in him, become a leader for his oper-
ating force, just as must as if he were a man "higher up."
There is no need for him to think "If I were the General Man-
ager, or the President of the Company, I could be a leader,
but I can't do it as a foreman." As has been pointed out, as
a matter of fact, a foreman has a better chance to put over a
real leadership job than anybody else, and he should not think
that he has no job in this way if his operating force happens
to be made up of foreign born people, or ignorant people, or
boys and girls. Really this sort of a situation gives him the
best chance for he has the sort of people who need leadership
the most and who will often respond the best to it. For
example, in the shipyard to which reference has already been
made as having such good morale, much of the labor was
Negro, and, although many of these Negroes were skilled
workers, they were in many cases ignorant, yet they abso-
lutely believed in the General Manager, believed in the
"Yard," and were "behind" their superiors on any job that
had to be done, and the quality of leadership that made this
possible came not only from the General Manager but ran
all the way through the executive staff. For an example of
one way in which this showed, on a morning when the ther-
mometer was somewhere near zero, a group of men had gath-
ered around a forge to warm themselves, many of them shiver-
ing from the cold that was very much worse than anything
that they were used to, for such cold is very uncommon in
Southern Virginia. One of the superintendents came along
and, as the men saw him coming, some of them hesitated and
then started to move away from the fire to go back to their
jobs. The Super saw this and called to them, "Come back,
boys, and get warm before you go back to work, none of you
shall work when you are cold if I can help it." Was this
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 316
leadership? Might not that count some other time in a
"pinch"? It is worth discussing and thinking about anyway.
B. INTEREST
Interest. — While nobody can tell exactly how some other
fellow's mind will work under a given set of conditions, ex-
perience has shown that certain things do affect the mental
attitude of the members of any team and among these is what
is commonly called interest. We know that if a man is inter-
ested in his work, in his job and in the success of the big job
of the team, he wiU work better and more intelligently. This
matter of interest is well known to all good teachers and they
use it continually in getting their students to do their learn-
ing jobs better. It will work just as well in a plant on pro-
duction jobs as on learning jobs, so that it is worth consider-
ing from the standpoint of the use that a foreman can make
of it in discharging his managerial responsibilities.
What is Interest? — ^In general, when a man wants to do
a good job or wants a good job done, we say that he is
interested in the job. If he does not care how the job is done,
or how it comes out, we say that he is not interested, or that
he is indifferent. An interested person is "alive on the job,"
an uninterested person is "dead on the job." An interested
worker "uses his head on the job," an uninterested person
works from "his shoulders down." An important general
cost element is therefore the degree to which all members
of the operating force, and the foremen and other members
of the team for the matter of that, are interested in their jobs
and in the success of the plant.
Cost Elements on Interest. — Evidently interest, as a cost
affecting element, runs all through the human factor part of
the foreman's job. Practically any problem with which he
has to deal, if it touches men or women, and does not deal
only with dead things, such as stock, equipment or operations
and processes, as such, brings in the matter of interest. Even
a partial list of the possible cost elements on interest would
therefore include all of those that have been suggested in con-
316 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
nection with human factors, and so would be too long to
repeat here. Among some of the more important results of
lack of interest are, however, the following:
1. Low production. (Loafing on the job.)
2. Unnecessary accidents.
3. Poor quality.
4. Labor loss.
^ 6. Failure to follow instructions.
6. Failure to cooperate.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is evidently to promote and maintain interest in aU possible
ways that fall within the authority of a foreman and within
the field of his relations with his men.
Dealing with the Problem — ^Interest Factors.* — ^In order
to deal effectively with the managerial problems of interest,
it is necessary that a foreman should know something about
the causes of interest, or, as they are sometimes called, inter-
est factors, and some of the more important of these interest
factors are therefore discussed before the management side of
the matter is taken up. One of the most difficult managerial
jobs that a foreman is up against is the development of inter-
est, and the degree to which he can do this successfully
depends upon:
1. His knowledge of the different interest factors and
their value.
2. His ability to use the right interest factors under a
given set of conditions.
The first might be called "job knowledge," the second
"job skill." If he has the knowledge without the skill he can't
do a good job, and if he has the skill without the knowledge he
can't do much better: he needs both.
What is Interest. — ^It is evident that the term interest
is used here in exactly the same sense in which we use it in
every-day conversation. For example, we say that we are
interested in the movies, and we simply mean that we like to
• For a fuller discussion of interest and interest factors see the com-
panion book to this, "The Instructor, The Man and The Job."
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 317
go and will go when we can. When we say that we are not
interested in the movies we simply mean that we don't want
to go and won't go unless we have to. If we are "interested
in politics" that merely means that we want to "mix in" and
do something. If we are "not interested in politics," we will
stay out if we can: we won't "mix in" any more than we
can help.
What are Interest Factors? — ^As the term is used here
interest factors means, for interest just the same thing that
cost elements means for cost. Just as cost goes up or down,
according to the way that cost elements are taken into con-
sideration in working out a managerial problem, so interest
in any particular proposition goes up or down according to
the interest factors that come into play in that case. Just
as we may have diiferent cost elements in different managerial
problems and these cost elements be of different importance,
so, in the case of a given managerial job on the promotion of
interest we can have different interest factors and, for that
case, some factors will work better than others. Interest
factors may, therefore, be thought of as those things that
affect a man's interest on his job and which, according to
their kind and the degree to which they are present or absent,
affect the degree to which he is interested.
Kinds of Interest Factors. — ^Just as all cost elements can
be finally headed up into time-power-labor-material loss, so
practically all interest elements can be "spotted" as being
one of a few interest factors, among the more important of
which are:
1. Ambition.
2. Responsibility.
3. Job pride.
4. Departmental and plant pride.
5. Self-respect.
6. Curiosity.
7. Fear.
There are other interest factors, but those given above
are the more common interest factors, or motives, that come
818 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
into play in the case of interest or lack of interest in the work
job or in the job of the team.
Ambition. — ^Almost all men have some kind of ambition in
connection with their jobs : they "want to get ahead," and their
interest in their job is often largely affected hj the degree to
think that they have a chance to get ahead. A man without
ambition or who feels that he has no chance to gratify that
ambition, who feels that "he never can do any better" or that
he wiU "never have a chance" on his job is not, as a rule, as
interested in that job as where he feels that he has a chance,
even if it is only a chance. This feeling that there is a chance
to get ahead, while not the only important interest factor, is
a very important one, especially with certain types of people,
and realization that there was a chance to get ahead has
often converted an uninterested man into an interested one.
The recognition of the value of this interest factor in
certain cases is well illustrated in many advertisements, not-
ably in the advertisements of opportunities for improvement,
such as evening schools, correspondence schools, in advertise-
ments for selling agents and in the way in which the pros-
pective customer for promotional schemes "yielding a large
return on a small investment" is appealed to in their advertis-
ing literature. It is by appealing to this interest factor that
the villain in the story persuades the victim to sell his bonds,
or mortgage the old home, and buy worthless stocks. It is the
interest factor that has recently been used successfully to
persuade people to sell their liiberty Bonds and invest the
money in some more speculative business.
From the above discussion it is evident that the realiza-
tion by any worker that the job that he is on, if done well,
will aid him in accomplishing something that he wants to
accomplish, as when he feels that it will "put him in the line
of promotion," either to another better job of the same
kind, or to another sort of a job, will tend to promote his
job interest, and the degree to which this factor can be
honestly and truthfully used is an important consideration
from the managerial standpoint as regards interest. For
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 319
example, it was said under Napoleon First, "every soldier
carried a marshall's baton in his knapsack," because he knew
that the line of promotion was open from the bottom
to the top.
Responsibility. — ^It is a well known fact that responsi-
bility rouses interest. As a rule, in proportion as a man feels
no responsibility for his job he has little interest in the job.
This fact was touched upon in discussing leadership in the
preceding section, in mentioning some of the characteristics
of leaders. The sort of responsibility referred to may be of
two kinds, first, a sense of responsibility for the job itself,
and second, a sense of responsibility as regards the relation
of that job to the job of somebody else. An illustration of
the first kind of responsibility can be seen whenever a child
is sent on an errand to the grocery, and its mother says,
"Now you must be very careful and get all of these things."
Under these conditions the average kid will be very interested
in the job because it has a sense of responsibility for doing
the job right. An illustration of the second kind of sense
of responsibility was in a shoe factory where the amount of
defective material that was run through the different ma-
chines was reduced after each operative had been shown how
allowing a defective part to come out of his operation made
trouble for the fellow on the next operation. All other things
being equal when it is possible to say to a man, "There's the
job, it's your job, go to it, all I want is results," his interest
will be increased, or it wiU be increased if he understands the
relation of his job to the jobs of the other members of
the team.
The putting on of responsibility is, therefore, one way
of developing interest and is one that can often be
used effectively.
Job Pride. — ^The other day this matter was taken up in a
foreman's conference, the discussion running along the line
of the cost value of warranted praise. One foreman, as a
result of that discussion, decided to try the thing out a little
and, as he went through his department, to keep an eye for a
SiO THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
chance to say "something good." He happened to spot a
man who was carrying on a very difficult job of machine shop
work and, after watching him for a little while saw that he
was doing a remarkably workmanlike job. He said to him,
"Bill, you're doing a mighty good job." The man said to
him, rather sharply. "What's that you said.^"' "I said,
'You're doing a mighty fine job.' " The man stopped his
machine, stepped back and said, "I've worked in this plant
for sixteen years, I'm a good mechanic and I know it: I
know I'm doing a good job, but this is the first time anybody
like you has ever told me so." This man had job pride and
was justified in having it, yet would anybody doubt that the
recognition of his good work stimulated his interest in doing
a good job? Or that he perhaps did a still better job after
that conversation?
Job pride is, therefore, a feeling on the part of a worker
that he can "hold down the job" as weU as any other man.
He knows that he knows his job or knows his trade. A man
who has job pride wiU always be more interested than a man
who knows that he does not know his job.
A "half baked" mechanic will never be as interested in his
job as a competent mechanic, because the "half baked" man
cannot have job pride and the competent workman has. As
will be pointed out later, this matter of job pride may become
an important matter in connection with certain managerial
problems on interest.
Departmental and Plant Pride. — Somewhat different
from job pride and yet working along the same lines is
departmental or plant pride as an interest factor. A man
who is proud of the department in which he works, or who is
proud of the plant where he isi employed will be more inter-
ested in his job than a man who has no departmental pride
or who feels that he has no reason to feel proud of his plemt.
Under many conditions this interest factor can be used very
effectively in arousing and keeping up interest.
Self Respect. — Quite outside of the matter of job pride
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 321
is that of self respect as an interest factor, and it is one that
is too often overlooked, especially with certain kinds of
workers. Any man has some respect for himself. His self-
respect may be along different lines from those of his supe-
rior, but he has it, nevertheless, and when that self respect
is injured, even if he does not show it, his interest is decreased.
Disregard of self respect was rather a characteristic on many
American clipper ships in the old days. The story is told of
a second mate who was directing a man aloft on some job.
Noticing something out of the ordinary on the job the fore-
mast hand called down, "Mr. Smith, I think," and when he
had got so far the mate came back with, "Think, if you try
to think you'll have brain fever and fall down on deck: do
as I tell you." Here the man who had shown some interest
was subject to an attack on his self respect that certainly
did nothing to increase his interest on that job, and probably
on any other job that he had during that voyage.
In general, the harder the "throw down" the greater the
loss of interest and many supervisors recognize this with the
sort of people that are like themselves, but forget that "dif-
ferent" people have self respect, too, and in this way often
reduce interest without knowing it.
Curiosity. — ^A common illustration of the use of curiosity
to promote interest is the clock in the show window that ap-
parently has no works and keeps time, or the ball that runs
round and round without "any visible means of support."
From the standpoint of interest on the job curiosity will
sometimes rouse interest for a while, as in the case of
putting a man on a new job, or breaking in a green man,
but, as a rule, it is not a very important interest factor in
industrial organizations.
Fear. — ^Fear of discomfort or suffering is often thought
to be a very important interest factor, and is often assumed
to be the only one that can be used. An example of the use
of fear as an assumed means of arousing interest is the form
of notice commonly seen around industrial plants, threaten-
21
322 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
ing discharge for the failure to obey some regulation. For
example, on a freight elevator:
"Any employee, except the operator, using this elevator
will be immediately discharged.
John Smith,
Greneral Manager."
Here the idea is that if anybody undertakes to "sneak"
a ride on that elevator the notice wDl scare him out of the
notion, and everybody knows how such notices work that
way. Again, a sign,
"DANGER. KEEP OFF THIS TRUCK."
is designed to frighten off anybody who starts to "jump" the
truck to save walking.
Therefore, fear is often considered as an interest
factor, and is used for that purpose to a great extent in
plants, especially with what are considered ignorant help, be-
cause it is assumed that fear is the only interest factor that
will work in such cases, and also because the use of fear as
a means of arousing interest is the "easy way" for a super-
visor to attempt to handle the matter.
While, as is poin^d out later, fear is one of the least
efficient interest factors in many cases, its use is so common
that it must be included in the list of interest factors as
discussed later.
The Relative Values of the Interest Factors. — ^While the
value of the different interest factors that have been just
discussed is undoubtedly different for different people, it is,
nevertheless true that, taking things as they run, these
factors can be set up in their order of effectiveness, or their
relative values, as follows : Ambition, responsibility, job pride,
self respect, departmental pride, plant pride, curiosity and
fear, and in "feeling around" to find out what particular
interest factors will give the best comeback it is a good plan to
try them, so far as possible, in this order. That is, fear should
be the last resort and ambition the first,with the others coming
in between in the order given.
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 323
The only question might be the order between job pride
and self respect, and these two run so near together that it
makes practically no difference which is tried first. From the
standpoint of reducing cost by developing or increasing in-
terest, a foreman wiU do a good managerial job in proportion
as he can use these interest factors in the order named above,
and since this is an important matter a number of these points
are taken up in some detail in the following paragraphs, with
some suggestions to their application to managerial problems
in this section of the foreman's job.
Comparative Values — ^Ambition. — ^Where a man has a
legitimate ambition and feels that that thing that he wishes
to attain is possible of attainment, that he is on the road and
is progressing in the right direction, we unquestionably have
the strongest factor that can be used in arousing and main-
taining interest. If John Smith wants a better job and knows
that by securing certain additional training he can get con-
sideration when the chance comes, he wiU be more interested
in his present job and will work to get that additional train-
ing, but if he feels, or knows, that he will get no consideration,
or sees no way to get that additional training, or cannot find
out what that training should consist of, he will not be inter-
ested in his present job. This matter of ambition to attain
a definite aim, provided the aim is clearly defined, and the man
really "means business," is one of the strongest interest fac-
tors known to good managers in all lines of work, and when
it can be used is the one on which the most effective interest
management can be based. As an example of the use of this
interest as a managerial device for promoting and sustaining
interest, reference might be made to the differing policy of
some departments in the matter of job promotion. In what
we may call "department A," it is understood that whenever
there is a better job to be filled, if there are any members of
the working force that can hold it down, they get the chance,
and only after it is certain that nobody in the department
can fiU the bill So they go outside. In "department B," on
324 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
the other hand, under the same conditions, the foreman
always looks outside for somebody for the job. From the
standpoint of interest management, "department A" is doing
a better job than "department B."
Under good conditions of interest management, given an
employee with a known legitimate ambition or one in which
such an ambition has been aroused by the foreman, the prob-
lem of effective interest management has been largely solved
if the work of that man can be so arranged that it lines up to
that aim, and the man knows it.
Of course, these conditions cannot always be brought
about, but to the degree to which this sort of thing can be
done, use is made of the strongest interest factor known
to man.
Ambition and Management. — ^As has been already sug-
gested, from the standpoint of interest, it is good manage-
ment to use ambition as an interest factor wherever it can
be used under the conditions. This can be done in several
ways, among which are establishing a general understanding
that, as a matter of departmental policy, so far as the fore-
man has any recommending, acting or suggesting responsi-
bilities, ability will be recognized, and actual evidence that it
is recognized. If all the workers feel that, in the departmeiit,
"merit counts," and that whenever opportunity comes the
best man wins, interest is kept up. If the workers feel that
when a chance comes, personal pull, or other improper rea-
sons dictate any action that the foreman may take, interest
win be reduced if not killed entirely. If a man feels that no
matter how good he is on his job and no matter how hard he
may work to fit himself for a better job, he has no chance,
he is going to be looking for another job instead of doing his
best on the job that he is on.
Where the policy of "letting the best man win" is in prac-
tice, a foreman can often indirectly promote interest by
assisting promising and ambitious men to get a clear under-
standing of the requirements of the better job and advising
them as to how to go to work to secure such additional train-
/ THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 826
ing as will help them to fit themselves for that job when the
chance comes. '
Job Pride and Management. — The managerial means by
which job pride can be appealed to as an interest factor are,
among others, through recognizing job pride by seeing that
the working conditions are such that a good man can do a good
job. Where a man has job pride nothing injures it more
than requiring him to work under conditions where he can't
do a good job, except, of course, where it is understood that
there is an emergency. In such a case sometimes a man's job
pride is actually aroused, as when a good machinist has to
rig up some sort of gadgets to get a job done at all. In
general, however, if any of us have job pride and are asked
to work regularly under poor working conditions we cannot
help feeling that the job is not considered as of much import-
ance and this hits our job pride, and so reduces our interest.
Among the things that a foreman can do, within the limits
of his responsibilities to utilize job pride as an interest factor
might be mentioned :
1. Seeing that good tools and equipment are provided.
2. Recognizing good work.
3. Helping men to do their jobs better.
4. Giving helpful suggestions rather than sharp criticism
as to the skiU, knowledge or intelligence required on the job.
Since these points have already been taken up from other
angles, they are not considered further here, but are repeated
to show their value in building up interest from the angle
of job pride.
Self Respect and Management. — The managerial side of
the matter of self respect is one that is sometimes not fuUy
recognized by all foremen. It is really merely a case of "put
yourself in the place of the other fellow," but this is sometimes
a somewhat difficult thing to do, because me do not know the
other fellow, and so do not allow for his self respect as we
should from the standpoint of interest management. Some-
times things that would not affect our self respect will affect
his, and we are totally unaware that we have injured his self
326 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
respect. Sometimes we do not realize that he has the same
sort of self respect that we have.
In either case we fall down as interest managers. While
it does not deal with self respect, a case of the same sort is
given in one of Kipling's stories. An Englishman, in India,
had a native servant who had served him faithfully for a long
time. This servant had a young child and the Englishman
had frequently run across the child playing in the courtyard,
and, being fond of children, had patted it on the head or given
it a little piece of money, or a sweetmeat. The child died of
' some common disease and the father, figuring along lines of
native superstition, decided that his master had "put the
evil eye" on the child by touching him and giving him gifts,
and so killed his master.
Among the diiferent sorts of self respect that may have to
be taken into consideration are racial pride and sometimes
local pride. For example, a man may be as proud of his race
as the foreman may be of his, and an Italian may resent
being called a "Ginnie," or a Frenchman a "Froggie" as miich
as an American would resent being called a "Pig."
If a supervisor wants to avoid cutting down interest he
must be careful to look out for places where he may run
against self respect and fail to pay regard to it. In general,
it never does any harm to treat everybody with consideration
and ordinary business courtesy, especially in dealing with
some one who is under your authority. This is especially true
because, in many cases, they may not dare to "come back."
One special case where racial self respect may come into
play is where gangs are employed on jobs. Under such con-
ditions a wrong mixture of nationalities may not only kill
interest, the special point under consideration here, but may
cause other trouble. Every foreman knows about such cases
and so nothing further need be said here.
Curiosity and Management. — ^As a rule, a foreman can
make but little use of curiosity in interest management except
under some instructing conditions as taken up in the chapter
on that subject, so that it calls for no discussion here.
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK 327
Fear and Management. — ^As a rule, this is the most com-
monly used and the least effective of all interest factors. It is
often assumed that fear is effective in arousing interest on
the part of the men, especially in securing obedience to
orders. A foreman will threaten to have a learner "fired" if
he does not learn to do a job correctly, or will "bawl out" a
man for not knowing how to do a piece of work the first time
he is put on that job, or for not following instruction cor-
rectly. He fires one man as an example to the others.
The use of fear as a means for developing interest is based
on the assumption that a man who is scared can think more
clearly or will work better than a man who is not ; this, of
course, can not be true. A scared man will probably run
faster or jump higher than a man who is not scared, but
under the influence of fear a man wiU not work as intelligently
or put his mind as completely on his job. His mental engine
is more or less "stalled."
The appeal to fear is most commonly used by the inex-
perienced foreman ; it is the only method he knows for devel-
oping interest, hence the interest management conditions are
very bad. The efficient foreman wiU not attempt to use fear,
but wiU use other interest factors and will do a much better
management job in consequence.
The foreman who is quiet, self-possessed, and sympathetic,
who everybody knows "means business all the time," will in
the long run do a better job than the type of foreman who is
continually threatening, "bawling out," and stirring up his
force in all sorts of ways. The first type is the modern type
of foreman ; the second the older type that is now passing out
of American industry.
CHAPTER XIX
THE HUMAN FACTOR BLOCK. COST ELEMENTS
AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MEN-
TAL ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE.
(CONTINUED.) SATISFACTION
SECTION I. PRELIMINABT
Preliminary. — ^The third and, perhaps, in some ways the
most important element affecting the mental attitude of the
members of any team is the degree to which they are satisfied
or dissatisfied, and just as any team leader has managerial
problems on leadership and interest, so he has problems on
satisfaction as well. This chapter takes up satisfaction in
the same general way that interest was considered in the
preceding chapter.
As will plainly appear later in connection with the man-
agement responsibilities on satisfaction which every foreman
has at least to some extent, it is very necessary to get the
proposition clearly "lined up," especially so as to avoid con-
fusion between satisfaction and interest, because in so many
cases the two go together in actual practice, yet, if they are
not "unscrambled" in managing the case, good results are
not likely to be obtained. The first section, therefore, dis-
cusses satisfaction in a general way, especially as to the dif-
ferences between it and some other things that are sometimes
confused with it ; following sections taking up the "satisfac-
tion factors" and cost elements and managerial problems.
What is Meant by Satisfaction? — ^The term satisfaction
is used here just as it is used in ordinary conversation. We
know what we mean when we say that we are satisfied: we
mean that we "have no special fault to find," or that we think
that things are "all right," so far as the particular thing
that we have in mind is concerned. When somebody says,
"Have some more pie?" and we say, "I'm satisfied," we simply
32a
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 829
mean that we have eaten all the pie that we want : so far as pie
is concerned we are full. When we say, "I'm not satisfied
with that proposition," we mean that there is, as we see it,
something wrong about it.
Satisfaction, therefore, means with regard to any par-
ticular proposition or any special job that the person who is
considering that particular proposition or who is on that
particular job, thmks that the situation is as it should be:
that it is "right."
Dissatisfaction, on the other hand, means that, as the
person who is on the job looks at it, there is something wrong :
that things ought to be different.
Satisfaction vs. Contentment. — ^In the sense in which it is
used in this book satisfaction does not mean contentment,
and these two situations should not be confused. A man
might be satisfied with his job and yet not be contented. If
he was satisfied with his job he would not "kick" about it,
but he might be extremely anxious to get another job as soon
as the chance came along, and might even be making special
eifort to fit himself for that job. He would be satisfied but
not contented. If he were contented he would not be inter-
ested in any other job. A satisfied man may, at the same
time be ambitious : a contented man has no ambition so far as
the special point under consideration is concerned though he
may have ambitions along other lines.
Satisfaction and Interest. — ^It is equally true that satis-
faction does not mean the same thing as interest. For ex-
ample, it is not uncommon to hear a man say, "I'm satisfied
with my job, but I'm not particularly interested in it," and
we know just what he means when he says it. He has no kick
on the job : he goes along with it, but he does not care much
whether it is well done or badly done, although perhaps a
small interest factor, like fear of getting fired, or a sense of
duty, perhaps a little job pride, or self respect, makes him
do it well enough to get by with it.
Satisfaction is, therefore, a different thing from interest
and, like interest, there are certain things that affect it in.
830 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
any given case that we may call satisfaction factors jtist as
we had interest factors in the last chapter, and a foreman
who has managerial problems in this part of the human fac-
tor block needs to know something about satisfaction factors
just as much as he needs to know something about interest
factors or the elements of leadership. The term satisfaction
factors will, therefore, be used in the following paragraphs
to indicate anything that may cause satisfaction or dissatis-
faction with the job.
Satisfaction Factors. — Satisfaction or dissatisfaction
comes from a number of causes, many of which are hard to
locate, so that "satisfaction management" is often a hardfer
job than interest management, and calls for even more man-
agerial skill on the foreman's part, because dissatisfaction
often comes from causes that are purely "notions." If these
"notions" are, however, in a man's head, it makes no difference
whether they are real facts or notions, so long as they are
there, they affect satisfaction with the job. A good example
of this is what is said to have been the cause of the Indian
Mutiny. According to the story as it is commonly told, this
mutiny was caused by the "notion" that got spread around
among the native troops that the cartridges that were served
out to them were greased with pig's fat which their religion
forbade them to touch. This was not true : according to the
statements as made at the time the cartridges were greased
with some other kind of fat, on account of this religious
prejudice, and there was not a grain of truth in the notion.
Nevertheless, it caused the mutiny, with all its attendant
horrors. The truth or the falsity of the story had nothing
to do with the resulting dissatisfaction that culminated in
the mutiny.
For another illustration a man may get the notion that
"he is being put upon" : "is being made the goat" when there
may not be a particle of truth in the idea. He may even say
nothing about it, but brood over the matter. So long as he
feels that way he is bound to be dissatisfied.
In dealing with problems on satisfaction it is especially
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 331
difficult to get at the real situation because in so many cases
it is not a question of the facts as they really are, but of an
imaginary situation : that is, of the situation as it looks to the
man, and this matter is often complicated by the fact that
the man will not tell how the matter does look to him. This
is one of the cases where good cooperative relations between
the foreman and the men helps a great deal. In many cases
the case must be handled on what a lawyer would call "cir-
cumstantial evidence" which amounts to saying that you get
all the facts that you can and then, on the basis of your
experience, make the best guess that you can as to the true
facts of the case.
The Foreman and Satisfaction. — Just as in the case of
interest, under all ordinary conditions, any foreman has
responsibilities on the managerial side of his job that require
him to deal with cases of dissatisfaction more directly inside
of his department but often, through cooperative responsi-
bilities, anywhere in the plant. In proportion as he can
recognize cases of dissatisfaction, knows the satisfaction fac-
tors and can use them skillfully, he will be able to improve the
mental attitude of the working force by promoting satisfac-
tion and reducing dissatisfaction, and so cut cost, which is
always his managerial job.
"Dissatisfaction Factors." — The following list of "dis-
satisfaction factors" is, of course, only suggestive. As in the
case of interest, the question of satisfaction or dissatisfaction
comes in wherever the human factors come into play. In
studying cases of dissatisfaction that have been discussed
from time to time in foremen's conferences the following have
often come up, and might be regarded as some of the more
common and probable causes of dissatisfaction :
1. A man thinks that he is not getting' "what is coming
to him" at that time.
2. A man does not think that he is "getting a fair show."
3. A man thinks that the working conditions are worse
than they ought to be, or, if they have to be bad on account of
332 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
the nature of the job he thinks that proper allowance is not
made for them by the foreman.
4. He thinks that he has not a sufficiently important job.
5. He thinks that his job is "beneath him."
6. "He knows too much for his job."
7. He dislikes his job.
8. He thinks that he is "being put upon."
9. He doesn't like the crowd that he is working with.
10. He is scared of the job or thinks that he can't do it.
Discussion. — ^It should be remembered that the "dissatis-
faction elements" listed above and others of the same sort
that may be puUed out in discussion have nothing to do with
the facts of the case. It is not a question of whether a man
is getting a fair show, but that he tJUnJcs, or has worked him-
self into a state of mind where he thinks that he has not a
fair show. As a matter of fact he may be getting all the
show in the world, but that has nothing to do with his state
of mind. Again, if a man thinks that he dislikes his job and
thinks that he wants another, it makes no difference if the
job that he is on is the one that he can do best of aU the
different jobs in the department. The matter of dissatis-
faction as considered here is always a question of state of
mind, not a question of the actual facts in the case.
This dissatisfied state of mind is especially likely to come
up in the case of young employees, boys and girls, par-
ticularly in the case of young girls, always, of course,
with exceptions.
Satisfaction Factors and "Dissatisfaction Factors." —
While the real point of all managerial dealing with satisfac-
tion is to improve conditions, as the cases usually come up in
practice the situation is one where the man is dissatisfied and
the problem is to locate the causes of dissatisfaction. The
following discussion is therefore based upon causes of dis-
satisfaction rather than upon those making for satisfaction,
that is, on what may be called "dissatisfaction factors"
rather than upon satisfaction factors as discussed in the
previous section.
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 333
SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PBOBIEMS ON
SATISFACTION
Preliminary. — Where men are dissatisfied, good work
cannot be done, or, at least, as good work cannot be done,
and under such conditions cost will evidently be increased.
A dissatisfied team, whether their dissatisfaction is justified
or not, will not do a first class job. Nor are the team mem-
bers likely to stay on their jobs. Therefore, whatever a
foreman can do by action, recommendation, or suggestion,
to reduce dissatisfaction among the members of his working
force or to prevent unjustified dissatisfaction, is a part of
his managerial job, and the degree to which he handles
this job with regard to the cost elements and succeeds in
reducing or heading off dissatisfaction is the measure of his
managerial ability in that particular line. This section
takes up some cost elements and managerial problems in
this connection.
Cost Elements on Dissatisfaction. — ^Among the more
prominent cost elements that may come into play in connec-
tion with different cases of dissatisfaction, that is, real causes
of dissatisfaction are :
1. The degree to which all men do not get square
treatment.
2. The degree to which a foreman "plays favorites."
3. The degree to which all the men do not get considerate
treatment all the time.
4. The degree to which men get "bawled out," especially
when they do not deserve it. That is where the foreman has
the habit of "going off at half cock."
5. The degree to which the foreman takes disciplinary
action before aU the facts are known. (Another case of going
off at half cock.)
6. The degree to which a foreman is "grouchy."
7. The degree to which a foreman sets a good example
in dealing with the men.
8. The degree to which a foreman has too much dignity
or not enough dignity.
334 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
9. The degree to which a foreman takes no interest in
his men.
10. The degree to which a man is really on the wrong job.
11. The degree to which the working conditions are really
bad or, if necessary, not taken into consideration.
12. The degree to which the working group is improperly
made up.
13. The degree to which the man is really scared of
the job.
14. The degree to which when a foreman teUs anything
he tell the truth.
Of course, the above are not all the cost elements that may
come into play in all the different cases of dissatisfaction, but
those given are enough to suggest a number of others and to
form a basis for conference discussion and thought.
Where Dissatisfaction May Originate. — On looking over
such a list of possible causes of dissatisfaction as has just
been given, it wiU. at once appear that dissatisfaction may
origiaate in three distinctly different ways :
1. It may originate with the foreman himself.
2. It may originate with the man himself.
3. It may originate with the Management.
While, no matter where the dissatisfaction originates, it
puts a managerial problem up to the foreman, nevertheless
its origin affects the manner in which hef must deal with the
problem, hence a brief discussion along these lines may
be helpful.
Dissatisfaction Originates With the Foreman. — ^An
example of such a case would be where the foreman had
actually " played favorites," or was grouchy, or inconsider-
ate, or used poor judgment in assigning workers to jobs
within his department. In such cases it is evident that the
whole matter of handling the problem is within the foreman's
own control. " He started it and he can finish it." He can
stop being grouchy, he can use better judgment in placing
men on jobs, he can become more considerate. He can
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 335
handle the whole problem alone and handle it exactly as he
wants to. Nobody else need know anything about it. Since
this is so, it offers, in a way, the simplest managerial prob-
lem of the three.
Dissatisfaction Originates With the Man Himself. —
This would be illustrated by the case where the man thinks
that he is worth more money, or that the foreman " has it
in for him," or that he has been unjustly " called down."
This state of mind offers a much more difficult managerial
problem because it makes no difference whether the dissatis-
faction is based upon fact or on imagination. If the man
thinks these things he will be just as dissatisfied as if they
were true, and, under most circumstances, he won't tell what
the matter is. Such cases therefore offer the most difiScult
managerial problems to any supervisor.
Dissatisfaction Originates With the Management. — ^An
illustration of such a case would be where the Management
had adopted a certain poHcy that was sure to cause some
dissatisfaction but which the foreman had to carry out. For
example, in a case of reduction of operating force the policy
might be to lay off all single men before any married men
were affected, or it might be determined that the best way
was to put everybody on part time. Whatever the policy
adopted, it is evident that any dissatisfaction that might
result would originate in a cause that the foreman could
in no way control ; he must deal with something that he did
not start though he must " finish it." This sort of thing
of course sets up a managerial problem that is entirely dif-
ferent from either of the other cases, and offers in some
respects the most difficult problem of the three.
Whatever the Cause the Foreman Must Deal With the
Dissatisfaction. — ^Whatever the cause, the resulting dissatis-
faction will come up to the foreman in some form and it
wiU be up to him to do what he can to hold it down to the
minimum. According to the origin as just discussed, the
336 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
cases must be handled very differently according to how they
originated, so that what has been called here the origin of
the dissatisfaction must be taken into consideration before
starting to deal with the problem.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
may be stated as follows : To reduce dissatisfaction to the
minimum by "spotting" .such cases as soon as they develop
and taking the best possible means to deal with them so as to
substitute sati^action for dissatisfaction. Of course, this
cannot always be done, but it is what a good manager will
always try to do.
Dealing with the Problem. — The following paragraphs
take up the cost elements just given and suggest some ways
and means for dealing with them. Before taking up the de-
tailed discussion, however, there should be pointed out a
general method of procedure for dealing manageriaUy with
such cases by the use of the method of analysis of cases, as
is quite fully discussed and described in the chapter on care-
lessness on the job. In general, there are two possible causes
for dissatisfaction in any given case : first, the cause may be
due to the foreman and the man may be all right : that is, the
fault may lie with the foreman ; second, the foreman may be
all right and the trouble may be with the man. Where the
trouble lies with the man there may be real cause for dissatis-
faction or the whole matter may be imaginary. So we have —
as a sort of a chart of possible causes :
A Real Cause for
Dissatisfaction
An Imaginary Cause
for Dissatisfaction
A Case of
Dissatisfaction
"The Foreman's
Fault"
The Man's
Fault
The Job's
Fault
Now it is evident that, in dealing managerially with a case
of dissatisfaction the whole way of going at the problem
would be different if it were the foreman's fault from what
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 337
it would be if it were the man's fault, and if it were up to
the man, again the way of going at it would be different,
according to whether the cause of dissatisfaction were real
or imaginary. Evidently, if the ways of dealing with the
case were based on the idea that it was the fault of the man
when it was really the fault of the foreman, or the fault of the
job, the results would not be likely to be very good and might
make things worse instead of better. In general, therefore,
there are two steps, and these two steps are just what a doc-
tor takes with a patient.
First, find out the cause of the trouble (or make the
diagnosis, as the doctor would say).
Second, take the necessary steps to improve the condition.
(Determinine the treatment and apply it, as a doctor
would say.)
The necessary steps are, therefore, as follows for any
human factor case:
1. Determine whether the difficulty is an interest dif-
ficulty or a dissatisfaction difficulty.
2. If it is dissatisfaction, determine whether it is your
fault, the man's fault or the fault of the job.
3. If it is the man's fault, determine whether his dissatis-
faction is due to real or imaginary causes. <
4. If it is the job's fault determine what the matter is and
whether the trouble can, or cannot, be remedied.
5. The kind and cause of the dissatisfaction having been
now determined, proceed to work out ways and means for
dealing T^ith the problem.
6. If they don't work, "back check" and try again.
While, in dealing with the human factors, nobody can
ever be sure w;here they are going to come out, the adoption of
some such analytic method as is suggested above will greatly
reduce the chances of going wrong as compared with the use
of the straight "guess" method. "The percentage of hits will
be considerably higher," as is always the case where some
form of analysis is used instead of the "guess" method in
working out any problem.
22
338 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
The following paragraphs take up the different cost ele-
ments as given and make some suggestions that may be of
service in working out problems on dissatisfaction as a part
of the foreman's managerial job.
Square Treatment. — ^The value of this cost element is ad-
mitted by everybody but the difBculty lies in the fact that it
is not so much a question of a man's intending to be square as
it is the other fellow's believing that he means to be square.
A belief that a superior intends to be square will carry him
over many a rough place, but "good intentions" alone wiE
not do it. The value that subordinates set on square treat-
ment was illustrated some time ago when about one thousand
people who had graduated from high schools several years
before were asked to name the teacher who, as they looked
back on their school experience, had left the strongest im-
pression on them and why. Something like ninety per cent,
in teUing why they named the teacher that they did, gave as
a reason: "He (or she) always meant to give us a
square deal."
