Profitable poultry production

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New York
State College of Agriculture

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Profitable poultry production,

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SINGLE COMB WIHLITE LEGILORN PULLET

Profitable
Poultry Production

By
M. G. KAINS

Poultry Editor American Agriculturist Weeklies

NEW YORK

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
1913

Copyright, 1910
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY
NEw YORK

Printed in U.S. A,

PREFACE

OULTRY production is commonly practiced
on every farm, but profitable poultry produc-
tion so far as the farm is concerned, is rare indeed.
No one, as a rule, has better natural conditions
for poultry raising than has the farmer. It is only
a matter of embracing opportunities that is want-
ing. ;
This book, Profitable Poultry Production, is
written to present the case fairly and squarely so
the farmer may see the advantages that poultry
offers as a means of making money. The book
lays special emphasis upon all the important prac-
tices and new wrinkles that have been found
profitable by professional breeders and poultry-
men. It shows how these can be easily applied
by any one and what may be expected in the way
of results. From cover to cover it is intended as
an encouragement and a stimulus to everyone in-
terested in poultry. Not only does it indicate
which are the lines likely to be most profitable,
but it points out those branches of the business not
likely to be remunerative, except under special
conditions.
When one is telling his own experience or is
compiling the experience of others, his words neces-
sarily carry much more weight than if he adopts

lil

iv PREFACE

the preacher style and says that his hearers should
or must do thus and so. The fact that what he
writes about has been or is being done is evidence
that cannot be set aside. For this reason the author
has endeavored to present his subject from the
results standpoint. With the conviction, therefore,
that application of the principles herein laid down
will make farm poultry production far more profit-
able than it at present is, the author commends
these pages to the thinking farmers, farmers’ wives
and farmers’ children.

M. G. KAINS.

New York, October 1, r9to.

Table of Contents

CHAPTER I.

industry—Importance of good breed—Improved
methods of hatching and rearing—Possible limit of
the market—Farmers’ attitude toward fowls.

CHAPTER II.

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS..........+-006
Eggs for home use—for market—for hatching—
Guaranteeing hatches—Bad and good advertising—
Day old chicks—Broilers—Roasters—Soft Roasters

apons—Layers—Breeders for sale—Ducks—
Geese—Turkeys— Guineas— Squabs—Systems of
poultry raising.

CHAPTER III.
LOCATION AND SITUATION....... 0.0 cece cee cuceccnee

Where to place houses, etc.—The soil factor—Con-
venience of water supply.

CHAPTER IV.

POULTRY QUARTERS. s0560eG06 Cao oh ww hase yale war
Styles of houses—Parts of the house—Model poultry
house—Open front poultry house—Knock-down
colony house.

CHAPTER V.

Pouttry FIxTURES AND DEVICES.............0.0008
Roosts—Dropping boards—Nests—Trap nests—
Feeding vessels—Fountains—Grit and shell recep-
tacles—Coops—Colony houses—Incubators and
pbrooders—Bone and hay cutters—Grit crushers,
Feed mixers and cookers—Prowler traps—Egg cabi-
net—Poultry gates—Shipping coops—Trap nest
made from one board.

v

Page

4

15

45

53

66

vi TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI.

BREEDING AND BREEDS....... 0... ccc eee ete eeeeeee

What to select—Causes of failure—Utility breeding
—Line breeding—Common mistakes in breeding
Importance of constitutional vigor—Danger of in-
creased productiveness—Value of vigorous parents
—Experiments prove theory—Requisites of the
trap nest—Kind of fowl to keep—Barred Plymouth

| _Rock—Leghorn fowls—Light Brahma—Wyandotte
—Rhode Island Red—Other breeds.

CHAPTER VII.

REEDING AND FEEDS 44.645 ecaaeavess Ss vane ves is Sista

Feed affects quantity of eggs—What hens put in
eggs—Composition of poultry feeds—Nutritive ratio
—Individual feeds—Importance of animal feeds—
Green feed Essential Necessity for grit—Value of
method—Grain ground or unground—Dry mash or
wet mash—Value of skim milk—Feeding capons.

CHAPTER VIII.

EXGGU PRODUCTION sjat anes oraye ocean tes eas Cl dbee a tea oR

Hens total yearly peoduction—Selecting layers—
Laying ability improved—Management of laying
stock—Spring and summer care—Autumn care of
layers—Gentleness affects egg yield—Broodiness a
natural characteristic—Record of 600 hens.

CHAPTER IX.

TNCUBATION- Wao iiie fas s chone eco aes bet au eee ne

Interior structure and development of egg—Why
exercise care in handling—Shipping eggs for hatch-
ing—Classes of incubators—Moisture essential—
Methods of management—Testing the eggs—Care
of incubators.

CHAPTER X.

VBA RING thls ty eis Graal. cei ain aes ues coisa ee Ste ace

Managing the brooder—Compare natural methods—
How often to feed—Rearing chicks with hen—
Chickens in hot weather—Care of little chicks

141

159

175

"TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER XI.

Marking and shipping—Dressed poultry—Selecting
stock for market— Killing and dressing—Packing for
shipment—Cold storage poultry and eggs—Egg
marketing methods—How to improve—Co-operative
oultry associations—Honesty essential to success—
reservation of eggs—New York State experiments
_—Egg gathering.

CHAPTER XII.

"ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING.......c00005 sieisre

Desirable type .of fowl—Feeds for fattening—
‘Methods. of killing. .

CHAPTER XIII.

HEALTH AND SANITATION. . 20s cece rece cee eect ce eees
Penalties for uncleanness—Disinfection—Rémedies
vs. preventives—Iidentifying diseases—Cholera—
Diarrhea—Feather pullmg—Roup—Pests—Mites—
Lice—Worms.

CHAPTER XIV.

Water Fow........... Ae a rR toe err arcane or ree
Ducks—Care of ducklings—Localities for duck
ards—Cleanliness essential—Hatching in incu-
Patard= Selection of breeders—Breeds of ducks—
Geese—Geese need pasturage—Profits in goose
growing—Selecting breeders— Rearing goslings—

Breeds of gee: oose and duck feathers.

‘CHAPTER XV.

TuRKEYS..... Bal saoncg Spe octane cece eievah Saige Miedsomierenins ile
Range essential—_Temporary confinement—The lay-
ing season-—Hatching-—Rearing—Feeds—Profits in

-turkey raising—Varieties of turkeys.

216

221

238

264

List of Illustrations

Page

Single Comb White Leghorn pullet......-..... Frontispiece
Australia beats United States in egg production...... 8
Crate for chick shipping.............. Stele tuetexeie aeicare 25
Elevated. water (Cams isnsasss sie cise 010 sie osld P prele sie wees « 26
Compact house for small space............2-0.0e2 eee 29
Coop for broddiés 525 sas Sysle nse Su wh. cos Keele wil 32
Barred Plymouth Rock hen ..............4. halftone insert
Light Brahma cock ..... Deed Saguatene hoes Mon eee halftone insert
Lice preventer 0. <ces5.es0 seve ausiock ate eal eg wienssetemsntie) See S 35
System of watering.......---+--seeeeee eee eee eee . 46
Side hill poultry house..............0- ee nee triton 50
Water pail: Suppotticn. cng case dene sae wigacaiey: sea e 51
ke W. Griffin’s poultry house ...... Siniara Wie Gievelere Ore aeecks 58
resh air poultry house...........-. sieve Sie tie ici eowieies - 60
Ground plan of house ...... Seales oe Skat cho teen eravanateusibi 61
Knock down colony house........... aio lo ste otra rales 63, 64
Vermin-proof roost ........ oie aise Se selelenie Bale wied.6 6 - 67
Handy nests............ ral wise Sia eie 6 Wie aS Gisltire Seren © 05:
Simple trap Mest).< ceases stews ol ate sco eae ae eee 69
Feed-saving hopper...... i ra seas Wits -avenwes face reinre a tenetselape Sra 70
Double brood coop........ eierpiaveaiaaestave sieleielertuersi sie os ae
Trap for prowlers....... ietelela! heislaravediaimve! em gi Smetana oes 72
Collapsible coop was. wit oeew ent oe aletonesmuswess 73
GH Pate cn ait w she tesava tere wie wie jeiice eres Su sore auara easte Guchr es « 4
Treddle trap nest............. Mare Alte Sis ey suasee! tale ewes 74
Board marked for trap nest, ........ see eee eee eee ee - 76
Breeding chart.......... 9 i970) eisieaieis elses a die-gieely sss « 83
Portable run for chicks. where mee sale eens . 84
Poultry house elevation and ground sae Side ete/Seoree Sear . 85
Ventilating door’. 5 5 4c.cb anda ts eianePostereioial o OauN ieee 86
Robust and inferior types of fowls......-............ 94
Double trap nest...... aside etarntng wines lpia Cavers tote wars eee as 100
Releasing: trap: nest.2024...2 660 0 oe eis es 6 oe eke Ose eee 101
Frame and coop.........+. WS Wiese ieleiiee! Sele aiahetoisiesuie eats 101
Protected “water palbs o. 2 s2vieawwie cele s Gets ged ols oe epese 111
Raw material, egg machine and finished ee Be erate 4 112
Stove pipe ho PDET as hal shstae, beelerersialnie eisisieushe wise Sg eaie 114
Hoppers fegehen from alley... dws, aint Bales Sate ais a tipteseesnetes 120
Green ‘feed! frees s.dsac0. Tau. 5es wees Pea wae eee « 123
Grit or shell hoppetiicvas cose cistern Se.ces cakes Seeman eo
Feed “NO pperie se Gn cach aaysaranink tae eataa cee Swliseeoe bee
Ground plan of house and yard............-.....0. . 129

viii

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 1x

Page

Elevations of poultry house ...... 2... eee eee eee eee 129
Ventilated coop and detachable run................0. 130
Weighted gate nn sia sue twat ci tice sieueid sictscdrawatan alee 130
Plog alias ccs ae nap nsusaareniee mn aiatoatarudisiedelotausmie ersten Guaeee nea 141
Trap nest) between pens)... oe a cieo cated were srea wees oe 142
PAP NeStudOOL ys o's.4< acmwinacd 4a ¥Giera oavartawned aiieaaierere 143
Nest tO;cure €9¢' Gating ti. pach .dieveleiac sree iuciusdialeiae eave 144
Double poultry house and run............. 2. e eee 149
Side hill “poultry houses. s:.ccjawescsionen sae aee een ou 150
Heed) Coopsices sav seeks bbe yee meeaem ee cis wie Fs 152
Self-closing ‘patel. ccs ctiwsdewsle cee ema rine ewnedeamaes 155
Ege-turming Cabinet. ssc sataesaree weiss acces eneateeas 161
Record card for incubator... ... cee eee eee eee ee eee 168
Colony houses combined...............-0 0 cece scene 171
Side HUW COOP x.i4.2 doe vedte Suan Hehe, Sislasiette a repeseuases, avers wore abe 173
Nests and runs for broody hens.................0006 176
Chick: Dlocle sind naciearaaae ac a bidialoras ae. ctelexacdGie-s Sl oeherere 178
Brooder' on, wheels ic ccsiewied ware cies tine bards Cig vase 180
Chick marking............. ayaa ee eras wicaeiadie ais eshe sis 181
Triangular coop and yard.............. 2. eee eee eee 182
Portable: coop and Tins. ai ass ese os cee cies oe hee oe es 185
Portable: colony MOuUse 2:5 crore ensdsans etheye essa onl ehasregemiour as 187
Single comb Rhode Island Red cock and hen... halftone insert
Mammoth Bronze turkey cock ............. halftone insert
SHIPPIN COOP. acs sore, aarelacs-e) sie alg se cit aise wieie Saheb lenenwes 194
Latch for door: of Gate. ccwgaee sce ome nd ee clinhe sales « 197
FET Sate a iis dacs g wea aioseverd level a euass arave evelee male mole einreuele © 199
Suspended) roosts wisi oaisscies base. 6s a argu tee sees 202
Cross-section of poultry house............ 00 eee e noes 206
Eg¢e-turning tray . ice sie sateen eetee eee ae Here eee 208
SPOCE CHER SCOOP i.5:sise.eie bier iawn Gate wis: ae case dla ceteraiaue tie varie ene 210
Portable: COOP isc 5 svecein'e aie) o eyeibrain Coss ein Aleve atanesiaieieaial ste 213
Portable coop and run........ cee ee ee eee eee eee 214
Shed. for colony HOUSC. ios 5sisve siarecds eek cess aie wos tes 222
Combined scratching shed and house ...... .......... 223
White Chinese geese .........00-0.. 2c eee halftone insert
Pekin ducks resting in pasture ............. halftone insert
Canvas-covered pullet shelter...............20.00005 226
Coop with detachable run......... 66... eee eee ween 230
Fountain for chicks. ........ 00. ee eee ee eee ee eee 233
GT AMAT Y, sis ois desl ale body nsolin te tii: clase Bye eieea Neier eb Lae eS Ein 235
Diseleifoun tain: < eas csce s-asavainwereettcasecetoelaweeectue te snes ates 239
Celebrated Toulouse gander ..........-2..- eee eens 251
Vehicle (CoOD: na ieusloaie wareiateda phe estimenatal gi oe glare we tete 257
Feed trough for turkeys and roosters................. 265
Sheltered: ‘water'.cc.icec see sone cesee eee « Bale 267
Portable chicken COOP..... e+ se ce cere cece eee n ee eece 271

Grit, shell and charcoal hopper.............. sees eeee 272

CHAPTER I

The Market for Poultry

Opportunities to make money in poultry raising
have never been better nor more numerous than
today. Commission men and poultry specialists all
over the country agree that high prices of grain
have tended to reduce the number of fowls kept,
more especially the poorer ones, since none but
profitable fowls are worth keeping. They also say
that the high prices of meat in the cities have pro-
duced an unprecedented demand for poultry and
eggs thus encouraging the consumption of poultry
and eggs because these have been more economical
than beef, pork and lamb. This demand has also
tended to reduce the size of poultry flocks and thus
to widen the opportunities still more for poultry
culture. In short, the outlook for raising poultry
is exceptionally good. The greatest demands un-
doubtedly are for chickens and eggs. What the
markets require are plump, young birds ranging
from the broiler age up to yearlings. Just as
voraciously they demand eggs that are really
fresh, not called “fresh” so as to make them sell.

So far as poultry flesh is concerned, the breeds most
in demand the country over are American. The
two most favored are the Barred Plymouth Rock
and the Rhode Island Red. These are preferred
in New England, in the West and in the South,
because their skins are of a popular color; viz.,
yellow, and their breasts are of good form. The
Light Brahma is a popular market fowl in New

2 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

England because of its large size and also because
of its brown-shelled eggs which are locally in
greater demand than white-shelled ones. Other
breeds are favored in many places, among them
the Wyandotte and the Orpington, each in several
varieties. There are also other varieties of the
Plymouth Rock which are favored in some sections.
But, take the country over, the Barred Plymouth
Rock and the Rhode Island Red head the list as
farm and market fowls of fairly good laying ability
under ordinarily good management.

Everywhere, undersized, scrawny or otherwise
poor poultry brings low prices, especially if as
usually is the case it is not properly plucked
and handled for market. Commission men in leading
markets report that farmers in some sections are
heeding their advice to replace mongrel flocks with
American breeds, and annually now they are obtain-
ing larger quantities of good poultry from such
sections. But there is still unlimited opportunity
to improve the general grades and unlimited de-
mand for first-class stock. Poor poultry is so
constantly discriminated against in the markets and
the superior birds are so much more profitable that
the mongrel is steadily being discarded as farmers
become better informed and better poultry takes its
place. Everywhere this is the trend.

FRESH EGGS IN GREAT DEMAND

The egg market offers another illustration of
abundant opportunities in poultry raising; whereas
fowls properly managed will lay eggs fairly well
when prices are high, poorly managed ones will
not. During December, January and most of Feb-

“Mri

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY ‘3
q

ruary strictly first-class eggs often sell for 50 to 75
cents a dozen in large city markets and rarely below
25 cents in smaller markets. Even storage eggs of
good quality rarely fall as low as 25 cents in the
city markets during this period. The demand for
fresh eggs is unlimited, but the market for poor
grades is flooded at every season. There never”
has been a time when poultry raisers could do better
than at present in egg production. ;

Inquiry among the New York commission men
has revealed the following facts: New York city
is short of high quality eggs and oversupplied with
lower grades. This condition is neither new nor
startling. It probably characterizes every season
and every market and will continue to do so as
long as eggs continue to be discovered, rather than
gathered as a regular crop in judicious farm rota-
tion. Slipshod methods in handling are responsible
for the low grades and relatively low prices; care-
ful management produces the high grades and the
high prices. There is an unlimited demand for
really first-class eggs, but labeling lower grades as
first class does not raise either quality or price.

BEST MARKET IN EARLY WINTER

At no time of year do commission men find it so
hard to get an adequate supply of the best quality,
eggs as between November 1 and December 31.
This is because farmers, as a rule, do not manage
their poultry properly. Most of the supply of
poultry and eggs in the general market, by the
way, comes from the farms and not from the poul-
try plants—henneries so called. Well-managed
henneries experience little difficulty in securing a

%

4 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

reasonable supply of eggs at this season and all
the eggs they produce are sold at extreme prices
without the slightest difficulty. Such methods are
easy to apply in many districts. The only thing is
that people have not thought them out.

Eggs which reach the New York market labeled
“fresh gathered” are generally of very uneven
quality, because shippers have forwarded stock just
as collected from the farms. Much of this stock
has been held in farm cellars or country stores,
‘sometimes for weeks, in the hope of higher prices.
It arrives in the market shrunken and so inferior
that it is of slow sale even at low prices. For his
own protection the city commission merchant
grades very thoroughly. The system, or rather
lack of system, in the country is to blame. When
fowls are properly managed and eggs are sold as
soon as possible after being laid, there are few
‘complaints of poor quality on the part of buyers or
low prices on the producer’s part. Owing to an-
nually increasing demand they have all stocks
cleaned up before the advent of the spring egg
freshet.

Only a small proportion of the eggs received are
of “strictly fresh” quality. All such are snapped
up immediately. This should prove a great en-
couragement to the producer. Most of the “ freshly
“gathered” eggs come from the South; not many
from the West. The Southern stock is very mixed.

Hennery eggs are in a class by themselves. They
are white-shelled eggs in the New York market,
-brown-shelled in New England, produced on com-
paratively near-by farms. Always scarce and al-
-ways superior because hurried to market, they
command wholesale prices usually about 40 cents

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY 5

during late fall and early midwinter. The final con-
sumer has to pay 4 to 6 cents each for them, the
usual late fall and winter price being 5 cents. Most
of such stock is sold through private channels, and,
therefore, does not figure in the general market.
A common price during early winter, not only in
New York, but in the large towns and small cities,
is 60 cents a dozen for guaranteed fresh stock.

MANAGING FOR EGGS

By judicious calculation as to the time of hatch-
ing and by proper management and feeding, hens
may be brought into laying and kept at it better
than they usually are when eggs command highest
prices. By careful management of eggs laid when
prices are low, a larger return can be secured from
hens than from any other farm animal. It has
recently been shown that I00 pounds of feed prop-
erly fed to well-bred, well-managed hens will pro-
duce 30 pounds of eggs. Leghorn and Minorca
eggs often weigh two ounces or even more, but
suppose the eggs in the 30 pounds weigh only one
ounce each, there would be 480 or 40 dozen of them
in the 30 pounds. These at the very low price of
one cent each would bring $4.80. How can 100
pounds of grain be sold in the raw state for
that much money. Is it not evident that with grain
even at recent prices the farmer can do better by
feeding poultry and selling eggs than by disposing
of the grain direct?

The neglect under which poultry has been raised
has resulted in scarcity of eggs during the winter
when prices are high and abundance in spring
when they are low. Formerly hens were regarded

6 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

as a necessary ntisance, tolerated mainly because
they lay the foundation of custards, cakes and other
dainties, the enjoyment of which offsets somewhat
the losses of grain and garden truck. This is still
the case, even now, in many sections. Frequently
eggs could be sold or bartered only with difficulty
even at the minimum price of 6 cents a dozen.
Though prices have risen, there is still complaint
of low figures, but this is among those who do not
manage their poultry well.

It is little wonder that poultry raising has had
difficulty in shaking off the disrepute in which it
was formerly held. The whole trouble has been
in the mental attitude of the farmer. This has sub-
jected the fowls to systematized neglect. Hens
relegated to the stables, wagon sheds, fences or trees
for roosting places; to the mow or the manger for
nests; to the barnyard and field for feed, cannot do
well. With starvation or butchery as alternatives
and treated with such neglect what wonder that
eggs are few and chickens that reach maturity
fewer? This condition of affairs is happily being
replaced by better management, because better
management pays.

GROWTH OF THE INDUSTRY

About 25 years ago estimates of the eggs and
poultry production of the country were derided,
but when the census published its reports these esti-
mates were found to be very conservative. The
new figures greatly exceeded the former estimates,
even though census statistics were acknowledged to
be imperfect. Between 1890 and 1goo the increase
in egg production was about 58 per cent, the aver-

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY 7

age rising from 38 to 65 eggs a hen. The money
invested in the latter year was $85,000,000, or an
average of nearly $17 a farm. These figures are
now ten years old, but are the last available that
can be considered fairly authentic. If one may
judge by the increasing interest taken in poultry
shows, in the sale of incubators, brooders and other
supplies, and in the prosperity shown by the poul-
try press, the raising of poultry and the increased
productivity of the average American flock will be
found considerably greater when the next census
figures are published.

Though the figures quoted seem large, they are
nothing compared to what can easily be realized.
This will be seen by comparing the average num-
ber of eggs each hen lays and the prices shown by
the census report with figures obtained from other
sources. The five states averaging highest in pro-
duction in the last census were Maine with Io1
eggs a hen; Massachusetts and New Hampshire
with 96 each; Vermont with 92 and Connecticut
with 88. In 33 states the average was below 72;
in ten, below 60. The five lowest were Mis-
sissippi 42, Indian Territory 41, Georgia and South
Carolina 40 each and Louisiana 39. The average
prices in only seven states reached 18 cents or
more a dozen, in 26 states they were below 12
cents, the lowest five states were Alabama, Okla-
homa, Arkansas and Indian Territory, between 9
and 10 cents a dozen and Texas 8 cents.

While it is probable that in many of these low
averaged states the highest average prices may not
be reached, yet it is certain that in the neighborhood
of large towns, especially in the East, the average
can be considerably raised, because of the demand

NOILONGOYd DOF NI SALVIS GALINN SLVaG VITVALSNV

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY 9

for new-laid eggs. As already noted, clean eggs,
guaranteed fresh, are always in great demand and
in private trade even higher than market prices can
usually be secured. By proper breeding and man-
agement it is very easy to increase the number of
eggs each hen will lay. If Maine can average Io1,
why not Louisiana? Proof that this can be done
is frequent. Common sense, care in selection, feed-
ing and management have produced whole flocks
of hens which average more than 120 eggs a year.
Flocks which average 150 or more are occasional
and many individual hens, especially in Australia,
where great interest in egg production is taken,
have exceeded 200. Again, by judicious calcula-
tion as to the time of hatching, hens may be brought
into laying when eggs command highest prices.
This will be explained in a later chapter.

IMPORTANCE OF GOOD BREED

Well-bred cattle, sheep and swine, are acknowl-
edged superior to scrub stock by all progressive,
thinking farmers and every argument that applies
to such stock applies with even greater stress to
pure-bred poultry, because the money invested
can be made to yield returns in so much
shorter time. No stock pays better nor even so
well, dollar for dollar invested. Mongrel fowls,
if cared for as even they should be, require as much
time and labor as improved breeds, but almost in-
variably the returns from them, as generally man-
aged, are less; and this quite apart from the sale of
eggs for hatching or of fowls for breeding. To be
sure, they are less costly to buy than pure-bred
fowls. So are scrub pigs, sheep and cattle, but what
thoughtful man deliberately buys them?

Io PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The cost of a well-bred animal, either bird or
beast, looks large at first, but this is more than
made up by the value such an animal has as a pro-
genitor. In no line is this so noticeable as in the
egg-laying strains of fowls which have become
so popular within the last decade. By means of
trap nests and other methods of selection, only those
hens that have laid more than a certain minimum of
eggs in a year are kept for breeding purposes. Their
habit of egg production is confidently looked for in
their chicks and those who breed and select them
are usually successful. It is only necessary to think
a little bit to see the advantage of keeping such
stock and then only a little action in the right
direction is necessary to enlarge the margin of profit
on the balance sheet.

IMPROVED METHODS OF HATCHING AND
REARING

come next in importance to the keeping of pure-
bred fowls and laying strains of hens. The in-
cubator, as we know it, has been a practical
machine in ordinary hands for only a little over 20
years. Now it is so simple that any one with com-
mon sense can run it. During the early eighties
the number of incubator manufacturers could be
counted on the fingers. Now about Ioo firms put
out machines and several of these sell more than
25,000 a year. Such increase, both in the number
of firms and the individual outputs, are the
strongest possible indications of the practicability
of artificial incubation and the prominence and
profitableness of poultry raising.

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY II

Should the farmer conclude his more profitable
course would be to rear chicks for market rather
than for egg production, he can readily acquire
proficiency and an increased income. The business
of raising poultry is highly profitable as a rule;
far more profitable, pound for pound, than pork,
lamb or beef; for chicks of good breed, such as
Rhode Island Red, Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte,
Orpington and Brahma, can be made to grow about
a pound a month until four or five months old.

FLOORED CHICKEN COOP

The canvas top keeps this coop cool; the raised door pro-
vides shade.

When dressed they command, pound for pound,
even in the local market, prices far higher than
those secured for pork, beef or lamb and as the cost
of production is less, the margin of profit is still
wider.

12 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

THE POSSIBLE LIMIT OF THE MARKET

can only be guessed at. A hint may be gathered
from the growth of certain lines of business in
which chickens take a leading part. In late sum-
mer enormous quantities of poultry are put in cold
storage to supply the winter demand. Only the
best grades are treated in this way. At the same
time large quantities, usually of poorer quality, go:
to the great canning factories for making chicken
soup and potted chicken. The large packing houses.
and other establishments have developed the poul--

Wass TREY
ES Sa a N
baba

/

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1
DASE PEINCTES (77g

DOUBLE PIANO BOX HOUSE

Dotted lines show two piano boxes, backs and tops re-
moved to make roof front and back. Cost for boxes, hard-
ware, but not time, about $5.

try-fattening branch of the business. Besides all
these there is a steadily increasing demand for both
live and fresh-dressed fowls.

THE MARKET FOR POULTRY 13,

So far as the general farmer is concerned, the
poultry-fattening industry is probably the most
important of these branches. If companies can
afford to buy ill-bred, ill-fed farm fowls, pay freight
upon them and feed them for several weeks so as
to weigh a pound or two more, surely the farmer
who does not have to pay city prices for his supplies
of feed can do even better.

One of the strongest pleas for well-bred poultry
is made by the men engaged in the fattening busi-
ness. They declare that fowls of even moderate
breeding are always more satisfactory to fatten than
are mongrels, thus they emphasize what the farmer
already knows concerning the fattening of sheep,
shotes and steers. What wonder therefore, that
in view of these facts progressive farmers are
annually devoting increased attention to pure-bred
poultry raising for commercial purposes.

FARMERS’ ATTITUDE TOWARD FOWLS

Where farmers think clearly, act promptly, keep
well-bred fowls for a definite purpose and give them
adequate attention, as reasonable attention as they
give their other stock, they are proving that poultry
is the most profitable branch of farm live stock
they can keep when the amount, investment of time,
value of feed, and other items are taken into con-
sideration. In proof of this, it need only be men-
tioned that poultry farms and even poultry districts.
are springing up all over the country. Upon some
of these farms tens of thousands of fowls are raised
annually for market, or thousands of dozens of eggs
produced yearly. In some districts, notably around
Petaluma, Cal., where the White Leghorn is the

I4 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

business hen, the output of eggs 1s several hundred
carloads a year.

Every development in the poultry industry has
had its origin in the clear thinking and right appli-
cation of the thought of some pioneer individual.
Without exception this man or woman has been
jeered at as a crank, but later has had the sincere
flattery of imitation paid to him or to her. Then
the imitators have benefited and through them the
community also.

To sum the matter up. The steadily increasing
demand for the highest grades of eggs and poultry
should encourage every one to raise better fowls.
It should stimulate every one to adopt better
methods of management so the market poultry will
be well developed and well prepared for the markets,
and so the pullets and hens will begin to lay by mid-
October and thus catch the late fall and winter
markets with a supply of fresh eggs. It should
prompt every one to discard the bad method of al-
lowing young poultry to shift for itself and the other
bad method of holding eggs in ordinary farm cellars
and country stores, thus lowering the quality and
the price. It should suggest the advantages wher-
ever possible of aiming either singly or in co-opera-
tion with neighbors to supply some special channel
with the highest grade of well-developed, well-
dressed poultry and new-laid eggs so as to catch
the highest prices. There is unlimited demand for
the best and unlimited opportunity to improve.

CHAPTER II

Branches of the Poultry Business

Only four kinds of poultry have been found
widely profitable for market purposes; namely,
chickens, ducks, geese and turkeys. The only
other two kinds that occasionally come to market
from the farm are pigeons and guinea fowls, but
these in such relatively small numbers that they
can scarcely be compared with the first four. The
only way all these, except chickens and ducks, reach

Eecs
SALE HOME USE
MARKET HATCHING
HOME FLOcK DAY OLD CHICKS
LEE 1
COCKERELS PULLETS
f qT T T 1 T | TED fj
SQUAB BROILERS ROASTERS CAPONS| | LAYERS ROASTERS BROILERS SQUAB
BROILERS BROILERS
BREEDERS
SALE HOME FLOCK
Eacs OLD FOWLS

BRANCHES OF POULTRY RAISING

the market is in the live or the dressed form. Doubt-
less the eggs of all may be used on home tables.
Duck eggs may also find a market in some localities,
but there is in America no important demand for
the eggs of any of them. Day old ducklings,
goslings and turkeys may reach some special cus-
tomer, but such instances are so rare as scarcely to
deserve mention. All classes may, of course, find
15

16 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

ready sale either as eggs or as mature birds for
breeding purposes. But when all is summed up
the hen is the only fowl that can fill all the roles
in the diagram on the preceding page. For this
reason she will occupy chief attention in the pages
that follow. Special chapters at the close of the
book will discuss the other farm fowls.

The diagram covers the various activities of the
chicken business. For convenience, let us start
with the egg and discuss the various divisions.

EGGS FOR HOME USE

The cost and the value of the eggs consumed at
home is rarely considered by the general farmer.
Hens are kept because the housewife must
have eggs for making certain dishes as well as for
boiling, poaching, frying, etc. If they were not
kept the farmer would either have to do without or
purchase eggs. As the former does not suit his
palate nor the latter his pocketbook, he tolerates
a few hens which care for themselves more or less,
and which pick up a considerable amount of forage
that would otherwise go to waste. If they supply the
family’s needs he is content to consider the yield in
eggs and chickens as offsetting his losses of grain
which he has to feed the flock.

This is a slipshod way of doing things. Its prac-
tice is only too often costly, especially when the
common practice of allowing poultry to do its own
breeding without any oversight is followed. No one
who practices this way can tell whether his fowls
are producing eggs at a loss or at a profit. Doubt-
less, with ordinary farm flocks, as still too fre-
quently managed, the record of egg laying would

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 17

be more than offset by the cost of grain fed, to say
nothing of the amount of food picked up, nor
of the time and care the flock requires. In
many such cases it would be even cheaper to buy
eggs than to produce them. Of course, the other
fellow might be losing, but that would be his
lookout.

This matter of home consumption of eggs and
poultry should be put on a business basis. Every
pound of food fed to the flock should be charged
against the flock, and every egg used by the family
‘should be credited to the hens at current market
prices. This is the only way the farmer can be
fair to himself and to the hens and can know
whether or not he should keep fowls to supply the
‘home needs. Of course, when he aims to supply
a market the eggs consumed at home should be
credited to the flock so that the full value may
‘appear.

EGGS FOR MARKET

There is an unlimited demand for fresh-laid eggs.
This has been shown in Chapter I. The market
has never yet been fully supplied, nor is it likely
‘to be for a very long time to come. The fact that
-some specially favored small towns may have all
the fresh eggs they can consume, must not be
thought to overthrow this statement. The great
consuming centers are always in need of genuinely
fresh eggs, and are likely to be even more clamor-
ous in their demands as they learn how much
superior such eggs are to those ordinarily procur-
able at grocery stores. On this account egg pro-

18 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

duction offers exceptional opportunities to make
money. In fact, no branch of poultry raising is so
likely to prove profitable over so wide an area.
There is not the least likelihood that there will be
an overproduction or that the business will be over-
done; in fact, it is the only branch of poultry rais-
ing concerning which this statement can be made
without qualification.

Perhaps the most important reason why egg
production and sale can be made most profitable
is not so much on account of great demand and -
high prices as because the cost of production is pro-
portionately less than in other branches of the
chicken business. By “cost of production” is
meant not only the cost of the egg as a market
commodity, but the cost of making the machine,
the hen, which is to manufacture the egg. In rear-
ing chickens to sell as broilers and roasters the cost
occurs mainly in the losses of chicks during the
brooding period. Pullets of a reasonably good
laying strain of any good breed having been reared
to laying age are, therefore, worth far more because
of their ability to lay than they would be if sold
for eating. In fact, to be disposed of in this way
would generally mean a decided loss. For the eggs
such pullets would lay, especially if hatched early
enough to begin laying during October or early
November, would be worth several times the market
price that they could command at that season. It
is all well enough to sell hens after they have done
laying. Indeed, their carcasses at that time may
command even higher prices than in the fall. So
the return from the eggs they lay is so much to the
good, the only items of expense to be deducted
being those connected with housing, feeding and

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 19

care—the maintenance of the machine, the hen, the
cost of the raw material, the feed and the items of
dabor, interest on investment, etc.

EGGS FOR HATCHING

One of the advantages of keeping pure-bred fowls
is that eggs may be sold for hatching at prices con-
siderably higher than even the highest market
figures. No farmer, however, should strive to make
Sales, especially through advertising, until after he
has learned to breed and select his flock sufficiently
well to secure fair uniformity in the progeny. This
applies just as much to one line of breeding as
another, whether for plumage, for flesh or
for eggs. Having reached a fair degree of success
it will be time enough to dispose of eggs to his
neighbors, and by means of advertising. In fact
it would be unwise for a successful poultryman not
to dispose of his surplus eggs in this way pro-
vided, of course, he can do so at reasonable profit.
The one thing to remember is always to have a
good article to sell and to treat the customer with
as great fairness as one would demand were the
case reversed. This is the surest way to build up
a good-paying business.

It must be remembered that selling eggs for
hatching is in the main not so satisfactory to either
buyer or seller as selling fowls, or perhaps even
as selling day old chicks. To be sure the great
majority of poultry breeders do sell eggs for hatch-
ing. Perhaps this is because the custom has be-
come almost universal or because it pays. In spite
of the disadvantages it seems evident that selling

20 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

eggs has enough to recommend it to offset these
drawbacks. One thing the poultryman should re-
member is not to make his price too small. When
he has really good stock, he is, if anything, more
likely to sell eggs at, say $2, than $1.50 or $1 a.
setting. One of the principal advantages of selling
at this higher figure is that a better class of cus-
tomers is secured, a class more desirable to deal
with because of their familiarity with the risks to
be run in buying eggs. Such people are more rea-
sonable in their demands, more careful in their
methods of manipulation of eggs and more con-
siderate of the breeder when the hatches are not
as satisfactory as they might be.

When several settings are ordered at a time, it
is customary to make a reduction from the single
setting price, because the work of selling, handling,
packing, etc., costs relatively less for several settings
than for one. It is also customary to reduce the
price of settings toward the close of the season so
as to induce people who would not buy when prices
are high. Late sales are considered also as encour-
aging sales in later years, because the customer
sees the value of the improved strain and is willing
to pay the advanced price so as to get the advantage
of early hatching. On the other hand many breed-
ers maintain a uniform price throughout the season
because they believe that in the long run not only
their interests but those of their customers are best
served in this way. Late hatched chicks, especially
from stock more or less weary from laying, are
not, in their opinion, as desirable as chicks hatched
earlier, nor does the breed or variety live up so
well to its reputation.

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 2I

Whether the breeder can guarantee eggs or not
is a disputed question. About the only things
which the seller should guarantee are that the eggs
are true to name and laid by the fowls which the
purchaser has seen advertised. The eggs should
be the same as the breeder would set to increase
his own flock. They should be carefully packed
and handed to the express company in first-class
order. Breeders often agree to replace eggs which
have failed to hatch either at a reduced price or at
no cost. The principal facts to be taken into con-
sideration so as to arrive at a fair judgment of any
case, are the results secured from similar eggs at
home and the reports of customers in general. If
these are not satisfactory, the breeder should do
his best to satisfy his customers. Indeed, it would
be to his own interest to do this, but he should
strive to find out why the hatches are poor and
rectify the defects, if possible. If he cannot make
things right he should, for his own best interest,
as well as that of his customers, decline to
fill orders for stated reasons. This question
will be discussed in the chapter on _ breed-
ing. When hatches run from seven to ten
chicks to a setting, the breeder may be considered
to have done well by his customers and he should
be under no further obligation, because so much
depends upon factors beyond his control.

GUARANTEEING HATCHES

When a breeder has sufficient stock to warrant
his advertising, his advertisements should begin to
appear preferably during January and certainly not
later than February. This is not to fill, but to list
orders, because high-priced eggs should not be

22 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

shipped during inclement weather since there is
great danger of their being chilled in transit and
because results at that season are much more prob-
lematical than when the breeding season is at its
height. The object of early advertising is to en-
courage inquiries and book orders for delivery dur-
ing March, April and May. As to what and how to
advertise, the following paragraphs will be found
helpful.

GOOD AND BAD ADVERTISING

‘A study of poultry advertisements in any poultry
or farm paper will bring out many points which
will interest advertisers of poultry. One of the
commonest errors is to contract the names of fowls.
‘The evident thought is that the advertiser will save
some money by so doing. Usually he will not, the
tate being the same whether for an initial or for a
whole word. This false economy cannot help but
prevent the advertiser from getting orders.

For instance, the man who advertises “ B. Leg-
horns” does not tell whether he has Buff, Black
or Brown Leghorns, and the prospective purchaser
in haste to secure eggs or stock would most likely
pass over such an advertisement, and correspond
with the man who spells out the word. The ad-
vertiser should always put in the style of comb
for the same reasons. Another objection to using
initials is that every spring there are people just
entering the poultry business who don’t know what
these initials stand for, and they will be influenced
by the directness and plainness of an advertiser’s
words. It always pays to be definite.

One of the worst features of advertising where
contractions are used is that the advertiser is almost

SINGLE COMB RHODE ISLAND RED
COCK AND HEN

MOOD AUMYAL AZNOUT MLOWWVIV

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 23

Sure to conclude that the paper in which he adver-
tises is not as good a medium for selling stock
as it really is; whereas, the trouble arises in his
indefinite wording or use of initials.

Nothing but what will interest the purchaser
should be included in an advertisement. The great
majority of readers of farm papers are interested
more in business poultry than show birds and,
therefore, are not attracted nearly so much by state-
ments that the birds are prize winners, as they are
by the fact that the fowls are good layers or of
heavy weight. The buyer is looking for good stock
or eggs, and naturally concludes that advertisers
sell such. If scores, pedigrees and show records
are desired they can be learned through correspond-
ence, since most readers are interested from the
market standpoint and people who seek such fowls
are much slower in deciding to buy than farm read-
ers generally are, and do not look for these items.
Of course, with fancy fowls advertised in poultry
papers the case would be different.

Another common error which tends to reduce
advertisers’ sales is the practice of mentioning some
other man’s strain. The prospective purchaser is
almost sure to conclude that the advertisers’ stock
is not as good as that of the man whose strain he
advertises, and will make effort to discover the
address of the man whose strain is mentioned.
When a poultry raiser buys fowls from a well-
known breeder he does so to improve his own
strain, and from the moment the birds enter his
yards they become a part of his manufactory, and
help to turn out his improved product. He, there-
fore, should advertise his stock as his own, and not
as that of another man.

24 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The following sample advertisements are char-
acteristic. They are taken from a farm paper and
will serve as samples of good and bad advertising:

“Eggs that hatch big, strong chicks from my prize-winning
Barred Rocks. $1.50.”

“Single Comb White Leghorns, 23 years, 5-pound hens,
large eggs. Best for everybody. Only kind kept. Eggs, $1 |
for 13. Hlectrics pass farm. Write, telephone.”

“Reds, Rocks, Wyandottes, Leghorns, eggs $1 a sitting.”

“Tor sale. Little chicks, P. Rocks, R. I. Reds and Leg-
horns.”

In each of the first two there are directness and
definiteness which attracts the buyer at once, and
in the latter of these two the advertiser shows that
he is a progressive man living in a thriving com-
munity, for he can be reached by phone and by
trolley. Moreover, he must have good stock, for he
has specialized for 23 years, now keeps no other
variety of fowl and has brought up the weight of
his hens to 5 pounds and increased the size of the
eggs. In the second two the faults are very ap-
parent. The prospective purchaser cannot tell
whether the man who has “Reds” has Buckeye
Red or Rhode Island Red fowls, nor what variety
of “ Rocks,” etc., he has. The same is true of the
second, where no price is mentioned. If you,
reader, were looking over such advertisements
which would you choose?

DAY OLD CHICKS

During the past few years the shipment of day
old chicks has grown greatly in popularity. Much
that has already been said concerning the sale of
eggs for hatching applies to this branch of poultry
raising—all that relates to quality of stock, adver-
tising, etc. Next in importance to good stock is
ability to secure large hatches of strong chicks

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS. 25,

in incubators at times when customers are in need.
Until the poultry raiser has become proficient in
artificial hatching he should not attempt to branch
out in this line, nor should he begin to advertise
widely until he can care for a considerable volume
of business. The development of a local business
will usually pay well enough and with less risk and
expense than an advertised business of this kind.
Where he has worked up a good utility strain of
fowls he can thus probably do much better himself
as well as be of far
greater help to his neigh-
borhood.

The wide increase in
numbers of a specially
good strain of utility
fowls that are doing
well for him should be a
source of greatly in- CRATE FOR CHICK SHIPPING
creased income to any Each tray in four parti-
locality. Bar trom. work=. Hane carer ned oie eure
ing against the owner, as
some may suppose, such a development should help.
It might easily be the foundation of a special trade
for the district in dressed poultry or eggs, or both,
a trade that could command higher prices in the
market.

The monetary advantages of selling day old
chicks, only the man who does the hatching can
decide. Some of the items he should consider are
the original cost of the eggs, the price at which he
could sell these for hatching, the percentage of
chicks he can reasonably count on, the cost of hatch-
ing the individual chick, and the reasonable amount
he should add to the producing price to give him a

26 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

fair return after deducting the cost of advertising,
correspondence, packages, etc. Some men can sell
at even less than 10 cents a chick, others charge 15
cents or more. Much should depend upon the
character of the strain of fowls, a really superior
strain of egg producers selling for higher prices
than chicks of ordinary caliber. It seems custom-
ary to charge two and one-half times the price of
the egg used for hatching, since it is not safe to
figure on more than one chick
for every two incubated. This
leaves only a small margin of
profit.

From the buyer’s standpoint
the plan has much to commend
it. This is the only method
whereby the buyer can count his
chickens before they are hatched.
If the shipper understands his
ELEVATED WATER business as he should the chicks

CAN should reach their destination
Wire spring holds even a thousand miles away in
can in place: first-class shape. A_ distinct

advantage claimed for the method is that
express employees are far more careful of chicks
than of eggs for hatching. As to the chicks them-
selves, they seem to stand the journey better than
if even only a few days older. This.is because they
have not yet digested the yolk which seems to be
Nature’s provision for the early days of chick
infancy.

The hatching egg business, in a great many in-
stances, has been unsatisfactory to the seller as
well as to the buyer. With the introduction of this
somewhat novel branch of the ever-increasing poul-

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 27 ‘

try industry, many of the objectionable features of
the hatching egg business are removed. The pur-
chaser can know he is investing in realities,
whereas, when he purchases hatching eggs he is.
buying prospects. This branch of the poultry busi-
ness has, therefore, come to stay and present indica-
tions are that it will become more popular as its
advantages become better known.

BROILERS

As a general proposition, no one should plan to:
go into the broiler business. This branch of poul-
try raising, as a branch, is not profitable; but where
broilers are looked upon as a by-product of the egg
farm, or the general poultry business, they should
be profitable when sold early enough; that is,
before they have “eaten their heads off.”

By the term “broiler business” is meant the
hatching of February-laid eggs to supply a demand’
for chickens in May when prices are high. This is
costly, first, because the eggs which are scarce at
that season command high prices; second, because
the number of chicks that can be counted upon to
live does not generally average more than 25 per
cent; and, third, because young cockerels from the
farms can be so easily held over in cold storage
from the previous summer. These come in com-
petition with the winter-raised broilers, and people
will buy them in preference because of their low
prices, the difference in quality not being enough
in general estimation to warrant the higher figures.
It has been estimated that more than go per cent
of the chickens sold as broilers come from poultry
produced either on egg farms, fancy yards or gen-

28 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

eral farms where they are a by-product and must
be gotten rid of quickly to prevent loss.