All foremen intend to be "square," that goes without
saying, but in the hurry and drive of the work, unless a man
is careful to stop and think, he may forget to seem to be
square. That is where, so far as this cost element is con-
cerned, he may run up cost due to dissatisfaction that is his
fault, so that the best "ways and means" for "managing"
in this case is "Never be in too much of a hurry to be sure
that you are square" and get a justified reputation for being
square that will carry you over in case you do slip up as
anybody is liable to do.
"Plapng Favorites." — One of the surest ways of pro-
moting dissatisfaction is to "play favorites." The problem
here is all the more difficult because this habit is often an
unconscious one. The playing of favorites works an in-
justice to everybody concerned. Those who are not favored
soon notice that they are not and as a result their attitude is
one of "what is the use." The ones who are favored also soon
notice it and their attitude is "what is the use, I am in strong
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 339
with the foreman ; no matter what I do it will be all right."
The foreman who plays the favorites knows in his own
mind that he has no grounds for playing favorites and as a
result of trying to bolster up his false position destroys
more and more any attempts at cooperating from the rest
of the force.
Showing Consideration. — ^Within the necessary limits of
getting the job done, and with regard to all other conditions,
the degree to which a foreman shows consideration in dealing
with his men is an important cost element from the standpoint
of the promotion of satisfaction and the development of
leadership. This does not mean "babying" men, nor does it
mean trying to "make popularity" by going easy, but, while,
of course, the work has to be done, there are many things that
a foreman can do if he wants to do them in the way of
showing consideration.
Probably most of these things would be thought of as
little things perhaps not worth considering, but in the matter
of satisfaction and interest little things sometimes count
more than big things. For example, during some very hot
spells certain stores notified all employees that if they felt
the heat too much they could go home at any time.
This was showing consideration as against some other
stores that held their employees through the whole working
day. Where the working conditions were such that men
had to work in a high temperature on a certain job, the
foreman made an arrangement whereby the men were sup-
plied with cold drinking water. Many commercial establish-
ments will show consideration for their office employees
during hot weather by putting in electric fans.
Now all such things as these have a distinct cost reducing
value because they promote satisfaction and increase interest,
because they show the fact that those in charge recognize the
fact that the members of the working force are doing their
jobs under difficulties and, after all, consideration simply
means doing something that shows that we "appreciate the
other fellow's troubles." It is a curious trait of human na-
340 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
ture that most of us, if we are working under difficulties,
appreciate recognition of that fact from our superiors much
more if it comes in the way of something being done about it
without our having complained than if we got it by "kicking."
Of course, chances for showing consideration came up in
aU sorts of ways and the great majority of foremen are con-
siderate but in many cases they have not thought of consid-
eration as a cost factor. They have just shown consideration
because they are decent men, and have done it as a matter
of course. One thing is certain, however, a reputation for
being considerate is a valuable item on the plus side of the
turnover and cost production records, although it may never
appear as a cash item on the books.
One further point may be worth bringing up. Many
people who have charge of teams wiD say that consideration
is all right for "intelligent" people, such as "so and so has"
but that their people would not appreciate consideration if
it were shown them. They are too "hard boiled," or are "a
gang of ignorant foreigners" or are "too stupid" to appre-
ciate anything of the kind. Of course, every man knows his
own business best, but as a matter of fact in many cases such
people have shown more appreciation of considerate treat-
ment than some presvmiably "more intelligent" workers have
done. The degree to which consideration counts with a man
depends on what sort of a man he is and not oh the fact that
he has, or has not a college education, or can, or cannot
speak English.
The Value of Deserved Praise. — The degree to which a
foreman recognizes the value of deserved praise is often an
important factor in promoting satisfaction. If, when we
have done a good job, the man for whom we work tells us that
it is a good job any of us will "feel better."
If any man does a good piece of work and the foreman
tells him so it does no harm, provided the job has been well
done, and it will increase satisfaction or will tend to keep it
up, perhaps especially in the case of rather ignorant workers
or in the case of a beginner. Of course, this sort of thing
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 341
can be overdone, but a tactful, observant foreman can do
much along this line if he studies his men and finds out which
of them "respond to treatment" of this kind.
Criticising and Reprimanding. — ^Anybody who has super-
visory and managerial responsibilities will have to criticise
and reprimand, but the way that this is done may have much
to do with both satisfaction and interest. In the first place
a reprimand always lowers interest and satisfaction. This is
true of everybody because none of us like to be in a position
where we have to be reprimanded or punished. A helpful
criticism, however, If rightly handled, will often increase
Interest and satisfaction. The managerial job as to repri-
manding is, therefore, to get the result for which the repri-
mand Is given with the least loss of interest and satisfaction
and to so handle cases of criticism that interest and satis-
faction are increased rather than decreased.
Reprimanding. — ^Where reprimanding has to be done
there are some points worth mentioning. In the first place,
nothing wUl do more to Increase dissatisfaction and reduce
interest than a reprimand that is undeserved. Even if the
matter is ' straightened out afterwards. It leaves its effects.
In the second place, reprimands, when given, should be clear
and to the point, covering at least these points. What was
done wrong, why it was wrong, and, if possible, how it should
have been right. In the third place, to make reprimands
effective it Is not necessary to "throw a man down" person-
ally. Sarcasm, personal abuse, "bawling out" serve no useful
purpose and generally do a great deal of harm from the
standpoint of interest and satisfaction. They are "expen-
sive luxuries" for any supervisor to indulge in. The situa-
tion Is worse when we have the case of a subordinate who can't
or dare not " come back." This is, in many cases, true of
foreign speaking workers and green men.
If a foreman can succeed in so handling matters of neces-
sary reprimands (and there will be cases where they wiU be
necessary) so as to make them effective and yet not attack
S42 1 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
the self respect of his men he will cut dissatisfaction
costs considerably.
Criticising. — Criticism wiU help or hinder interest and
satisfaction in proportion as it is evident that it is intended
to be helpful and not a reprimand in disguise. A common
rule here is not to criticise unless at the same time you show
how the thing can be done better. This is sometimes called
constructive criticism as against destructive criticism. Con-
structive criticism does not make a man feel "sore," but does
make him feel that the foreman is willing to take time to show
him where he is "off." Of course, it all depends on the way
in which it is done. If criticism is put over in the wrong way,
it can easily reduce a man's job pride and produce a very bad
effect. Some points about helpful criticism are :
( 1 ) It should be square.
(2) It should be definite — the man shquld know exactly
what is wrong.
(3) It should always include definite instructions as to
how to do those particular things right.
(4) It should not be accompanied by any "bawling out."
Taking Action Before all Facts are Known. — This pos-
sible case has already been referred to. "Going off at half
cock" in matters of disciplinary action is as unsafe a habit in
a foreman as it is in a gun. If a man is reprimanded or laid
off or fired on partial facts, on "snap action," and it later ap-
pears that the action was not justified a very bad situation
has 'been created as regards interest and satisfaction not only
with the man but with the whole working force, because an
injustice has been done and everybody resents injustice. Of
course, a few cases of this kind may happen to anybody, we
are aU. human and make mistakes, and when we do, the only
thing that can be done is to straighten out matters as well
as we can, but the habit of acting on "snap judgment" is
another expensive luxury. As a habit it means labor loss,
dissatisfaction and loss of interest.
Having a Grouch. — ^Everybody knows what is meant by
"having a grouch." Sometimes a man is bom with a grouch
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 343
and never gets over it and sometimes he gets into a grouchy
state of mind for a while, but whatever the cause, a grouch
costs money. It is still another expensive luxury for any
team leader to have around. Nothing will do more to create
dissatisfaction and pull down interest than for a foreman to
have a habitual grouch, or to act as if he had one, it makes
little difference which. In the first place, if the team leader
has a grouch the members of the team will quickly develop
grouches too by what an electrician would call induction and
then everybody has a grouch and goes around looking for
trouble, and, of course, under such conditions, finding
it easily.
This is merely another example of a number of cases
where attention has been drawn to the fact that the team mem-
bers tend to take their cue from the team leader, so that a
special obligation rests on him to see to it that any "cues"
are good ones and not bad ones. In this case the "cap-
italization value" of the straight, steady going leader is
more than is often realized, and this is especially true as
regards grouches.
Any man is liable to suffer from a temporary grouch : his
breakfast did not suit him, he had a family row just before
coming to work, and he brings his grouch with him on the
job. If he is wise he will leave it at the gate because nobody
can teU how much that grouch may set things back in the
way of morale and interest. In cases of a bad grouch of this
kind it is possible that reaUy the cheapest thing for a foreman
to do would be stay out of the plant until he was over it.
A permanent grouch is another question. All that can
be said here is that a man who regularly carries a grouch
around with him can never become a real leader and only by
accident can such a man become a foreman anyway, so this
point need not be taken up any further.
Setting a Good Example. — ^Mention has already been
made in a number of places to the fact that the members of
any team take their cue from the team leader so that he is
under a special obligation to set a good example in things
S44 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
that count, such as observing special safety precautions,
obeying rules and regulations, and so on. A number of illus-
trations given in different parts of this book bring out this
point for special cases, so that it is only necessary to draw
attention to the general fact here. The old seafaring saying,
"As the captain so the ship," applies to the case of a fore-
man and his operating force just as much as anywhere else.
Many foremen do not realize their influence in this way,
especially with young and immature help, whose habits as to
such matters are often in process of formation.
No attempt will be made here to suggest what a foreman
should or should not do in connection with setting a good
example : that is up to him, but there is one point to which it is
worth while to draw attention. In such cases most of us tend
to look at the matter from the standpoint of our own jobs
and not from the eiFect of what we do on the state of mind
of others, especially if we are hard pressed on our own job.
For instance, take the case of a freight elevator where the
rules require that it should not be used for passenger work.
A foreman is quite likely to think, "By using this elevator
and saving the climbing of four flights of stairs I can save
a lot of time and I am able to take care of myself." So he
breaks the rule for the sake of his job but forgets that some-
body else who knows that the foreman broke the rule wiU
figure that he might as well break the rule, too, and so, per-
haps, eventually there is an accident.
In considering any given case a foreman can generally
ask himself this question: "If I do this is there a chance
that my example will result in cutting down morale.?" If it
will, don't do it.
"Dignity." — Some men are afraid to be considerate, tact-
ful or human because they are " afraid of their dignity." In
some positions, fortunately not often in industrial plants,
team leaders have been told by their superiors that they must
always "keep up the dignity of their position." For example,
this has been said by the principals of many schools to
teachers. Just what is meant by the "dignity" of the posi-
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 845
tion nobody seems to exactly know, but in such cases it must
be maintained at all costs. We see this idea crop up in such
statements as that "a superior may make a mistake but he
must never admit it, because it weakens the dignity of his
position." Of course, this is all foolishness and every real
man knows it. No man can maintain his dignity unless he
has something to maintain it on, and that something must be
something more than the name of a job or even authority, as
such, that goes with that job. If a foreman, or any other
team leader, is respected by his team, deals with them fairly
and knows his job, his dignity will take care of itself. He
will have no call to worry about it. On the other hand, if
he does not command the respect of the team, or if he does
not deserve that respect, no exercise of authority will enable
him to keep up the dignity of his position because he has
nothing to keep that' dignity up on. It can be safely said
that a foreman who is on his job as a supervisor and manager
has no need to worry about his "dignity."
Of course, the above statement does not mean that a
foreman should disregard the difference between his job and
the working jobs in his department, or that he needs to "play
up" to his men. It does mean that he is a man working with
a group of other men, each man on his own job, and that,
as a manager, he will command respect in proportion as he is
recognized as a man and as a man who is on his job just as
he expects the men to be on their jobs.
If a foreman feels that he must continually be on the
lookout for the protection of his dignity, he can be quite sure
that that attitude is costing money in terms of labor loss.
If he lacks the necessary respect of the men he had better
get it ; there is no substitute.
Taking Interest in the Men. — Some foremen, while fair,
just and efficient, regard the men only as so many "hands"
and confine their interest to the purely supervisory side of
the man relation field. In doing this they neglect an im-
portant cost element in labor loss. As pointed out elsewhere
in this book, a foreman stands in a way as the representa-
346 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
tive of the group, as the leader, as well as the producer. He
can do much by taking a personal interest in his men outside
of their purely working relations.
If Pete has a new baby it does no harm to know it and
tell him so, but be sure that you know whether it is a boy
or a girl. If Bill is in trouble, an offer of advice or help
may do more good than one would think. For example, dur-
ing the war many foremen employing foreign speaking
help undoubtedly helped their men to understand about
Liberty bonds or advised men having sons in the service as
to allotments.
While the motive here was undoubtedly due to the gen-
eral interest that one man takes in another when he is in
difficulties, as a matter of fact such evidences of interest
undoubtedly do form one of the strongest interest and satis-
faction factors in many cases.
One point in this connection. Sympathy and interest, to
be of any value, must be real. If a team leader is not really
interested in the fact that Pete has a new baby, or Bill is in
trouble, he had better not try to put up a bluff. It won't go.
Unless the desire to help is real and the interest is real, trying
to put across an imitation will do more harm than good.
The Value of Instruction. — ^In connection with this mat-
ter of showing real interest in the members of the working
force mention might be made of the value of helpful sugges-
tions and instruction. If a worker is doing a job as well as he
knows how but could do it better if he were given a few
pointers in the right way he will take this as one evidence that
the foreman takes an interest in him, and this will be reflected
in an increased interest and satisfaction. He feels that the
foreman thinks that "he is worth helping" and that increases
his self respect and his job pride, both of which are
morale elements.
Poorly Made Up Working Group. — ^It will often happen
that dissatisfaction will come about through the fact that a
man is working with the wrong group, especially where the
job is being carried on by a team, as in the case of riveting.
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS 347
Sometimes there are nationalities that do not mix well on the
same work team, sometimes there are other reasons but it will
often happen that in assigning workers to work teams, or
even to jobs where they must work side by side, attention
given to this matter may help matters as to satisfaction. For
one example, a woman on a job might be working next to a
man who tried to annoy her in some way and if this situation
was not spotted it might result in the woman quitting on
account of that annoyance. If she was a good worker, this
would mean replacement cost and so increased overhead.
Since aU foremen are familiar with these matters they are
not taken up any further, and are only referred to here
because they may be important elements in connection with
satisfaction and interest and perhaps are not always thought
of in that light so much as merely sources of trouble and
annoyance to the foreman. They are more important than
that, and should in many cases receive more careful attention
than they sometimes do.
Man on the Wrong Job.— It is a well-known fact that
some jobs appeal to some people and the same job is very
distasteful to others. This point is taken up in connection
with matching job requirements to man qualifications and so
is not gone into in any detail here.
It is a point, however, that is worth considering in con-
nection with satisfaction and interest because a man who is
in a job that he dislikes, even although he may stick to it,
is never as satisfied or interested as he would be on a j ob that
appealed to him.
Man Scared of the Job. — ^Another cause of dissatisfac-
tion and loss of interest is where a worker is afraid of the job.
This case almost always comes up in the case of new em-
ployees and is taken up in connection with instruction, and
so is only mentioned here.
Telling the Truth. — One other important point in con-
nection with morale is the extent to which a foreman has a
deserved reputation for telling the truth. His word can be
depended upon. When he tells a man that he will take up
348 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
some matter that affects that man's interest he does it. When
he is asked questions about what is going to happen, say as
to lay-offs on account of slack work, if he says anything he
tells the truth. Perhaps he doesn't know, perhaps he can't
tell, but the worst thing that he can do is to lie about it.
Where any team leader has not the reputation of being
reliable as to such matters he can be sure that the team
morale is seriously impaired. While in many cases this will
seem the easy way to get out of a difficulty, in the long run
it is a costly method: it doesn't pay.
CHAPTER XX
THE HUMAN FACTOR. COST ELEMENTS AND
MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON THE MENTAL
ATTITUDE OF THE WORKING FORCE. '
SATISFACTION
SECTION I. PREIilMINAKY
Preliminaiy. — The last two chapters considered the three
chief elements that affect the mental attitude of the members
of the team leadership, interest and satisfaction. As a
matter of actual practice, however, when "hmnan factor
cases" have to be dealt with managerially, they are seldom
clean cut, that is, the case is seldom 100 per cent, interest or
100 per cent, satisfaction, but is more or less mixed. The
remaining chapters on the human factor discuss certain cost
elements and managerial problems where both satisfaction
and interest may come into play, this chapter taking up the
working conditions and general surroundings, the following
chapters dealing with management on orders, directions and
suggestions and with certain cases involving the question
of the saving or firing of men in cases of failure to obey
orders or to follow directions, especially in connection with
" carelessness on the job. "
Working Conditions. — Whenever a job is to be done, the
working force, the stock, the tools and equipment must be
got together somewhere, where the job can be done or has to
be done. That is, people must work surrounded by what they
work on and what they work with, at the place where the
job is to be done. For example, a logging crew must work
in the woods, work with logs, work out of doors and work
with the special tools that go with their particular jobs,
peaveys, cant hooks, axes and so on. A train crew works on
the track and on the train, using the special tools that go
with their jobs, the crew of a ship works on the ship, using
850 THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB
the special tools that go with their jobs and so all along
the line.
Now this "mixture" of workers, tools, equipment, place
where the work must be done, kind of stock worked upon,
necessary hours and so on make up what is called, as the
term is used here, the working conditions on any given job
or in any one trade, and, of course, these working conditions
vary greatly for diiferent jobs and for different trades.
General Cost Elements on Working Conditions. — ^In
general, it may be said that poor working conditions increase
cost and that good working conditions decrease cost because
the nature of the working conditions affects both permanent
and temporary labor loss.
They affect permanent labor loss because poor working
conditions will, in the long run, increase turnover with the
corresponding discharge or "quitting" cost and they affect
temporary labor loss because they may result in men being
off the job for a greater or less time or in preventing men
from working to the best advantage.
As in a number of other cases, it is only recently that the
cost value of poor working conditions has been fully under-
stood and has been made the subject of careful study but they
are now coming to be regarded as some of the most important
elements in connection with the managerial problem of deal-
ing effectively with the promotion of interest and satisfaction
as affecting turnover and absenteeism, and so call for careful
consideration on the part of any foreman whose responsibility
lay-out shows any responsibilities in this connection.
How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Permanent
Labor Loss. — ^Anything that takes a worker off the job when
he could be on that job means labor loss, and if it takes him
off the job for good it means permanent labor loss. There
may be a number of ways in which poor working conditions
may permanently separate the man and the job. For ex-
ample, if he finds that no attention is paid to making the
working conditions safe, he is liable to quit as soon as he can
find a chance to work under safer conditions : if, as a result
SATISFACTION 861
of an accident, he is killed or permanently disabled, his knowl-
edge and skill are permanently lost to the plant. If there
are special occupational dangers, and especially if he does
not know exactly what they are or just how to protect him-
self from them, or if he finds that the conditions under which
he has to work are especially dangerous, owing to lack of
protection, he may quit on account of what may be called
"job scare," especially if he is a new man on the job, and feels
that all possible means are not taken to protect him. All
such reasons as those just given and many others tend to run
up cost due to permanent labor loss because of poor work-
ing conditions.
How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Temporary
Labor Loss. — ^Not only may poor working conditions affect
permanent labor loss but they may affect temporary labor
loss as well. For example, an accident that might have been
prevented by the use of proper safety precautions may lay
a man off for a time, or general dissatisfaction or loss of
interest due to poor working conditions may result in in-
creased absenteeism, in either case making for temporary
labor loss.
How Poor Working Conditions May Affect Work on
the Job. — ^Not only may poor working conditions affect tem-
porary and permanent labor loss but where the worker stays
on the job the quality or quantity of his work may be affected.
Men cannot work to the best advantage under such condi-
tions as extreme heat or cold, or where they cannot see, or
where they have to work in uncomfortable positions, or where
they are afraid of personal injury and so naturally think
more of looking out for themselves than they do about the
job. All such conditions prevent a man from "putting in his
best licks" and to that extent result in a form of labor loss,
not because the man is off the job but because he is not
"all there."
The Foreman and Working Conditions. — Since, as has
already been pointed out in an earlier chapter, a foreman may
be able to affect the working conditions in his department,
352 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
either by action, recommendation or suggestion he has super-
visory responsibilities and so managerial responsibilities as
well. Not only may he have these responsibilities for his own
department, but in many cases he would have cooperative
responsibilities that might relate to working conditions any-
where in the plant.
Cost Elements. — The general cost elements for poor
working conditions have been indicated in the preceding para-
graphs: reduced production, inferior quality, decreased in-
terest and lowered morale, and in many cases increased acci-
dent risk. Of course, there are others and more detailed cost
elements can be analyzed out for any given situation, accord-
ing to the special character of the plant and the detailed
nature of the working conditions, but the above suggestions
are enough to indicate the general nature of such studies as
can be made.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem in
this case is to improve so far as possible any working condi-
tions that are increasing cost.
Dealing with the Problem- — Conditions vary so much
that only general suggestions can be made. The methods of
analysis can be used to advantage here as in a number of
other cases already taken up. The conditions that are affect-
ing cost can be determined first and then such ways and means
as are possible within the limits of a foreman's job can be
worked out and applied. In doing this it wUl be of assistance
to consider some of the more common kinds of working condi-
tions that may affect costs. Among these are :
1. Working facilities.
2. Ventilation.
3. Lighting.
4. Temperature.
5. General surroundings.
Working Facilities. — Only in a few cases does a worker
provide all his tools and equipment. In the majority of cases
these are provided by the plant. The extent to which such
tools and equipment as are provided by the plant are in good
SATISFACTION 353
condition and there are enough to go around, is an important
element firom the standpoint of both satisfaction and inter-
est. For example, during the war, in certain shipyards the
provision for supplying air under pressure was not sufficient,
and this resulted in an excessive turnover among the riveters,
''^because they could not make a full day's pay with the air
failing from time to time and seldom up to good working
pressure. A machine shop that is noted for its old and
worn out equipment will always find difiiculty in getting and
holding good workmen. If men are expected to work with
inadequate tools, or have to lose time waiting for tools, or
the tools that they have to work with are in poor condition,
the tendency is to drive the good men out of the plant and
also to increase dissatisfaction and reduce interest. A plant
having a reputation for poor tools, "nothing that can be
used to do a decent job with," poor machine equipment, etc.,
will inevitably su^er in comparison with a concern that has
a reputation for first class facilities.
One detailed cost element is, therefore, poor working
facilities.
Ventilation. — ^While in many cases these conditions are
beyond the direct control of a foreman, as in the case of many
old plants where only improvement can be through the install-
ing of a special system of ventilation, which would lie outside
of the foreman's job, except possibly on a recommending
basis, there are other cases where he can do much to improve
conditions. One thing is sure: workers who have to work
with their lungs full of bad air, or in an atmosphere full of
particles of dust, will never be able to do first-class work.
These conditions unquestionably affect satisfaction and in
many cases interest as well.
One tendency of such conditions is to prevent a sufficiently
intelligent and in other ways desirable class of help from tak-
ing jobs or, if they have to take them, staying on them any
longer than they can help, all of which means increased cost.
The Importance of Good Ventilation. — In many plants,
ventilation is an important factor, so much so that it is some-
23
354 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
times required by law in connection with certain occupations.
For example, in certain states there is a legal requirement
that an exhaust system shaU be connected with dry grindings,
so that the dust shall not be breathed into the lungs of
the workmen.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele-
ments are:
(1) If the ventilation is such that workers ar^not prop-
erly protected from injurious particles of dust, the ultimate
result is that they become more or less physically incapaci-
tated and we finally have absenteeism or permanent labor loss
as in the case of accidents. The only difference between such
a case as has just been discussed and an "accident" is that an
accident happens suddenly, and cases of this kind happen
gradually, but the ultimate results are the same.
(2) Where the general ventilation is poor, men become
"dopey" ; their productive efficiency runs down with a corre-
sponding increase in labor cost per production unit and in
temporary, or even permanent, labor loss.
(3) Still another way in which ventilation affects cost
is the fact that where ventilation is poor, turnover is in-
creased inevitably. A good workman under poor conditions
of ventilation, as a rule, will be looking for a job under better
conditions, and if he finds such a job with some other concern
he will take it.
The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is merely
to do whatever can be done to improve conditions that are
increasing cost due to poor ventilation.
Dealing wiih the Problem.^Since this depends on the
special conditions it cannot be taken up here in any detail.
Lighting. — By lighting is meant, first, the general dis-
tribution of light in a plant, and second, the specific lighting
on necessary operating points whether the light be natural
or artificial and it is not uncommon to find shops in which
both or one of these conditions are bad.
Cost Elements. — If either the natural or artificial light-
ing is poor, cost is increased wherever men have to use their
SATISFACTION 355
eyes in connection with their work. From the standpoint
of general illumination, if, for example, stairways are badly
lighted so that men stumble and an accident occurs, it means
the same cost as that due to an accident arising from any
other cause. Men handling heavy pieces of stock under poor
lighting conditions are liable to injure themselves through not
being able to see how to handle things properly. In the case
of the illumination of specific operating points, the increased
cost of the failure to provide such illumination usually comes
out in an increased amount of inferior work, but also may
result in personal injury, as when owing to poor lighting, a
man lets a tool slip, or puts his face too close to the work
to see, as might happen in turning up a short piece of stock
with a dog.
Another cost factor due to poor illumination is one that
is seldom given adequate consideration; men working in
gloomy, ill-lighted shops are very likely to suffer from a cer-
tain amount of general dissatisfaction which tends to in-
crease quitting and so increases loss dlie to this cause.
The Managerial Problem. — The problem is to reduce
costs due to poor lighting of :
1. The department in general.
2. Special operating points.
Dealing vidth the Problem. — In many cases authority to
deal with lighting lies outside of the foreman's job, except
possibly through recommendation. This is especially true
in the case of daylight lighting in old plants where the win-
dow areas are altogether too small according to modern ideas.
With artificial lighting, however, many foremen can do much
to improve conditions. For example, they can see that all
operating points requiring special lighting are properly
lighted, and, in connection with this they can make use of the
job analysis, red flagging such points. It is often within
their authority to change or extend electric lights to secure
better conditions. Since, as a rule, lighting conditions have
received but little attention in many shops, a foreman
who is interested in this matter will usually find plenty of
856 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
chance to make improvements that will more than pay
for themselves.
Temperature. — ^Under certain conditions, the tempera-
ture may hecome an important factor from the standpoint of
physical comfort and where it can be controlled, it is often a
cost-cutting device to control it.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements due to physical
discomfort due to temperature are:
(1) Absenteeism and permanent labor loss due to physi-
cal conditions affected by extremely high or low temperature
under which the work is carried on.
(2) Increased physical injury due to abnormal tempera-
tures. Grenerally, abnormal temperature conditions, either
very high or very low, tires men and tends to make them care-
less, with the usual results.
For example, during the winter of 1917—1918 there were
certain periods of time in which some shipyards were prac-
tically unable to do any work at all, owing to the fact that
men staid out or quit because of the extreme cold. This, of
course, could not be prevented, but it illustrates the fact that
men who are working under conditions where they are suffer-
ing serious physical discomfort from cold are likely to stay
at home to keep warm, or to seek other jobs. On the other
hand, it is equally true that high temperatures affect costs.
For example, in certain operations where the temperature
has to be kept up, it is a well-known fact that men will avoid
taking such jobs, and if they do take them, will leave them
as soon as they can, which, of course, increases costs due to
absenteeism and turnover.
The Managerial Problem.— As in the other cases already
taken up.
Dealing vwth the Problem. — Conditions are practically
the same as in the cases already taken up. Much that might
be done would lie outside of a foreman's job. In some small
ways he can often make the conditions a little easier. All
foremen who have to deal with jobs of this kind know what
they can do.
SATISFACTION 357
Working Conditions and General Surroundings. — The
points taken up in this section all related to the working con-
ditions on definite jobs.
It is also true that interest and satisfaction are largely
affected by the general surroundings so some matters in that
connection are taken up in the next section.
SECTION n. GENEEAL SUBROUNDINGS
General Surroundings. — In addition to the specific work-
ing conditions just mentioned, a number of general working
conditions have a greater cost value than is often assumed.
While these conditions would vary too much according to
the special nature of the work, to admit of any detailed dis-
cussions, a few general points may be suggested to a foreman
who is dealing with these matters managerially because he
considers that he has a responsibility in their connection.
Among the more important of these are :
1. Modern surroundings.
2. The general condition of the department or shop.
Modern Surroundings. — ^The general idea discussed in
the preceding paragraph also comes out with regard to the
general surroundings, a modern, well-built, up-to-date plant
will unquestionably attract and hold a higher grade of men
than will an old type, dirty, broken-down establishment.
Modern competitive methods can be much more easily met
under up-to-date conditions as to equipment, housing, etc.
Although matters of this kind are often considered as being
entirely in the hands of another department, there are many
things that a foreman can do through direct action or recom-
mendation in his own department to improve these conditions,
and in proportion as he does them, he reduces his production
cost through absenteeism and turnover.
Some Points on Modem Surroimdings. — Among the
points that may be worth drawing attention to in connection
with modern vs. old type surroundings are the following:
1. Sanitation.
2. Physical comfort.
3. A chance to keep clean.
868 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Sanitation. — ^The old idea with regard to sanitary ar-
rangements was that any dirty, filthy place was good enough.
More modern ideas, however, have been based on the idea that
hunan factors count here as well as elsewhere in the plant.
Decent sanitary arrangements are now held to be a paying
proposition on account of a number of reasons, among which
are improved self-respect, more plant pride and hence more
satisfaction, with its cost reducing results. In many of the
more modern plants as much care has been taken with the
sanitary arrangements as in some hotels.
The theory of this has just been pointed out, but for
stating it in a somewhat broader way it might be put as fol-
lows. In proportion as any group of men are treated like
human beings they wiU act like human beings. Such pro-
vision for decent sanitaries, for good wash rooms and for
locker rooms, such as is found in many modern plants,
is based on that theory. They are considered as cost
cutting propositions.
The Managerial Problem. — ^As in the other cases, the
managerial problem for a foreman is to do what he can to
improve conditions as to sanitation. Of course, in an old
plant he cannot do a great deal in many cases, but he can
at least do whatever he can do within the limits of his job
to see that things are kept as decent as possible.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^As just suggested, ia most
cases a foreman cannot, as a rule, do much to change things
very radically except perhaps through recommendations, but
there are some things that he can do within the limits of his
job if he feels that he has any responsibilities for the sanitary
conditions in his department. For one thing he can generally
see to it that sanitaries are kept clean and sweet. A coat
of miU white or of whitewash wiU sometimes improve matters
a lot. In many cases, if he cares to take the trouble, he can
educate certain classes of help to treat better accommoda-
tions decently. Much defacing of walls, obscene scribblings,
etc., can be cut out in many cases by making the place decent
and educating people to keep it decent.
SATISFACTION 369
The assumption that is often made that many classes of
help are so naturally dirty and ignorant that they will not
respond to better conditions is now regarded as incorrect by
many people, and a good many concerns in recent years
have had belief enough in the newer ideas to put their money
into it.
Of course, but little can be brought up here except such
general suggestions as have been made above. It is up to
each foreman to decide whether he has managerial and super-
visory responsibilities along these lines, and if he decides that
he has, he must do whatever he can by suggestion, recom-
mendation or action to improve matters.
Physical Comfort. — A second change in ideas has been
with regard to the physical comfort of the operating force.
In the olden days it was considered all right for a worker to
go home covered with dirt. "If he wanted to wash up, he
could do it when he got home." As in the case of sanitation
the newer ideas hold that reasonable provision for comfort
and convenience pays. More modern plants provide good
wash rooms, locker rooms, cafeterias where men can eat
decent food in some degree of comfort. All these things are
regarded now by modem thinkers along these lines as good
business, and, as in the case of sanitation, many concerns have
backed this idea with their money in putting up newer build-
ings or additions to their plants.
The Managerial Problem. — So far as a foreman has any
managerial problem here, it is to do whatever he can to help
to improve conditions.
Dealing vnth the Problem. — Since, as a rule, matters of
this sort call for authority outside of the foreman's job, as a
rule, he cannot do much except cooperate with the manage-
ment in whatever may be done. In some cases he can do some-
thing himself. Some foremen have found it possible to pro-
vide some sort of wash rooms whert there were none at all.
Some have been able to make a place where men could eat
at noon under better conditions than alongside the machines
or out in the yard. They have, at all events, recognized the
360 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
modem ideas as to their responsibilities for taking care of
their men and have done what they could.
The General Condition of the Shop. — ^There is a great
difference between different shop and work rooms as to the
general conditions. Some shops are kept clean, neat and
orderly: others are dirty, things lie around "any old way."
They are "messy." As a rule, this condition of neatness or
messiness does not seem to have much to do with the character
of the work carried on. Some iron foundries are neat : some
departments in garment factories are dirty and messy. The
condition of shops in this matter is largely a reflection of the
attitude of the foreman towards these matters.
Now a dirty, messy shop or department almost always
means increased cost in a great number of ways. It' increases
danger of damage to stock: it is liable to be the cause of
excess depreciation of tools and equipment. Such things are
self evident. It also affects morale. Almost any group of
workers will work better in a place that is kept fairly clean
and neat.
Cost Elements. — The cost elements are so evident here
that none of them are suggested.
Dealing with the Problem. — This again is so plain that
it needs no development. Such matters almost always fall
entirely within the limits of a foreman's job and he can have
a decent or an untidy shop just as he prefers.
Welfare Work vs. Direct Cost Control Through Work-
ing Conditions. — Nearly all industrial concerns give a good
deal of attention to what is commonly called welfare work,
and it is desirable that a foreman should be able to distinguish
between what can properly be called welfare work and what
is really "good business" from the direct cost control stand-
point. Within the last few years more and more attention
has been directed toward the effect of the mental attitude of
men on absenteeism and labor loss. More and more it has
been possible to point out a direct connection between certain
causes and their effects on the mental attitude of the men.
For example, there is to-day no question but what decent
sanitary arrangements actually directly affect turnover and
that decent attractive wash rooms and locker facilities have
SATISFACTION 36X
the same effect. Nobody guesses now that these things affect
turnover. We know it. There are a good many things which
people still think have a value, but where the direct connection
between those things and increased turnover cannot be di-
rectly shown. For example, an industrial concern puts in a
moving picture theater, the general idea being that it is going
to make men more willing to stay with the concern because it
affords a means of recreation of a good character. The argu-
mept might be something like this: If these men can go to
good moving picture shows where they can take their wives
and families, it is going to prove an additional attraction to
keep them in the neighborhod, hence they will be more likely
to stay with the concern. Nobody can prove at present just
how such a proposition affects the turnover; the reasoning
appears to be sound, but we have, for example, no case on
record where a man has refused to change his job because the
concern for whom he was working maintained a moving pic-
ture show. The same thing may be said of a number of other
activities, such as the promotion of athletics, development of
club-houses, the organization of a band or orchestra, or even
the providing of certain forms of educational courses.
For the purposes of these notes, the item Welfare Work
will be considered as referring to things which are done with
the general purpose of promoting the stability of the work-
ing force by indirect methods but where the direct relation
of those things to decreased turnover cannot be directly estab-
lished. Where the direct relation can be shown such work
ceases to be welfare work and becomes good business practice.
If a foreman has a responsibility in connection with absentee-
ism and turnover and labor loss, he therefore has a responsi-
bility for those things which affect turnover and labor loss
as they affect the attitude of mind of the working force. He
may have an acting responsibility, or he may have a recom-
mending responsibility, or he may have both, but if he entirely
neglects this responsibility point so far as good business
practice is concerned in his own department and so far as
cooperating with any welfare work that may be undertaken,
he has to that extent increased his production cost.
CHAPTER XXI
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
AS HUMAN FACTOR ELEMENTS
Preliminary. — ^From the supervisory standpoint the mat-
ter of orders, directions and suggestions has already been
taken up in Chapters XIII and XIV, so far as their use
as one means of dealing with information goes. In those
chapters it was stated that the question of the handling of
orders, directions and suggestions from the human factor
side would be taken up in the human factor block. This
chapter, therefore, suggests some points in relation to the
managerial problem of using these three possible methods of
giving information to best advantage from the human
factor side.
The Nature of the Problem. — ^A foreman or other super-
visor almost always has a choice between directing, ordering
and suggesting. According to the degree to which he makes
eiFective use of these possibilities he can considerably affect
human factor costs. Therefore, he has a managerial prob-
lem as to choosing wisely between ordering, directing
and suggesting.
Orders, Directions, Suggestions. — Since these terms are
often confused and in practice are often used in the same
sense, it is worth while to point out the distinction be-
tween them.
An order is essentially a military term and, strictly speak-
ing, implies implicit obedience. Directions are usually given
to men in connection with their work, and the term is dis-
tinctly civilian. In a production plant orders generally refer
to some phase of administration executive work, as when the
general manager orders that there shall be no smoking in the
plant ; directions refer to operating, as when a foreman tells
362
ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 363
a man to perform a certain operation a certain way. Both
terms carry with them the implication of authority, but
orders mean more telling what to do and directions how to
do it. A truck driver might be ordered to take a load of
freight from Philadelphia to New York but directed as to
his route and method of delivery. In practice the two terms
are often used in the same sense, but there is a distinction
worth bearing in mind.
As distinguished from orders or directions, suggestions
carry an entirely different meaning. A suggestion is made
under such conditions that it "helps out," but the person to
whom suggestions are made may or may not follow them.
When one man says to another : "I would suggest doing it this
way," the understanding is that the man who has the respon-
sibility of doing the job, if he adopts the suggestion, does it
because he thinks that it will help him. He uses his own judg-
ment in adopting or rejecting the suggestion, and he has a
right to do it. A man does not give up any responsibility for
using his own judgment by acting on a suggestion. When he
acts on an order he has no responsibility except to execute
that order correctly and intelligently.
Knowing When to Use Orders, When to Make Sugges-
tions, and When to Give Directions. — ^A good manager uses
orders, suggestion, and directions as tools to accomplish some
particular ends in getting managerial results. Just as for
some kinds of work a good workman uses one kind of a tool
and for others he uses a different one, a good manager will
use an order to accomplish one end, a direction or set of direc-
tions for another, and suggestions for another. By exercis-
ing good judgment based on his experience with men he will
know which of the three tools will accomplish the end best
desired ; and if he has had the proper kind of experience and
possesses the knack of dealing with men from the human
factor side he can control the cost of production which goes
with these human factors as already taken up.
The Characteristics of Orders. — The following can be
said to be characteristics of an order :
364 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
1. It clearly sets up and emphasizes the distinction be-
tween the superior and the subordinate.
2. It relieves the subordinate of any responsibility except
to carry out the order as given, or at least to accomplish ex-
actly the results that the order is intended to accomplish.
3. It keeps all final responsibility in the hands of the
superior. If, as a result of giving a wrong order that is
correctly and intelligently obeyed, damage results, the
superior and not the subordinate is to blame.
The Characteristics of Directions. — The following can be
said to be the characteristics of a direction :
1. It does not so sharply emphasize the distinction_be-
tween the superior and the subordinate.
2. It implies that the subordinate is assumed to use some
discretion in securing the intended results (doing the job),
provided the job is done right.
3. It still leaves most of the responsibility with the supe-
rior but puts some responsibility onto the subordinate as to
just how minor details are to be carried out.
The Characteristics of Suggestions. — Suggestions are
quite distinct from either orders or directions. The follow-
ing can be said to be the characteristics of suggestion :
1. It does not set up the relation of superior and
subordinate.
2. It puts all responsibihty onto the subordinate.
3. The superior. In making a suggestion, assumes no
responsibility.
Some Illustrations. — Some illustrations may make these
distifactions somewhat clearer. Take the case of the mailing
of a letter from an office. An executive calls the office boy
and says to him, "Take this letter to the post office right
away and send it by registered mail." That is an order.
Suppose, instead, he said to his stenographer, "Miss Smith,
will you see that this letter is sent at once by registered mail?"
That is a direction. Again, suppose that another executive
calls on the phone and says, "Jim, don't you think that it
would be a good idea to wire that party instead of writing
ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 365
him?" and Jim says, "No, I'm going to send him a letter by
registered mail," that is a case where a suggestion was offered
and not acted upon by the person responsible for getting
the job done.
In shops employing high grade mechanics it is not un-
common for a foreman to make suggestions as to how a job
might be done but it is understood that the expert workman,
as the man responsible for doing the job right, need not use
those suggestions unless he approves of them. Under such
conditions, where the foreman was an expert workman him-
self before he became a foreman there may be a consultation
as to the best way of doing some job in which suggestions are
made both ways without the superior-subordinate thought
coming in at all. It is just a case of two experts discussing
a problem.
The Order of Progression. — ^What may be called the
order of progression as regards authority exercised by the
superior and the distribution of responsibility between the
superior and the subordinate is as follows :
1. Orders.
2. Directions.
3. Suggestions.
The Managerial Use of Orders, Directions and Sugges-
tions.— Evidently in many cases there can be a choice between
the use of orders, directions and suggestions in carrying on
the work, and if cost elements come into play, cost can be
aifected by the degree to which, in any given case, the best
choice is made between them. Since there is no question but
what, at least in many cases cost elements do come in, this
point is worth consideration by all foremen.
Cost Elements.— "Cases vary so much that the cost ele-
ments here are difficult to state in any but the most general
terms. Those most likely to affect the situation might be :
1. Job pride.
2. Self-respect.
3. Interest.
4. Sense of responsibility.
366 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
from the standpoint of the subordinate and from the stand-
point of the superior.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem may
be put in this way :
To get the job done right using direct orders as little
as possible.
Dealing with the Problem. — This is entirely a matter of
judgment. In general, in proportion as a man's job pride,
his self-respect and his sense of responsibility can be appealed
to cost is reduced, as has already been pointed out. The more
that necessary information is put up to him in such a way
that the implication is that he has no brains, does not know
his job, can't be trusted and is not assmned to have any
judgment, costs go up. On the other hand, if jobs are not
done right, costs go up still more. Dealing with this prob-
lem is almost entirely a case of using the best judgment,
taking the special situation into consideration, and no rule
can be given. A few points may, however, be of sugges-
tive value.
It is undoubtedly true that whenever a superior substi-
tutes directions or suggestions for orders he takes a certain
risk because, to a greater or less extent, he puts responsibihty
on the subordinate. Some men, on this account, never dare
to depart from the practice of conducting all work by direct
orders. They either do not realize the cost value of this
method of procedure or they figure that this cost wiU be less
than the cost of work incorrectly done. Other men when they
think that it is safe to do so, substitute directions and even
sometimes suggestions for direct orders, and figure that they
save money by doing so. The real managerial problem in
such cases is, therefore, to be able to determine when it will
pay to direct or suggest instead of order. This will depend
on a number of conditions, some of which are taken up below.
One point that may affect the situation is the grade of the
job. In highly skilled trades the trade custom puts much
more responsibility on the mechanic than in low grade jobs.
Under such conditions, where the workman is known to be
ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 367
competent he can often be directed rather than ordered, job
pride and trade respect be promoted and no risk taken. It
is often assumed that in the case of low-grade jobs this situ-
ation never exists on account of the grade of the job and of
the class of workers employed on them. This is true in many
cases, so far as the situation goes, but the reason as com-
monly given is not always the true reason. But the condi-
tion as noted is due to other reasons, some of which are
given below.
One reason is that, in many cases, on jobs of this char-
acter, the workers have never been properly instructed : they
don't really know their jobs and the foreman knows it, so he
does not dare to work except by the use of precise orders.
A second reason is that many of these jobs are so highly
specialized that there is only one way of doing the job any-
way ; no judgment or intelligence comes in, so there would be
no advantage in using anything except orders.
A third reason is that it is often assumed that the class
of help employed on this class of work have no job pride or
"trade pride" anyway and so there is no use in considering
the matter from that angle. This assumption is not true in
all cases by any means, but it is often the reason why a fore-
man win stick to ordering alone under such conditions. Ex-
perience has shown that many classes of help, under good
managerial conditions, have job pride and "trade pride," as
in the case of the shipyard already used for an illustration.
The General Condition. — This much can be safely said :
Under ordinary conditions directions rather than orders have
a greater cost reducing value than is often supposed. Direc-
tions can be used in many cases to advantage instead of or-
ders, where the conditions are such that satisfaction and
interest will be .promoted and the job will still be done right.
The information can be conveyed as exactly, and the other
advantages retained.
E^ch Case an Individual One. — In considering the rela-
tive value of orders and directions, each case must be taken
by itself. For example, a competent reliable employee gets a
368 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
job that is a little different from those that he has been
working on. If he is given orders as to the necessary modifi-
cations, his job pride and his "trade pride" are affected, and
this could be safely avoided by using directions instead. In
such a case, "Guess you'd better do it this way, don't you
think," wiU save cost as against "Do it this way and no
back talk."
The Matter of Suggesitions. — The matter of the man-
agerial use of suggestions brings up other points. In general,
the less the difference in authority and the more the subordi-
nate is assumed to be able to do the job, the more suggestions
wiU come in. For example, one foreman might suggest to
another but he would never order. Probably as between a
foreman and his immediate superior there would be, under
good cooperative conditions, a good deal of suggesting in-
stead of ordering or directing.
The same general situation would hold as between a fore-
man and the members of his operating force. With a thor-
oughly competent man, proud of his ability, there might be
many cases where suggestion would be a good man-
agerial device. '
Suggestions are the utility tool in a manager's kit for
having certain things accomplished in regard to orders, etc.
In proportion as a foreman can suggest to his force what he
wants in such a way that they feel that they really are doing
something about it themselves, he can get things done much
more easily. These suggestions should be carefully handled,
however, and only made when some actual need for them
arises. Indiscriminate suggestions can very easily cause the
men to resent them, and very often cause confusion where the
need was for clear-cut action. Only the experience and judg-
ment of the foreman will help him in this regard, and the
intent of these notes is to direct his thought to using sugges-
tions when they will be effective.
In the above discussion no attempt has been made to teU
any foreman when he should use directions or suggestions in
carrying on his work. He must decide those points for him-
ORDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 369
self. The general statements as made may, however, have a
value as suggesting responsibilities and getting him interested
in this managerial problem. Probably there are no depart-
ments where directions and even suggestions cannot be used to
some extent in place of direct orders, and, as a result, interest
and satisfaction be promoted and, as a result, cost reduced.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PART VII
IiEADEHSHIF
1. A foreman is popular with his men because he is a
" good mixer." Does this mean that he is a good
leader.'' Why.?
2. A foreman is noted for being quick tempered and for
" blowing up " easily and often bawling out his men when
they don't deserve it. He is always sorry for it afterwards
and tries to straighten things out. Can he be a good
leader? Why.?
3. A general foreman is very arbitrary in dealing with
his subordinates. He is the type of man that "wants no
excuses." He is square. Can he be a leader for his
subordinates? Why?
4. A foreman in a certain plant was noticed as having
his men continually coming to him for advice about their
private affairs. He advised them as to investing their
money, fixed up rows between husband and wife, etc. Did
this situation increase or decrease his position as a leader
of his men? Why?
6. Can a man be a leader of his team and be a strong
disciplinari an ? Why ?
6. A certain foreman was noted as a " driver." He
got more work out of his men than any other foreman in the
plant where he was employed. He was absolutely square,
in all his dealings with his men but would have nothing to
do with them outside of plant business. Is he likely to be
a leader? Why?
84
370 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
7. If you were talking with another foreman about how
he handled his men what would you notice in deciding whether
he was or was not a good leader? Why?
8. Win being " easy on discipline " tend to increase
leadership? Why?
9. A certain foreman is " snappy." AU of his orders
are given with a " punch." He accepts no excuses for poor
work if it is the fault of the man but is ready to take the
blame if he is to blame. He never " passes the Buck " to a
man when things go wrong and he is called on the carpet
for it. Could such a man be a good leader? Why?
10. Will being personally familiar with workmen inter-
fere with good leadership? Why?
11. Can a foreman who does not plan his work in advance
be a good leader? Why?
12. Can a, man who is not personally known to his men
make a good leader? Why?
13. Would you say that a team was well or poorly led
in the following cases ?
a. The members of a team never know how the fore-
man is going to come back on a slip. One day he says :
" All right, don't do it again," the next day he may
raise a big row about the same thing. Does this indicate
good leadership?
b. The men have no confidence in the foreman; it
is common talk among them that " Bill never knows
what he is going to do next." What sort of leader-
ship is indicated here?
c. The men feel that all the foreman wants of them
is to get the last ounce of work out of them.
d. The men say among themselves : " Its no use
going to the foreman about anything, you never get
anything but a call down."
e. A man comes up to a foreman and says : " How
should this job be done?" The foreman comes back
OBDERS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 371
with " Well, how do you think that it ought to be
done?" They have a discussion on it. Under the same
conditions the foreman teUs the man just how the job
should be done. Which condition indicates the best
leadership conditions? Why?
f. An emergency comes up and the foreman evi-
dently does not know just what to do because he has
not planned to deal with that special emergency because
it has never happened before. ( This might be a prema-
ture explosion in dynamiting a furnace.) The result
is a great deal of confusion, aimless running about, etc.
What conditions as to leadership are indicated here?
g. Men say among themselves that : " It don't make
a bit of difference whether you make a special effort to
do a good job or not; the foreman never knows if
you do."
h. In the gang of a certain foreman the men are
continually trying to get transfers to jobs that are no
better in some other department. Does this indicate
that the foreman in question is a poor leader?
i. On an emergency job it is necessary to push
especially hard. Then men resent this and lay down
on the job as much as they can without being caught.
Does this indicate poor leadership?
INTEREST AND INTEREST FACTORS
WHAT INTEREST EACTOES COME INTO PLAY IN THESE CASES?
1. A teacher teUs a boy that if he doesn't study his les-
sons he will not get promoted.
2. Anyone trespassing on this property will be prose-
cuted according to law.
3. Anyone defacing the walls of this sanitary will be
immediately discharged.
4. Piecework.
6. A profit-sharing plan.
6. A ball in a show window that runs round and round
372 THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB
without any visible connection with anything under the
glass plate on which it runs.
7. A plant athletic team.
8. Calling a man iato consultation on how a job is to
be done.
9. Putting up a prize for the department having the
fewest number of accidents.
10. On the Santa Fe R. R. giving a flag to the section
having the most clean and good looking stations.
11. Firing a man for impertinence.
12. Hanging a man for murder.
13. Giving a chromo with a pound of tea.
14. Posting pictures of the result of not using guards
on machines.
15. Setting up the production records of different
departments on a public bulletin board.
16. Bawling a man out in public for a mistake in follow-
ing directions.
17. Taking a new man through the department where-
he is to work and giving him a general idea of the different
jobs that are carried on in that department before he is
started in training on the job that he is to work on.
18. In some plants it is the custom to close the gates
when the whistle blows and not open them for fifteen minutes
so that a man who is tardy from one to fifteen minutes is
docked for fifteen minutes. What interest factor is used here?
19. In one large shipyard the General Manager makes
it a point to always know of any particularly good piece of
work and to personally praise it to the men who did it.
What interest factor comes into play here?
20. How might departmental pride be utilized as an
interest factor by a foreman who knew how?
THE MANAGEaiAL HANDLING OF INTEREST
1. A foreign born workman, recently come to this coun-
try, is taken on and put onto a job. He speaks only " shop
ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS S73
English." His work is poor because he does not seem to
give enough attention to the details of putting his job
over in good shape. He has been properly instructed. He
seems willing and his general qualifications seem to fit well
to the job requirements. Physical condition reported as all
right. How would you go at this case to promote interest?
What interest factor would you try first.-' Why.^" If that
failed what interest factor would you try next.? Why?
Would it be economy to keep this man on the job and
try and rouse his interest or to transfer him to another job
or fire him? Why?
2. A man has been employed for a year on one job
and has been doing fair work. His physical condition is
good but he seems to have lost his interest. He is known
to have told other men that the plant was a " bum plant
to work for " and that the foreman was no good. He listens
to the foreman when reprimanded but goes on in the same
uninterested way. How would you handle this case? Should
an attempt be made to save this man to the plant or should
he be got rid of under normal conditions ? Why? If it were
decided to try and save him what interest factors should be
tried out first? Why? The man is a Russian who has been
in the country five years and speaks good English.
3. A gang of men have developed the habit of knocking
off before the whistle blows. They have been good workmen
up to this time. They all speak fair English. There has
been a recent wage cut in the plant. How would you attempt
to handle this case along interest lines? What interest fac-
tor would you try first? Why? Would it be good business
to try and arouse interest in this case? Why?
4. A story gets around the plant that there is going to
be another cut in wages but that only the workmen will be
cut. How could the interest reducing effects of such a rumor
be counteracted if:
874 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
a. The cut was to apply to everybody in the plant.
b. The rumor was not true.
c. It was true as reported.
In cases a, b, and c what interest factors could be best
used and how could they be used to the best advantage?
5. It is desired to cut out obscene scribbling in the sani-
taries which has become an epidemic. How would you deal
with such a case? What interest factors would you try and
use first? Second? Why?
6. A shift is made from piecework to day work in the
case of certain men. As a result their production falls off
since they feel that there is no more for* them on good than
on poor production. How deal with such a case? What
interest factors should be tried and in what order? Just how
would you use these interest factors in this case?
7. A man thought he was sure of being transferred to a
more desirable job but somebody else got it when the time
came. No promises had been made and in fact, this man had
no real reason to believe that he was to get the job. As a
result he becomes uninterested, teUs other men that there is
no us in trying for a better job anyway, and falls off in his
own work. Normally he is a good man, American bom, and
has been employed in the plant for ten years. Is it worth
while to try and get him interested again? Why? How
would you go at it? What interest factor would you use
first in this case? Why?
8. A man was heard to say to other men " It don't make
any difference to us whetheri we turn out more or less prod-
uct. Our pay goes on just the same and the less that we
do the more jobs for the gang." The man is an old employee
and has been a good worker. How deal with this case?
What interest factor could be used to the best advantage
here? Why?
9. A man has been a good worker and suddenly his inter-
est in his work seems to drop off. He gives no reason for it
when asked what the matter is. Some days before this hap-
ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 375
pened he was in a row with the foreman over some small
matter relating to the quality of the work that he was turn-
ing out and the foreman had told him that a man of his
intelligence and experience ought to know how to do a good
job. What might be the cause of this falling off in inter-
est? How might it be dealt with on this supposition? Why
deal with it in that way? Should the policy adopted in this
case be to save the man to the plant or to get rid of
him? Why?
10. How would you go to work to secure a greater inter-
est in holding up quality with a gang of men who were old
employees and who knew how to do a good job? Why would
you use the method that you give? What would be the
interest factors that you would use? Why use these par-
ticular ones?
11. The quality on a certain set of operations falls off
with no change in the make-up of the gang. The foreman
teUs all the men that unless the quality comes up they \^ill
aU lose their jobs. Is this the best way to treat such a
case? How could it be handled any better? Why?
12. What are some of the ways by which a foreman
can cut down interest without knowing it?
13. How can dissatisfaction be distinguished from lack
of interest?
14. A new man has made a good start but has gone to
pieces. Says that he cannot hold down the job. He is all
right physically and is well fitted for the job. How would
you deal with such a case if the man were American? If
foreign bom? If a new arrival in this country?
15. In what ways can the personality of a foreman
affect the interest of his men? Is a foreman who is a good
mixer likely to get and hold more interest than one who
I is not? Why?
16. A man has no evidence that he has any qualities that
would fit him to hold down a better job that is in the line
of his work. Under such conditions, should a. foreman
376 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
encourage him to try to fit himself for the better job on
the chance that, under the spur of ambition, he may develop
such additional qualities that he can fit himself for the
job? Why?
17. A foreman in a certain plant had told a man that
if he would leave his present job and come in with that plant
he could get a job with him at a certain rate. After this
man had thrown up his old job the foreman found that he
had promised the man a rate that was higher than he could
pay and that was higher than a number of old workmen on
the same job were getting. It was an honest mistake on
the foreman's part. How should this case be handled so as
to reduce dissatisfaction to the minimum aU around?
OKDERS, DIBECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
1. A foreman in making his rounds notices that a man
is trying to handle a piece of stock that is too heavy to
handle alone and not have a chance of breakage. He says
to the man, " That piece is too heavy for you to handle
alone, get somebody to help you." Anything the matter
with that order?
2. A man right out of the Ford factory is employed in
a Ford service station which also takes other makes of cars.
A Dodge comes in with a broken drive shaft. The foreman
orders this man to take out the broken shaft. Is that
order all right?
3. A man has been employed as a helper on a job and
is promoted to a worker on that job. When he goes onto
the job for the first time the foreman simply tells him to
" go to it." Is that foreman taking any chance?
4. What is the easiest way in which a foreman can fall
down in giving an order?
5. A man has been employed as a riveter in structural
steel work. He was a good man on the job. During the
war he was taken on by a shipyard. The first day that he
ORDEBS. DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 877
went to work the foreman ordered him to " rivet up those
intercostals." Anything the matter with, that order?
6. A man has been employed in a cabinet-making shop
for several years. He is a fine workman. He is given a
very fine piece of cabinet work to do that calls for doing
a job that he never has happened to strike before and which
calls for a dovetail joint where the ordinary method would
be to use a half lap joint. The foreman knows this. Which
would be the better, to say, " BUI, make that joint with a
dovetail " or, " Bill, don't you think that joint had better
be made with a dovetail.?" As a matter of manage-
ment? Why?
7. What is liable to be the effect of a direct order on a
competent workman? Why?
8. Can directions be made as clear as direct orders?
Why?
9. A foreman gives the following order. " One of you
men get that box out of that truck." If there is some
delay whose fault is it?
10. A man is quite new on the job. The foreman sees
him handling a piece of stock in such a way that there is
danger of breakage. The foreman says, " Don't break
that!" What is the matter with that order? If the piece
was broken who would be to blame?
11. A truck load of material is properly marked for
delivery. The foreman orders the driver to deliver it " as
marked." The driver fails to deliver it where it should be
delivered. Who is to blame?
SATISFACTION
1. One man in a group is really entitled to a higher rate.
The foreman has the authority to recommend rate changes.
He refuses to act in this case because he considers that an
increase in rate in the case of this man would cause dissatis-
faction in the case of others on the same jobs. Is this good
management? Why?
378 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
2. A plant is located at a little distance from a large
city. It wishes to hold the operating force and therefore
puts up a movie theater. What satisfaction factor, if any,
was intended to be brought into play here? Was this good
management? Why?
3. A foreman has the reputation of recommending trans-
fers to better jobs on the basis of taking care of people that
he likes. Whether this is true or not, would it affect satis-
faction among the members of the working' force. Assuming
that it was not true how could such a situation be effec-
tively handled?
4. A man is suspected of stealing and is accused in pri-
vate, he denies the charge. It subsequently appears that
another man stole the material. Would this affect satis-
faction? How could such a situation be best dealt with?
5. Are you of the opinion that any transfers to more
desirable jobs should be based strictly on merit and that this
policy should be a matter of general knowledge? Why?
6. In a heating room where the temperature ran around
90 degrees a foreman saw to it that the men had ice water
on tap all the time. He did not pay for the ice water but did
do the work of collecting ten cents a week from each man and
seeing that the ice was delivered, pail and cup provided, etc.
Was this better management from the standpoint of satis-
faction than getting the plant to provide the ice water
free? Why?
7. A new man has trouble in getting his job right; a
foreman sees that he is in trouble and takes special pains to
instruct him. Would this promote interest or satis-
faction? Why?
8. Of two foremen, foreman A takes pains to instruct
a new man so completely the first time that when he is put
onto his own he can do a first-class job from the start.
Foreman B on the contrary gives enough instruction to give
a general idea as to how the job is done and then picks up
the loose ends as the man goes along on his own. Which of
ORDERS, DIRECTIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 879
these two methods is likely to produce the more satis-
faction? Why?
9. In your opinion is quitting of good men caused more
by lack of interest or dissatisfaction?
10. Could a foreman get good interest and still have
much dissatisfaction? How?
11. Which is the more difficult, to secure interest or to
secure satisfaction? Why?
12. How could you tell whether a man was dissatisfied
or uninterested?
13. What is the effect of, a piece of plant gossip as to
a reduction of force on interest? On satisfaction? Which
will it affect most? Why?
14. In your opinion which will make for the more satis-
faction, good tools and machines with an old type building,
poor sanitary arrangements, no wash rooms, etc., or a build-
ing of modern type, good wash rooms, etc., but worn out
equipment and poor tools?
15. Does the operating of a restaurant by a plant which
sells the food at a loss promote more satisfaction than
where the food is sold at a high enough price to pay
expenses? Why?
16. A certain plant has secured a building and has fitted
it up as a club-house for its employees. The plant has borne
the expense of this but the club has dues and is supposed to
pay its own running expenses. Another plant suggested to
its employees that a club-house might be a good thing and
told them that if they wanted to form a regular incorporated
club and build a club-house on a bond issue the Company
would underwrite the bonds. Which method is likely to
promote more satisfaction and which would tend more to keep
the turnover down? Why?
17. In your opinion will poor tools and equipment create
more dissatisfaction with men working on a piece rate, on
a bonus, or on standing pay? Why?
18. A foreman Gomes' into his department with a grouch
380 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
on and as a result finds fault with some work that is good
enough to be accepted and which he has accepted before.
Will this affect interest or satisfaction?
19. Is concealed dissatisfaction more likely to exist
among some foreign born people that among American
born people? Under such conditions what can a foreman do?
20. Several good men quit within a few days of each
other and when asked for a reason merely say that "they
thought that they wovdd change to another plant." The
jobs that they have been on are not bad jobs and there is
no reason to suppose that in shifting to another plant they
will be getting any higher rate. What would you do in
such a case?
21. The equipment in a department is in such bad shape
that the men cannot do a good job with it and are dissatis-
fied with reason. The foreman tries to get things improved
but is told by the G. M. that the financial conditions are
such that no money can be put into repairs or replacements ;
the department must get along as well as it can. How
should such a case be dealt with?
PART VIII
THE DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE TEAM
RELATIONS BLOCK
(COOPERATION)
CHAPTER XXII
SPECIFIC AND DETAILED RESPONSIBILITIES ON
COOPERATION
A. COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES
Preliminary. — This chapter takes up a number of the
more probable cooperative responsibilities that a foreman
may find on making a responsibility lay-out for his job. Of
course, there are no cases where a foreman has no cooperative
responsibilities, but whether the particular ones taken up in
this chapter come into his job is a matter foV him to decide.
Of course, chances for cooperating will present themselves
all the time to any man who wants to cooperate, while the man
who does not want to do so wiU never see any chance at all.
Such possibilities as are taken up here are therefore to
be regarded as given merely for their suggestive value.
Some of these possible responsibilities are taken up in
the following paragraphs.
What is Meant by Cooperation. — Everybody knows, in a
general way, what is meant by cooperating and yet the term is
somewhat difficult to define. It might be expressed by saying
that we cooperate when we "help the other fellow out when
we don't have to," that is, cooperation lies outside of the
duties that are defined and required. As the term is used
here, we might say that cooperation means going outside of
the strict line of duty to help somebody else for the general
good of the team.
Cooperative Responsibilities. — ^What is cooperation?
Cooperation means working together and therefore means
working for the general object for which any group is
brought together. As already stated, it means "team play"
as contrasted with "playing a lone hand," Since any fore-
383
384 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
man, as repeatedly stated in this book, is a member of a tee^m,
he cannot play a lone hand and do his full duty. The follow-
ing paragraphs deal with some possible cooperative responsi-
bilities on the foreman's job. The corresponding cost ele-
ments and managerial problems are discussed in the
next chapter.
Cooperation Works Both Ways. — Cooperation works
both ways in the sense that any member of th^ organization
can cooperate with any other members. A foreman can
cooperate with the working force and the working force
can cooperate with the foreman. In fact, whenever two
or more people get together to put anything across we
have cooperation.
While it is true that cooperation can come about between
any two members of the "team" or between any number of
members, the majority of the more common specific coopera-
tive responsibilities can be classified under the follow-
ing heads :
(1) Cooperation with General Superiors.
(2) Cooperation with Immediate Superiors.
(3) Cooperation with Other Foremen.
(4) Cooperation with the Working Force.
(5) Securing cooperation from the Working Force.
(6) Cooperating with special' departments.
These are considered under the above classification headings
in the following paragraphs :
B. COOPEBATIVE EESPONSIBILITIES WITH GENERAL SUPEEIOBS
Giving Plant Information. — One of the most important
ways in which a foreman can cooperate with the General Man-
agement is by seeing that a considerable amount of what may
be called "plant information" is correctly passed on to the
members of the departmental working force. For example, in
the majority of cases, new employees coming into the plant
are left to find out as well asxhey can where they get their
pay, whether it comes in checks or in cash, how often pay-
ment is made, where pay checks can be cashed, and so on. If
RESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 885
lunch rooms, baths or other special comfort provisions are
provided new employees can be told what they are and where
they are. If there is free medical service, or a hospital in the
plant where free medical attention can be secured, information
as to where and when such service can be secured would be
another form of "plant information" that a foreman can pass
along, and, according to the special conditions as they exist
in a given plant, a large number of such items of "plant
information" can be passed out to new men and, in addition,
from time to time various items of plant information can be
passed out to the whole departmental working force.
By making a practice of doing this, a foreman can coop-
erate in a very effective way with the General Management
and where there are opportunities to do it, this specific
responsibility should be included in the specific responsi-
bility lay-out.
Not "Knocking." — One way in which any foreman can
cooperate with the General Management is by not "knock-
ing." As a member of the "team" it never does any good to
knock the team or any part of it, especially if the "knocker"
is in a supervisory relation to other members of that team,
and they hear the knocking.
In most cases this sort of thing does not mean anything
except a temporary "blow up" on the part of the foreman,
but if he feels that he has responsibilities to the Management
he will be careful not to "blow up" with regard to the short-
comings of the "Office" on the floor of the shop, or any-
where else, where he can be heard by the members of the
operating force.
All foremen in their actual practice realize the undesir-
ability of this sort of thing, and it is spoken of here chiefly
because most foremen, while they do not knock the manage-
ment in public, at least, do not think of this item as a co-
operative responsibility and leave it out of their detailed
lay-out unless their attention is especially called to the mat-
ter. Of course, this is a responsibility that goes with the job
of every member of the team, including the foreman.
iB
386 TEE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
"Standing Up for the Plant." — ^Another way in which a
foreman can cooperate with the General Management is by
standing up for the plant, at least in public. Even though
he feels that the plant is the "poorest equipped in town," or
that the conditions are "rotten," or that the machinery has
"died of old age" and aU the other things that do exist in
many plants, if he feels a cooperative responsibility to the
Management he will refrain from making such comments in
public. In most cases the Management knows the situation
as well or better than anyotie else in the organization and are
more anxious to improve conditions than anyone else : if they
are not, public comment certainly does no good anyway.
The special specific cooperative responsibility is referred
to here for the same reason that "knocking" was discussed.
Not that foreman do not stand up for their plants but be-
cause they seldom think of the matter as being the discharge
of a cooperative responsibility.
"Being a Part of the Organization." — ^This term is hard
to define but its meaning is generally understood. A man who
is "a part of the organization" thinks of his job as a part
of the job of the whole concern, and is ready and willing to
help in any way that he can to improve the work as a whole.
For example, it is the men who are a part of the organiza-
tion that are willing to give time and thought in serving on
special committees, attend and take part in conferences, and
take part in general activities outside of their regular jobs,
and who, in general, "have an eye out" for the good of the
concern as a whole.
Of course, different foremen may have different ideas in
this connection and it is for each one to determine his specific
responsibilities in this matter, but some forms of cooperative
responsibilities of this sort come into the job of practically
all foremen.
Plant Gossip. — It often happens that some incorrect yam
or piece of "plant gossip" gets started which, if not headed
off, will make trouble for the plant. Where a foreman knows
of this (as he usually does) and knows that it is not true
BESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 387
(as is often the case) he can render a great cooperative ser-
vice by heading it oiF at once, since such things grow as they
spread and the longer they run the more trouble they
can make.
For example, a story gets started, with no basis of fact,
that "the plant is going on half time next month" and a lot
of men begin to worry about their jobs. If this gossip is not
checked, it may mean the loss of good men through quitting
to take other jobs as the chance comes. >
Where such a situation comes up and a foreman does not
know the true facts in the case, but knows that there will be
trouble if the gossip is incorrect, it is possible that, at least
in most cases, that a foreman could render a distinct co-
operative service by informing his superior of the situation
as soon as it comes to his attention.
Any specific responsibilities that a foreman considers
belong in his job under this heading should be listed in
the lay-out.
C. COOPEKATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES WITH IMMEDIATE SUPEEIOHS
The same general conditions exist here as in the case of
cooperating with the General Management, only, owing to
the closer relations, there are likely to be more opportunities
for cooperation and they are likely to be of a more de-
tailed character.
D. COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES WITH OTHER FOREMEN
"Appreciating the Other Fellow's Troubles." — One co-
operative responsibility that comes into the job of a fore-
man may be called "appreciating the other fellow's troubles."
A foreman under the pressure of his own work is liable to
forget that another foreman is pushed just as hard and is
worried just as much as he is, and he can cooperate by always
remembering that fact in dealing with other foremen. This
means a certain amount of "give and take" in relations be-
tween departments and a willingness to help out the
other fellow.
Conditions vary so much that this special cooperative re-
888 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sponsibility can only be referred to in a general way, but it
is there and belongs in the specific responsibility lay-out of
all foremen's jobs.
Not "Knocking" Other Departments. — The same state-
ments as made for the General Management and Immediate
Superiors applies here and needs no discussion.
"Playing Fair" with Other Foremen. — ^In the relations
between departments, there are many opportunities for dis-
charging cooperative responsibilities in the way of "playing
fair." For example, cases have been known where one fore-
man "unloaded" ah undesirable man on another foreman by
representing him to be a much better man than he actually
was. This was not playing fair from the cooperative stand-
point. An equally unfair case is "stealing" a good man from
another department. Another case might be in "coraUing"
all the available small tools for one's own department when
doing so would put another department out of business. A
number of other possible cases for cooperation will suggest
themselves to any foreman.
As in the case of all other cooperative responsibilities,
the cases for possible cooperation between foremen will be
different in each plant and so can only be suggested here.
Some sort of responsibilities along this line are sure to come
into the job of any foreman.
Cooperating on Production. — Foremen, whose depart-
ments turn out different parts of the same product, or whose
departments "feed into one another" in any way, as in a
textile mill, or a shoe factory, have many chances for cooper-
ating, such as each foreman on serial production being care-
ful not to hold up the work on the man in advance of him by
not giving him material fast enough, or by not furnishing him
with a product of satisfactory quality.
T, COOPERATIVE EESPONSIBILITIES WITH THE WORKING FOECB
Under any ordinary circumstances, a foreman has specific
responsibilities, both for cooperating with the men under him
and for getting their cooperation. As the team leader, he
can almost always do some things to help the other members
RESPONSIBILITIES ON COOPERATION 389
of the team do their various jobs better, or to make things
easier. For example, in one case, where the working tempera-
ture was of necessity very high, a foreman made special
arrangements so that ice water was always available.
Under many conditions, a foreman can help matters by
taking special pains to see that necessary tools and equip-
ment are available, especially when men are working on con-
tract or on piecework.
For example, in a shipyard, it makes a great difference to
riveters, or chippers and caulkers whether the air is, or is not,
always available and up to pressure and foremen, who, by
all means in their power see to it that air is kept up, cooper-
ate with the workmen more effectively than foremen who do
nothing about it. Where work may be held up by an insuf-
ficient number of small tools, a foreman can cooperate by
doing all that he can to see that a sufficient supply of these
tools are on hand in the tool room.
According to special conditions, a number of possible
specific responsibilities along this line will suggest themselves
and can be included in the responsibility lay-out, and, in
general, can be classified under one of the headings given
on the chart.
The question of responsibility for securing cooperation
from the working force is so largely a question of manage-
ment that it is discussed under that heading in another chap-
ter, and is only noted here.
Cooperative Responsibilities with Special Depart-
ments.— Outside of the direct responsibilities already consid-
ered, there are, in the majority of cases, numerous opportuni-
ties for noting cooperative responsibilities in connection
with special departments where such departments form a
part of the organization. That is, there are a number of
things that a foreman can or cannot do, as he pleases, which,
if he does do, will help these departments to put over their
work in the most effective way.
1. "Helping them along," and
2. "Backing them up."
390 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
A few illustrations may make clearer the sense in which
these terms are used here.
One example of "helping along" would be, in the case of
a safety department, where a foreman took special pains to
see that any safety literature was actually brought to the
attention of the force. As a direct responsibility he may be
expected to receive and distribute it, but he may do this in
such a non-cooperative way that much of its value is lost.
A foreman who feels a cooperative responsibility wiU see to
it that such notices are so posted that they actually come to
the attention of the men : he will even talk to the men about
the matter, or wiU even talk to the force as a whole. That is,
he can go beyond the letter of his direct responsibilities in the
matter. Again, in the case where free medical service is pro-
vided, he can personally see to it that every worker under-
stands about the matter, knows what the service can do and
how to take advantage of it, when the dispensary is open
and so on. If he makes a special point of this, he is assuming
and discharging cooperative responsibilities in this connec-
tion, whereas, if he merely sticks a notice on the bulletin
board, he may have discharged his direct responsibility but
he has not cooperated.
In the same way, a foreman can go beyond the direct
responsibility in "backing up" a special department. For
example, he can, as a matter of direct responsibility, dis-
tribute safety leaflets, or post warning notices, but, if at the
same time he "throws down" the department in talking with
the men, or gives the impression that "it is all foolishness,"
he is not cooperating.
According to the special nature of the organization and
the particular special departments, the specific responsibil-
ities would, of course, vary, but wherever any special depart-
ments exist a number of cooperative responsibilities can be
analyzed out and included in the detailed responsibility lay-
out for the foreman's job.*
* The special case of cooperating with training agencies, inside or out-
side of the plant are discussed in the part on instruction, and should not
be included here.