Cockerels may pay more than the cost of feed-
ing, but unless they can have free range they are
not likely to pay the whole cost of their produc-
tion, counting the value of the eggs, the cost of
hatching, the labor and the feed, etc., up to the
time of their being marketed. Unless the poultry-
man has facilities for fattening and thus disposing
of his cockerels as roasters or capons, it would be
more economical to sell the broilers as soon as they
are of marketable size.

ROASTERS

What is known in the market as a roaster is a
fairly matured fowl large enough, either alone or
with another roaster, to supply a family dinner.
Such fowls are sold when four or five months old,
depending somewhat on the breed. The popular
American breeds go to market at the earlier age;
the Asiatics at the later. These fowls are most
profitably raised by being allowed free range of
the stubble fields, pastures, meadows, orchards,
etc., where they pick up a large share of their liv-
ing between the time that they can leave the
brooder or the mother hen and the time they are
sold. Frequently they are fattened for two weeks
or so before going to market so as to add a pound
or more to their weight. They can be considered
more profitable, as a rule, than broilers raised in
the ordinary way on the farm; and generally it is
better to allow the cockerels to have the run of the
fields and orchards where this can be conveniently
arranged. The pullets should be kept by them-

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 29

selves since their role is to be egg producers. If
cockerels must be fed in limited yards, they will
usually not pay very well as roasters because of
the cost of feeding and care.

Hens that are not to be kept for laying the fol-
lowing fall and winter or with old roosters to be
kept for breeding, should be disposed of as soon
as possible after their season of usefulness has
closed. They may often be profitably fattened for

or ieee een Oe Serene mee

1, yt : 3 i [b ‘é i ?
SAG ROL — said Door to Yard

COMPACT HOUSE FOR SMALL SPACE

a couple of weeks prior to sending to market, but
should always be sold for what they are; namely,
old fowls. Their chief use is for fricassee and soup.
The packing houses take large quantities for these
purposes and small markets also use a great many
where there is a good home demand.

SOFT ROASTERS

Along the south shore of Boston Bay has grown
up a very profitable branch of poultry raising for

30 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the Boston market. The fowls are marketed in
spring and early summer when they have reached
the heaviest weights and before their flesh hardens.
They command prices ranging as high as 30 cents
a pound, but the bulk of the stock is marketed at
about 25 cents. The district has a present output
of 75,000 to 100,000 roasters annually. This indus-
try, while it employs much the same equipment
that the special broiler business requires, is, in the
main, more successful and profitable than broiler
raising. It is the only line in which pullets have
been used for market instead of for producing eggs.

In the production of these roasters, the incubators
are started in early autumn and kept busy until
spring. The chicks are kept in brooder houses
until past the critical age, when they are moved to
colony houses and fed from hoppers. They also
have more or less green feed, beef scrap, etc. The
cockerels are generally caponized but not marketed
as capons. The early hatches are generally of Light
Brahma fowls; later ones are of Plymouth Rock.
It is the opinion of dealers and growers that the
Brahma has been decreasing in size until the fowls
no longer average larger than the Plymouth Rock,
which is a better layer and matures quicker, the
White variety of which is even more popular than
the Barred.

Many of the growers buy their eggs of farmers
and cottagers who make a business of producing
these eggs for hatching. The ruling price is 50
cents a dozen. As the medium sized Light Brahma
cockerels are more active and vigorous and the
medium-sized hens are better layers, the size has
not been kept up by the breeders. The roaster
growers are, therefore, confronted with a necessity

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 31

of keeping their own laying stock or largely giving
up the Brahma. Few Wyandotte or Rhode Island
Red fowls are used. The former weigh fully a
pound less than the Plymouth Rock and lay smaller
eggs. The Rhode Island Red is not liked because,
after the chicks pass the broiler age, they quickly
become narrow breasted and the flesh is not of as
good quality as that of the White Plymouth Rock.
This last breed will lay more eggs than any other
suitable for the purpose and will produce the best
color and quality of meat.

The young chicks are fed five times a day at first,
but soon get only three meals. The brooder house
floor is covered with an inch of sand. Second
growth hay is cut into short lengths and a basket-
ful strewn through the pens each day. The feeder
goes through the house with a pail of chick feed and
throws a small scoopful or two in the litter. He
then gives a mixture of dry ground grains, consist-
ing of two parts wheat bran and one part corn meal
by measure, after which the chicks get a good feed
of beef scrap. Enough feed is given so that while
they have food constantly before them, they will
eat it up clean once a day at least.

Generally speaking, the return from these roast-
ers is from two to five times as much a head as
from broilers. The main difference in cost of pro-
duction lies in the feed. Roasters which would
sell at the maximum price, 30 cents, should cost
Io cents a pound above the cost of raising them
to broiler age. Thus an 8-pound roaster would
cost 30 cents up to broiler age and 80 cents to
market size, or $1.10. It would sell. at the above
price for $2.40, so there would be $1.30 margin.

Among the principal advantages of this branch

32 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

of poultry raising, are the extended period of in-
cubation and brooding, which permits the expense
for eggs to be distributed over a longer season.
Thus a grower may have five to eight hatches be-
tween October 1 and April 15. He will thus re-
quire a much smaller number of incubators to hatch
out a flock of profitable size than if he were raising

EW, @

COOP FOR BROODIES

Slatted bottom and fresh air dampen broody ardor Pegs
in front for feed pan.

broilers during the winter. He can also keep suf-
ficient hens to supply his own machines, a thing
he cannot do were he raising broilers, unless he
employed an unprofitable amount of assistance.
Whether this system will pay in other sections
of the country cannot be stated positively, but in
all probability where there is a large market such
as New York, Philadelphia or Chicago, there should
be good opportunities in this direction. The busi-
mess as managed in Massachusetts is in a certain

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 33

sense co-operative, for though the market is con-
trolled by only a few dealers, the brand commands
the highest price paid for chicken flesh and every
fowl raised can easily be disposed of. Nowhere
else in this country is there so good an example
of co-operative poultry flesh production. The in- |
dustry is not likely to prove profitable in a small
way among farmers who have not a specially good
market close at hand and who cannot raise sufficient
numbers to make a strong impression upon that
market. Still, where a man has suitable environ-
ment, it might be worth while to take this branch
experimentally and enlarge as experience indicated
was wise.

CAPONS

The practice of caponizing is steadily growing in
favor in the United States, especially in the Eastern
and middle Northwestern states. In the Eastern
markets, capons are quoted from December to May
at prices ranging from 20 to 30 cents a pound. The
larger the bird, the higher the price, as a rule.

As to whether the practice is profitable or not,
the individual poultry raiser must decide. Doubt-
less it is most profitable where grain is cheap. On
this account, it is more popular among farmers than
among specialist poultry raisers, because the poul-
try raiser is obliged to buy most of his feed and
cannot profitably keep large numbers of fowls which
are not paying the running expenses of their keep
with a more or less constant income. Such men
find it more profitable to direct their energies to-
ward egg production.

On the other hand, the farmer who cannot handle

34 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

large numbers of early chicks can dispose of sur-
plus cockerels as capons better than as broilers or
ordinary roasters. The feed required is with him
a much smaller matter than with the poultryman,
because a large quantity can be picked up by the
fowls themselves and even the grain which he
would otherwise sell can be disposed of as poultry
flesh at a higher figure than as grain. Such being
the case, cockerels which at 5 to 6 pounds would
‘sell for $3 to $5 a dozen can be caponized, made to
weigh 10 to 12 pounds and sold at much higher
prices. They should thus net the grower from 10
to 16 cents a pound or about half the Eastern mar-
ket prices; figures that would mean high value for
the feed consumed as well as paying liberally for
the work. There need be no fear that the market
will be oversupplied because the demand for well-
‘grown, well-dressed capons is annually increasing.

The object of caponizing is not primarily to in-
crease the size of the fowl, but to heighten the
quality of the flesh. Since capons do not quarrel or
worry one another, they can be kept in large flocks
with assurance that they will fatten easily and more
economically than other classes of fowls.

Only the large breeds are suitable for caponiz-
ing; small capons, while salable, do not command
highest prices. For this reason, the Mediterranean
and most of the other European breeds are not
suitable for caponizing, though, perhaps, the Faver-
olle, the Orpington and the Dorking may be large
enough, if well bred for size. These varieties, how-
ever, are not very widely popular in America. Un-
questionably, the American and the Asiatic breeds
lead in their value for caponizing. Well-bred Light
Brahma cockerels, with proper attention and enough

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 35

time, will usually make the finest as well as the
largest capons; but the Cochin, the Langshan and
the Indian Game are also good. All of the Ply-
mouth Rock and Wyandotte varieties may also be
used, since they are large enough to make good-
sized carcasses.

LAYERS

The production of layers is unquestionably the
most important branch of the poultry business. This
is shown by the fact that egg farmers would be
glad to pay higher prices for
pullets than they can sell their
cockerels for when of broiler size.
Pullets, as a rule, cannot be ex-
pected to lay before four months
old among the Mediterranean
breeds, five months among the
American, and six months among
the Asiatic. On this account for
egg-laying purposes they should alled” ts on
be hatched early enough in the Sit, ence wire
spring to commence laying dur-
ing October. If hatched too early they are almost
sure to molt before very cold weather comes and
not to resume laying before February or March,
thus cutting them out of profitable egg production.

Since the first four to six months is the most
costly time in a hen’s life, there should be a con-
siderable period of egg laying to balance up this
expense. On this account hens that have produced’
well should be kept over for another year; at least
until the following winter when the pullets are lay-
ing well. By proper management hens may be kept

LICE PREVENTER

36 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in, or brought back to laying during the summer and
fall, except, perhaps, during the molt, and even dur-
ing this period some eggs may be expected. These
remarks apply more particularly to the Leghorn
and Minorca varieties which are pre-eminently the
laying breeds. The fleshier breeds, such as Plym-
outh Rock, Wyandotte and Rhode Island Red are
less likely to be profitable as layers the second
season unless they have been specially bred and
selected for laying. The Plymouth Rock especially
is apt to become too fat to lay well after the
first year. On this account the general opinion
is held that fowls for ordinary egg production
should not be kept more than one year. Of course,
for breeding purposes, this should not be con-
sidered.

BREEDERS FOR SALE

Every raiser of poultry for whatever market pur-
pose should keep only pure-bred fowls. These should
always be selected and bred with great care, so as
to get the highest possible efficiency in each bird
and in the flock as a whole. The man who follows
this plan is sure to have a valuable strain of fowls
for sale, a strain that should command high prices,
whether sold as eggs for hatching, as day-old
chicks, or as full-grown birds for breeding pur-
poses. Whether it would be to his advantage to
strive for the points that breeders of fancy or
standard-bred fowls emphasize so much, is a matter
which he alone can decide.

It may be taken, as a general rule, that to start
in poultry keeping with the object of making money
from fancy poultry is an unwise thing. There are
so many hundreds of people already in that busi-

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 37

ness and there is so little profitable sale until the
breeder has made himself more or less conspicuous,
either by winning prizes at fairs and poultry shows
or by advertising, that it is much wiser to follow one
or more of the market poultry lines where the de-
mand is constant, and to select breeding stock of
standard requirements as a side line. Unquestion-
ably there is plenty of money to be made in raising
fancy poultry, but there is better opportunity for
the beginner, within reasonable time, in the market
branches. Whoever goes into poultry raising for
profit will find it to his best interest to begin with
market stock, to breed and select toward a high
ideal of production and let the combination of fancy
poultry for exhibition, etc., follow as a postscript,
if it follow at all.

DUCKS

As a general thing it will not pay the ordinary
farmer to go into duck raising on an extensive
scale. If his local market, however, is not oversup-
plied he may raise from a few score to a few hun-
dred, provided his place is adapted to raising ducks.
But duck farming, as a branch, is a business for the
specialist, and unless carried on very extensively,
is not likely to prove profitable. To be sure, there
are numerous duck farmers who are making money,
but the margin of profit in green ducks, that is,
ducks sold at about ten weeks old, is very small.
The business demands skilled labor in feeding and
dressing. Ducks not economically fed cannot be
profitable, nor can poorly dressed ones be sold to
advantage. These two facts make the duck busi-
ness particularly advantageous to the specialist and
disadvantageous to the general farmer.

38 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Only one breed of ducks, the Pekin, is popularly
grown for American markets. In England the
Aylesbury is more in demand. Duck eggs are in
small demand in some markets, and there is also a
market for breeding stock, but these demands are
insignificant in comparison with those for chickens.
Ii one has suitable environment and good local
markets for ducks, it may be worth while to take
up this branch of poultry raising experimentally
on a small scale and develop it as experience is
gained. The demand for good ducks, when such
are produced, is likely to increase in the local
markets, and the grower may find it profitable to
enlarge even considerably.

In big duck-growing establishments the cost of
raising is estimated at 7 to Io cents a pound. Here,
practically all the feed is purchased, asarule. The
profits range from Io to 25 cents a duck, depending
largely upon the time of year the birds are sold.
In order to be profitable, therefore, a farm should
produce not less than 10,000 ducks. Such farms
can be developed only after several years of con-
servative growth, because though the duck is amen-
able to machine methods of management, the
grower must become acquainted with the business
and in a sense grow with it. If this way of de-
velopment is followed the margin of profit should
increase as the volume increases, because when
managed on a small scale the cost is usually greater
and the margin of profit smaller. Where chickens
and ducks can be grown on the same place upon a
less extensive scale, the ducks will generally be
found to pay better than the chickens, provided the
demands of the local market are not exceeded. This
applies especially to private trade.

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 39
GEESE

require considerable room to be made profitable.
They cannot be economically raised in confinement.
Where farms have waste, marshy lands or meadows
that do not pay taxes, such lands can frequently be
made profitable by means of geese. The birds will
practically feed themselves most of the year. All
the breeding flock needs is a dry place to sleep and
moderate feeding in winter. Geese are not raised
in America in large flocks. They are pre-eminently
farmers’ fowls. Many more could be kept profit-
ably than are now raised. The supply does not
equal the demand. It would not be profitable,
however, to attempt goose raising without the ad-
junct pasture; the cost of feeding would be too
great. Therefore, unless pasture can be had, geese
should be left alone.

The cost of raising market geese is variously
fixed at 7 to 10 cents a pound when much feeding
is necessary; but on pasture these figures can
usually be cut in half. Goslings sell at five to six
weeks for fattening in New England for $1 to
$1.20, but such prices are by no means general
throughout the country.

A special industry has its center in Watertown,
Wis., where geese are fed noodles by hand at two-
hour intervals. These geese are raised in the usual
way until they attain ordinary market weights,
when the special feeding begins. They are sold
mainly to the Jewish trade at prices in the final
market the same as their weights; that is, a 20-
pound goose will sell at 20 cents a pound, a 25-
pound goose at 25 cents. Often these geese will
sell for $5 to $10. This branch of goose growing,

40 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

however, would be a good one to avoid unless the
would-be grower can learn the methods in vogue
by actual contact.

TURKEYS

The turkey presents a case exactly opposite to
that of the duck; it has not yet been raised in a
commercial way. For farm conditions, however,
it is better adapted than the duck, because of its
ability to shift very largely for itself and to con-
vert into profitable flesh large quantities of food
that would otherwise go to waste. Turkeys have
been and still are grown in limited areas, but al-
ways in small numbers. They do best where there
is unrestricted range. The great demand for tur-
keys and the best prices come between the middle
of November and the middle of January, a time
which suits farmers best.

Another point that favors farm turkey raising is
that hatching can be done at the natural season, so
that the poults will grow to salable size in time to
reach the markets already mentioned. Nothing
perhaps argues so strongly in favor of turkeys for
the farmer than these two facts. Another thing
that favors turkeys for the farm is that farmers’
wives and daughters usually take kindly to this
branch of poultry raising, even more than to
chickens, ducks or geese. Probably this is because
of the extra money that the turkeys seem to bring.
It is questionable whether they actually do yield
larger actual net returns than chickens raised either
for meat or egg production. But the money seems
to be mostly profit, especially as a larger sum is
brought in by the sale of individual turkeys than
by that of individual chickens.

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 41

Another point in its favor is that turkey produc-
tion does not interfere with other poultry work,
because the turkeys get along well with the
chickens and because they cover a wider field in
their foraging. In general, therefore, it is highly
desirable that every farmer’s wife should keep a
flock of turkeys in order to utilize waste food
profitably.

GUINEAS

Since it has been discovered that the guinea fowl
has a game flavor and can be sold as various kinds
of more valuable flesh, it has been used in the large
city restaurants as a substitute for various kinds
of game as well as being sold under its own name.
This fact has encouraged the growing of guinea
fowls to supply the demand. Broiler size guinea
fowls are often sold as quail on toast and larger
ones for prairie chickens, pheasant or grouse, and
prices for these have run very high, often at retail
$1 to $2 a pair being paid. Like the turkey the
guinea fowl thrives best where there is ample free
range, and unless one is sure of securing at least
50 cents each, the guinea had best not be raised
with the market in view. The reason for this is
that guineas are probably even more exacting in
their demands than turkeys, but where one has the
range and is sure of a good market it may be well
to make a venture in this direction.

SQUABS

Much has been written concerning the produc-
tion of pigeon squabs in recent years and doubtless
many people have been induced to go into the in-
dustry. It must be said, however, that while there

42 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

are successes in this line of poultry production, yet
the demand is practically met by the present sup-
ply and the price is about fixed, so that it is not
advisable for the farmer to go into this branch of
poultry raising. The business, like the raising of
green ducks, is a specialist’s line, and not adapted
for ordinary farm conditions. There is no reason,
however, why a home supply of squabs should not
be raised. The pigeons are easily kept and will
afford a table delicacy at small cost.

SYSTEMS OF POULTRY RAISING

At frequent intervals, so-called systems of poul-
try raising are advertised in magazines and weekly
periodicals, circulated widely not only among poul-
trymen, but especially among people not posted in
poultry production. The usual design of such ad-
vertisements is to sell some so-called secret or a
book said to give directions for making more money
out of poultry than by the ordinary methods. As
a rule, those who answer such advertisements are
disappointed with the information they receive.
There is nothing specially new about the feeding
of sprouted grain, and there is no reason why the
practice of feeding such material should be called
a secret and sold as such; yet this has been done.
There are probably no better ways of preserving
eggs than by the water-glass method and the lime-
salt mixture, yet almost annually some one adver-
tises to sell a secret recipe which usually turns out
to be one or other of these two.

Where a really meritorious system has been
worked out, it usually reaches the public in a legit-
imate way and through natural channels. The

BRANCHES OF THE POULTRY BUSINESS 43

experiment stations and agricultural colleges have
done a great work in testing many so-called sys-
tems and even in originating others. No poultry
raiser should send money for advertised secret sys-
tems until learning through one of the experiment
stations whether such a system is feasible or not.
Of course, these remarks are not leveled at any-
thing legitimate in the way of a system. For in-
stance, the application of the principles of breed-
ing to improved egg production, etc., emphasized
in this book are partly the result of investigation by
the late Prof. G. M. Gowell of the Maine experi-
ment station. Professor Gowell published the follow-
ing statement in a booklet which he sent to inquirers:

“For more than 25 years I have bred Barred Plymouth
Rocks for producing good brown eggs, by selections from the
general stock. While that system of selection gave birds that
laid eggs of good size, shapeand color, there was no means
of knowing whether the eggs incubated came from the hens
that were good or poor layers, and it was reasonable to sup-
pose that as many chickens came from mothers which had
jaid poorly through the winter as from those that had laid
well. Indeed, recent investigations have convinced me that
the eggs from hens that have only just gotten well under
way laying at the commencement of the incubating season,
yield more chicks than do those from hens that have been
laying well since early fall. eae :

“Thoroughy believing in the principle of breeding perform-
ers to performers to get performers, I determined to cull out
rigidly all non-performing hens and breed only the good layers
to the sons of all good layers to get good layers. In order
to do this, in 1898 I devised and constructed at the Maine
experiment station 52 trap se hey ape. sorsurenced selection of

best laying hens for foundation stock.

a At ike end of the year all birds that had not laid 160
eggs were rejected, and those that had laid above that num-
ber were retained for breeding. They were bred to sons of
hens that had laid 200 or more eggs in a year.

This system practiced by Professor Gowell has
been widely adopted by the more progressive poul-
trymen and has given excellent results. With vari-
ous modifications it has been followed by a prom-
inent firm of egg producers who have published a
book giving figures, drawings, half-tone illustrations
and descriptions of their poultry plant and its

44 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

prowess. The essential features of this so-called
Corning system are embraced in the present volume.
The system, as has been said, has proved highly
satisfactory with a large number of poultrymen, and
while the figure of nearly $6.50 annual earnings for
a hen may seem exceedingly high to poultry
raisers, especially in the Western states, yet where
a poultry yard is so favorably situated with respect
to market as that of the Corning’s, and where the
eggs produced by hens specially selected, accord-
ing to the Gowell method are managed in a rational
way and the eggs sold at an annual average of
nearly 50 cents a dozen, it may be readily seen that
money returns would probably be exceedingly high.
This is the very point that the present volume seeks
to emphasize; namely, that good breeding, good
management and business marketing will enable
the poultry raiser to make far more money out of
his poultry than by keeping scrub hens in a hap-
hazard way and marketing in slipshod manner.
Another very widely advertised system has been
prominently before the poultry world for the last
few years. Its object is to raise a far larger num-
ber of fowls on a given space than has been possible
by any other system. The plan is to keep the
chicks in confinement and force their precocious
development, especially for the meat market. The
system does not seem more humane than the prac-
tice of feeding geese to produce paté de foie gras.
Doubtless many people have succeeded with this
system, and the present writer does not desire to
sit in judgment upon them. He believes that it is
everyone’s privilege to appeal to his own conscience
as to what is right and wrong, humane or the

Teverse.

CHAPTER III
Location

If one is seriously considering the establishment
of a special poultry business, it will be well for him
to study the various sections of the country in order
to determine just which offers best opportunities
for poultry raising. Unquestionably, the great bulk |
of poultry and eggs is produced in the grain states
of the middle West—Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa,
Nebraska and states north and south bordering
upon them. In this section, it will not be advisable
to go into special lines of poultry raising with the
hope of securing advanced prices in the market.
None of the cities in these states pays a high enough
premium above ordinary current rates to warrant
investment in special lines.

To reach special markets the poultryman should
select some of the eastern states. Because of
special. advantages of soil and transportation, as
well as climate, New Jersey, the Chesapeake Pen-
insula and eastern Virginia offer opportunities un-
equaled by other sections of the East, so if a poul-
tryman wishes to go in for a special line such as
egg production, broilers, capons or green ducks,
he will do well to select a farm in the districts
mentioned.

In deciding upon any location in this territory,
it will be well to determine beforehand the cost of
freights, not only on the finished product, but upon
the grain and other material that must be purchased
for the fowls. On this account, probably, eastern

©

46 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Virginia will be better than sections in southern
New Jersey because of the lower freight rate on
grain from the West, and because of the through
traffic from Norfolk, either by steamer or by rail, via
the Chesapeake peninsula. The same remark will
apply to the Chesapeake peninsula in a less degree;
stations on the main line of railway being prefer-
able to those on branches of the road, but there is
no reason why in the territory under discussion,
practically everything should not be raised on the
farm or in the immediate locality. Indeed, it is
highly desirable to make the farm produce every-

th 6
x feb s

a}i

j a
222 2 ¢ PEE EP T
g g’

SYSTEM OF WATERING

Pipe a carries water to cups c, d, 1; outlet at k. In cold
weather cock is turned to drain system at k.

thing that the poultry will need, in order to work
over the crude products into the higher-grade ma-
terials, such as flesh and eggs. Delaware, Virginia,
southern Maryland and southern New Jersey are
admirably adapted for this kind of thing. Very
mild climate also favors poultry raising because
with only ordinary shelter the fowls can be housed
throughout the year, and for almost all the year
can secure a considerable amount of their feed at
range. In eastern Virginia, there is scarcely a
stretch of a full week throughout the year when the

LOCATION 4?

poultry cannot be out of doors. The same is true
of the lower part of the Chesapeake peninsula and
of coastal New Jersey.

No matter where one locates, he should own the
land and buildings upon which he works. He
should never rent land or buildings, because when
he wishes to move he would be at more or less
expense or else be obliged to leave his buildings
behind. Buildings are never improved by moving.
It is better to buy five or ten acres at the start and
to combine other branches of farming until the
poultry pays sufficient by itself to warrant exten-
sion. Truck and berry growing go well with poul-
try; so do large fruits, but these, of course, re-
quire much longer time to reach profitable age.

SITUATION

The great majority of readers of this book are
already situated on farms or in villages and will,
therefore, be more interested in the solving of their
own poultry problems than in searching for new
localities. They will want to know where best to
place them so as to get the largest returns from
their fowls. There is no question that some situ-
ations, soils, exposures, etc., please fowls better
than others, and some which are more favorable to
the poultryman as well on account of convenience,
but nothing need prevent fowls from paying well
in situations not ideal. Fowls can easily be man-
aged just as other domestic animals are under even
wide differences both of soil and climate.

Some breeds differ more than others in adapt-
ability but the poultryman, as a rule, holds the
key of the situation on farms and villages offer-

48 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

ing abundant opportunity for profitable poultry
raising. One thing is essential, namely, to supply
the needs of the fowls. No matter how local con-
ditions may vary, these ends must be met. They
may be met in different ways by different people,
under different conditions. All depends upon the
poultryman, who must study his fowls under his
‘own conditions of climate, soil, etc., and adjust his
management of the fowls to fit the case. Until he
has found by experimentation what is best for his
fowls, he should not make radical changes in man-
agement but should strive to keep fowls under
what are considered normal methods of manage-
ment.

THE SOIL FACTOR

Unquestionably a light soil with open subsoil is
best adapted for poultry raising and a heavy soil
least favorable. Doubtless many failures are due to
mistakes in this respect. Rocky and untillable land
is not economical, because the droppings cannot be
used to produce green feed. Soils containing ex-
cessive alkali should also be avoided, because of the
likelihood of damage to plumage and skin. On
light soils the droppings are quickly deodorized
and easily washed into the soil by rain where
plants can utilize them, but on clay soils they form
a hard crust which soon becomes foul.

In order to keep soils sweet, therefore, some
green crop should be grown constantly on them,
and yards should be large enough to allow of this
practice. Alternate yards furnish the best method
of arrangement for this result, except, of course,
where fowls can have unlimited free range. It is

LOCATION ; 49

highly desirable to have as large a part of the yards
as possible in permanent grass, especially if there
is a considerable amount of clover in the mixture.
It is not desirable to select drift sand which will
not grow anything, because the droppings will be
lost and thus a source of income wasted.

Land worth $100 or more for dairying or grazing
might be positively detrimental to poultry. The
ordinary loamy soil, if well drained, is, as a rule,
excellent for poultry, because it usually contains
sufficient plant food to produce good crops. The
natural lay of the land is of small consequence, as
good results can be secured no matter which direc-
tion the land slopes, provided other factors are
made favorable. The northern slope, of course, is
not as desirable as a southern one, but where one
has a northern and not a southern slope he must
make the best of it. One way to do this is to
protect the houses and yards by windbreaks. It
is not desirable to have poultry run in timber land,
because the droppings all go to waste. Orchards
and plantations of raspberries, currants, gooseber-
ries, etc.,are far better, because the manure can be
utilized in the fruit production and the trees and
bushes made to furnish shade. Crops can also be
grown between the trees and bushes and thus the
fowls supplied with green food.

Always the site on which a poultry house or yard
is located should be thoroughly well drained, either
naturally or artificially. The water should flow
away from the building, preferably through, not
over, the land. There should not be standing water
anywhere around the poultry yard, because this is
sure to become a source of pollution. The operator
is sure to have difficulty in working if the drainage

50 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Herth

SIDE HILL POULTRY HOUSE

Figure 1. Slope, dotted line indicates excavation. Figure 2

A. Pxcavated part filled in at B. Figure 3. House showing
slope of surface above and below.

is not good. At all times and seasons the poultry
house should be thoroughly dry. It is not neces-
sary in order to secure drainage to select a hill or
mound, nor is it undesirable to locate in a hollow,

LOCATION 51

provided the drainage is good. Preference, how-
ever, should be given to the higher sites, because
of the likelihood of better drainage and warmer
temperature. Cold air, it is well known, sinks into
low pockets.

It is highly desirable that as much sunlight be
secured as possible. For this reason it is best to
give preference to a southern or southeastern slope,
so that especially during the win-
ter the house will receive the sun’s
rays without check. In order to
raise the temperature also, the
northern and western sides should
be protected by some sort of
windbreak, either by trees or
buildings. About the worst WATER PAIL
kind of place for a _ poultry SUPPORT
house is on the northern side
of a barn or obstruction which shuts out the
sunlight and which permits the cold north-
ern and western winds to enter without check.
Good results cannot be expected in such houses,
no matter how well built. Where no other situa-
tion is available however, fowls should not be kept
for any other than family purposes and should al-
ways be replaced yearly with new fowls, because
the older ones quickly deteriorate and their off-
spring make inferior growth.

CONVENIENCE OF WATER SUPPLY

Where one plans growing poultry on an exten-
sive scale he should provide some means for
securing water without labor. Nothing is better
than a running stream where such can be secured,

52 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

but situations with brooks are rare. The next best
thing is a device which supplies water by gravity
from a spring or a brook higher up on the property.
Without such a brook one or other of the systems
illustrated elsewhere, will be found desirable, but
where the supply of water is limited a device like
that used in flush tanks, in which the inflow is
regulated by a check valve and float, will be found
better than the style which flows continuously. It
is not necessary to go into the discussion of means
to supply water; whether gasoline engine, hydraulic
ram or windmill; the only point is to have some
way whereby water can be supplied without daily
cost of labor, time and money in carrying from
pump to yard. While the initial cost of installa-
tion may seem large, yet the amount of money
saved in the long run will usually more than offset
the cost of installation.

CHAPTER IV

Poultry Quarters

It is not necessary that poultry houses should be
either elaborate or expensive, but it is essential
that they be dry, comfortable, pleasant, well ven-
tilated, sanitary, convenient and preferably inex-
pensive to construct and operate. There is no
doubt that many failures to secure good results.
can be traced to the poultry house itself as a
building; for if it is damp, uncomfortable, cheer-
less, poorly ventilated, insanitary, inconvenient,
or of costly construction, it is sure to produce un-
favorable results. Every effort should be made ta
have the house so constructed that the tempera-
ture will not fall rapidly when the windows and
doors are closed. It is also highly desirable that
as much sunlight as possible should be admitted,
especially during the winter. This can usually be
done by facing the house south and preferably re-
lying upon the south side for all the light.

Where fowls are kept in considerable number,
two plans are common—the colony plan and the
long-house plan. The colony, theoretically, is con-
sidered best because it affords better range, and
the fowls are supposed to be healthier and, there-
fore, more prolific of eggs than when kept in the
long-house system. This is not necessarily so.
There are also great disadvantages in separating
the fowls. Among these are the greater amounts
of time and labor required to attend to the fowls.
Anyone can figure out the cost of attending say a

53

54 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

dozen colony houses by measuring the distance he
would have to walk from house to house, multiply-
ing this by the number of times daily, reducing the
distance to feet, then determining the number of
miles walked in a day, week, month or year. The
time required can then be determined by the rate
at which one ordinarily walks and the value placed
upon the time. It will be surprising what a dis-
tance is traversed and what amount of time can be
‘saved by bringing the flocks under one long roof.

With the colony system there is more difficulty
in securing regularity of feeding than with the long
house. Especially is this so in bad weather. There
is the further disadvantage that when flocks are fed
at given times, the fowls will congregate near where
the attendant begins to feed. There are the advan-
tages, however, of cheaper portable houses, less
expense for fencing, and the advantages of having
the fowls forage for themselves. When the colony
houses are placed in fenced yards, there is, per-
haps, no advantage over the long-house plan.

In mild climates the objections to the colony plan
‘do not hold so strongly as in cold climates, where
there must be considerable work in shoveling snow.
This remark also applies where poultry can be kept
on range during the summer, especially on farms
where the fowls themselves can secure much of
their living by running among the growing crops.
Since the colony plan is popular for such places,
‘several styles of houses are illustrated throughout
the book.

Permanent houses built on the colony plan are
more costly to build than houses of the same
capacity as the several separate ones when built
together. This is mainly because the ends of all

POULTRY QUARTERS 55

but two of the houses can be saved, there being no
necessity for strong partitions between the pens.
As to size, much will depend upon the purpose for
which the house is erected and also upon the nature
of the land. Rectangular houses are more econ-
omical of lumber than houses of other shapes. As
to height, it is best to have the ceiling rather low;
just high enough so the attendant can walk erect
without knocking his hat off. This favors warmth,
because the fowls can keep the temperature com-
fortable if sufficient numbers are kept together.
Both walls and glass, especially glass, radiate heat
rapidly, so every provision should be made to retain
heat as much as possible without impairing
ventilation.

PARTS OF THE HOUSE

The roof costs more than any other part of the
house because of the necessity of making it water
tight, and because it usually covers only one floor.
Styles of roof vary greatly as to cost. While the
same amount of material is required to build a com-
bination roof, a gable roof, or a one-slope roof,
provided the pitch of the ground is similar, yet the
height of the sides must be taken into consideration
in figuring the cost. “The steeper the pitch, the
greater the comparative expense of a shed roof
house over the gable or combination roof house.
The steeper the roof the larger the roof area,
hence the greater cost for roofing and the longer the
roof will last because of its steeper pitch.” The
kind of material used in a roof will depend largely
upon the pitch of the roof. Shingle roofs will need
a pretty steep pitch; paper-covered ones can be

56 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

almost flat. The former are cooler in summer and
winter, and the latter usually warmer and even
hot in summer.

The essential points to secure in a foundation
are dryness and wear. For permanent houses, ,
foundation walls should extend below the frost line
and high enough above to prevent the inflow of
water during wet weather. Other necessary points
are to have the foundation rat-proof and strong
enough to support the building economically. Posts
are undesirable, since the house is likely to settle,
and there is always opportunity for drafts;
besides, they rot. Brick, stone, or concrete founda-
tions are best as a rule. The former requires skilled
labor; anybody can construct the latter. Floors
should be smooth, hard, easy to clean, dry, durable,
and of economical construction. Unless ground is
naturally dry, it should be drained. Too much
emphasis cannot be laid upon securing dryness.
Earth makes the best covering for a floor, whether
there is concrete or not.

Whatever the material and construction of the
walls, every effort should be made to secure
warmth, dryness, strength and cleanliness, as well
as durability and economy. A tight wall is essen-
tial. It is cheaper in the long run to use matched
lumber than any other style of siding. This material
should be planed so that it may be easily painted
and thus made to last still longer. It is highly
desirable to use building paper between layers,
since this makes the walls extra dry. The north
and west walls, or walls exposed to the wind, should
be made especially tight.

Properly constructed poultry houses will not
need special ventilation. It is essential, especially

POULTRY QUARTERS 57

for good egg production, that there be abundant
fresh air—dry air to remove dampness given off
from the fowls’ breath and from droppings. No
way has been found so satisfactory as to have the
house rather open on the front and tight on all
other sides and the roof. The opening should be
covered with burlap or other material to check
draft and keep out snow and rain. Such houses.
may be somewhat cooler than houses more tightly
closed, but the air will be pure, and pure air is far
more important than warmth. This does not, how-
ever, mean that warmth is not also good.

No ventilating system compares in good results
with the one just suggested, but where one must
be put in, it is best to have the vent near the floor
with a tight box leading through the upper part of
the house and through the roof. The inflow of air
should enter near the bottom on the outside and be
conducted to the ceiling so that it will be compara-
tively warm before it enters the house. Thus
drafts will be reduced to a minimum and yet
there will be sufficient circulation of air to remove
moisture and impurities. Under no circumstances
should a ventilating system be given preference
over the more natural diffusion system already
mentioned. The difficulties of making the thing
work increase as the temperatures inside and out-
side approach each other, and also as the openings
in the house increase.

The styles of poultry houses and the arrange-
ments of pens are legion. The open scratching
shed is favored by many since it provides space for
the fowls to exercise in spite of any kind of weather.
All sorts of modifications of this style are found
and good results secured as a rule. The plan has

58 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

some advantages over the closed pen. It is cheaper
in cost and demands less labor. Perhaps its chief
advantage is that the fowls may go from house to
shed, or the reverse, and thus feel more at liberty
than if confined closely. They are also less likely
to become excited if they have a means of escape
when they want to get away from an attendant.
Everything that makes for comfort, therefore,
should be secured when possible. The scratching
pen is considered essential to good health of the
fowls, because it insures exercise and the fowls are
not confined in too warm a room while they
are busy.

MODEL POULTRY HOUSE

There are a few features of the model house,
built by J. W. Griffin of Kentucky and illustrated
herewith, that could be added to any large poultry
house with profit: the hooded roost with curtained

J. W. GRIFFIN’S POULTRY HOUSE

front, the arrangement of the nest boxes, the loca-
tion of the dust, grit and oyster-shell boxes. The
roosts of the two rooms being near each other make
it warmer at night for the fowls. The large win-
dows are screened on the inside; the curtained

POULTRY QUARTERS 59

openings screened outside. The opening in the
sketch shows the position of roosts, curtains and
nest boxes. There is a 1-inch crack all around the
top of the house for ventilation.

Under the dropping boards behind the nest
boxes is a place for storing forest leaves or straw
for scratching shed. The dust boxes are 1x2x5
feet ; the curtains are heavy sheeting; the nest boxes
are cracker or canned goods boxes. A form for
the foundation, 10x32 inches, is made, the wall to
be 1 foot above the level of the ground and 6 inches
thick, made of concrete; then 3 inches of soil.

The entire size of the inside wall should be
thrown around the outside of the wall to drain off
the surface water. This leaves an opening inside
the walls 9x13x15 inches. The excavation for walls
should be 1 foot in the ground. This opening should
be filled with coal cinders to within 4 inches of the
top. When putting in the concrete for walls, anchor
bolts should be set in for fastening 2x6-inch sill
directly on the walls. Bolts 34-inch sunk in the
concrete 6 or 8 inches, with 2% inches sticking up
will do, placing four on each side.

Now we are ready to put on the sills. After the
sills are on there will be an opening 6 inches deep
for concrete. Put on 5 inches of grouting and finish
with I inch of pure sand and cement. Strike off
on a level with top of sill. Then we will be ready
to lay the floor over all. Let siding lop down 2
inches over sides of wall. The coal cinders afford
perfect drainage, and prevent any dampness rising
through the floor. The floor, being laid directly
on the concrete, is rat proof from below. The
front is 10 feet high and rear 8. The following bill

60 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

of stuff will build it, including carpenter and con-
crete work at $3 a day:

1,000 feet ship lap for siding partitions and covers of roosts.
400 feet flooring for floor and dropping boards.
385 feet common flooring or sheeting.
4 pieces 2x6 inches 16 feet oak for sills.
34 pieces 2x4 inches 16 feet oak for stringer and ties.
20 pieces 2x4 inches 10 feet nail ties and frame stuff.
2 windows 16 feet lights 14x16 inches scratching shed.
2 windows 4 lights 12x14 inches ends.
20 yards sheeting or burlap for curtains.
14 yards wire netting.
20 boxes for nests.
6 rollers with springs for curtains.
4 pair strap hinges.
38% squares of paper-lined iron roofing. ,
Carpenter and concrete work.

The estimated cost is $186.50, figuring lumber
at $2.50 per 100 feet, and roofing at $3.00 per 100
square feet.

OPEN FRONT POULTRY. HOUSE

Fresh-air houses mean cheaper, construction,
more comfort, no ventilation to worry about,
warmth in winter and coolness in summer, more
eggs, better chicks and better profits. They are

EE

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1 L | baer se
Tensei AT TB ATAT TS TV HRT RBA TT LT TN

FRESH AIR POULTRY HOUSE

POULTRY QUARTERS 61

believed to be the best and most practical houses
that farmers can use, since they save both in labor
and money.

Next to the tight or closed house is the curtain
front house. with a scratching shed. In this style
one is obliged to provide a combination building,
which practically means two houses to each flock,
an open front shed and a closed roosting house.
As the fowls during the greater part of the time
are in either the shed or the roosting house, and

INDO a =I
F 8
4 F 3
L PLAN: 5 g
“FRESH-AIR-HOUSE. x |
3
— x “
z “ g
qn z z
2 5
=
= CHKK 5 DOOR
DooR 2
°
a

GROUND PLAN OF HOUSE

must occupy the latter at night, one has a house
capacity equal only to the size of the roosting house,
no matter how large the scratching shed may be.
At night it has all of the advantages of the closed
house. These fowls spend a very large part of
their time on the roost. They need fresh air while
there, just as much as they do at other times, probably
even more. In closed roosting quarters they have
to breathe impure air, and that means loss of vitality
and liability to disease. The open front is superior
to the curtain front. because as the latter is much

62 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

more complicated a great deal depends upon the
judgment of the operator in using the curtain.

A large house adapted specially for the large
market-egg plants is also ideal for the farmer,
because it saves much time and labor. It is 14x
24 feet. The door is placed on the east side about
half way between front and back ends. Directly
opposite are two windows. The front or south
side is open night and day, but is covered with
I-inch mesh poultry wire netting. If the house is
situated in a very bleak and exposed place it is well
to use only 4 or even %-inch net. This will keep
out more of the drift snow than the larger mesh
netting.

Some poultrymen criticize the low front, because
they claim the sun does not shine far enough back.
This is not so. The winter sun in this house, which
faces south or slightly to the east, shines into the
building 8 to 10 feet back from the front in Decem-
ber and January. It gets into the building early in
the morning and shines full until late in the after-
noon. The west window admits additional sunlight
in the afternoon to the rear part of the building,
thus giving sufficient sunshine. Some have sug-
gested a window across the front side of the south
roof, so as to let in more sun. This is not advisable,
because the window would make the house much
colder when the sun is clouded and also during the
night. One of the strongest features of the house
is that the temperature changes very gradually.

As will be seen from the drawing the building is
a plain hip-roofed one, with a long pitch or front to
the south. The one described herewith is 8x14
feet long. The roof and closed sides are of 1-inch
boards covered with shingles, so that the east,

POULTRY QUARTERS 63

west and north walls are tight. The eaves are
about 4 feet from the ground and the peak slightly
over 7 feet. The approximate cost of material for
this house is $20. It will include the items given
below. Prices, of course, will vary with locality.

300 sq. ft. hemlock boarding No. 1 at $22 Per: Mis sieica ¥d% $6.60
40 running ft. 2x4 joist, 157 running ft. 2x3 joist 105 ft.

at $28 per : 2.94
One window, 7x9.... 95
Window frame for same iter e farsaaeat Satay ant ete -10
1% thousand $3 grade shingles to be laid 5 in. for roof.. 3.75
1% thousand $2.50 grade shingles laid 6 in. for sides.... 3.75

TOLL ceo decaneeae kha dae SRNR OWE ER cade eabaves ae $18.69

MUM ELAR! ce.chio- 00 aria Getasentnaicere a tavetalia set anasesesdiaver gayere deter ebele miele ia 1.31

KNOCK DOWN COLONY HOUSE

A considerable saving of lumber can be made by
using knock-down poultry coops and colony houses.
These may be made of any convenient size. In
construction two runners with notches near their

RIOGE

INSIDE OF FRONT BACK

FRONT AND BACK OF COOP

ends are laid down and two crosspieces, also
notched, are screwed, or preferably bolted, to them.
The runners are provided so the house may be
hauled from place to place. The crosspieces are to

64 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

support the side walls. At the ends are bolts which
tun through the side wall, to which they are
fastened by nuts and washers. The ridgepole is

SIDE

lJ |

FRAME AND SIDE OF COOP

tastened to the sides by bolts also. The same with
the ends, which are made triangular, as shown.

COLLAPSIBLE COLONY COOP

As these houses are intended only for summer
use, they may be built of comparatively light
material, with clap-boarding for the sides and ship

POULTRY QUARTERS 65.

lap or matched stuff for the ends. It is desirable
that not more than 50 chicks be kept in one colony
house, and that each flock have a grass plot of at
least 1,000 square feet, unless the chicks can have
free range.

These houses are also useful to shelter brooders
in the early part of the season. If the houses have
a floor space of 6x6 they will each accommodate
50 chicks without crowding, and when the chicks
are old enough to do without the brooder they can
be allowed to range from the house itself, thus
becoming accustomed to their quarters from the
very first. A convenient size for the house illus-
trated is 6x6 on the floor and 7 feet to the peak.
These allow a man to stand up inside and to attend
to the brooder and chicks without inconvenience.
They can be built of odds and ends of material, but
if new material must be bought, and if the house is
painted, as it should be, it would cost about $8. If
unbolted and stored under cover as intended, such
houses should last for many years, so the first cost
would be insignificant compared with the life of
the houses themselves.

CHAPTER V

Poultry Fixtures and Devices

Much of the comfort of a poultry flock and much
of the convenience to the poultryman depend
upon the fixtures and devices adopted in the houses
and yards. Scattered throughout this volume, there-
fore, are drawings illustrating many devices for
the convenience of the poultry raiser and the com-
fort of the fowls. It will not be necessary to discuss
these at length, because the drawings furnish suffi-
cient means for any one handy with tools to make
them without difficulty. A few words, however, may
be said in a general way as to the desirability of
certain styles of apparatus.

Roosts should preferably be placed comparatively
near the floor of the poultry house, so that fowls
will not have difficulty in flying up or down. This
is especially desirable where heavy breeds are kept,
because these fowls not only find trouble in reach-
ing high roosts, but in flying down they are very
likely to injure their feet or legs, and even fowls of
the light breeds may injure themselves in the same
way if the floor is hard, as it usually is. All roosts
should be on the same level to prevent fowls from
crowding one another, as they will do if one roost
is even a trifle above another. The desire of the
fowls is to reach the topmost boughs of the tree to
be out of the reach of enemies, but as enemies are
kept out of the poultry yard there is no reason why
fowls should climb high.

66

POULTRY FIXTURES AND DEVICES 67

Usually fowls crowd together upon the roosts
even in warm weather and when there is plenty of
room. They should not, however, be compelled to
sit closely. It is well to calculate on about 10
inches for each Asiatic fowl, 9 inches for fowls of
the American class and 7 inches for Mediterranean
breeds. Roosts should be placed about 8 inches
above the dropping boards, which should be some-
what longer than the roosts
themselves. For light
fowls 2x2-inch scantling
with rounded corners is
very popular, especially if
the roosts must be rather
long; but where short
roosts are used I-inch stuff VERMIN-PROOF ROOST
3 to 5 inches wide is often staples, C, hola. wire
used. For convenience bracket, A, for roost, D,

‘ kept in place by screw B.
roosts may be made to lift Remove often and dip end

in kerosene.

out of the way by some

such device as illustrated herewith, so that clean-
ing may be undertaken without difficulty. Always
the upper edges of the roost should be rounded.
One important thing about roosts is that they should
be easily removed for cleaning, especially to get
rid of lice and mites.

Dropping boards are used for convenience in’
cleaning and to prevent dust. If the houses are well
kept they are very useful, but if cleanliness is not
observed they are worse than nothing at all, because
where the droppings are allowed to stay from day
to day the boards become saturated and offensive
odors are given off, thus making the quarters
exceedingly unpleasant as well as unhealthful for
the fowls. Matched flooring or sheathing which,

68 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

provides a smooth surface is most popular, prefer-
ably the boards should be about 20 inches wide
for single roosts and 3 feet wide for double ones.
They should have strips of light material about 2
inches wide extending above their edges to prevent
the scattering of the droppings; they should be
cleaned every day.

STYLES OF NESTS

Nests are probably the next most important
necessity in the poultry house and may be made of
any kind of material, style
or character, provided
there are no egg-eating
hens in the flock. Grocery
boxes are very popular in
such cases, but where
many hens are kept, and
where sitting hens cannot
be put in some building
ek apart from the main flock,
je the nests should be ar-

HANDY NESTS ranged to fit such condi-
waht porenee Box {without tions. Preferably the nests
is quickly cleaned by litt- Should be darkened and
ane: placed in secluded parts of
the house or even in the yard. A favorite place
for them is beneath the roosting platform. Where
egg eating is discovered, the dark nest is one of the
best ways to eliminate the habit. A nest which
vallows the egg to roll beyond the hen’s reach is
even better.

Trap nests in considerable variety are illustrated
throughout this volume. (Pages 100 and 101.)
(Their principal advantage is that they show the

POULTRY FIXTURES AND DEVICES 69

poultryman which hens are the layers and which
the drones. Where one is breeding for egg produc-
tion they are a necessity,

but where one is keeping !

hens for market only some
of the nests that open
into two different pens
will be found advan-
tageous, because they will
allow only such hens as a
have laid to. pass from SIMPLE TRAP NEST
pen to pen, unless | Hen depresses E to ©,
hens discover that they sineera fall On reucne
can miake progress in this Geis “ees oe oss
kind of way and thus ®

cheat the poultryman. This fact, however, can
be readily discovered by counting the number of
eggs in the nests and also by counting the number
of hens in the pen which was empty in the morning.
The way they are used is to have all the hens in
one flock in the morning; to count the eggs and in
the evening count the hens in the second pen before
returning them to the first one for the following day’s
laying.

Feeding vessels are of many kinds, several of
which are shown. The common V-shaped trough is
the simplest, but is objectionable because the fowls
are likely to soil the food by standing in it. For
cleanliness’ sake food, whether dry or wet, grain or
ground, should be protected so the fowls cannot
soil it. Several types of hoppers suitable for feed-
ing dry mash are illustrated; also devices for pro-
,tecting the food of young fowls from larger ones
_when birds of different ages must be kept together.
Feeding vessels should be kept scrupulously clean.

70 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Fountains of various styles are shown in this
volume. The pricipal point to remember in con-
nection with them is to keep them clean at all
times. The material from which these vessels
are made is of no consequence and neither is the
style, provided cleanliness is maintained. The most
important thing, therefore, is that the fountains be
protected so the fowls cannot get anything but
their bills into them; even where
open drinking vessels are used this
should be insisted upon. There is
no reason why metal of any or-
dinary kind should not be used as
freely as crockery ware. There
is no more danger of poison-
ing from oxidized tin or iron
that the fowls might drink than
there is of human beings so be-
coming poisoned. Drinking de-
vices should be such as can be
quickly filled, quickly cleaned and

; quickly replaced. They should

Grain or meal
that hens would be placed as far from the dusty
haste drops part, portion of the pen as possible so as
ment. to avoid becoming soiled by dust
or material scratched into them. Preferably they
should be elevated well above the floor. The best
device for a range of houses is unquestionably a
continuous pipe with fountains that rise in the
various pens.

Grit and shell receptacles should preferably be of
metal and placed where the fowls will not scratch
litter into them. They should be cleaned weekly.

Brood coops for sitting hens and hens with broods
are illustrated in considerable variety. Probably

FEED-SAVING
HOPPER

POULTRY FIXTURES AND DEVICES 7E

the commonest style is the A-shaped coop with
various modifications as to runs, character of
material, etc.

Colony houses of several styles are also illus-
trated merely to give hints. No comment need
be made on these except to say that they are .
exceedingly convenient for placing in orchards and ©
fields, where by the aid of hoppers and drinking
fountains the flock may be encouraged to take care
of itself to a large extent. After the chicks reach
a fair size and the hen has left them, roosts should
be placed in the house. Since some chicks take to
the roost slowly, provision should be made for them
in some other corner of
the house so they may ——=
cuddle on the ground SA ||
without danger of being =
soiled by droppings from ce se
the fowls on the roost. ones

Incubators and brood- ee
ers need not be discussed
here as part of poultry
equipment, because they ree pponventent site
are taken up in chapters board floor covered with
devoted respectively to ‘@v@ust
hatching and rearing. Bone cutters are considered
a necessity where large flocks are kept. Green bone
can often be purchased from local butchers at so
reasonable prices that where small flocks are kept
a bone cutter need not be part of the poultry equip-
ment, but where considerable quantities of fresh
bone are required a good machine is a great advan-
tage.

Hay cutters are useful where large numbers of
fowls are kept and where there is not much broken

DOUBLE BROOD COOP

72 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

hay from the barns. On the ordinary farm the
live stock hay cutter will serve if it can be gauged
to make a very small cut; but for the business
poultryman a machine built for poultry require-
ments should be given preference. On most farms
there will be sufficient broken clover tops and leaves
to supply the hens.

TRAP FOR PROWLERS

At night inner door closed. Animal steps on rocker bottom
and springs latch. Outer door falls and catches on latch, a.

Grit crushers are not essential on most poultry
farms, because the fowls, if at free range, can secure
sufficient grit while foraging, but on soils deficient
in gravel grit in some form must be supplied.
Where gravel is lacking in the neighborhood it
may be more economical to buy grit already
prepared.

Feed mixers and feed cookers are on the market,
but usually the farmer has some large kettle that
will serve for cooking mashes. It is generally

POULTRY FIXTURES AND DEVICES 73

believed, however, that warm mashes have only
slight advantage over dry mashes, and as they are
more costly to feed on account of the labor involved
they are not very popular.

Prowler traps are useful where there is danger
of foxes, minks, weasels, etc. ‘There is a consider-
able variety of these, but only one is illustrated.
(See page 72.) The important thing to remem-
ber in setting such a trap is to avoid touching any
of the parts. If the trap can be set without the
poultryman coming near it, so much the better,

ane EAK ‘
i= 1 § i
FRONT ~ an i S grunt Tor

SIDE BACK

cal
i
Ss
m
791
mS
Ky a, 4I- 9
a
a
o
2
o

KE s,2I-4

COLLAPSIBLE COOP

Sides, back, top and front hinged. Held in coop form by
two pegs in eyelets at left and right. Coop can be stored
flat under cover.

since this will not arouse the suspicion of the would-
be thief, who might otherwise smell the human
hand or footprint.

Coops for broodies are often used where artificial
incubation is practiced or where the poultryman
wishes to make hens recommence laying. A favorite
style is a coop with a slatted bottom and wire-netting
front raised well above the floor. The hen is placed
inside and feed and water are hung within reach.
(See page 32.)

Knock-down Houses and Coops.—Several styles

74 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

are illustrated to serve as examples. The prin-
cipal advantages of these houses are that they can be
taken down and stored flat from season to season
and thus be made to last
considerably longer than
the material ordinarily
would if made into coops
that could not be stored
conveniently under cover.
An egg cabinet is a use-
ful device for holding eggs
for hatching. It enables
the poultryman to turn a
HEN GATE large number of eggs in a

The frame is placed in very short time. Two such

5 11 d doors, : 2
niece ee fan ae in. devices are illustrated,

fot ee ee one for a eral the other
for a large number of eggs.
A popular style is an ordinary egg case of rather
small size which can be turned over from day to day.
Poultry gates should all be self-closing, either
by weights or springs. Often hens escape from the
poultry yard and wander up and down outside
trying to get in. To provide opportunity for this
a little gate may be inserted in the wall, preferably
at some corner where the
hen may be driven. Enough
opening should be made
around the gate itself to
encourage the hen to poke
TREDDLE TRAP NEST her head against the gate
dee ime Te ond) this enter the yard.
Such gates should swing
shut of their own weight rather than by springs,
because this leaves nothing to get out of order.

POULTRY FIXTURES AND DEVICES 75

Shipping coops (page 000) should be made of
light material and preferably covered with canvas.
They should always be made high enough to ac-
commodate the fowl without stooping and large
enough in other dimensions to allow for as many
fowls as there are to be shipped therein. This ap-
plies just as much to the crate for shipping fowls
alive to market as to the crate used for exhibition
fowls.

TRAP NEST MADE FROM ONE BOARD

The Oregon experiment station gives the follow-
ing directions for making a trap nest from one
board 12 inches wide and Io feet long. Anyone
who can use a saw and drive a nail can make it:

(See page 76.)

One board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide and 10 feet long; 6
screw eyes No. 210 bright; 2 pieces round iron, 3-16-inch long
by 12 inches wide; 2 pieces rawhide 9 inches long by %-inch
wide. With a square, lay off the board as shown in the accom-
panying diagram. The shaded portions are the waste pieces
of the board. The solid black lines show where the board is
to be cut. After sawing the pieces, the nest is ready to be
put together.

1. Nail the sides to the bottom so that the ends will be
even. 2. Stand the nest on end and nail on the back. This
will square the sides. 3. Stand the nest on its back and nail
on the front piece. 4. Nail on the front brace, which should
be set into the sides at lines indicated at a and B. 5. To the
end of the bottom board nail the nest end front. 6. The two
front pieces are nailed on either side of the door to the sides
and the front brace. 7%. Put in the piece (10% inches by
3% inches) on which the door is balanced; nail it in between
the sides so that the inner side will be flush with the outer
side of the front pieces. In this piece put a screw eye 4 inches
from each side, the outer edge of the screw eye being flush
with the inner side of the piece. 8. Turn the nest on its
side and bore the holes in the sides through which the 3-16-
inch iron passes. The holes are 1 inch from the bottom and
1% inches from the nest front. 9. On the bottom of the
tripboard put in a screw eye % inch from end and 1 inch
from each side. At the other end of tripboard bore two
%-inch holes 1 inch from the end and 3 inches from each side.
10. On the bottom and at each side of the door put in a
screw eye 1% inches from the end and %,-inch from the sides.
On the upper side tack the two rawhide strips, using a small
staple or nail for each. The strips are tacked on so that the
end of the strap will be 2 inches from the end and %%-inch
from side of door. 11. Place the door in front of the trip-

76 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

board, the screw eyes down; push the rawhide strips through
the holes in the tripboard; turn the boards over and draw
the strips up tight; then bend the door back over the trip-
board until there is a full %-inch between the board when laid
flat; the strap should then be tacked to the lower side of the
tripboard. 12. Put the door and tripboard in place. This
is done by pushing the iron rods through the sides and the
screw eyes. Care should be taken in placing the screw eyes
in proper places; if they are not set properly the door will
not balance.

The nests may be built singly or in groups. They may be
set in the wall of chicken house under the droppings platform,
where a platform is used. This plan will save the cost of
covers. In either case it will be an advantage to have nests

a %
a NEST FRONT

je” 5s

k--/2” --y~-----~ 24 -----
BACK SIDE

Am ween Tee apis
as ae 29

K

BOARD MARKED FOR TRAP NEST
This provides for least waste in cutting.

made separate and a frame made to receive them, so that the
nest may be pulled out to release the hens. Occasionally a
hen is slow in coming to the door to be let out, and by pulling
the nest out the operation of releasing the hens may be more
quickly performed. If the nest is to be used outside of the
house, it will be necessary to put a cover or roof on that will
protect it from the weather.

The dimensions of the door and the size of the
opening for the door are given for medium-sized
breeds. For large breeds it will be necessary to
enlarge the opening. The front brace may be raised
and the front pieces made narrower. The door
opening should not be large enough to admit two
hens at one time.

CHAPTER VI

Breeding and Breeds

Such proofs as the following show the reason
why pure-bred fowls, especially of utility strains,
are replacing the scrub fowls on farms throughout
the country. This case happens to be with White
Leghorn fowls; it would be similarly true were
the fowls Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode
Island Red, or any other utility breed.

Fifty White Leghorns were compared with 50
mongrels for one year at the West Virginia experi-
ment station as to cost of food and egg production,
ordinary care and attention being given them such
as they would receive on the average farm. In
addition to skim milk used to moisten the mash the
Leghorns consumed 61 pounds of food, costing 85.3
cents a hen, and the mongrels 66.8 pounds of the
same materials, costing 92.1 cents. During the year
the Leghorns laid 116.5 eggs, worth $2.24, and
the mongrels 96.1 eggs, worth $1.78 a hen. The
Leghorns gave a profit over the cost of food of
$1.39 and the mongrels a profit of 86 cents a hen.

The mongrels gained in weight 1 pound a head
more than the Leghorns. If this increase in weight
is taken into consideration then the Leghorns still
gave a profit of 40 cents a hen more than the mon-
grels. The highest prices for fresh eggs usually
prevail between November and February. During
these four months the mongrels laid only 364 eggs,
but the Leghorns 1,029, or practically three times

7

78 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

as many. Is there still any doubt as to which is the
more profitable to keep?

It is essential to have a clear idea of what is
wanted when breeding. In one’s own yard, a
desired end is easily attained by eliminating from
the flock birds which lack qualities sought and
bringing together those that most nearly approach
a given ideal, be this egg or meat production or
show points. But many who desire to improve
their flocks by the introduction of new blood have
been disappointed in the birds reared from eggs or
purchased from breeders.

This mistake usually arises from overlooking the
difference between show and utility strains of the
same breed. Birds bred for one purpose are
almost invariably inferior for the other, and this
with no blame attachable to the breeder. It is the
breeder’s point of view or idea which does not
coincide with that of the purchaser. Most farmers
raise poultry for eggs or meat, or both. But even
so it will always be safe in writing a breeder to
determine as nearly as possible how his ideas of
poultry-breeding approach one’s own and thus
narrow down as nearly to the right birds as pos-
sible. It must be recognized also that while the
general purpose fowl is a universal desire, yet it
has not been secured. By trying to combine show
points, egg laying and meat qualities in the one
bird an aspirant is almost sure to be disappointed
in each direction.

As to picking out the highest scoring bird as the
best layer, don’t try to dd it. Nine times out of ten
she may prove a poor layer. Exhibition birds are
forced for show, not for eggs; and it takes con-
siderable time to get them back into breeding con-

BREEDING AND BREEDS 79

dition. Birds intended for laying eggs and breeding
purposes on a large scale should never enter the
show room. Another point is that the highest
scoring fowl, if carefully and scientifically bred, is.
apt to be bred in-and-in for points only.

WHAT TO SELECT

When one selects fowls, he should take those
that please his fancy and learn to care for and handle
them so as to have the best results from them. Some
varieties will naturally lay more eggs than others,
while others are the best general purpose fowls.
The advantage of one may overbalance the best
qualities of the others; for these reasons select the
breed or variety that pleases the fancy best and
give it the best possible attention. Two faults count
against success with poultry—carelessness of man-
agement and the lack of exercise and fresh air
for the hens.

Any breed of variety of standard-bred fowls will,
if properly handled, do well, and return a profit for
their keep. If as much care and attention were
given to handling the fowls for best results as is.
given to the question of what fowls to keep, all
would do better with their fowls. It is a question
of proper care of what we have, rather than a selec-
tion of what we shall keep.

When you conclude to purchase stock or eggs,
do not look for double what you coulc furnish for
the same value. What might be called a first-class
breeding bird will cost anyone who produces him
from $3 to $4 actual outlay of time, trouble and
feed. Take the value of the eggs set, the value of
time expended and the feed consumed, and in addi-

a

80 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

tion to this the numbers that die or are killed for
poor quality, and those that reach maturity will
cost even more than is often contemplated For
these reasons, no one can Sell a good stock bird for
less than $4 and get full cost; the profit, if any,
must come from those sold at higher prices.

CAUSES OF FAILURE

These conditions furnish the real reasons why so
many can make no money out of their stock. The
fowls are either regarded so poorly that they will
not sell for any value, or when well raised they sell
for less than it costs to produce them. Good stock

‘is always well worth full value, but when the pur-

chaser does pay this value he should get what he
pays for.

He should ponder well the fact that the world
always did and always will put a premium upon
the best goods and the best things. Among the
thousands of breeders of standard-bred poultry very
few, comparatively, control the trade in high-priced
stock. These men stand for all that is really best
in the respective breeds they handle. They are
making money annually, while hundreds of breeders
are about playing even, and many not doing that.
‘These men have simply brought to their work a
fancier’s love and instinct, and by careful and
systematic breeding have established strains of
fowls that are the best representation of the breeds.

There is abundant room in this field for others.
The field will never be filled. It is the field wherein
is reaped the pleasure and the profit of standard-
bred poultry breeding; and, best of all, it is where
the fancier secures that satisfaction with self which

BREEDING AND BREEDS SI

comes only with the consciousness of a duty well
performed.

UTILITY BREEDING

Scientific breeding is deserving of study by every
one interested in the utility side as well as by those
attracted to the fancy side of poultry raising. No
farmer can afford to ignore the profit to be derived
from the proper handling of even a small flock.
Common hens are well enough in their way and by
scientific breeding might in time be developed into
heavy laying strains, but practical people are more
interested in what has already been accomplished
along such lines. They want stock that will pro-
duce the most eggs and meat at the minimum cost of
feed. Certain Leghorn strains will produce more.
eggs than any other known breed, because for many
years they have been systematically bred for great
egg yield. Under certain conditions like will pro-
duce like. A pullet from a strain of great layers
should be a great layer; if bred to a male descended
from a strain of great layers, the females of this
progeny should be greater layers.

Listen to this experience of a farmer who kept
common hens and who had read of the great egg
yield of certain strains of pure breds, but could not
afford to buy such stock because he needed every
dollar to pay off the mortgage on his home. With
a neighboring fancier he exchanged a day’s haul-
ing for a sitting of White Leghorn eggs, from which
he succeeded in raising two pullets. Then he wished
to buy a male of this breed, but changed his mind
when he learned the price asked for the one he
selected was $25.

82 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION
HOW THE PLAN WORKED

This man was a reader and a thinker. “It’s eggs
I want,” he reasoned, “not show birds;’ and he
selected the best yearling male from his flock of
common fowls to breed to the two pullets. Every
egg from that pen was carefully kept and set, and
that fall he had 30 pullets and 4 cockerels, each half
the blood of the dams, and those half-breed pullets
shelled out the eggs all the fall and winter.

In the spring he selected his best half-breed
cockerel and mated him to the two Leghorn hens.
The eggs from that mating were again kept and
religiously cared for, and that fall he was rewarded
with 50 chicks three-quarters Leghorn blood. Again
he selected the best cockerel and the following
spring mated him to the original Leghorn hens.
That year he raised but 15 pullets and 2 cockerels
from that pen, but these chicks were seven-eighths
the blood of the dams, practically full-blooded
White Leghorns. The half and three-quarter blood
pullets had all been kept and had produced many
more eggs than his common stock, and the sale of
those eggs helped to pay off the debt on the home.

LINE BREEDING

This system is called line breeding, which is scien-
tific in-breeding, and may be more readily understood
by reference to the chart on the opposite page.
The solid lines in the chart represent the course of
the male blood and the dots the female blood lines.
Suppose a pure-bred cockerel represented by group
1 to be mated to the pullets in group 2. The progeny
of this mating would be represented by group 3.

BREEDING AND BREEDS 83

Generations Ist, MALE FEMALE

{-- ------

:

nN
x

Ss
ic

ess

NK
S
S|
iS
a
a
cS)

BREEDING CHART. (See page 82.)

The pullets in this group are mated back to the
cock in group 1 and the progeny would appear in
group 4 as three-quarters the blood of the sire.

84 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The pullets from group 4, when mated to the cock
in group I, would give progeny in group 6, the
chicks in which would be seven-eighths the blood of
the sire, or practically pure bred so far as utility
requirements go.

The chart is extended to show how other com-
binations occur. In group 9, produced by crossing
a cockerel from group 6 with pullets in group 7, and
also in group 13 produced by crossing a cockerel
with pullets in group Io, the result is half breeds
as in group 3. Group 5 results from crossing a
cockerel in group 3 with the hen in group 2. The

PORTABLE RUN FOR CHICKS

Frame of light wood 1x2 inches; netting sides; light wood
top; hinged. Grass and earth divisions.

progeny in that case would be seven-eighths of the
blood of the mother instead of the father as in group
6. In group Io, the chicks result from a cross of a
cockerel from group 5 with pullets in group 7. The
reverse of this is the case in group 8. Groups II,
12, 14 and 15 explain themselves.

Should it be thought desirable to introduce a new
line of blood, it is best to do this through a pullet
or a hen mated to a cockerel as shown in group 8.
The reason for selecting a female is that it is safer

BREEDING AND BREEDS 85

than to purchase a male whose influence might not
be as desirable as hoped for. The progeny of one
female could be more easily kept separate than the
progeny of a male mated to several females. The
proportions of blood would be somewhat similar to
that in group 3; namely, there would be half the
blood of the new female with 13-32 of the blood of

fe
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POULTRY HOUSE, ELEVATION AND GROUND PLAN

&6 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the original cock in group 1, and 3-32 of the blood
of the hen in group 2.

From the foregoing discussion it is evident that
great care must be exercised to prevent breaking
up the system of breeding; for by carelessness all
the good results may be lost, since the progeny will
be thrown back into one family and thus indis-
criminate breeding result in ultimately spoiling the
flock. It is highly desir-
able, therefore, that the
plan be definitely laid out
beforehand and followed
without deviation in any
respect. If the best re-
sults are to be attained,
the chart should be made
and its tracings followed
systematically from year
to year. Without the aid
of the chart careless
breeding is sure to result
and the whole system be Ir
spoiled by injudicious |
matings. If the lines of | OILED MUSLIN
the chart are carefully ee
studied and followed, a eae
great improvement may
be shown in the ordinary VENTILATING DOOR
farm flock as instanced iat tices tbe. dare
above. Thus flocks may panels of oiled muslin and

hinged window, protected
be made more profitable by “wire screen. “Suitable
at the cost of only a Pace ee
little thought and care.

There is only one more caution to be made and
that will be guessed from other portions of this

BREEDING AND BREEDS 87

chapter. It is essential to select the best individuals
in each generation so as to secure the largest pro-
portion of improvement. By this system, it will
be seen that while no brother and sister matings
are made, the system is practically that of in-breed-
ing. On this account any faults in the parents are
likely to be exaggerated in the progeny, just as
excellencies are. For this reason too much care
cannot be taken to avoid mating individuals which
exhibit the same kind of faults.

COMMON MISTAKES OF BREEDING

As ordinarily managed, poultry quickly degen-
erates. This is largely due to mistakes of breeding.
When a small flock is kept, the poultry raiser may
purchase or select a good male bird to head the
flock. This in itself is not necessarily bad, but the
way it too frequently works results disadvan-
tageously.

Suppose a case in which the hens have different
ability as to good laying; some lay well, some
poorly. It is likely with such a flock, unless an
incubator is used for hatching and care is exercised
to select eggs from the good layers alone, that when
the good layers sit they will hatch eggs which the
poor layers have laid. Thus the chances for rearing
a good laying flock for the succeeding year are
reduced at the very outset. But suppose that some
of the eggs set are laid by the best layers. These
eggs are by no means the best that the hens have
laid; the chances are they are the poorest, because
the hens may have been laying for weeks, or even
months, and may be tired. Thus the chances of
producing good layers are very slim. In fact, a

88 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION,

great majority of the chicks raised will be the
progeny of the poorest hens in the flock.

On this account, more than for any other reason,
the grading up of a mongrel flock by the introduction
of new blood through a rooster is far less satisfac-
tory than is usually supposed. The obvious way of
overcoming this difficulty is to remove the best
layers from the balance of the flock and to keep
their eggs separate for hatching. In order to be
sure which are really the best layers, one of the
trap nests should be used or close watch should be
kept upon the fowls.

The same sort of thing occurs in the ordinary
farmer’s flock where 100 or more hens are kept, and
where half a dozen or more cheap cockerels are
allowed to run at large with the hens. In this case,
the chances of securing really desirable eggs are
greatly reduced, because there is no certainty what-
ever about the mating, and just as in the former
case the chances are strongly in favor of spoiling
the results of any breeding that may have been
emphasized by the breeder of the cockerels. Very
few eggs laid by the best layers mated with the
best cockerels will be set, so that in this case the
chances of improving the flock are far less than if
the same amount of money had been spent for one
really superior cockerel or cock and this bird mated
to half a dozen or a dozen of the best layers on
the place. It is better to put $5 or $10 into one
superior cock and use this bird with the selected
hens than it is to spend the same amount of money
on half a dozen or more cheap cockerels to practice
the foolish method herein condemned.

From these foregoing paragraphs, the importance
of culling cannot be too strongly emphasized. It

BREEDING AND BREEDS 89

is much more to the farmer’s interest to raise a
small brood of really superior fowls which will lay
well and therefore pay well than it is to raise a
large number of inferior fowls which unless sold
for meat will not only lay poorly but will actually
eat food that might be fed to the smaller flock at a
profit. It is idle to say that close culling will pre-
vent the rearing of sufficient numbers of chicks.
On the contrary, it is highly probable that with
breeding stock of a superior character and in ample
room, especially where well cared for, the breeder
will hatch and rear a large percentage of chicks,
and such chicks will be of greater commercial value
because more likely to be productive.

IMPORTANCE OF CONSTITUTIONAL VIGOR

There is no question that there is an intimate
relation between the physical characters and the
constitutional vigor of fowls. From appearance
alone a careful observer can pick out weak
fowls from strong ones. None but strong ones
should be used for breeding, because the trans-
mission of strong points from parent to offspring
is more likely to result favorably both in the
hatchability of the eggs, the livability of the chicks
and the strong constitution of the offspring than
where weak chickens are used as parents. For
these reasons a system of the most rigid selection
should be practiced in every poultry yard. This
selection should begin as soon as chicks are hatched
and continue until the breeding pens are made up.

As soon as weakness is observed in growing
chicks, these chicks should be separated so there
can be no possible mixing of them with the breeding
stock and so they may be disposed of through

Go PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

market channels. The production of a larger pro-
portion of eggs of strong, healthy chicks, and conse-
quently a greater net profit, depends very largely
upon the selection. This question of selection is
one of the most important the poultryman has to
answer. The reason is that more is being required
of the flock today than formerly. We are demand-
ing more of the hen in proportion to her live weight
than from any other domestic animal. Because of
this, fowls frequently break down or show lack of
vigor in their offspring. Much of the infertility,
the low-hatching power of eggs, weakness of chicks
and mortality in full-grown stock is traceable to the
impaired constitution of the parent fowls, due in a
large measure to the strain of producing abundant
eggs under intensive methods. Hens in commer-
cial poultry yards are expected to lay about five
times their weight of eggs annually. This means
an egg at least every third day, or perhaps even
every second day.

According to Dr. W. H. Jordan, of the New York
state experiment station, a Leghorn fowl weighing
3% pounds and laying 200 eggs which weigh 25
pounds may be compared with a Jersey cow weigh-
ing 1,000 pounds and giving 7,000 pounds of milk
containing 14% of solids during the year. If the
dry matter of the hen be compared with that of the
eggs there will be 54 times as much in the eggs
as in her whole body. In the cow’s body the weight
of the dry matter to that in the milk is I to 2.9.
Hence the hen does twice as well as the cow upon
‘the dry-matter basis. She is therefore “the most
efficient transformer of raw material into a finished
product that there is on the farm.” In her physio-
logical activity she stands in a class by herself.

BREEDING AND BREEDS OI

It is very evident that strong and weak fowls are
found in nearly all flocks, and strong and weak
strains in all varieties of poultry. This fact is so
well recognized that it is not safe to judge of the
merits of any variety without knowing how it has
been bred and handled. Variation in constitutional
vigor applies equally to all domestic fowls kept
under unnatural or forced conditions. No matter
how important it may be to secure a variety or
strain with certain attributes of size or productive
capacity, it is far more important to have fowls of
strong constitution with appetites to consume large
quantities of food and digestive power to assim-
ilate well. Pure-bred fowls of strong constitutional
vigor are especially desired.

DANGER OF PRODUCTIVENESS

Impaired vitality of flocks may be due to increased
productiveness, in-and-in-breeding without regard
to vigor, use of pullets instead of hens for breeding,
heavy feeding to induce large egg yields in fall and
winter when egg production is not seasonable,
crowding of breeding stock in limited quarters, lack
of exercise for the breeding stock, carelessness in
methods of keeping eggs for hatching, defective
systems of incubation, brooding and rearing, espec-
jally under crowded conditions, violation of sanitary
requisites and failure to select breeding stock of
recognized vigor.

As to increased productiveness, it is evident that:
there must be a proportionate increase in the physi-
cal strength to make the fowl thrive while meeting
the demand for increased consumption of food and
heavier production of eggs. The practice of in-and-

92 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in-breeding which is often adopted to develop high
production or other qualities can be followed with
success only when special attention is given to
mating strong individuals. Breeders frequently
Jack the courage to sacrifice weak individuals which
show other desirable qualities. Pullets which have
produced large quantities of eggs in fall and winter
may have lowered their vitality before the breeding
season begins, so that the breeder will be running
a risk to use such fowls as parents. By using these
birds and their progeny for a succession of genera-
tions, it is thought there may be a tendency to
shorten the natural life of the race of fowls and
also lower the vigor. When breeding from mature
fowls two or more years old, the tendency should
be to increase longevity and vitality.

Trouble is likely to arise from heavy feeding for
large egg yield during fall and winter, because egg
production is not natural at that season. Hens or
pullets so fed should not be expected to produce
eggs for hatching. Fowls under normal and natural
conditions, when allowed to stand most of the year
storing up energy for reproduction, are almost sure
to do far better. For breeding purposes they should
be selected long before the breeding season, fed and
housed without regard to market, but with an eye
single to the production of numerous hatchable eggs
during the natural mating season.

There is no question that congestion or crowding
of the breeding stock is one of the most serious
causes of impaired vitality. Fowls kept in large
numbers should be on extensive farms rather than
in crowded quarters. Land occupied by fowls
should also be used for grass, grain and fruit crops;
‘the poultry department being’ incidental. This

BREEDING AND BREEDS 93

method will provide ample free range and prevent
soil contamination. No matter how the fowls are
kept there should be extremely careful grading as to
vigor and size so as to reduce the contest as much
as possible between the physically strong and the
physically weak. Where crowding is practiced
overfeeding is common. Plenty to eat and little
to do is one of the surest and strongest factors for
producing infertile eggs and weak chicks. Plenty
of deep litter for the fowls to scratch in and whole
grain scattered in it to encourage exercise are used;
preventing or reducing the dangers from over-
feeding, and, to a certain extent, taking the place
of free range and exercise in the open air.
Numerous experiments have shown that the fer-
tility and hatchability of eggs can be injured or
lost by wrong methods of keeping eggs for hatch-
ing, and it is presumed that chicks hatched from
poorly kept eggs have a vitality inferior to those
hatched from eggs properly kept. As a general
rule, eggs should be kept in a cool place 45 to 55
degrees, turned daily and not set when more than
a week old. Defective incubation, natural or arti-
ficial, is also likely to impair vitality. The artificial
methods are probably more often at fault than
natural ones; poor operators may fail with good
machines; good operators may fail with poor ones;
and then, of course, there is the combination of poor
machines and poor operators. All three combina-
tions will produce poor chicks. Good machines,
however, and good operators can be relied upon to
produce good results from properly managed eggs
laid by vigorous stock. It is essential that chicks
be raised in a healthy environment upon the best
rations and with free range. They need not be

94 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

forced on rich food with lack of exercise, but a
rapid development is highly desirable. Excessive
coarse feed which is slow to assimilate is likely to
retard and stunt growth.

VALUE OF VIGOROUS PARENTS

To maintain or increase the physical vigor of a
flock none but the most vigorous parents should
be used as breeders. The chicks of inferior consti-

ROBUST AND INFERIOR TYPES OF FOWLS

tution should be removed. Chicks conspicuously
weak upon hatching should be destroyed at once,
or should be marked in such a way that there will
be no risk of their being selected should they seem
to overcome their physical weaknesses. They should
go to market at the earliest opportunity ; for though

BREEDING AND BREEDS 95

they may seem to overcome their weaknesses there
is the risk of transmission to progeny. Even when
such a move may demand the disposal of an entire
flock and the commencement with new blood, this
will be found desirable and economical in the end.
One of the best ways to mark such fowls is with
aniline dye. The color will remain until new
feathers come in. According to Prof. J. E. Rice
the more important characteristics which distinguish
weak from strong fowls are as follows:

“The actions of a fowl probably best indicate the
physical condition. The physically weak is inactive
and dopey and more likely to squat than to stand.
It does not scratch or forage actively. It is the last
to get off the perch in the morning and the first to
go to roost at night, and frequently is found on the
perch during the day.

“The loudness and the frequency of the crow of
the male or the song or cackle of the female is a
remarkable indication of strength. The weak fowl
seldom crows or sings and is less likely to do so
in the presence of a strong individual of the same
sex. Gallantry on the part of the male is shown
in generosity and consideration toward the females
as indicated by his calling them and giving them
the tenderest morsels to eat. This is one of the
surest indications of physical vigor on the part of
the male. The shape of the body is closely related
to the health and physical vigor of the individual.
The deep, thick, compact body with large fluff
shows greater vigor than the slender, long-jointed,
more delicate body of the same variety. This is
particularly noticeable in comparing strong and
weak males. (See cut on preceding page.)

“There is an interesting correlation between the

g6 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

various parts of the fowl. This is one of the safest
guides in selecting fowls on the basis of vigor. For.
example, a fowl of low vitality is likely to have a
long, thin beak and head; long, thin neck; long,
slender body; long, thin thighs and shanks; and
long, thin toes. The reverse is true of the physically
strong. To examine a fowl in detail for physical
vigor we may begin at the head. This in the phys-
ically strong should be medium to large, short and
broad, while in the physically weak it is more likely
to be long, flat and thin, with long, flat beak, pro-
ducing a crow-headed appearance.

“A strong fowl should have a medium to large,
bright red comb and wattles. The fowl carries its
health certificate on top of its head. The eye is the
mirror of the body. It shows unmistakably the
condition of health and disease. A fowl in good
health should be of a bright color, round eye, which
should stand out prominently. The lids should not
droop, giving the appearance of a snake or a turtle
eye. The size and the way the tail is carried is also
an indication of vigor. A fowl having a strong con-
stitution has a full development of tail feathers.
These normally are carried erect. A fowl of the
same variety having a weak constitution, especially
if suffering from disease, is likely to have tail
feathers less developed, and to carry them on one
side, or drooping. This is more apparent when the
weak fowl is suffering from fright, which usually
will be the case when placed in the presence of the
strong. The breast should be round and full, the
keel bone well covered with meat. This indicates
good muscular development. A fowl shows ill-
health and weakness quickly and unmistakably by
a shrinking away of the muscles about the keel.

BREEDING AND BREEDS 97

“The shanks are a conspicuous indication of the
strength of a fowl. They should be of pronounced
color characteristic of the variety, large and plump
as compared with the faded out, thin shanks of a
fowl of low vitality. Cold shanks are a very common
accompaniment of low vitality. The quantity, bril-
liancy and nature of the plumage are very reliable
indications of constitutional vigor. The feathers ofa
fowl of low vitality grow small. They are likely to be
dull and ruffled as compared with the close-fitting,
smooth, fully developed bright plumage of the vig-
orous fowl. The color pigment, so pronounced in
the feathers of the brilliantly colored, does not
develop to perfection with physically weak fowls.
Fowls that lack vigor do not, as a rule, have the
necessary surplus fat in their bodies to supply the
gland at the base of the tail. This gland furnishes
the material to oil the plumage.

“The appetite is also a good indication of vigor.
A vigorous and strong fowl consumes large quan-
tities of food. It is usually found with a full crop
if suitable food is available. A fowl constitutionally
weak seldom carries more than a small amount of
food in the crop no matter how much may be
accessible or how attractive it may be.

“In breeding fowls for high egg production, we
must develop a sexual character. It is the first stage
of reproduction. Hence if we would succeed in
increasing production we must be skillful in recog-
nizing and in selecting only individuals whch are
physically and sexually vigorous for a breeding
flock. When either physically or sexually weak
fowls are discovered, they should be removed from
the breeding flocks. Any single evidence of physical
weakness alone may not necessarily be conclusive,

“a

98 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

but a combination of several weak characteristics
is absolutely reliable.”

EXPERIMENTS PROVE THEORY

To prove the truth of the foregoing statements
and to show that it pays to select breeding fowls
according to their vigor, Professor Rice tried three
experiments at the New York state agricultural
college. In one, 50 White Leghorn chickens were
selected when about the size of quail. They were
divided into two lots of 25 each. In the second
experiment $0 others in two lots of 25 were selected
in the fall and placed in winter quarters. In the
third, 50 Barred Plymouth Rock pullets were
divided in the fall into two pens. In each experi-
ment there was one flock of weaker vitality than
that of the other of the same variety. These con-
trasts were not conspicuous to the casual observer,
but could be recognized by any one familiar with
the characteristics mentioned. During a full year
records were kept of the food consumed, the eggs
produced, the mortality and health of the fowls, the
fertility and hatching power of the eggs and growth
of chicks. In all three experiments the fowls were
kept under the same conditions as to feeding and
housing. An equal number of eggs from each flock
in each experiment was carefully selected and
placed in the same incubator, hatched in pedigre2
trays, the chicks leg-banded, placed in the same
brooder, fed together and allowed to run in the same
‘corn field during the summer. They were weighed
at frequent intervals, newly leg-banded as they
grew, and in the fall after weighing were placed
an winter quarters.

BREEDING AND BREEDS 99

So far as records of production are concerned,
the fowls selected in the spring, when chicks appar-
ently overcame their weakness by reason of special
care, gave practically the same results in production
during the first year as did their sisters chosen at
the same time for vigor and kept without further —
selection. In the other two experiments, however, |
in which the selections were made in the fall the
contrast between weak and strong flocks was very
marked, both as to the number of eggs laid, the
profits for each fowl, the fertility and hatching
power of the eggs and the growth of the chicks.
The net results of the experiments, however, show
that fowls in the three strong flocks averaged about
one dozen more eggs in a year than those in the
weak flocks, and produced a profit of 41 cents a hen
over and above the cost of food more than the fowls.
in the weak flocks.

Eggs from the strong hens averaged nearly 11%
greater fertility and 4% better hatching power than
eggs from the weaker ones. But the most striking
contrast was shown in the difference in the size and
appearance of the pullets reared from the strong and
from the weak flocks of fall-selected Barred Plym-
outh Rock fowls. The results for the White
Leghorn were nearly as striking; the chickens from
the strong stock averaged over %4 pound more than
the pullets hatched at the same time from the low
vitality stock. They had also larger, deeper bodies,
larger bright red combs and appeared to be at least
four or five weeks older.

REQUISITES OF THE TRAP NEST

To be thoroughly practical a trap nest must be
constructed so it will be impossible for a hen to

too PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

enter without closing and locking the nest itself.
The trigger, spring or treddle must never fail.
These must be so sensitive that even the lightest
hen as well as the heaviest will make them work.
It must always lock and remain locked after it has
been closed, so a second hen cannot enter while the
first one is on. Preferably it should be built with two

DOUBLE TRAP NEST

When the hen steps on the nest proper the cord pulls a
pin and the door falls shut.

compartments—the rear containing the nest itself
and the front a vestibule in which the hen may
stand after the egg is laid and before she is taken
out. Without a front compartment there is danger
that the hen will break the egg. There should be
no danger, however, that the hen will lay in the
front compartment without causing the trap to

BREEDING AND BREEDS IOI

operate. Many trap nests now on the market are
defective in this way. Some hens seem to prefer
the front compartment to the apparently more
comfortable rear one. Unless the trap closes it will
be impossible to secure a proper record of the egg.

Simplicity of
construction and
operation are high-
ly desirable. Many
nests now on the
market are so com-
plicated that it

gptdt ty Des would be impos-

E SSS Z sible to operate and
es keep them in repair

RELEASING TRAP NEST when working a

Door at right closes ante ale large flock. In or-
Sets itself when hen escapes throug! 2
rear door into another yard. der to be effec

tive, the nests, if
used on a large scale and constantly, should be so
easily tended as to take a minimum amount of time
to empty and re-set. At best, trap nesting is expen-

FRAME
Canvas or paper. Top and gable on light frame make this
coop easy to carry.
sive; hence the question of labor must be reduced
as much as possible. Trap nests should always be

durable and unlikely to get out of order.

102 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION
KIND OF FOWL TO KEEP

The choice of a variety of fowl for any purpose
depends largely upon the preference of the poultry
raiser, the purpose sought and the locality. Some
people prefer white fowls, some black, some buff,
some mottled; others have as decided preferences
for still different kinds. The color of plumage, the
size of bird and all other considerations are indi-
vidual. Such being the case, no discussion will be
given here as to mere preferences. The points that
will be emphasized are flesh and egg production in
utility points.

Probably the most popular breeds for table pur-
poses are the Barred Plymouth Rock, the White
Wyandotte, the Rhode Island Red and the Light
Brahma. These varieties are all large, and the first
three are at almost any age excellent for the table.
The last one is slower growing, but attains the
largest size of all. These remarks must be modified
by saying that much depends upon proper manage-
ment. Among other table breeds are various
varieties of Plymouth Rock, notably the White and
the Buff. Then, too, there is the Houdan, the
Faverolle, the La Fleche—all French breeds. The
Dorking and the Orpington, English varieties; the
Langshan and the Cochin, Asiatic fowls. These are
all more or less popular, but have never gained the
wide favor in America that the first four have. The
only one of the last mentioned that has been gaining
very rapidly in popular estimation is the Orpington.
This group of varieties has not been long enough
in this country to supplant our principal favorites.
It may be taken as a general proposition that any
variety of poultry, well managed, will produce as

BREEDING AND BREEDS 103

desirable poultry flesh as any other, though the
quantity may not be as great in some cases as in
others.

As to egg production, the Mediterranean class is
well in the lead, and among the varieties of this
group the White Leghorn stands probably first,
with the Brown Leghorn and the Minorca as close
rivals. Doubtless the White Leghorn is the most
widely popular among egg farmers, especially in
the East and in California. Though it is reputed
as an excellent summer layer, it is also good when
properly managed for winter egg production. The
same remark applies to other breeds of the Medi-
terranean group. Among other noted layers are the
Ancona, the various Hamburg and Polish varieties,
but these have not become widely popular in the
United States. The eggs of the last two are rather
small. The Black Spanish, famous more than a
generation ago both as a table fowl and a prolific
layer, is not as popular now because it has been
badly managed. Good management should make
it good in both respects again, but for the egg pro-
ducer this is a venture not to be recommended.