CHAPTER XXIII
COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS
ON COOPERATION
Preliminary. — It has been pointed out that one of the
general responsibilities of any foreman was for effective co-
operation with other members of the "team" and Chapter
XXII pointed out and discussed some of the more probable
detailed and specific responsibilities under that general head-
ing. As in all other cases any supervisory responsibilities
carry with them corresponding managerial responsibilities
that must be handled with regard to the cost elements that
come into play. This chapter, therefore, takes up some of
the cost elements and managerial problems that have to do
with cooperation as distinguished from the organization re-
sponsibilities as discussed in the last chapter.
Cooperation Works Both Ways. — Cooperation is evi-
dently a mutual proposition. Just as "it takes two to make
a fight," so it takes two to set up effective cooperation. A
cannot cooperate with B unless B is willing, so that coopera-
tion means as much securing cooperation from others as it
means cooperating with others for the general good of
the team.
Why Cooperation Especially Affects the Foreman. — Out
of all the various positions in the organization, a foreman
probably has more opportunity to help or hinder through
good or poor cooperation than any other member of the team,
because he has a position in the organization that places him
between the Management and the working force. On this
account he has more "cooperative contact points" than any
one else. He is in direct contact with the members of the
operating force and has responsibilities to them. He is, on
the other side, in direct contact with his immediate superiors
and has responsibilities to them. He is in direct contact with
391
392 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
other foremen and has many cooperative contact points with
them. In certain cases he represents the Management to the
working force and in others he is the agency through which
other departments must work. The problem as to how he can
render the most eifective cooperation is, therefore, one to
which any foreman may well give careful consideration since
the degree to which he does or does not render effective co-
operation and secure effective cooperation can very seriously
affect the work of the team as a whole.
For example, he must give full cooperation to the men
from whom he takes orders: on the questions of policies he
must not "meddle" but must do all that he can to promote
the best working relations and to make the carrying out of
policies easy and effective, so far as he is expected to con-
tribute to this problem. He must work in harmony with his
fellow foremen and give full cooperation to them in such mat-
ters as suggesting and advising on any matters that will help
the general success of the different departments, as well as
taking in the right way any suggestions or advice that may
come from them. He must secure from his working force that
sort of cooperation that will make his department operate
most effectively by so dealing with them that they are willing
to do all that they can to contribute to the success of the
department, the plant, or the job.
Cooperation a Cost Factor. — Cooperation is considered
here because good or poor cooperation affects cost of pro-
duction in any plant. If, by effective cooperation, errors
can be more quickly "spotted" and corrected, methods can be
improved, more or better work can be done, then lack of
cooperation must mean that operating costs are not as low
as they can be made, so that, in general, the greater the co-
operation all along the line, the lower the costs. For ex-
ample, a foreman of a production department notices that
where the maintenance department is pulling down a building
a lot of boards have been left in the roadway with nails stick-
ing up through them ready to catch a foot or a tire. If he
says to himself, "That is none of my business, it's up to Bill,"
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 393
and, as a result, a workman's foot is damaged by a rusty nail,
and there is a case for compensation or a damage suit, or a
truck is put out of business when it is needed, evidently such a
lack of cooperation has increased cost. Had the foreman in
question gone out of his way to draw Bill's attention to the
matter or in some way got those planks out of the way, it is
equally evident that cost would have been reduced, or, at
least, the chance of increased costs been cut down.
As anotheij' example, foreman A, for some reason, has
adopted such an attitude towards his men that he has failed
to get their cooperation and when a "pinch" comes, he can-
not get out his production as rapidly as is necessary because
his men do not "stand behind him." Foreman B who has
secured more cooperation from his men gets their backing in
the "pinch" and is able "to deliver the goods." Evidently
foreman A has put more cost on the company than foreman
B, and so, to that extent, the latter has done a better cost
cutting job.
Cooperation, therefore, is an important cost factor, each
kind of cooperation setting up its own special cost elements
and managerial problems, some of which are considered in
the following sections.
SECTION I. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON
COOPERATION WITH THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT
Preliminary. — ^Among the possible ways in which a fore-
man can cooperate with the General Management are, as
given on the chart in Appendix A.
1. Giving plant information to workers.
2. Having plant pride.
3. Not "knocking."
4. Heading off incorrect plant gossip.
6. "Being a part of the organization."
And to these may be added as managerial responsibilities :
6. Transmitting general orders intelligently.
7. Knowing when to ask for orders.
8. Carrying out suggestions intelligently.
394 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
9. Being sure that orders are fully understood before
they are acted upon.
Since each of these sets up its own cost elements and man-
agerial problems they are taken up in order in the fol-
lowing paragraphs.
A. GIVING PLANT INrOKMATION TO MEMBERS OF THE WORKING
FORCE
Preliminary. — ^Whenever a new worker comes into the
plant, or even when he is transferred from one department to
another, he must secure certain information somehow. He
may get this information correctly and get it aU, or he may
only get it in part and possibly get that part wrong, accord-
ing to who he gets it from. As pointed out in the list of pos-
sible responsibilities on page 526 one responsibility that is,
in almost all cases, a part of the foreman's job is to see that
such "plant information as is necessary to enable the new
worker to take up and carry on his work and to fit easily
into the organization is passed over to him correctly
and completely.
What is Meant by "Plant Information." — ^As the term is
used here, as indicated in the preceding paragraph, "plant
information does not refer to job knowledge, which, if it has
to be put over is a matter of training as discussed in the
chapters on Instruction, but refers to such information as
will aid a worker who is new to the plant or to the depart-
ment to "fit in" easily and quickly. The exact nature of this
plant information depends, of course, upon the particular
plant or department, and so must be determined by each
foreman for himself, according to the special working condi-
tions, but there is almost always something. Such informa-
tion might include, for example, how often wages are paid,
where they are paid, whether by check or in cash, provision
for accident insurance (if any), for retaining if injured (if
provided by the State law), special departmental rules, spe-
cial opportunities offered by the company in various ways,
free hospital service or medical service and so on, depending
in each case on the special plant and the department.
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 395
Cost Elements on Plant Information. — ^In a general way
it may be said that cost is increased or reduced in proportion
as the "green" worker gets all necessary plant information
and gets it right and not wrong. Some of the more probable
detailed cost elements, however, might be, no matter who gives
him the information, the foreman, the Employment De-
partment, the Welfare Department, etc.
1. Loss of time and aimoyance due to the deliberate giv-
ing of false information by other members, such as the "left
handed monkey wrench," the "round square bar," and so on.
,2. Mistakes due to lack of information, as where a man
is told to get some tool at the tool room but has to "skirmish
around" to find out where the tool room is, how to get his
checks, etc., and often goes to several wrong places before
he finds the right one.
3. Dissatisfaction due to being "run as a greenie,"
4. Apparent hesitation in going at work because of lack
of information where to go to get tools, instructions, stock,
etc., often with more or less of a "row" in consequence.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
evidently is to determine what plant information is necessary
and see that it is put across completely and correctly.
In the case of a foreman this problem may take either
of two forms :
1. It is a part of his job to determine the information
and put it across himself.
2. It is a part of his job to see that it has been put across,
where it has been determined and passed out by somebody else.
Dealing with the Problem. — The first case would come
up where no other agency had this responsibility and would
be most likely to happen in a small shop or where there were
no special departments having this responsibility. The sec-
ond, as is usually the case, where there is an employment
department or a welfare department.
Where the foreman has to do the whole job himself he
must first carefully determine what information is required
and be sure that he has it straight himself and then
896 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
devise ways and means for passing it out effectively
and economically.
The sort of information must be worked out in cooperation
with the other team members that possess some of it (General
Superiors, Immediate Superiors, Other Departments, etc.)
in order that it may be accurate and complete. Since it would
be different for different conditions, this part of the job is
not considered further here.
The effective passing out of the information, whatever it
may be, sets up a different managerial problem, and involves
the whole question of the selection of suitable methods and
devices which is too much to go into in detail here. A few
suggestions may be useful, however. Where the person who
needs plant information can read in any language it has
been found by some concerns that much of this information
can be printed and put into the hands of the new worker.
The great difficulty here has been to put up the information
in such a way that the person who needs it really gets it:
that is, thoroughly understands it. The question of how such
information can be put up in a way that wiU be really service-
able is worth careful consideration and study.
Signs, posters, etc., have also been tried with more or less
success, but, where it can be done there is no question that,
while printed information in proper form is of value, nothing
takes the place at the beginning of direct spoken passing out
of information in such cases. This is good management for
a number of reasons. In the first place depending on printed
stuff is a cold blooded proposition anyway. Any of us who
came into a new job in a new place would feel better if the
man that we were to work imder thought it worth while to
take a little time to "put us wise." Again, if the information
is of sufficient importance to be worth passing out it is worth
while to be sure that it has been really understood. So, for
a number of reasons, it is worth while to give attention and
thought to this particular managerial job and to figure out
ways and means by which it can be done in good shape.
Of course, the above statements are only made as sug-
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 397
gestions : each foreman must work out his own special job in
this connection according to his own particular case, but it
is a problem that is, in most cases, well worth consideration
in conferences.
B. HAVING PLANT PRIDE
Preliminary. — One way in which any foreman can co-
operate with the general management is to have plant pride,
that is, to at least try to get himself into a state of mind
where he is willing to admit that some things in the plant are
as good or better as they are in other plants. Of course,
no plant is perfect or ever wiU be, and some are better than
others, but if a foreman will try to be an optimist (which has
been defined as being able to make pink lemonade out of the
lemons that are handed out to you) rather than a pessimist (a
fellow who chews his quinine pills) he will be giving better co-
operation with the Management and so wiU be cutting costs.
What is Meant by Plant Pride? — ^As the term is used
here, plant pride means feeling that the plant is a decent con-
cern to work for, and, on the whole, being ready to stand up
for it, and, incidentally, being interested in its improvement,
and being willing to say so.
Cost Elements on Plant Pride. — ^In this case it is almost
impossible to set up definite cost elements, but the following
may be suggestive. As between a foreman who has plant
pride and one who has not it might be that :
1. A foreman who believes in the plant would take more
pains to insure satisfactory quantity and quality of product
than a foreman who thought that the plant "was no
good anyhow."
2. If a foreman has no plant pride he is very unlikely to
be able to develop either plant or departmental pride in the
members of his working force. It is practically impossible to
get into other people what you have not yourself.
3. If a man really thinks that the concern for which he
is working is no good he finds that it is practically impossible
to keep up his interest in his own job: in fact, if he really
398 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
feels that way it is a question if he can do a good job anyway.
It is almost impossible to prevent getting into a "Oh ! What's
the use" attitude, with corresponding tendencies to careless-
ness, failure to cooperate and all the other cost elements that
have been discussed.
In fact, if a foreman really thinks that the concern that
he is working for is no good, if he really has no plant pride,
and is not merely "talking through his hat" or "growling"
almost any of the cost elements that are liable to come up
anywhere may come into play to increase cost due to this
cause. If a man does not really believe in the concern that
he works for he cannot really believe in his job, and when
this happens almost anything may happen in connection with
his job.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem here
is for any foreman to develop plant pride so far as he can
under the conditions, and this evidently sets up a problem in
man£|,gement that he must work out for hiinself.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^As just stated, this problem
is one that a man must work out on himself not with regard
to others. How he does it depends, of course, on his special
make-up, and the following is only intended to be suggestive
and to promote discussion.
In the first place, if a man has no plant pride it is a
question whether he has any business to stay on the job,
either for his own good or for the good of the concern. Per-
haps the best cooperation that he can render is to find an-
other job as soon as he can where he can feel that the concern
is some good. This is, of course, a question that each man
must answer for himself and is only mentioned here in passing.
Since, however, among foremen, entire lack of plant pride
is very raye, the managerial question is rather one to have
the most pride possible, and so this point may be worth
some consideration.
The following statements are not set up as rules but
merely as suggestions that may, at least, give rise jfco some
discussion or thinking about the problem, as it comes up in
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 399
different plants under different conditions. Among the 'Seays
and means" that a man can use on himself in promoting his
own plant pride might be :
1. Realizing that in practically all plants the General
Management wants to make the plant as good as possible:
they have plant pride themselves and in most cases they are
as anxious to make things as good as possible as anybody
else, if for no other reason as a straight matter of business.
The success of the business depends upon the reputation of
the plant and of the product and the General Management
knows it better than anybody else.
2. Realizing that the General Management has its
troubles as well as other people, but they cannot always tell
about them. For example, a building may be old and the
working conditions poor in consequence. The Management
may know this and be very anxious to improve the conditions,
yet they may be tied up so that they can do nothing immedi-
ately. It may be impossible to raise the money, that special
case may be included in a general reconstruction program
that depends on the condition of the money market, or other
more important matters may be slated fojr action first. The
point is that what may appear the one thing that ought to
be done at once from the standpoint of the man who is in
direct contact with the situation (the foreman) may not be
immediately possible with regard to the good of the concern
as a whole, but this may not mean that those in control are
not anxious to do all that they can, and it may help a foreman
if he realizes that he may not know the whole of the story.
3. All plants have their "bright spots" and their "dark
spots." None are absolutely bad and few are absolutely
perfect. As a rule, any plant is in a state of development
and, just now, it is true that the majority are in more or
less of a mixed up condition on account of the war. In "man-
aging" himself on this plant pride problem, it will help a
foreman if he will endeavor, so far as he can, to acquaint
himself with the policy of the concern as to such things as
affect plant pride and if he wiU consider what the concern
400 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
wants to do as well as what it is at the time : a man may be
proud of a concern that is "down" but means to come up as
well as of a concern that never was "down."
4. Another "managerial device" for a foreman is to look
at the "bright spots" rather than the "dark spots." He can
be an "optimist" or a "pessimist" as he pleases. If he sees
only the dark side of things it wiU not help him to develop
pride in the concern for which he works.
5. And lastly, if a man feels that he is cooperating eflfec-
tively to improve the plant through any means that may lie
within his power, and knows that he has helped to make
things better, that he is really helping to get a plant of which
all who are connected with it may feel more and more proud,
that, in itself, wiU develop plant pride.
As already stated, the above remarks are not intended to
tell any given foreman what he should do in regard to this
problem of plant pride. It is up to each man to decide for
himself and nobody can decide for him, or tell him just what
he ought to do or what he ought not to do. All that can be
done here is to make a few suggestions that may promote
thinking and discussion and that is all that has been
attempted.
C. NOT "kNOCKINS THE MANAGEMENT"
Preliminary. — ^It needs no discussion to convince anyone
that "knocking" brings in cost elements, but just what they
are may need some discussion. Everybody knows in a gen-
eral way what the term means but for clearness it may be
well to say that in the sense in which it is used here "knock-
ing" means criticising in the wrong place or to the wrong
people and often means merely finding fault without suggest-
ing any way for improvement.
Knocking is really an "Indoor Sport" more than any-
thing else and usually comes about when a man is mad, or
upset over something. Usually he does not mean anything
by it except so far as it gives him a chance to "blow off
steam." It is, however, a habit that may bring into play
COST PBOBLEMS ON COOPERATION 401
some serious cost elements, especially in the case of knocking
the Management, because of the degree to which these cost
elements aifect cooperation, and so it is considered here.
Cost Elements. — This is another case where the cost ele-
ments are hard to define because the results of "knocking"
are so hard to foretell. In a case of this kind almost anything
may come out of it, or nothing, according to the way that
things may go. The following may, however, be suggestive :
1. Danger of promoting dissatisfaction among people
who happen to hear "knocking," especially if it is done by
their superior, as, for example, when two foreman have a
"knocking party" where the members of the operating force
can hear them.
2. Danger of promoting dissatisfaction and cutting down
plant pride among the people who do the knocking.
3. The cost of the wasted time. It should be borne in
mind that "knocking," as the term is used here, does not mean
discussion among people who are really anxious to improve
things, but means what is often called "chewing the rag."
Since this sort of thing never gets anybody anywhere, time
spent in this particular "indoor sport" is wasted whether it
is a man's time or the company's time.
4. Danger of the spreading of the habit. It is unfor-
tunately true that the habit of "knocking" is as catching as
the measles, and the more one listens to a knocker the greater
chance of getting the habit oneself. A chronic knocker in
a bunch of men is as bad as a rotten apple in a basket of good
apples. If the thing is kept up the result is likely to be a
bunch of knockers instead of one.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^In dealing with this matter
of knocking as a managerial problem, as already pointed out,
a foreman must deal largely with himself, and the ways and
means that he adopts to cut out the cost or reduce it are ones
that he must work out for himself. The suggestions made
below are, therefore, merely suggestive. Among the things
that anybody can do if they want to are :
1. Head off knocking when you run into it. When another
S6
402 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
fellow starts in, start something else: switch the subject.
Don't "foUow his lead."
2. If a fellow is bound to knock, try to get him where
others will not hear him, especially where it is a case of a man
with a real or fancied personal grievance because these are
often the most dangerous cases from the cost increasing angle.
3. Keep out of the habit yourself: it is easy to acquire
and hard to break off when you have it. Watch for
the symptoms.
4. Be especially careful when you are tired or worried or
mad. These are danger points. Keep away from temptation
until you have cooled off. Under conditions of worry, or
fatigue, or annoyance any man is liable to say things that he
does not really mean and that he will be sorry for afterwards.
5. As already stated in the last section, be as much of
an optimist and as little of a pessimist as you can make out
of yourself.
6. Remember that, after all, knocking is only blowing off
steam and steam that is blown off doesn't help to move the
train: it does not get anybody anywhere.
7. Gret clearly in mind the difference between honest,
helpful discussion and criticism made at the right time to
the right people and just plain knocking made to the wrong
people and carried on under conditions where nobody can tell
what the cost may be with no gain.
8. Do what you can to cure others of the habit whenever
you can do it tactfully. Remember that a gang of knockers
never made a good team and cooperate with the organization
by helping to keep it a team and not a "hammer association."
D. HEADING OFF INCOEEECT PLANT GOSSIP IN THE PLANT OE IN
THE DEPAETMENT
Preliminary. — Every foreman knows that any plant is as
bad as an old lady's home for gossip. Much of this gossip
is harmless but some of it can do great damage if it is incor-
rect and is allowed to go on unchecked. By virtue of his
position as the man who stands next to the working force
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 403
a foreman is in a better position than anybody else connected
with the Management to pick up such gossip first and head
it off if it needs heading off. Possible responsibilities in this
connection were pointed out in Chapter XXII and this
section discusses some of the cost elements and the corre-
sponding managerial problems.
Cost Elements. — The cost elements here are again hard
to define, because no one can tell how far gossip will travel,
or what may come of it. However, among the possibilities
might be:
(1) A letting down of morale with the resulting cost
elements. (Increased carelessness, decreased production,
lowered quality, etc.)
(2) Increased absenteeism.
(3) Increased quitting, with the resulting replacement
cost.
(4) Unnecessary trouble with the operating force, due
to misunderstandings caused by unfounded gossip.
(5) Lost time, where people wasted time "passing along
the news," instead of attending to the work in hand.
(6) Friction caused by attempting to get them back
on their jobs.
The Managerial Problem. — ^In general, gossip is one of
two kinds : it is either entirely untrue, or is a distorted version
of the facts. In either case, the managerial problem is "to
head it off" as soon as possible, since the longer it runs, the
greater its cost increasing effect.
Dealing with the Problem. — As just indicated, the essen-
tial method for dealing with unfounded plant gossip is to
spot it and stop it.
The ability of a foreman to do this largely depends on
the degree to which he has the confidence of his operating
force and has secured their cooperation.
If there is no cooperative spirit and little or no confidence
gossip may go on for a long time and a foreman never know
it, but under the right conditions, some one is nearly always
404 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
sure to come to him for the facts if it is believed that the
facts wUl be given.
For example, suppose in a garment factory a story gets
started that the plant is going out of business and everyone
is going to lose his job. Foreman A has not succeeded in
setting up good relations — all the girls start looking for jobs
in other plants and the labor loss begins to run up with no
apparent reason. The girls "just quit" and the foreman
has no idea why, because no one will tell him. Foreman B
has established good relations, so that the girls are not afraid
to talk to him, so when "Mary Jane" teUs him that she is
quitting and he asks her why, he finds out at once that she
is leaving because she expects to lose her job in that plant and
is "looking out for herself." If he knows that the story is
not true, he tells her so and she believes him; not only has
he nailed that particular bit of nonsense with her, but she
wiU pass the news along to the other girls and the gossip
will be quickly smothered. As compared with Foreman A,
Foreman B evidently has done a better cost cutting job.
Of course, in all these matters there are two cases. In the
later case the foreman knows the truth, and, if he is in a
position to do so, of course, tells it.
In the other case, the foreman does not know the facts,
and so cannot act at once, but may find out. Anyway, there
are only two square answers :
(1) "I don't know, but I'll find out if I can and let
you know."
(2) "I don't know."
Under good cooperative conditions between a foreman
and his superiors, the first answer might be necessary, but
not the second.
In all cases, a foreman can cooperate to the extent of
notifying his superiors of the conditions, even if he can do no
more through lack of information.
E. "being a pakt of the oeganization"
Preliminary. — ^The meaning of this expression has al-
ready been defined as referring to the degree to which a fore-
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 405
man sees cooperative responsibilities in various ways outside
of his regular job, for giving time and work for the good of
the concern as a whole. Suppose, for example, that a man
is asked to serve on a committee that has to study and report
upon some matter affecting the welfare of the concern: say
a new method of routing material, or a change in operations,
or a change in the organization.
If he takes the job and gives time and thought to it, he is
much more a part of the organization than if he "ducks" the
job, or only goes at it in a perfunctory way, without really
helping the thing along. Perhaps the idea might be illus-
trated by the story of the two men abroad, where one always
registered from New York, and the other as from Boston,
Massachusetts, U. S. A. Which one felt himself to be a part
of the larger organization.''
While the cost elements here are again difHcult to pull
out because "being a part of the organization" is almost the
same thing as some other cooperative points discussed, a
few are suggested in the following paragraph:
Cost Elements. — Among the cost elements here might be :
(1) The loss of any special knowledge, experience, judg^
ment, etc., that a man could contribute, but did not.
(2) The loss to the man himself in losing a chance to
work with others on a job of general benefit, which always
means that everybody on that job has gamed something for
himself by giving to others.
(3) An increasing tendency to also fail to take the
trouble to cooperate in other ways, with corresponding in-
creased cost elements there.
The Managerial Problem.— Again this is largely a case
where a man must "manage" himself. As a "problem" it may
be stated as follows : to discharge any "organization responsi-
bilities" as effectively as possible, according to one's ability
and the opportunities that may come up to contribute.
Dealing with the Problem. — The degree to which this
problem can be dealt with effectively depends largely on a
406 THE FOREMAN AND^fflS JOB
man's mental attitude, and this attitude, in turn depends
upon a number of things among which are :
1. The degree to which his interest in his immediate job
shuts out everything else. For example, many foremen who
could contribute a great deal along this line say, "I can't do
anything because my job takes all my time and energy," and
so, for illustration, if they are called into a conference on
production troubles that affect the work in their own de-
partments, take an active part, but contribute little or
nothing if the subject lies outside of their own direct depart-
mental responsibilities.
2. The degree to which a man is too modest. Often a man
that could contribute a great deal, who has had a lot of
experience and has a lot of special knowledge that would be
of great value wiU fail to "come across" because he thinks,
"I don't want to mix into this thing: I don't know enough,"
while some "smooth talker" pitches in and really contributes
little or nothing that is of real value.
3. A third element that sometimes comes up, though not
very often, is a state of mind in which a man feels that he
ought not to be asked to contribute to anything that he feels
is "outside of his job."
Where it does occur this "That's up to the Management :
it's none of my business : that's not what I'm paid for" state
of mind, of course, prevents a man from properly discharg-
ing the sort of cooperative responsibilities that are under
discussion here.
Where a man sees his own job so big that he cannot see
any of the broader responsibilities that go with "being a part
of the organization," or is too modest to help when he could,
his job is to get out of that state of mind. How he will do
it is up to him, but that is his job. As long as he feels that
way he cannot contribute effectively to reduce the operation
of the cost elements that go with these particular responsi-
bilities and so, to a greater or less extent, increases the cost
due to poor cooperation.
Where a foreman has failed in these special lines, it is
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 407
almost always due to the fact that he has not thought of
his responsibilities for being a parf^ of the organization as
a part of his job rather than any deliberate unwillingness
to help things along. It is really a question of the extent
to which he sees the whole of his job, and sees the diiferent
_parts in their true relations to each other. It is as if a man
were playing first base on a ball team and saw only his job
as a first baseman rather than seeing that job as a part of
the job of the whole team.
Of course, the above discussion is only suggestive : in each
case ways and means must be worked out by each foreman
according to his special conditions and the organization of
the plant, but the degree to which he "manages" himself so
that he feels that he is a part of the organization, and is
ready to assist in any way that he can to help improve things
as a whole, because he has got himself so that he sees the whole
of his job and see it as a part of the job of the whole con-
cern, will be the degree to which he deals successfully with
the problem of "being a part of the organization."
F. HANDLING ORDEES FROM "tHE OFFICE" INTELLIGENTLY
Preliminary. — There are two conditions under which a
foreman receives orders : they may come :
1. From "the Office" usually transmitted through his im-
mediate superiors, where the plant is of any size and
■2. From his immediate superiors.
That is, he may get "general orders" or "divisional"
orders.
Since the cost elements and managerial problems are in-
dependent of the source of the orders, so long as they do not
originate with the foreman himself, but come from "above,"
they are not taken up here but in the next section under "Co-
operating with Immediate Superiors."
SECTION n. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PROBLEMS ON CO-
OPERATION WITH IMMEDIATE SUPERIORS
Preliminary. — ^As pointed out in previous chapters, a
foreman stands between the actual operating force on the one
408 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
hand and the supervisory and managerial force on the other.
To his superiors, he represents the men : to the men, he repre-
sents the management.
His closest and direct contact point "above" Is his imme-
diate superior, whoever he may be. From the "management
side" a foreman's immediate superior is the one with whom
he does most of his business, especially with regard to the
carrying on of the work in his department. The degree to
which a foreman and his immediate superior do, or do not,
cooperate, therefore, is a very vital matter to the success of
the plant and makes one of the important cooperative prob-
lems with which a foreman must deal.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele-
ments that may come into play in this connection are:
(1) Failure to fully understand orders, directions and
suggestions before acting upon them, due to lack of "back
checking."
(2) Failure to ask for additional orders when they are
necessary.
(3) Carrying out the "letter" instead of the intent of
orders and suggestions, "sticking too close to orders."
(4) Transmitting orders that are not fuUy understood.
(5) Failure to act in absence of orders; "ducking
responsibility."
(6) Failure to transmit orders so that they are fuUy
understood, or do not reach the people for whom they
are intended.
(7) Failure to support the superior.
Dealing with the Problem. — Some points that may have
a bearing on the question of cooperating with immediate
superiors are suggested in the following paragraphs.
Orders Not Fully Understood — "Back Checking." — ^As
the term is used here, "back checking" means, in a case where
orders, directions or suggestions are not fully understood,
going back to the person who issued the order and getting the
doubtful points cleared up before acting. Back checking
sltould be preceded by a careful study of the order, direction
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 409
or suggestion to make sure that there are or are not any
such doubtful points.
The danger of the order that is not fully understood
comes out in several ways. For example, in such a case, the
order may be carried out wrong, because it was misunder-
stood, or a foreman, in carrying it out, may find that he does
not fuUy understand it, guess at what was meant and guess
wrong. The damage is the same in either case. Some ways
and means that may help in this matter are :
1. Making sure that orders and other communications
are fuUy understood before acting on them and not being
ashamed to go back for more information if there is any
doubt. Of course, a man does not want to be running back
to his superior every few minutes "to make sure he has got
it just right," nor should that be necessary, but, on the other
hand, it is cheaper to go back than do the wrong thing, nor
need any man feel that, when the matter is not clear to him,
his dignity or his brains are discounted if he does go back,
and he is cooperating with his superior when he does it.
Another point in this connection is taking sufficient
time to "get" an order: being in too much of a hurry
has caused many a slip in carrying out orders, directions
and suggestions.
2. Taking a chance on incomplete orders is another point
to look out for. Where such a slip has happened it should be
another case of "back checking" and not guessing as good
management on cooperation with the superior.
Asking for Additional Orders. — ^It will sometimes happen
that in carrying out an order or a suggestion some unex-
pected point will come up that calls for some action not
contemplated when the orders or directions were issued, or
when the matter was first talked over. Sometimes under these
conditions a man must assume responsibility as discussed in
the paragraph below, he can't stop, or he cannot get at his
superior, he must go on, but in other cases good cooperative
management would require going back for additional in-
structions. This is a case where a man must use his best
410 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
judgment according to the special conditions, but the same
general principle applies here as in the matter of understand-
ing orders, a man will not cooperate in the best way with
his superior if he is ashamed or reluctant for any reason to
ask for additional orders or directions when he can do it and
feels that he ought to do it.
Sticking to Orders. — ^A man who takes the position, "I
get my orders and I foUow them no matter what happens," is
not cooperating with his superior. Of course, no good fore-
man takes this extreme attitude, but there is a question but
what many men feel that when they have their orders and
carry them out to the letter, they have done all that can be
expected of them. It does sometimes happen, however, that
the literal reading of the order or the absolute following of
the directions as given will evidently prevent the result that
the giving of the order was intended to secure. For an
example, the mate of a ship is told by the captain, "I am
going to turn in, don't take in any sail." Later in the watch
the mate discovers that a spar is sprung and unless that sail
is taken in serious damage may result. He knows that the
intention of the order was to get the best speed out of the
ship, and that carrying a certain sail is not the real point,
he therefore takes in the dangerous sail and sets another in
its place. He has followed the intention of the order. Had he
taken the position of "Obeying orders and breaking owners"
as it used to be called, he would have really defeated the
intention of the order, for the loss of the sail and spar would
have crippled the ship and have actually reduced her speed.
The point here is that, under good cooperative" conditions,
there is a managerial responsibility for seeing that the intent
of an order is accomplished. This may mean acting, back
checking, getting additional instructions, and so on, accord-
ing to conditions and judgment, but a good manager will
try to see that it is done : a poor manager relies on the letter
of the order or direction and feels that he has no further
responsibility. If things go wrong, saying "I did it exactly
as you told me to" does not entirely cover the case.
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 411
Of course, if a foreman's immediate superior says to him,
"I want all orders followed exactly: I'll do all the thinking
on this job," or, "You do as I tell you: that's all I want,"
the management is bad on the side of the superior, and all
that the foreman can do is to obey orders even if he "breaks
owners," but he would better make such an order a matter
of record, because in case something happens that he could
have prevented, he may get called "on the carpet," and the
matter go "higher up."
"Ducking Responsibility." — ^Reference has already been
made to the case where a man must either take responsibility
or "duck" it.
Of course, this is practically a case of emergency, but
under such conditions cases will come up where a subordinate
must either modify orders or let things go wrong. Just
what should be done under such conditions depends so much
on the special case that no general rule can be set up, but
there are sometimes situations where a man must act if he
is going to cooperate. This subject is not carried further
here but is suggested as one well worth discussion.
Transmitting Orders When They are not Fully Under-
stood.— ^As already pointed out, under some conditions a
foreman may have the responsibility for transmitting orders
from his superiors to his operating force. Where this is the
case the cost elements and the ways and means are essentially
the same as in the case of receiving orders as just considered.
Backing Up Immediate Superiors. — ^This is another case
of "knocking" and the discussion as given in the preced-
ing section applies just as well here. It is, therefore,
not repeated.
Transmitting Instructions so That They are Under-
stood.— ^Under some conditions, a foreman may receive orders
or directions from his immediate superior of a sort that make
it necessary to reissue part of this order to his men. As in
the case of orders when given directly,* the general points
• Chapter XIV.
412 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
apply and so are not taken up here, but, if the reissuing of
a part of such an order is necessary, one important way in
which a foreman can cooperate is to see that such orders as
he reissues are so set up that the men who get them will
understand them, A foreman is closer to the working force
than anyone else and so knows them better and therefore
knows how to word orders so that they will be clear. As an
extreme illustration of what is meant, suppose all the operat-
ing force spoke Italian, but little, or no, English, and a part
of an order from above had to be reissued; the original
order being in English, If the foreman spoke Italian, or
could get the "reissue orders" put up In Italian, evidently
they are much more likely to be understood than if they were
given In English, and to do this would be good cooperation
with the immediate superior.
Getting Transmitted or Reissued Orders to the Right
People, — Again, this is another case of giving orders as al-
ready discussed, and so is not taken up further here, except
to point out that here again, under some conditions, "re-
issued" orders may affect only certain people and a foreman
will cooperate with his immediate superior in proportion as
he sees that only those people get the orders,'' and that all
get them who should.
For example, two foremen may have the job of trans-
mitting, or reissuing orders to a part of their operating
force: one foreman merely sticks the orders on a bulletin
board and trusts that the right men will see them ; the other
foreman sees to it that the right men get them by Issuing the
orders directly to them. The second foreman has done a
better cooperating job. Another case worth mentioning is
that of telling one man to "tell the rest of the gang." For
example. In a shipyard, the riveting boss Issues orders to the
foremen of the chlppers and caulkers that all men on certain
jobs must wear goggles, because the special steel to be
worked on is particularly dangerous on account of flying
chips. One foreman tells one of the chlppers to tell the other
men on that job; the other foreman Instructs directly each
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPEBATION 413
man to whom thte order applies. The second foreman has
given the better cooperation to his immediate superior and
so has cut costs more than the first foreman has done,
SECTION ni. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PEOBLEMS ON
COOPERATION WITH OTHER FOREMEN
Preliminai'y. — ^Working in cooperation with other fore-
men probably calls for more good management than any
other form of cooperation that comes up in "team work."
Of course, no man wants to "meddle" with another man's
job, or to "butt in," but, on the other hand, if he takes the
position that "The other man's job is none of my business,"
or "I'll stick to my job and he can stick to his," costs are
liable to be increased. Some points in connection with co-
operating with other foremen are therefore considered in
this section.
It is a fact that a man is often more sensitive to any
"interference" by another man having equal authority than
he is in the case of any superior, or even a subordinate, and
this often makes matters of this kind particularly diiEcult to
handle effectively, but the cooperative job is there and the
degree to which matters of cooperation between foremen is
well or poorly worked out may affect costs seriously, and so
is worth careful consideration.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements that may
affect this matter are :
(1) Where one department "feeds into another," failure
of the foreman of the receiving department to promptly
notify the foreman of the "feeding" department of any fall-
ing off in quantity or quality, or to keep the right balance.
(Failure to cooperate on production.)
(2) Failure of a foreman in one department to "tip off"
a foreman in another department, when it comes to the
attention of foreman number one that things are going wrong
with foreman number two.
(3) Foreman in different departments "sticking" each
414 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
other (as in the case of "passing over" undesirable workers),
each man "looking out for his own."
(4) Basing cooperation or lack of cooperation on per-
sonal friendship or liking instead of on the good of the con-
cern. (Making cooperation impersonal.)
(5) Not "appreciating the other fellow's troubles."
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is very plain and simple. It is to reduce costs by helping
the other fellow all that is possible, but doing it in such a
way that there can be no charge of "butting in."
Dealing with the Problem. — The successful management
of cooperation between foremen, or any case of cooperation
between people of equal but distinct authority, calls for so
much tact and judgment applied to each special case that the
matter can be taken up only in a general way. Each fore-
man must act in each case according to his best judgment,
but a few points worth considering with regard to the cost
elements suggested are given in the following paragraphs.
Cooperating oh Production. — Some foremen, thinking
only of their own department, feel that the more they can
"j am" the next man the more they are helping the company,
or they feel that if they fall off and so "starve" the next
department it is just their own trouble. Of course, when a
man sees his job as a part of the whole this sort of thing
will not happen, but whatever the cause, where foremen are
cooperating as they should good management will try to
avoid either jamming or starving. Of course, where the pro-
duction of each department is handled by a Production Con-
trol Department it is a case of cooperating with another
department, as considered in the following section, but, in
many plants, balance of production is practically in the
hands of the foremen and, in such cases good or poor co-
operation makes a great difference in costs. For examplp,
if it is good the "sumpage" (amount of material in depart-
mental storage waiting to be worked up or piled up between
operations) is kept down, the distribution of the working
force is not upset, idle load is kept down to the minimum.
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 41S
Under such "feeding" conditions between departments one
foreman can cooperate with another by setting up some ar-
rangement whereby they keep posted on the condition in each
other's departments and "one fellow looks out for the other,"
in a way. If a foreman is willing to cooperate he will handle
his own production so far as he can so as to balance with the
other fellow and he will not say, " My business is mine and
his business is his, and that is where I get off." Of course,
this point cannot be taken up from the standpoint of detailed
ways and means because it calls for " job knowledge " as to
how to do it, so the points can only be raised for discussion
in conferences.
"Tipping Off." — Any foreman as he goes about the plant
sees things that affect the effectiveness of the work of the
other foremen. If he only feels responsibility for his own
department and, when he sees something of the kind, thinks,
"Well, that win make trouble for him, but it's none of my
business," he is not cooperating.