For general farm use, probably the Barred Plym-
outh Rock, the Wyandotte and the Rhode Island
Red are the favorites, all breeds considered. These
breeds when bred for utility purposes will be found
useful not only for table purposes but for egg pro-
duction. Whichever breed is selected, the poultry
raiser should choose only those specimens that have
been bred for utility purposes and true to its variety
characteristics. The initial cost is not so great that
one cannot afford to pay for good breeding and thus.
encourage himself to take the keenest kind of in-
terest in his poultry. With poor stock, interest is.

104 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

likely to flag. Too much emphasis cannot be placed
on the fact that there is a satisfaction which comes
from the knowledge of possession of good stock
that cannot be gained in any other way. It is need-
less to say that stock should be bought from
breeders who have their reputation at stake, and that
it is in the highest degree desirable not to mix
strains, but to purchase new blood from one breeder
from time to time so as to prevent the breaking up
of strains and the loss of valuable characteristics,
especially with respect to egg laying. Probably it
is most economical in the spring to buy eggs for
hatching and in the fall to purchase cockerels and
pullets. Above all things, it is desirable to keep
only one breed at a time on the farm.

In raising poultry for market or egg production
the purchase of cull fowls is not necessarily un-
desirable. Culls are frequently fowls that show a
defect only in plumage or form, and are not dis-
qualified for anything except the show room. It is
highly undesirable to do any cross breeding, because
the ideals of different breeders are often so radically
unlike that the cross secures few of the best points
of either parent. This subject is already evident
from the discussion on breeding.

THE BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK

is undoubtedly more extensively bred and used
for general utility purposes than any other breed.
It has won its way in popular favor strictly on its
merit. Some qualifications which make it so desir-
able for farm purposes are: Size, which is the happy
medium between the heavy Asiatic and the light-
weight breeds. The standard weights are cock,

BREEDING AND BREEDS 105

9% pounds; hen, 7% pounds; cockerel, 8 pounds;
pullet, 614 pounds. The growing chicks possess a
characteristic rarely found in such desirable per-
fection in any other breed. When properly managed
they are in splendid table condition from the time
they are eight weeks old up to maturity. It is also
claimed the old fowls easily get in fat condition
and are superior in quality to other breeds at the
same age. The hens are excellent mothers, and will
often recommence laying in eight weeks, and still
continue attentively to mother their broods. They
are good winter layers; and it is the winter eggs
that make poultry keeping pay. The eggs are of
good size and are classed as brown. The breed is
a vigorous one, prolific, and the percentage of fer-
tility of the egg is always high. The chicks are
sprightly and strong from the very start.

Pullets will often commence egg laying when
they are six months old; even those that are hatched
late in the season will do so when their six months
end as late as December, providing, of course, they
have been properly cared for. One of the excellent
features about their laying is that when they com-
mence they make a business of it. They do not,
like some of the Asiatics, lay less than a dozen eggs,
and then persist in sitting.

LEGHORN FOWLS

For the production of large numbers of eggs, the
White Leghorn is most popular the country over.
The breed is a hardy one of small to medium size.
The weights seldom exceed seven pounds unless the
fowls are specially bred for size. Probably the
generality of people succeed better in getting good

106 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

egg yield from this breed than from fowls of other
breeds. The reasons are because of the activity of
the fowls and because the Leghorn is hardier than
other varieties of the Mediterranean class. Then,
too, the fowls are less likely to become fat, even
when over-fed, than are the fowls of the American
and the Asiatic breeds. The cockerels make excel-
lent broilers, especially when the poultryman has
aimed for size in his breeding, but where fowls for
roasting are desired the Leghorn is not as con-
spicuous a success as the Plymouth Rock, the Rhode
Island Red, the Wyandotte, the Orpington and the
Asiatic breeds. Like its relative, the Brown Leg-
horn, the White variety has two: sub-varieties,
namely, Single Comb and Rose Comb. Probably
the Single Comb is the more popular of the two.

Besides the White and the Brown Leghorn, there
are other breeds of this group—the Black, the Buff,
the Dominique, the Silver Duckwing, ete.—but
these are much less popular than the White and
the Brown. They are all characterized more or less
as egg producers and as good foragers. Because
of their active habits, they do best on wide range.
Where such cannot be given the fowls must have
abundant opportunity to take exercise.

LIGHT BRAHMA

The Light Brahma is without exception the
largest fowl raised. It is most noted as a meat pro-
ducer, mainly because of its size, but also because
it is probably the most popular variety for produc-
ing South Shore Soft Roasters for the Boston
market. It is a fairly good layer of large, brown
eggs, and though noted more for its meat, it will

BREEDING AND BREEDS 107

yield under proper management a goodly number
of eggs while prices are highest. The standard
weight of the cock is 12 pounds, that of the hen
9% pounds. The hens are good sitters and mothers,
but are rather heavy and clumsy. They are often
used for hatching duck, turkey and goose eggs, be-
cause they can cover more than hens of ordinary
size.

Brahma chicks are slow in developing their
feathers, but in spite of this they are good growers
and gain weight more rapidly than many other
varieties fed equally well. As farm fowls they are
not as successful as many of the other varieties,
because they are not quick enough to be good insect
catchers and are not otherwise as good foragers as
most popular farm breeds. For this reason they
must be fed more carefully. These characteristics
of slowness and weight favor their being kept in
confinement. A low fence is sufficient. Their color
is mainly white, though the hackle, the tail and the
flight feathers of the wing are mainly black. They
have pea combs and red ear lobes, yellow skin and
legs, the shanks feathered down to the ground.

WYANDOTTES

The Wyandotte has a half dozen well-known
varieties. Among these, probably the most popular
are the White, the Golden and the Silver, though
Buff and Black Wyandottes are also well known.
Probably the most important is the White, which,
in the leading poultry shows, is a close second to
the Barred Plymouth Rock. Not only is this so in
the poultry show, but throughout the country the
White Wyandotte and the Rhode Island Red are

108 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

unquestionably the strongest competitors in popular
favor that the Plymouth Rock has. The Wyan-
dotte breed as a whole is a hardy, general purpose
breed which lays brown eggs; the hens make good
sitters and mothers. The recognized standard
weights are 814 pounds for the cock and 6% for
the hen, but greater weights than these are com-
mon. Like the Plymouth Rock, the fowls are good
foragers, good layers and good table birds. They
are characterized by compact bodies with yellow
skin, and on this account are highly popular in the
markets as table fowls.

RHODE ISLAND RED

The two sub-varieties of the Rhode Island Red,
the Rose Comb and the Single Comb, are almost
equally popular. The breed, as its name implies,
originated in New England, where its hardiness,
its brown eggs and its general utility have appealed
to popular taste. The hens are good sitters and
mothers. The breed is noted for its ability to for-
age and also for the ease with which it may be kept
in confinement. The sizes compare with those of
its chief rivals, the Plymouth Rock and the Wyan-
dotte. The color is a peculiar reddish buff with
mixtures of black, more especially in the wings and
tails. It is claimed that the chicks mature more
rapidly than either Wyandotte or Plymouth Rock
chicks, and that they make more meaty broilers at
the same age. This is probably due more to man-
agement than to the breed itself. Some people
consider the Rhode Island Red inferior to other
American varieties as table fowls, but superior as
layers, more especially during the winter.

BREEDING AND BREEDS 109
OTHER BREEDS

The Hamburg varieties are good layers of small
eggs, but, like the Polish varieties, are less seen on
the farm than among fanciers.

The Polish varieties are all excellent layers. They
are not only small, but they lay small eggs. They
are especially fanciers’ fowls and are rarely seen
on farms except as pets.

Among the less widely known American breeds
the Mottled and the Black Java are popular in some
sections. They compare in size with the Plymouth
Rock, and are good both for table and for egg laying.

The American Dominique was at one time very
popular as a general purpose fowl because of its
hardiness. The Barred Plymouth Rock, which it
somewhat resembles, has replaced it to a very large
extent.

Houdans are French fowls noted for their flesh.
They are good layers, non-sitters and excellent
where there is no danger of attacks from hawks
and other birds of prey. Their crests are an objec-
tion where hawks are to be feared.

The White Wonder is a brown egg laying, hardy,
general-purpose breed somewhat larger than the
White Wyandotte which it resembles, except that
it has feathers on the shanks. The variety is popu-
lar in some sections as a farm fowl because of its
hardiness, ability to forage and fair prolificacy.

The Langshan is a fairly hardy Asiatic fowl
which lays dark brown eggs in moderate abundance.
Probably this is the best laying variety of the
Asiatic class. The standard weight of the cock is
10 pounds and that of the hen 7. The hens are good
sitters and mothers, less clumsy than other Asiatic

IIo PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

fowls. The more popular variety of Langshan is
the black.

The Dorking has several well-known varieties,
the most popular are White, Silver Grey
and Colored. This group is noted for the small
number of eggs the hens lay and for persistent sit-
ting. In England they have long been the leading
table fowl. In America they are less popular be-
cause they do not lay enough eggs. This is due
principally to the methods employed in breeding.

The Dark Brahma resembles the Light Brahma
somewhat in size, but not in plumage, which, as its
name implies, is dark, with considerable penciling
as in the Partridge varieties of Cochin, Wyandotte,
etc. The breed is not quite so large as the Light
Brahma, but it is equally hardy. The hens are fair
layers, sitters and mothers, but like their cousins
are rather awkward on the nest and with chicks.
Other remarks concerning the Light Brahma apply
more or less generally to this breed.

The Cochins, like the Brahmas, are heavy breeds
of the Asiatic class. There are several varieties,
viz.: The Buff, the Partridge and the White. They
all have profusely feathered legs, are very hardy,
very docile but very determined sitters. On this
account they are not popular as farm fowls. Like
the Brahmas they are poor foragers and must be
fed liberally. Most people consider them inferior
to the Brahma as layers and as table fowls, but
when well bred and managed they make both good
toasters and layers.

The Minorca has two leading varieties, viz.:
Black and White. The former with two sub-
varieties, the Rose Comb and the Single Comb.
These are fairly hardy fowls. The hens rarely sit.

BREEDING AND BREEDS IIt

They lay particularly large white eggs in abundance
under good management, but these eggs are mainly
produced when prices are low. The breed is espe-
cially valuable for the home flock, largely because
of the size and high quality of the eggs. Like the
Leghorns the Minorcas are good foragers, but of a
reputed nervous disposition. This nervousness,
however, is due more to the poultryman than to
anything else; even the docile Cochin may be made
nervous by bad management.

The Orpington has several varieties. It is an
English breed which has been introduced in
America only a short time, but during this period
has become very popular, mainly because of the
extensive advertising it has had. Among its prin-
cipal varieties are Buff, Black and White. Some
of the varieties are sub-divided into Single and Rose
Comb. The Black and the Buff are most widely
popular in America. The breed is of large size and
compares with the Plymouth Rock, the Wyandotte
and the Rhode Island Red for the table. The hens
are good layers of rather large eggs, good sitters
and mothers. Wherever tried the breed has proved
acceptable.

7 SS

PROTECTED WATER PAN

CHAPTER VII

Feeding and Feeds

Next to breeding and housing, the feeding of
fowls is perhaps the most important essential in
poultry raising. Poultry keepers, as a rule, do not
realize the importance of good feed. Others place

RAW MATERIAL, EGG MACHINE AND FINISHED PRODWCT

The Oregon experiment station thus graphically teaches what
a utility fowl does.

too much responsibility upon the feed and feeding.
Let it be remembered that no amount and no
quality of feed or anything else will make all hens
lay or all poultry profitable. The factor of indi-
viduality must be considered. Some hens will lay
150 to 200 eggs in a year and others treated the
same will not lay an egg. On the other hand, no
112

FEEDING AND FEEDS 113

amount of good feeding will make up for lack of
good breeding or good housing.

It is now recognized that food affects the quality
of eggs. While it is doubtful if the hen could lay
eggs wholly unfit for food, it has been shown by
experiment that the quality of eggs can be injured,
especially in flavor. Onions and fish have both been
found to give an unpleasant flavor to eggs when fed
to excess; so will beef scrap. Doubtless other feeds
will do the same. It is not necessary that these
feeds should be discarded, because when fed in
normal amounts they will not perceptibly flavor the
eggs. When hens have been starved for want of
green food or animal food and then get a chance
to eat to excess they will produce unpleasant results
in the eggs. This shows that hens put into the
eggs what they find in the feed. Hence the impor-
tance of supplying good, wholesome feed at all times.

Skillful feeders can vary the shade of yellow in
the yolk of the egg by the feeding, but not alter the
color of the shell. Dried alfalfa has been found to
produce eggs with good yolk color. Sugar beets
produce a pale tint. Kale makes a good yellow.
Some people hold that yellow corn will color the
yolk, but this has not been credibly verified. Pale
yolks indicate that hens are not getting sufficient
green feed. Probably clover, vetch, rape, grass and
other green feeds will all produce yellow yolks.

FEED AFFECTS QUANTITY OF EGGS

There is no question that food affects the quantity
of eggs. Good feeding will help to make good hens
productive. In one instance a pen of four fowls
laid over 800 eggs in one year. Another pen of full

IIld4 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

sisters, but fed differently, laid only about 530.’ The
difference in the feeding is accountable. It has also
been shown that feeding will influence the size of
the eggs. Neither the hens nor the breed are
responsible.

A correct study of feeds and feeding must neces-
sarily include cost and
profit as well as composi-
tion of the feeds them-
selves. Though a ‘ration
may give good results in a
yield of eggs, it may not
be profitable because of its
high cost. It is not essen-
tial to use any special
brand or kind of feed, nor
is it necessary to pay more
for a feed than for the food
of the home table. Many
rations are impracticable,
simply because they are too
costly. Knowledge of poul-
try feeding has not gone

STOVE PIPE HOPPER far enough for anyone to

Selnid. Gaui connate oe that certain results can
May be hung from ceiling be secured from certain
or as shown. :

feeds or rations, yet much
valuable information has been secured by experi-
mental feeding, and through the experience ot
practical poultry keepers. The chemist classifies
the composition of feeds into protein, fat, carbo-
hydrates and ash constituents. These are all con-
tained in all feeds, but in varying proportion. The
chemist also tells us that eggs contain the same
constituents, but with a larger proportion of pro-

x

FEEDING AND FEEDS I1§

tein. Eggs are more valuable as a market com-
modity than grain. A pound may be worth from
Io to 25 cents in the market, whereas a pound of
wheat would rarely exceed two cents in market
value. The hen may convert this comparatively
cheap wheat into a product of much higher value.
For this reason she may be looked upon as a manu-
factory. Still she can utilize at least a pound of
water for every pound of wheat she puts into the
eggs, and thus the poultryman can sell water for a
good price.

WHAT HENS PUT IN EGGS

It must be remembered that the hen puts into
the egg what the poultryman gives her. No one
can say definitely what kind or combination of feed
will give best results in good yield. The chemist
does not tell and practical feeders do not. Nothing
but experimental work can solve this problem. It
is known, however, that eggs have a certain com-
position and to produce them the hen must have
certain elements in her feed. The composition of
the egg varies scarcely at all. The hen must, there-
fore, have the proper feeds to supply the demand of
the egg. If she cannot get these she will stop
laying. If fed exclusively on wheat she may eat a
quarter of a pound a day. Of this she will probably
consume three ounces to supply the demands of her
body, thus leaving I ounce with which to make
eggs. In this ounce there is about one-tenth of an
ounce of protein. Supposing that this were all
digested—which is never the case—there will not
be enough protein to make an egg, because each
egg contains about one-quarter ounce of protein.

116 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

A hen so fed would require two or three days to
secure enough protein to make an egg.

Eggs contain also one-quarter ounce of ash,
mostly in the shell. An ounce of wheat contains
less than one-tenth as much lime and other ash con-
stituents as the egg contains. Eggs also contain
fat, less than one-quarter of an ounce; wheat con-
tains three-quarters of an ounce. When fed as
above hens would not get egg constituents in prop-
er proportions to make an egg a day. It is just as
poor economy to feed corn or any other feed ex-
clusively. The rations must be balanced. If left to
herself the hen would secure what she needs if such
raw material were available.

The following suggestions will prove helpful:
The hen first supplies the needs of her body. This
demands constant rebuilding because of the con-
tinual wearing out or breaking down of animal
tissue. The poultryman must therefore feed more
than enough to supply this waste. He must feed
a growing ration to the chicks and other young
fowls. He must compound rations to insure health
and vitality and then supply enough raw material
of the various kinds for the hen to make eggs. Eggs
are made from surplus food. After the hen has
supplied her body wastes, she may devote the
balance to egg production. It is therefore poor
economy to feed just enough to keep the hen in
health and vigor. Heavy feeding, however, does
not necessarily mean heavy egg yield. While the
heavy layer must consume abundant. food, the
manner of feeding and the kind of feed must be
reckoned because the efficiency of feed depends
largely upon the kind of the feed itself and the skill
of feeding.

FEEDING AND FEEDS Ili?

Poultry feeds contain various quantities of pro-
tein, carbohydrates, fat and water. The water is
frequently overlooked by the feeder. Even wheat
contains about 10%; clover and alfalfa 75% and in
skimmed milk there is about 90%. No poultryman
should pay more for water in the feed than as water
from his well or spring. Grain feeds are also defi-
cient in ash. Hence the hen must secure grit,
oyster shell, etc., to supply this lack. The ash,
therefore, need not be considered of high value
because of its cheap source. Carbohydrates and
fat furnish the fuel necessary to keep the body
warm. It is necessary for the hen to be warm in
order to produce eggs. Unless warm and energetic
she cannot digest the food as well.

As a rule poultry feeds contain larger percentages
of carbohydrates and fat than are required for best
results in egg production. Usually they are defi-
cient in protein, which is the most valuable con-
stituent. This substance makes the lean meat and
the muscle and a large percentage of the egg, espe-
cially the white. The value of the feed must be
determined largely by the percentage of protein it
contains. A high price, therefore, should not be
paid for feed unless this has a high percentage of
protein. In general feeds may be considered ex-
pensive or cheap in proportion as they contain
small or large proportions of protein.

In studying feeds digestibility must be con-
sidered. Composition does not necessarily indicate
the true value of feeds, because these may not be
digestible. The digestibility of poultry feeds has
not been studied sufficiently. There are consider-
able difficulties in the way. Probably, however,
these studies will be made in the future and better

118 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

systems of feeding will be worked out. So far the
chemical composition of feeds and the analogies
between poultry feeding and animal feeding are the
only guides for working out balanced rations for
poultry.

In the table given below Prof. James Dryden,
of Oregon, shows the composition of feeds com-
monly given to poultry:

Percentage Composition of Feeds

KIND OF FEED Water | Ash |Protein|Caboby-| Fat
Wheal..scvsenxnaadcraunae ny 10.5 1.8 11.9 re Pia 2.1
On se assed: deoa rh Sraecerearee <3 10.9 1.5 10.5 71.7 5.4
Oats 2a ave cous sentecgtttesiaceleergheesce 11.0 3.0 11.8 69.2 5.0
PO ASi aca gidals ssa sialec. sos see bees =" 10.5 2.6 20.2 65.5 1.8
Barley ise di soia sieves edie wsetaseiere 10.9 2.4 12.4 72.5 1.8
Wheat bran.........ee ee eee 11.67 5.18 | 14.5 65.5 3.6
Wheat middlings............ 11.8 2.8 15.22 65.7 4.5
Sunflower ............000.- 12.8 2:1 9.1 51.3 21.2
Linseed meal (N.P.)*........ 9.9 5.6 35.9 45.6 3.0
Gluten meal .......ccaseeee 8.1 1.0 28.3 51.9 10.7
Brewers’ grains, dried........| 8.0 3.4 24.1 57.8 6.7
Alfalfa... 71.8 2.7 4.8 19.7 1.0
Clover, red 80.9 ES 3.1 13.6 aa

ale... 88.2 1.82 2.57 6.79 6
Vetch 69.2 2.7 3.76 14.22 .49
Rape --{ 85.7 2.0 2.4 9.3 6
Mangel-wurzels..........+.-- 91.2 1.0 1.4 1.2 +2
Cabbage... «cis eviews sete 90.5 1.4 2.4 5.40 4
Skins milks... eee esse corneas 90.6 0.7 3.3 5.3 al
Cottage cheese .........+4-- 72.0 1.8 20.9 4.3 wk
Buttermilk. os oscas ceaeices 90.3 0.7 4.0 4.5 5
Beef Scrap -siciee sisss clase ee scoas 10.7 4.1 66.2 3 1327
Cut bones. ........ cee ee eee 32.8 33.0 28.4 2.5 36.6
Dried blood. ...........-005 9.95 3.68 | 72.0 1.68 3.15

*New Process.

NUTRITIVE RATIO

What is called the nutritive ratio is the proportion
existing between the content of protein and that of
fat and heat-producing constituents. To produce
eggs, what is called a narrow nutritive ratio should

FEEDING AND FEEDS Tig

be fed; that is, a proportion of one part protein to
four or five of carbohydrates and fat. In figuring
the ratio the fat is multiplied by 2%4, because 1
pound is estimated to be equivalent to that amount
' of carbohydrates. It must be remembered, how-
ever, that a nutritive ratio in itself does not neces-
sarily indicate the true value of a ration. Pal-
atability, digestibility and other factors must be
reckoned with. Even a proper ratio does not guar-
antee a good egg yield. The kinds of feed must be
considered, and the feeder must be guided by results
that indicate the value of the different feeds.

INDIVIDUAL FEEDS

‘Wheat is more widely used than any other cereal
throughout the country for poultry feeding, because
it is safer than most other grain feeds and is
relished better by the fowls. Its nearest competitor
is corn. Which of these should be fed depends
largely upon price. If fed wheat alone, hens would
probably lay better than if given corn alone, be-
cause the composition of wheat is slightly better
for egg production than that of corn, which latter
is more favorable for fattening. No one, however,
should expect a profit from fowls fed one kind of
food to the exclusion of others.

When fed with other feeds, there is dispute as to
whether wheat or corn is more economical at the
same price a pound. The market price of grain
may be taken as a safe basis for selecting wheat
and corn. Slightly frosted wheat is of as high feed-
ing value as good wheat and may be substituted for
even the highest-priced grade. Shrunken wheat,
in fact, has a higher protein content than plump

‘120 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

wheat, and thus a saving may be made by purchas-
ing such grain at reduced prices. Wheat screenings
of good quality may also be substituted for high-
priced wheat. Bran and middlings are richer in
protein than wheat, since there is 14% of protein
in bran and about 12% in wheat. Bran is also
richer in fat. On these accounts it is usually an
economical feed.

Analysis has shown that corn contains more fat-
forming elements than wheat. For this, reason it

HOPPERS REACHED FROM ALLEY

For quick feeding and watering openings are made in sides of
pens; hoppers and fountains placed over them.

became unpopular among poultry feeders. Actual
feeding tests, however, show it to be equal to wheat
when fed in rational combinations. As good results
have been secured in egg production as from wheat.
It is, however, an imperfect feed and other feeds

FEEDING AND FEEDS 12Tt

must be used to balance it. Those states which
produce the largest quantities of corn are the
greatest producers of poultry and eggs, a fact which
seems to disprove the notion that corn is not good
for poultry.

Oats are not relished by fowls as much as other
grains, nor are they worth as much as corn or wheat.
The large proportion of hull is an objection since
hulls are largely indigestible. Without the hulls
oats would be excellent both for laying and fatten-
ing. They are not as fattening as corn or wheat
and many poultrymen feed them, largely to pre-
vent hens becoming too fat. Great care should be
used in selecting oats because of the quality. None
but heavy, plump oats should be used. Light oats
contain too much hull. Oats furnish a useful variety
to the ration. Were hulled oats. procurable at
reasonable prices, they would probably be better
than wheat or corn.

Barley is fed to poultry to a very limited
extent. Fowls will usually leave it if they can
secure wheat or corn. It may be fed for variety.
Peas, where they can be secured at reasonable
prices, should be fed extensively because of their
richness in protein. They contain twice as much
protein as corn and therefore are worth more pound
for pound. Where linseed meal can be secured at
reasonable prices, it may be profitably fed to poultry
because it contains more than 30% protein and is
also rich in fat. On this account it is an excellent
addition to mash feeds, but must be fed sparingly.

IMPORTANCE OF ANIMAL FEEDS

It is believed that animal food of some sort is
necessary to maintain fowls in vigorous health and

"122 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

productivity, whether the aim be flesh or eggs.
Probably no one thing has done more to increase
profits than feeding animal food. Scarcity of eggs
during winter is largely due to deficiency in this
line. Chickens when at liberty during the summer
secure abundant animal food in the form of bugs
and worms. Something to take the place of this
feed is necessary, especially when snow is on the
ground. Doubtless lean meat is the best form to
feed. It furnishes ample protein. The presence of
a little fat does no harm, but may be an advantage.
Fresh meat scrap from the butcher’s is an excellent
egg maker. Butchers. often keep bone cutters to
sell ground meat and bones to poultrymen. When
flocks of 25 hens or more are kept it will then pay to
own a bone cutter. These butcher scraps contain
large quantities of bone, which the fowls eat very
greedily along with the meat. Much of the mineral
matter for making shell and other parts of the ash
of the egg may be secured through bone.

Skim milk is a good substitute for animal feed
if given liberally, but it is not concentrated enough.
It contains about 90 per cent water or only about
Io per cent of food. When used as a drink hens will
not take enough of it to supply their demand for
animal feed. Milk is well used for mixing the wet
mashes, by feeding it clabbered, and best in the form
of cottage cheese, which is a particularly good form
when well made.

A good way to make cottage cheese is to set
the dish of skim milk where the temperature will
range between 75 and 80 degrees for 18 to 24 hours,
by which time the milk will have thickened. It
should then be broken up into pieces about the
size of peas or smaller. The dish should then be

FEEDING AND FEEDS 123;

set in a pail of hot water and the curd stirred until
its temperature is 90 or 95, when it should be held
at this heat for 15 or 20 minutes without stirring.
The contents of the dish should then be poured into
a cotton sack and hung up where the whey may
drain off. Care must be exercised not to allow the
milk to boil. After the whey has drained off a little
salt should be added. This cheese will keep in mild
weather for a day or two; longer in cool weather.
Doubtless the most con-
venient form in which to esses
feed animal food is beef
scrap, a by-product of the
large packing houses. It
has been boiled and dried,
and as it reaches the poul
tryman contains meat and
bone in varying propor-
tions, but should analyze ess
50 to 60 per cent protein. >=
It also varies in quality,
but should always be light
colored, have a meaty
flavor and be rather oily to
the touch. When boiling , ,pogueamdnensed eee
water is added to it, it
should smell like fresh meat. If a putrid odor is
given off it should not be fed.

es

KY)

leo

\)
hy

GREEN FEED FREE

GREEN FEED ESSENTIAL

It is essential to the fowls’ well being and egg
production to have green food every day. Lack
is sure to affect egg production unfavorably. Flocks.
at range can secure abundant green food, but flocks

124 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in yards and in winter quarters must be supplied.
It may be fed without stint at all times. Among
the best feeds are clover, alfalfa, grass, vetches, pea
vines, rape, rye, mangels, kale, cabbages, sugar
beets, turnips—in fact anything and everything the
hens will eat. During the winter cabbage is spe-
cially useful. Root crops are good also. The leaves
and broken heads from the hay mow may be
steamed if desired. Kale and alfalfa contain espe-
cially large amounts of protein and ash. The latter
and clover give a good flavor and quality to the
eggs; but kale, cabbage, turnip and other plants of
the mustard family are likely to impart a slightly
disagreeable flavor if fed too abundantly.

According to Prof. J. E. Rice, oats and peas sown
together very thinly with a liberal seeding of red
clover and a very little rape make a good combina-
tion. The oats and peas furnish a rapid growth
of green feed. Much of it will get tramped down
and some go to seed, but will serve to protect the
clover and the rape, which will make good feed
late in summer and fall. Three pecks of oats, two
of peas, a pound of rape and 5 quarts of red clover
seed make a good proportion for sowing an acre.
The oats and peas should be first harrowed in
deeply, then the clover and rape sown mixed and
lightly scratched in with a weeder. The potatoes
may be fed for variety boiled and mixed with a
mash, but they are not very useful as an egg food.
They do better for fattening. Sour apples should
not be fed unless sparingly.

NECESSITY FOR GRIT

At all times chickens need grit. Opinions differ
as to the function of grit. One view is that grit is

FEEDING AND FEEDS 125

to grind the food; the other is that grit itself is a
food. It is not necessary to argue on this point,
but it is necessary to supply the grit. Fowls at
liberty usually pick up enough grit except where
the land is deficient in sand and gravel. When con-
fined they must have a liberal supply. When gravel
is close by the grit ques-
tion is easily answered.
Plenty of sharp sand for
the hens to scratch in is
all that is necessary.
Where gravel is scarce
grit must be purchased.
It is very cheap. Besides
ordinary grit, it is desir-
able to supply other mate-
rial for forming the egg
shells. Grain does not con-
tain sufficient lime for
great egg layers. Oyster
and other sea shells are
largely used for this pur-
pose, since they are very
readily dissolved in the

gizzard. Lack of lime or Hole tn, foor ts tan
other shell material in the

ration often leads to the egg-eating habit among
hens, because soft-shelled eggs are laid and broken
in the nest.

Charcoal is believed to be useful as a bowel
regulator. Most successful poultrymen keep it
constantly before the hens. Salt in moderation aids
digestion. An ounce or two daily is sufficient for
100 hens. Pepper, which acts as a stimulant, should
be fed sparingly. Vigorous hens do not need it.

BE. 2

GRIT OR SHELL HOPPER

126 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The following table prepared by Prof. James
Dryden, of the Oregon agricultural college, gives
five rations for laying fowls:

Ration No. Ts S2> (2c «qe 65,
Wheat. ccsinseos — 60 30 30 20
Corn, onG eae sks 60 — — 10 20
Oats s:dsax este aes - — — 15 I10 I0
Bian. vatican alee a — — 10 10 10
Middlings ......... —-— — 5 5 5
Linseed meal ...... oo — — 5 5
Skim milk, or....... 30 30 30 30 30
Cut bones, or....... T2 CI@> <2! Te, 12
Beef scrap ......... 8 8 8 8 8
Alfalfa or clover, or. 15 15 15 15 15
KAI hos cues oceans 20 20 20 20 20

No. 1 is considered the poorest and No. 5 the
best. Corn is the only grain fed in No. 1; wheat in
No. 2. This ration is placed ahead of No. 1, be-
cause it contains some more protein. Both are
deficient in egg-making material, viz.: protein.
Either would be an improvement on the average
farm ration, but neither is ideal. No. 3, which
contains a variety of grains and somewhat more
protein, is better than the first two. Nos. 4 and 5
should give abundance of eggs if properly fed. They
do not equal the amounts of protein, but No. 5 has
more meat-producing food.

It is not definitely known to what extent fat in-
fluences egg yield, but it has been found that rations
containing plenty of fat give better results than
rations with little. Since fowls eat more food
during cold than during warm weather, heat-pro-
ducing foods are more necessary and can be made to

FEEDING AND FEEDS 127

replace the more expensive protein food to a certain
extent. More corn should be fed during winter.
On this account No. 5 will be found a better winter
ration than No. 4. No. 1 will also probably give
better results than No. 2 during the winter.

VALUE OF GOOD METHOD

Unless properly fed no ration, however well
balanced or mixed, will give best results. Method
of feeding plays an important part. It is necessary
that the hen be kept robust. This can best be done
by keeping her active. Hens on free range often
do better than confined hens solely because of the
active life they lead. Poultrymen need not trouble
much about the vigor of their hens if the flocks are
kept under the free-range system, but when con-
fined in yards great care must be taken to en-
courage exercise. The lazy hen is the unproduc-
tive hen.

Exercise is best supplied by providing a roomy
scratching shed covered deeply with even 8 to 12
inches of straw. This straw should be rather dry
and whole grain should be scattered in it. There
will be no waste; the fowls will find the last kernel.
The poultryman’s skill will be tested to feed enough
at a time without having to feed too often, so as to
keep the hens busy most of the day. When too
much feed is given at a time the fowls soon be-
come satisfied and will stop eating. It is not essen-
tial to keep fowls scratching all the time. The
more active breeds, especially Leghorns, do nearly
as well when fed from hoppers. When given a
yard and a floor they will take sufficient exercise
whether forced to scratch for feeding or not. For

128 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the larger, less active breeds, however, it is neces-
sary to force exercise. Experiment has shown that
enforced idleness ruins both health and egg pro-
duction. On the other hand, Leghorns have thrived
and even done well though compelled to scratch
for every grain they eat. With
every breed a happy medium
should be struck between idle-
ness and too much exercise. No
breed of fowls is injured by hav-
ing exercise and most breeds
profit decidedly. The principal
FEED HOPPER disadvantage of feeding in litter
is that grain may become con-
taminated with the droppings of the fowls, but with
proper care in removing the straw as soon as it
begins to be soiled this can be largely obviated.

GRAIN GROUND OR UNGROUND

Poultrymen find that it pays to grind part of the
grain feed because this saves energy. Since the
energy is furnished by the food there is an actual
saving in the food itself, and this can thus be util-
ized by the fowls for other purposes. Ground grain
is more quickly digested and assimilated than whole
grain, and hens can manufacture eggs quicker with
it. It has been shown that fowls, half of whose
grain was ground and moistened, required 20%
less feed to produce a dozen eggs than fowls fed
on whole grain alone. Fowls, however, enjoy whole
grain, therefore probably one-third should be fed
in this form. If fed one-half or more of whole
grain they would likely lose their appetites and not
eat sufficient to meet the demand for heavy egg

FEEDING AND FEEDS 129

T TTI T
+ + | + +
SCRATCHING
H ls
SNE HOUSE OUSE a
L-i~Jf \
12’ 12° 12° 12°
‘o
~”
- ‘o
° °
° ~
~
2|4’
‘ol
N

GROUND PLAN OF HOUSE AND YARD

Space-saving arrangement of ground area.

production. If more than a third of the grain is
fed ground it should be supplied preferably in the
afternoon.

If fed wet mash in the morning, the fowls are
likely to gorge themselves and not be as active as

ELEVATIONS OF POULTRY HOUSE

130 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

spa oe
eee

SPSS
DELILE

pee
PSS LE SOOO LG
OMI OOK LPL
SILA ARSG
SEES a

<6Ft

ae
canes
SaaaniwN

a4 = L274
LOR
ZZ TR
ZZ
LZ

2
S22.

K-"As Ye

a

a 2 Ft

VENTILATED COOP AND DETACHABLE RUN

Slide door closes coop at

night.

they should be during the day. Hence a light-grain

ration in the litter should be given

in the morning.

‘About an hour before going to roost, a good mash

feed, followed by a liberal supply

of whole grain,

will give satisfactory results. Feeding whole grain
liberally toward the close of the day in cold weather

is a good practice, because the
grain will “stick to the ribs” bet-
ter during the night than will the
mash and will help to keep up the
heat of the body better.

Another good practice is to scat-
ter enough grain in the litter at
night so as to encourage the fowls
to scratch for it early in the morn-
ing. This practice will also save
time in the early, morning. Of
‘course, double quantity of grain
should be scattered in the evening.
iWhen light mashes are fed in the
morning, it is best to feed immedi-
ately after the fowls come off the
roost, but to feed no more than the
birds will eat. As to feeding
rations 4 and 5 mentioned above,

7

WEIGHTED GATE

Second hand
piping frame, cov-
ered with netting.
L_ joints. Large
staples in wood
posts serve as
hinges. Pulleys,
weight and cord
close gate.

FEEDING AND FEEDS 132

the following remarks will be found useful: Mix
the ground ingredients with water or skim milk
and a little salt until the mass is crumbly. Feed
first thing in the morning just what will be eaten
up clean in ten minutes. Soon after scatter a little
wheat or oats in the straw, just enough to keep the
fowls, busy till noon. Then scatter some more
grain. About an hour before sundown feed wheat
er corn, enough to fill the fowls’ crops. Fowls on
free range will not require such frequent feeding.

DRY MASH OR WET MASH

Fowls enjoy wet mash more than dry, but dry
mash saves labor, since enough may be put in the
hopper to last a week. When fed wet, at least one
feeding must be given daily. Since fowls eat wet
mash more greedily than dry, more care must be
exercised to avoid overfeeding. Where skim milk
is available the ration may be cheapened by using
it to wet the mash. Bran and middlings may be
made to take large quantities of milk and thus to
balance out and cheapen the ration. Thus it can be
made to save more costly feeds. When skillfully
fed, wet mash should give better results in egg yield
than dry. Cut bone may be fed daily or three times
a week, just what the fowls will eat up clean in 10
or 15 minutes. Each hen can use 3 or 4 ounces a
week to advantage, though more should be fed dur-
ing heavy laying and in winter than at other times.

As a rule it does not pay to boil poultry feed,
besides, most feeds give better results when fed
raw. This does not apply to potatoes and similar
starchy feeds, which are improved by boiling.

No radical changes should be made in the ration.
‘A definite plan should be well worked out before

132 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

feeding starts and should be adhered to so as to
get best results. Feed and feeding are not all; when
fowls are not laying, it must not be thought that
the ration is necessarily at fault unless there is good
reason to believe so. Even though some other
ration may be better, it is not advantageous to
make a sudden change in its favor, because such
changes are sure to upset egg production for greater
or less time. Any changes found necessary should
be made gradually. It is just as important also to
feed at regular times and in regular amounts. “A
feast and famine” will never produce best results.
Every night the hen should go to roost with a full
crop and should find her breakfast ready for her
when she gets up. Success in poultry feeding,
especially for eggs, depends upon wholesome food
fed liberally, regularly and in variety, and upon
plenty of activity for the fowls.

VALUE OF SKIM MILK

At the West Virginia experiment station Profes-
sors Stewart and Atwood sought to determine the
value of skim milk for laying hens. On most farms
skim milk is fed to calves or pigs. Can fowls use
it to better advantage? Separator skim milk was
used. Generally during the colder months it was
sour when fed, and during the warmer periods
thick also. Two experiments were conducted, one
for 122 days, the other for three months. In the
first, two lots of Single Comb White Leghorn fowls
were used, each lot containing 20 hens and 2 cocks.
In the second each lot consisted of 60 hens and 6
cocks.

The skim milk was used to moisten the ground
feed. This was usually fed in the morning, while

FEEDING AND FEEDS 133

the whole grain was scattered in the afternoon in
the litter covering the floors of the poultry houses.
At no time were the fowls fed heavily, as the eggs
which were laid were used for hatching and it was
not considered desirable to become too fat.

Weight of Fowls

PEN 1 PEN 2

Average weight at the Hens Cocks Hens Cocks
beginning of the test..

Average weight at the
end of the test....... 3.50 lbs. 4.25 Ibs. 3.62 Ibs. 4.50 Ibs.

2.77 lbs. 4.75 lbs. 2.90 Ibs, 4 65 lbs.

The table shows that the hens in each lot lost
in weight about seven-tenths of a pound each,
while the cocks gained slightly.

The following table shows the amount and kind
of food consumed by each lot of 22 fowls during the
122 days of the test. Both lots were fed exactly the
same except that lot 1 received in addition 2 quarts
of skim milk daily, or 244 quarts during the experi-
ment:

Food Consumed in 122 Days

Gluten feed ... 60 lbs at $1.275 100 lbs....$ .765

Wheat bran .. 60 “ at 1.20 Cy
Ground oats ...60 “ at 140 “ “.... .84
Oil meal ..... 20 “ at 140 “ “ .... .28
Beef scrap ... 20 “ at 200 “ “.... .40
COM nieces s TiSt oats 805. We 5.4. 2120
Wheat ....... t115 “ at 166 “ “ .... Lor
Oatsnieeeesee 115) “at “m25- Se “se. Teer

134 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

If the skim milk be valued at 1 cent a quart,
which is practically equivalent to 50 cents a hun-
dred pounds, an extremely high valuation for feed-
ing purposes, then the total cost of food for pen 1
was $10.19 and for pen 2, $7.75.

The following table shows the number of eggs
laid by each lot:

PEN I PEN 2

February 29—March 31..... 364 327
March 31—April 30......... 297 262
April 30—May 31........... 319 207
May 31—June 209.406.0068 264 200

ota lie aia is aeveerctonsin et 1244 996

The pen which received the skim milk laid 248
eggs more than the other, or practically an extra
egg for every quart of skim milk they received.
Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the food
cost of 1 dozen eggs was 9.8 cents a dozen for the
fowls fed the skim milk and 9.3 cents for the other
lot. During the time covered by the experiment
the eggs produced were actually worth 20 cents a
dozen. The 248 extra eggs produced by pen I when
valued at this price were worth $4.13, which would
give to the skim milk a value of 1.6 cents a quart.

In a second test 6 pens of Single Comb White
Leghorn fowls were employed, each pen containing
20 hens and 2 cocks. The experiment was divided
into two periods, June 30 to August 5, and August
6 to September 30. During the first period pens
I, 2 and 3 each received two quarts of skim milk
daily to moisten the ground feed, as in the earlier
experiment, while during the second period pens
4, 5 and 6 received the skim milk. It was found that

FEEDING AND FEEDS 135

all the hens increased slightly in weight during the
tests. The following table shows the amount, kind
and cost of food consumed during the first period
of 37 days:

Food Consumed by Pens 1, 2 and 3
Gluten feed ....54 Ibs at $1.275 100 Ibs. - 688

Wheat bran ...54 at 1.20 ities, 3043
Ground oats ...54 “ at 140 “ “ .... .756
Beef scrap ....18 “ at 200 “ “ 36
COM eaiessiesaves On a vats bio5., (f° oe 619
Wiheat scsvcises 50. Sat, 1.66. < 979
Oats: scsnceienins 590 “ at 125 “ “ 737
POCA”) cyerevcvateuereecncovstanesaiele,etovetors ele teiersieles $3.87

Food Consumed by Pens 4, 5 and 6

Gluten feed ....60 Ibs at $1.275 100 Ibs. Sky 76
Wheat bran 60 at 1.20 sees ye

Ground oats ...60 “ at 140 “ “ .... 84
Beef scrap ....18 “ at 2.00 “ “.... .36
Gon aracits 60:° “at. op) "sas 263
Wheat ........ Go) at 06. 8 aes 209
Qats: ace cesses Gom Sf at: P25) sya, 275

Total. COSt oiiis ocrauere sie cee aw aioe ease $5.05

Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the cost
of food for pens 1, 2 and 3 was $6.09, and for pens
4, 5 and 6 $5.05. The following table shows the
number of eggs laid by each pen of fowls during
the period:

Pens ....+. I 2 3 4 5 6
Eggs ..... 337 279 246 207 202 223

Totals .. 862 632

136 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The balance in favor of the milk-fed fowls was
230 eggs, which extra egg production was brought
about by feeding 222 quarts of skim milk, or slightly
more than an extra egg for every quart of skim milk
fed. Valuing the skim milk at 1 cent a quart, the
food cost of the eggs from the milk-fed fowls was
8.4 cents a dozen; and 8.3 cents for the other lot.
The eggs produced during this period were worth in
the local market 25 cents a dozen. At this price
the 230 extra eggs were worth $4.79, which would
give to the 222 quarts of skim milk an actual
feeding value of slightly more than 2 cents a
quart when fed in small quantities as in this experi-
ment.

During the second period of 56 days skim milk
was fed to pens 4, 5 and 6, instead of pens 1, 2 and
3. During this period the hens which received
the skim milk increased in weight slightly
more than those whose mash was moistened with
water. The following table shows the kind,
amount and cost of the food consumed during this
period:

Food Consumed by Pens 1, 2 and 3

Corn meal ..... 105 lbs at $1.25 100 Ibs ....$1.31
Wheat bran ....105 “ at 1.20 “ “ .... 1.26
Ground oats ...105 “ at Igo “ “ .,,, 1.47
Beef scrap .... 33 “ at 200 “ “ .... 66
COMms seseiu see ¢ 180°" at “105 “one 80
Oats: acceseieiees Too Zath eti25- i for see ais

FEEDING AND FEEDS 137,

Food Consumed by Pens 4, 5 and 6

Corn meal ....101 Ibs at $1.25 100 lbs . me 262
Wheat bo sev IOI Ate T2008 SS) 583 eon 212
Ground oats ..tor “ at 140 “ “ 4... 1.414
Beef scrap .... 33 “ at 200 “ “ ..,. .660
Gorn ses se.55,0 149: sat. “Tog os. 1.564
Mats .teceekieens 149° "* “at, “125. “rw -2 es 862

Mea S CORE: weaxwate eeu eae ween es . $7.74 *

Valuing the 6 quarts of skim milk fed to pens
4, 5 and 6 at I cent a quart, the total cost of food
for these pens was $11.10 and for the other fowls
$8.84. The following table shows the number of
eggs laid by each pen of fowls during the second
period:

Pens vaicsisss I 2 3 4 5 6
Eggs ..... 302 363 313 452 382 386
Totals .. 978 1,220

During this period there were fed 336 quarts of
skim milk, which increased the egg production 242
eggs, or at the rate of three-fourths of an egg for
every quart of skim milk fed. The eggs produced
during this period were worth 25 cents a dozen in
the local market. Valuing the 242 extra eggs at
this price, it is seen that the skim milk had a feeding
value in this case of 1% cents a quart.