These cases come up in all sorts of ways and in each
case a foreman has to use his best judgment in dealing with
them, but if cooperative conditions are good, there is always
some way of managing the matter so as to prevent increased
costs and at the same time keep from "meddling." The gen-
eral managerial problem is for all foremen to set up such
good cooperative relations that this can be done. One im-
portant point here is that each fellow knows that all the
other men are out to help him and not to get him: that is,
there must be entire confidence in the good intentions and
good faith of all concerned. There is no better way of bring-
ing this about than conferences where matters of this kind
are discussed frankly and honestly and men get to know each
other, and this is one of the best ways of dealing managerially
with the problem of cooperation between foremen.
"Sticking the Other Fellow." — A good example of this is
where a foreman has a man in his department who, for some
reason, he wants to get rid of but does not want to discharge.
He goes to another foreman and tells him that this man is
416 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
just the man that he wants, although he knows that the man
is no more use in the other department than he is in his own.
He succeeds in getting the other foreman to get the man in
question transferred and thinks that he has done a good job
because he has got the man out of his own department and
that is all that he cares about. He has failed to cooperate
with the other foreman just as in any other case of "selling
a gold brick" : he has "stuck" the other fellow.
A case of this kind must be carefully distinguished from
the case where the first foreman actually believes that the
man wiU. really make good on the job in the other depart-
ment : such a case would be real cooperation with the other
foreman and with the management. In such a case there is
no gold brick involved.
The same thing might come up in regard to an equipment
unit or in some other way "unloading" something undesii>
able on the other fellow, but the underlying point is that
when a man does this he sees only the advantage to himself
and does not think of the damage to others.
A man who has the cooperative spirit will not resort to
unloading or sticking : in proportion as he does it he is a poor
manager: if he does not do it he is a good manager. It is
up to any foreman to decide how good or poor a manager he
will be in this respect.
Personal Friendship and Cooperation. — Some men think
that cooperation is a matter of personal liking : they will co-
operate with a friend, or with somebody that they like, but
see no call to even try to cooperate with people whom they
dislike or do not know. Such men reserve the right to co-
operate or not, according to their likes and dislikes: they
make cooperation a personal matter instead of a "team"
matter.
Such people are looking at the matter of cooperation
from the wrong angle : they think of it as doing a favor in-
stead of discharging a responsibility. They have the wrong
slant on the proposition and to the extent to which they base
cooperation on personal friendship or liking they do a poor
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 417
managerial job so far as cooperative responsibilities are
concerned. It is unquestionably easier to cooperate with a
man that you know and like than it is to work with a man
that you don't know or don't like, but this has nothing to do
with the matter of cooperating.
The only true basis for cooperation between any two
people is that they are both working on the same job: mem-
bers of the same team and cooperation is necessary to get the
job done cheaper. '
"Inability to Cooperate." — Sometimes a man will say,
"Jones and I can't cooperate: we can't get along. It's no
use to try. We have both tried to get together and we can't
do it." Where such a condition has come about it can only,
be said, first, that when two square men are on the same job
and really want to get that job done as well as possible, they
can get together on a cooperative basis. If they are so con-
stituted for any reason that they can't do it, one or both
ought to quit and let their places be filled by two people who
can work together for the good of the team. As long as such
a situation exists the team is damaged and costs are increased.
While the above discussion applies more especially to the
case of cooperation between foremen it applies as well to any
sort of cooperation as discussed in this chapter.
"Appreciating the Other Fellow's Troubles." — ^A man
naturally feels "stirred up" about his own troubles and tends
to forget that the other fellow is having just as many, and
that he is just as worried. Stopping and thinking of this
fact will often help a man to "keep cool" and sometimes
allowing for the other fellow's "blowing up" or seeming un-
reasonable. In all cooperation there must be "give and
take" if it is to be the most effective. "Appreciating the other
fellow's trouble," therefore, is one of the ways and means
for getting and improving cooperation between foremen. For
example, a foreman has a breakdown and puts in a work
order to the maintenance department for repairs, his pro-
duction meantime being held up. If the maintenance depart-
ment does not get right on the job, or does not start in when
27
418 THE FOBEMAN AND fflS JOB
they said they would, because they got behind on another
job and want to finish that, it is hard to keep from thinking
sometimes that the foreman of the maintenance department
is not doing all he can to help you out, though he undoubtedly
is doing just that thing. He has his troubles, too. The story
is told of General Grant that somebody asked him once how
he got along with all his troubles and he said that it was
because he had learned to realize that the enemy had just
as many, and that when things went wrong he thought of
that and it always made him feel better. Something of the
same idea will help in keeping up good cooperative relations,
especially when things go wrong. It may help to "put grease
in the gear box" of the organization instead of sand.
Backing Up Other Departments. — ^The discussion as to
"knocking" the management or immediate superior applies
here as well. Some men have an unfortunate habit of uncon-
sciously making remarks that disparage the work of other
departments — "BUI is having a lot of trouble" if spoken
where others, especially members of the working force, hear it,
may hurt Bill and certainly will do no good, even if it is true.
If it is true, the less said the better and if it is not true it
ought not to be said at all.
SECTION IV. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGEBIAi FKOBLEMS ON
COOPEEATION WITH SPECIAL, DEPARTMENTS
Preliminary. — ^The cooperative problems discussed so far
have all been in what may be called direct relations on the
production side, as, for example, cooperation between a fore-
man and his immediate superior or the General Management.
There is, however, another case worth consideration in which,
while the same general responsibilities exist and the same
managerial problems come up, the details work out some-
what differently, and that is the case of cooperation with
special departments. This case is, therefore, taken up sep-
arately in this section.
"WTiat is Meant by Special Departments. — The sense in
which this term is used is given in a former chapter and so is
not repeated here except to state, for convenience, that it
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 419
refers to such departments as a Safety Department, a Per-
sonnel Department, an Employment Department, etc., that
is, a department established to render a special service.
Cooperative Responsibilities. — ^Where such departments
are a part of the plant organization the same general mutual
cooperative responsibilities exist as in the other cases men-
tioned: their job is to help the foreman and his job is to help
them, and the better both jobs are done the better for
the concern.
Helping Them Along. — ^A foreman can do much or little
to help along special departments. iMuch depends upon the
interest that he takes in what they are trying to do. If their
work bears upon the working force, as in the case of a medical
or welfare department, on account of his close relation to his
men, a foreman can do more than anybody else to help them
along or to hinder them. Reference has been made in a num-
ber of places to ways in which this helping along could be
done, as in connection with a medical department and in-
cipient disease, in spotting cases that may need medical atten-
tion, and so on. Other cases have been brought up in various
other chapters so that no special consideration of cost ele-
ments and managerial problems is needed.
Where such departments are a part of the organization,
if a foreman feels that he has a cooperating responsibility
he can find aU sorts of ways of helping them along and so
enabling them to do a better job. If he does not feel any
cooperating responsibilities he may be sure that he is reduc-
ing the value of their work and so increasing cost.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the more important cost ele-
ments that may come into play here are :
1. Failure on the part of the foreman to acquaint him-
self with the job that the special department is trying to do.
2. Failure on the part of the special department to ac-
quaint itself with the foreman's job.
3. Feeling on the part of the foreman that the special
department is "butting in" on his job.
4. Feeling on the part of the foreman that the work of
such a special department is "none of his business anyway."
420 THE FOREMAN AND fflS JOB
Of course, all of the above cost elements will not come
into play in any one case, and others will come up, but the
above have come up in the conference discussion on many
cases and so are considered in this section.
The Managerial Problem. — ^Wherever such special de-
partments are a part of the organization the managerial
problem for the foreman is to cooperate in all possible ways
to help such a department to do its job as well as possible,
in order to promote the success of the organization.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^Among the ways and means
for dealing with this problem effectively are :
1. Taking time to find out what the special department is
trying to do.
2. Seeing that the special depstrtment is "educated" as
to the foreman's job.
3. Finding out where the special department can make
the foreman's job easier : where it can help.
4. Helping the special department to do its job wherever
possible, and taking pains to find out where it can be helped
inside of the department.
Finding Out What the Special Department is Trying
to Do. — If two people are to cooperate, each must know what
the other is trying to do and one of the best ways and means
that a foreman can use in cooperating with a special depart-
ment is to find out what that department is doing and keep
posted on its work. Conferences between foreman and who-
ever is in charge of the special department in question will go
far to bring about mutual understanding. If the foreman
and the head of the special department could get together
in an informal meeting once in a while, it would be a mighty
good way to help things along.
For example, in some cases that have been discussed in
foremen's conferences in the past, it has appeared that there
was considerable friction between the Employment Depart-
ment and the foremen: they were pulling apart instead of
working together, because the foremen had never found out
what Ihe Employment Department was trying to do in the
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 421
way of getting them the sort of help that could do the best
jobs, and it was not until the matter had been thrashed out
in conference that the foremen discovered that, if they would
tell the Employment Department just what the requirements
of the job were, that department would be only too glad to
get that information instead of merely a requisition for so
many men, and, with that information, could do its job very
much better.
Another illustration of failure to cooperate because of
ignorance as to what a special department was trying to do,
came up in a shipyard during the war. A training depart-
ment had been established to quickly and thoroughly train
green men for the " yard trades " (riveting, chipping and
caulking, etc.), and in order to make this training work
effective it was necessary to secure certain kinds of jobs for
training at certain times. The foremen felt that picking out
certain jobs and giving them to the Training Department
was taking away work for which they were responsible and
holding back production, and It did unquestionably make
more or less additional trouble. The foremen, therefore,
would not cooperate: they would only do as much as they
had to. It so happened, however, that there was In operation
In that yard a Training Center operated by the Emergency
Fleet that was showing some of the good workers how to
apply some of the tricks of the teaching trade to the job of
teaching green men, and some of the foremen became Inter-
ested in what was going on there. As a result quite a number
of them asked for some meetings in order that they might
find out what the whole thing was about. When, as a result
of those meetings, they found out that the Training Depart-
ment was on the job to save them the drag of trying to build
ships with perfectly green men and to give them men who
could do a job, and that, in order to do its job it must have
these special training jobs when a certain kind of a job was
needed to further train a man who had reached a certain
point in his training, they were perfectly ready to help, and
to cooperate with the Training Department along any lines.
422 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
"Educating" the Special Department as to the Foreman's
Joh. — ^Not only is a foreman often ignorant of the job of a
special department, but it is often just as true that a special
department tries to play a lone hand and does not know what
the jobs of the different foremen are, what special conditions
they have to work under and what are their managerial
problems. In consequence, in some cases, such a department,
say a Welfare Department, has tried to put over something
that, as proposed, was quite impossible under the working
conditions, and which could not be handled successfully as
proposed. For example, in one shipyard, a service depart-
ment undertook to stop aU gambling at the noon hour. Aside
from the question as to whether gambling is, or is not, wrong,
which does not enter into the discussion, with a force of
twelve thousand men, many of whom had played craps since
they were babies, the proposition was impossible of enforce-
ment and every practical man in the yard knew it. This was
a case where it was up to the foremen and other oflBcers to
educate this department in the actual working conditions so
that it would be plain to that department that the regulation,
as proposed, could not be effective.
As another example, in one case it appeared that the Em-
ployment Department was sometimes taking a week to act
on requisitions for help and nobody in that department had
thought that when a foreman needs men he needs them as
quickly as he can get them. In this case the Employment
Department, one that had been newly organized under the
pressure of war conditions, evidently was not educated to
the real conditions under which it could give effective service
to foremen.
Since a foreman knows more about his job than anybody
else can know it is up to him to go more than half way in
educating special departments to see just how they can help
him to the best advantage, and it is a part of his managerial
job to do so.
Feeling that the Special Department is "Butting In." —
In some cases, especially where some special department
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 423
comes into a plant that has been in operation for a long time,
where the foremen have been used to talcing care of the whole
job themselves, foremen feel that the new department is "butt-
ing in" on their job. For example, a safety department is
organized to make a special job of the promotion of safety.
Although they may not say so, some foremen think that they
have been taking care of the matter of safety all right and
they rather resent giving that job to a special department.
The same might be true of a special routing department and
especially true in many cases where an Employment Depart-
ment has been established in a plant where the foremen have
been hiring their own men. In such cases some foremen feel
that a part of their job has been taken away from them, or
that the special department is only going to "gum things up."
AVhen a man feels that way he naturally is not inclined to co-
operate with such a special department in any whole hearted
manner. He may do what he feels that he has to, but he is not
going very far out of his way to help things along. Some-
times a man really does not know that he feels that way : he
honestly thinks that he is willing to cooperate but his uncon-
scious feeling of antagonism holds him back.
Now such a situation is a bad one and real effective co-
operation cannot come about as long as it exists, and a fore-
man who feels that a special department is "butting into his
job," or is unconsciously blocking it, has a managerial job
on his hands to get himself straightened out. In the first
place, no management is going to the expense of establishing
a special department unless it thinks that the work of the
organization will be helped : such departments are not set up
just for fun. The responsibility for cooperating with the
Management, therefore, requires that every member of the
team shall cooperate to make the work of such a department
as successful as possible. This is particularly true in the
case of the foremen, because they can do far more to make or
break the proposition than anybody else in the plant.
If they hang back, they can almost prevent any proposi-
tion from being really successful. If they help it along it is
424 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
almost certain to be a success. A special responsibility,
therefore, rests on the foremen in such matters to help a
special department to make good, not so much for the sake
of the department itself as for the good of the plant and
for the sake of cooperating with the Management.
One way in which a foreman can help "manage" himself
in such a matter is, of course, to find out what such
a special department is really trying to do; this will help
a lot, but in addition to that it is often worth while for a
man to ask himself squarely, "Am I really cooperating as
effectively as I might, and if not, why.'"' Such a self analysis
is sometimes a hard thing to do but it pays. Sometimes,
as a result of such an analysis, a man will find that he has,
without thinking much about it, failed to cooperate as much
as he knows that he could have done had he really wanted to.
Another point that may be worth thinking about is the
fact that the real job of any special department is to enable
the foremen to do a better job on the real job, supervision
and management, and to relieve them of "side jobs" that
make an additional drag. This is well illustrated by the case
of the shipyard foremen and the training department de-
scribed in the last paragraph. The whole purpose of this
department was to ease up on the foremen, and as soon as
they saw this they were for it.
Helping the Special Department to do its Job, — One of
the most practical ways in which a foreman can cooperate
with a special department is to help it to do its job where such
a department tries to get information into the hands of the
men, or is attempting some sort of an educational piece of
work. For example, a Safety Department is promoting the
use of safety devices and precautions, the most effective way
by which a foreman can cooperate is to see that such notices,
posters, etc., as come to him from outside of his department
are effectively used.
A poster showing the result of carelessness comes in:
Foreman A sticks it up anywhere and lets it go at that, or
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 426
chucks it into his desk and forgets all about it. Foreman B
takes psins to see that it is put up in a place where every-
body can see it and takes special pains to see that it is brought
to-the attention of all of his men. Foreman B is doing a
better cooperating job than foreman A and so is doing more
to reduce accident cost. The same thing may be true for
other cases. Perhaps some leaflets are sent in describing the
new opportunities for securing training if injured, as is now
provided under the National Act and the laws of many states.
This is something new. One foreman not only sees to it that
each man gets the leaflet but informs himself as to the matter
and perhaps even calls his men together and explains it to
them, the other foreman leaves them in a pile where the men
can take one as they go out and does nothing more.
The first foreman has done a better cost cutting job than
the second.
Another way in which a special department can be helped
on its job is by making suggestions, just as in the case dis-
cussed in a previous section.
Another way to help is to see that notices and posters
are not left after they lose their value by becoming "old
stuff." Bulletin boards in many plants will show many such
notices and posters that have been left there for years, are
dirty, defaced, damaged. Where this happens, whoever had
the responsibility of putting them up did not think much of
them anyway.
The way in which a foreman treats any material that may
come to him from a special department gives the operating
force an accurate idea of how much he thinks of it and a
foreman can easily "queer" the Management or any special
department by not taking pains to use properly any material
that he receives from them for public use and information.
Backing Them Up. — It is also true that the success of
almost any special department will be largely affected by the
degree to which they are backed up by the foreman in the
plant. The attitude of the foremen will be largely reflected
426 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
in the attitude of the members of the working force. This
would be true, for example, in the case of a safety department
or of a training department or a welfare department.
These points have been taken up elsewhere from a some-
what different angle and so have not been gone into again
here in any detail, but in general, if a foreman wants to
cooperate with any special department the "Don't knock:
boost" principle will apply here just as well as in any other
case. A foreman can at least do these things. He can take
time to find out what a special department is trying to do,
he can give them the benefit of his experience to help them
if they are on the wrong track, and he can give them useful
pointers, and he can help the men to understand what they
are for and what they can do for them. Any foreman who
feels cooperative responsibilities can at least do this much.
If he does, he cuts costs. If he sits like a crow on a rail fence
and just cries, "Caw, caw, caw," that thing is no good,' the
people running it don't know where they are at, it's only one
more new f angled idea!" the chances are that the overhead
is being boosted and not the special department.
' ft
SECTION V. COST ELEMENTS AND MANAGERIAL PB.OBLEMS ON
COOPEUATION BETWEEN THE FOREMAN AND THE
OPERATING FORCE
A.
Preliminary. — In a former chapter it was pointed out
that among the responsibilities that appear on the lay-out
of the foreman's job were those of cooperating with the oper-
ating force and securing their cooperation.
This section takes up some of the cost elements and man-
agerial problems that come up in connection with the dis-
charge of these cooperative responsibilities, both from the
standpoint of giving cooperation and securing cooperation
between the departmental working force and the foreman.
Cooperation Always Mutual. — ^In the preliminary discus-
sion on cooperation it was pointed out that cooperation al-
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 427
ways works both ways and this fact has been assumed all
through the preceding sections, but in the case of coopera-
tion between a foreman and his operating force this fact
becomes so important that the two sides of the question are
discussed separately in this section, first from the stand-
point of giving cooperation and second from the standpoint
of securing cooperation.
The reason for this is that, up to this time all the cases
of cooperation considered were between foremen and other
supervisors or executives : Immediate Superiors, the General
Management, other foremen, etc., that is, between people
whose duty was to cooperate and to manage so that mutual
cooperation would be as effective as possible. All super-
visors are supposed to have these cooperative responsibilities,
are assumed to know that they have them and to know how
to manage so as to get the best possible cooperation. In all
cases discussed so far we have had two or more officers, both
of whom had managerial responsibilities and who were as-
sumed to know that they had them and to know how to
manage so as to get the best results. We had cooperation
between two managers. In the case of a foreman and the
departmental operating force the case is somewhat different.
Cooperation Between a Foreman and the Operating
Force. — In the case of any officer and the operating force
the problem is different because the management part of the
problem is up to the officer only. The members of the oper-
ating force may have cooperating responsibilities but they
are paid to carry on work jobs, not to manage, so that in this
case the officer has the responsibility of managing on both
sides, of cooperating and of securing cooperation from people
who cannot be assumed to know how to manage and who
cannot be held responsible for a failure along that line. They
may feel that they should cooperate and they may want to
cooperate, but it is the job of the foreman to supply the
managerial knowledge and guide them in getting the most
effective cooperation, as well as, in many cases, getting them
428 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
to feel that they have cooperating responsibilities at all.
In this section the matter is, therefore, taken up in two
parts, B, cooperating with the working force, and C, securing
cooperation from the members of the operating force, each
setting up its own cost elements and managerial problems.
B. COOPEEATING WITH THE WORKING EOECE
Preliminary. — ^Many foremen who are entirely clear as to
the necessity for securing cooperation from the members of
the operating force are not clear as to the possibility of
cooperating with them. Of course, the point turns on what
is meant by cooperation. In a number of conference discus-
sions it has turned out that the very foremen who said that
they did not see how it could be done and that they certainly
were not doing any of it, were really doing a great deal in the
way of cooperating with their operating force. They simply
had not thought of it in that light.
If the definition of cooperation given earlier in this
book, "Doing something that you don't have to do to help
the other fellow do a better job," is correct, then all foremen
are doing a great deal to cooperate with their men, and some
consideration of the cost elements and managerial problems
is worth while.
Cost Elements. — ^Among the cost elements here might be :
1. Making working conditions easier.
2. Making production conditions easier.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem
,here might be stated in this way : to do whatever can be done
to enable the working force to do their jobs as well, as easily
and as comfortably as possible, or, as it is often expressed,
"to look out for the men."
Dealing vdth the Problem. — ^A man has to do a job of
a certain kind: he has to work on certain materials with
certain tools or machines and carry out certain operations
or processes. That is his job. Any job has to be carried
on under certain working conditions. For example, in a
shipyard riveting must be carried on out of doors; in the
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 429
fire room of a steamer the work must be carried on at a high
temperature ; in a machine shop the work must be carried on
under cover on account of the machines ; a sewer must be dug
out of doors.
Now, while these working conditions cannot be changed,
as such, riveting cannot be carried on in the winter in a
steam heated shop, or digging a sewer in summer in a nice
shady place, out of the sun, the leader can, if he wishes, do
a good deal to make things easier within the limits of the
necessary working conditions and to that extent help the
men to do the j ob easier and better. The leader does not have
to do this, he could not be "called down" by his superior for
not doing it, but if he does^ do it he cooperates with the men :
if he does not do it he does not cooperate in the sense in
which the term is used here.
Again, the ease with which a job can be done often de-
pends upon the condition of the tools or other equipment:
it is harder to do a good job with poor tools than with good
ones. The job can be done, but it is harder on the workers.
A foreman can take one of two positions, the first, "There
is the job and there are the tools, go to it, it is none of my
business whether it is hard or easy, so long as the conditions
are such that the job can be done," the second, "There is the
job, it's got to be done, but I'll do all that I can to see that
it can be done as easily as possible."
As in other cases these illustrations are only sugges-
tive possibilities.
C. SECUKING COOPERATION FEOM THE WORKING FORCE
Preliminary. — The last discussion was on the question of
cooperating with the operating force and the question of
securing cooperation from the force is now taken up in the
same way.
The foreman is the leader of the team, he is responsible
for getting the job done : if he is to do a good job he must have
the team behind him, that is, he must secure their cooperation.
What is Meant by Cooperation from the Operating
430 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
Force. — ^The kind of cooperation that a foreman must secure
from the members of his operating force is the same kind
that he, in turn, gives to his superiors. He must get the men
to go out of their way to help to make the work as good as
possible. A man who cooperates with his foreman does some-
thing besides carrying on the purely mechanical operations
of his job and this additional something cannot be secured
by any exercise of authority : nobody can make a man do it,
if he does it he does it because he wants to do it and not
because anybody can Tiiake him do it.
For example, a man might have the job of stamping out
fancy tin cases or boxes. If the colors that are baked on
the metal are coming in a variety of shades instead of run-
ning true, not enough to be noticeable at first glance but quite
plain on examination, the operator is not to blame, it is no
part of his job to inspect : his job is to run the press, and a
condition of this kind might go on until an inspector came
around or the foreman noticed it, with corresponding loss.
If, however, the operator voluntarily keeps his eyes out and
spots the poor material as soon as it begins to come along
and brings it to the attention of the foreman, that operator
is cooperating with him in the interests of the job.
Again, in an iron foundry, a moulder might see that an
additional pattern, for which he had the order on his next
job could be put into a flask with the one that he was using
at the time. If he drew the attention of the foreman to this,
and it was advisable to put that pattern in with the other
job, a saving of time and labor would come out of that
moulder's cooperation.
Cost Elements. — Of course, the cost elements here are
plain: they are all due to a failure to utilize any interest,
knowledge, skiU and intelligence that the members of the
working force may possess. The condition here is like that of
a man having money in the bank that is drawing no interest.
The Managerial Problem. — The managerial problem
here is to get all the gain possible out of the knowledge, skill,
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 431
intelligence and experience of the members of the working
force. The more this is done, the more costs are reduced:
the less it is done, if there is anything to draw on (and there
always is) , the more costs are increased.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^The means of dealing with
this problem have already been taken up in different parts
of this book. In general, they are the promotion of interest
and satisfaction by the various managerial devices already
pointed out. In proportion as men are interested in their
work and are satisfied they will be ready and anxious to
contribute in any way that they can to the success of the
work of the department and of the plant. Since these
points have already been covered they are not taken up
again here.
Being Square. — If any superior expects to get real co-
operation from the members of his team he must be square
with them. Everybody knows what that means and it
doesn't need to be taken up here. One important point in
cooperation between people is that each party must be abso-
lutely sure of the good faith of the other. Any sort of "gold
bricking" or bluffing, real or suspected, kills the whole co-
operative relation.
Cost Elements. — These need not be taken up: they are
self-evident. This is equally true of the managerial problem.
Dealing with the Problem. — This also calls for no dis-
cussion. If a man does not know how to be square, sug-
gestions are of no value. If he does, he won't need
any suggestions.
Plant Pride — Departmental Pride. — These are important
elements in securing cooperation from the working force.
They have been taken up elsewhere and so are not taken up
again here.
The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to pro-
mote plant and departmental pride in order to secure the
most effective cooperation.
Dealing with the Problem. — These points have already
been taken up. A very active means of securing cooperation
432 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
is to foster in the man by example and general cooperating
methods a particular pride in the success of the work of the
department. This departmental pride in its effect is much
the same as the pride mentioned as plant pride previously,
except that it is more intense inasmuch as it applies to a
particular part of a plant where each man is more keenly
interested. By departmental pride a man is led unconsciously
to beKeve his department as distinguished from any other
department of the plant is the best possible department for
a man to work in and reflects credit on every man in it. This
particular pride is one of the strongest weapons a foreman
may have for developing cooperation.
Telling the Truth. — ^In order to secure cooperation, it is
necessary for any foreman to secure the confidence of his
men to the extent that they believe in him and are certain
that he does not trifle with them. One means of securing this
confidence is by consistently telling the truth about any
matter that might arise. This does not mean, however, that
the foreman must take his men into his complete confidence
to the extent of all details of his work, but to whatever degree
he does take them into his confidence, whatever he tells them
must be the truth.
Giving Everybody a Square DeaL — ^When each man in
the working force is certain that no matter what event occurs
his foreman is certain to treat it justly to the extent of giving
each man his just dues, or, in other words, giving everybody
a square deal he has confidence in the foreman. If a workman
has done a particularly good piece of cooperating his fore-
man should give him the credit. If he has done a particularly
good piece of work he should see to it that the man himself
knows that he appreciates it. If, on the other hand, a man
departs from his best efforts, in like manner his pimishment,
if punishment there be, must be "square." A foreman in
dealing with his working force must realize that they are
entirely different from his equipment or material responsi-
bilities, inasmuch as they are hiunan, have human failings and
characteristics, and above all are most quick to see any de-
parture from a squarie deal.
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 483
Getting the Confidence of the WorWng Force. — ^It can-
not fail to be noted that practically all the points brought up
in connection with securing cooperation from the members
of the working force were brought out in the consideration of
the elements of leadership and the whole matter could have
been summed up in the statement that a good leader secures
the best possible cooperation from his team and a poor leader
can't get any. After all is said, the fact remains that the
leader is the man who is tactful, considerate, knows human
nature and realizes that he is working with human beings,
not merely with machines and some "machine attachments"
in the form of "hands."
All that could be done in this chapter has been to suggest
to such a man a few things that might make a little clearer
some of his problems and the reason why some things work
out as they do.
No foreman can secure the real cooperation of his team
through any sort of bluff. Sympathy must be real, interest
must be genuine, not assumed. Many people who had to deal
with team management have tried to work it "by a formula"
but "canned" tact, sympathy, consideration and leadership
comes about as near to being the real thing as canned corned
beef comes to the fresh article, and there is no more danger
that people will mistake one for the other on matters of
cooperation than they do in buying in the market.
POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
PART VIII
COOPERATION
1. In a certain plant the general foreman and the shift
foremen got together and determined the most efficient pro-
cedure in the case of certain possible emergencies. Was this
cooperation? If so, with whom?
2. A has his opinion of certain orders that have been
given with regard to fire rules. He thinks that they are no
good. He expresses this opinion all over the plant wherever
he meets anybody. B has the same opinion but says nothing.
28
4M THE FOEEMAN AND HIS JOB
He does however put the case as he sees it up to
his superior with his reasons. Which of the two men
is giving the better cooperation? With whom are they
cooperating or not cooperating?
3. A foreman borrows a good man from another fore-
man in a case where the first foreman has no work for the
man at that time. The man turns out to be especially good
in the new department. When work comes on the second
foreman wants his man back. The first foreman does not
want to lose him and so tells the man to quit and then he will
hire him again in his department. The man does so
and the second foreman secures a good man in this
way. Is this a case of cooperation? If soj with whom?
Would the case be any different if the man wanted to stay
in the second department?
4. A general ruling is made that masks' must be worn
on certain jobs. Foreman A issues an arbitrary order to
his- men by posting a notice. Foreman B informs himself as
to just the reasons for this order and puts these reasons) up
to his men. Any difference in the degree of cooperation in
these two cases? Why? Is the cost of enforcing the order
likely to be the same in the two cases? Why?
5. A garment factory was employing rather ignorant
women workers. One of these women bought a garment at
a retail store in town. She and some of her friends figured
up the piecework price on the garment by adding up what
each got on her special operation and as a result they became
convinced that the difference between that figure and the
retail price meant that the company was making so much
money that the piecework rate could be raised. They
knew nothing of overhead, retailer's profit, etc. As a matter
of fact the company in question was making a very moderate
profit on the business. The fact that this thing was being
talked up came to the notice of the foreman. Some dismissed
it as "mere talk" but others thought that it might make
unnecessary trouble, took the trouble to acquaint the
COST PROBLEMS ON COOPERATION 435
Management with the state of affairs, get the facts, and
see that these facts were made plain to the women. Was
there any cooperation here? If so, with whom?
6. As a matter of cooperation would a supervisor ever
be justified in giving orders or directions to men who were
under the authority of another supervisor who was his
equal or his superior? If so, under what conditions?
7. It is necessary to reduce the operating force in a
plant. The policy adopted is to lay off all unmarried men
and so far as possible keep men with families. One foreman
takes pains to explain to every man that is laid off why he
is laid off. Another foreman thinks that that is unnecessary
and gives no explanation. Any difference in cooperation
here? If so, how? With whom?
8. In what ways can a foreman cooperate with an
employment department?
9. If all duties were clearly defined and provided for
by standard practice, would there be any chance for
cooperation?
10. A man who is responsibUe for getting out mixtures
is very careful to see that there are no mistakes made. In
doing this is he cooperating with the foreman in charge of
the next department or is he only discharging his duty on
his job?
11. A truck load of material that could be damaged by
water was placed as directed by the planning department.
While it was standing there an automatic sprinkler let go
and nobody moved the truck on the ground that nobody had
any authority to move it. Was this poor cooperation with
the planning department? If not, was it a case of failure
to cooperate with anybody? Or was it a plain failure to
discharge a responsibility?
12. What are some of the ways in which a foreman can
cooperate with the employment department? With the
medical service?
13. A foreman gets a request from his superior for
436 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
suggestions on a certain point. In what way can he cooper-
ate most fully?
14. You see something wrong going on in another man's
department. In what way can you cooperate the best, by
taking up the matter with the superintendent or directly with
the foreman concerned.'' Why.?
15. Why is it more difBcult to cooperate with a foreman
of equal grade than to cooperate with your superior.'' Is it.''
16. Give a case where you have secured cooperation from
the members of your working force.
17. Give a case where you have cooperated with
your men.
18. In your opinion is it possible for a foreman to
cooperate with his men and still keep them up to fuU pro-
duction and quality.'' Why?
19. Which would give better results a " loose " organiza-
tion with good cooperative spirit all along the line or a
" tight" organization with little or no cooperation? Why?
20. How can a supervisor cooperate with Americaniza-
tion classes?
21. How can he cooperate with a vocational school?
22. How can he cooperate with an evening trade exten-
sion school?
23. In your opinion would a knowledge of the plant as
a whole, its departments, what they turn out, where the
product goes, the order in which it goes through the plant,
etc., affect the cooperative attitude of the members of the
working force? Why?
24. A group of workmen stay overtime to finish a job
and do not ask for overtime pay. Are they cooperating with
somebody? If so, with their foreman, the G. M. or who?
25. A report on production is due at the office of the
superior on Mondays at 10 o'clock. One man gets it in on
time and sees that it is correct. Another man gets it in late
and it is often incorrect owing to carelessness on the part
of his clerk. Is this a case of cooperation? If so,
with whom?
PART IX
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE APPLICATION OF THE
METHODS OF ANALYSIS TO A MANAGERIAL
PROBLEM. CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB
438
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
THE ANALYSIS LAY-OUT FOR A MANAGERLiL PROB-
LEM ON CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB
IMITATION
CARELESS-
NESS.
NEVER BEEN
INSTRUCTED.
ORDERS NOT
FULLY UN-
DERSTOOD.
ACCIDENTS
TEMPORARY
CARELESS-^
NESS.
DIFFICULTY
CAN PROBA-
B L Y BE
REMEDIED
PERMANENT
CARELESS-
NESS.
DIFFICULTY
CAN POSSI-
B L Y BE
REMEDIED.
fNO DIRECT
WAY TO RE-
MOVE CAUSE.
Not been prop-
erly instructed.
Never been in-
structed.
Orders not com-
plete.
Poor command of
English.
Failure to inspect
for danger
points.
Failure to note
bad condi-
tions.
Failure to cover
high supervis-
ory points
properly.
Fatigue.
Taking a chance.
Temporary ill-
ness.
Special operating
difiSculties,
Change in the
conditions not
covered by the
instructions.
Failure to under-
stand the need
of special ac-
curacy or care
at certain
operating
points.
Sense of accuracy
lacking.
Job has become
routine.
Man dislikes the
job.
Sense of respon-
sibility lack-
ing.
Cannot do the
job.
Don't want to
work.
WORKER NOT
TO BLAME.
FAULT OF
THE FORE-
MAN.
SAVE THE MAN.
FIND THE
DIFFICULTY.
AIM TO SAVE
THE MAN.
FIND THE
DIFFICULTY.
TRY TO SAVE
THE MAN
FIRST. IP
DIFFICULTY
CANNOT BE
REMEDIED.
LET HIM GO.
GET HIM OFF
THE JOB.
I
CHAPTER XXIV
AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE APPLICATION OF
THE METHOD OF ANALYSIS TO A HUMAN
FACTOR MANAGERIAL PROBLEM. CARE-
LESSNESS ON THE JOB
Preliminary. — Some of the most common and most diffi-
cult problems with which a foreman has to deal both as a
supervisor and as a manager come out of what may be called
"carelessness on the job." Somebody often regarded as en-
tirely reliable, because he never did anything of the kind
before, makes some sort of a "break" or a "bonehead play,"
causing damage or loss, sometimes of a most serious char-
acter. Somebody fails to follow directions carefully, or does
not pay attention to cautions, or does the wrong thing at an
important operating point, and often, so far as the foreman
can see, there is no reason on earth why he should have done
it. For example, in a chemical plant, one operating point on
a certain process might be to read and record temperatures
at exact hourly intervals, and when the product does not
come out right it is found that the operator had taken his
readings at intervals of anywhere from three-quarters of an
hour to an hour and a quarter and "didn't suppose it made
any difference," or "didn't know why he didn't do it right."
Again a man transporting cans full of paint from one point
in the department to another packs his load so "carelessly"
that he has a spill with corresponding damage and loss of
stock, or, in operating a machine a man gets his fingers
caught in the gears and so injures himself. In referring to
anything of this kind, the general explanation would be that
the man was "careless," which, if it got us anywhere in deal-
ing with the problem would be a very good explanation, but
unfortunately it does not, and when we lay a smash or an
accident to "carelessness on the job" and let it go at that,
439
440 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
we have not got anywhere in dealing with it effectively as a
managerial problem.
Reference has been repeatedly made in different chapters
to the value of applying the methods of analysis to problems
of management rather than to stick to what has been called
the "guess" method. As an illustration of how this method
can be applied to dealing with a managerial problem that is
often not only a very difficult one to handle, but that is often
handled very badly, this chapter takes up the question of
carelessness on the job as a managerial problem.
Carelessness on the Job as a Cost Element. — ^The direct
results of carelessness are so well known that they need no
consideration; they are, of course, anything in the way of
loss of material, damage to equipment and personal injury.
It may be well, however, to mention that many foremen
think of carelessness almost entirely in terms of accidents.
It is with them a "safety" proposition. While it is true that
certain kinds of carelessness are the cause of accidents,
causing personal injury, the carelessness discussed in this
chapter is carelessness on the job, safety being discussed
under the Physical Condition of the Working Force in
Chapter XVI.
Carelessness on the job as discussed here means careless-
ness that results in increasing the cost of the job, and it is
taken up at some length, not because of the evident direct
cost elements, but because according to the way it is handled
as a managerial problem it can very seriously affect concealed
costs that are often not connected with it in the minds of
many people, especially in connection with discharge cost,
reduced production and turnover.