In both experiments more eggs were produced
when skim milk was substituted for water for mois-
tening the mash. Under the conditions prevailing in
these experiments and with eggs selling for 20 or
25 cents a dozen the skim milk had a feeding value

138 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

of 114 to 2 cents a quart. In these trials 802 quarts
of skim milk were fed, resulting in an increase in
the egg production of 702 eggs.

FEEDING CAPONS

The unusually high prices quoted for capons has
led to considerable discussion in the agricultural
and poultry press relative to the profit in this branch
of poultry raising. The discussion is not free from
exaggerated statements of interested individuals,
and little satisfactory information is available. To
get data concerning the growth and food cost
several feeding experiments have been made by the
New York experiment station.

Six lots of capons and one of cockerels were fed
for several months and several lots of capons for
shorter periods of several weeks. Birds of several
breeds and crosses were used, chiefly Asiatics, but
none of the smaller breeds. No special comparison
of breeds was attempted, although for the most
part each lot was of one breed.

To all of these fowls sweet skim milk was fed
nearly all of the time in place of water. Much of
the time it constituted about 60% of the total food,
supplying generally from 12 to 15% of the total
dry matter in the ration.

For the eight lots for which records were kept
the longest time, from hatching to maturity, the
lowest pound cost, live weight, was at the average
weight of 4 pounds. Largely because the market
prices were always lower for the emmalles fowls the
cost of food to grow the birds 4°4 pounds repre-
sented the highest proportion (a little over 50%)
of the market Wale found at any time from earliest

FEEDING AND FEEDS 139

marketable size as broilers to the heaviest capons.
From the time the capons weighed 5 pounds until
they weighed 10%4 pounds the total cost of food
consumed did not at any time reach half of the
market value. Although the cost of every pound
added to the weight was greater as the birds ap-
proached maturity than it had been for any earlier
increase, the prices for the largest fowls were so
much higher than for the smaller that the margin
over cost of production was always greater with
the nearly full-grown capons. On this account the
later feeding was justified, so long as there was a
regular increase in weight, until the spring months,
at which time the greatest demand for capons and
highest prices usually prevail.

One lot of capons was fed for comparison with
a lot of cockerels taken from the same flock of
chicks. For the whole period that record was kept,
nearly six months, the cockerels increased in weight
about 20% faster than the capons, but the rate of
growth was much more irregular. At the average
weight of 6 pounds the capons had cost for food
12% more than the cockerels; but more food was
required on the average by the cockerels, so that at
9g pounds weight these had cost over 8% more than
the capons. As the cockerels grew faster and
larger than the capons, they averaged about 10%
pounds before the capons had reached the weight
of 91% pounds, and at the heaviest weights had cost
no more for food.

At the average prices then existing in New York
state markets the cockerels could have been sold
at the greatest profit at about 6 pounds weight, and
the capons not until they had reached the weight
of 9 pounds, at which weight the difference be-

140 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

tween the cost of food and the market value was
two and one-half times as great as for the cockerels.
In some markets and more generally in recent
years better relative prices have prevailed for such
poultry as well-fed cockerels, so this difference
found at the time in favor of capons would often be
much smaller.

CHAPTER VIII

Egg Production

While it is true that a small yield of eggs is
likely to be unprofitable, it does not necessarily
follow that a large yield is invariably profitable.
This may be because the cost of production is dis-
proportionate to the amount realized, but since the
aim of egg production is usually profit, it is highly
desirable to increase the egg yield
as much as possible within reason-
able limits. It often happens that
in striving to attain this end a
poultry raiser who has made a
good profit out of a small flock
may lose by keeping a large
one, because the egg yield may Ne ace
be increased only at unreason- corrugated paper.
able expense.

The great majority of farmers’ flocks lay eggs.
only during what may be called the “natural sea-
son” of the year, mainly in the spring and early
summer. One of the principal reasons for this is
that the fowls are usually kept in an almost natural
state. They do not receive the special attention
that the egg farmer gives his flocks. Doubtless the
great majority could be made to yield eggs well
throughout the year by proper management—man-
agement such as the egg farmer gives his flocks. But
where it would be profitable to the ordinary farmer
to give the extra care essential to such egg produc-
tion can only be determined by the farmer himself.

The cost of production on the general farm is

14]

ems

142 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

practically nothing in actual cash outlay, that is,
where the flock is not large. The eggs in such
cases are looked upon as just so much money lying
loose and are gathered to keep it from being lost.
In such cases, it is highly probable that fowls could
be made to pay well by giving them a reasonable
amount of attention, especially as the season
thrives, when eggs sell at high prices.

A HEN’S TOTAL YEARLY PRODUCTION

is not invariably the most desirable measure of egg-
producing capacity. Actual production is less im-
portant than the season during which the eggs are
laid. According to Raymond Pearl and Frank M.

TRAP NEST BETWEEN PENS

After hen has laid she passes into empty pen through door,
b. Layers thus separate themselves from general flock. Door,
a, closes as hen enters and opens when she leaves by door b.
‘Time saver for busy farmer.
Surface of the Maine experiment station “the
measure of an individual hen’s egg production in
any given time may be taken to be the percentage
which the number of eggs actually laid is of the
maximum number of eggs which might have been
laid by the individual in this given length of time,
assuming the production of one egg a day to be the

EGG PRODUCTION 143:

maximum ot which a hen is capable.” A hen which
lays 20 eggs during June would, therefore, have an
egg-production record of 6634 per cent for June.
If she lays 31 eggs during December and January,
62 days, she would have a 50 per cent record for
those months. The above rule thus puts egg
records on a comparative basis. This is of great.
advantage in calculating the value of the hen.

SELECTING LAYERS

Laying hens are nearly always singers. They
work and hunt for food all day, and are the first
off of the roost and the last to go to roost. They;
are nervous and very
active, keeping them-
selves up to the greatest
possible pitch. Below the
tail at the end of the
side pieces of the back
are two somewhat bony
protuberances called the
pelvic or “lay” bones.
They are just above
the vent through which
the eggs must pass. TRAP NEST DOOR
When an egg is_ laid,
they are forced apart to allow free passage. When
these bones are soft and pliable, and spread suf-
ficiently to allow three fingers to be placed be-
tween them, it is an indication that the hen is
laying. If they are hard and bony and close to-
gether experience has shown the hen is not laying
at the time the examination is made.

The ideal laying hen should, therefore, conform

144 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

as nearly as possible to the following: She must
be healthy; comb, wattles and face red; eye bright
and lustrous; neck not short, but medium to long;
breast broad and long, sloping upward; back, long
and broad; abdomen, wide and deeper than breast;
shanks, well spread and rather long; V-shaped in
three ways, viz. on sides (front to rear), top and
bottom (front to rear), base of tail (downwards) ;
well-spread tail.

NEST TO CURE EGG EATING

Placed with slight tilt from left to right so egg will roll
under covered part where sawdust or chaff checks rolling and
protects from injury.

LAYING ABILITY IMPROVED

Since egg production when eggs bring high
prices is the leading desire of the poultryman, it
is highly important that the hens be brought into
laying as early as possible. The reason for this
is that when hens begin to lay in the fall they are
more likely to continue than if they are counted
upon to start about the beginning of the new year
—that is, under ordinary farm care. Many pullets

EGG PRODUCTION 145

that begin to lay in the fall are naturally poor
layers and soon play out. The sooner such fowls
are taken out of the flock, the better. They should
not be used for breeding. An important thing to
remember in rearing fowls for winter laying is to
have the pullets mature between September and
November. This can be determined by the date
of hatching and by the method of rearing. The
‘Asiatic breeds require much longer than the
Mediterranean classes.

The American fowls hatched between late March
and early May will usually begin laying during
October, provided they are properly managed, but
too much confidence must not be placed in this
statement, because hens differ so much individually
and also because methods of management vary
greatly. The only thing that can be said definitely
on this point is that such calculation helps in the
long run and it is better to have some system that
embraces as many helpful features as possible, than
to have no system at all. It must be remembered
that the winter is not the season which is favorable
to egg production. Therefore, the poultry raiser
has to contend with unfavorable conditions, es-
pecially the condition of cold and wet, to say
nothing of the natural tendency.

MANAGEMENT OF LAYING STOCK

So far as egg laying is concerned, the egg farmer’s
year begins in October. Of course, circumstances
may alter cases, but this is the usual time. Every-
thing should then be put in readiness for egg pro-
duction. The pullets and hens should be placed
in their permanent winter quarters and special care

146 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

taken to prevent overcrowding. The sooner the
flocks are made up, the better as a rule, because
they then get accustomed to their quarters and
there is less danger of upsetting them when they
begin to lay.

None but mature pullets should be selected for
laying. All that are puny, undersized, lazy, weak
or otherwise undesirable, should be weeded out and
sold for the table. They will not pay their board.
Of course, this statement does not apply to late-
hatched pullets; only those that are inferior to
other stock hatched at the same time.

Only such hens as have proved their worthiness
in the previous season should be kept over for a
second or third winter. They usually make good
breeders and the breeding flock should be selected
from them rather than from pullets. Too often,
however, in the farm flock, the reverse practice is
followed, namely, of selling off the hens that are
in best condition and using inferior ones for egg
production. This is suicidal to profit. It should
be reversed.

It is just as important to feed well for eggs as it
is to breed well for them. As soon as cold weather
approaches, corn must be added more freely to the
ration than during the warm weather. Contrary
to popular opinion, hens that are molting should
be fed well. It does not pay to stint them. How-
ever, they should not get a ration too rich in nitrog-
enous matter, because they are not, as a rule, laying
and they do better when given a ration richer than
usual in carbonaceous ingredients. Even if this is
a fattening ration, it will do no harm. By this, it
is not meant that the nitrogenous matter should be
cut out of the ration altogether. Feather produc-

EGG PRODUCTION 147

tion demands protein which must not be fed too
sparingly. It is superior, as a general rule, to have
the fowls somewhat too fat than poor or even in
merely good condition. By proper management,
many good laying hens will lay an occasional egg
even while going through the molting, but this is
not general.

Pullets can be fed more highly than hens during
the early fall months, because they already have
their feathers and are still growing. At this time,
they need abundant protein, because they are not
only growing in flesh but are filling out their bones
and either preparing for, or actually laying.

A pullet is by no means fully matured when she
starts to lay. It needs ample food to com-
plete its development. For best results, how-
ever, pullets, should not be unduly forced to begin
laying early. Indeed, it is often disadvantageous
to delay laying somewhat by frequently changing
the pullets’ quarters. This is the only method that
can be practiced with safety. It will not do to
withhold food. This statement has special applica-
tion to the temperature, for as the weather grows
colder, larger and larger quantities of feed, es-
pecially all the carbonaceous kinds, is used to main-
tain the heat of the body. For this reason corn
should be given more liberally, and kale, cabbage,
alfalfa, clover, etc., should be given without stint.

By proper management, egg production may con-
tinue without interruption during even extremely
cold weather, but, in order to maintain the flow of
eggs, the hens must be protected as indicated else-
where, against sudden change. Properly housed
fowls will usually lay well no matter what the char-
acter of weather, provided the poultryman is deft

148 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in offsetting excessive fluctuations of temperature
and moisture. Because large quantities of car-
bonaceous matter are used in maintaining the heat,
a carbonaceous ration may be better for egg pro-
duction during very cold weather than a nitrog-
enous one. This will be gathered from the discus-
sion in the chapter on feeding, but it needs to be
emphasized here. So much carbonaceous matter
is used up to maintain the heat of the fowl that
there should be still enough surplus of protein to
meet the demands of egg laying.

SPRING AND SUMMER CARE

This matter is of great importance, because, as a
rule, the poultryman is likely to overlook the fact
that hens lay more naturally in the spring than
during the winter and, therefore, he may jump to
the conclusion that his method of feeding is correct,
whereas it may be positively detrimental to his best
interests. For this reason, it is best that hens be
allowed to become broody in early spring, so that
they may have a rest of a few weeks. They will
be all the better for hatching a brood of chicks and
can be brought back into laying condition again
even while they are running with their broods. Of
course, this remark does not apply to the Mediter-
ranean and other laying classes. Laying hens
should invariably be given the utmost care to keep
them in prime condition. This cannot be too
strongly emphasized.

During the summer, hens usually take a rest
from laying, but there will still be individuals in
the flock that continue, and proper feeding will
keep them in laying condition. Large numbers of
eggs, however, must not be expected.

EGG PRODUCTION 149

Plenty of shade should be provided during this
time and the houses kept as open as possible so as
to be cool and comfortable for roosting. Where
it is not convenient to have the hens run in
orchards or small fruit plantations, convenient
shade may be provided by quick-growing annuals
such as sunflowers, corn, vines of various kinds or
artificial shelters made of canvas, illustrated on
other pages. During the heat of the day they should
be encouraged to occupy these quarters, and dur-

DOUBLE POULTRY HOUSE AND RUN

The run may have canvas top and back or wood, as pre-
ferred. It should be removable, so houses may be used in sum-
mer for colony coops if desired.

ing the mornings and evenings take other exercise.
At these times the feeds of grain may be given,
the mash feed at noon, except where hopper feed-
ing is the method practiced. About midday also
they should be given other green feed, unless they
are at range.

As a general proposition, it may be said that
fowls do best when given plenty of space to forage
in. Since green feed is more or less cooling, it
may be given twice a day in the hottest weather.
At all times during the summer there should be
abundant pure water always where the hens can
reach it. Milk, as much as the hens will drink, is

150 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

always acceptable, especially during hot weather.
It should not, however, take the place of water.
During the hot weather, too, the corn part of the
ration should be reduced even to total exclusion.
When hens cease laying unduly early in the
summer, when managed in the usual way, these
should be culled out and managed differently from

SIDE HILL POULTRY HOUSE

Lower floor, a scratching shed; upper, for laying, roosting, etc.

the balance of the flock. Asa rule, a heavy laying
ration, with reduced exercise, may start them lay-
ing again. Those that do not begin within a rea-
sonable timé should be marketed, and even the
ones that lay for only a few weeks and then

BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK HEN

LIGHT BRAHMA COCK

EGG PRODUCTION I5r

stop, should also be sold. Only the ones that
show a willingness to continue laying should be
kept. It may be taken as a general rule that it is
not desirable to part with a hen so long as she will
lay a profitable number of eggs. She will pay for
her keep as long as she lays.

AUTUMN CARE OF LAYERS

When making up the flock in the fall, the hens
that began laying earliest and laid best with the
least fussing should be chosen first. Next to this
should come the hens that did best during the sum-
mer. It is a much disputed question whether
pullets or hens do best as layers. Many poultry-
men claim that pullets are superior and, therefore,
the more profitable, but there is nothing decided
on this subject. Many egg farmers get excellent
egg yields from hens two to four years old—fully
as good as from pullets. Because of this fact, it is
evident there is much in the method of management
and in the breeding. For this reason the statement
may be repeated—not to part with a hen so long
as she lays well. A hen on the nest is worth two
pullets in the field.

GENTLENESS AFFECTS EGG YIELD

Probably few things work so much against the
well being of the fowls as excitement, due to rough
handling or to fear from any cause. At no time
should the fowls be unnecessarily excited. Often
the entrance of a dog or a cat or visitors in the
pens will disturb the fowls, so these should be kept
out as much as possible. Fowls on free range are
not so likely to be disturbed because they get

152 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

around and see the world more. At all times the
attendant should avoid making sudden motions,
calling loudly, or otherwise startling the fowls. He
should always control his temper and try to govern
even the most annoying fowls without force. It is
desirable to enter the pens as quietly as possible
and even to presage entrance by making some noise
such as low whistling, so the hens will know that
he is approaching. When it is necessary to carry
some unfamiliar object among the flock, this should
be done gradually. Even the wearing of a different
style of suit than usual, especially if this is of some
gaudy color, will disturb the fowls until they are
accustomed to it.

Hens, especially laying hens, become attached to
their quarters. They, therefore, should not be un-
necessarily moved because this also affects the lay-
ing, whether from homesickness or what is purely
speculative, but the fact is the egg yield often suf-
fers. Where it is absolutely necessary to make a
change, this should be done with the least possible
disturbance, preferably by driving the fowls gently
to the new quarters. When
hens must be handled or
carried, this should always
Aa be done at night and the
y Pra fowls should be held gently

with the hand beneath the
breast; never by the feet.
CE noeE No more than two fowls
should be carried at a time
in this way—one under each
arm. If a considerable num-
ber must be moved at a time, they must be placed
in coops and so carried.

HN

Prevents fowls soiling
feed.

EGG PRODUCTION 153
BROODINESS IS CHARACTERISTIC

of hens of the so-called general purpose breeds.
It is not necessarily dependent upon the condition
of the hens nor is it certainly dependent upon the
method of feeding, though both of these may have
some influence. It is a popular notion that fat hens.
become broody because of their fat. This is not
necessarily so, though it is a fact that hens fed
liberally on grain often do go broody, but so they
do without just as often. It may be taken as.
axiomatic that hens will go broody when they want
to, whether fat or lean. Occasionally it is reported
that a hen dies on the nest and the poultryman asks
why. Investigation generally shows that these
hens were sick before they started to sit. Such
hens should not be given an opportunity to sit.
Their condition should be noted by the poultryman
and they should be brought back to health by
rational management.

Hens kept mainly for producing eggs often annoy
the poultryman by persistent broodiness. They .
should, therefore, be culled out and never used for ,
breeders. In otherwise normal hens, broodiness
may be broken when necessary. It is, however,
usually an advantage to allow the hens to hatch
broods, since this gives them a rest from laying.
Hens of the general purpose varieties usually lay
better during the molt than hens of the noted egg
breeds. These egg layers generally take a long
rest, the sitters two or three short ones. In order
to break up broodiness, one of the quickest ways
is to confine the hens with a reserve male in a pen
where there are no nests. While so confined, the
hens should be fed well on an egg ration. This

554 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

‘method is more effective, as a rule, than the com-
mon way of confining hens in a slatted coop above
the floor. Often the hens will begin to lay within
a week or ten days. Under no condition should
starving be practiced. It is not only cruel, but it is
not effective and the poultryman who practices it
pays the penalty by injuring the laying proclivities
of the hen.

RECORD OF SIX HUNDRED HENS

Among the questions for the poultryman to
answer are: When fowls are kept in large numbers
what is the average egg production? How much
does it cost for feed? How much for labor to care
for them? What per cent of the fowls die each
year? How should fowls be fed and handled so as
to give the greatest net profit, the cost of feed, the
cost for feeding, the egg production and the mor-
tality all being taken into consideration? These
questions Professors Stewart and Atwood of the
West Virginia experiment station have sought to
answer by keeping a record of a flock of 600 Single
Comb White Leghorn pullets for one full year.
‘The pullets were brought in from the colony houses
which they had occupied during the summer and
placed in a long laying house.

This house was of the curtain-front, shed-roof
type, 180 feet long and 16 feet wide and divided by
solid board partitions into nine compartments each
20 feet long. The middle compartment was reserved
as a feed room. The curtain-front house is dis-
tinguished by an opening, preferably facing the
south or east, which, on cold nights in winter and
in stormy weather, may be closed by a framework

EGG PRODUCTION 155

covered with canvas or duck. This curtain is pref-
erably hinged at the top and when not in use can
be swung up to the roof and hooked out of the way.

A few months after the test began the dirt floors
in the houses were covered with cement. The
house was constructed of rough oak boards and

2 \
i “y y

a ee.
SELF-CLOSING GATE

Hither springs or weights may be used.

roofed with three-ply tarred roofing paper. The
contract price for erecting was $200, and the house
complete cost about $700.

The average weight of the pullets when the test
began was 2.53 pounds, and the average age about
five months, consequently many were not old
enough to lay at the beginning of the experiment,
and few eggs were obtained during the first two
months. The floors were covered with straw litter

150 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in which the whole grain, consisting of corn and
wheat, was scattered. Ground feed was fed dry in
hoppers which were constantly open to the fowls.
(The dry mash consisted of a mixture of cornmeal,
wheat bran, wheat middlings, oil meal and beef
scrap. On pleasant fall and winter days the fowls
were allowed to run outside the house in one large
flock where they had free range.

Amount and Cost of Feed Consumed

Pounds Cost

Corn meal ....sscccccoes Ws) Sai Rinie-s, o3e'e: wreveyeyare 3,441 $42.88
Wheat Dran ...ccccccccresscccccvccssccces 71.74
Wheat middlings = ‘| 39.82
Oil meal .......00- Fiat 18.72
Wheat ....cscvee . 152.21
COMM ees a eisvaveere wie'e ee ; 103.81
Beef Scrap ..cccccceee ; 57.70
Green cut bone...... 1.33
Ensilage ....... S 3.75
RYO a scaswieciersee 16.80
Ground oats .... aes 5.73
Oyster shell ........ i 8.30
Mica crystal grit 7.70
Skim MilK nc cece ccc eve vevcvevccreeccces 4.10

Total. ..cccccsvece a tetovauase/ siaveiat sheidrarsilets tee brecnalaw mens $534.59

The table shows that it cost $534.59 to feed the
flock for the year, or an average of 89 cents a head.
‘The fowls consumed 36,296 pounds of grain, beef
scrap and ground fresh meat and bone, or an
average of 60 pounds a head; also an average of
about 5 pounds of oyster shell and grit.

The highest egg production for any month was
during March, when the fowls averaged 1634 eggs
a head. After that month there was a gradual
dropping off until the close of the test. The fol-
lowing table shows the number of eggs produced
during the year. The prices used in this calcula-
tion are retail prices which prevailed in Morgan-
town for strictly fresh eggs during period shown.

EGG PRODUCTION 157

Number and Value of Eggs Produced

eee Monthly Price

on Total of Dozen Eggs a:Dazen Value
85 3-4 35 $ 30.01]

40 112.40

387 1-12 35 135.48

481 11-12 .30 144.58

231 7-12 30 69.47

125 3-4 -22 27.66

3- .20 91.95

737 11-12 -20 147.58

722 7-12 .20 144.51

295 11-12 -20 59.19

321 1-6 25 80.29

552 2-3 25 138.16

435 6-12 25 108.86

baa 72 1-2 +28 20.3

September 1-23. 264 .30 79.20
Bopesmber fs: 3916 2 i ae es
ctober 1-7..... 6 S- 16.39
October Matt] $1542 { 82 1-4 40 32:90
Total : 4 <esx0% 67,757 $1,458.87

The fowls produced eggs to the total value of
$1,458.87, or an average of $2.43 a fowl. The period
of lowest prices prevailed from March to June, and
the highest priced during October, November and
December.

If from the total value of the eggs the cost for
feed is deducted, there remains a balance of $924.28
to cover the cost for caring for the fowls, the death
losses, the depreciation in value of the fowls, the
interest on investment and profit. It is difficult to
estimate accurately the cost for labor, as the man
who cared for these fowls did other work. An
active man could undoubtedly attend to five or six
times as many fowls as were in this experiment.
If, for calculation, the lower number be chosen, also
if it costs $50 a month for a man to do the work,
then it would cost $10 a month for each house, or
$720 a year. The loss of the 54 hens that died, at

158 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

$8 a dozen, would amount to $36. If it is assumed
that the 600 pullets are worth $400 at the beginning
of the test and that they depreciate in value during
the year 25 per cent, then this depreciation amounts
to $100. Assuming that the house and fowls repre-
sent an investment of $1,100, then the interest at
6 per cent amounts to $66 and the account stands
as follows:

Income
For e288 ......ccecccce grecae avewcce qrelataieroweleare ets $1,458.87
$1,458.87
Expenditures

OP LOCA aceicvarevars ss ferase se as ever dl Shue we Wie Ss eas ese nese waters Seis

For labor ............

For fowls which died

For depreciation in the value of fowls due to age... 100.00

For interest on investMent.... ccc eeecccccceccvsceee 66.00

For profit on 600 HenS...cccccccccecccvccvccscsees 602.28
$1,458.87

The total profit from the 600 fowls was $602.28,
or practically $1 a fowl. The total expense for the
year was $856.58, or $1.42 a fowl. There were pro-
duced 5,646 dozen eggs at an average cost of 15
cents a dozen, and during the year 9 per cent of the
fowls died. The fowls averaged 113 eggs each. It
is possible that this somewhat low egg production
could have been increased by some other system
of feeding.

CHAPTER IX

Incubation

To the casual observer, an egg consists roughly
of three parts, but to the scientific investigator
these are capable of several subdivisions. The
shell, composed of lime, forms a protection; but it
is not an impenetrable cover. It is very porous.
It has between the particles of lime an innumer-
able number of very small holes, which allow the
air to pass freely backward and forward during
the process of incubation. Next is the white, the
albumen. This is not all of one character; one
portion is much denser than the other. The watery
portion is placed around the outer surface next to
the shell.

In the interior is the yolk, which in itself is, as a
whole, lighter in density than the white, therefore
its tendency is to come to rest upon the surface of
the white. But the yolk is also differently con-
stituted, one portion being a little heavier than an-
other, with the consequence that the heavier por-
tion moves downward and the lighter up. There
is a good deal of misunderstanding about the very
dense jellylike portions of white. Popular con-
ception says the young chick is developed from
them, but this is wrong. They simply consist of
denser and more gelatinous albumen, and have ac-
quired that twisted, corkscrew appearance and shape
by the revolutions of the yolk in traveling down the
ovary of the hen. But this twisting assists in keep-

159

160 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

ing the light side up. It also prevents the yolk
from being ruptured by sudden jar.

INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF AN EGG

Open a new-laid egg without breaking the yolk.
Resting on its side, carefully remove part of the
shell, and you will find a little white speck about
one-eighth inch in diameter on the yolk next to the
shell. This is the true germinal spot, known as the
blastoderm, the minute nucleus of what is afterward
to be the chick. The term blastoderm in itself is a
very suggestive one; it means the sprouting skin.
The blastoderm is present whether the egg is fer-
tile or not, so that for all practical purposes, it is
quite impossible to tell beforehand whether an
egg will produce a chick. An infertile and a fertile
egg to the naked eye present the same appearance.
The difference is so minute that unless one uses
a microscope it would be quite hopeless to place
any faith upon conclusions.

Not only is it impossible to foretell fertility, but
it is impossible to foretell the sex of the chick which
any given egg will produce. During the first few
days an egg is developing, the reproductive organs
in the chick it contains are in duplicate, and until
the process of incubation is pretty well advanced,
both sets of organs are present. Then one set
grows more prominent than the other. The rapid-
ity with which the change is made will amaze
any thoughtful person. The application of a few
hours’ warmth of the required temperature brings
into activity all the power lying dormant from the
time the egg was laid. After five or six hours,
little finger-like processes begin to creep out from

‘INCUBATION 16r

the blastoderm and gradually distribute themselves
over the whole of the yolk.

At the end of 18 hours’ incubation the head of the
future chick, with the eyes enormously developed,
and the spinal column, are plainly discernible under
the microscope. After 40 hours there is a complete
blood circulation, the heart is formed and beating
has commenced, and the blood vessels have spread.

henna t “Sey ak j-

a Boe eee

EGG-TURNING CABINET a

Series of rollers over which canvas is stretched. Each
compartment tray removable with false bottom, a, which slips
between canvas and tray frame. A, shows cabinet complete;
B, detail construction.

themselves over a considerable portion of the upper
yolk. These are of a dual character; some are
arteries, taking blood away from the embryo, some
are veins bringing the blood back again. The heart
commences pulsating about the second or third day.

When the blood. circulation commences, the
necessity for another organ which has been de-
veloping next to the shell arises. There is another

1162 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

growth of vessels which follows the same course as '
the blood vessels. The natural reviver of impure
blood is the oxygen in the air. There are no lungs
‘in the shell, but this new organ, called the allantois,
which lies next the shell, undertakes the work of
breathing. Hence the necessity for the pores in
lthe shell. If the shell were made non-porous the
allantois would be useless. This has been proved
with eggs which have had their pores filled with
wax. When warmth is applied in the ordinary
way, the first indication of growth appears, but the
germ dies simply from want of fresh air.

WHY EXERCISE CARE IN HANDLING

Some people test their eggs, particularly white-
shelled ones, on the fourth day, though a much
better course is to test them on the seventh or
eighth day. Perhaps a caution is needed against
testing eggs too frequently. It is very hard for
a beginner to refrain from handling his eggs, but
knowing the delicacy of the blood vessels, which
form a perfect maze of tracery over the yolks, and
knowing that these and a further set busy absorb-
ing the yolk are very highly sensitive, he will per-
ceive that the less he interferes with the eggs the
less likely he is to damage this fragile and delicate
interior.

‘Another reason for not testing frequently is that
in so doing the eggs are held up to the light in an
unnatural position and some of these organs inside
the egg are being twisted. Again, there is the light.
(To test eggs properly a very clear light is needed
to pass through the egg. Therefore eggs should
| be tested only once, and that about the seventh or

INCUBATION 163

eighth day. If very doubtful about them, perhaps
a second test might be given on the fourteenth day,
not later, because between the tenth and eighteenth
days is the most critical period in the life of the
embryo. .

In selecting eggs for hatching use only those
that are of uniform size and color, with smooth,
strong shells. Abnormal eggs are likely to pro-
duce weak or crippled chicks. The eggs should
be stored in a room where the temperature ranges
from 50 to 60 degrees. It has been a prevailing
idea that eggs for hatching should be turned daily.
Several men of authority claim that this is not,
necessary, but the case is not definitely proved. |
Eggs kept for a week or more should be turned at.
least twice a week. It can do no harm and may
prove beneficial. Never set dirty eggs; if they are
dirty, carefully wipe them with a damp cloth until,
all spots are removed.

SHIPPING EGGS FOR HATCHING

The three most important points to be considered
in packing and shipping eggs for hatching are: First,
the boxes and filling should be as light as possible
consistent with strength and rough handling;
the handles of boxes must be so constructed that,
freight cannot be piled on top and thus crush them;
third, the eggs must be prevented from jarring, and
yet must not be packed so tightly as to cause break-
age from pressure.

Light wooden boxes have proved most satisfac-
tory with many poultrymen. They should be of
enough depth to insure an inch of excelsior below
the lowest_layer. When used they are packed,

164 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

about as follows: A layer of corrugated pasteboard
cylinders rests on a piece of pasteboard next to the
excelsior. Each of these cylinders contains an egg,
small end down. The corrugations of the paste-
board come on the inside of the cylinder, and thus
take up any jar. Over this is placed a second paste-
board, then a layer of excelsior, and at the top a
board lid, which is screwed down with little screws.
If more than one layer of eggs is to go in a box, a
pasteboard is placed between the two layers of the
cylinders.

The handle of the box must remain upright. A
split-wood, rounded handle clearing the top of the
box about 2 inches and fastened securely on both
sides so it cannot move backward or forward, is
excellent. It is best to have the handle fastened
to the sides of the box and not to the lid, because
there might be a strain on the latter, and the screws
might give way, especially if 100 eggs are being
shipped at a time. Some men stamp each egg with
their initials and seal the lid to the box with
a printed label pasted on. Then the customer can
tell if the eggs have been changed in transit. The
label gives the name and address of the poultry-
man and the name of the breeds of poultry raised
printed on it. The name and address of the con-
signee are written on the blank. Last, but most
important, a stamp or a label should always be
applied on the lid, saying, “Eggs for Hatching,
Handle With Care.”

Many people object to the box for shipping eggs.
The principal objection is that expressmen are more
likely to throw boxes than they are the baskets.
For this reason ordinary splint baskets with handles
are very popular. In packing them a layer of ex-

INCUBATION 165

celsior is placed on the bottom and around the
sides. In this the eggs are carefully wrapped in
excelsior or paper and the basket filled with ex-
celsior and gently pressed down to prevent any
possible shifting of the eggs from their positions.
Cheesecloth or cotton is now tacked over the top
and the words “eggs for hatching” painted or
stenciled on the cloth itself. The label is fixed to
:the handle. Baskets, it is claimed, can be shipped
‘with more certainty of their safe arrival than boxes.
.Upon receipt of a package or a basket of eggs for
hatching, the eggs should not be removed unless
the hen or the incubator is ready to receive them.
Until hatching can be started the basket or the
package should be turned over daily.

CLASSES OF INCUBATORS

There are two very distinct types of incubators
on the market; the hot-water tank and the hot-air
machine. Perhaps the latter is really far more
ancient than the former, but until a few years back
there were no hot-air machines that could approach
the hot-water tank. After giving both sys-
tems a very long and exhaustive trial, generally
speaking results have proved satisfactory from
‘both. There are certainly indifferent and bad ex-
amples in each kind to be obtained, and experiences
vary accordingly. A great deal, then, depends upon
the incubator purchased. It may be taken as a
general rule that any machine which has a reputa-
tion of some years’ standing has been found to
answer very well in the hands of reasonable people.

The best incubator, of course, is the one which
approaches in its work the closest to Nature. In

166 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

studying natural incubation there is, in the first
place, top heat. Heat rising from below would
never do, as it would evaporate the moisture from
the eggs too quickly. The next point is steady
warmth; when a hen is brooding, her temperature
is invariable. The temperature of a brooding hen
is about 104 degrees, and that does not vary a great
deal during the time she is sitting. Therefore, in
order to have a successful incubator, a machine
capable of developing a top heat of 104 degrees to
the eggs and keeping it steady there, is needed.
Of course, the eggs under the hen will vary in tem-
perature according to the position they take; that
is to say, those under the breast will be rather
warmer than those on the outside. But they are
changed in position now and again. Each machine
must possess a sufficiency of ventilation; fresh air
is a perpetual necessity.

“MOISTURE ESSENTIAL

Another very greatly discussed question is that
of moisture. Hot-air incubators are usually non-
moisture machines, whereas the tank machines re-
quire added moisture. Perhaps there has been no
bigger bone of contention between the manufac-
turers than this question of moisture or non-
moisture. Within reasonable limits, both systems
are satisfactory. A great many people overdo the
moisture. Some manufacturers even advise that
if chicks do not come out freely to dip the eggs in
water. That is a ridiculous practice. Eggs do not
require a lot of added moisture. The amount that
should be passed through the machine should be
just about sufficient to keep a check upon the

INCUBATION 167

amount of evaporation. An egg contains about 85
per cent water, the body of a chick about 80 per
cent, therefore a slight driving out is wanted and
not an atmosphere always saturated.

METHODS OF MANAGEMENT

Every reputable maker sends out instructions
with his machine, and the purchaser should follow
these implicitly. If he does not, he is running a
risk for his own pocket, and he is not doing justice
to the maker of the machine. He must also bear
in mind that the instructions sent out with any
machine are the result of experience with that par-
ticular make, and as the manufacturer’s interest
lies in obtaining satisfactory hatching, so the direc-
tions are to that end, and should be valued.

The incubator should be placed in a sunless room
or cellar, or any place where the temperature is
equable day and night, or fairly so. It is not an
indication of good working in a machine if one
running gets perhaps 80 per cent and on the next
occasion only 50 per cent. There is something
wrong somewhere. It has been rather the rage
with advertisers to make a great fuss about 100
per cent results. Novices thinking about taking
up the incubator must not be misled; 100 per
cent results are exceedingly rare. If one gets 80
per cent on a six months’ working, he may conclude
that he made a very profitable deal in his machine.

One may have as good a machine as it is possible
to get, but unless the eggs are right he cannot hatch
them. Eggs must not only be fresh, but they must
contain all the elements and the germs that go
toward making good, strong chicks. Unless they

168 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

are carefully selected from stock birds kept in such
a manner as to insure a certain amount of animal
vitality, they cannot turn out strong, lusty chicks.

INCUBATOR RECORD

NAME OF CAPACITY
HATCH NO.
DATE SET......----. 19 | DAT@ HATCHED...

SET
NUMBER
FERTILE
jst TEST
PERCENTAGE
FERTILE
NO. LIVING

PERCENTAGE
LIVING GERMS!

PERCENTAGE]

NUMBER

ee

[TEM PER- TEMPERATURE OF
ATURE OFIVENTILATION) INCUBATOR REMARKS
Ri

VOAY jam. pm, A.M. TO P.M.

0 AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF INCUBATOR TO DATE

1Q CLOSE [AVERAGE TEMPERATURE ITH TO 18 DAY

JERAGES RELATIVE HUMIDITY
WAS MOISTURE USED? WHEN?
| HOw ?

DESCRIPTION OF INCUBATOR ROOM.

RECORD CARD FOR INCUBATOR

This form shows a very convenient method of taking
notes of hatches. Data secured in this way are often invalu-
able because they may lead to the detection of faulty manage-
ment at weak points in the hatching methods practiced.

INCUBATION 169

Always get eggs from the best sources. Enough
directions are not given about changing the posi-
tion of the eggs in the drawer. Manufacturers say
that the heat is the same all over the drawer, but
not one machine in 1,000 will give the same heat in
every part. Therefore, it is advisable to shift the
eggs from place to place in the drawer.

INCUBATOR MANAGEMENT

One of the most important factors in successful
incubation is an abundant supply of oxygen, which
the developing embryos must obtain only from
sweet, fresh air. To get an abundance of fresh air
where the incubator cellar is partly below ground
is much more difficult than when the hatching room
is level with the earth.

During the past few years there has been a con-
siderable amount of controversy with regard to the
operation of incubators with or without moisture.
Poultrymen are generally agreed that moisture in
some form is necessary. Two experiment stations
have published bulletins showing that the machines
which had moisture supplied gave larger hatches,
and stronger chicks than the machines operated
without being supplied with more moisture than
is contained in the atmosphere. The publication of
this work has led some large incubator manufac-
turers to equip their machines with automatic
moisture regulators, and there is no doubt that
this is a great improvement on the non-moisture
machines. The conditions under which a machine
is operated has everything to do with the success
of the hatch. By his expert operation the experi-
enced man may secure a good hatch from an in-

170 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

ferior incubator; on the other hand, an inexperi-
enced man may, through lack of knowledge make a
complete failure with even one of the best
machines.

If the machine has just been purchased, it should
be removed from the crate and assembled, care
being exercised to follow the manufacturers’ direc-
tions for putting the various parts together. In
choosing a room, select one that will allow for
ample ventilation without a direct draft on the
machine. Do not place the machine in front of a
window, as the direct rays of the sun will make it
difficult to control the temperature. A cellar that
can be ventilated and that is not too damp makes
an excellent place for the machine.

For best results see that the machine is per-
fectly level; otherwise it will not distribute the
heat evenly to all parts of the egg chamber. The
lamp should be cleaned and filled with a good grade
of kerosene, which will insure a steady flame and
no smoke. The lamp should be lighted and placed
in position, as it will require several hours to dry
and warm the woodwork thoroughly. When the
mercury in the thermometer registers Ioo degrees,
it will be necessary to read the thermometer every
15 or 20 minutes in order to adjust the thumbscrew
on the regulator. When the thermometer registers
102 degrees adjust the thumbscrew so the tin disk
on the regulator arm will be just trembling on the
rise. The machine should be run for at least 24
hours before putting the eggs in. This will give
an opportunity to study the regulator and see that
the temperature remains steady.

The eggs are now placed in the machine and one
must not be alarmed if the mercury in the ther-

INCUBATION 171

mometer recedes from sight. This is easily ac-
counted for by the fact that the eggs are cold, and
it will require several hours before the thermometer
will again register 102 degrees. The eggs should
not be disturbed until the third day. The only
work required is cleaning and filling the lamp each
evening. On the evening of the third day the eggs
should be turned and cooled for five minutes. Be
sure there is no grease on the “ ands when turning
the eggs. After the third day turn and cool the
eggs morning and evening, gradually increasing
the amount of cooling as the hatch progresses.

COLONY HOUSES COMBINED

In winter colony houses brought end to end thus may
serve for general coop. Building paper tacked over.ends.

TESTING THE EGGS

The eggs should be tested on the seventh and
fifteenth days. This may be done during the day
if a dark room is available; if not, at night. The
testing of the eggs is very easy and after a little
practice one should experience no difficulty in dis-
tinguishing the good from the bad. When held to
the light, a fertile egg can be distinguished by a

172 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

small, dark center (the heart) from which blood
vessels radiate in every direction. The infertile
or sterile eggs will be perfectly clear when held
up to the light. Eggs that contain dead germs can
be distinguished by a small, dark center, though
sometimes this is lacking, surrounded by an irregu-
lar circle and the absence of blood vessels.

When the eggs are tested on the fifteenth day
those that contain live chicks will appear, when
held to the light, to be filled with a dark mass,
‘which in reality is the developing embryo. The
infertile eggs should be saved and used in feeding
the young chicks for the first few days; they may
also be used for baking purposes, as a slight
evaporation is the only change that has resulted
from incubation. The eggs should not be turned
or cooled after the eighteenth day. Close the
‘machine and do not disturb it, except to fill and
‘trim the lamp, until the hatch is complete. While
jthe eggs are hatching, the temperature of the
imachine may go as high as 105 or even 107 de-
grees; this is caused by the animal heat given off
by the chicks and no attempt should be made to
lower the temperature if the machine has been run-
ning properly just previous to hatching.

Before resetting, the machine should be cleaned
and disinfected thoroughly, a new wick put in the
lamp, and operated for a day or more in order to
adjust the regulator properly.

CARE OF THE INCUBATOR
Many incubators are short-lived. The owners

complain of unsatisfactory results after the first
season or two, but the trouble is more often due to

INCUBATION 173

improper care of the machine during the idle sea-
son than to defectiveness. More of the life of an
incubator depends upon care when not in use than
upon any other one thing. The main thing to guard
against is dampness, but exposure to weather con-
ditions of any kind is always harmful. The aim,
therefore, should be not merely to keep the machine
dry, but where it will be as little influenced by out-
side conditions as possible.

A cellar, no matter how dry, is not a desirable
place to store an incubator between seasons. An
attic, a loft, or an upstairs airy room not in use are
far better. Prior to being
stored, the tank if a hot-
water machine is used,
should be drained while
the water is still hot.
Both the cap and the
faucet should then be
left open and the lamp SIDE HILL COOP
burning with a very low Legs in front make roosts
flame <«antil the tank come teva! when coop ts set
has become thoroughly
dry, because of the circulation of air through
the faucet andcap. The flame, if allowed to burn for
an hour or two, should dry the machine well. The egg
chamber should previously be thoroughly cleansed,
scrubbed if necessary. No wood parts should be
wetted, because where the wood is unprotected
with varnish it will swell and shrink more or less.
If the inside must be scrubbed, this should be done
while the machine is still warm and the doors left
open until everything is dry.

All removable parts should be taken off the out-
side and stored in the egg chamber. The lamp

174 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

should be emptied, the wick removed, and every-
thing thoroughly washed. The burner should be
cleaned and stored separately from the lamp, the
chimney wrapped in cotton to insure against break-
age, the thermometer packed in a little box of cot-
ton, the egg tester, wrench, screw driver and other
* accessories also stored in the egg chamber. With
everything possible removed from the outside, the
machine may be stored in small space without dan-
ger of parts being broken; in fact, several machines
may stand one upon another. As a further pro-
tection, they should be covered with cloths and
kept so until needed the following spring.

' Several weeks prior to starting the new hatch,
‘the parts should be assembled, the machine set up
and run to see that everything is in good order, so
that any necessary new parts can be secured before
the hatching season actually arrives. By such care,
however, there should be no losses of parts, and
the only thing that one should need would be wicks,
an occasional new burner, and extra lamp chim-
neys to take the place of those that break through
any accident.

CHAPTER X
Rearing

Doubtless the most difficult poultry problem
today is raising the chicks. To many it is more
difficult than hatching. Not all these difficulties:
can be solved by attention to constitutional vigor
in the selection of the breeding stock. Probably
the great losses incident to the season of brooding:
can be largely overcome by paying proper atten-
tion to the stock that is to produce the chicks.
Poultrymen who follow this practice experience
very little loss of brooder chicks.

But vigorous stock and good incubation will not
atone for gross sins in brooding and feeding. A
good brooder permits the chicks to find a com-
fortable temperature at all times. This means that
at some point a surplus of heat must be carried, a
higher temperature than the chick can endure for
a very long time. The chick moves away from
this heat and finds a comfortable place where it
will lie down alone and sleep. When chicks crowd
| together they are not getting sufficient heat.
Crowding or piling up is always disastrous.
The chicks sweat—if a chick can sweat—and then
chill, and lowered vitality and death follow. Chicks,
never crowd in a brooder where the heat is suf-
ficient. If at night they are seen to crowd together
and are standing up the brooder heat is not right.
They should lie down singly and sleep contentedly.
The brooder should be heated by hot air currents,
thus providing both heat and ventilation at once.

175

176 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

There must be ample room for the chicks to es-
cape from too high a temperature, and the brooder
must admit of being easily and rapidly cleaned. A
brooder that does not embody these features is not
worth consideration, and will be sure to foster loss.
The heaters should be started several days before
the chicks are to be put in so the brooders may be
thoroughly warm and dry by the time the chicks
are ready to be put in. An inch of dry, clean sand

NESTS AND RUNS FOR BROODY HENS

Runs and nests 15 inches wide and high and 4 feet long.
Lath over runs. Roof hinged to reach nests.

on the floors well warmed and dried is ideal. The
temperature should be under the hover around 100
degrees. Oil lamps as the source of heat demand
much attention to keep them going properly. The
incubator lamp is a very safe device, the brooder
lamp is not so safe; in fact, most of the brooders
on the market are to be considered rather danger-

REARING 177

ous, and it is well to be a bit cautious with regard
to fire. The flame should be turned very low in
Starting the lamp till the brooder is well heated,
then it may be adjusted to suit. If adjusted before
the lamp parts are heated, it is sure to run up so
high as to be dangerous with the heating of the
lamp.

MANAGING THE BROODER

The success of brooding chicks artificially is hav-
ing the brooding conditions the first few days sim-
ilar to incubating conditions; not that the brooder
is constructed like the incubator, but it has to be
good enough to hatch eggs in, because in the four
days that succeed the exclusion from the shell in-
cubation is not really completed until the yolk is
absorbed. The little chick that comes from the
shell is very much like an infant; it has a tendency
to lie around and sleep, and the nearer incubator
conditions are reached in the brooder at the start
the better it will be. The temperature would run
from 85 to 90 degrees during this period, on a line
with the chicks. Heat, if not too much, is bene-
ficial. ,

When the chicks are put under a self-regulating
hover, the heating conditions right themselves and
one should not need to worry any more about the
chicks than if they were eggs in an incubator;
while if one has to depend on turning the lamp up
and down to control the heat in operating brooders,
especially out of doors, where there are extreme
temperature variations to contend with, from 30
to 60 degrees in a day, that means that the operator
has to be on hand a good part of the time.

178 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

During the first week of a chick’s life heat is more
important than food. Attempting to furnish this
heat by excessive feeding to maintain the body
temperature from within, we are pretty sure to
overload the digestive system, and it seems to be
the part of economy to supply the heat by oil or
coal rather than by foods given the chicks.

COMPARE NATURAL METHODS

If one would have greatest success in the rear-
ing of chicks he must study Nature and the methods
Nature uses, and apply the lesson
thus learned to the work at hand.
Watch an old hen steal her nest
in some fence corner, bring off a
brood and care for it without aid.
Barring accident these chicks live
and grow well. Study closely
how and what they are fed.
Chicks should be left in the
incubator for 40 hours after the

CHICK BLOCK hatch is out. Then they may be

Chicks peck soft Put in the brooder and given a
food, piled around Jittle warm water, that they may

learn to drink. When three days
old they are ready for their first feed. They may
have already picked a little sand from the floor of
the brooder.

More chicks are lost from feeding too soon than
from most other causes. Nature put into the egg
enough of just the right kind of food to keep the
chick going till strong enough to get its sustenance
without. When we feed too soon we interfere with
Nature’s plan and pay the penalty in losses later

‘

REARING 179

on. At the Kansas experiment station the best
results were had by letting the chicks go without
food for 90 hours after hatching. If the reader is
skeptical on this point try it a time or two in a
small way. We get back to Nature and make the
first feed for the chicks by cutting into fine bits
some tender grass. The amount needed is small.
‘The hen that stole her nest and brought off a brood
did not provide much for the chicks for the first
few days. Many persons make the great mistake
of overfeeding while the chicks are young. They
usually pay the price in dead chicks later on.

At first it is best not to use bedding materials
that are indigestible or that may be eaten. Little
chicks are very foolish birds. When taken from
the incubator and placed in the brooder, they at-
tempt to eat anything they can swallow. ‘Too often
they succeed and many a flock has been killed by
filling up on bran, sawdust or sand. The first
choice would be cut clover, next cut straw, barn
litter or chaff, sweet and free from mold and de-
cayed particles. After the first week almost any-
thing can be used. One of the best materials avail-
able is dry earth, especially in warm weather. It
absorbs the droppings and is a good disinfectant.
Bedding should always cover the brooder floor at
least 1 inch thick, and be short enough to let the
chicks scratch in it. Dry chick feeds should always
be fed in the litter, and every inducement given the
chicks to exercise.

One thing to bear in mind in feeding young
chicks is that the ability to select nourishing foods
from injurious or harmful substances does not de-
velop so quickly in the brooder chick as in the
chick that associates with the hen. This instinct

180 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

does not develop until the brooder chick is eight
or ten days old. The time, of course, varies with
strain and breed. The same chick under a hen will
be able to distinguish feed in two or three days.
From the hen the little chick seems to acquire this
ability to know injurious or noxious substances.
When the chick is placed direct from the incubator
in the brooder it does not seem to have this ability,

NY wean
. ‘
ee MA Sl

BROODER ON WHEELS

Front wheel pivoted for easy turning. Top hinged at
back, loose in front. Runs placed at openings on side.
and shows a tendency to eat anything that it can
swallow. Knowledge of this makes the matter of
feeding little chicks very simple. Green food
should not be neglected in the little chick’s diet; it
must be provided in some shape or form, even if
the chicks are upon a grass range. After May or
June the grass becomes too tough for them to eat
and green feed must be supplied in some manner.

HOW OFTEN TO FEED

At first it is well to feed five times daily; later
three times, and lastly by hopper altogether. Never

REARING

give hopper feeding till chicks are
at least six weeks old, and when they
are put out on range. The first two
weeks is the critical period. If one
has no milk for them, beef scraps,
curds or cottage cheese may be used,
The colony system and_ individual
brooder out of doors is the best proc-
ess of raising chicks. If one cannot
taise chicks in this way there is no
hope for him.

After a few feeds of cut grass
give small amounts of the prepared
nursery chick feeds to take the place
of the seeds Nature supplies. A little
later let the chicks have access to a
shallow tray containing a mixture of
high-grade dried beef scrap and bran,
using 100 pounds of beef scrap, 50
pounds of coarse wheat bran and 15
pounds granulated charcoal. It will
take the chicks some days to become
accustomed to eating this mixture,
and by the time they learn it, it is
safe to keep it before them at all
times. The grain and seeds compos-
ing the chick feeds may be thrown
into finely cut corn stover, hay or
other loose material after the chicks ,
are four or five days old, so they may
get the fun and exercise of scratching

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CHICK
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Holes punched
etween toes of

newly hatched

hicks.

it out. There is not much danger of overfeeding after
the chicks are 12 days old. From that time on it
should be the object to have them eat the largest
possible amount of proper feed. They grow rapidly

182 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

and need to be well nourished. The foodstuffs must
be highly digestible and should furnish as nearly
as possible every element needed by the system of
the chick. Large amounts of the carbonaceous,
‘ or energy-giving material
) are needed, because the
chick is a lively, energetic
fellow; also an abundance
of protein, the blood-build-
ing, muscle and feather-
making material, and
enough of mineral matter
to build bone and help the
protein build the feathers.
This is best secured in
freshly cracked corn, a mix-
ture of beef scrap and
ace in OP SHOWS BY bean, on abundance -of
green cut grass, sand

‘oyster shells, charcoal and crushed raw potatoes.

TRIANGULAR COOP
AND YARD

REARING CHICKS WITH HENS

A good beginning in rearing chicks with hens is
to have a proper kind of coop, one with a remov-
able floor bottom that can be easily cleaned and
one that can be easily and securely closed at night
to guard against the various kinds of night prowlers
which may come around. The coop should be
tight, so as to remain perfectly dry inside in wet
weather. It should have a closed front, excepting
an opening about 1 foat square in which is fitted a
sliding wire screen door and also a tight floor if

_ for early chicks.
The coops should be placed on new ground,

WHITE CHINESE GEESE

AWALISVd NI ONILSAY SMONG NINAd

REARING 183

either in a place which has not been used before or
where the soil has been plowed or spaded. If this
precaution is taken, together with the use of board
floors and proper care, there may be no fear of
gapes. The location should be in a good-sized yard
with grass and some shade, or else at a little dis-
tance from where the old flock is in the habit of
running. To feed young chicks among a lot of
hungry fowls is provoking, to say the least. An
orchard is an excellent place to put the coops, as
there they may have plenty of shade and plenty
of range.

It is advisable to watch the hatching closely when
it is about time for the young to appear, so the
chicks may be removed to a warm place and
wrapped in flannel or cotton until the hens are
ready to come off. If this is not done and the
hatch is uneven, the mother hen may become rest-
less and either trample some of the chicks to death
or leave with some and cause the remainder to
perish. If good coops have been provided the
chicks may be placed there with the hen as soon
as they are all out and dry and can walk.

By this time they will begin to pick around for
something to eat. Crumbs of stale bread may be
given for a day or two. There are many things
recommended for young chicks, and no one thing
may be said to be best. A bread made by mixing
three parts of corn meal, one part wheat bran and
one part wheat middlings, baked until it is crumbly,
and to which is added a little hard-boiled egg, is
one of the best things for the first few days. After
that chief reliance may be placed in a prepared
chick food made up of cracked corn and various
kinds of small grains. It is always ready and handy

184 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

to feed. Care must be taken to avoid overfeeding
any kind of sloppy mixture,as much trouble has
been caused in that way.

After four days, if the ground is dry and there
is warm sunshine, the old hen may be let out and
allowed to take a hunt with her brood. There is
nothing like a sensible mother hen to look after
the wants of her young. She will scratch faithfully
and find just the kind of grit, small seeds and grass
conducive to the proper development of the baby
birds. With good foraging ground, supplemented
with good food, it will be pleasing to see how bright
and smart the young chicks will be and how they
will grow day by day. Of course, fresh water
should be supplied them every day.

When the mother hen is first turned out it is well
to look after her and see that she gets back in her
place before night. She may be found sitting on
her brood in some corner, but if she is not wild it
will be no trouble to get her to coop and in a night
or two she will go to it of her own accord.

CHICKENS IN HOT WEATHER

If the best results are desired, growing chicks
should have proper care and attention during the
summer months. It is important that clean and
comfortable quarters be provided for them. Coops
so placed as to get the sun in the morning and
shade in the afternoon will be found desirable.
This will prevent the coop from getting so thor-
oughly heated as to make it uncomfortable at night.
Habit is strong in chicks which will return to an
overheated or foul coop, when they should be in
more comfortable and roomy quarters. They may

REARING 185

not die, if left to themselves; they will probably
take to the fences or trees to escape from such a
coop, but for this lack of care in their owner’s part,
they will pay the penalty in poor growth, lack of
vigor and weakness, either at that time or later.

PORTABLE COOP AND RUN
Coop, raised during day. Triangular latch holds top up.

It is well to remember that chicks grow fast, Dy ~d
a coop that had been plenty large enough fch a
brood when young will soon become too small, and
overcrowding, and, in consequence, injury to health
and growth will result. More room should be
given at once if overcrowding is noticed, either by
providing larger coops or dividing the broods. If
coops and brooders are cleaned frequently little
reason will be found to complain of that great pest,
lice, which otherwise might be the cause of weak-
ness and stunted growth. Not only is it important
that the coops be kept clean, but the ground in
their immediate vicinity should not be allowed to
become foul.

It will be found best to give growing chicks as

186 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

much range as possible. If necessary to confine
them, have as large yards as can be provided.
Chicks should be fed apart from the older fowls.
If all are fed together they will be apt to get an
insufficient amount of food and the older fowls will
receive too much and, in consequence, become too
fat. The chicks seem to get plenty of grain on
account of their activity, but when one thinks that
this activity is, in a great measure, caused by their
having to dodge the pecks of older fowls, it will
be seen that they are not allowed to pick up as
much food as they have the appearance of doing.
Regularity in feeding is another important matter.
If chicks are fed at certain times when on free
tange, it will be found that they will be near or
about the feeding place at that time and all will
share alike; whereas, if fed at any old time, some
may have wandered off in search of bugs and in-
sects and, therefore, miss their portion.

After a certain age a mash is a help to the de-
velrpment of the growing chicks. If given for a
change and in moderation, however, it will be found
best to confine one’s self in the main to dry feed-
ing as in the earlier stages of a chick’s life.

One of the most important things to be con-
sidered during the summer is the water supply.
The water should be kept in some vessel or foun-
tain that will prevent the chicks from walking in it,
or else it should be changed frequently. The foun-
tain should, of course, always be placed in a shady
spot.

Late chickens, when properly cared for, often
make as nice fowls and lay nearly as soon as the
earlier ones, as they have the advantage of settled
warm weather and generally not so much dampness.

REARING 187

Set the hens all in the same room or building, in
which they can have a good dust bath every day,
and which can be closed to make sure that all re-
turn to their nests. Feed only corn and clean water
and take them off at a regular hour each day.

= U U

eee

Al
i i

Qo Ls =

PORTABLE COLONY HOUSE

Sills are runners, to which frame is bolted. Walls, tongue
and groove siding. Floors tight. Ventilators and other open-
ings screened to keep out rats, etc. Size 6x 8 feet, 6 feet high
in front, 4 at back. Painted. Cost about $15.

CARE OF LITTLE CHICKS

‘As the chickens hatch, remove them from under
the hens every hour or two to make sure that none
get trampled to death in the nest. When at least
one day old, feed millet seed and oatflake five times
a day and give clean water as often. One of the safest
ways to vary this diet later is a johnnycake made
of two parts cornmeal, one of middlings and a fourth
part made up of oilmeal and meat scraps. Stir in
some finely broken egg shells so that the food will
not harden in the crop, and feed dry.

188 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

Have a board floor to the coop, so a heavy shower
some night will not drown the chicks. Always
close the coop tightly at night to exclude rats. After
the chicks are a week old let the hen out with them
every day a few hours while it is dry. Never turn
them out in the mornings until all dampness has
left the ground.

A few days before hatching rub sulphur thor-
oughly through the hen’s feathers and sprinkle it
in the nests. When the chicks are two days old
examine them for lice. Unless accustomed to this,
one may decide that a poor little chick which really
is being eaten alive with them is comparatively
free from lice. It must be learned what to look
for and how. The large gray louse is the most
common.

Dip the finger in kerosene and draw it first
around the’ chick’s neck, next to the body. This
will start the lice all on a run for the head, ears
and under the bill. Follow them up with the oil
and every one touched by it will be killed instantly.
It is not necessary to saturate the down, and care
must be exercised to get no oil in the ears or the
eyes. This treatment will not hurt the chicken in the
least. In 15 minutes he will be as dry and fluffy as
ever if he is not allowed to run directly under the
hen. That would prevent evaporation and he might
get a blister. This is greatly to be preferred to
kerosene mixed with some other grease, as that
prevents rapid evaporation. Never grease the
chicks under the wings, as they are too sensitive
there.

CHAPTER XI

Market Methods

Coops should be high enough to permit the
poultry to stand easily upright without bending
their legs and with space enough between slats
to pass their heads through. The coops should be
strong but light; heavy wood can be dispensed
with if long nails are used. They should not be
so large as to be awkward and cumbrous to handle.
Where large coops are used they should have par-
titions, so that when the coop is accidentally tilted
the whole weight of poultry will not be thrown
upon those at the side and end. The poultry should
have plenty of room. Crowding too many into a
coop causes loss by suffocation. Only one kind
or size of poultry should be sent in a coop.

All poultry reaching market the following day
after shipment should be fed only lightly before
being placed in the coop, so as to avoid any in-
fringement of the law regarding food in the crops
of poultry. Western and southern poultry is gen-
erally shipped in carloads accompanied by a man
to feed and water the fowls. The first day or two
after the car starts the fowls should be fed lightly;
after they have become accustomed to their new
quarters the quantity of food may be increased
with good results. Overfeeding on the start makes
the fowls dumpish and sick, from which they do
not recover on the journey. The rule of New York
is to let the coops go with the poultry free. Where
the patent wire cars are used either new or second

189

190 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

hand coops are furnished at the shipper’s expense.
The principal market days are from Monday to
Thursday inclusive. There is seldom much trade
on Friday or Saturday.

Shipments of live poultry are seldom made dur-
ing cold weather. They do not pay well then be-
cause they compete with dressed fowls. April to
October is the usual season. Live poultry should
pay as well as dressed, especially if the shipper has
little or no skill in dressing.

MARKING AND SHIPPING

For the best results the cover of every pack-
age should be plainly and neatly marked with the
gross weight and tare, or number of dozens, pairs,
or pieces of and the kind of contents, whether broil-
ers, roasters, ducks, etc. The name, initials, or
shipping mark of the shipper and the address of
the firm to which the packages are sent should also
appear. Where large lines of goods are shipped,
simpler marks may be used by agreement. The
shipper should always get receipts from the trans-
portation company, and send immediately full ad-
vices by mail, with correct invoice of shipment.
When poultry and game are forwarded by express,
put a letter of advice in one of the packages, and
mark plainly on the outside, “ Bill,” advising by
mail also. Nothing is so vexatious to a commis-
sion house as the receipt of consignments not prop-
erly marked and advised. Every shipper who
designs to make a business of forwarding good
articles should have a brand or mark of his own.
Thus he may establish a reputation for his goods.
Perishable articles should be shipped so as to arrive
not later than Friday morning.

MARKET METHODS 19l

None but very neat packages, as light as is con-
sistent with carrying the contents perfectly, should
be used. In a lot of goods all the packages should
be of uniform size, shape and style. In shipping
articles that require air, ventilation must be pro-
vided. When articles are sold by the package
only standard size should be employed.

DRESSED POULTRY

The great end to aim at is to have the poultry
reach market in perfect order—firm, bright and
sound—and that it may present as handsome ap-
pearance as possible. There is almost always
abundance of stock of inferior quality and unat-
tractive appearance, the value of which would have
been greatly increased by more care and attention
to details in preparing for shipment. Shippers who
get their goods to market in uniformly fine order,
and whose study of all the details of killing, dress-
ing and packing result in uniformly fine quality,
soon acquire a reputation for their goods among
buyers. This is of great value to shipper and buyer.

An ordinance in force in New York prohibits the
sale of all turkeys and chickens the crops of which
are not free from food. This law makes it impera-
tive that poultry should be kept from solid food
long enough before killing to insure the crops being
empty. It is best to keep from food 12 to 24 hours
before killing, but during this time the poultry
should have plenty of water. In case any fowl
should be found to have food in the crop after kill-
ing this food should be removed by making a clean-
cut incision in the back of the neck and the contents
worked out under the skin. Never try to force the

‘192 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

food out through the mouth, as this is likely to
cause discoloration.

There are two methods of dressing—dry pick-
ing and scalding. As a general rule the chickens,
fowls and turkeys that command the highest prices
are dry picked. But by no means do all dry-picked
Jots sell higher than scalded. Lean poultry always
looks much thinner when dry picked than when
scalded and plumped, and thin poultry commands
more when scalded than when dry picked. For this
teason chickens and turkeys should be dry picked
only when very fat and of fine quality. Ducks and
geese should always be scalded.

The method of packing poultry for shipment
depends upon the weather and the purpose of the
shipper. Stock intended to be frozen for future
use is always packed dry. That intended for im-
mediate shipment and use may be packed dry or in
ice, but should be packed dry only after settled
cold weather.

SELECTION OF STOCK FOR MARKET

For market no poultry should be killed which is not
of reasonably good size and in good condition. Small,
thin, framy turkeys, such as are often received very
early in the season, are always a drug in the mar-
ket and are unprofitable. Even in September, none
which weighs less than 7 pounds should be dressed,
and later 8 pounds should be the bottom limit.
Spring chickens should never be killed before they
attain a weight of at least 1 pound. This size is
profitably salable only very early in the season;
as soon as supplies become at all liberal, 114
pounds. This weight should be the bottom limit.

MARKET METHODS 193

Spring ducks should be kept back until almost full
grown. Commission houses receive full-grown
spring ducks from the great duck farms very early
in the season, and these bring high prices. West-
ern packers, seeing the high quotations for these,
often send very small, young ducks about the
weight of broiling chickens. Such are usnalable
at any reasonable price. Spring ducks are never
used to broil, always to roast, and there is no call
whatever for stock weighing less than 3 pounds.

KILLING AND DRESSING

Immediately after killing, the feathers must be
carefully and very cleanly removed, taking especial
pains to avoid tearing the skin. When dry-picked
poultry is to be packed dry for cold-weather ship-
ment it should be hung up head down in a cold
place (but not cold enough to freeze), and left until
thoroughly cold and dry. Any animal heat left in
the body when packed, and any moisture on the
skin, is sure to cause bad condition in a short time.
When the dry-picked poultry is to be packed in ice
for warm-weather shipment it should be thrown
into water of natural temperature and left there
for 15 to 20 minutes, then removed to ice water,

_where it should remain eight to ten hours, when it
will be ready to pack.

For scalding, the water should. be just at the boil-
ing point, but not actually boiling. The birds held
by legs and head should be immersed and lifted in
the water three or four times. Immediately after
scalding chickens and turkeys remove the feathers,
pin-feathers and all, very cleanly and without break-
ing the skin. After scalding wrap ducks and geese

194 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

immediately in a cloth for about two minutes; then
the down will roll off with the feathers.
All scalded poultry should be “plumped” after
picking by dipping for about two seconds in very
hot water—just under the
boiling point—and _ then
| thrown into cool water of
the natural temperature,
where it should remain for
I5 or 20 minutes. When
the scalded poultry is to
be packed dry for cold-
FRAME OF SHIPPING COOP weather shipment it should
be taken from the first
cold plumping water and hung up by the feet until
thoroughly cold and dry; it will then be ready to
pack. But when it is intended to pack in ice for
warm-weather shipment, the poultry should be
transferred from the first cold bath to another of
colder but not ice-cold water and remain there for
half an hour to an hour,
after which it should be
placed in ice water and left
for eight to ten hours, when
it will be ready to pack.

I

PACKING
Barrels and cases hold-
ing about 200 pounds are COOP COMPLETE
commonly used; the latter Frame and floor of light

ee Material. Sides of strong
are the best for turkeys Canvas. Size to accomme

and geese. If any packing Whee ee
is used it should be only
clean, dry and hand-threshed wheat or rye straw.

A layer of straw should be placed in the bottom of

MARKET METHODS 195

the package, then alternate layers of poultry and
straw, stowing very snugly, backs up and legs out
straight, filling so full that the cover will draw
down firmly upon the contents. Some successful
shippers use no packing, filling the packages solidly
full of poultry, but using waxed or parchment paper
around the sides, bottom and top of the case or
barrel and between the layers of poultry. If this
method is adopted the utmost care should be taken
to have every fowl perfectly dry before packing.
The use of straw packing is generally preferred
and is considered safe, unless goods are destined
for storage. All blood remaining about the mouth
and head should be removed with a damp cloth.
For shipment in ice only poultry or sugar barrels
should be used; if the latter, they should be thor-
oughly washed with hot water to remove all traces
of sugar. A layer of cracked ice is placed in the
bottom of the barrel and alternate layers of poultry
and ice until the package is nearly full. Over the
top layer of poultry a layer of cracked ice is also
placed, then a piece of burlap and again a layer of
cracked ice, topped off with a large chunk of solid
ice, fastened in place with a piece of burlap secured
under the top hoop. The poultry breasts are down
and. backs up, with legs out straight toward the
center of the barrel, making a ring of fowls side
by side around the staves, backs sloping inward
so that the next layer of ice will work in between
the poultry and the staves. The middle of the
layer may be filled in with the fowls at will.
Poultry frozen during the winter for later use
should always be dry picked. Only the very
choicest goods should be selected for this purpose,
and extraordinary care must be taken that the stock

190 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

be thoroughly cold and dry when packed. The:
treatment varies according to circumstances of
weather, etc. Probably the best results are ob-|
tained when the stock can be frozen by natural out-
‘door temperature. But in seasons and localities
where this is impossible the freezer may be used
successfully. Only cases of planed, well-seasoned
lumber should be used. For old tom turkeys the
,size in popular use is 36 by 22 by 18 inches, and
for young toms 36 by 22 by 15 inches; these should
-be of inch lumber. For chickens, ducks and geese
the size is 30 by 20 by about Io inches, or deep
enough to allow for two layers, made of 54-inch
lumber. Two layers of poultry should be packed
in each case. The poultry is stowed snugly and
closely so as to present as regular and handsome
appearance as possible. Turkeys should be packed
backs up and legs out straight. Chickens and ducks
and geese should have the breasts down on the
bottom layer and up on the top layer. Old toms
should be packed separately, never with young toms
and hens. Old fowls and young chickens should
never be packed together, Each should be packed
separately.

COLD-STORAGE POULTRY AND EGGS

When stock is frozen in natural outdoor tem-
perature the cases may be filled at once when the.
thermometer is below zero, but if above zero only
one layer should be frozen at a time. No packing
|material whatever should be used and the packer
,should be sure to protect from wind while freezing.
, When frozen solid the stock should be put away
\and kept where it will not thaw out, preferably in,

MARKET METHODS 197

cold storage. When the poultry is to be frozen
artificially the cases may be filled full and placed
at once in the freezer. In this case it is well to
construct the cases so
that a slat in the sides of
j the box may be removed
and left off until the
stock is frozen solid. The
quicker the freezing the
better. In the freezer the
cases should be separated
by slats to permit free
DETAILS OF LATCH circulation of air around
them. Some packers get

excellent results by freezing poultry separately and
packing after. Some of the very finest frozen poul-
try is handled in this way at nearby points, and is
not packed at all |
until ready for
market, when it
is packed in straw
and shipped for
immediate sale
before warm
weather. But
for large lots
which have to be
placed in storage
again upon ar-
rival in market, it

is best to pack in LATCH FOR DOOR OR GATE

Z-
CASES before free Oak handle, 8x2x1 inches; latch, 5x1
ing. x% inches; catch, 8x2x% inches. One-
: : inch hole in door for handle 3 inches
While the Pptin- from edge of door. Hole %-inch in
. Id handle for latch. Assemble parts and
ciple of cold stor- peg together.

198 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

age is correct, its abuse is responsible for much un-
fair discrimination against cold-storage eggs. Let
it be granted that the cold-storage people are not
in business for fun or to see how long eggs can be
kept and still pass as eggs. They wish to make a
profit. If eggs are not good when removed from
storage these people must lose money because they
can’t make sales. Experience has taught them that
eggs can be kept in practically the same condition
as when received, but storage does not improve the
quality of eggs improperly handled before reaching
the warehouse.

Much of the trouble arises in the bad methods
of handling before the eggs reach the warehouse.
This largely occurs where eggs are held for a raise
of prices. Wherever this is done, under ordinary
cellar storage conditions, whether on the farm or
in the country store, there is always deterioration.
If this common storage and rehandling were
eliminated, and were eggs put in cold storage with
less delay after being laid, farmers would be able
to command higher prices, because losses would
be less serious, and the disfavor in which storage
eggs are held would be largely reduced. It is to
his interest, therefore, that the farmer devise plans
for getting eggs to the nearest cold-storage ware-
house, unless it is possible to develop a satisfactory
local market for fresh eggs.

In cold-storage warehouses poultry is kept con-
tinuously at a temperature considerably below zero,
even as low as 10 below. At such a temperature
no changes occur, and the birds remain sweet and
wholesome indefinitely. The meat of such fowls,
if properly handled after removal from cold stor-

MARKET METHODS 199

age, will be found unimpaired in flavor and indis-
tinguishable from that of freshly killed birds.

EGG MARKETING METHODS

Selling eggs is one of the handiest ways to get
a cash or trade return for farm produce, and wher-
ever farmers can increase the efficiency of the ma-
chinery which produces and handles eggs, they will
put hard cash into their pockets. In Kansas, which
may be taken as one of the typical egg-producing
states, the methods in vogue are generally bad. In
order to determine how im-
provements could be made,
A. G. Phillips sent a long
list of questions to more
than 70 egg handlers for
comments. They _ repre-
sented an estimated annual : ==
output of over 900,000 cases HEN GATE
of eggs. Thirty-three of
these men purchased by the opeine%o .£2te ee ate
method called “case count” 22¢ {swing shut when
the year round. Forty do not.
By case count is meant that eggs are counted just
as they are received. During hot weather, that is
between July and September, the usual plan is to
buy “loss off;” though some buy in this way from
May until December. The term “loss off” means
that inferior and cracked eggs are not paid for.
When eggs are bought in the loss-off way, a dif-
ference of I to 5 cents in price is made, the average
being about 2 cents.

During the hottest month 58 buyers purchased
100,000 cases or more. During that month the

200 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

usual run of “rots” is from Io to 20 per cent,
though some buyers who have a superior trade
report 5 per cent, and others who have an in-
ferior trade, 75 per cent loss, due to spoiled eggs.
During the period when buyers purchase in the
case-count way, 57 buyers reported a loss of from
one to three dozen to the case, and only seven men
reported a smaller loss. The average is at least
two dozen to a case for the year round.
_ Of the more than 70 buyers 69 say that they
‘could afford to pay a higher price if they did not
have to allow for these losses, and not one of them
says he could not afford to pay a higher price. The
advance in price ranges from I to § cents and aver-
ages 2 cents. Sixty-eight men say that the usual
run of eggs they buy is of only fair quality, and 37
report that the cause of spoiled eggs is due to the
farmers not giving the eggs proper care. Thirty-
three say that both farmers and storekeepers are
to blame because they hold for higher prices.
Twenty-three buyers declare that they could
afford to buy loss off the year round, but 4o claim
they could not. The ayes say that it would be jus-
tice to all, that they would get a better grade of
eggs and the farmers would get more money. The
nays say that competition prevents, that the eggs
are good enough in winter, that they have no mar-
ket for seconds, that the farmers are dissatisfied
and that hot weather prevents. Sixty-three buyers
say that if a farmer or a community of farmers
iwould follow instructions as to the kind of eggs
best to sell and would ship only first-class eggs,
they could afford to pay a premium upon the eggs
above the regular price. Only five buyers claim

MARKET METHODS . 201

that they could not. The price ranges from I to 5
cents, with an average of 2 cents.

HOW TO IMPROVE EGG MARKETING

Buyers offer many suggestions as to the way
farmers should handle eggs for market. Farmers |
should be less intentionally careless; they should |
not wash the eggs; they should keep eggs not,
strictly fresh at home; they should market their |
eggs frequently; should learn the difference in price.
that could be obtained for good eggs over bad
ones; carefulness in details should be practiced ; |
the nests should be kept clean; the eggs kept in a’
dry place and covered when being brought to town;
the cocks should be disposed of at the end of the
breeding season; the eggs should be gathered fre-'
quently, and be graded; and that farmers should
recognize that when they trade eggs with the mer-'
chant, they are doing so almost always at a loss. |

From the foregoing answers it is evident that
there is considerable loss of money to farmers each
year. One year, to use Mr. Phillips’ figures, when
the output was 146,381,180 dozens of eggs
marketed, an average loss of two dozen rots to the
case would mean a total loss of 9,758,745 dozen
eggs. These were irretrievable losses, partly on
account of carelessness. This number does not in-
clude eggs classed as seconds. There is not the
least doubt that 50 per cent of the rotten eggs could
be eliminated, and if this were done, taking eggs at
16 cents a dozen, a fair average price for the year,
the farmers of Kansas would have saved nearly
$780,700; the complete elimination of bad eggs
would increase the income by over $1,500,000. | If

|

202 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the second-class eggs could be sold as first-class,
a very considerable additional sum could also’ be
saved. No one viewing these figures can fail to
see the advantage of taking the trouble to adopt
better methods.

It is hardy reasonable to expect anyone to im-
prove his business conditions unless he can realize
a financial benefit therefrom. Everyone likes to
produce the best of anything. But if he can
make more by selling an inferior grade, it is
natural and reasonable that he should do so. In
the matter of handling eggs, however, improve-
ments mean more profit and should, therefore, be
made. ‘Three ways are open whereby poultry

raisers may market eggs:
First, by selling to the
buyer who either ships
without grading or candles
and disposes of the stock
according to quality. By

SUSPENDED ROOST this method a producer is

able to take advantage of
the intense competition generally present among
local buyers that raises general prices until some
merchant complains that prices are too high to
leave any profit after the eggs have been candled.

WILL IT PAY TO IMPROVE

Number one eggs which farmers bring every
week should command more than older eggs. At
present they do not, and the tendency is to let the
care of the eggs slide. The average increase would
be 1% to 2 cents a dozen. If the average Kansas
hen produces I00 eggs in a year, the farmer who

MARKET METHODS 203

keeps 200 hens would thus gather 20,000 eggs
yearly. If one-fourth of these were consumed at
home, 15,000 or 1,250 dozen, would still be salable.
A premium of 2 cents a dozen on this lot would
mean $25. Whether this amount would be worth
the slight trouble taken to secure it is, of course,
a matter for each individual to decide for
himself.

The way to get the buyer to pay a premium is a
question to be decided. If the storekeeper will not
do it he should lose the trade and the farmer should
ship to a nearby large buyer who will be willing,
even glad, to get this trade, and he will treat his
customers in the best possible way so as to hold it.
Such a buyer will probably quote market prices
only until he is satisfied that the quality is as
represented. Then he can be made to pay the
desired premium. There is no reason why several
farmers in a community should not ship eggs
together in lots of 15 dozen or more and work up a
business large enough to make a buyer want to
hold their trade.

CO-OPERATIVE POULTRY ASSOCIATIONS

could easily be managed where hens are numerous
enough to make a profit for all concerned. The
following suggestions will be of benefit to such
Prospective associations. A number of farmers
who are interested enough to stick together should
form an association and should maintain their com-
pact whether they lose a little or not. It is char-
acteristic of buyers to try to break up such organ-
izations by various tricks, and farmers are too prone
to condemn organization hastily ; that is, before they

204 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

have given it a thorough trial. After they have passed
over the first rough water and are living up to their
agreements, keeping their grades well, they can
make money if properly managed. They should be
organized under a simple constitution, which shall
give the name, object, membership dues, officers and
their duties, meetings and rules. Under the rules.
should be given the grades of eggs and of poultry
and the proper way to handle, mark and market.
The co-operative system can be made highly suc-
cessful, even in small communities.

Another way that farmers can market eggs to
advantage is to sell at retail or at a slight premium
to a hotel or a restaurant, where large quantities
are in demand and yet where high quality is sought
to cater to an exacting table. A farmer who keeps
300 White Leghorns says that this method of sup-
plying one good restaurant netted him a clear profit
of over $1 a hen during a year.

The third method is to sell to a private trade
by peddling to small customers and selling at a
premium. The best instance I know is that of
R. P. Ellis, who does business in Brooklyn, N. Y.
Mr. Ellis has not only worked up a considerable
trade, but has been obliged to associate several
farmers with himself in order to supply the in-
creasing demand for his output. His method is
based on the general principle that the nearer the
producer can get to the actual consumer the higher
he can sell, because he can eliminate most of the
middlemen. Besides this, the sooner the egg can
be placed on the consumer’s table after being laid
and the more pleasing its appearance, the better
will be the price.

A controlling factor in all marketing is the dis-

MARKET METHODS 205,

tance the consumer is from the source of supply.
In large cities where eggs are purchased from
grocers after being handled by wholesalers, com-
mission men, shippers and country gatherers the
prices which really fresh eggs bring are consider-
ably higher than in the small towns.

It stands to reason that if the purchaser can
raise chickens in the country and can grow much
of the food they need and then sell his eggs in the
large city direct to the consumer he will get the
maximum profit. Because of the co-operative ar-
rangement Mr. Ellis has made with farmers asso-
ciated with him, all clear about $2.50 a hen an-
nually, whereas $1 a hen is the general estimated
income on most egg farms. The rules under which
their operations are made may be summarized as
follows:

Eggs must be spotlessly clean and of uniform
size and color. This means that all the laying
stock must be pure bred, of the same breed, for in
no other way can uniformity be secured. For this
purpose the White Leghorn stands pre-eminent.

The representative or salesman must be patient
and courteous with the skeptical, and willing to
submit produce to a comparative test, confident of
the outcome. The price is never cut to secure a
customer. It is well to have a scale of prices
printed on the inside of the cover of the egg box,
stating what will be charged each month of the
year. The salesman is always politely indifferent
to the current prices on eggs, and tactfully makes.
people feel that the eggs he sells are in a class by
themselves. They really are a superior article. The
producer believes in himself and in his product.
Faith is the essence of all salesmanship.

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MARKET METHODS 207:

The eggs are boxed and delivered in a style and
manner befitting the pre-eminence claimed for them.
Broken-down wagons and worn-out horses do not
inspire the public with an abiding faith in the pro-
gressiveness of any concern. Much as some may
despise it, appearance counts for a great deal in
modern business advertising, especially in large
cities, where an individual cannot expect to be:
widely known.

HONESTY ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS

It is necessary to be honest and not to be tempted.
to abuse the people’s confidence. Customers are
always given what they pay for, and their orders,
great or small, are accorded marked personal atten-
tion. There is too little courtesy on the part of
tradespeople; hence it is the salesman’s cue to be
different. Should he, therefore, run short of eggs,
he never substitutes. Grocers do that. Mr. Ellis
has a neatly printed postal notice in which he cour-
teously regrets that the hens are not doing quite
as well just now, and that he cannot fill the regular
order when due, but that on such and such a date
he will deliver. He leaves blanks on the cards to be
filled in with dates. This pleases customers, who
may be relying on getting eggs and impresses them
that such eggs are not always obtainable, and hence
most desirable. There is a lot in this.

It is equally necessary to be square with the as-
sociate farms. Only mutual interest can keep them
together. The success of one means benefit to all,
and the failure of one works an injury to all. Those
who handle the selling should not seek to “hog”
the profit a good private trade yields. Pass most
of it along where it belongs, to the producer!

]

208 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

The matter of drivers of delivery wagons should
receive careful attention. Mr. Ellis did not take a
driver similar to the average grocery delivery boy,
but has a uniformed man, or young fellow, equal
in intelligence and manner to the best deliveries in
the city. It pays. He pays a salary and a com-
mission on all eggs delivered. This nets the de-

liveryman between $18 and
$25 a week. It pays in
the end. A discourteous,
untidy deliveryman will
spoil a good many dollars’
o” worth of advertising in
one day. The men who

Cloth on rollers passes make the maximum pay

firm when cloth moves." do it by securing a few
new customers each week.
and the commission paid them on these is much
less than cost of securing a customer by publicity.

The business done is strictly cash. His prices

EGG-TURNING TRAY

‘run from 40 to 60 cents, averaging 47.8 cents to the

consumer. He finds that boxing and delivering,
,which includes other labor, such as bookkeeping
and necessary correspondence, cost 5 cents a
dozen. He is spending regularly 5 cents a dozen
‘on advertising, which in greater New York is a
‘very expensive thing. For instance, street car ad-
\vertising costs $5 a day for 400 cars, or $150 a
month, and 400 cars barely represent the number
running into one depot. In the advertising ex-
pense is included the cost of canvassing the pros-
pective customers who answer advertisements. The
proprietor himself attended to this until the busi-
ness grew beyond him, when he made a careful
selection of a representative.

MARKET METHODS 209

There are over 200 cities in the United States
with a population exceeding 25,000. In each
of these a profitable private egg trade can be estab-
lished. What Mr. Ellis is accomplishing others
can do. The associated farms net between 30 and
50 cents a dozen the year round. They average
better than 37 cents a dozen, 3 cents an egg, the
year round.

PRESERVATION OF EGGS

The following precautions are suggested by G.
H, Lamson, Jr., of Connecticut: Keep the whole
flock of hens in as perfect a state of health as pos-
sible. Give enough shell-forming food to form
strong shells of uniform thickness. Make proper
nesting places and keep nests clean, so eggs may not
be infected while in the nests. Gather the eggs
each day and keep them in a cool, dry room or
cellar where the sun’s rays do not fall directly
upon them. Use only clean eggs and place them
in the preservative within 24 hours after they are
laid. Preserve only April, May and early June
eggs.

As to methods of preserving undoubtedly cold
storage at a temperature of 34 degrees is the best
and practically the only method used commercially.
But it is too expensive to be practiced on a small
scale. Formerly dry methods such as packing in
grain or salt were used, but these are no longer
recommended, as the eggs lose much of their
moisture by evaporation.

Among the liquid preservatives, water glass has
been very generally and successfully used because
it is reliable, easily prepared and comparatively

210 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

cheap. Water glass can be bought at most drug
stores for $1 or $1.25 a gallon. A gallon will make
1o gallons of preserving fluid. Eggs have been
kept in this mixture for three or four years with-
out developing an unpleasant taste or smell, but
when kept any longer the yolk becomes pink and
very liquid. The white coagulates in the usual
manner in cooking.

To preserve eggs by this method, a cellar should
be used where the temperature does not go above

FENCE PROTECTS COOPS AT NIGHT

60 degrees. Any clean water-tight receptacle will
do; kegs or stone jars are commonly used. Each
receptacle should be scalded thoroughly two or
three times to make sure that it is perfectly clean.
The preserving fluid should be made from water
that has been boiled and allowed to cool. This is
mixed at the rate of nine parts water to one of water
glass, and thoroughly stirred. The quantity
needed for each receptacle should be mixed in that
receptacle so as to insure the proper strength of
solution, When mixed in one and then poured
into several others there is a likelihood of getting
different strengths.

It is desirable to label each crock or keg with

MARKET METHODS 2It

the date the eggs are put down. When filled the
receptacle should be kept out of the sun’s rays and
covered with loose boards. Water should be added
from time to time to supply the loss by evaporation
and to keep the eggs always beneath the surface.
The preservative never should be stirred. When
desired for use, the June eggs should be taken first,
May eggs next, and April eggs last, because their
keeping qualities are different. If eggs are to be
sold they should be washed.

One man who has practiced. preserving on an
extensive scale found that the eggs cost 15 cents
a dozen to produce as an average. His market
price was 18 cents during spring. The margin of
3 cents profit did not appeal to him, so when eggs
came down to 18 cents in March he began preserv-
ing. He used only the eggs produced by his own
flock. By Thanksgiving time when eggs are sell-
ing at 50 and 60 cents a dozen in Boston, he sold
these eggs as “storage extras” at an average of
32 cents a dozen, some as high as 40 cents. As
the eggs were all produced by his own hens, he
could guarantee the quality. This is very im-
portant.

The cost of storing was about $2 for 200 dozen.
Had these eggs been sold in March at 18 cents
they would have brought only $36. By preserving
they brought $64, or an apparent net gain of $28.
There is, however, another way to look at this
which is even more startling. As the average cost
to make the eggs was 15 cents, at 18 cents there
would have been only 3 cents a dozen profit, or
only $6 on the 200 dozen. By holding until prices
were high he actually made 17 cents a dozen instead
of 3 cents, or a total profit of $34.

212 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

It would not be advisable to preserve eggs on @
large scale at first. There is a good deal to be
learned before one can venture upon this business.
The family supply will be enough to lay down as
an experiment. After a year or two of experience
and confidence will be soon enough to start pre-
serving for the market.

NEW YORK STATE EXPERIMENTS

At the New York experiment station a number
of methods that could be used with little expense
on a small scale for preserving eggs, and also
some modifications of these methods, show that na
method of dry packing gives satisfactory results
‘whether the eggs are turned regularly or not.
The best results were secured by keeping the eggs
immersed in solutions either of lime, lime and salt,
lwater glass, from Io to 20 per cent solution, or a
proprietary solution consisting largely of water
glass. On the whole, preference is given to a solu-
ition of lime and salt to which a little boracic acid
was added of a specific gravity somewhat lower
than that of eggs. The common materials can be
cheaply obtained in pure condition, and the pre-,
served eggs were easier to clean than those from
more costly solutions which gave no better results.
Though, of course, no preserved egg could grade
with a fresh one, little difference in quality of eggs,
as tested by many individuals, could be detected be-
tween those preserved in the few efficient solutions.:

EGG GATHERING

Clean eggs always sell at higher prices than
soiled ones. In order to secure them, eggs should

\MARKET METHODS (213,

be gathered at least'twice a“day; and oftener when
the ground is muddy. This. applies especially to.
the summer weather. Eggs
quickly begin to decompose
when the temperature is
high and should, therefore,
be removed as soon as pos-
sible to a cool dark place.

Fertile eggs begin to de-
teriorate sooner than sterile
ones; hence, unless needed ‘So
for hatching, hens and
pullets should be kept by ggapy For MOVING
themselves. Fertile eggs,
even when fresh laid, may be considered as
already started in development. For this rea-
son it is highly desirable that the eggs be
gathered frequently, because the warmth of the
bodies of several hens on the nest will hasten de--
velopment of the embryo, and if eggs are allowed
to stay in the nest for several hours under such
conditions they cannot be considered as strictly
fresh.

Until marketed, the clean, fresh eggs, frequently
gathered, should be kept in a cool place. Even though
this place is clean and cool and it is not dry, the eggs
are likely to be injured by mold. If they become
damp and then happen to touch colored material.
they are likely to become stained. The best way
of holding is to store the eggs in good egg cases
in a cool, dry place above the floor. Prior to mar-
keting, the eggs should be graded. All small, dirty,,
stained eggs as well as those which have been in
the incubator or which are doubtful or rotten should
be removed. The small and dirty ones, if fresh,

214 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

are just as good as the large, clean ones, but they
will not sell as well, and if sent to market will in-
jure the price which would be paid for large eggs.
Large eggs, among which small ones are mixed,
will sell for the price of the small ones and the
buyer, after grading, will sell the large ones at
advanced prices and the small ones for what he paid,
or better. Therefore, small and soiled eggs should
be used at home. Never should eggs be washed,
because washing injures the keeping qualities.
Every egg from a stolen nest, unless its freshness

PORTABLE COOP AND RUN

Packing case coop and wire fence covered run.

is unquestionable, should either be thrown away
or used at home. The man who wishes to build
up a trade cannot afford to risk his chances by
letting any such eggs go to market. Eggs handled
as suggested should be marketed two or three times
a week, oftener if convenient. When so many

MARKET METHODS 215

trips cannot be made, it is well to co-operate with
some neighbor to go on alternate days. In autumn
and spring, eggs should be marketed not less fre-
quently than once a week.