The Need of Anticipating Carelessness. — A foreman as
a manager can handle carelessness in two ways. First, he can
wait until something happens through carelessness and then
find some way to prevent the same thing happening again;
and often his method of doing this is simply to fire the man,
which, as pointed out later, is not dealing with the problem at
all in a managerial way. Second, he can by study and plan-
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 441
ning anticipate the points at which carelessness occurred,
and the conditions under which it may occur, and by care-
fully considering what special precautions should be taken,
before the carelessness happens, may head it oS in any par-
ticular form in which it happens to come up. He can "take
out insurance in advance" by preventing the thing from hap-
pening, which costs little or nothing, or deal with the results
of carelessness after they have happened, which often means
cost to an extent that no one can estimate in advance, and
which may be out of all proportion to the apparent import-
ance of the operating point at which it occurred.
The General Managerial Problem. — Carelessness is a
human factor element and so can never be entirely cut out so
long as men do work, but it can be reduced to a minimum and
both in its direct and indirect cost elements reduced by care-
' ful and intelligent management, so that the foreman's general
managerial job is: (1) to reduce carelessness to a minimum,
and (2) when it does occur, deal with it so as to cause the
least loss to the department and to the plant. In order to do
this he must make a careful study of the kinds of careless-
ness, their causes, and of the cost elements that will come
into any action that he may take, and then determine how
these different kinds can be most effectively handled.
If he goes at the job of handling carelessness in this way,
he will find that, in general, th^ following facts are true :
1. What is often called "carelessness" is not really care-
lessness at all but the difficulty is due to quite another cause.
2. In some cases the trouble is not due to any negligence
on the part of the worker but is really the fault of somebody
else, often the foreman himself.
3. Where it is true carelessness, it may be one of two
kinds, each requiring different managerial handling on ac-
count of the different cost elements involved.
What is carelessness ? Carelessness as distinguished from
a number of other things that on first sight look like care-
lessness may be defined as doing the wrong thing (or not
doing the right thing) when there is no intention of doing
442 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
the wrong thing and there are no conditions that prevent
doing the right thing. For example, when a shortstop is
"asleep" and so lets a grounder get by him and a batter gets
his base, nobody assumes that he intended to let the baU go
by, and if the ball went where he could have reasonably
stopped it, it is assmned that he ought to have stopped it,
and that his failure to stop it was due to carelessness. If,
on the other hand, he was "awake" and was watching a man
trying to steal second base, he may have made a "bonehead
play." His judgment may have been wrong, but he was not
careless in the sense in which the term is used here.
Need for Distinguishing Between Real and Imitation
Carelessness. — ^In dealing effectively with carelessness as a
manager, a foreman must therefore foUow a certain pro-
cedure consisting of a series' of steps as follows :
(1) Satisfying himself that what at first sight looks like
carelessness is reaUy carelessness.
(2) If it is true carelessness, determining the kind of
carelessness.
(3) Dealing with each kind of carelessness in the best
way from the standpoint of costs.
The determination of (1) and (2) often calls for care-
ful study and analysis of the case and as in a number of
other cases, a foreman can go at the matter by offhand guess
with the corresponding chance of doing an injustice to some-
body, losing a good man, cutting down interest and pro-
moting dissatisfaction, or he can, so far as any human being
can, by studying out each case, come as near as possible to
getting the true facts and on those facts basing his action
with the corresponding chance of reducing injustice, giving
a fair deal, which every foreman wants to do, promoting
satisfaction and in many other ways cut out costs.
The simple fact that something wrong is done does not
of necessity mean that it is a case of carelessness, and it is
necessary to distinguish between true carelessness and imi-
tation carelessness before any proper action can be taken in
dealing with it managerially.
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 443
Some forms of "imitation" or apparent carelessness are
discussed below. There are, of course, others, and a fore-
man in studying cases of apparent carelessness must take all
possible means to find out that it is not apparent careless-
ness, but the "genuine article" before he deals with it on a
straight "carelessness" basis.
Of course, so far as results go, it makes no difference
whether carelessness is or is not the genuine article. The
damage is done or the accident takes place just the same, but
it is important to distinguish between true carelessness and
apparent carelessness on account of the very different ways
in which it must be handled managerially if the cost elements
are to be cut down or cut out.
B. APPARENT CAEEIESSNESS
Apparent Carelessness. — Among the more common causes
of apparent carelessness are:
( 1 ) Ignorance.
(2) Misunderstanding of orders or directions.
(3) Accidents, pure and simple.
In the first two cases the man honestly thought that he
was doing what he was expected to do ; in the third case no-
body could have anticipated change in conditions that made
the job go wrong.
Ignorance and Apparent Carelessness. — ^Apparent care-
lessness on the job is often due to the fact that the worker
has never been properly directed or thoroughly instructed
or cautioned with regard to the particular points on which
the "carelessness" occurs. He is really ignorant as to the
proper procedure, or the fact that he should be especially
careful or exact at some particular point on the job because
nobody has ever told Mm about it. The foreman may think
that he has put over the necessary information or has given
the necessary instruction, but, as a matter of fact, he has
not done it. This is usually due, as discussed fuUy in the
chapters on instruction, to the fact that the foreman is
trying to carry two jobs at once, supervision and instruction,
444 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
and while, in the pressure of getting the work out he fully
intended to do a good teachiag job he actually failed to put
it over properly. This slip up in teaching under production
conditions is much more common than many foremen realize
and is one of the reasons why some knowledge of teaching is
an asset to any foreman.
As examples of apparent carelessness on the job the two
cases given below may be of service.
In the case of a train stopping between stations the job
of a trainman is to go back with a flag to protect from a
rear end collision from a following train.
If the job is to be done in such a way as to prevent a
rear end collision, the man must go back a certain distance.
A smash-up occurs, and an investigation shows that he was
green on the job and that all he was ever told was *'to go
back a ways," and that he never knew that it requires a cer-
tain distance to stop a train.
The same point is brought out in the story of the man
who for forty years had tested car wheels with a hammer and,
being retired for long and faithful service, was asked at a
little ceremony to describe the job that he had held down so
long and so well. "When the train comes in I takes my ham-
mer and hits all the wheels and I've never missed one." "Fine,
and what do you hit them for.? " " Hanged if I know."
A very good example of apparent carelessness that was
really not carelessness, but was due to a failure to properly
instruct, is the following :
In a certain chemical plant acids were stored in earthen-
ware tanks which, of course, had earthenware spigots for
drawing off. A workmen, whose job it was to draw off from
various tanks, came to one where the spigot spindle stuck;
he undertook to loosen it by tapping with a hammer, broke
the spigot and naturally caused a considerable loss. On the
face of it this appeared a plain case of "bonehead" careless-
ness. A study of the case, however, brought out the fol-
lowing facts :
(a) The man has been on the job only a few days on
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB MS
acid tanks, but had worked for a long time drawing off liquid
from various steel or wooden tanks having metallic spigots.
(b) The earthenware tank and the spigot were so cov-
ered with dirt that nobody by looking at them could tell what
they were made of.
(c) Nobody had ever told the man that these particular
tanks and spigots were of earthenware.
(d) The man walked a hundred feet across the shed to
find a hammer.
After these facts had been brought out it was agreed that
this was not a case of carelessness at all on the part of the
man, that he had not, with the information at his disposal,
made a "bonehead play" but that he had shown intelligence
and zeal in hunting up a hammer, and that the real cause
of the smash and resulting damage was a failure to fully
instruct the man. That is, it was the foreman's fault, he was
the careless man, not the workman. The foreman was the
fellow who had fallen down on his job, the man had not.
As a contrast with this another case may be quoted: A
man had for a long time had the job of carting a liquid in
cans from one department to another in a two-wheeled hand-
cart, and had to deliver half of his load at one point and the
rest at another. His instructions were, after delivering his
first half, to rearrange his load so as to keep the cart bal-
anced properly. He delivered his first half from the front of
the cart and, instead of rearranging, got a "friend" to ride
on the front end to keep the balance. Friend saw the foreman
coming, made a flying jump to get back to his own station,
cart tipped load out, doing considerable damage.
In this case it is evident that the carelessness was the
fault of the man. He knew his job and "took a chance" be-
cause he was in too much of a hurry or too lazy to attend
to his job properly.
The two illustrations given will illustrate the fact that,
in handling cases of carelessness the first question to be de-
cided is to determine the real cause, as, until that cause is
known, carelessness can be neither anticipated correctly nor
446 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
dealt with effectively, when in spite of all attempts to antici-
pate and prevent it in advance it does occur.
Whose Fault? — ^Evidently if a man fails to do the correct
thing because he was put on the job when he did not know the
job, who is to blame, the man on the job or the man who put
him on the job and neglected to find out whether he knew
the job or not?
There is only one answer to this question. Apparent
carelessness due to ignorance is the foreman's fault and not
the worker's fault. It is the foreman who takes the chance
when he puts him on the job without knowing that he knows
that job. Hence: if this is true then the determination as to
whether a case of "carelessness" is really carelessness or
is, in fact, apparent carelessness due to ignorance is of the
highest importance in dealing with the problem since it fixes
the responsibility either on the man or on the foreman, as the
case may be, at the beginning.
Apparent Carelessness Due to Misunderstanding of
Orders or Directions. — This is a much more common cause
of apparent carelessness than is often supposed. On giving
directions or orders there is often a "you know it, and I know
it and so there is no need of talking about it" assumption on
the part of the foreman and the workman that often leaves
some points to guess. The common omissions in giving orders
and directions and their effects on cost are discussed else-
where, and so are not brought out in detail here, but again
the fact remains that apparent carelessness due to misunder-
standing of directions or orders is, in general, up to the fore-
man because a part of the job of a supervisor is to know
that any orders that he issues or directions that he gives are
fully understood.
Failure to Fully Understand Orders or Directions. — This
is a much more common cause of apparent carelessness than
is generally supposed. In the hurry of the work directions
are not fully given, or, if given, the foreman does not take
the time to make sure that they are fully understood, or that
the worker fully understands just how the operation is to be
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 447
carried out. For example, a man might be told to weigh
each wheelbarrow of material, but might not understand
he was to do the weighing himself or that a weigher was to
do it for him.
Another common cause of apparent carelessness is lack
of command of English. This cause of carelessness is par-
ticularly likely to occur in cases where foreign speaking help
are cautioned as to danger points. The man does not fully
understand, but is afraid to say so. For example, in a wire
mill a man may be told that he is liable to have his clothing
caught on the blocks in the frame or on the wire going to the
dies and if he is caught to press on the stop with his foot.
In many cases the man, not knowing English very well, when
he is asked, "Do you understand?" will say "Yes"- when he
has not really taken it in, and as a result he is "careless,"
gets caught and is injured more or less seriously. Or he may
be warned by a sign printed in English about using a freight
elevator, particularly about danger while it is moving, but
through not being able to read and not knowing that a slow-
moving elevator is just as dangerous, if not more so, than a
fast one, he tried to get on or oif when it is moving and
is caught.
Whose fault.''
Apparent Carelessness Due to Accident. — After all
questions of carelessness, real or apparent, have been cut out,
there still remain some cases that must be considered as acci-
dental, that is, the damage or loss is due to causes that could
not have been foreseen or guarded against. Inspected boilers
will let go, tested chains will break away, even where all pos-
sible human care and foresight has been used.
Of course, an accident is, in the last analysis, somebody's
fault, but, in practice, the cause may have been out of con-
• trol of whoever was on the job when it happened, and at all
events, true accidents should be distinguished from the dam-
age, injury or loss due to carelessness as the term is used here.
The Managerial Problem on limitation Carelessness. —
The general managerial problem on imitation carelessness is
448 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
first to be sure that it is imitation carelessness and ascertain
and remove the cause.
Dealing with the Problem. — Since, in the majority of
cases, the causes of imitation carelessness can be ascertained,
the method of dealing with the problem is to find out the cause
and remove it, as indicated above, by not "blowing up" or fir-
ing a man offhand, but by making a study of the case, that
is, by again applying the analysis method instead of the
"guess" method. For example, if the apparent carelessness
was due to lack of instructions on some point, as in the case
of the man and the acid tanks, already described, the
only thing to do is to "cover" that point and try to anticipate
such cases thereafter. The majority of cases discussed here
under this heading are not the fault of the worker but of
somebody else (often the foreman) who honestly thought that
the matter had been properly taken care of. The only thing
in many cases is to charge iii up to experi^ce, make up one's
mind not to let that particular thing happen again and note
one more retailed responsibility point to be more carefully
looked after in the future. The main thing is to so handle
the case that satisfaction and interest are not reduced, that
injustice is not done in blaming the man before one knows
that the trouble is his fault, in keeping cool until the case has
been studied out and in waiting till you know what you are
dealing with before taking any disciplinary action, for you
may find that you are the one to be called down.
Real Carelessness. — ^If the previous discussion and the
illustrations used have served the purpose for which they
were intended, the point has been brought out that many
cases of apparent carelessness are not carelessness at all but
are due to other causes in many cases due to negligence on
the foreman's part, not the worker, or due to "unavoidable"
accidents. The following paragraphs discuss true careless-
ness as distinguished from apparent carelessness as the term
is used here.
Real Carelessness and its Causes. — ^The general tendency
on the part of some foremen is to lay carelessness on the job
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 449
to one of three causes: plain "boneheadedness" or "cussed-
ness" or "laziness," which lets the foreman out easily, but
dogs not help the situation from the managerial standpoint.
Most foremen, however, try earnestly by every means in their
power to handle carelessness effectively, but often find it a
very difficult problem to deal with, largely because so many
of the causes of carelessness are so concealed that in any
given case what at first sight would seem to be the cause is
not the real cause at all.
True Carelessness Without Intention. — Carelessness
has a cause : it does not "just happen," though sometimes it
seems so. It is safe to say that carelessness as such is not
due to intention and is not wilful. Nobody means to cause loss
or damage either to the plant or to themselves under circum-
stances where the results can be properly defined as due to
lack of care. In dealing with carelessness the first step is
therefore to determine that it is carelessness, that intention
was lacking. If intention existed, it is not a case of care-
lessness but of something else.
In the following paragraphs it is assumed that there was
no intention of causing a damage or loss, but that, whatever
the cause, the trouble was due to carelessness as defined here.
Kinds of Carelessness. — In dealing with carelessness as a
manager, the foreman must first determine certain facts be-
fore he can act intelligently. Among the more important of
these facts are :
( 1 ) The kind of carelessness as between :
(a) Temporary carelessness.
(b) Permanent carelessness.
And it is important to make this distinction at the beginning,
because the causes of the two kinds of carelessness are differ-
ent and the managerial methods of dealing with them must, as
taken up later, be based on very different principles.
Temporary and Permanent Carelessness. — ^As just
stated, carelessness may be either temporary or permanent,
and in many ways it is important in the beginning to dis-
tinguish between the two. Temporary or accidental care-
29
450 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
lessness happens once or twice, usually in the case of green
men or men new on the j ob, or, strangely enough, in the case
of men who have been on the job for a long time. Permanent
or persistent carelessness continues after every reasonable
attempt has been made in the way of special caution and in-
struction. The case of the man with the tip cart quoted a
few pages back is a good illustration of temporary careless-
ness. For another example, if a man who has operated an
electrically driven machine for some time one day closes the
switch on a direct-current motor circuit with the starting
resistance out, and blows out the fuses, or injures the appa-
ratus, this is temporary carelessness. But if in the same shop
there was a man who "regularly" managed to do some damage
to the machine on which he worked, then his case is entirely
different from the first one. He is permanently careless. In
the one instance the lack of care was temporally; in the
other, persistent.
Dealing with the Problem — General Method. — ^A very
serious managerial problem for the foreman is the handling
of either temporary or permanent carelessness, owing to the
danger that it may become a high cost factor. A slight de-
gree of carelessness iu a powder plant, for example, may
result in wiping out the whole plant, and in a high-grade
machine shop may cause the ruin of valuable machines or
of valuable stock, or, in either ease, may cause loss of time,
money, or life.
The General Managerial Problem. — The general man-
agerial problem as between temporary and permanent care-
lessness, of course, in both cases is to reduce it to a minimum.
In dealing with the problem of temporary and persistent
carelessness there are certain general principles which, since
they apply in all the special cases discussed later, are pre-
sented here for consideration.
Dealing with Carelessness. — The first important point
to determine is whether the carelessness is temporary or per-
sistent. Where such a case is discovered, it should be first
assumed that the carelessness is temporary, because if it is
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 461
it can be remedied and the man saved without much difficulty,
which is an important point in connection with cost of turn-
over as discussed in the notes on that cost element. If, after
trial, it becomes evident that it is a case of persistent care-
lessness, probable causes must be considered, and those that
would not call for discharging the man tried out first before
deciding to get rid of him altogether.
(1) Temporary carelessness. In general the problem
here is to remove the cause and save the man, since, if this
can be done, the "quitting" cost is saved and the losses due to
this form of carelessness are also removed.
(2) Persistent carelessness. In this case the general
principle is that the man must he got off of that job, since
it has been demonstrated that so long as he is on it loss and
damage will continue.
^This means that so far as the job is concerned, intelli-
gent managerial aims are, in cases of temporary careless-
ness, save the man for the job and avoid the cost of training
a new man on that job. In cases of persistent carelessness
get the man off the job, but save him to the plant if this can
be done to advantage. This depends on the special conditions
as taken up later in this chapter.
Permanent Carelessness. — ^Where carelessness persists it
is evidently not due to any of the causes that go with "imi-
tation" or temporary carelessness. Among the causes of
persistent carelessness may be:
(1) The man lacks what is sometimes called the "sense"
of accuracy or some other special qualifications for that
special job.
(2) Job has become routine.
(3) The man dislikes the job.
(4) He lacks a sense of responsibility on his job.
(5) He does not want to work.
(1) Sense of Accuracy or Other Qualifications Lack-
ing.— It is well known that different men differ in their sense
of exactness or accuracy, or, in other words, in the degree to
which they can think accurately or can carry out accurate
462 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
operations. Some people simply cannot notice beyond cer-
tain accuracy limits. Such a man, for example, might read
a thermometer, yet it might be impossible to make him grasp
the necessity of reading the instrument at any given time or
the scale to one-tenth of a degree. He simply cannot see
why reading somewhere near the proper time or within a
degree or so is not just as all right as reading to exactly the
right fraction of a degree. Sometimes he realizes the neces-
sity of doing it, but simply does not seem to be able to do it.
In either case he will make a case of persistent carelessness
on that job.
In some cases a job calls for special qualifications and
where these are lacking we have a case of persistent careless-
ness, a standard example of this would be a girl in a millinery
shop who persistently got the wrong colors In trimming hats.
Investigation might show that she was color blind and did not
know it. As is well known this matter of possible "care-
lessness" resulting from color blindness is so important in the
case of pilots that special qualifying tests are used.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The managerial problem here
is to get the worker off of any job where he cannot meet the
accuracy or other special requirements, and if he is other-
wise aU right, get him on to a job where he can hold it down
properly, but save the man.
Dealing with the Problem. — This simply means an intel-
ligent use of transfer rather than of discharge and needs no
special consideration here.
Dealing with the Problem. — The only practical way to
deal with cases of lack of "accuracy sense" is by getting
someone on the job who has enough sense of accuracy to
hold it down. Such a case gets us into the problem of
"matching man qualifications to job qualifications," already
taken up in another chapter, and so needs no further con-
sideration here from that angle.
In such cases, a man often can be transferred to work
that does not make demands on him beyond his "accuracy
limits," as, for instance, a man failing on a machine job
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 453
gauged to 1/10000 inch, might do entirely satisfactory work
on rough facing, or a pressman who failed on making up
forms containing half-tone cuts might do good work on
straight matter.
(2) J oh Has Become Routine. — Just as temporary care-
lessness may be due to being new on the job, permanent care-
lessness may be due to having been on the job so long that it
has become routine.
One illustration of this is the case of tack-machine oper-
ators or "feeders." The operation of putting strips of plate
into the machine requires the use of a brake for stopping the
barrel; and after operating the machines for a while the
habit of not stopping the barrel, or "feeding on the fly" is
apt to be formed. This carelessness is very often the cause
of breaking the "nosepiece," which results in laying up the
machine until a new one is made and put on.
In the case of safety the lack of care due to routine is
most apparent. A workman on a band saw becomes unduly
familiar with brushing off with his hand small pieces which
collect on the saw table. Knowing the danger full well, he
becomes careless through routine, permanently, with the
result that most operators of band saws have missing fingers
to show just how serious this carelessness is.
The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to break
up the routine by transfer to another job, or to another
department but to save the man.
Dealing viath the Problem — Transferring Men. — ^Where
permanent carelessness is due to the job having become
routine to the man the situation can often be cleared up by a
transfer either to some other job in the department or to
some other department. The value of transferring rather
than discharging is discussed fully in the notes on turnover,
so that it is enough to point out here that if transferring will
cure the trouble it costs the concern less than discharge, and,
unless usual conditions should be tried first.
(3) Man Dislikes the Job. — Persistent carelessness is
often due to the fact that the man is on the wrong job and
464 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
this statement does not refer to the working conditions, as
already discussed, but to something much more diffi-
cult to determine. It is a fact, however, that certain kinds of
jobs seem to appeal to certain people and not to others.
This is often quite independent of the individual's qualifica-
tions for the job. A job may appeal to a man when he is not
fitted to do it well and may not appeal to him when he is able
to hold it down in good shape, though this case is not as com-
mon as the other. In some cases a man may even want to
tackle a job when it is perfectly evident to everyone else, and
should be to him, that he cannot make a success of it. How-
ever that may be, a man will often show persistent careless-
ness on work that does not appeal to him and that careless-
ness wiU disappear if he gets a job that does appeal to him.
The Managerial Problem. — ^The problem here is to find
a job that the man likes and get him on to it wherever pos-
sible, or in some way stop the "quarrel between the man and
his job."
Dealing with the Problem. — This is again a case of the
intelligent use of transfer or in some cases, by talking things
over with the man, changing his attitude towards the job.
For example, men have overcome their dislike to the job they
were on and stuck to it when they found that it put them in
the line of promotion, but in general, the more nearly a man
and his job can "live together" the less chance for per-
sistent carelessness.
(4) Sense of Responsibility Lacking. — This is often the
result of "sending a boy," that is, this form of persistent
carelessness is particularly liable to come up in the case of
young employees and of inexperienced men and in both cases
for the same reason; "they don't know enough to be care-
ful," that is, they fail to realize what the results of careless-
ness may be because they never have seen the results. The
persistently careless automobile driver is the one who has
never had a bad smash-up. He is careless because he has no
sense of what may be the results of careless driving and in
most states children are not allowed to drive cars because of
their lack of experience.
CABELESSNESS ON THE JOB 4S6
The Managerial Problem. — The problem here is to get
sufficiently mature and experienced workers on to the job to
secure the necessary sense of responsibility.
Dealing with the Problem. — Some possible methods of
dealing with this managerial problem are :
a. If more or less irresponsible workers must be used,
to be especially careful to cover all "high supervisory points"
and to "red flag" these points by the use of a suitable job
analysis for supervisory value.
b. From a study of job requirements and man qualifica-
tions, so far as the limits of the job will permit, to "match"
the worker and the job.
c. The Man Does Not Want to Work. — ^Persistent
carelessness may sometimes be due to the fact that the man
does not want to work. He has no interest — ^he has no job
pride. He simply does not care.
While such cases do occur, they are much less common
than was formerly supposed, and when they do occur are
often found to be due to the physical condition of the man
as discussed in Chapter XVI. This is so true that many
large concerns have found that it paid to provide medical
service and observation, as a means of reducing, among other
things, apparent persistent carelessness, that seemed at first
glance to be due to plain unwillingness to work.
The Managerial Problem. — The chief part of the man-
agerial problem here is to be sure that it is a case of "don't
care" before taking action on that basis, bearing in mind the
statements made above.
Dealing with the Problem. — ^Where permanent careless-
ness is definitely determined as due to the fact that the man
does not want to work, the only remedy Is discharge, with its
accompanying cost. The danger here is that the foreman will
often assume permanent carelessness as due to this cause
without having thoroughly studied the case. In proportion
as he discharges men who could be saved by proper handling,
he has increased his cost and his management has been poor.
456 THE FOREMANAND HIS JOB
D. TEMFOBABY CAKEI.ESSNESS
Preliminary. — Section C discussed persistent careless-
ness, some of its causes and some suggestions and methods of
dealing with it. This section, in the same way, takes up tem-
porary carelessness on the job.
Some Possible Causes of Accidental or Temporary Care-
lessness.— ^Among the more common causes of temporary
carelessness are:
1. Fatigue.
2. "Taking a chance."
3. Illness.
4. Difficulties in being careful.
5. Temporary inattention.
6. Changes in conditions not covered in instructions.
7. Failure to understand the need of special accuracy or
care on some special point on the job.
Temporary Carelessness — Fatigue. — Often a man who is
temporarily careless is overtired; that is, the cause of his
carelessness is fatigue. Of course, this fatigue may be the
result of overwork due to "work" conditions in the depart-
ment, or of overtime, or failure to secure proper rest or relax-
ation outside of the department.
A case of this kind would be one where, after putting in a
regular day's work, a draftsman undertakes to work three
or four evenings a week until eleven o'clock. The chances of
his making an error through carelessness is much more than
if his regular working day was all he undercook. Often a
workman is prevented by home conditions, such as sickness
or accident, from getting proper rest and comes to his work
in the morning after having been up all night with a sick
wife or child, and as a result, he is temporarily careless dur-
ing working hours the next day.
Temporary Carelessness — Spotting the Real Cause. —
The first step in working out the managerial problem in all
these cases is to spot the true cause, in order that the right
action may be taken. For example, in a case of temporary
carelessness that was under analysis it might appear that
the carelessness was due to working overtime or to doing addi-
CARELESSNESS ON THE JOB 4fi7
tional work outside as in the case of the draftsman just de-
scribed. It might be due to taking a chance, as where a man
is in a hurry and tried to "short circuit" a job. It may be
due to some form of temporary ilhiess as discussed in a pre-
vious chapter. It may be due to some temporary loss of
attention as some group of distinguished visitors coming into
the department. Causes of this kind are usually easy to
locate, but some of the other possible causes are likely to
make more trouble. For example, in some cases unexpected
conditions may come up that were not covered by the instruc-
tions or that the worker does not know how to deal with but
thinks that he does. He goes ahead and as a result there is
trouble that is evidently due to some form of carelessness.
Under these conditions the worker is not likely to willingly
admit what the matter was, and so a case of this kind may be
difficult to spot. The same statement is likely to be true for
the last possible cause as given and for the same reasons.
The Managerial Policy. — ^What may be called the man-
agerial policy in such cases, after having decided that the
case is one of temporary carelessness, and spotted the cause,
is to remove the cause and do it at minimum cost. This
means, first, saving the man for the plant. Second, adjusting
the difficulty without losing anything on the human factor
elements. In this connection one or two suggestions may
be of service.
(1) Making it Easy to he Careful. — It is quite often pos-
sible to remedy temporary carelessness by making it easy to
be careful. The use of automobile safety devices, or of jigs
and fixtures, or templets, illustrates this point. As another
example, there might be a pressure gauge that it was im-
portant to have read accurately, and that gauge might be
located in an inaccessible place, so that a man had to climb
a ladder or stand in an awkward position to reach it, or
might be in a dark corner where it was very difficult to see
to read it. Bringing the gauge down to eye level and putting
a shaded electric light in front of it might entirely remedy
the difficulty.
(2) Seeing that Instructions are Clearly Understood. —
458 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
No matter how much a man has been told about a job, unless
he has "got" it he is liable to show temporary carelessness.
In such cases it is of very little use to reinstruct the man
unless means are taken to be sure that he has "got" the in-
struction. Questioning him on his job or taking time to
watch him on his job wiU usually show whether the necessary
points have been "put over" effectively. Under the pressure
of getting out products, foremen are liable to neglect this
"checking up" part of instructing men, with a corresponding
increase in operatiag costs as a result.
(3) Seeing that the Need of Accuracy or Care is Fully
Understood. — ^In almost any job there are some operating
points that, from the standpoint of accuracy or care re-
quired, "stick out," that is, many operating points only re-
quire ordinary or even little care, while certain points require
great care. An illustration would be the difference in care
required in taking a rough cut or a fine cut in the machine
shop, or, in an alum plant, in getting crystallized alum out
of the tanks, where the center can be broken out with little
care but when working near the sides or bottom great care
is required not to break the lead lining. Men will often get
the general idea of how to carry on the different operations
on their jobs without fully understanding where the "high-
care" operations are as distinguished from the "low-care"
operations and this is usually due to a failure to make the
man understand why accuracy or care is necessary at those
points. In instructing or directing the men, sufficient em-
phasis has not been laid on these points, or the man has failed
to get them. Under these conditions, temporary careless-
ness can often be remedied by getting the men to thinking
about why certain operations require extra care, so that when
they reach that point the need of care wiU. come up in
their minds.
PART X
THE INSTRUCTING JOB
CHAPTER XXV
THE INSTRUCTING JOB
Preliminary. — As stated in Chapter II the third fore-
man's job is instructing or training (both words mean the
same thing), and is quite a distinct piece of work from either
supervision or management, calling for a different kind of
responsibility as to auxiliary information, different "job
knowledge " and different " working conditions." This dif-
ference is so marked that a good supervisor may be a very
poor instructor, and, in fact, this is very often the case. A
good manager is more likely to make a good instructor but
even then he is likely to do some pretty poor instructing
unless he has, in some way, learned something about the
" teaching trade " as it is practiced by good workers in that
trade, that is, by good teachers.
Why Foremen Dc Not Often Think of Themselves as
Instructors. — ^An instructor or a teacher, for both Vords
mean the same thing, is simply somebody who can do some
kind of a job and who, in some way takes hold of someone
else who cannot do that job and gets them so that they can
do it. It makes no difference how, when or where this
"putting over" of job ability was done; whoever did it,
was an instructor and did an instructing job. Most fore-
men do some sort of an instructing job all the time but they
do not think of themselves as instructors because they do
not instruct in a " school," nobody calls them " teacher,"
they do not have " classes." These have nothing to do with
the question as to whether a foreman does, or does not have
instructing responsibilities. This fact must be determined
by asking the question : " Does he have to put over to others
any sort of ability to do a job, never mind how, when or
461
468 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
where? " and if the answer is " Yes " that foreman is an
instructor and has some sort of instructing responsibilities.
The Instructor and the Learner. — So far as this book is
concerned, anybody having instructing jobs, no matter what
he may be called, is an instructor. Anybody who has job
ability put over to him is a learner. An instructor does an
instructing job with a learner and he does a good job or
a poor job in proportion as that learner can or cannot do a
first-class piece of work when the instructor has finished
with him.
The Foreman's Instructing Job. — ^In almost all cases a
foreman must do more or less instructing or " breaking in."
Whenever new workers come in they must be instructed in
something before they are thoroughly competent. This is
true even when a man is transferred from another depart-
ment, or comes from another concern doing the same sort
of work. There are always some things that are different,
or that are done differently, or a difference in shop practice
or procedure, that the new man must somehow get from
somebody, and that somebody is an instructor, so far as he
has the job of putting over what he knows, and this instruct-
ing job often falls upon the foreman.
Instructing as Distinguished From Ordering or Direct-
ing.— The term " instructing " is used so much by foremen
in the sense of ordering or directing, that its meaning when
used in that way must be carefully distinguished from its
use as meaning teaching. A man who knows the job can
be instructed to do it and so, in this case, he is really directed
or ordered. A man who does not know the job may be
instructed on how to do it, that is, he can be taught.
Instructing, as the term is used in this chapter and in
those following, always means " putting over " and not order-
ing or directing.
Instructing Always a "Side Line" for Foremen. — The
instructing job of a foreman must always be more or less
of ft " side line " because he cannot neglect his two main
THE INSTRUCTING JOB 468
jobs, supervision and management, in order to do much
training. If any great amount of training is required, it
becomes a " drag " on the foreman, and since he naturally
feels that his first responsibilities are on his work in connec-
tion with his regular jobs, he is unable to give the training
proper attention. In this case, if men have to be trained,
they are either trained badly, or slowly, and in either case,
this is poor instructing management and other methods for
securing efficient training should be adopted. Under these
conditions many concerns have found it advisable to arrange
to have certain people work entirely as instructors and so
relieve the foreman of the direct responsibility for teaching.
Such instructors are sometimes called "instructing fore-
men " to distinguish them from the regular, or production,
foremen and are also often called " instructors." What-
ever their name, the point is that their job is to put over
to workers what they need to get before they are competent
on the jobs to which they are assigned.
Such instructors may be attached to the force of the
department and work under the foreman, or may be attached
to a distinct department, a trammg department whose busi-
ness is to see that workers are properly trained before they
are turned over to regular production work. When the
job of the training department is only to train green help,
it is sometimes called a Vestibule School.
So far as they are considered in this book, the questions
of training assume that it will be given by the foreman,
as a " side line."*
Some Possible Instructing Responsibilities. — ^Among the
more important kinds of instructing responsibilities that may
come into a foreman's job are the following:
1. Responsibilities in connection with some plan of
organized instruction.
• A foreman, who is interested in the question of training in relation
to the foreman's two regular jobs, will find a full discussion of this
question in " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."
464 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
2. Hesponsibilities in connection with unorganized irir
struction.
3. Cooperative responsibilities with instructing agencies
not wnder Ms direct control.
Since these terms may require some explanation they are
taken up in the following paragraphs.
What Is Meant by Organized Instruction. — ^This has
been called training by intention. Under this' plan some-
body has the job of training (instructing) whoever needs
to be trained and he knows that it is either all of his job, or
a part of it. In either case instructing responsibility is
fixed. Some illustrations! of training by intention would be,
an apprentice scheme, or some sort of a special training plan
for new employees, with somebody whose job it was to take
care of them during the training period. Definite training
departments whose business is to see to it that aU untrained
or partly trained employees are " fixed up," so that they
are competent, before they are turned over to the foreman,
and trade schools are other examples of organized in-
struction or training.
Responsibilities Under Organized Training. — In general
a foreman may have either of two kinds of responsibilities
in connection with organized training.
1. Responsibilities for giving the training himself.
2. Responsibilities for supervising the training as given
by somebody else.
An example of the first case would be where a group of
apprentices were to be given instruction on the job by the
foreman, or where he had the responsibility for the breaking
in of green men himself.
An example of the second case would be where a green
operator was placed with a good worker and the good worker
was told to show the green employee how to do the job. In
such a case, while the foreman would not have the responsi-
bility of actually giving the instruction, he might be responsi-
ble for knowipg that it was given or that it had been
THE INSTRUCTING JOB 466
thorough. The same would be true if the training were given
by an instructor who was responsible to the foreman.
What is Meant by Unorganized Instruction? — This has
been called training by absorption. Where this method is
used there are no definite .arrangements made for training
and whatever a man gets he " absorbs " from others, the
foreman or from his fellow workers. New men "pick up
their work " as well as they can, hence this is sometimes
called " the pick-up method." Men get what information
they can from others on the same kind of jobs. Perhaps
they find a " good fellow " and get next to him at the noon
hour. Perhaps they don't. " They use their eyes and their
mouths." In this way they gradually get so that they can
do some sort of a job or else get fired. If they are able to
hold the job while they are learning they are finally absorbed
in to the regular working force, hence the name.
It will be noted that, under] this method, it is absolutely
nobo<^y's business to look out for the learner while he -is
learning. He is left entirely on his own. He gets what he
can anyway that he can.
A second difference between organized and unorganized
instruction is in the way that the instruction is, or is not
laid out. For example, in the case of training apprentices
there may be an agreement that an apprentice is to have
a certain number of weeks on different machines, or there
might be an arrangement whereby apprentices were to put
two hours a week on drawing or mathematics, according to
some sort of a schedule specifying what subjects were to be
taken up and in what order. This amounts to saying that,
where there is organized instruction there is some sort of a
routing sheet laid out that shows that the instruction is to
be given in a certain order and what the subjects to be taught
are to be. A regular school teacher would call such an
instructional routing sheet a program or a course of study.
As against that, an unorganized piece of instructional
work would be where any instruction that was given would
30
486 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
be incidental, that is, if somebody did not happen to know
how to do something, someone else who did know would
instruct him. A good example of this sort of instruction is
the common case where a workman gets a job that is a
little different from what he is used to and the foreman
instructs him how to make any special changes or adaptations
of tools or machines that may be necessary.
Organized instruction therefore always has definite
instructing responsibility fixed on somebody and has some
sort of a schedule (program) through which the learner
is put.
Unorganized instruction has no fixed responsibility and
no program. Instruction is incidental and anybody gives
it who happens to be around and who knows enough. If they
have time or are good-natured or interested in the learner.
Cooperating With Other Instructing Agencies. — ^In addi-
tion to possible responsibilities as to organized or unorganized
instruction it is quite possible that a foreman may have
cooperative responsibilities with regard to other instructing
agencies, and these may, in general be of two kinds :
1. Cooperating with plant agencies.
2. Cooperating with outside agencies.
For example, a plant may offer a course in Mechanical
Drawing for its apprentices or may operate a training
department. In either case it is up to the foremen to do
whatever they can to help and not hinder. They can "throw
it down" or help it along with those that it is intended to
help or with those who have the work in charge. For example,
during the war many plants did set up some sort of organ-
ized training to take care of the great number of green
workers that were taken on and who, if they had been
turned loose into a production department would have
swamped it. Without regard to the instructional efficiency
of such schemes (some were good and some were bad, for
that matter), in many cases foremen did all they could
to keep such plans from being successful although, as a rule
THE INSTRUCTING JOB 467
they did not look into the matter at all. If they thought
the thing was not being carried on right they did not oifer
any suggestions for improvement; in some cases, if they
knew that a worker had been trained in the training scheme,
whatever it was, they discriminated against him in every
possible way, they never lost a chance to throw the propo-
sition down before the men. This was certainly not coopera-
tion but quite the contrary. On the other hand, other fore-
men took pains to find out what the training scheme was
for, how it was doing its job, and helped those in charge by
suggestions based on their knowledge of shop requirements
and working conditions. The second type of foremen
recognized their cooperative responsibilities and discharged
them. The first type either failed to recognize them, or
deliberately refused to discharge them for various reasons not
worth giving here.
The case of cooperating with outside instructing agencies
is somewhat different. For example, there are now in many
communities educational and training opportunities such
as free evening classes both in trade work and in general
education. Sometimes such courses are conducted by insti-
tutions that charge only a nominal fee. A foreman who
feels that he has cooperative responsibilities in this matter
will, for example, inform himself as to the opportunities and
their value, and will advise his men, if they are ambitious,
as to where they may get such education or training as they
may need or may desire. To the extent to which he does this
sort of thing he recognizes this cooperating responsibility
and discharges it.
CHAPTER XXVI
SECTION I. EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION
Cost Elements on Instruction. — ^When we come to con-
sider the matter of cost elements in instruction we have to
look at the matter in a different way from what we have
been doing up to this time. In aU matters relating to mana-
gerial responsibilities up to this time the one managerial
problem has been to cut cost, but when we get into the
instructing field the basic cost elements change. While cost
is an important matter, the main managerial problem is
to secure efficient instruction, and it often happens that the
cheapest instruction is the least efficient.
The cost elements in instruction may therefore be set
down as follows:
1. The degree to which the learner is thoroughly
instructed, so that he can do a 100 per cent. job.
2. The time spent in instructing him.
3. The cost of that time.
4. The degree to which the instructing job is put
across easily.
The Problem. — ^What may be called the instruction
managerial problem for anybody that has responsibilities
for putting over instructing jobs might be stated as fol-
lows : To secure as nearly one hundred per cent, job ability
with the least necessary expenditure of time and at the least
necessary cost.
That is, the better the learner can do the job on which
he was instructed, the quicker he gets so that he can do it
and the less it cost, provided the other two results are
obtained, the better the instructing job has been handled
from the instructional managerial standpoint.
468
EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 469
The Completeness of Instruction. — The purpose of any
instruction that is given in connection with the work jobs of
any kind is either to make a better man out of a man who is
already employed on that job, or to make a competent
worker out of a man who is green on that job. That is,
the purpose if aU instruction! is to add to the knowledge, or
skiU or intelligence that is required to do a job in first-class
shape. If the instructing job has been attempted and a
first-class worker on that job has not been obtained, the
time and the effort expended have, to that extent been wasted
just as much as, in a production job, when time, power,
material and men have been used on a job the result has
been a product that did not meet specifications or had to be
junked. In either case there is an increased overhead. The
money has been spent and " we have not got a full return
on the investment." Instructional cost, as the term is used
here, will therefore be reduced in proportion as the instructed
learner becomes a one hundred per cent, worker on whatever
job he was instructed upon.
Time Cost — Evidently, all other things being equal, the
less time used up in instruction, the more quickly the instruct-
ing job is put across, the less the cost. The more time
spent in putting over the instructing job, the greater the
cost. The second cost element is therefore tiine, and, pro-
vided the instructing job is properly done, the less the time
the less the cost.
The second time-cost element is first the actual value
of the time of the person who gives the instruction compared
with the value of his time if used for some other purpose,
and second, the time of the learner himself. In general, if
a man all of whose experience has been on production jobs
undertakes to put across instruction jobs, it may be a ques-
tion but what the cheaper way is to have that man save all
his time to attend to production jobs, or to whatever jobs
he may be an expert at doing, and give the instruction
470 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
jobs to somebody who makes a business of handling
instruction work.
The Instructing Process. — ^Whenever we have the in-
structor-learner relation it means that some sort of an
instructing job has to be done. Like any other job, it may
be done poorly, in which case the product is of poor quality,
that is, the learner only partly " got " what was to be put
over, or it may be well done, in which case the product will
be "up to specifications," that is, the learner will have
" got " completely whatever was to be put over. The
instructing job may be so badly done that the product is
only " spoiled material," as where the learner has learned
nothing at all, or has learned something wrong and so is
worse off than he was when he did not know anything. That
is, it is just as possible to do a good job, or a fair job, or
a poor job in instructing as it is in production work, and
when we say that a man is a good, poor or average instructor
we mean, for instructing jobs, just what we mean for pro-
duction jobs when we say that a man is a good, poor or
average workman.
We aU know that a production job is always carried out
by performing certain operations or carrying out certain
processes that belong with that job, and that though the
same job often be done in different ways in many cases there
is always a best way of doing it that an expert workman
will always use. This is exactly as true of an instructing
job; it can be done in a number of ways, but there is always
a best way, and that way will be used by an expert instructor.
Just as a first-class workman will turn out a first-class prod-
uct because he knows the best way of doing the production
job, and has the necessary skill, while an inferior workman
will turn out a poorer product, so an expert instructor will
do a first-class instructing job because he knows the best
way of doing it and has the necessary instructing skill.
It has just been pointed out that whenever a man does
a production job he must do something. In the same way.
EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 471
when a man does an instructing job he must do scnnething.
Whatever he does in connection with a putting over job is
an instructing operation, that is, he carries on some kind
of an instructing process.
The mstructing process^ is therefore whatever a man
who has an instruction job does to put that job across.
Good and Poor Instructing Processes. — Just as it is
possible to look at a workman on a job and tell whether he
is doing a good job or a poor job, so it is possible to watch
an instructor at work and tell whether he is doing a good or
a poor instructing job. That is, it is possible to spot the
characteristics, or " ear marks " of a good instructing job
just as it is possible to spot the " ear marks " of a good
production job. Some of the more important of these are
taken up in the following paragraphs.
The Evidence of Good Instruction. — ^Whenever an
instructing job is being carried on, if it is being well done
at least the following things can be noted.
1. Both the instructor and the learner know exactly
what the particular putting over job is. The instructor
knows exactly what he is trying to teach and the learner
knows exactly what he is trying to learn. In instructing
language this situation would be expressed by saying that
the aim of the instruction was clearly understood both by
the instructor and the learner.
2. The learner is interested. This term is used here in
exactly the same sense that it was used in connection with
the human factor block. When we say that a learner is
interested we simply mean that he wants to learn.
3. The instructor takes up what is to be put over point
by point and sees that each point is cleared up before he
goes onto the next. For example, if he is instructing on a
job having four operations, according to the analysis, he
thoroughly covers operation number one before going onto
operation number two, and so on through the successive
472 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
operation number two, and so on through the successive
operations in that job.
4. Whenever possible he makes the learner think, or do.
For example, in instructing on a machine operation, the
instructor does not simply tell the learner how to do it, and
let it go at that, but he makes the learner do it, and think
while he is doing it.
6. Before he finishes the instructing job the instructor
tests out the learner to make sure that he has entirely got
what was to be put over. He " inspects his product " just
as any good workman would do.
The Evidence of Poor Instruction. — ^If we observe the
work of a poor instructor we will notice at least the follow-
ing points.
1. The instructor does not know exactly what he is
trj'ing to put over.
2. He does not take up the instructing job point
by point.
3. The learner is confused as to just what is being
put over.
4. There is no final check up.
6. The instructor does all the talking, doesi all the work
and does all of the thinking.
Good and Poor Instructing Processes. — From the above
statements and examples it is evident that instruction can be
carried on in different ways, this is, that different instruct-
ing processes can be used with correspondingly different effi-
ciencies as to the result of the instrusting job. That is,
some instructing processes are more effective than others,
and that a good instructor must know the most effective
instructing processes and be able to use it in his instruct-
ing jobs.
While, as will be explained a little later there is only
one effective instructing process, there are a number of proc-
esses that the people who use them think are instructing
EFFICIENT INSTRUCTION 473
processes. Among the more common of these " fake "
instructing processes are showing and telling.
Why Telling is Not Instructing.— This is one of the most
common imitation instructing processes. A great many
people who have instructing responsibilities honestly do not
see why when they have told a learner how to do a job they
have not instructed him and are often very much disturbed
because it appears afterwards that he cannot do that job.
Telling is often a part of the work of an instructor, but
mere telling, in itself, is not a real instructing process. It
wont " deliver the goods."
Mere telling is not a true instructing process because
the real instructing process always makes the learner think,
or do something, or in most cases, makes him do both.
Merely saying to him, " This is a StiUson wrench," and
stopping there does not make the learner either think or
do. He just takes in a name, that is all. On the other hand
a learner can be instructed in the proper methodj of using a
Stillson wrench to set up a threaded joint, and he can be
made to think about such matters as the danger of stripping
threads, not crossing threads and so on, and he can be made
to set up that joint. Unless this is done, and he is merely
told how to do it, he may have been given a lot of informa-
tion about the job, but he, himself, has not learned how to
do that job. For example, he has never " felt " the thread
set into the elbow, or the coupling, or the " feel " of the
wrench when it grips the pipe right.
Telling therefore is not a true instructing process because
it requires no " come back " on the part of the learner.
Why Showing is Not a True Instructing Process. —
Showing is not a true instructing process because, as in the
case of telling, showing does not make the learner either do
or think about the job that is being taught. He can just
look on and think about his best girl, or what movie he is
going to that evening or anything else that he wants to,
while he is being shown how to do something. As will be
474 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
pointed out later there are ways of keeping his mind on
the job that go with the true instructing process, but they
call for something more than just showing.
The Real Instructing Process. — Since instructing has
been going on for a very long time, ever since the beginning
of mankind as a matter of fact, some people have had the
job of instructing, or working at teaching jobs. They were
teachers, for after all, a teacher is anybody who has instruct-
ing responsibilities. Now these people who have made a
business of teaching have gradually found out the best ways
of carrying on the instructing process just as in production
work best ways of carrjdng on operations and processes
have been worked out, but while different jobs call for dif-
ferent processes, for the instructing process there is but
one right way of carrying it out, and this is described in
the following section so far as it will be of service to a fore-
man in discharging any instructional responsibilities that
may come into his job.
The Need For Using an Efficient Instructing Process. —
The preceding statements should have made plain that
wherever any instruction has to be carried on the cost will
be reduced in proportion as the most effective instructional
process is used. As has already been stated there is only
one real instructing process and, if cost is to be held down,
that process must be used and not any of the " fake " proc-
esses used in its place.
This instructing process is described in the follow-
ing chapter.
CHAPTER XXVII
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS
Preliminary. — This chapter describes the real instruction
process as it is used by all efficient instructors, so far as it
comes into the instructional work of a foreman. Since, as
has already been pointed out, a foreman cannot be an
instructor to any great extent and a supervisor and manager
too, considerable information is omitted here that would be
of value to a regular instructor who made a regular busi-
ness of instructing and had no other responsibilities. *
The Lesson. — In its simplest sense a lesson is merely a
teaching job. In teaching practice, however, the term lesson
is used to designate the whole procedure followed in putting
over a teaching job. It includes not only the job to be
taught but the way in which it is put over. The particular
thing or job that is to be put over is called the instruction
unit or, as a regular teacher would call it, the content or the
subject of the lesson. For example, if it were desired to
instruct in the proper method of sharpening a plane iron,
we would say that the teaching unit was " How to sharpen
a plane iron." If the teaching job was to put over the
proper method of bisecting an angle, we would say that the
teaching unit was " The method of bisecting an angle," or
that " The content of the lesson was on the bisecting of an
-* A foreman who may become interested in taking up the matter of
instruction more fully than it is covered in the following chapters can
find very complete information in "The Instructor, The Man and The
Job," to which reference has already been made. That book deals
entirely with the job of instructing in plants, and the various matters
that are gone into here briefly are there gone into very fully.
475
476
THE FOREMAN AND ms JOB
PRODUCTION AND INSTRUCTION
Purpose or aim.
To turn out a defi
nite article from
a given piece of
stock.
To instruct a given
individual in a
definite thing.
Man responsible.
Workman.
Instructor.
Material worked
upon.
Stock new or par-
tially worked up.
Learner, green oi
partially trained.
Procediu'e.
Successive produc
tion operations in a
determined order,
Successive instruc-
tion steps in a de-
termined order.
Means used.
Suitable tools and
machines.
Suitable methods of
instruction.
Character of product Inspection of prod-
tested by. uct.
Inspection of learn-
ers' ability to do
the thing that the
lesson was to teach
him.
From The Instructor, The Man and The Job.
angle " or that " The subject of the lesson was the bisec-
ting of an angle," according to the term that we preferred to
use. In this book the term teaching unit will be used to
designate whatever the instructor undertakes to put over to
the learner. In the same way we can speak of putting over
an instructing job or of teaching a lesson. Both mean the
same thing.
The Instructing Process. — The instructing process as
it is used by all good instructor^ consists of a certain num-
ber of operations which are always carried out in the same
order and none of which are ever omitted. According to
diflferent instructing authorities there are from four to seven
of these operations, but for the purpose of shopi instruction
the " four-operation instructing job " is the most serviceable
and so is the one described in this section.
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 477
The Four Instructing Operations. — ^According to the
four operation lesson the job of putting over any teaching
unit is carried out by going through four steps or instruc-
tion operations that are designated as, Step 1, Preparation;
Step 2, Presentation; Step 3, Application; Step 4, Testing
or Inspecting. Each of the first three steps when properly
carried out represents a " partial product " from the stand-
point of the whole instructing job and the last step gives
the " finished product," just as, in the case of four serial
operations we have three intermediate products and a fin-
ished product. It must be remembered however, that in the
case of an instructing job the product is a trained learner,
not a production product, though, as a " by-product " to
the instructing job we almost always get a production prod-
uct of some kind in all shop job instruction.
The Function of the Four Operations. — Stated briefly
each of these four operations has its special purpose, or
function, as follows: The function, or purpose of step 1,
(Preparation) is to get the mind of the learner concentrated
on what is to be put over. Step 2 (Presentation) is the
operation where the instruction in the teaching unit is
actually given. ' Step 3 is for the purpose of " back check-
ing," to pick up any points that the learner may not have
entirely got in step 2. Step 4 is an inspecting step in which
the purpose is to test out the learner and make sure that
he has got the lesson completely.
Since a full understanding of the functions of these four
steps is essential to eifective instruction they are taken up
in detail in the following paragraphs.
Step I. Preparation. — ^As just stated the purpose of an
instructor in this step is, in some way to concentrate the
mind of the learner on the lesson. The idea is to get him
to thinking about what he is to be taught, and about nothing
else. The function of this step is so well shown in the car-
toon given below that but little further explanation is
required. The two "opened heads" show plainly the "before
478 THE POREIVIAN AND HIS JOB
and after" effects of a well carried out step 1 on the head
of a learner in connection wiih. an instructing job on riveting.
This concentrated state of mind is brought about by the
instructor by getting the learner to think about some thing
BEFORE — MIND MffiTON JOB II AFTER— MIMD ON dCB
The results of doing a good job in step 1. (From "The Training of
Shipj-ard Worliers," U. S. S. B. Emergency Fleet Corporation.)
that has something to do with the teaching unit for that
particular instructing job. As in the picture, at the start,
the learner has in his mind all sorts of recollections of past
experiences and things that he has seen and heard most of
which have nothing to do with the subject of the lesson in
hand, but, except in very rare cases, he has, among those
recollections, some which have a bearing on the subject of
the lesson. By skillful preparation the instructor there-
fore, in some way, makes the learner think about certain
particular things which will aid him in comprehending the
particular new thing which is to be taught. This may be
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 479
called a process whereby the learner is led to establish in his
own mind " contact points " between what he already knows
and the new ideas which the instructor plans to have him
add to what he knows through the lesson that is to be taught.
The Teaching Base.— It will be noted that, in carrying
out this first step, it is assumed that, somewhere is his past
experience, the learner has had some kind of an experience or
has some knowledge which can be used as a foundation for
building up the proposed lesson. It should also be clear
that, while the instructor knows, in a general way, what he
can get from the learner, and selects those ideas which he
thinks that he can best use for a teaching base, the learner
is himself usually unconscious of the relation of what he
finds himself thinking about, to the subject of the lesson
which the instructor has planned to teach.
Preparation Must be Completed Before Presentation is
Started. — The success of the following steps in the lesson is
dependent on this first step being thoroughly carried out,
and the instructor must be sure that this is the case before
proceeding farther. One of the most common errors in
instructing is the failure to thoroughly prepare the learner
for the teaching unit to be put over in Step 2 (Presentation) ,
due to the fact that the instructor is in too much of a hurry ;
he " skimps " this step. As a result Step 2 fails, this comes
out in Step 3, and the whole instructing job has to be done
over again. It pays to make a good job of Step 1.
No Standard rule can be given for determining when
learners are prepared. An experienced instructor can tell —
an inexperienced one had best err, if at all, on the safe
side and, if anything, over-prepare.
The Learner Learns Nothing in Step 1. — It should be
clearly understood that, in the work of preparation as com-
monly carried out, no new ideas are added to those already
in the learner's mind, and in no case are any of the new ideas
which are to be taught in the lesson touched upon at this
480 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
stage. The instructor does not undertake to add any new
ideas to those already in the learner's mind. He does (often
by skillful questioning) lead the learner to select from all the
ideas in his mind certain particular ideas which he has con-
sciously or unconsciously " picked up " at some previous
time. These ideas are those which the instructor has deter-
mined to make the teaching basis of the lesson in hand.
Exceptional Instances. — ^In rare instances when there is
absolutely nothing that can be used as a teaching base the
instructor must provide something that can be used for that
purpose. Experience has shown that this is rarely neces-
sary in shop training, especially if the instructor is experi-
enced and ingenious. When a teaching base cannot be found
the learner must be given an experience which can be used.
Until this has been done it is practically useless to try to
teach the lesson. Of course, when an instructor is forced
to do this additional time and energy are consumed and so he
never does it unless he has to.
Step 2. Presentation. — Just as step 1 is for the purpose
of getting the learner ready to " take " the lesson, so this
step is the one in which the lesson is put over by the instruc-
tor. It is during this step or instructing operation that the
instructor is supposed to impart to the learner the skill on
the job, the knowledge that he must apply in doing the job,
and the ability to apply that knowledge. In other words the
learner is supposed to be able to da the job at the end of
this instructing operation.
If step 1 has been properly carried out the learner now
has his attention concentrated on what is to be put over,
he is interested and wants to learn and he is clear as to
what the lesson is about. Assuming that all this has been
done, the next step is to put over the " new stuif " that is
contained in the teaching unit. Various ways for doing this
are given later, and it is only necessary to point out here
that a method that is the most suitable to the particular
lesson that is to be taught must be used in each case. For
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 481
example, if one purpose of the lesson was to turn out a man
that would think intelligently on the job, it is evident that
different means would have to be employed from those that
might be used if the purpose were only to get a man so that
he could perform certain operations in one way only.
A skillful instructor will always know what particular
ways of handling this operation will give the best and the
quickest results according to the requirements of the special
job that is to be taught. This question of ways and means
for putting over this step is taken up in the next section,
under methods of instruction and so this matter is not taken
up any further here.
The distinction between the purposes of steps 1 and 2
must be clearly understood however, because any " mixing "
of the two operations wUl always make trouble. As already
stated, step 1 (preparation) does not add anything to the
learners knowledge or skill on, the job that is to be taught,
but merely gets him ready to be taught by getting him to
thinking exclusively about certain things which the instruc-
tor has already determined to use for the teaching base
(J. O. P.). Step 2, on the other hand, has for its only pur-
pose the imparting (putting over) of the necessary job
knowledge and skill and the ability to use that knowledge
and skill in doing the job according to the requirements of
the department as to accuracy, speed, etc. At the close of
step 1 the learner knows no more about the job that is to
be taught than he did before. At the close of step 2 he is
supposed to be able to do it, though, as a matter of fact, he
usually cannot do it just right, which is the reason why step
3 is necessary, as is explained later.
At this stage of the process there is, at the close of step
2, no evidence that the learner can fully apply what has
been put over ; that is, that he has " got " the whole lesson.
In fact, as just stated, it may safely be assumed that he
has not ; that there are some weak points where the instruc-
tion has wholly or partly failed to " carry." If the instruc-
31
482 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
ting operation were left at this stage (which many men who
have instructing responsibilities do) it would, mean that the
instructor would never know whether he had or had not
done an effective instructing job nor would he know whether
the learner could or could not do the job that was to be
taught without any help. In other words, if the instructor
stopped the instruction process at this point he would not
know whether the learner, if left to go it alone, could or
could not do the job. The two remaining steps in the
instructing process are for the purpose of enabling the
instructor to be sure that he has done a complete 100 per
cent, instructing job, and to give the learner sufficient confi-
dence to go it alone, for a green learner may be able, as
the result of good instruction, to do a job in first-class shape
and yet fall down on it the first time that he is left " on
his own."
Step 3. Application. — ^As already briefly stated this step
serves three purposes.
(1). Since what the man has learned is of no value to
him unless he can apply it, and since power to apply a thing
is different from simply knowing it, he must be trained in
actually applying, or putting into practice what was pre-
sented to him in the preceding step of the less9n.
(2). A second, and equally important, purpose to be
accomplished by this step is to check up the degree to which
the learner has grasped all the points in the lesson which
has been taught, whether processes or ideas. From this
standpoint this step, application, corresponds to a road bed
inspection on a railroad whose purpose is to detect " bad
spots " which should be fixed. In the same way, no matter
how carefully the man has been taught, there will be some
"weak points," some "holes in the road" which must be
located and made good before going any further. A common
illustration of this would be an arithmetic lesson on interest
at 6 per cent. After the teacher has presented the method
of doing it, he will then have the pupil solve a series of prob-
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 483
lems in interest at 6 per cent. If the lesson were on figu-
ring the offset for a taper, the learner would then be given a
series of problems in figuring offsets. If the teaching unit
were on how to correctly mark templates, the learner would
be given a template to mark. If it were on assembling, the
man would be given an assembling job. During this process
of application, however, the instructor watches the man while
he is working at the job, notes where he fails to grasp some
points in the problem, or has not " caught on " to some
part of an operation, and gives him additional instruction
on that part then and there.
(3). When this step has been properly carried out the
learner has acquired enough confidence to be able to go
ahead and do the job when he is left to go it alone.
The instructor therefore uses this step not only to give
the learner training in applying, but also to find weak points
in his work in step 2 as to the learners knowledge or compre-
hension, confidence or job ability. At the close of this step
the instructor should be sure that the man has thoroughly
" got " the lesson which is to be taught. Carrying out this
step effectively requires care and skill on the part of the
instructor to determine just when to assist the learner and
just how to assist him ; but in no case should the instructor
do the work for the man. Of course he might show him how
to cover some particular operating point correctly, which it
might appear that he did not fully understand, but the
learner should be required in this step to go through the
whole job and to go through it a sufficient number of times
so that the instructor is reasonably sure that all points
have been mastered. Various methods can be followed in
this step which are discussed in the following paragraphs.
How to Know When Step 3 is Completed. — ^In this the
instructor must depend upon his judgment and experience.
No set rule can be given. Whatever the method used, this
operation is continued until the instructor is satisfied that
the teaching unit has been completely put over. Wherever
484 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
he finds a weak spot the instructor goes over that part of
the preceding step which covers that particular part of the
teaching unit, in this way filling up the gaps. However that
may be, he finally comes to a point where he is willing to take
a chance that the man has " got " the thing that was
to be taught.
This step may be compared to trying out an assembled
machine, where the machine is run under careful observation.
Any imperfections are noted, and faulty parts replaced until
the adjuster is ready to O. K. it, that is, he is ready to take
a chance on its being right. Instructors are very liable to be
in too much of a hurry in carrying) out this step and to let
a man go onto the final step, or test, before he is ready for
it. The adjuster who lets imperfect machines go out of his
department has done a poor j ob and the same may be said of
the instructor who lets the learner out of this stage, before
he is ready.
Step 4. Inspection or Testing. — ^If the instruptional
process has been properly carried on up to this point the
instructor is ready to take a chance that the learner has
been properly taught, and if he is right the teaching job is
finished, the learner is instructed, he can do what the instruc-
tor intended that he should be able to do or he knows what
the instructor intended that he should know. The teaching
unit has been put over and the teaching process is at an
end. But while the instructor may feel sure that this is the
case he does not know it because this fact cannot be assumed.
During the preceding step he undoubtedly found many cases
where additional instruction on some parts of the lesson was
necessary, and he therefore has assisted or directed the man
more or less during that step. Although he carried on this
phase of the instruction process until, in his judgment, the
man had got the entire unit that was to be taught, neverthe-
less he has been going over it piecemeal, and not as a whole.
He cannot, therefore, assume that, unaided and undi-
rected, the man who is under inspection can apply intel-
THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS 485
ligently the subject of the teaching unit. That unaided, and
absolutely on his own feet he can go through the whole
process correctly.
This step, therefore, may be regarded as fulfilling a
function strictly comparable to that of final inspection. The
instructor must now stop being as an instructor and, becom-
ing an inspector, proceed to inspect the results of his teach-
ing by testing in some suitable way, the ability of the learner
to do the entire job alone.
As already stated the purpose of this step is to afford
an opportunity for a final tryout or inspection. The instruc-
tor should regard the result of the test as more or less a
failure if the learner fails to do this work unaided. It indi-
cates that the teaching process was not well carried out, that
the instructor's judgment was incorrect and the teaching
must be repeated. While this wiU often occur in practice,
it is nevertheless true in theory that if the lessons were per-
fectly planned and perfectly taught inspection would show
that all learners could successfully meet the test with 100
per cent, efficiency.
CHAPTER XXVIII
THE INSTRUCTOR'S " TOOLS "
METHODS AND LINES OF APPEOACH
Preliminary. — The last chapter took up the question of
the four operations or steps in the instructing process and
pointed out the purpose, or function of each step. Mention
was made there of the fact that there were different ways
of performing each of these steps and of carrying out the
instructing process as a whole. This chapter takes up these
points so far as they may affect the work of a foreman
as an instructor.
The Instructing "Tools."— The various "instructing
tools " or devices which instructors use in putting over the
instructing process are of two kinds :
1. Methods of instruction.
2. Lines of approach,
A good instructor will select for any given instructing
job (lesson) the line of approach and the method of instruc-
tion that will, in his judgment, give the best results with the
particular sort of learner and the special sort of lesson.
For example, if he were giving some incidental instruction
to an experienced man on some detail slightly different of
an old job he would use a different method and line of
approach from what he would if he were instructing a green
man on an entirely new job. These different methods and
lines of approach are to the instructor just what a kit of
toolsi are to a mechanic. Just as a good mechanic will size
up a job and determine just what tools will give him the
best results on that job, so a good instructor will size up his
instructing job and will pick out for use the methods of
instruction and line of approach that will give him the best
486
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 487
results on his instructing job. Hence the term, " the instruc-
tor's tools."
The InstrxKtor's " Tools " : Lines of Approach. — ^What-
ever methods may be used in putting over an instructing
unit (a lesson), the first thing that an instructor considers
is his line of approach. This is what may be called his
" policy " in handling the whole lesson. There are two such
policies or lines of approach that will be of use to a fore-
man in carrying out any instructing jobs that he may have.
These two lines of approach are called:
1. The development line of approach.
2. The informational line of approach.
An instructor uses one or the other according to what he
wants to have the learner get out of the lesson. Since a
clear understanding of these two lines of approach is very
necessary for anyone having to handle instructing jobs they
are explained quite fully below.
The Informational Line of Approach. — ^In using this
line of approach the whole instructing process is carried
through on the basis of the instructor giving information
to the learner or the learner giving information to the
instructor. All that is asked of the learner is memory. Any
questions that a learner is asked he can answer simply by
recollecting. He does not have to " think anything out."
The instructor may ask all sorts of questions of the learner
but all they are intended to make him do is to remember.
The entire lesson or any step in the lesson can be handled
in this way according to the judgment of the instructor,
but, as pointed out later, as a rule, it is not good " business "
to change the line of approach in the course of putting over
the same teaching job; that is like " swapping horses in the
middle of the stream," it can be done, but under most con-
ditions it is not the best place to make a horse trade.
The Development Line of Approach. — ^In handling a
lesson by this line of approach the intention of the instruc-
tor is always to make the learner think out the proper pro-
488 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
cedure, or the reason why a certain operation is carried on in
a certain way, or, in some other way think the thing through.
In other words, when this line of approach is used, the
instructor makes the learner do as much of the thinking as
possible and does as little thinking for the learner as possi-
ble. In doing this the instructor leads the learner to think
out the problem and the method of solution, guides his think-
ing by the use of thought stimulating questions or sugges-
tions, but practically never tells the learner anything that
he can think out for himself. According to this line of
approach, questions asked by the instructor are so framed
that the learner cannot answer them just from memory, but
must think out the answers. In this way, with the help
of the right kind of questions a learner can be made to think
through to a correct method of solving a problem or of carry-
ing through an operation.
The Purpose of the Two) Lines of Approach. — ^It is evi-
dent from the description of the two lines of approach just
given that the purpose of the development line of approach
is to make the learner think about the job in order that he
may be intelligent in doing the job. He will " use his head on
the job " if this line of approach is used in instructing him.
It must be equally evident that the purpose of the informa-
tional line of approach is to inform the learner as quickly
as possible just how a job should be done, or as to the cor-
rect method of solving a problem. The aim of an instructor
using the development line of approach would be to turn out
a learner who could do a job that required some judgment
and intelligence on the part of the worker. The aim of an
instructor using the informational line of approach would be
to turn out a learner who could do a job correctly but where
the job did not require a worker to use very much intelligence
of a general character, and where there was little or no
opportunity to use judgment in "carrying out the work.
Line of Approach and Methods. — ^The distinction between
lines of approach and methods of instruction must be kept
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 489
clearly in mind. As already stated, the line of approach
always refers to the general purpose that the instructor has
in mind as between straight job ability and job ability plus
intelligence. Methods of instruction do not refer to lines of
approach at all, but to the special instructing devices used
in putting over the different steps in. the instructing job, as
taken up in the following paragraphs.
The Instructor'si "Tools": Methods of Instruction. —
If the first sort of instructing tools are the lines of approach,
the second set of tools are the methods of instruction used
in the different steps in the instructing job. As already sug-
gested, these different methods are, to an instructor what
various sets of tools are to a mechanic. Just as a mechanic
wiU size up a job, or better, for illustration here, some opera-
tion on a job, and wUl select the special tool that wiU work
best under those conditions so a good instructor will size
up the particular instructing operation that he has to put
over and will determine what method of instruction will be
the best to use in that particular step.
The Different Methods of Instruction. — Teachers who
have to teach all sorts of lessons under all sorts of conditions
make use of quite a number of different methods of instruc-
tion, but, of these, only a few wiU be of service to a foreman
under the conditions under which he discharges any instruct-
ing responsibilities that he may have.* For convenience
these are given in the table below and are described in the
following paragraphs.
The following paragraphs take up these different meth-
ods of instruction as they would apply to the instructing
job of a foreman.
STEP I. A. THE DEVELOPMENT LINE OF APPEOACH
Methods of Instruction: Step 1. — The suggestive ques-
* The foreman who is interested in going further into this matter of
methods of instruction will find the list of practically all the methods
that are of use in industrial instruction in Chapters XXIII to XXVII
of " The Instructor, The Man and The Job."
490
THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
POSSIBLE METHODS OF INSTRUCTION FOR THE
DIFFERENT STEPS EST THE INSTRUCTING PROCESS.
Steps in the Process.
Lines of Appioach.
Development.
Informational.
Step 1.
Preparation.
Foundation.
The suggestive ques-
tion.
Demonstration with
suggestive ques-
tions.
The informational
question.
Informational dem-
onstration. '
Step 2.
Presentation.
Putting over the
Teaching Unit.
Demonstration.
(With suggestive
questions.)
(Learner active.)
Illustration.
Demonstration.
(Plain showing.)
(Learner passive.)
Demonstration with
questions.
Illustration.
Lecture.
Step 3.
Application.
Checking up.
On the job.
On the job.
Step 4.
Inspection.
Final test.
On the job.
tion and the suggestive demonstration are the two methods
oi instruction that a foreman will find the most useful when
he uses the development line of approach in carrying out
step 1. They are therefore described here.
The Suggestive Question. — As already mentioned ques-
tions may be so framed as to make the learner think, and,
in addition, they may be so formulated that the learner
unconsciously thinks of something that the instructor intends
that he shall think of. If the instructor is skillful in this
way he can almost always make the learner think of what he
wants him to think about, so long as the learner is not aware
of the fact that his thinking is being directed in a particular
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 491
direction. If he does become aware of the fact, the scheme
will stop working. Where such questions are used they are
based on what is called suggestion. Suggestion merely means
the well-known fact that anybody can prove for themselves,
that if Smith says something to Jones; Jones in turn will do
some kind of thinking. If Smith is skillful in what he says he
can almost always make Jones think of things that he (Smith)
wants Jones to think of. For example, if Smith says "Jones,
I just saw a cow," a picture of a cow will flash up in Jones'
mind, if Jones has ever seen a cow. If Jones has never seen
a cow Smith is " out of luck " and draws a blank so far as
suggestion goes. Now if the questions are so worded as to
" start " not merely a " mind picture " but a line of thought,
and that line of thought is kept going by further questions
asked at the right time as " boosters," an instructor can make
a learner think along to the point at which the instructor
wants to arrive in his thinking. In such a case the questions
do not merely call for remembering but force thinking. An
example of such a question would be, " How do you think
such and such a thing was done.'' " or " Why do you think
it was done that way.'' " Questions of this sort that suggest
lines of thought are the sort of suggestive questions that
would be used with the development line of approach. Evi-
dently this sort of question can only be used when the instruc-
tor knows that the learner has something to think about, that
is, he knows something about the thing on which the ques-
tions bear.
The Suggestive Demonstration. — ^When the learner has
nothing that the instructor can use for the work of step 1,
that is, where the learner " has never seen a cow," it is evi-
dently necessary to "show him a cow," that is, for the instruc-
tor to show him something or do something that will give
something to go on. For example, suppose the case of a
perfectly green learner, who had never heard of a plane and
no idea how it worked, and that the instructing job was to
instruct him in the job of setting a plane. This, of course,
is a very improbable supposition, but it will do for the illus-
492 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
tration. Under these conditions the iastructor might find it
necessary to show the learner a plane that was set right
and one that was not set, and by some suggestive questions
get the learner to see that the plane could be set by some-
body who knew how, and so get his mind onto the teaching
unit and his interest or curiosity aroused. Where this was
done the instructor would have used a suggestive demonstra-
tion as a method of instruction.
As a rule in shop instruction the suggestive demonstra-
tion is not required. There are very few cases where the
learner has not had some sort of an experience that the
instructor cannot use for his purpose. Since it takes more
time and makes more trouble it is only customary to use it
when absolutely necessary, although, of course, it can be
used as a " breaker in " in any case in putting over step 1.
STEP I. B. *FHE INFOEMATIONAL LINE OF APPBOACH
Methods of Instruction: Step i. — ^As the last paragraph
took up the possible instructional methods for step 1 when
the development line of approach is used, so this paragraph
takes up the corresponding methods that may be used when
the instructor prefers, to use the informational line of
approach. As given in the table, these are the informational
question and the informational demonstration.
The Informational Question. — ^Another kind of question
from the suggestive question gets its " action " not through
suggestion but through pure memory. For example, going
back to the same illustration as was used before, suppose
Smith holds up a tool in front of Jones and says, " What
is the name of this ? " and Jones comes back with, " That's
a monkey wrench," all that Smith has asked of Jones is
memory. Jones did not have to do any thinking, he only
had to remember. He either did remember or else he didn't.
Now the process of remembering will also arouse interest
and center the mind on what is remembered. The same result
can be obtained by asking a person what they know about
something; the act of trying to remember what they know
\
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 493
will tend to fix their attention on Tfhat they are asked to talk
about. For example, an instructor, in carrying out step 1
on a lesson on the use of a crosscut saw with a learner who
knew something about rip saws, might ask the learner to
tell what he knew about a rip saw, not caring very much
what he told, so long as he told something. There would be
no suggestion here, the learner would simply be asked to
give some information that the instructor knew he possessed.
AU that the instructor wanted was to make him go through
a remembering process so as to center his mind on a saw, the
lesson to be put over dealing with the points where a rip
saw and a crosscut saw differ iri the way that they are used
on the job. Such questions as those suggested here, whose
purpose is merely to make a learner recall something that
the instructor already knows that he knows, and whose
answer calls for no thinking but just for recollecting may
be called informational questions to distinguish them from
suggestive questions as already described.