It is bad policy to hold eggs in the hope of ad-
vancing prices. Evaporation always takes place
and the chances are that the grade and the price
will be lower than if the eggs are marketed at once;
besides, the man who gets the reputation of mar-
keting frequently will always command the respect
of his buyers. In hot weather the cases should
always be covered to protect them from the heat.

N eee

ua

— ———————_—.
=H z ———-
= —————

—SS=S——= — SS

KNOCK DOWN POULTRY HOUSES

For tenant heuses, whose. sides, top, floors and roofs
bolt together are convenient for moving from farm to farm.

CHAPTER XII

Essentials of Poultry Fattening

Crate fattening of market chickens, which has
recently been growing in popularity, can be carried
on with profit by almost any farmer, says F. C.
Elford of the Ontario experiment station. The
work is simple; chickens gain in live weight 1%
to 3 pounds and each can be sold for a much higher
price than lean ones because they supply, weight
for weight, three times as much edible meat and
of superior quality. The breast meat is the most
palatable part of the chicken, hence large-framed
chickens with prominent breast bones cannot be
satisfactorily fatted. The legs, largely composed
of sinews, the meat of which is inferior, should
form as small a proportion of the weight as prac-
ticable. Feathers on the legs are an objection,
also black or dark-colored shanks and any develop-
ment of the spur in cockerels.

Color is secured by feeding mashes, composed
mainly of ground oats and skim milk. Smallness
of bone, head and comb, and a minimum of offal,
are important requirements. Plump chickens of
any weight up to 5 pounds each dressed are more
readily disposed of than large fatted chickens; 4
pounds is the preferred weight. Early chickens
should be marketed either as broilers, weighing 1
to 1% pounds each, or roasters, weighing 3 to 4
pounds. High prices are generally paid for such.

_ In crate fattening pure-bred chickens make
greater gains in live weight than scrubs, and the
216

ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING 217,

cost of feed for a pound of gain is less. At four
months, the pure breeds are fatted, of uniform qual-
ity and appearance and ready for market. At no age
are scrub chickens as salable as pure breds. The
type of fowls to be selected can be had in Plymouth
Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red and Buff Or-
pington; or if preferred, in a medium sized fancier’s
breed. Plymouth Rock or Wyandotte may not be
satisfactory on account of great size, heavy bone,
length of leg, or narrowness of body. Hence, it is
of primary importance to have a definite concep-
tion of the proper type to select. The breed is of
secondary importance.

DESIRABLE TYPE OF FOWL

Table type fowls should conform to the follow-,
ing standard: Mature weight, cock, 7 to 814 pounds ;'
hen, 5% to 7 pounds; shape of body, broad, blocky
and of medium length; breast, carried well for-|
ward, full and broad, of medium depth; breast bone,
long, straight, not deep nor pointed at the front;
legs set well apart, short, stout, white or yellow, |
without leg or foot feathering; head, medium size >
comb and “wattles small; plumage, close feathered
preferred; color not important; color of flesh un-.
important.

To have chickens plump and well fatted, at the’
most profitable age, they should be placed in fat-
tening crates when three to four months old. This
does not mean that chickens cannot be fatted prof-
itably when more than four months old; suitable
market chickens of any age will show gains. It is
advisable to use fattening crates, but if only a smal?
number of fowls are to be fatted, packing boxes of

218 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

suitable dimensions can be adapted for the purpose.

In a series of experiments in fattening at the
Canadian experimental farm, a gain of 214 pounds
each was made in a total of over 350 birds of large
and good breeds. The average cost for food con-
sumed was 5% cents a pound of increase in live
weight. The ground grain was valued at $1.20 for
100 pounds and the skim milk at 15 cents I00
pounds. Oats finely ground, or with the coarser
hulls sifted out, should form the basis of all the
grain mixtures; ground corn fed in excess results
in yellow flesh of an inferior quality; ground peas
impart an undesirable hardness to the flesh. Ground
oats, buckwheat, barley and low-grade flour are the
most suitable meals for fattening.

FEEDS FOR FATTENING

Some satisfactory meal mixtures are: 1. Two
parts ground oats, two parts ground buck-
ywheat, one part ground corn. 2. Equal parts
ground oats, ground barley and ground buck-
wheat. 3. Two parts ground barley, two parts low-
grade flour, one part wheat bran. The ground meal
should be mixed to a thin porridge with thick, sour
skim milk or buttermilk. On the average, 10
pounds of meal require from 15 to 17 pounds sour
skim milk. A small quantity of salt should be
added to the mash. When sufficient skim milk or
buttermilk cannot be obtained for mixing the
‘mashes, a quantity of animal and raw vegetable
food should be added to the fattening ration.

It is necessary to feed lightly the first week. A
small quantity of the fattening food is spread along
the troughs, and as this is eaten more food added,

ESSENTIALS OF POULTRY FATTENING 219

but not as much as the chickens would consume.
The food should be given three times a day, and,
after feeding, the troughs cleaned and turned over.
After the first week, feeding twice a day as much
food as the birds will eat is practiced. Half an
hour after feeding, the feed troughs should be
cleaned and turned over. Water twice a day and
grit two or three times a week should be supplied.
Chickens should remain in the fattening crates not
longer than 24 days. Some chicks will fatten more
readily than others. These should be picked -out
a week before finished and a little beef tallow,.
shaved into the trough, given with the mash.
About I pound tallow to 50 or 60 chickens daily, is.
ample. Before being placed in the crates the
chickens should be well dusted with sulphur to kill
the lice, and again three days before being killed.
Chickens should be starved 24 hours before killing
to prevent food remaining in the crop and intestines ;
such would decompose and spoil the flavor of the
birds. Several hours after feeding give water.

METHOD OF KILLING

Sticking in the mouth is the usual method of kill-
ing. The large arteries at the sides of the neck,
just below the ears, are cut by a couple of quick
motions inside. The blade is then forced through
the roof of the mouth into the brain. This makes.
plucking easier, since it relaxes the muscles. The
bird must hang head down till plucked. As the
bird hangs on a level with the operator’s chest, the
wing is grasped between the thumb and first two
fingers of the left hand, holding the neck between
the third and little finger. The large wing feathers

‘220 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

are removed with the right hand, and also the stiff

feathers at the shoulder joints. Tail feathers come |
next, with one quick twisting motion. The right

hand is then passed rapidly down the back, from

rump to neck, removing the feathers with thumb

and forefinger.

The bird is then shifted to the right hand, and
the left hand used in picking the soft feathers from
the breast. If the sticking has been done properly
the feathers will all come out easily. The bird is
again held in the left hand while the feathers are
quickly stripped except the upper 3 inches on the
neck, the feathers on the outer joints of the wings
and a narrow ring around the hocks.

' Shaping gives chickens a compact, plump appear-
ance, and the returns received are greater than from
those shipped rough and unprepared. The shaper
is made by nailing two 7-inch boards together at
right angles, so as to form a trough of 6 inches,
inside measurement and of desired length. Assoon
as the chicken is plucked, its legs are placed along-
side its breast; then, with its breast downward, it
is forced down into the angle of the shaper, covered
with paper and a brick put on top to shape it, also
one against its side to hold it in position. It is
allowed to remain thus for at least six hours. After
being thoroughly cooled and its skin being thor-
oughly dried, the chicken should be packed.

CHAPTER XIII

Health and Sanitation

It is the right of every creature to be healthy.
Health is natural under normal conditions. Unless
health is maintained, it will be impossible to suc-
ceed in poultry raising. It should, therefore, be
the object of every poultry raiser to keep his
fowls in vigorous condition so that they may thrive
and produce the marketable products sought.
Probably the majority of failures in poultry keep-
ing’ is due to neglect or disobedience of those
natural laws upon which normal conditions of
health depend. It is a thousand times more im-
portant to understand and enforce these laws upon
which health depends, than it is to be posted on
poultry diseases.

The truth of this statement is evidenced by the
fact that the most successful poultrymen rarely
have cases of disease in their establishments. When
diseases do appear, they immediately hunt until
they find the cause rather than dope the bird or birds
and allow the bad practice or neglect to continue.
Fowls may be considered to be in health when
they have clear, bright red combs, are quick and
active in their movements, have good appetites and
when the organs of the body act in a normal way.

From what has been said in previous pages as to
management in breeding, feeding, housing, etc., it
may be seen that diseases may result from bad
methods of breeding, of feeding, of ventilation;
from impure food, impure air, impure water; from

204

222 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

filth and from neglect of the comfort of fowls, es-
pecially with respect to the dust bath and the roost-
ing quarters. Lack of exercise is also productive
of disorders. Lack of grit and shell-forming ma-
terial likewise give rise to various troubles. All
of these and other neglects and bad practices are
easily within the control of the poultryman. The
situation of the poultry house and yards (see
chapter on Location) may result unfavorably upon
the health of the flock; so may the lack of sunshine
and of drainage. Overcrowding is likely to pro-

SHED FOR COLONY HOUSE

Protection adds greatly to the life of colony houses. If
desired these houses may be used for autumn and winter
quarters. Note three styles of front.
duce unfavorable results; fowls should not be kept
closely confined in large numbers or in crowded
quarters.

It is best to allow Io to 15 square feet, or even
more, for each adult bird in confinement. Where
there is partial freedom, the area of the house may
be reduced a third or a half from the above figures.
The yard should be from 75 to 150 feet square for
each fowl. The larger area will not be too much
where grass is expected to grow in the run. All
poultrymen agree that it is best to avoid draughts
in the poultry house, at least draughts which strike
the birds, especially during roosting time. The dif-

HEALTH AND SANITATION 223

fusion system and the open front and fresh air
houses obviate this defect.

PENALTIES FOR UNCLEANNESS

At no time of the year are fowls so likely to be
neglected as during the hot summer months when
the farmer is making least out of them and sees
smallest prospect of returns. No matter how well
they may have been managed the previous winter
and spring, interest in them is likely to lag when
they lessen their laying. Neglect is most commonly
evidenced in careless feeding and watering and in
allowing the poultry houses and yards to become

WIRE NETTING

|
AND CURTAIN

WIRE NETTING

COMBINED SCRATCHING SHED AND HOUSE
Fresh-air house. Fowls have all floor space (16x12 feet),
except 4-foot alley behind roosts. Curtain at peak for use
when desired. About 600 feet lumber, four rolls paper, and

half roll netting, four hinges, needed for 50 or 60 fowls.
Cost of material about $25.

unclean. If the birds have free range the care-
less feeding may produce no apparent serious ef-
fects; but this kind of luck seldom follows neglect
of sanitary conditions.

224 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

More than 75 per cent of the ailments with which
poultry are troubled are due to unsanitary condi-
tions of the premises. And the foundation of a
large proportion of this is laid during the hot
months when the fowls should be in most vigor-
ous health and be preparing for the work of the
winter when eggs are high. Chicks cannot thrive
in a small, tight, sun-heated coop, especially when
their droppings are allowed to accumulate and the
coop is kept in the same place from week to week.

Disinfectants, such as carbolic acid or a commer-
cial article, may be used after the premises has
been made clean, not before. They are not
remedies for the results of neglect, nor do they
make it possible for a man to keep filthy quarters
and still make poultry pay. The man who thinks
to avert the penalty due to carelessness by using
disinfectants, lice powders or other so-called
remedies, is penny wise and pound foolish, for he
must sooner or later pay the penalty.

DISINFECTION

Many people believe in using disinfectants freely.
There is no objection to this, but there is a better
system; namely, the maintenance of cleanliness
which precludes the necessity for disinfection.
Sometimes, however, maladies may be introduced
unsuspectingly and the quarters become foul, in
spite of ordinary precautions. The whole premises
should be made scrupulously clean before any dis-
infection is started; then the disinfection should
be exceedingly thorough and preferably repeated
two or three times in the case of serious trouble.

Fowls that die from any disease considered con-
tagious should be destroyed, preferably by fire, or

HEALTH AND SANITATION 225,

be buried so deeply that dogs and other animals
will not dig them up. The danger of infection in-:
creases with the length of time that fowls are kept,
especially in confinement, on the premises. For
this reason, measures which make for cleanliness
cannot be emphasized too strongly. Among the |
best disinfectants are hot whitewash made of quick- '
lime. This wash should be used at least twice @
year; once each quarter is better. To increase its
disinfecting power two to four ounces of crude
carbolic acid may be added to each gallon of the
mixture. Kerosene oil and crude petroleum are
often applied to the roosts, but these are not in as
great favor as the lime wash.

Wherever possible, the yards should be dug or
plowed in order to bury the droppings. If it is
possible they should be planted to quick-growing
crops so as to sweeten the land and also supply
some green feed. Wherever possible, also, the flocks
should be moved to new quarters every two or
three years, so as to get the benefit of fresh ground.
Preferably none but young birds should be moved
to the new quarters. This will prevent contamina-
tion by old birds which may have been affected in
the old yards.

REMEDIES VS. PREVENTIVES

The adoption of remedies rather than the
elimination of bad practices may be considered the
entering wedge of failure for any poultryman, be-
cause it means the constantly increasing reliance
upon a futile agent. The poultryman who adopts
such practice is sure to neglect the conditions
which make for health, because he is deluded with

226 PPOFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the idea that he can cure his fowls by fussing and
drugging. The result invariably is a larger and
larger number of cases to treat, and a smaller and
smaller balance in the ledger.

For this reason special emphasis is laid through-
out this volume, and more particularly in this chap-
ter, upon conditions which make for health. Only

Two shoe boxes nailed together and provided with two
roosts eack. Canvas makes shade for sunny days.

sufficient hints are given to enable the poultryman
to identify some of the common ailments and to
ferret out through this identification the bad prac-
tice that has produced the trouble. In a general
way, it may be said that sick fowls should be re-
moved from the balance of the flock and nursed
rather than drugged, but whether it will pay in the
Jong run to do even this will depend upon the value

HEALTH AND SANITATION 227°

placed upon the individual fowl or fowls. It is
much better, as a rule, to kill a few fowls and thus
save the time and worry of nursing and also the
possible risk to the balance of the flock, than to
coddle and waste time with them.

The more rigidly the poultryman observes com-
mon sense rules of cleanliness, both in feed and
quarters where the fowls are kept, the less will
be his losses. These facts are well emphasized in
the larger and more important poultry yards and
stock farms all over the country. In such places
where sanitation and pure food and drink are in-
sisted upon, sickness is of very rare occurrence, and
can nearly always be traced to carelessness in some
respect. In every case it is essential to remove the
cause before the effect, disease, can be destroyed.
There is no use, therefore, in doping birds or
animals with drugs so long as the external cause of
their discomfort remains.

IDENTIFYING DISEASES

When fowls are discovered to be ailing, the
poultryman may be able to identify the trouble and
thus trace the difficulty back to its cause, which, it
is needless to say, should be eliminated. Let it be
emphasized again that disease is due, as a rule, to
something within the control of the poultryman
and that it is folly to attempt removing anything
without first rectifying the management or other
factor at fault.

Sneezing, with watering of the eyes and nostrils,
and with puffing of the face are indicative of 2
simple cold.

Fowls in well-ventilated houses, especially open

'228 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

front and fresh-air houses, are not subject to colds.

Rattling in the throat with other symptoms of
cold. indicates bronchitis, due to the same causes as
colds.

Ill-smelling discharges from the nostrils indicate
roup. (See special discussion. )

' Looseness of the bowels with smearing of fea-
thers around the vent indicates diarrhea. (See
special discussion.)

Droppings, greenish, becoming white and frothy,
are characteristic of cholera; but when greenish
yellow, are often a supplementary symptom of
roup. (See discussion of cholera.)

Little lumps beneath the skin on the face often
occur in roup.

Listlessness without other symptoms of disease
usually indicates indigestion. This is caused by
overfeeding and can be corrected by rectifying the
diet, especially by feeding green stuff more liberally.
Increased exercise is helpful.

Lameness may be caused by an accident. Acci-
dent may result in bumble foot, which is an abscess
on the sole. It may be prevented by providing a
runway to the roosts or making the roosts low.

Twisting the neck and head may indicate a giddi-
ness or cramps.

Sudden death may be due to heart failure or
apoplexy, but frequently it results from allowing
some other disease to go unchecked.

Inability to eat food may be due to an obstruc-
tion between the crop and the gizzard or in the
‘crop itself. Usually gentle kneading of the crop
will permit the contents to be removed from the
mouth or will remove the obstruction. Sometimes
the crop may be opened by a short cut close to the

HEALTH AND SANITATION 229

top and then sewed up again. Care must be taken
not to sew the skin of the crop to the outside skin.

Hardened droppings indicate constipation, due to
lack of green feed and of exercise, or in young
chicks to binding feed such as boiled milk. Ample
green feed and exercise are the best correctives.

Bareness of head of feathers, due to feather pull-

ing and eating. (See special discussion.)
i, Gaping of little chicks, as if obstructions were in
their throats, is due to small Y-shaped worms in
the windpipe. Characteristic of flocks kept on the
same soil from year to year. Give flocks of little
chicks new ground annually, or at least not less
often than once in three years.

Weakness of the legs indicates a lack of bone-
forming ingredients in the feed. Reduce the pro-
portion of carbohydrates and fat and increase the
proportion of animal food, especially bone meal.
Alfalfa and clover also help. Plenty of grit should
be supplied.

CHOLERA

No form of medical treatment has proved satis-
factory, though many preparations have been
recommendea for the eradication of fowl cholera.
‘No confidence can, therefore, be placed in internal
medication. The proper way to fight cholera is
by carrying out the strictest sanitary methods.
Affected birds must be promptly isolated at least
ten feet away from the flock. Dogs and other
animals must be fenced out of the poultry yards if
possible, and birds exhibited at poultry shows and
elsewhere, as well as fowls brought from other
places, should be kept separate for at least ten days.

230 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

so as not to spread the disease if possibly they have
it. Attendants should also be similarly careful.
Constant disinfection should continue until all signs
of trouble are passed. A solution of one pound
carbolic acid in 25 pounds, or 12 quarts, of water
should be used everywhere in the sheds and poultry
houses, and every part should be thus disinfected.

We

-

“2 =
Fog 3Ft: : Ft. q
COOP WITH DETACHABLE RUN

Upper part of coop with canvas or wire netting front.
Useful at first for young chicks; later as roosting quarters for
cockerels and pullets.

DIARRHEA

In every case what is called the white diarrhea
in young chickens can be traced to mismanagement
of some kind, either in the parent stock, the in-
cubator, or chicks themselves after being hatched.
The poultryman is generally not aware of the
trouble being with his methods or with those of the
men from whom he purchased the eggs, and is,
therefore, likely to search for some remedy to cure
the cases under his notice, when the whole matter
lies in prevention.

It is the experience of practical poultrymen that
remedies are unavailing, but that prevention is

HEALTH AND SANITATION 231

satisfactory. One man who has incubated more
than 30,000 eggs during the last few years has re-
duced his losses from white diarrhea to less than
I per cent; in fact, during the last two years the
trouble has been almost unknown in his yards.

Foremost among preventive measures is the selec-
tion of healthy, mature stock, which has not been
forced to produce eggs for market prior to the use
of eggs for hatching purposes. These birds should
be kept in strictest cleanliness, with abundant fresh
air, and an opportunity to exercise, preferably on
free range. Food and water supplied should be
such as the poultryman himself would be willing
to eat or drink.

After the chicks are hatched the trouble may
arise from improper management, either in feeding
or brooding. The chicks should not be disturbed
for at least 48 hours after hatching, nor should they
be fed during this time. The yolk has been sur-
rounded and is sufficient food to keep them going
for several days. In fact, some poultrymen say
that chicks will not starve if left without food for
ten days. However, three days is recognized by
men who ship day-old chicks for considerable dis-
tances. One of the very worst practices is to feed
grit to chicks just out of the shell, as it is sure to
irritate their tender intestinal membranes. Most
important during these early days is water. This
should always be pure and in abundance.

FEATHER PULLING

Feather pulling, a so-called bad habit, is fre-
quently observed in poultry yards during the late
winter and early spring. Many people believe it to

232 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

be due to idleness in the flock, and they recommend
exercise as the cure. There is a good deal in this,
and flocks have been helped by being obliged to
scratch in straw or leaves for the greater part of
' their grain food. It is believed, however, that the
cause is not so much lack of exercise as lack of salt
in their feed. Idle fowls will pull the feathers
from one another’s necks and get a little flavor of
the salt in the soft part of the base of the feather.
This taste prompts continued pulling, and often
the fowls’ necks are bare almost their full length.
The remedy is to give abundant opportunity to
exercise and feed a small quantity of salt in the
wet mash, just enough to season the mixture. The
habit is rarely observed when fowls have free range.
‘At least, it is far less common among them than
among those shut up in city yards.

ROUP

The fundamental cause of roup can always be
traced to filth of some kind; it may be no fault of
the owner of the poultry, since the birds may eat
putrid food or drink foul water while out on range,
when visiting a neighbor’s premises, or when ex-
hibited at some poultry show; but usually the
trouble lies in the home poultry quarters, especially
if the birds have not free range. The source of
infection may be in the water, the feed dishes, the
yard or other places where the fowls are confined.
For this reason it is imperative that the premises
and vessels be thoroughly cleaned as soon as any
trouble is discovered. After being made pure,
the whole place may be sprayed with a 5 per cent
solution of carbolic acid in water, care being taken

HEALTH AND SANITATION 233

to fill every crack, as well as the whole surface of
walls, ground and floor.

The yards should be spaded up or plowed and
planted to some crop, such as mustard, turnips,
rape, clover, or, in fact, anything that is quick
growing. If the yards
are small, and the fowls
would prevent the young
plants from growing, one-
half of the yard may be
sown, and then covered
with poultry netting held
up from the ground about See
6 inches by a framework See
of wood; the fowls can
then pick out the leaves
as these reach the wire,
but will not be able to
injure the roots of the
plants.

As for the affected birds,
it is doubtful if any,
remedy would pay to ap-
ply, unless the fowls are
very valuable, and as long
as they remain on the
place the owner runs the FOUNTAIN FOR CHICKS
risk of having still more Saucer or pan placed on’
fowls: sick. by coming in Glee Peneath suspended
contact with them. How-
ever, whenever it is desired to save them they
should at once be removed some distance from the
healthy ones, fed a well-balanced ration, containing
a small proportion of meat. None of the remedies
recommended have been found satisfactory so long

234 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

as the cause of the trouble remains, but by evaporat-
ing oil of turpentine in a close room, so that the
birds will be forced to breathe the vapor, is one of
the most commonly applied remedies. Professional
poultrymen have found that cleanliness, good ven-
tilation, plenty of sunlight and exercise are positive
preventives of roup.

PESTS

As the warm spring weather approaches it is
well to plan a little in anticipation of the annual
campaign against the insect pests which infest
poultry kind. Much of the ill luck complained of
by beginners is traceable to lice. These get at the
young chick almost as soon as it comes from the
shell, and unless something is done to keep them
down the chick will have a poor show.

MITES

Mites do not live on the body of the fowl. They
,hide during the day in the crevices about the
perches and adjacent parts. The perches should be
‘movable, so they can be turned over or taken from
the house. So also should be the nest boxes. The
best nest receptacle is one of wire to be hung on
'a peg. It can be purchased of a dealer in poultry
‘supplies. Boxes about 1 foot square can be used
in the same way by nailing two cleats to the back.
There should be a hole on each cleat by which to
hang on nails driven in the wall of the house. The
plainer a hen house is and the smoother the interior
surface the better. There should be no permanent
fixtures or partitions; then fewer hiding places for

HEALTH AND SANITATION 235

the mites, and the house can be more easily rid of
or protected from them.

Mites can be readily exterminated by brushing
the roosting poles or exposed parts with a mixture
of three parts kerosene and one part of crude car-
bolic acid. How often to do it can be determined
by examination. It seems hardly practicable to get
rid of them entirely, but they can be easily con-
trolled in the manner stated. A good plan is to
spread coal tar on the support on which the perch

tests. It is well to place sitting
hens in new boxes, as, if there
should be any of the mites about,
they will be apt to increase and

drive the hens from the eggs be-
fore through hatching.

LICE

Body lice, which lay their eggs
and pass through their various
stages of existence on the body
of the fowl, are much harder to
deal with. As a rule, active,
healthy hens having free range
or access to a good dust bath may
be depended upon to keep them-
selves fairly well rid of body lice.
It is recommended to dust them GRANARY
with insect powder, and some- Shoe box; hinged
times this may become neces- (224° over grain
sary, but it is a tedious and
difficult job at best, and it is utterly impossible
to kill all the vermin by one or two applications.
It is well to examine the hens occasionally to see

236 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

how they are faring in regard to body lice. IE,
present they will be found only on certain portions '
of the body, usually about the vent. Warm lard,
to which has been added a few drops of kerosene,
is useful. I

To keep chickens free from lice it is sufficient to
grease them two or three times with melted lard,
according as they may seem to require it. They
should be looked after closely and not be left until
they begin to get mopy and stand around all drawn
up ina heap. Some advocate using insect powders.
These are all right if one can get good, fresh stock.
Much of it that is sold at the stores is worthless.
A dust bath made of equal parts of sifted hard coal
ashes and land plaster is said by Prof. J. E. Rice to
be the best thing tried at the New York State Col-
lege poultry yards.

WORMS

No remedy of any kind is so effective in destroy-
ing worms as to warrant its recommendation,
because the only true way to deal with such condi-
tions is to remove the cause. Howevey, as a make-
shift, the liberal use of cultivated or wild garlic
in the mash is often adopted by poultrymen when
their birds suffer from worms in any part of the
digestive tract. Garlic must not, however, be
looked upon as a remedy, because the fowls are left
unprotected and liable to later attacks so long as
the cause of the infestation exists. This cause is
invariably filth of some kind. It may be that the
birds have been confined on the same area for some
time, and that the food thrown to them has become
contaminated. This is the most common condition.

HEALTH AND SANITATION 237

On the other hand fowls that have free range may
pick up some filthy food, such as decayed meat,
musty corn, etc., on which the eggs of worms may
have been deposited. In either case the trouble is
beyond control after the fowl has once eaten the
food.

The first thing to do, where possible, is to give
the birds new quarters, keeping them, however, in
some intermediate place for a few weeks where
they may be fed liberally, as already indicated,
with garlic. After they seem to have recuperated
and have become vigorous, they should be removed
to the new quarters. Where this cannot be done,
the whole premises should first be thoroughly
cleaned; then a spray of carbolic acid and water
at the rate of one to ten parts, should be made to
reach every crevice and every surface of the entire
poultry yard, buildings and runs. This spraying
should be repeated at intervals of two days for at
least two weeks, preferably in the early morning
during bright, sunshiny weather, and during this
time the litter in which the birds scratch, the dust
baths, and the droppings should be removed daily
and burned or deeply buried. If it is possible, the -
yard should be spaded up after the first spraying.

When the two weeks of treatment are concluded
the supply of litter and dust should be changed
once a week or oftener if a large number of fowls
are kept in the yard, and every precaution should
be taken to maintain the strictest cleanliness at all
times.

CHAPTER XIV

Water Fowl

Not a few farmers seem to be prejudiced against
water fowl, especially ducks. Geese are tolerated
because they forage for themselves very largely
and live on what they pick up from waste lands
such as marshes and wet pastures. They are es-
sentially grass-eating birds. From the time vegeta-
tion starts in spring till killed by frost in autumn,
geese demand almost no attention. Goslings, after
they are four weeks old, will also shift for them-
selves. Ducks, on the other hand, will not stand
neglect so well, and they are more likely to wander
and get lost or be killed by prowlers, such as foxes;
then, too, the ducklings, if allowed on streams and
ponds, are likely to be eaten by turtles and preying
fish. Another objection is that ducks improperly
managed often lay their eggs in the water. Unless
they have desirable quarters and are given proper
attention they are rather troublesome to look after.
Besides this, they are very noisy, especially if dis-
turbed at night. The careless farmer is most likely
to be prejudiced against ducks for the above reasons,
and also because half-fed ducks will overeat them-
selves when they do get a chance at food.

DUCKS

As noted in Chapter II, it will not pay the
farmer to go into duck raising on an extensive com-
mercial scale unless he is situated within easy ac-

238

WATER FOWL 239

cess of a large city not well supplied with ducks.
On the other hand, many farmers who have a good
local market can make very nice profits out of
ducks, even on a small scale. There are no special
difficulties in the way; in fact, anyone can succeed
with ducks. The brooding time is only half as long
as that for chickens and the ducklings do not need
nearly as much heat in the brooders. Where only
a small number are to be
raised, hens will do the
hatching very successfully.

The duck has so many
good qualities, it matures
so early and furnishes such
excellent meat and is so DUCK FOUNTAIN
easily reared that every wire frame over gravel
jatmer should keep at least PE ee woe? Oe
a few to supply his own
table and make a little money from surplus ones.
This applies especially where the older ducks can
have access to a marsh, a pond or a stream, but
where their wanderings may be restricted. Duck
flesh is one of the greatest delicacies that can be
raised on the farm.

A good deal of the trouble in raising ducks is due
wholly to neglect, and to the unjust reputation of
the duck as a gormandizer, a reputation based
largely on irregularity of feeding. Half-starved
ducks are not slow to take advantage of an oppor-
tunity to eat, so if grain or other food is acciden-
tally left within reach they will surround as much
of it as possible. On the other hand, if food is con-
stantly before them, especially if they have a chance
to forage, they will not, as a rule, eat more raven-
ously than other fowls. Usually under good man-

240 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

agement, especially feeding, they attain their
growth in four months, though under commercial
conditions they are marketed at two or three
months. For best prices August and September
is the favorable season when one has access to
summer resorts. During October and November
later broods may also be disposed of at a profit,
but for the ordinary farmer it is best not to keep
ducks for a later market unless they have been
hatched late in the season. If ducks can be hatched
during March they may be disposed of at good
prices during June or even earlier.

Ducks need no more water than chickens until
they are three months old. Neither pond nor
stream is necessary until the ducklings have their
feathers. In fact, until the ducklings are well fea-
thered, it is best that they be not allowed to get
their down wet. For this reason their drinking
fountains should be such that the little ducks can-
not get more than their bills into the water. Thrifty
ducks can easily be raised on a yard one-quarter
of an acre in extent. When properly treated they
should be no more troublesome than little chicks.

Hens, especially the more docile breeds, such as
the Cochin and the Brahma, make excellent mothers.
‘Another advantage of these breeds is that their
large size enables them to cover several more eggs
than Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte hens or hens
of the lighter varieties. They will easily cover
nine or ten eggs. If set very early, however, they
should not be given quite so many unless their
quarters are warm. No special remarks need be
made concerning the hatching of eggs under hens.
The period of incubation is 28 days. The eggs
should be aired oftener and longer than hens’ eggs

WATER FOWL 241

and not allowed to get as dry as hens’ eggs while
hatching. None but fresh eggs from healthy parent
stock should be used. By fresh eggs is meant eggs
not over ten days old. It is true that eggs, even
three weeks old, have been set under hens, but
these do not usually give as good results; the duck-
lings are likely to be weak. Preferably the hen
should be taken from her nest at noon when the
temperature of the air is warmest. A half hour
off the nest will be sufficient for the hen to range,
secure green food, grain, water and dust herself.

CARE OF DUCKLINGS

As the ducklings hatch they should be put in a
warm place, preferably near the kitchen stove, and
kept warm just as little chicks are managed. When
the hatch is over the ducklings may be put under
the hen in a coop or in a brooder; preferably they
should be kept confined for two or three days and
then allowed to roam in a small yard as soon as the
weather is warm. Many farmers who raise ducks
on a small scale believe it absurd to allow a nice
hen to run her legs off with a brood of ducklings.
The ducklings are never still a minute. They care
nothing for the mother except to use her at night
as a hover.

If one has not enough ducklings to justify a
brooder, a small box lined with old woolen
or flannel goods will be found satisfactory. Heat
may be supplied by a jug of hot water placed pref-
erably above the heads of the ducklings. The little
ducks may be fed at first with hard-boiled eggs,
bread crumbs, clabber or other soft food. Mush
and milk are also good, but preferably this food

242 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

should not be given before the second week. After
they are two or three weeks old raw cornmeal,
moistened with milk or water, may be fed, also
scraps from the table. When scraps are fed the
ducklings may be given some fresh animal feed,
chopped cabbage, turnips, etc. Liver and lights are
very good when finely mixed. Ducklings and older
ducks do better on soft feed than on grain. In the
soft feed should be some grit not too fine. Grit
should also be within reach at all times.

LOCALITIES FOR DUCK YARDS

Where one is situated on a tidewater stream or
cove he should take advantage of the opportunity
to raise ducks. There is in such a situation a con-
stant succession of sea food which the ducks can
secure with every ebb of the tide. All that is neces-
sary is to supply a house or a pen on the shore,’
hoppers with ground grain and drinking fountains
for the ducks to help themselves. When such are
supplied the ducks will come home every night
without trouble. Usually duck eggs are laid at
night or in the early morning, and where the flock
is properly managed there will be little danger of
loss from laying in the water. If desired, the ducks
may be kept shut up until, say, 10 o’clock, by which
time practically all the eggs will have been laid.

Next to a tidewater situation comes a marsh, a
stream or a pond, especially a marsh through which
a stream flows. The ducks will pick up a large
portion of their living, but in the absence of any of
‘these advantages the farmer may easily keep ducks
without trouble. He may make an artificial pond
\for the ducks to paddle in. This may be in any

WATER FOWL 243

convenient place, preferably not too near the house.
It need not be expensive. Concrete may be used
where the formation of the ground is not suitable
for making a pond by means of a dam across the
spring. The depth need not be more tha 18 inches,
and even that depth is not necessary so far as the
water itself is concerned. Probably a foot will be
ample depth for the water. The pond need be sup-
plied only for the breeding ducks which mate in the
water.

While it is possible for ducks to get along with-’
out water to swim in, yet they certainly do better
when supplied with a place to paddle, and best
where they have a chance to forage. Foraging for
a duck is what scratching is for a hen. It supplies
exercise and interest in life. If not given water
tange, ducks should have fresh water to drink al-
ways within easy reach. The duck fountain, placed
upon a gravel pit, is one of the best arrangements,
because it does not allow the ground around it to
become muddy. Ducks splash a good deal of water
around their drinking fountains and some means
of drainage must be supplied or the place will be-
come very foul in a short time. In a general way
ducks can be profitably raised wherever hens can be.

CLEANLINESS IS ESSENTIAL

at all times. The feeding and drinking vessels
should be kept clean constantly, the floors should
be littered with absorbent material such as shav-
ings, waste hay or straw and this replaced before
it becomes damp and foul. While it is a fact that
ducks and geese also naturally spend time in the
water, yet they like to have their sleeping and resting

‘244, PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

places dry. The yards where ducks are kept should
be scraped from time to time and fresh sand or
earth thrown upon them. It is a good plan to have
the yards plowed or spaded and sown to rye in the
fall, or in the spring where the fowls have access
during the summer, but not in the winter, to water
range. Not only does this purify the soil, but it
helps to supply feed.

’ No special remarks need be made concerning the
quarters for ducks. Houses and yards may be
practically the same as for hens, except that nests
and roosts need not be supplied. Preference should
always be given to well-drained soil, so that when
rain falls the yards may not be sloppy and so that
the droppings may be washed into the soil rather
than over it or made into puddles. Shade is essen-
tial in the summer time. If there is no natural
shade, artificial shade must be supplied. Ducks
are very sensitive to the sun’s heat. They will
naturally take care of themselves in a marsh where
there is shrubbery, but where shrubbery is absent
they should have a simple shed or canvas cover
under which they may take refuge.

At all times it is essential that ducks be treated
kindly and quietly. Gentleness and quietness are
absolutely necessary to the best development of the
duck. As a rule, ducks are fearless until they are
once frightened. When one is frightened fear
rapidly spreads among the flock. If it is necessary
to catch any duck it should always be caught by
the body, never by the neck, and the person who
does the catching should never be careless or rough
in handling the ones caught. The same remark
made concerning visitors and dogs with respect to
hens applies even more forcibly to ducks. Never

WATER FOWL 245

"should dogs or visitors be allowed in the breed-,
ing yard because the egg yield is sure to be re-
duced. After the breeding pens are once made up
the groups should be maintained without change.
Ducks quickly miss one of their companions, so if
stock is to be kept for sale it should be separate’
from the breeding flocks.

Breeding ducks should be given free range or at’
least water in which to swim. They may be fed
on almost any kind of mill feed. When they can-,
not have free range and thus pick up animal and
vegetable life, they should be supplied with animal |
and vegetable food of some kind. Chopped clover, |
cabbage, kale, alfalfa; in fact, almost any vegetable,
will do. This should be mixed with the wet mash
to which bone meal or beef scrap and grit have been
added. There is no reason why duck food should
be cooked. Ducks do fully as well on raw feed.
It is best that they do not have whole grain, be-
cause they cannot grind it as well as hens and tur-
keys do. At all times they must be supplied with
water close to their feeding troughs. A reasonably
full meal morning and evening is all that is neces-
sary, especially where the ducks have free range.
When ducks at range are to be fattened for the
table, they should be removed from the general
flock and fed only such food as will not give the
flesh an unpleasant flavor. Fish and some of the
vegetable matter that they might get in the marshes
and ponds often impart unpleasant flavors to the.
flesh.
For breeding ducks Long Island growers use a’
mixture of one pailful each of wheat, oats, mid-|
dlings, two pails of bran, four of cornmeal and two
bushels of cut clover grass or other green _thor-

246 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

oughly minced, mixed and wetted. The ducks are
allowed to eat as much as they wish. It is neces-
sary to feed some special formula like this only
where it is impossible to give the ducks free range

and an opportunity to balance up the food them-

selves.
HATCHING IN INCUBATORS

Where duck eggs are hatched in incubators care

‘must be given as to ventilation; since duck eggs

‘are considerably larger than hen eggs they are
‘more difficult to handle. The air space in the in-

cubator is smaller proportionately for duck eggs
than for hen eggs; hence, if one is going into the
hatching of duck eggs, he should give preference to
a machine with a larger air space than when hatch-
ing hen eggs. When such a machine is not used
the ordinary incubator will do, provided it is run
with greater care as to ventilation. Never should
duck and chicken eggs, duck and turkey eggs, or
duck and goose eggs be placed in the machine at
the same time. Only one kind of egg should be
used at a time. Duck eggs should be cooled longer
than hen eggs. Some duck raisers believe in
sprinkling the eggs with tepid water, especially
during the last two weeks. Others think it advis-
able to dip the eggs in tepid water daily; still
others do not practice either method. Much de-
pends upon the way the machine is managed and
the amount of moisture in the air of the egg

,chamber.

As a rule, ducklings break their shells 30 to 48
‘hours before emerging. If unable to get out with-

‘out aid_after the twenty-eighth day, they should,

‘WATER FOWL 247

be given some help. In this respect they are less
Sensitive than chicks. For at least 24 hours the
ducklings should be allowed to remain in the ma-
chine. When removed they should be taken to
brooders in flocks not exceeding 50. Forty would
be better. Management is practically the same as
for chicks, excepting that the ducklings, at first,
must be kept closer to the heat. Usually they will
not need heat after six weeks old when hatched in
the early spring; three weeks will be all that is
necessary when the season becomes warm. After
weaning the management of ducklings is the same
no matter how raised.

For market the ducklings should be confined in
smaller yards than for breeding purposes. They
may be fed more liberally of fattening materials.
‘When about six weeks of age they may be put in
the fattening pens and fed a mixture of two-thirds
of cornmeal with equal parts of bran, middlings and
greens. To this 10 or 12 per cent of beef scrap may
be added. Preferably ducklings intended for mar-
ket should not be given water range. For breeders
ducklings should be given their liberty as soon as
weaned. Most commercial duck raisers allow the
ducklings to run together in close quarters until
they are old enough for marketing, then the best
are sorted out, the home flock given wider liberty,
a grass range or a pond, and encouraged to develop
strength rather than fat.

SELECTION OF BREEDERS

In sorting out ducks for breeders, females may
be recognized from the males as early as six weeks
old. When caught the ducks quack loudly. -The

248 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

drakes, however, give a sort of a hissing quack
or they may not be able to make a sound. Later
on the characteristic curled tail feathers distinguish
the drakes.

The usual method of killing ducks is the same as
for chickens, except that after the veins and ar-
teries are cut in the mouth, a sharp blow upon the
head is given by striking against a post. This re-
duces undue movement and consequently soiling of
the feathers from the blood. Since duck feathers
command good prices they form an item of revenue
not to be neglected. It is necessary to pick dry
in order to get the best prices. Asa rule, the sale
of feathers will about pay for the cost of picking.
Another advantage about dry picking is that dry-
picked ducks usually sell for better prices than
scalded ones.

The best time to kill ducks for market is at about
ten weeks old or before a new crop of pin feathers
appears. This reduces the amount of work con-
siderably. Pin feathers may be removed more
easily if wetted, since they may be caught between
the thumb and a knife blade held in the hand.
Usually the soft feathers from the wings are not
removed, neither are the head and neck plucked.
Ducks are rarely drawn or beheaded for market.
After plucking the wings are brought close to the
body and held in that position by strings or band-
ages. All the blood is removed by washing and
the ducks are then placed in fresh water to cool
down and later put in ice water. Generally it is
thought best to place them breast downward so as
to make the breasts look more attractive when ex-
posed for sale.

WATER FOWL 249
BREEDS OF DUCKS

Unquestionably the Pekin is the leading breed of
ducks in America. It is a white-feathered bird,
which may be easily kept in inclosures. The beaks
are yellow. This breed is very large, uniform in
size and rapid in development. At four months the
ducklings should weigh 5 pounds each. In
America they have no successful market rivals.
This is because of their hardiness, quickness of
growth and prolificacy of large, usually white, eggs.
Standard weights are 8 pounds for the mature
birds and 7 pounds for the duck. The carcass
is very long and deep and contains a goodly pro-
portion of meat both on the breast and behind.

The Aylesbury resembles the Pekin in general
appearance and size, but the bodies are somewhat
oval. The plumage is white and not so soft. The
bill is flesh colored and the feet yellow, instead of
reddish as in the Pekin. The Aylesbury stands
with its body more horizontal than the Pekin. The
breed is the leading market favorite in England.
It is about as quick growing as the Pekin, but has
not proved as satisfactory among American duck
raisers. According to the standard of perfection,
adult drakes weigh 9 pounds and ducks 8 pounds.

The Rouen ducks, which are given the same
standard weights as the Aylesbury, look much like
the common puddle ducks of the farm. When well
bred, however, their colors are more pronounced
and their size much larger. They are also better
layers and quicker to mature. There is nothing to”
indicate that they are in any way inferior to Pekin
or Aylesbury ducks for the table, but their color
is against them for the general market. For home,

250 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

use they are fully as valuable as either of the otlier
varieties mentioned.

The Muscovy, in two varieties, Colored and
White, is a particularly unpleasant looking creature
because of its featherless face covered with warty
skin. This repulsive appearance is more than
borne out by the viciousness of the males. The
ducks are perhaps as pugnacious as the drakes
when they have their broods. Adult drakes weigh
Io pounds; ducks 8. Prior to the importation of
the Pekin, the Muscovy was popular among the
commercial duck growers, but its poor-laying abil-
ity, its viciousness and its color all being against it,
made it easy for the Pekin to replace it.

Besides these four principal ducks there are many
others, but almost all are much lighter weight.
‘Among them are the Cayuga, which is a hardy,
early maturing, good layer, with greenish-black
plumage and flight feathers in the female, some-
times more or less brown.

Indian Runner is another small variety introduced
‘within recent years. The drakes rarely weigh more
‘than 5 pounds and the ducks 4. They are usually
light fawn colored, sometimes grayish. Their chief
walue is in their prolificacy. They have been
called the Leghorns of the duck family. It is
said they are more home loving than most other
breeds.

Besides these varieties, there are several others,
among them the Buff Orpington, a variety of recent
origin and little known in this country. It hails
from England. Gray and White Call Ducks,
Black East Indian ducks and Crested White ducks
are all little varieties raised particularly for orna-
ment.

WATER FOWL 251'

GEESE

While it is true that geese cannot be profitably
raised in confinement (see page 39), it is a fact
that on every farm a flock may be profitably reared

CELEBRATED TOULOUSE GANDER

For years this bird was first prize winner at Madison
Square Garden Poultry Show. It was bred and owned by
Cc. W. King of Seneca county, N. Y.

each year. Geese need not have access to a swim-
ming pool, though, like all other water fowl, they
enjoy water, and a pool is of great benefit

252 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

especially during the breeding season. They are
very thirsty creatures and should always have
abundant drinking water, especially during the
warm weather. Geese are by far the cheapest and
easiest of all domestic fowls to raise. They require
but little shelter at any time, and if given plenty of
pasture will gather the larger portion of their food
from the fields.