The Informational Demonstration. — ^Under the same
conditions as have been described for the development demon-
stration, that is, where there is " nothing doing " so far as
the use of informational questions is concerned, it is possible
for the instructor to furnish some information by either tell-
ing something or by showing something. For example, he can
tell an experience that he has had that bears on the subject
of the lesson, or he can do the job himself while the learner
watches him, not with the idea of teaching the learner any-
thing at this stage of the game, but simply to give him a
notion as to what is to be taught him in the lesson.
As an example of the difference between the two sorts
of demonstrations, in the case of the crosscut saw used as
an illustration, if the instructor, were to show both kinds
of saws, and say to the learner, referring to the crosscut
" Would this saw be good to use for cutting with the grain?
Why?" he would be using a development question in connec-
tion with his demonstration, but if he showed the crosscut
494 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
saw alone and said " Is this a rip saw?" he would be using an
informational question in connection with his demonstration.
STEP 2. A. THE DEVELOPMENT LINE OF APPROACH
Methods: Step 2. — ^In using this line of approach the
methods that a foreman will find most serviceable for handling
step 2 of an instructing job are the demonstration with
suggestive questions and the illustration, handled in the
same manner.
The Demonstration. — The demonstration method con-
sists essentially in either showing the learner how the job is
done with the real tools, stock, etc., just as he will have to do
it when he is out in the shop " on his own," after he has
been instructed, or in making the learner do the job himself
under the supervision and direction of the instructor. Put-
ting him onto the job, giving him a few general directions,
going off and leaving him for an hour to fend for himself or
pump what he can from other workers is not carrying out
this method. As an example of the use of this method an
instructor in printing may operate the press in instructing a
learner in feeding. In doing this, if he were using the demon-
stration method he would use a real job. After feeding a
little while he might let the learner try his hand at iti stand-
ing by to prevent any slips and to keep the learner from
getting scared. In using this method in putting over a lesson
on an assembling job the instructor would use the necessary
parts, bolts, nuts, wrenches, etc., and would do a real assembly
job or would have the learner do it under direction.
It is evident that provided a real job is done the demon-
stration can be carried on either by the learner, or by the
instructor, or by both, turn about. When the learner does
the job under the supervision of the instructor, he is his
own demonstrator. He demonstrates to himself. That is
the way that most of us learned the job of falling downstairs
when we were kids. In some cases a learner may work from
printed or written directions. In this case he is still demon-
strating to himself.
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 496
The Method of Illustration.— This method differs from
the demonstration essentially in that instead of using the
real thing that would be used on the job the instructor uses
things that make the learner see the real things in his mind.
For example, every time that a man reads a blue-print whkt
he sees with his eyes are white lines on blue paper, but what
he sees in his mind are the real things that those white lines
represent. Some illustrations may make this point clearer.
For example, suppose an engineer was to be taught how to
set a valve by a method with which he was not familiar, and
the instructor instead of using a real engine used a wooden
model, or used diagrams. In such a case he would be
using the method of illustration instead of the method
of demonstration.
This method is used every day in shops where, in talking
over a job with a workman, the foreman will make a sketch
on a scrap of paper, or sometimes with pencil or chalk on
the stock itself.
The method of illustration can be carried out by models,
pictures, diagrams, sketches, etc., but for any instructing
work that a foreman may have to do probably only the sketch
and the diagram would be used. It must be remembered that
a sketch is made whenever marks are made on something, no
matter what. A foreman in a foundry can make a sketch on
the floor by using a stick and making marks in the sand.
The Development Demonstration or Illustration. — ^When
used in connection with the development line of approach the
instructor will keep the learner " alive " by questions that
will keep him thinking or by making him do some of the
work, or both. For example, the instructor will ask the
learner " What do you think that I ought to do next? " or
" Why do you think that that operation was carried out
that way.?" or " Could it have been carried out any other
way?" As a definite example suppose that in an assembly
job the instructor was teaching the learner how to set up a
nut, and when it comes to the final setting up, says to the
4S6 THE^FOKEMAN AND HIS JOB
learner " Do you think that this nut could fee set up too
hard?" " What might happen?" " Suppose it was not set
up hard enough, what might happen? ", and so on.
As already stated while there are other methods that can
be used the two given above are the only ones that are likely
to be of service to a foreman in any instructing work that he
may have to do where the development line of approach
is used.
STEP 2. B. THE INFORMATIONAL LINE OF APPEOACH
The Demonstration Method. — ^Where this method is used
with the informational line of approach the instructor makes
the demonstration (does the job) and the learner watches
him do it. While doing the job the instructor may or may
not ask questions but if he does they are memory questions
such as « What did I do last?" « What did I tell you was
the name of this tool? ", and so on.
It will be noted that in carrying on the work in this way,
the learner is practically passive. He absorbs but does not
have to give down except as he may be requested to furnish
information. He has to use memory but does not have to
think in the way that he would have to under the other
line of approach.
The Method of Illustration. — This method would be con-
ducted in the same way using sketches or diagrams instead
of the real things.
The Lecture Method. — This method of presentation con-
sists in simply talking about the job. Telling how it should
be done without either demonstrating or illustrating with any
sort of real things. Good examples of straight lectures can
often be heard in popular lecture courses. For example,
when some one tells his experiences in foreign travel.
Step 3. Both Lines of Approach.— While other methods
are known and are commonly employed in schools, there is
only one method for a foreman to use in this step and that
is to put the learner on the job, watching him and checking
him up if he starts to go wrong. According to the line of
THE INSTRUCTOR'S "TOOLS" 497
approach development or informational questions are used i
as necessary. If, for example, the instructor says " Hold
on, you did something wrong, then find out what it was and fix
it before you go any further." He is using the development
line of approach. If he says, " What did I tell you to be
careful about at this point," he is using the informational
line of approach. As already stated the instructor will have
the learner work at the job in this way until he is willing to
take a chance that the learner has got the whole job.
STEP 4. NO LINES OF APPEOACH
Testing On the Job. — This is the last step in which the
instructor tests or inspects his own product, who he now
assumes to be competent to do the job unaided and do it
right, though not perhaps at fuU commercial speed as taken
up later. He therefore has the learner do the job and
inspects the product. If his guess as to the learner having
been thoroughly instructed in the two preceding steps was
correct, the product is 0. K. and the lesson has been put
over. If the product is not O. K. the instructor guessed
wrong in step 3, must go back to it, do some more checking
up and straightening up and then inspect again. He must
not " let go " on his instructing job until the learner has
demonstrated beyond question that he can do that job
unaided, and can be depended upon to keep on doing it when
he is " on his own."
It is evident that in step 4 the instructor uses no line of
approach since this is only a testing step. By the way that
he does the job unaided' the learner does inform the instructor
as to the results, of the " inspection."
CHAPTER XXIX
PICKING OUT THE BEST METHODS AND LINES
OF APPROACH FOR A GIVEN INSTRUCTING JOB
Preliminary. — ^The last section described what were
called the instructor's "tools" (methods and lines of
approach), and poiated out that an instructor would select
and use those that would give the best results for the particu-
lar instructing job under consideration, with regard to
whether the lesson was on a production job or on a technical
job and with regard to the learner. This section makes some
suggestions along that line, that are intended to be of service
to a foreman who may have instructing responsibilities.
Different Kinds of Instructing Jobs. — In general there
are two things that determine the particular character of
an instructing job, the kind of a teaching unit and the
kind of a learner.
A. KINDS OF LESSONS
The Kind of a Teaching Unit. — So far as a foreman's
probable instructing responsibilities go he may have to
instruct in two different kinds of jobs, production jobs
and technical jobs. As the distinction between these two
kinds of jobs is sometimes rather important it is taken
up here.
Technical and Production Jobs. — ^As already defined, a
job, as the word is used in this book, means anything that a
worker is paid to do, but in production work there are some
jobs that, when completed, bring the stock one step nearer
to the finished product of the department. Such jobs always
in some way affect stock. Such jobs may be called produc-
tion jobs. There are in practically all plants a number of
jobs that do not directly affect stock but are a necessary
step in the ^tting out of the stock. Such jobs may be called
498
PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH 499
technical jobs. Fot example, making a blue print is a pro-
duction job for the blue print room, but figuring the correct
number of gears on a lathe, or getting those values from a
gear table would be a technical job. Making a working
drawing in the drafting room would be a production job for
that department but reading the blue print in the shop would
be a technical job. Estimating the post of certain repairs
would be a technical job, but actually making the repairs
would be a production job. A pattern maker, in making his
lay-out would be doing a technical job, but making the pat-
tern from the lay-out would be a production job.
Characteristics of the Technical Job. — ^In general this
sort of a job presents these characteristics:
( 1 ) It is not a direct production j ob.
(2) It requires the application of special knowledge.
(3) It is a necessary part of getting out production,
though not itself a production job.
(4) It need not be done where the production job to
which it contributes is done.
Thus, for example, the figuring on a steel bridge might
be done in Chicago, the drawing made in Middleton, Ohio,
and the bridge built in California, but the figuring and the
drawing would have to be done before the bridge could be
built. The majority of technical jobs call for the exercise of
intelligence and judgment in the use of mathematics, draw-
ing or other educational " tools." Often there is more
than one way of doing the job and the method must be
selected that is the best under the special conditions. In
few cases are techincal jobs carried out in a purely automatic
way. To make a general distinction it might be said that a
technical job is almost always either a planning job or a
laying-out job, and are commonly spoken of as problems
rather than jobs.
Characteristics of the Production Job.— As distinguished
from the production job the technical job presents these
characteristics :
600 THE FOBEMAN AND HIS JOB
1. The job gives a definite production product.
2. It requires the use of tools or machines, that is, what
would be commonly called mechanical equipment.
3. It requires mechanical skill and job intelligence in the
use of these tools and machines.
4. As a result of the doing of a production job, depart-
mental stock is changed in some way. (Moved, shaped,
formed, etc., as the case may be.)
While a technical job calls for the intelligent use of such
" technical tools " as mathematics, drawing science, etc., a
production job calls for corresponding intelligence and skiU
in the use of actual mechanical tools and machines.
The Two Possible Instructing Jobs. — A foreman may
therefore have instructing responsibilities for putting over
either technical or production lessons, though, under most
conditions he is likely to have to deal with instruction on pro-
duction jobs much more than with the teaching of technical
jobs, though this wiU depend, of course, on the particular
character of the departmental jobs under his supervision.
B. KINDS OF LEAENEES
The Kind of a Learner. — ^It was pointed out in Chapter
XXV that a foreman might have to instruct :
(1) Apprentices, on either technical or production jobs.
(2) Green workers, usually taken on for special jobs.
(3) Regular workers, on points on their regular jobs.
Apprentices are as a usual thing supposed to be
instructed in all the production and technical jobs that go
with the trade and, except where some special arrangement
is made, such as a part time class, all this instruction is up
to the foreman. They get it from him, get it themselves or
don't get it at alL
Green workers are usually taken on for special shop jobs
or for specialized jobs according to the character of the
plant, and the foreman is in most cases obliged to instruct
them unless there is a training department, or he has special
instructors to relieve him of that additional work.
PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH
601
Regular workers, assumed to be able to do their jobs
will nevertheless need more or less incidental help from time
to time. A foreman may therefore have instrucing responsi-
bilities as to :
Kind of Learner.
Apprentices.
Kind of Lesson.
Production.
Technical.
Kind of Job.
Trade Jobs (All
kinds.)
Green help.
Production.
Mostly specialized.
A few trade jobs.
Regular Workers.
Production.
Technical.
Trade Jobs.
Specialized Jobs.
Laborers Jobs.
The Selection of Lines of Approach. — On any instruct-
ing job there is always the choice between the two possible
lines of approach. From the descriptions already given it
must be evident that the development line of approach takes
more time and requires greater instructing skill than does
the informational line of approach. From the instructing
standpoint the question is always " Will it pay in terms of
time and effort to use the development line of approach.? "
Now as has already been stated in a general way this depends
on the kind of a teaching job that has to be done and the
kind of a learner. While each case must be considered "on
its merits," the following statements will generally apply.
(1) The more thinking required on the job the more
likely is the development line of approach to be the more
desirable to use. This will be true in general for:
(a) Jobs in skilled trades.
(b) Jobs where there may be possible modifications
in the way that operations may be carried out and the
man on the" job must therefore use judgment.
(c) Jobs where worker must exercise ingenuity in
dealing with situations that may come up.
fi02 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
This practically amounts to saying that where a worker
"must use his head on the job" the development line of
approach should be used. It will " pay " under these con-
ditions, so far as the nature of the job goes.
(2) As regards the kind of learner it is in general true
that the more he already knows about the job, the more
experience he has had, the greater the probability that the
informational line of approach will work all right and be
safely used. Such cases might be :
(a) Giving incidental instruction to generally
competent workers.
(b) Giving instruction to learners on jobs that are
very much like jobs that they have already learned
how to do.
The Selection of Methods. — ^As given there are practi-
cally four methods that require consideration ; the demonstra-
tion, the illustration, the question, and the lecture, as possi-
ble methods that can be used in steps 1 or 2. As already
pointed out there is no chance as to methods in steps 3 and 4,
so the matter is not taken up so far as those st^ps are con-
cerned. As these methods were described in the last section
the only points taken up here are their relative advantages
for different sorts of teaching jobs.
The Demonstration Metiiod. — The demonstration is
unquestionably the proper method to use whenever possible
when instructing green learners on production jobs. Under
these conditions there is practically no other method that can
be used to any advantage. In the case of giving incidental
instruction to competent workers the method of illustration
can be sometimes substituted for it, as is taken up later, but,
in general, it is the standard method for all shop instruction
and a foreman should be very sure of his ground before he
substitutes either of the other methods for it in instructing
on shop jobs.
The case of technical jobs is somewhat different.
Although the same general principle holds there are many
PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH 503
cases where illustration can be substituted for demonstra-
tion. This is most likely to be true on technical lessons
with workers of considerable experience, where the techni-
cal job to be taught is very much like jobs that they
already knew how to do. For example, suppose the techni-
cal job of taking an indicator card from a new type of indi-
cator was to be put over to a group of steam engineers.
Probably under these conditions time would be saved and
the instructing job would be done as well by using diagrams
as by using the real indicator.
The Method of Illustration. — This method should always
be regarded as a substitute for the demonstration method.
It must always be remembered that this method requires the
learner to look at one thing which is not the real thing, and
at the same time see the real thing in his mind. Evidently
he can only do this when he is familiar with the real thing.
This is why this method will work well in many cases with
experienced men but will not work well with green men. In
all cases there is an additional mental eiFort required of the
learner to make the " carry over " from the picture or dia-
gram, or sketch, or model that is used to make him think
of the real thing. Since this always means a greater or less
additional " learning friction," which is, of course, less as
the learner is more familiar with the real thing. Great care
should be taken to use this method only when an instructor
is sure that the " learning friction " will be so slight that it
will be more than compensated for by the gain in time in
putting the lesson over.
Dangers in the Use of the Method of Illustration. — The
great danger in connection with this method is that it is
often easier for an instructor to use than the demonstration
method, and so he tends to use it in cases where it wont
work, especially if he is hard pressed for time or is plain
lazy, when with a little special effort he could use the demon-
stration instead.
The choice between the two methods should therefore be
604 THE FOREMAN AND HIS JOB
based not on which is the easier for the instructor but on
careful decision as to whether, with regard to the sort of
learner and the sort of job to be taught, time can be saved
and the instructing job be put over just as effectively. That
is, the method of illustration should be regarded as an instruc-
tional time-saving "tool," where it will work. In case of
any doubt as to this point use the demonstration method,
if it can possibly be done even at the expense of more time
and trouble.
The Lecture Method. — ^This method has no place in
instructing on shop or on technical j obs. It has been included
in the list of possible methods mainly because many foremen
do tend to use it in instructing on jobs of this character. It
may happen however that, in addition to instructing on jobs,
a foreman may have occasion to " put over " certain infor-
mation to a group of his men, where the lecture method
combined with the development line of approach may be of
service. The same dangers exist here as in the case of the
method of illustration, only because lecturing is even more
easy than illustrating, these dangers are even worse.
Bearing in mind that each case must be decided on its
merits the following table suggests the general principles
that should be borne in mind in determining what method to
use for a given kind of lesson and a given kind of learner.
PICKING OUT BEST METHODS OF APPROACH
505
:: Kind of Learner.
Kind of Lesson.
Method.
Green Learner.
Production Job.
Technical Job.
Demonstration.
Experienced worker.
Production Job.
Technical Job.
Demonstration or
Illustration.
Very Experienced
Worker.
Production Job.
Technical Job.
Illustration in most
cases.
Discussion.
Anybody.
General Information .
Lecture, in some
cases with de-
velopment line
of approach.
Lecture.
Very Experienced
Worker.
Very slight addition
to knowledge.
Lecture.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX A '
THE USE OF THIS BOOK IN CONNECTION WITH
FOREMEN'S CONFERENCES
Preliminary. — ^As stated in the preface this book is essen-
tially a compilation of points that have been brought up
and discussed in conferences of foremen where the purpose
of the conference was to provide an opportunity for the
"pooling" of experiences and the free discussion of matters
affecting the foreman's job.
This material was brought together to serve two pur-
poses, first, to assist anyone who might have the responsi-
bility for conducting such conferences, by placing at their
disposal a considerable amount of information on which they
could draw in making up programs and in planning the
work for a series of such meetings and second, to provide
printed material that could be, under suitable conditions,
placed in the hands of the conference members.
These matters are therefore taken up in the two follow-
ing sections : Section 1 indicating briefly some ways in which
a Conference Leader may use this material to advantage and
Section 2 giving certain information based on the experi-
ence of those who have been conducting such conferences,
as to the most effective way in which it can be used when
placed in the hands of the men.
A considerable amount of information bearing upon the
initiation and conduct of such conferences wiU be found in
Bulletin No. 86, Trade and Industrial Series No. 7, Part
1, issued by the Federal Board of Vocational Education,
Washington, D.C., and the information contained therein is
therefore not repeated here.
SECTION I
THE USE OF THIS MATEEIAX BY A CONFEEENCE LEADEB
In general, as stated above, this book contains a large
amount of material which foremen have found interesting
509
filO APPENDIX
and profitable to discuss. In addition, it indicates the gen-
eral'way in which the discussions have gone and the points
brought out.
It can therefore be used by a conference leader as a
source from which he can draw in laying out a program or
in planning for a given meeting. No attempt has been
made to make the discussion complete or to cover all pos-
sible points, or even to completely cover the entire fore-
man's job, and it wiU undoubtedly be necessary to both
select and supplement.
It has been assumed that while the different chapters take
up the different subjects in a certain order, this order would
not, of necessity be followed. For example, while the matter
of job analysis is taken up almost at first it is quite possi-
ble, and often desirable, to take up first work in the human
factor field, while with certain groups it may be possible
that it would be inadvisable to go into the matter of job
analysis at all.
Again, while the order of the presentation is, in general,
first the discussion of supervisory responsibilities, following
this by a corresponding discussion of cost elements, mana-
gerial problems, and in some cases, ways and means, it by no
means follows that this would be the most effective order
for a given group.
The material is therefore put up with the idea that it
will serve a conference leader essentially as a " cafeteria "
from which he can select whatever he considers desirable for
his purpose, and which he can take up in any desired order.
It is on account of the assumption that the order of
presentation as given will not be of necessity followed, that
in a number of chapters there is a certain amount of repeti-
tion, so that to a certain extent, each chapter could be
regarded as an independent unit.
From the standpoint of a conference leader this book
is therefore intended to be of service in the following ways.
APPENDIX 511
First, as suggesting subjects for conferences, and second as
providing suggestive and more or less complete material from
which individual conference programs may be made up, and
third by providing suggestive samples of other material such
as points for discussion, cases for discussion, forms, etc.,
which under ceotain conditions are extremely serviceable, but
which each conference leader must to a considerable extent
develop in accordance with the special make-up of his groups
and the special character of his program.
Suggested Subjects for Conferences. — ^In considering
setting up a program for a series of conferences the sut
jects cannot be taken from the chapter headings but must
be drawn from the text itself. For instance, under coopera-
tion, these chapters deal, with a number of possible subjects
such as, for illustration, cooperation with superiors and pos-
sible responsibilities for noting chances for cooperation with
equals. It might well be that one of these possible subjects
would be of interest to a given group and the other would
not, so that either chapter as a whole would not be desir-
able for use. Since this whole question is affected by the
methods used in laying out the program of conference sub-
jects two of the more common methods of procedure are
briefly described in the following paragraphs. These two
methods may, for convenience, be designated as the "general
covering method " and the " specific improvement method. "
The General Covering Method. — ^In making up a pro-
gram by this method the program is made out with the
idea of covering, so far as possible, all responsibilities that
may come into the duty of the members of the group. In
this case the selection of subjects would be determined by the
particular duty of the men as fixed' by the organization and
procedure of the plant or plants in which they were employed
This would, of course, have to be determined by informa-
tion securedl from the plants and by some sort of a prelimi-
nary investigation.
Sli APPENDIX
The Specific Improvement Method. — In making up a
program by this method, the subjects selected are those which
it is believed would be of special interest when discussed in
conference. This program would be also based on some sort
of a preliminary study, but in this case this study would
take into consideration the relative "interest values" of
the different subjects. The selection of subjects in
this case would therefore be based on the special value
of some possible subjects to the plant or to the men, either
because these subjects were of special interest at that
special time or because they were "low" in that particular
plant, or for some other valid reason.
Where such a program is to be set up it wiU also be
found that a very considerable number of the desired points
are included in the discussions in the text.
Making Up Programs for Individual Conferences. —
Experience has shown that the successful conduct of a con-
ference depends very largely upon the degree to which careful
planning is carried on in advance of the meeting and this
planning is incorporated into what has come to be called
an operating sheet. Such an operating sheet contains cer-
tain information to which the conference leader can con-
veniently refer and which serves as a guide during the prog-
ress of the discussions. The information and other material
that it has been found desirable to include in such an opera-
ting sheet will vary somewhat according to circumstances,
but will, in general contain at least the following:
1. The general objective of the meeting.
2. The sub-objectives that have been determined upon
to lead up to the general objective.
3. A number of such suggestive questions as may have
been considered desirable to use.
4. If cases are to be used, a sufficient number of cases to
serve the purpose for which they are to be used, these cases
having been carefully selected and thought out in advance.
6. If points for discussion are to be used, a corresponding
number that have been carefully worked out in the same way.
APPENDIX 613
6. If certain points are to be developed in discussion,
say cost elements, a sufficient number to enable the confer-
ence leader to check up as the development goes on.
7. Such other memoranda as may be necessary.
Use of the Material In Working Up An Operating
Sheet. — The material that is brought together in this book
can be used in a variety of ways in working out an operating
sheet. Among the points that wiU be found serviceable are
the following:
1. A number of formulated definitions and defined terms
that when used and accepted, tend to reduce unprofitable
discussion due to lack of clear understanding as to the point
of the discussion or to different words being used to express
the same idea. The gradual setting up of a common nomen-
plature for use in discussion, is, in itself, a desirable piece
of work.
2. Fairly complete lists of points that have been usually
brought out in discussion, as in the case of ways in
which one foreman can cooperate with another foreman, or
as in the case of cost elements. While it must be clearly
understood that such lists are by no means complete, and
that numerous other points may, and probably will, be
brought out in the discussion, nevertheless the majority of
those that are given are likely to come out, and the lists
as given will at least give the conference leader an idea of
what to expect and will give him something to go on when
entered on his operating sheet. Moreover, the lists as given
will be in themselves suggestive of others that he can add
to those that he may find in the text.
3. The cases and points for discussion, and the cases
that are given at the end of the different parts are intended
to be suggestive in indicating the types that have been found
to work well. Of course many more such cases and points
for discussion must be worked out by the conference leader
33
614 APPENDIX
although those that are given will serve as something to
start on.
4. In a number of cases suggestive forms are also given
at the end of certain parts. Those that are given have been
found to work well but where it is desired to make much
use of forms their value will be more along the line of sug-
gestion as to the manner in which other forms can be
laid out.
5. The general classified lay-out of possible supervisory
responsibilities given in Appendix B will serve to show the
relations between any special set of objectives that may be
included in a given program.
There are a number of other minor ways in which the
text will be found to be of help in working out an operating
sheet for a given conference, but those given above are the
more important aids.
The Necessity of Carefully Planning for Each Con-
ference.— Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the necessity '
for careful planning for each conference. Unless this is
done, the results are almost certain to be unsatisfactory.
As a rule two or three hours of hard thinking are none too
much for such advance planning.
SECTION II
THE USE OP THE TEXT IN THE HANDS OF THE MEN
The second use that was in mind in bringing this material
together was to present "notes" that could, under proper
conditions, be placed in the hands of the men who attended
the conferences. Since, if used wrongly, such printed material
will not only fail to be of service but will do actual harm,
certain important points are taken up in this section.
Purposes for Which the Text Can Be Used.— Used as
a text, or rather as "notes," the different points taken up
in this book may be used for the following purposes :
1. After discussion it may be used as a "report of the
APPENDIX 515
meeting" or as a review of the discussion and the conclusions
put in permanent form for future reference.
2. In many cases it can be successfully used as a refer-
ence during discussion in the meeting.
3. After the particular points in question have been
thrashed out in conference it may be used in future confer-
ences as a "back reference," when some question comes up
that refers back to something that was discussed at a
previous meeting.
When used for these purposes it is usually necessary to
supplement the text by a report of the meeting which covers
any important points that were brought up that are not
covered in the text.
Purposes for Which the Text Should Not Be Used. —
This material was not prepared with the idea that it would
be used as a " text-book" from which " assigned readings "
jvere to be given or " lessons " to be assigned, hence it should
never be used for advance assignments in the ordinary school
sense of the word. The different subjects are not completely
treated, the discussions are not complete, and the whole
arrangement is intended to be suggestive rather than
authoritative. In the case of certain types of groups it is
true that men can be asked to look up certain points in
advance but the purpose of such work would be to rouse
interest and to get some advance thinking on the subject
rather than to secure any definite advance study.
Points for Discussion and Cases. — In general, points
for discussion and cases should be taken up in the confer-
ence. Occasionally it is possible to give out a few in addition
to those taken up in the meeting for the men to take with
them and work up for the next meeting, that is, they can
sometimes be used on a "follow up" basis, but like the text,
they can rarely, if ever, be used outside of the meeting in
advance of discussion.
The Use of Forms. — The same statements just made as
to points for discussion and cases will apply to forms. They
516 APPE>fDIX
can rarely if ever be used effectively except in the meeting
or on a foUow-up basis.
Use of the Text by Parts. — Experience has shown that
it is undesirable to give men a considerable amount of mate-
rial at once. If, for example, the entire book were placed in
the hands of the men at the beginning of the meeting unsatis-
factory attempts to "read ahead" tend to produce more or
less confusion of thought, interfere with sticking to the point
in discussion, and in general make for inefficiency in the
work. In order to meet this situation and at the same
time allow for considerable latitude in both the selection and
and the order of subjects, the material has been made up in
parts that can be procured in sets, and it is far better to
"feed out" these sets one at a time as the work goes on.
The General Object of Foremen's Conferences. — The
special type of conference that was in mind when this mate-
rial was brought together was a conference attended by fore-
men who were employed as such, and the object of such a
conference was assumed to be the development through dis-
cussion of what, as a result of their experience, they, in a
sense, already knew. It was not assumed that the work
would be for the purpose of preparing men and women to
act as foremen when they never had been foremen. In other
words, this material was intended to be used in connection
with trade extension work in foremanship rather than in
preparatory foreman training.
This accounts for its special form which would have been
very different had it been intended for use in preparing
for foremanship. It would probably be serviceable in such
work, but, up to the present time has not been used for
that purpose.
APPENDIX B
A CLASSIFIED LAY-OUT OF SOME POSSIBLE
SUPERVISORY RESPONSIBILITIES IN A
FOREMAN'S JOB
The following pages contain a list of possible supervisory
responsibilities that may be included in the foreman's job,
classified according to the classification system described in
the body of the text. This list was compiled from the state-
ments of a considerable number of foremen as to their super-
visory responsibilities. There is no reason to think that this
is complete and it is very improbable that aU the responsi-
bilities given would come into the job of any one foreman. It
does, however, make a suggestive lay-out on which the body
of the text has been based, and should serve as a basis for
working out programs for series of foremen's confer-
ences. As such, it is hoped that it will be of value
to conference leaders.
It will also be found of value in making analysis of super-
visory jobs by the " cafeteria method " as described in
the text.
SOME POSSIBLE 6ENEEAI., DETAILED AND SPECIFIC RESPONSI-
BILITIES THAT MAT COME INTO A FOKEMAN's JOB
Raw Departmental
Stock
Receiving from
Last Custodian:.
Taking over
One kind only
Different grades of one kind
Several kinds
Different grades of different
kinds
Different quantities of dif-
ferent kinds
Different quantities of dif-
ferent grades
In bulk: in containers
617
518
APPENDIX
Raw Departmental
Stock
(Continued)
Inspecting pre-
vious to accept-
Unloading and
transporting to
storage by use^
of
Putting into stor-,
age by the use of
And
Storing in
Kind of stock
Quantity of stock
Quality of Stock
Grade of stock
Condition of stock
Condition of containers
Hand work
Wheel barrows
Man trucks
Teams
Motor trucks
Mechanical conveyers
Elevators
Etc
Hand work
Wheel barrows
Man trucks
Horses, hoisting engines,
motors, etc.
Motor trucks (small elec-
tric)
Mechanical conveyers ele-
vators, etc.
Bins Cans (sealed)
Barrels Cans (open)
Boxes Tanks
Packages Barrels (powder)
Racks Barrels (liquid)
Drums Pressure tanks
Out of doors Under cover
Storing to providej Arrangement
[ Accessibility
for
Protection while
in storage
Stock in Process
Getting out
storage
of I
Transporting to |
first operating-^
point I
Damage
Loss
Theft
Adulteration
Special protection
Condition of stock
Condition of containers
Weather
The right quantity
The right quality
The right grade
The right size
Transporting
Protecting while in transit
APPENDIX
519
Stock in Process
(Continued)
Handling inter-
mediate products
■{
Transportation from one
operating point to another
operating point
{Protecting while in transit
Protecting while stored
Arranging
Classifying
Finished Stock
Inspecting pre-
vious to passing '
Storing in
Transporting
storage by
to
Protecting while in
transportation
Storing in
Delivery in
Delivery by
. Protecting from
' Quantity
Grade
Quality
Bulk
Bins
Racks
Cans
Tanks
Man
Trucks
Electric trucks
Conveyers
Fire
Loss
Theft
Adulteration
. Moisture
Bins
Bulk
Packages
Cans
Bulk
Package
Open cans
Closed cans
Boxes
Barrels
Trucks
Men
Electric trucks
Teams
Cranes
Weather
Loss
Theft
Fire
Damage
fiSO
APPENDIX
Equipment in
Service
Maintenance
Protection
Use
Securing
Handling
Adjusting
Repairing
Overhauling
Condemning
Replacing
Inspecting
Carrying reserve
Protecting from damage
Protecting from abuse
Controlling output
Making special volume ar-
rangements to meet an
emergency
Rearranging equipment
Assigning equipment units
to jobs
Balancing equipment units
when assigning to jobs
Laying out specied assi{
ments of units for jobs
{
Selecting types
Buying
Installing
J Receiving
Inspecting
Laying out
Grouping
Balancing
(Recommending, Suggesting,
Acting)
Operation Control
Operation control
Production
methods
Starting jobs
Stopping jobs
ChecMng jobs while in
operation
Looking out for operating
conditions while job is
going on
{Determining operations
Determining processes
Determining special proc-
esses or operation
APPENDIX
£21
Securing the Re-
quired Product ■
•Operation Control"
(Continued)
•New operations
and processes
Production
Control
Changing opera-
tions
Working out new
operations
' Covering all jobs "
Keeping up the
working force
Making transfers
from one grade-
of job to another
Getting the necessary or re-
quired amounts of inter-
mediate products.
Getting the necessary or re-
quired amount of final
product
Getting the necessary quali-
ties or grades of inter-
mediate and final prod-
ucts
Inspecting intermediate
products
Inspecting final products
Operating waste
Operating yield
Conversion
By-products
Changing processes
Changing operations
Changing working conditions
Supervising experimental
work
Making suggestions
As to necessary strength
As to necessary job knowl-
edge
As to necessary job skill
On highly skilled jobs
On medium skilled jobs
On specialized jobs
On machine-tending jobs
On laborers jobs
Promoting *
Demoting
Shiftings from one job to
another of the same grade
• By recommendation, direct
action or suggestion as to
the case may be
•NoTK. — Since this question of responsibilities in this part of the fore-
man's job goes over into the field of job and technical knowledge the
analysis is not carried out further in this set of possible specifi<;
responsibilities..
£22
APPENDIX
Distributing the
working force
Dealing with per-
manent labor
loss
Hiring
Discharging •
Providing understudies
Securing transfers of work-
ers from other depart-
ments.
* By recommendation, direct
action or suggestion as
to the case may be
Dealing with tem-
porary labor loss
{
"Doubling up"
Making temporary transfers
•Stock
Recording
Operations and
processes
Tools and equip-
ment
Amount on hand
Amount in process
Amount ready for delivery
Amount delivered up to a
certain date
Progress of production
Inspection records
Records as to condition
Records of stock orders
Records of rework tickets
Records of job tickets
Records of stock requisitions
Special records
Records on operating waste
Records on operating time
Records on operating power
Records on results of routine
tests
Records on results of special
tests
Conversion records
Records of yield
Special records
Inventories of equipment in
service
Requisitions for maintenance
work
for new tools
for tool repairs
for replacements
Inventories of complete
equipment
of tools and acces-
sories
Special records
APPENDIX
523
Recording
(Continued)
{
The working force.
Giving information -■
Orders
Directions
Suggestions
{
Number at work
Number taken on
Number discharged
Number that quit
Number of transfers
Number of absences
Number late
Number of accidents
Special records
Direct to the working fortB
General orders
To the working force
To the working force
To immediate superiors
To the management
To other foremen
. To other departments
Reporting on
Stock
Operations and
processes
Tools and equip-
ment
Amount on hand
Amount in process
Amount finished
Amount ordered
Progress
Reports as to conditions
Rework tickets
Requisitions
_ Job tickets
Operating waste
Time reports
Power reports
Special tests
Routine tests
Production
Conversion
Equipment in service
Maintenance requisitions
Requisitions for new tools
Requisitions for replace-
ments
Reports on condition of
equipment
Reports on general, repairs
or alterations
Requisitions for general re-
pairs or alterations
624
APPENDIX
The working force jWork^rs'""'"''^
Number at work
Workers taken on
Absences
Accidents
Deferred responsi-
bilities set up by _
the organization
The general man-
agement
Immediate
superiors
Other foremen
Making suggestions
Carrying out policies
Protecting tools and
equipment
General plant protection
Transmitting general orders
_ Carrying out policies
Making suggestions
Making recommendations
Carrymg out orders
Transmitting orders
" Backing up "
Getting out the product
Seeing that all jobs are
properly carried out
{
Furnishing information as
requested
f Transmitting orders
The working force J Giving orders
(_ Giving directions
Special depart-
ments
r Furnishing information as
■i requested
1^ Transmitting information
The physical con-
dition of the
working force
Actual physical
injury: safety
Illness
Injuries to the worker
Injuries to others
Temporary illness
Incipient disease
Acute illness
Chronic illness
Infectious disease
. Contagious disease
APPENDIX
525
General physical
conditions
The physical con-
dition of the
working force
(ConUnued)
Working condi-
tions as fo
Physical handicaps (V. R.,
I. R.)
Overfatigue
Susceptibility to injury on
account of special weak-
ness
Concentrated attention
Over speeding
Personal habits outside the
plant that interfere with
work on the job
General outside conditions
General health
Retraining cases
Air
Light
" Occupational dangers
I Special job dangers
I General surroundings
Leadership
The mental atti-
tude of t h e^
working force
Interest
Satisfaction
Planning ahead
Getting the right men on
the right job
Keeping up the organization
Fixing responsibility
Not trying to be "it"
Looking out for the men
Getting the " team "
with him
Noting the mental attitude
as to:
Interest in the work job
Interest in the depart-
mental job
Interest in the plant job
Noting the mental attitude
as to:
Satisfaction with working
conditions
Satisfaction as to general
surroundings
Satisfaction as to the
plant
fi26
APPENDIX
SOME POSSIBLE COOPERATIVE RESPONSIBILITIES
Detailed Specific.
General
cooperative
responsibilities
The general
management
Immediate
superiors
Other foremen
The working
force
Special
departments
Giving plant information to
workers
Having plant pride.
Not " knocking "
Heading off incorrect plant
gossip
" Being a part of the organi-
zation "
As for general superiors
- Appreciating the other fel-
low's troubles
Not knocking other depart-
ments
Playing fair with other
foremen
Cooperating on production
Securing the best possible
working conditions as to:
a. Condition of tools
b. Condition of equip-
ment
Securing the best possible
general surroundings
Helping them along
Bac^ng them up
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