An ideal pasture, such as is not desirable for
animal grazing—a marsh, especially one with a
stream running through, or bordering a pond—is
admirable. Farmers are realizing the fact that it
pays to utilize such waste land by raising geese
upon it. Not only does such land not pay taxes
ordinarily, but it is often a distinct disadvantage to
the farm. When used for a goose pasture the loss
can be wiped out completely and the geese sold
from it made to yield a handsome profit. In fact,
since the original breeding flock may be kept for
many years, the only cost of keeping a flock of geese
would be for the winter care and for the attention
demanded by the goslings until they are able to
take care of themselves. The goslings would pick
up nearly all of their living from the waste land,
and nearly all the money they would bring in the
market or when sold for breeding purposes would
be clear profit.

Many more geese could be raised in this country
and still the demand would not fail. Each year
geese are becoming more popular as table fowls.
iVery large, young geese, when well fattened, com-
mand a premium in the markets. In goose grow-
ing as well as in other lines of poultry production
the value of good breeding stock cannot be over-

_estimated. Good stock is as easily fed and cared

WATER FOWL 253

for as are inferior birds and give very much better
results. Where farmers have been raising common
geese at a profit there are excellent opportunities
for them to raise pure-bred geese at a greater profit,
because the pure breds not only attain larger sizes
and, as a rule, lay larger numbers of eggs, but the
young are easier to rear and there is a fairly good
demand for both eggs and birds for breeding. The
prices for market geese, breeders and eggs are all
excellent, so that there is every reason why pure-
bred ones should replace inferior geese.

GEESE NEED PASTURAGE

As already indicated, geese cannot be kept in
confinement, because, like turkeys, they must have
range, but, unlike turkeys, they are not rovers.
They can be counted upon to come to their shel-
ters regularly; they have a great love for home.
For this reason they are easily kept on even small
range and with almost no trouble as to fencing.
Their chief food is vegetable matter which they
prefer to pick in their wanderings. They also
enjoy water, animal life, snails, slugs, worms, in-
sects, etc., which they can secure. While it is true
that they enjoy water and marshy places, they
greatly prefer dry quarters in which to sleep.
Since they are hardy, their shelters need not be as
carefully constructed as those used for chickens. The
principal thing is to secure dryness at all seasons
and shelter from winds during cold weather. Geese
do not make their quarters foul so quickly as ducks
do, but it is just as essential that their shelters be
kept clean. Straw and refuse hay, sawdust or
shavings are equally useful in the sheds. What-

254 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

ever material is used should be removed and re-
placed before it becomes foul.

From what has been said, it may be correctly in-
ferred that geese are kept in much smaller numbers
than chickens or even turkeys, yet they reach the
market in considerable quantities, especially in the
western states. Along the Atlantic seaboard there
are some farms where goose growing is made a
specialty. Except for these farms there are very
few places where geese are raised extensively. The
great majority of market geese are raised in small
numbers on ordinary farms, which, as a rule, still
cling to flocks of inferior breeding. Though the
market demand is by no means as great as for the
other three great classes of poultry, yet this de-
mand is not nearly met by the supply of stock.
For this reason anyone situated near a good market
and provided with a favorable site for goose grow-
ing should embrace his opportunity to supply this
demand, but no desire for making money should
tempt anyone not supplied with good grazing
ground to begin goose growing, because while he
may succeed in raising the geese he could not com-
pete with farmers who have better facilities.

PROFITS IN GOOSE GROWING

As to the amount of money that can be made
from geese, much, of course, depends upon the
market. Growers calculate that geese pay propor-
tionately better than ducks, but since they cannot
be grown in such large quantities nor by such
machine methods the facilities sooner reach their
profitable limit. The cost of producing young geese
for market is estimated at less than Io cents a
pound, even when the goslings are fed heavily for

WATER FOWL 255

fattening during the last few weeks. This estimate
of course does not apply to the special feeding
methods practiced in Wisconsin. For the Jewish
demand (see page 39), prices in the East usually
start in the early season at 30 to 35 cents a pound;
and sometimes fall as low as 15 cents during
autumn. The season begins in June.

As a rule, good prices are realized during the
holiday season. The sale of goslings at five or six
weeks old to fatteners is rather common. Where
there is not much demand for geese, profits are not
as large as these figures might seem to indicate. It is
believed that the production of mongrel geese (that
is, crosses of the Brown China, African or Tou-
louse geese with wild ganders) is more profitable
than ordinary goose growing. The goslings from
these crosses, though sterile and therefore useless
for breeding, are excellent for the market because of
their large size—i12 or 14 pounds—and because of a
greater demand for them at advanced prices during
the holiday season. It is not usual to make the
reverse cross, that is, a domestic gander on wild
geese, because the wild birds are much less prolific
of eggs than the domestic geese. Generally the
wild gander will mate with only one goose; domes-
tic ganders will take two, three or even four geese.

When one plans to start goose raising he should
buy his stock birds in the autumn, because that is
the usual season for mating and also because the
birds take some time to become accustomed to their
new homes. If bought shortly before the breeding
season the results are almost sure to be unsatisfac-
tory. Either the birds will not mate or when they
do the goose will not lay as early nor as well as
she otherwise would, and the hatches may not be as

2506 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

large, to say nothing of the delay likely to occur
on account of the dislike for her new quarters.

It is highly desirable to buy old rather than
young birds for breeding. No fear need be enter-
tained that old geese will not do well. Much more
may be expected of them than from old hens. Geese
are considered profitable until ten or even 15 years
of age, and ganders six or seven. For this reason
a breeding flock need not be increased from year to
year unless desired, and all the young progeny may
be sold as soon as it reaches marketable size.
Breeding stock may be purchased usually from $3
to $5 for each bird, or if eggs are desired from 25
to 50 cents each or $2.50 to $5 a dozen.

SELECTING BREEDERS

Since geese are not usually very prolific breeders
it is customary to remove the eggs as fast as laid
for hatching under hens. This keeps the goose
laying longer than she otherwise would. Incuba-
tors, as a rule, have not proved very satisfactory
for hatching goose eggs. Hens may be given from
four to seven eggs each, according to the season and
their size. Testing for fertility should be made on
the seventh or eighth day and infertile eggs re-
moved. Incubation generally last 30 days, al-
though sometimes longer.

Since many hens do not take kindly to goslings
they must be closely watched when the goslings
are hatching, otherwise they may kill their foster
children. As soon as hatched, therefore, the gos-
lings should be removed to a box lined with flannel
and kept in a warm place. Ina day or so they may
be given to quiet hens that do not object to them.

WATER FOWL 257

Geese make good mothers, and when they show a'
decided disposition to set may be given a dozen to
I5 eggs each. As a rule, they do not like to be
moved from their regular places of laying and re-—
sent any interference while setting. It is a good
plan to have several hens at the same time that the '
goose is to set and to give the goslings all to the ~
goose.

The brood should be placed in warm quarters
and care taken that the goslings do not run too
much at first. They should be kept warm and
quiet at least a week and not allowed to run around
much nor to become excited. After they are four

VEHICLE COOP

Packing case with attached run. Handles used to wheel
coop about.

or five weeks old they will not need much atten-
tion, since the mother goose will take care of her
brood. Goslings raised without mothers soon be-
come self-dependent. It is important that the pens
be upon rather short grass and moved at least once
a day or as soon as the grass shows signs of be-
coming short. It is essential that shelter be pro-
vided from the sun and storm. Contrary to the
popular belief, goslings should be kept from water,

258 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

except for drinking, until they: have produced
feathers.

REARING THE GOSLINGS

Little goslings are very dainty eaters at first; their
appetites will come in due time. During the first
few days bread crumbs, soaked in milk or water and
squeezed nearly dry are very good and are relished.
This feed may be given three or four times a day
with plenty of water to drink. The drinking foun-
tain should be arranged so the goslings cannot wet
more than their bills. During the second week a
mash of equal parts ground oats, bran and cornmeal
mixed with hot water may be fed cold five times a
day and continued until the goslings are a month
old. After the first few days they may have the
freedom of a small pen where there is plenty of
grass, and when two weeks old, their range may be
extended. Clover and alfalfa are especially good.

When one month old the same mash may be used
morning and evening with perhaps a meal at noon.
Some breeders, however, prefer to feed the mash at
morning and noon with cracked wheat at night.
Until the goslings are fully feathered they should
be kept out of the water and only those that are in-
tended for breeding purposes should learn to swim.
When two months old, feeding may be reduced to
twice a day—soft feed in the morning and cracked
corn or wheat, or a mixture of these two grains, at
night. From this time forward the goslings may be
allowed to roam at will. About three weeks before
killing, those intended for market should be penned
in a small space and fed a mixture of two parts corn-
meal one part bran and one part beef scrap, with

WATER FOWL’ 259}

corn at night, and oats and wheat at noon. Grit"
should always be placed where goslings can reach it.

The most important point next to feeding when
rearing goslings for market is to keep the little birds
tame and gentle. They should also be kept inclosed
at night. When preparing for market, feed should
be withheld for 12 hours before killing. After they are
killed, an operation managed the same as for ducks,
the carcasses should be plucked and singed. This
singeing makes all the difference between an at-
tractive and an unattractive looking carcass. Gos-
lings of such breeds as Toulouse, Embden, African
and some of the cross-bred geese weigh eight to 12
pounds when ten weeks to three months old. In-
dividual specimens may weigh even more. It is
generally more profitable to market them at that
age than to hold them for a later market; prices
are usually higher and there is less likelihood of
running up the cost of feed. It is considered best,
however, to hold mongrel geese for the Thanks-
giving and Christmas markets, because of the higher
prices they command. The season for geese begins
in early June and continues until March of the fol-
lowing year.

One of the important sources of income from
geese is the feathers. These, when properly man-,
aged, often sell for 50 cents or more a pound. Many
goose raisers still practice the barbarous custom of
plucking live geese. Whether this is a profitable
practice or not is not the question. It is cruel,
especially if plucking is resorted to frequently.
This practice is probably responsible for the low
prices often paid for certain classes of geese and
for the poor condition that many geese are in when
they reach the market. It is one thing for a goose

@60 YPROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

to molt naturally, but quite another to have the
feathers pulled out every six weeks during the
‘warm weather to force a new growth of feathers.
Feather pulling is especially bad for geese used for
breeding. Geese which have to grow extra crops
of feathers cannot be expected to start laying as
early, to lay as many eggs nor to have such good
hatches as when Nature is allowed her own way.
The practice is condemned by all the best breeders
of geese.

BREEDS OF GEESE

Probably the most popular breed of geese in
‘America is the Toulouse. It is not only the
largest but possibly the best adapted for general
farm conditions, especially where the range is not
ideal. It is thought to do better without a swim-
ming area than other breeds. Its standard weights
are 20 pounds for adult ganders and 18 for the
geese. In general appearance it resembles the
‘common farm goose more than the other breeds,
,but is much larger than these scrub geese. It is
gray, though beneath and behind there are white
areas in the plumage; the legs and the bill are
orange. During their first year young geese lay 15
to 25 eggs. When older they may lay from 25 to
40. The breed is very quiet, but in spite of its
wide popularity, is not ranked very high in the
market.

_ The Embden is the chief rival of the Toulouse.
While its standard weights are the same as for the
‘Toulouse, a smaller proportion of the birds attain
these weights. The plumage is white; legs and bill
yellow. The Embden when well bred and properly

WATER FOWL 261

prepared not only makes the best-looking carcass
but is superior to other breeds for marketing. One
of the chief disadvantages in purchasing specimens
is that there are many poor flocks in this country,
poor not only in breeding, but poor in ability to
lay. Intending purchasers should be careful in
buying for these reasons.

Chinese geese are of two varieties—Brown and
White. Their form and carriage is different from
that of the two breéds already mentioned. They
stand much more erect, have much longer and
slenderer necks. In the Brown Chinese, at the base
of the bill is a peculiar dark-colored knob, as will
be seen in the half-tone picture of the breed. The
standard weights are 14 pounds for the adult gander
and 12 for the geese. The Brown variety is con-
sidered the most prolific of all geese. Under or-
dinary management the females will lay 40 to 50
‘eggs or even more, and these eggs are noted for
their fertility. One of the chief disadvantages is
that the carcasses are exceedingly hard to pluck
and, when dressed, make the poorest appearance of
all kinds of geese. In the White Chinese the
plumage is white throughout, the bill and legs are
orange colored and so is the knob at the base of the
bill. While the geese lay as well as their brown
cousins, their eggs are less fertile. White Chinese
geese rival the Embden geese in the market. Their
carcasses make a far better appearance than those
of the Brown.

African geese are not nearly as common as other
large varieties. Their color is gray, dark above,
light below. On the back of the neck there is a
dark stripe. Their weights are the same as for
Embden and Toulouse. The bill is black and has

262 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

the same kind of black knob characteristic of the
Brown Chinese variety. The legs are orange
colored. As a rule, the geese lay better than the
Embden, but not as well as the Toulouse, and the
carcasses, especially of old birds, are hard to make
look well for the market. The skin is dark, and
this unfavorable color is not improved by the
presence of down and pin feathers which are usually
very hard to remove.

Besides the market varieties of geese described,
there are several used for ornament, among them
are the Egyptian. One of these varieties, the Wild
or Canadian geese, however, is used for breeding
mongrels, as already noticed. The Egyptian is
purely ornamental.

GOOSE AND DUCK FEATHERS

Generally speaking there is probably less waste
of geese and duck feathers than of chicken and
turkey, because the prices are considerably higher
and the uses more numerous, and yet it is prob-
able that many bring a lower price than they should
because of the imperfect methods of sorting and
curing. In the first place, the birds should be dry
picked, so as to save the animal oils which give the
feathers their “life.” The reduction in grade be-
cause of scalding is not so great with geese and
duck feathers as with turkey and chicken, pro-
vided proper care has been exercised and the birds
immersed for only a very short time and the drying
properly attended to. The feathers from the two
kinds of birds should be kept separate, but other-
wise the method of handling is simple.

A leading dealer writes as follows concerning the

WATER FOWL 263

handling of these products: Dry-picked goose and
duck feathers should be placed on the floor and
spread out for two or three days. The feathers
from white birds should be kept by themselves.
Special care should be taken to have the floors
scrupulously clean, for white feathers especially,
since the whiteness increases value. Each day
until thoroughly dry, the feathers should be turned
over. The quills and coarser feathers should never
be included with the body feathers.

Burlap or cotton sacks are best for shipping the
small feathers, which unless perfectly dry, are apt
to become mildewed very rapidly and to command
a reduced price. In the autumn, pure white goose
feathers dry and in good condition are worth about
60 cents a pound. Gray goose and white duck 40
cents each, gray duck 32 cents. Scalded stock
brings from 3 to 5 cents less a pound.

CHAPTER XV

Turkeys

‘As already indicated on page 40, the turkey readily
fits in with farm work and yet not everyone can
engage in turkey business because much depends
upon surroundings. The laws of trespass do not
permit animals and poultry to roam over the fields
of one’s neighbors, so unless the neighbors are
willing to permit the wanderings of turkeys over
their fields, this branch of poultry raising had
better not be undertaken. It is essential that tur-
keys have range, and if one finds fields are not large
enough to permit ample forage, turkey raising had
best be abandoned as a leading branch of poultry
raising. To be sure, a few turkeys can be grown
on a small farm, even with limited range, but
usually it is not safe to grow in restricted quarters
more than will supply the demands of the home
table.

So far as locality is concerned, turkeys can be
raised anywhere. It is not safe, however, to at-
tempt keeping them in damp places, nor heavy
soils. Light soils, well drained, especially on up-
lands, suit them best. Where such conditions can
be provided with abundant foraging ground, there
is no reason why the turkey should not prove prof-
itable. It does remarkably well in grain and stock
sections, since the fowls can pick up much of the
broken heads of grain left in the field and also
secure abundant insect diet, particularly after the
hay crop has been harvested. It must be remem-

264

TURKEYS 265

bered, however, that turkeys are a side line; they
have not been raised in commercial quantities like
ducks or chickens.

One advantage of turkey raising is that expensive
and extensive coops are not required. Probably the
majority of turkey raisers permit
their turkeys to roost in trees no
matter what the weather may be.
This is not considered as desirable
as formerly. There is no question <#a
that turkeys intended for market FEED TROUGH
cannot make as good growth when For TURKEYS
exposed as when protected, at AND ROOSTERS
least somewhat, and it is just as
unlikely that stock birds will do well when forced
or permitted to roost in trees where, during a sleet
storm they may freeze to the branches. On these
accounts, shelter of some sort should be provided
and the birds taught to roost under cover. The
sheds need be only sufficient to keep out snow and
rain and the severe wind. They may be somewhat
after the order of the open-air house illustrated on
page 60. These turkey sheds should, however, be
more lofty than for chickens and the roosts should
be several feet above the ground, preferably rather
close to the roof. There is no reason why a turkey
should not adopt more rational methods than it did
in the forest and the fact that it can be taught to do
so is distinctly in favor of the turkey raiser.

TEMPORARY CONFINEMENT

During the laying season, many turkey raisers
confine their flocks to comparatively small yards
at least until their hens have decided upon a place

266 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

to lay. After the first two or three days of laying
the hen turkey will rarely desert her nest, so that
when the whole flock has begun to lay it may be
allowed full freedom. As a modification of this
plan, breeders keep the flock confined until about
noon each day, until all the hens are laying. This
practice saves the turkey raiser much time which
would otherwise be needlessly wasted in watching
turkeys to find out their nesting places and then
walking daily from nest to nest to collect the eggs.
A score of hens may be kept without difficulty in a
yard 75 feet square. This inclosure need not be
fenced very high. Few turkeys will attempt to fly
over a woven wire fence 5 feet high.

The same practices in breeding discussed in
Chapter VI apply to turkeys. It seems advisable,
however, to lay special emphasis upon the selection
of breeding turkeys because throughout the coun-
try the practice of breeding from inferior stock is
the general rule. Most farmers select their best
turkeys for the Thanksgiving market so as to get the
high prices. This is well enough so far as the
market is concerned, but if it leaves the slower
growing stock for breeding, it is to be condemned.
The best way in order to improve one’s own flock
is to select the breeding stock first of all, irrespec-
tive of any market considerations. None but the
very choicest, quickest growing, best birds in every
respect should be selected from each year’s young
flock to replace the old ones that have survived
their usefulness. In this way, one can be
continually improving, especially in size, pre-
cocity of development and stamina. Too much
emphasis cannot be laid upon this fact. For best
results turkey hens should be two years old and

TURKEYS 267

cocks three years old or more. They will prove
useful for eight or ten years or even longer. The
customary size of a flock is ten to 12 hens to one
tom, though often as many as 18 or even 20 hens
are used.

THE LAYING SEASON

As a rule, turkey hens begin to lay in the latter
part of March or early April. Both season and
latitude vary this considerably.
For best results it is desirable that
they be encouraged to lay in places
convenient for the poultryman.
Boxes, barrels, coops, etc., may be
placed where desired or hay,
straw, shavings, or other conven- SHELTERED
ient material left in piles par- WATER
tially concealed by bushes. If the
hens find such places ready, they will usually
choose them in preference to wandering away, but
if they do show a tendency to wander they should
be confined as already noticed. During the breed-
ing season grain should be fed in fairly liberal
quantity. Corn, wheat and oats are all good, pro-
vided the fowls have free range. Many turkey
raisers soak the grain for a day or more before
feeding, others feed mash in the morning and grain
at night. If turkeys are confined, great care should
be exercised to supply not only plenty of grain and
grit but animal feed, cut clover, alfalfa or other
green feed and ample fresh water.

Turkey hens, especially young ones, rarely lay
more than a dozen eggs before becoming broody.
They may then be broken and made to lay a second

268 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

clutch of eggs. Older hens seldom lay more than
a dozen and a half for their first litter and not quite
so many in the second of the season. As an
average, 20 eggs is probably the usual aver-
age of a hen turkey, though specially good hens
may lay 30 or even 40. The eggs should be col-
lected daily and stored in a cool place until they
can be set. Eggs from specially productive and
otherwise desirable hens should be marked and set
separately, so their progeny can be marked when
hatched and thus given preference when selection
for breeding takes place the following autumn. It
is a safe precaution to put a few hen’s eggs in the
turkey nests to keep the turkeys contented when

laying.
HATCHING

It is customary to set the early turkey eggs under
chicken hens. While these hens make good sitters,
even for the 28 days that turkey eggs require to be
hatched, yet they are not as desirable mothers as
turkey hens. They are more or less restless and
less effective protectors against birds of prey, rats,
etc.; they wean the little turkeys too soon and are
harsher in their treatment of little turkeys, es-
pecially those that do not belong to their own
flocks; they do not forage as well as turkey hens
and the little ones, therefore, do not get as much
insect food as they would with their natural
mothers. Perhaps worst of all they are more likely
to be troubled with lice. During the first few days
while the little turkeys should be mothered a great
deal, the chicken hen is likely to keep them roam-
ing more than they can stand. She can be pre-

TURKEYS 26g

vented from doing this, however, by keeping her
cooped or tied up. On the other hand, the chicken
hen is more easily handled and thus is more
likely to encourage tameness in her flock. She
is far more certain to mother her brood in her
coop than the turkey hen is. The turkey hen has
to be carefully taught to bring her brood to the
brooding quarters at night.

Because of objections to the chicken hen the prac-
tice is common of setting several hens at the same
time that a turkey, hen is set, so that the little ones
may be given to the turkey either as soon as hatched
or when the chicken hen weans her brood. There
is no special objection to this latter practice, be-
cause turkey hens are not so averse to taking alien
broods as are chicken hens, especially if the broods
are brought together during the night.

No special directions need be given as to setting
hens on turkey eggs; the practice is the same as
for hen’s eggs. Usually ordinary hens will cover
eight to ten eggs; large ones perhaps two or three
more. It is generally necessary to let turkey hens
sit where they wish. They choose their own nests
and object to being moved. This applies with
special force to turkey hens that are more or less
wild. Turkey hens may be moved in much the
same way that chicken hens usually are, viz., at
night, supplied with nest eggs for a day or so and
when found satisfied given the regular clutch.
Small turkey hens will cover 13 to 15 eggs; large
ones perhaps 18 or 20.

It is usual for turkey eggs to be fertile. On this
account it is not essential to test them, as chicken
eggs are tested. Ordinarily, the only test is made
about the twenty-sixth day. Then the eggs are placed

270 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

in warm water and the dead ones removed. Live ones
can be recognized from the fact that they move in
the water. Hatching usually commences on the
twenty-eighth day, though it may last or even not
start until the thirtieth day. It is just as important
to remove the hatchlings as little chicks. They
should be placed in a box lined with flannel or
woolen goods and kept in a warm room.

REARING

During the first day or two the turkeys do not
need any food. The mother hen must, however,
be fed liberally. It is a decided advantage to place
the coop over the nest if possible so the turkey
will feel at home and contented. Where this is
not possible the brood and mother should be moved
to desirable quarters; a coop with a board bottom
should be given preference. After the first three
days when the young ones are beginning to run
around a small yard should be provided. A con-
venient yard may be made of three boards 14 inches
wide set up on edge in the form of a triangle with
a coop in one corner and the mother turkey allowed
her freedom. She will not go far from her brood.
The little ones may be kept in this kind of inclosure
until they are large enough to jump up and make
their escape.

As with chicks, the coops should be moved from
place to place frequently. A space inclosing about
100 square feet will be ample for the ordinary sized
brood. Where the coop cannot be placed upon
short grass, ample green feed should be supplied
daily. It is also important to give plenty of grit
and charcoal and especially necessary to fight lice

TURKEYS 27I

from the very start; in fact the fight should begin
when the hen or hen turkey is set and as much
headway made as possible in the way of preven-
tion—before the shells are pipped. It is not safe
to use kerosene on turkeys. Insect powder is
satisfactory and harmless.
Pens should always be
situated on dry soil, pref-
erably where there is no
danger of flooding duringa
rain. Nothing is so im-
portant as to maintain sor “handles sists, wie
cleanliness at all times, (ikea fo cooine, Raper
unless it is to keep the $004, 2 8** tesG yard
little ones dry until after ;
their heads have become red. Up to this
time of “shooting the red” is considered a
trying period for poults. After they have passed
it they are much more hardy. During the develop-
ment of the red itself more animal feed than usual
should be given. From the time that the little ones.
begin to wander they should be taught and en-
couraged to come to roosting quarters in the even-
ing.. This may be managed very easily by accus-
toming them to an evening feed of grain. About
the time that they shoot the red or a little after they
usually begin to roost. Roosts should be placed 3
or 4 feet above the ground where there is plenty
of protection, preferably in regular turkey quarters.
Various breeders have their preference as to tur-
key feeds. Perhaps the most general favorite for
turkeys a day old is hard-boiled eggs and stale
bread soaked in milk but squeezed comparatively
dry. Generally the egg is fed a day or two before
the bread. When a week or ten days old clabber

PORTABLE CHICKEN COOP

272 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

is often used. When about two weeks old many
breeders give a mixture of equal parts of milk and
cornmeal, middlings or some other meal. This is
allowed to swell for several hours before being fed
so as to prevent any possible danger of swelling
after being eaten. About this
time cracked corn and wheat are
often given in the evening.

Three times a day seems to be
enough to feed little turkeys until
they are well grown, especially
if allowed more or less range and
given an opportunity to pick
grass, insects, etc. In fact, it is
almost essential that they have
something to pick at all the time.
‘GRIT, SHELL AND For this reason a grass yard

CHARCOAL should be given the preference to
HOPPER all other quarters. Milk may be
given instead of driking water if
desired, but it seems best to have ample pure water
before the brood at all times, whether milk is fed or
not. It is also essential to have grit. Some turkey
raisers, especially those who do not have grass
runs, consider it necessary to feed every two or
three hours until the birds are ten days or two
weeks old. No more should be fed at a time than
the poults will eat without waste.

Many poultrymen feed johnnycake made of cheap
flour, preferably of the whole grain and cornmeal
mixed with milk and infertile eggs from the in-
cubator, but without soda or baking powder. The
ingredients may be of almost any ratio, but prefer-
ably about equal parts. After mixing toa rather soft
batter, the cake is thoroughly baked and allowed

TURKEYS 273

to become rather dry. It is then allowed to become
stale before being crumbled for feeding. This prac-
tice eliminates the danger of swelling after being
eaten. The swelling takes place in the oven.

Gradually after the first week small seeds, such
as millet, cracked wheat and corn may be added to
the daily ration according as the poults grow in
size. A good mixture of grains for fattening con-
sists of one bushel each of whole and cracked corn
and one-half bushel each of kafir corn and oats.
While this is being fed the fowls should be some-
what confined. Feeding of the fattening ration
begins about the first of November. Some raisers
prefer to feed whole corn exclusively three times a
day and some object to confining the birds at all.
When fed liberally on corn they do not forage as
much as usual.

PROFITS IN TURKEY RAISING

The profits in turkey raising for the market
range, as a rule, between 75 cents and $1 a head.
The opportunities for the sale of breeding stock
are much less than with chickens, so there is not
much money to be made in this direction, though
it is a decided advantage to keep good stock. From
about the last week in November until New Year’s
is the best season for marketing turkeys. Rarely
are turkeys kept over this period unless they hap-
pen to be late-hatched ones. These may be de-
veloped for the January, February or even March
markets. During these months such fowls will
command good’ prices, but, as a rule, it will
not pay to keep turkeys this late if they are ready
for the holiday market. The advance in price would
be more than offset by the cost of feed.

274 PROFITABLE POULTRY PRODUCTION

In a few cases there is a small demand for
specially young turkeys, say three months old or
perhaps a little younger, but it will not pay to
cater to this market unless one knows beforehand
that there is a definite demand. The only places
there is such a demand is at a few of the fashionable
summer resorts in the East. The greatest demand
is for turkeys of medium size, ten to 15 pounds, for
home tables. Such turkeys sell best about Thanks-
giving time. Extra large birds are in smaller de-
mand and at lower prices, as a rule. They are
used mainly in restaurants and hotels.

VARIETIES OF TURKEYS

There are six leading varieties of turkeys. Be-
sides these there are also scrub turkeys which are
altogether too common and are not nearly as de-
sirable to keep as birds of good breeding. As a
rule, they are not as robust, as large nor as prolific,
nor do they make as good an appearance when
dressed. One of the principal reasons for this is
that the best birds have been sold annually for
market instead of being kept for breeding.

About the best way to improve a farm flock of
no special breeding is to purchase a well-bred tom
in the autumn and mate him to a dozen or a score
of the choicest hens, young and old, on the place.
From the progeny select the very best young hens
to take the place of the less desirable ones in the
previous season’s flock. All young males should
be disposed of and preferably a new male intro-
duced, one not related to the male purchased the
first year, but of excellent breeding. By excellent
breeding is meamt a bird with good stamina, good
weight and preferably two years or more old. If

TURKEYS 275

two neighbors would agree on changing males every
second year, only two males need be purchased
and the danger of close inbreeding could be avoided,
to the great benefit of both flocks.

Unquestionably the leading variety is the Bronze
or Mammoth Bronze. This is also the largest and
most profitable. The adult tom has a standard
weight of 36 pounds and the hen 20 pounds. Much
greater weights than these are often reached.
Usually, however, these heavy weights are bred for
sale to fanciers. One objection to the Bronze
variety is that the hens are considered poorer layers
than hens of other kinds.

The Narragansett is a close second to the Bronze
in size and popularity. Its standard weights are
30 and 18 pounds for the tom and hen respectively.
in general, their color is gray, mixed with black.

Black, Buff and Slate turkeys are uniformly
colored as their names imply. Whey weigh 27 and
18 pounds respectively for cock and hen. Though
fairly well distributed throughout the country they
are by no means as popular as the Narragansett,
the Bronze and White Holland.

The White Holland is the smallest variety of
turkey. Its standard weights are 26 and 16 pounds
for tom and hen respectively. Locally in many
places they push the Bronze variety in popularity.
They are reputed to be better layers and more
home loving than some of the other breeds. ” \

Index

Page Page
Advertising ....... center evan: 21, 22 Chinese Geese.........-..-0005 261
African Geese. S ieee DOL Cole Tar oS AG sensrantnarevane tren catreca eae 229
Air, Badisccc ies cais .. 221 Cleanliness Essential........... 223
‘Alfalfa, Composition...... ~< AIS ISVS ALES. 5 con Gobet the atecs veuased oy aed 46
American Class Discussed. 4ar AOS: Clover, Composition ........... 118
Animal Feed............. 121 Cochinis. 2s scsewtine dace mewe sk Wee

Apoplexy: eiicns eve caa wen 1) 228 Cold sissies ns
Appetite Indicates Vigor.. ais OD Cold Storage....

Arrangement of Pens. 57 Colony: Systeris: cies oa sci’ ccc o sie aceiie 53
Ash in Feeds......... % . 114 Colony vs. Permanent House.... 54
Associations, Co-operative...... 203 Comb, Color of.. 96
Atwood, Prof., Milk Experiments 132 Concrete Houses 56
‘Aylesbury Ducks cccvewicaeak 249 Confinement of Turkeys........ 265
Barley’. ccjeuesacs ea) tre ...118, 121 Conn. Egg Preservation........ 209
Baskets for Eggs.............. 164 COnstipatiOnis scc-c2isc a. acs qoavecdae-ecaha sa 229
Beef Scrap........ ..113, 118, 123 Construction of Houses......... 55
Black Turkeys................ 275 ICONCALION: 6.sjeve rd een de oa eee 224
Blastoderm ........ .. 160 ICOOPS hae saa asad eos etka 70
Blood, pe ae eres ~. 118 COOps: Brood: 4.352545 cee s RNS ees 73
Bone, Composition. . 118 Coops, Knock Down ........... 73
Boxes for Eggs. . .. 163 Coops, Shipping...............
Brahma, Dark...... .. 110 (COTA Miieva etineeeiavsnata oa Beis es
Brahma, Light...... ~» 106 Corning System.

Brand, Composition. 118 Courtesy ..

Breeders for Sale.......... 36 Cramps .

Breed, Importance of Good..... 9 Crop- bound ee

Breed, to Keep............ zee S102 Cropping Yards. 225
Breeding, Bad...... Beran 44: CYOW GING is co seedis ice ny drsyae wee e 92, 222
Breeding Ducks..... ea Bad Culling, Importance of......... 88
Breeding Geese. . 256 Cutters Hayes. gid cnse-oeuaveiere 71
Breeding, Live...... 82 Delaware Climate.........----- 46

Breeding, Mistakes in. 87 Diarrhoea

Breeding Utility... s0...% «3 81 Digging Yards ..

Breeds, Most in Demand. . yr 1 Disease, Identifying............ 227
Breeds of Ducks............... 249 Diseases Due to Faults......... 221
Brewer’s Grains, Composition... 118 Disinfectants se crs.0ie.ssnwied ve see 224
Broilers: capcac esas oews vee oes 27 Dominique ..... ae 109
Bronze Turkeys. . « 295. Dorking... rile tats 110
Brooder, Managemen’ Serene iy Drainage . . 49
Broodiness ........... . 178 Dressing’ a2 yoda Bo 4 Sead ones 192
Brick: Houses)... .oeasie aoe cease ofece 56 Dropping Boards. . 67
Buff Turkeys......... oe 275 DES Sin Be Fis icegtice oo ehesleccnn eescars 226
Cabbage, Composition. ~. 118 Dryden i Grates heaectdtsesaves 118, 126
Call Ducks. o.5 see5 0 sce .... 250 Duck Eggs, Market............ 15
Capons sis oscccu sae 5 138 Duck, Feathers................ 262
Carbohydrates ...... -. 114 Ducklings, Day Old............ 15
Carbolic Acid....... opeie, 229. DUCKS is xs sis Sarees cocfs, ce aes

Care in Spring....... .. 148 Dust Bath... ee

Case Count...... is 199 Egg Buying

Cayuga Ducks
Cellar for Incubators. .
Charcoal iaescxccess

250 Egg Composition.
173 Eee Gatherings oii ccsseeie cae
125 Egg Marketing, to Improve
Cheese, Composition. . 118 Egg Production Unbroken
Cheese, Making Cottage. «22 Egg Structure. See
Chesapeake cians dh ses Coats anal t6 45 Bigg Destine ssc < 64. c0s elena
GHICKS oc suessnece AR, 182, 184, 188 Egg Yield and Gentleness.......
Chickens, Maitet: Gert reer rn 191 Egg Yield, Annual.........00--5 142

276

INDEX

Page

Eggs, Advertising............65 21
ggs, Census Averages......... 7
ges, Duck, Market....... : 15
Eggs, Feeding for. ....iseccesns 146
Eggs for Hatching............. 19
Eggs for Home..... eyeibges Ga arecene 16
Eggs for Market..........e000e 17
Bees, Hennery yg ecacxawkchavon 4
Eggs in Demand.............+. 2
Eggs in Storage............... 196
Eggs, Managing.............. 4, 199
Eggs on Commission........... 3
Eggs, Preservation of.......... 209

Eggs, Shipping
Eggs, Storage...

Bees Tre yy ce tict'e scabies aheleceus
Elford, on Fattening ........... 216
Ellis, Egg Methods............. 204
Embden Geese ................ 260
Exercise Essential.......... 127, 222
Failure, Causes of............. 80
EG 58 sale Bay ails Ra ae wae 114
Fattening, Crate.......e.esc0es 216
Reather Pulling 20/3 .crcsiea acy cece 231
WGA Hers) eains8ai ve eae citar tery 262
Feed Affects Color of Yolk...... 113
Feed Affects Egg Quality ....... 113
Feed Affects Egg Yield......... 113
Feed, Composition............. 114
Feed, How Often. 180
Feeding Chicks. . 178
Feeding for Eggs. 146
Feeding, Improper 221
Feeding in Transit. . 189
Feeds, Composition o: -- 118
Feeds for Chicks...............% 179
Feeds for Fattening

Feeds for Turkeys.............
Penalty ene err rrce,

Fish Affects Egg Flavor

Flock, Record sss scicas osoen sos x
Fountains ...........

Fowl, Kind to Keep

Fowl, Type for Fattening...... 217
Fowls, Farmers’.............-. 13
Fowls, Fattening.............. 13
Fowls in Demand.............. 14
Freezing Poultry.............. 195
GADESS Uses ok se aitG sh Sree 229
GBT ese af sce itnccnys.ouosanoases, snaipeeneas sak 236
GATOS ha.F seie. ee scacorerae ery lave eeacensis's 74
Geese yiircar cnet sank ares

Geese, Breeds........

Geese, Toulouse 260
Gentleness Affects Egg Yield.... 151
GIGINGSS. cov cvensins sere eee ws's 228
Gluten Meal, Composition...... 118
Goose, Feathers.............45 262
Goose Profits.a34s casmetiumrgts 254
Goslings, Day Old............. 15
Goslings, Rearing............6. 258
Gowell, Quoted............000. 43
Grain, Ground or Not.......... 128
Greases. seiaiaiscccsicenun acne ver 236

277

ck Page
Grit Crushers .,.....++. saowieeers
Grit, Necessity for..........124, 222
Guaranteeing Hatches.......... 1
GUINOAS sy 45 cha dae as Kaxwes . 41
Hamburg Varieties............ 109
Hatchability Injured........... 93
Hatches, Guaranteed........... 21
Hatching Ducks............... 246
Hatching Turkeys............. 267
PMA th 5d crc scaevate aeivestened 2 ake 221
Heavy Feeding, Danger of...... 92
Hens, as Layers wcccsiedcaisede< 149
Hens, Disposal of.............. 29

FR QUOAM ois se -wsey-avetade ersininxennerey nus 109
House, Curtain Front ......... 154
House, Knock Down........... 63
House, Open Front ........... 60
Houses, Colony.............005 71
Houses, Permanent............ 54
TM GuBA tio ai. wie d.scee eeeaven 159

Incubation, Defective..... 93
Incubation of Turkey Eggs. . 269
Incubator, Care of........ 172
Incubator Record .... 168
Incubator, Setting up. 170
Incubator, Starting. 170
Incubator, Storing. . 173
Incubators, Classes of. 16¢
Indian Runner Ducks 250
Indigestion. +. 66.0 sce eie ocd wes ove 228
TMPeCtionl yg evacsacdadebraws act iave eo arere 225
Jaséct POWder eiisieseceses aeeae 235

ANAS cs Sieg canahss cescausass thedeise rye 109

ohnnycake for Turkeys........ 272
Jordan, Quoted ............... 90
Kale, Composition............. 118
Kansas Chick Experiments..... 179
KLCTOSENE. oeaieis aa scene awe i 225, 235
ea ta sano coves xscape coasts teeter gr 193, 219
King’s Toulouse Gander........ 251
AGATMENIESS fscricise ms sna Siena alata 228
Lamson on Egg Preservation.... 209
Land, Detrimental............. 49
Tangshan 5 acsisisacsyse arene teeremsscs 109
AGAVETS! aioe scccisnnanns eve. scass Weeteaidee 35
Layers, Autumn, Care of....... 151
Layers, Management of........ 145
Layers, Selecting.............. 143
Leghorn Discussed............. 105
Leghorns, Experiments with..77, 98
DCC: 205s: tuewe aise ew eee es ecanae 235
Bice: oni ‘Chick sos: <.ciscsase ssa weds 188
Linseed Meal Composition...... 118
Litter, Importance of.......... 130
LOSS Ofh a, iis wale eras aaa sien dada 200
Maine Experiments............ 142
Mammoth Bronze Turkeys..... 275
Management of Incubators..... 167
Mangel Composition........... 118
Market: Bees. s cavisctaelersidie-nc nies » 17
Market for Eggs............... 3
Market Limits ......... Saeewace 12,

278 INDEX

Page Page
Market Stock wc cca cise cwree vee 192 Record of 600 Hens...........- 154
Marking Packages..........0+% 190 Remedies... cgeicneiceam ne ewe 225
Mash, Dry or Wet...........+- 131 Rhode Island Red Discussed. 108
Mediterranean Fowls.......... 103 Rice, on Green Feed........... 124
Method, Value of Good......... 127 Rice, Quoted. «61. seecweeesece 95
Middlings, Composition......... 118 Roasters a Oe ehichuidointunhavece 28
Milk, Composition .........+.+.. 118 RGasters; Slt seesns ee eer a es 29
Milk, Discussed............... 122 “ROOStSiaisreasaecainwees qaw wntiea ae 66
Milk, Value of Skim... ......... 132 Rouen Ducks..........--..00. 49
Minorca Gwe sins hoes eraerae 110 ROWD ea suaea ea wiaterd ae aI araea 228, 232
EMUIEGS ss scssiads tare gnssaconeashacachoarsne ee Onn 234 Salesmanship .......0++ 0020008 207
Moisture in Incubators......... 166 Sales, Privatésacsn v.02 iesecars oe 204
Molt, Feed During............. 146 Satlitation: sinc nestesite amines 221
Muscovy Ducks...........-+08 250 Scaldin gy sj. esata peaesa oan 192
Narragansett Turkeys.......... 275 Secrets, Poultry.............6. 43
IN GSES i coracepincgdtecsrire codcravenalouas 6: 4vece 68 “Selection ccs cc: syareacecd ie gieieceaienies 79
Nests, One Board Trap......... 79 Shade Necessary .........00. 05 149
Nests, Requisites of Trap....... 99 Shaping: acces wataas caeeaaesis 220
Nests, Trapieacnweus smvedciecs.s oss 68 ELLs atassecavel sora sh ecatcne saree erewmuseocsaeatv 125
New jersey Climate............ 45 Shell Necessary ........----05. 222
N.Y. Experiment Sta., Quoted.. 90 Shipping to Market............ 190
Oats and Peas for Feed......... 24: —“Sittiation. 64 we ctewse a sicmietatoue atc 47
Oats, Composition............. Slate Turkeys: .2.05.saseceeens
Oats, Discussed.............4. Soil, Detrimental..............
Onions Affect Egg Flavor..... Soil, FactOmiciciccienseosacacs
Ont., Fatteni Experiments. SUA DS fae Sse ratiors: cnosniepashinnaieieya ames
Oregon Trap Nest..... Stewart, Prof., sa
Orpington..... 111 Stone Houses

Orpington Ducks.

Packages, for Eggs. . Hi 163
PaClcim ge lakba aiskortar ta tials ee AOE
Parents, Value of Vigorous..... 94
Pasture for Geese.......+..0425 253
Pearl ,, Quoted s 26: .45564.%%5 08% 142
Peas and Oats for Feed........ 124
Peas, Composition iiss
Pekin Ducks...........scc0ee

SP OD DOT wc, 3055 saincncherrecsmitensivahherar seomrens
POSES cit na on gueserrueraceisunss

Pebrolete: | juve dacsseavnes wnlaee
Phillips on Egg Marketing

PICK! os ies css yaad sinh stapes See. shen
Ptr Pim Bs saskesasieacvaeowe eigeesial ars ate
Plymouth Rock Discussed...... 104
Plymouth Rock Experiments. . 98
Polish Varieties ............... 109
Poultry Branches.............. 15
Poultry Dressedi i a.ecsunce ved oind 191
Poultry for Home............. 16
Poultry, Frozen............... 195
Poultry Industry, Growth...... 6
Poultry in Storage............. 196
Preservation Experiments ...... 212
Preventives.........2. 000 eee 225
Production, Annual............ 142
Productiveness, Danger of...... 91
Profit from 600 Hens........... 158
Profit from Turkeys........... 273
Protein, :02 sadesa co wseeisaw sales

Pullets as Layers
Range Advisable.
Rape, Composition. .
Rations Recommende
Ratio. Nutritive.
‘Record Incubator .........0005

Summer Care....
Sunflower, Compo
Surface, Quoted ..

Systems ........
Testing’ Hees ies aan a tawveseuete
Toulouse Geese. ........ eee eee
Traps: cece yiaaiwedtrieswt rade 73
Troughs, Feeding.............. 69
Turkey Profits...c 6.60 gcse. caren 273
AL MATICE ViSistacnuisuais aegiataneraseetuacr 40, 264
Turkeys, Day Old............. 15
Turkeys, Market .............. 191
Turkey Varieties ..s.ccecess > .. 274
Variety to Keep............... 102
Wegetable Feed oasis as oncne case 123
Ventilation: 5 sscossiai 6 410.4 aceon 56, 221
Ventilation for Incubators...... 167
Vetch, Composition............ 118
Vigor Constitutional........... 89
Vigor of Progeny.............. 99
Virginia Climate............... 45
Vitality Impaired.............. 91
Water, Impure................ 221
Water Supply cis. cise sienna es tecs ona St
Wattles;. Color Of 2 cs scdieneen sods 96
Weakness, Eliminating......... 89
Weakness of Legs.............. 229
West Virginia Experiments. .77, 132
Wheat, Composition........... 118
Wheat, Discussed.............. 119
White Holland Turkeys..... a eine
Wie WASH ics cide, cscs sce 225
White Wonder... 109
236
i Dis ice . 107
Wield Base ccc oo sn eg pansies 142
Yolk, Color Affected .......... 113

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